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diff --git a/16737-0.txt b/16737-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d152d97 --- /dev/null +++ b/16737-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8453 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language, by Walter J. Clark + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: International Language + Past, Present and Future: With Specimens of Esperanto and Grammar + +Author: Walter J. Clark + +Release Date: September 24, 2005 [EBook #16737] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, William Patterson and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + INTERNATIONAL + LANGUAGE + + PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE + + WITH SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + AND GRAMMAR + + + BY W. J. CLARK + M.A. OXON., PH.D. LEIPZIG + LICENCIÉ-ÈS-LETTRES, BACHELIER-EN-DROIT + PARIS + + + LONDON + J. M. DENT & COMPANY + 1907 + + + PRINTED BY + HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., + LONDON AND AYLESBURY. + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE + + An artificial language may be more regular, more perfect, + and easier to learn than a natural one.—MAX MÜLLER. + +The world is spinning fast down the grooves of change. The old disorder +changeth. Haply it is yielding place to new. The tongue is a little +member. It should no longer be allowed to divide the nations. + +Two things stand out in the swift change. Science with all its works is +spreading to all lands. The East, led by Japan, is coming into line with +the West. + +Standardization of life may fittingly be accompanied by standardization +of language. The effect may be twofold—Practical and Ideal. + + _Practical._ The World has a thousand tongues, + Science but one: + They'll climb up a thousand rungs + When Babel's done. + + _Ideal._ Mankind has a thousand tongues, + Friendship but one: + _Banzai!_ then from heart and lungs + For the Rising Sun. + + W. J. C. + +NOTE.—The following pages have had the advantage of being read in +MS. by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, and I am indebted to him for many +corrections and suggestions. + + + * * * * * + + + AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +NOTE.—To avoid repeating the cumbrous phrase "international auxiliary +language," the word _auxiliary_ is usually omitted. It must be clearly +understood that when "international" or "universal" language is spoken +of, _auxiliary_ is also implied. + + + PART I + + GENERAL + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Introductory . . . . . . . . . 1 + II. The Question of Principle—Economic Advantage of + an International Language . . . . . . 4 + III. The Question of Practice—An International Language + is Possible . . . . . . . . . 8 + IV. The Question of Practice (_continued_)—An International + Language is Easy . . . . . . . . 16 + V. The Question of Practice (_continued_)—The Introduction + of an International Language would not cause + Dislocation . . . . . . . . . 24 + VI. International Action already taken for the Introduction + of an Auxiliary Language . . . . . . 26 + VII. Can the International Language be Latin? . . . . 33 + VIII. Can the International Language be Greek? . . . . 35 + IX. Can the International Language be a Modern + Language? . . . . . . . . . 36 + X. Can the Evolution of an International Language be + left to the Process of Natural Selection by Free + Competition? . . . . . . . . . 38 + XI. Objections to an International Language on Aesthetic + Grounds . . . . . . . . . . 40 + XII. Will an International Language discourage the Study + of Modern Languages, and thus be Detrimental to + Culture?—Parallel with the Question of Compulsory + Greek . . . . . . . . . . 46 + XIII. Objection to an International Language on the Ground + that it will soon split up into Dialects . . . 49 + XIV. Objection that the Present International Language + (Esperanto) is too Dogmatic, and refuses to + profit by Criticism . . . . . . . 51 + XV. Summary of Objections to an International Language . . 53 + XVI. The Wider Cosmopolitanism—The Coming of Asia . . . 57 + XVII. Importance of an International Language for the Blind . 61 + XVIII. Ideal _v._ Practical . . . . . . . . 63 + XIX. Literary _v._ Commercial . . . . . . . 65 + XX. Is an International Language a Crank's Hobby? . . . 70 + XXI. What an International Language is not . . . . 73 + XXII. What an International Language is . . . . . 73 + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Some Existing International Languages already in + Partial Use . . . . . . . . . 74 + II. Outline of History of the Idea of a Universal Language—List + of Schemes proposed . . . . . . . . 76 + III. The Earliest British Attempt . . . . . . 87 + IV. History of Volapük—a Warning . . . . . . 92 + V. History of Idiom Neutral . . . . . . . 98 + VI. The Newest Languages: a Neo-Latin Group—Gropings + towards a "Pan-European" Amalgamated + Scheme . . . . . . . . . . 103 + VII. History of Esperanto . . . . . . . . 105 + VIII. Present State of Esperanto: (_a_) General; (_b_) in England 121 + IX. Lessons to be drawn from the Foregoing History . . . 131 + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF + THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Esperanto is scientifically constructed, and fulfils the + Natural Tendency in Evolution of Language . . . 135 + II. Esperanto from an Educational Point of View—It will + aid the learning of other Languages and stimulate + Intelligence . . . . . . . . . 145 + III. Comparative Tables illustrating Labour saved in learning + Esperanto as contrasted with other Languages: + (_a_) Word-building; (_b_) Participles and Auxiliaries . 155 + IV. How Esperanto can be used as a Code Language to + communicate with Persons who have never learnt it . . 161 + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND + VOCABULARY + + CHAP. PAGE + + Note . . . . . . . . . . . 165 + I. Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . 166 + II. Specimens of Esperanto: + 1. Parolado . . . . . . . . . 167 + 2. La Marbordistoj . . . . . . . . 168 + 3. Nesaĝa Gento: Alegorio . . . . . . 168 + III. Grammar . . . . . . . . . . 189 + IV. List of Affixes . . . . . . . . . 191 + V. Table of Correlative Words . . . . . . . 193 + VI. Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . 194 + + + APPENDIX A + + Sample Problems (see Part III., chap, ii.) in Regular Language . 200 + + + APPENDIX B + + Esperanto Hymn by Dr. Zamenhof . . . . . . . 202 + + + APPENDIX C + + The Letter _c_ in Esperanto . . . . . . . . 204 + + + * * * * * + + + PART I + + GENERAL + + + I + + INTRODUCTORY + +In dealing with the problem of the introduction of an international +language, we are met on the threshold by two main questions: + + 1. The question of principle. + + 2. The question of practice. + +By the question of principle is meant, Is it desirable to have a +universal language? do we wish for one? in short, is there a demand? + +The question of practice includes the inquiries, Is such a language +possible? is it easy? would its introduction be fraught with prohibitive +difficulties? and the like. + +It is clear that, however possible or easy it may be to do a thing, +there is no case for doing it unless it is wanted; therefore the +question of principle must be taken first. In the case before us +the question of principle involves many considerations—aesthetic, +political, social, even religious. These will be glanced at in their +proper place; but for our present purpose they are all subordinate +to the one great paramount consideration—the economic one. In the +world of affairs experience shows that, given a demand of any kind +whatever, as between an economical method of supplying that demand and a +non-economical method, in the long run the economical method will surely +prevail. + +If, then, it can be shown that there is a growing need for means of +international communication, and that a unilingual solution is more +economical than a multilingual one, there is good ground for thinking +that the unilingual method of transacting international affairs will +surely prevail. It then becomes a question of time and method: When will +men feel the pressure of the demand sufficiently strongly to set about +supplying it? and what means will they adopt? + +The time and the method are by no means indifferent. Though a demand +(for what is possible) is sure, in the long run, to get itself supplied, +a long period of wasteful and needless groping may be avoided by a +clear-sighted and timely realization of the demand, and by consequent +organized co-operation in supplying it. Intelligent anticipation +sometimes helps events to occur. It is the object of this book to +call attention to the present state of affairs, and to emphasize the +fact that the time is now ripe for dealing with the question, and the +present moment propitious for solving the problem once for all in an +orderly way. The merest glance at the list of projects for a universal +language[1] and their dates will strengthen the conviction from an +historical point of view that the fulness of time is accomplished, while +the history of the rise and fall of _Volapük_ and of the extraordinary +rise of _Esperanto_, in spite of its precursor's failure, are exceedingly +significant. + + [1]See pp. 78-87. [Part II, Chapter II] + +One language has been born, come to maturity, and died of dissension, +and the world stood by indifferent. Another is now in the first full +flush of youth and strength. After twenty-nine years of daily developing +cosmopolitanism—years that have witnessed the rising of a new star in +the East and an uninterrupted growth of interchange of ideas between +the nations of the earth, whether in politics, literature, or science, +without a single check to the ever-rising tide of internationalism—are +we again to let the favourable moment pass unused, just for want of +making up our minds? At present one language holds the field. It is +well organized; it has abundant enthusiastic partisans accustomed to +communicate and transact their common business in it, and only too +anxious to show the way to others. If it be not officially adopted and +put under the regulation of a duly constituted international authority, +it may wither away or split into factions as Volapük did.[1] Or it may +continue to grow and flourish, but others of its numerous rivals may +secure adherents and dispute its claim. This would be even worse. It is +far harder to rally a multitude of conflicting rivals in the same camp, +than it is to take over a well-organized, homogeneous, and efficient +volunteer force, legalize its position, and raise it to the status of a +regular army. In any case, if no concerted action be taken, the question +will remain in a state of chaos, and the lack of official organization +brings a great risk of overlapping, dissension, and creation of rival +interests, and generally produces a state of affairs calculated to +postpone indefinitely the supply of the demand. Competition that neither +tends to keep down the price nor to improve the quality of the thing +produced is mere dissipation of energy. + + [1]Esperanto itself is admirably organized (see p. 119) [Part II, + Chapter VII], and there are no factions or symptoms of dissension. + But Esperantists need official support and recognition. + +In a word, the one thing needful at present is not a more highly +perfected language to adopt, but the adoption of the highly perfected +one we possess. By the admission of experts, no less than by the +practical experience of great numbers of persons in using it over a +number of years, it has been found adequate. Once found adequate, its +absolute utility merely depends upon universal adoption. + +With utility in direct proportion to numbers of adherents, every recruit +augments its value—a thought which may well encourage waverers to make +the slight effort necessary to at any rate learn to read it. + + + II + + THE QUESTION OF PRINCIPLE—ECONOMIC + ADVANTAGE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +As stated above, the question of principle will be treated here from +a purely economical point of view, since practical value, measured +by saving of time, money, and effort, must be the ultimate criterion +by which the success or failure of so far-reaching a reform as the +introduction of an international, auxiliary language will be decided. +The bearing of such a reform upon education, culture, race supremacy, +etc., is not without importance; but the discussion of these points must +be postponed as subsidiary. + +Reduced to its simplest form, the economical argument is this: + +(1) The volume of international intercourse is great and increasing. + +(2) This intercourse is at present carried on in many different +languages of varying degrees of difficulty, but all relatively hard of +acquisition for those who do not know them as a mother-tongue. This is +uneconomical. + +(3) It is economically sounder to carry on international intercourse in +one easy language than in a large number of hard ones. + +(4) Therefore in principle an easy international language is desirable. + +Let us glance at these four points a little more in detail. + +No. 1 surely needs no demonstration. Every year there is more +communication between men of different race and language. And it is not +business, in the narrow sense of the term, that is exclusively or even +chiefly affected by diversity of language. Besides the enormous bulk +of pleasure travel, international congresses are growing in number and +importance; municipal fraternization is the latest fashion, and many +a worthy alderman, touring at the ratepayers' expense, must wish that +he had some German in Berlin, or a little Italian in Milan. Indeed, it +is at these points of international contact that language is a real +bar, actually preventing much intercourse that would otherwise have +taken place, rather than in business, which is organized in view of the +difficulty. Then there is the whole realm of scientific and learned +literature—work of which the accessibility to all concerned is of the +first importance, but is often hindered because a translation into one +language does not pay, or, if made, only reaches a limited public. Such +bars to freedom of interchange cannot be reckoned in money; but modern +economics recognizes the personal and social factor, and any obstacle to +research is certainly a public loss. + +But important as are these various spheres of action, an even wider +international contact of thought and feeling is springing up in our +days. Democracy, science, and universal education are producing +everywhere similarity of institutions, of industry, of the whole +organization of life. Similarity of life will breed community of +interests, and from this arises real converse—more give and take in the +things that matter, less purely superficial dealings of the guide-book +or conversation-manual type. + +(2) "Business," meaning commerce, in so far as it is international, +may at present be carried on mainly in half a dozen of the principal +languages of Western Europe. Even so, their multiplicity is vexatious. +But outside the world of business other languages are entering the +field, and striving for equal rights. The tendency is all towards +self-assertion on the part of the nationalities that are beginning a +new era of national life and importance. The language difficulty in the +Austrian Empire reflects the growing self-consciousness of the Magyars. +Everywhere where young peoples are pushing their rights to take equal +rank among the nations of the world, the language question is put in +the forefront. The politicians of Ireland and Wales have realized the +importance of language in asserting nationality, but such engineered +language-agitation offers but a feeble reflex of the vitality of the +question in lands where the native language is as much in use for +all purposes as is English in England. These lands will fight harder +and harder against the claims to supremacy of a handful of Western +intruders. A famous foreign philologist,[1] in a report on the subject +presented to the Academy of Vienna, notes the increasing tendency of +Russian to take rank among the recognized languages for purposes of +polite learning. He is well placed to observe. With Russia knocking at +the door and Hungary waiting to storm the breach, what tongue may not +our descendants of the next century have to learn, under pain of losing +touch with important currents of thought? It is high time something +were done to standardize means of transmission. Owing to political +conditions, there are linguistically disintegrating forces at work, +which are at variance with the integrating forces of natural tendency. + + [1]Prof. Shuchardt + +From an economical point of view, a considerable amount of time, effort, +and money must be unreproductively invested in overcoming the "language +difficulty." In money alone the amount must run into thousands of +pounds yearly. Among the unreproductive investments are—the employment +of foreign correspondence clerks, the time and money spent upon the +installation of educational plant for their production, the time and +money spent upon translations and interpreters for the proceedings +of international conferences and negotiations, the time devoted by +professors and other researchers (often nonlinguists in virtue of their +calling) to deciphering special treatises and learned periodicals in +languages not their own.[1] + + [1]These are some of the actual visible losses owing to the + _presence_ of the language difficulty. No one can estimate the + value of the losses entailed by the _absence_ of free intercourse + due to removable linguistic barriers. Potential (but at present + non-realized) extension of goodwill, swifter progress, and wider + knowledge represent one side of their value; while consequent + non-realized increase in volume of actual business represents their + value in money. The negative statement of absence of results from + intercourse that never took place affords no measure of positive + results obtainable under a better system. + +The tendency of those engaged in advancing material progress, which +consists in the subjection of nature to man's ends, is to adapt more and +more quickly their methods to changing conditions. Has the world yet +faced in a business-like spirit the problem of wiping out wastage on +words? + +Big industrial concerns scrap machinery while it is yet perfectly +capable of running and turning out good work, in order to replace it by +newer machinery, capable of turning out more work in the same time. Time +is money. Can the busy world afford a language difficulty? + +(3) The proposition that it is economically sounder to carry on +international intercourse in one easy language than in a large number of +hard ones rests upon the principle that it does not pay to do a thing a +hard way, if the same results can be produced by an easy way. + +The whole industrial revolution brought about by the invention of +machinery depended upon this principle. Since an artificial language, +like machinery, is a means invented by man of furthering his ends, there +seems to be no abuse of analogy in comparing them. + +When it was found that machinery would turn out a hundred pieces of +cloth while the hand-loom turned out one, the hand-loom was doomed, +except in so far as it may serve other ends, antiquarian, aesthetic, or +artistic, which are not equally well served by machinery. Similarly, +to take another revolution which is going on in our own day through +a further application of machinery, when it is found that corn can +be reaped and threshed by machinery, that hay can be cut, made, +carried, and stacked by machinery, that man can travel the high road +by machinery, sooner or later machinery is bound to get the bulk of +the job, because it produces the same results at greater speed and +less cost. So, in the field of international intercourse, if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency and at less cost produce +the same results as a multiplicity of natural ones, in many lines +of human activity, and making all reserves in matters antiquarian, +aesthetic, and artistic, sooner or later the multiplicity will have to +go to the scrap-heap[1] as cumbrous and out of date. It may be a hundred +years; it may be fifty; it may be even twenty. Almost certainly the +irresistible trend of economic pressure will work its will and insist +that what has to be done shall be done in the most economical way. + + [1]But only, of course, in those lines in which an international + auxiliary language can produce equally good results. This excludes + home use, national literature, philology, scholarly study of national + languages, etc. + +So much, then, for the question of principle. In treating it, certain +large assumptions have been made; e.g. it is said above, "if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency... produce the same +results," etc. Here it is assumed that the artificial language is (1) +easy, and (2) that it is possible for it to produce the same results. +Again, however easy and possible, its introduction might cost more than +it saved. These are questions of fact, and are treated in the three +following chapters under the heading of "The Question of Practice." + + + III + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE—AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS POSSIBLE + +The man who says a thing is impossible without troubling to find out +whether it has been done is merely "talking through his hat," to use +an Americanism, and we need not waste much time on him. Any one, who +maintains that it is impossible to transact the ordinary business of +life and write lucid treatises on scientific and other subjects in an +artificial language, is simply in the position of the French engineer, +who gave a full scientific demonstration of the fact that an engine +could not possibly travel by steam. + +The plain fact is that not only one artificial language, but several, +already exist, which not only can express, but already have expressed +all the ideas current in social intercourse, business, and serious +exposition. It is only necessary to state the facts briefly. + +First—_Volapük_. + +Three congresses were held in all for the promotion of this language. +The third (Paris, 1889) was the most important. It was attended by +Volapükists from many different nations, who carried on all their +business in Volapük, and found no difficulty in understanding one +another. Besides this, there were a great many newspapers published in +Volapük, which treated of all kinds of subjects. + +Secondly—_Idiom Neutral_, the lineal descendant of Volapük. + +It is regulated by an international academy, which sends round circulars +and does all its business in Idiom Neutral. + +Thirdly—_Esperanto_. + +Since the publication of the language in 1887 it has had a gradually +increasing number of adherents, who have used it for all ordinary +purposes of communication. A great number of newspapers and reviews of +all kinds are now published regularly in Esperanto in a great variety +of countries. I take up a chance number of the _Internacia Scienca +Revuo_, which happens to be on my table, and find the following subjects +among the contents of the month: "_Rôle_ of living beings in the general +physiology of the earth," "The carnivorous animals of Sweden," "The part +played by heredity in the etiology of chronic nephritis," "The migration +of the lemings," "Notices of books," "Notes and correspondence," etc. +In fact, the Review has all the appearance of an ordinary scientific +periodical, and the articles are as clearly expressed and as easy to +read as those in any similar review in a national language. + +Even more convincing perhaps, for the uninitiated, is the evidence +afforded by the International Congresses of Esperantists. The first was +held at Boulogne in August 1905. It marked an epoch in the lives of +many of the participants, whose doubts as to the practical nature of an +artificial language there, for good and all, yielded to the logic of +facts; and it may well be that it will some day be rather an outstanding +landmark in the history of civilization. A brief description will, +therefore, not be out of place. + +In the little seaport town on the north coast of France had come +together men and women of more than twenty different races. Some were +experts, some were beginners; but all save a very few must have been +alike in this, that they had learnt their Esperanto at home, and, as +far as oral use went, had only been able to speak it (if at all) with +members of their own national groups—that is, with compatriots who had +acquired the language under the same conditions as to pronunciation, +etc., as themselves. Experts and beginners, those who from practical +experience knew the great possibilities of the new tongue as a written +medium, no less than the neophytes and tentative experimenters who had +come to see whether the thing was worth taking seriously, they were now +to make the decisive trial—in the one case to test the faith that was +in them, in the other to set all doubt at rest in one sense or the other +for good and all. + +The town theatre had been generously placed at the disposal of the +Congress, and the author of the language, Dr. Zamenhof, had left his +eye-patients at Warsaw and come to preside at the coming out of his +_kara lingvo_, now well on in her 'teens, and about to leave the +academic seclusion of scholastic use and emerge into the larger sphere +of social and practical activity. + +On Saturday evening, August 5, at eight o'clock, the Boulogne Theatre +was packed with a cosmopolitan audience. The unique assembly was +pervaded by an indefinable feeling of expectancy; as in the lull before +the thunderstorm, there was the hush of excitement, the tense silence +charged with the premonition of some vast force about to be let loose +on the world. After a few preliminaries, there was a really dramatic +moment when Dr. Zamenhof stood up for the first time to address his +world-audience in the world-tongue. Would they understand him? Was their +hope about to be justified? or was it all a chimera, "such stuff as +dreams are made on"? + +_Gesinjoroj_ (= Ladies and gentlemen)—the great audience +craned forward like one man, straining eyes and ears towards the +speaker,—_Kun granda plezuro mi akceptis la proponon..._ The +crowd drank in the words with an almost pathetic agony of anxiety. +Gradually, as the clear-cut sentences poured forth in a continuous +stream of perfect lucidity, and the audience realized that they were +all listening to and all understanding a really international speech +in a really international tongue—a tongue which secured to them, as +here in Boulogne so throughout the world, full comprehension and a +sense of comradeship and fellow-citizenship on equal terms with all +users of it—the anxiety gave way to a scene of wild enthusiasm. Men +shook hands with perfect strangers, and all cheered and cheered again. +Zamenhof finished with a solemn declamation of one of his hymns (given +as an appendix to this volume, with translation), embodying the lofty +ideal which has inspired him all through and sustained him through the +many difficulties he has had to face. When he came to the end, the fine +passage beginning with the words, _Ni inter popoloj la murojn detruos_ +("we shall throw down the walls between the peoples"), and ending _amo +kaj vero ekregos sur tero_ ("love and truth shall begin their reign on +earth"), the whole concourse rose to their feet with prolonged cries of +"Vivu Zamenhof!" + +No doubt this enthusiasm may sound rather forced and unreal to those +who have not attended a congress, and the cheers may ring hollow across +intervening time and space. Neither would it be good for this or any +movement to rely upon facile enthusiasm, as easily damped as aroused. +There is something far more than this in the international language +movement. + +At the same time, it is impossible for any one who has not tried it to +realize the thrill—not a weak, sentimental thrill, but a reasonable +thrill, starting from objective fact and running down the marrow of +things—given by the first real contact with an international language +in an international setting. There really is a feeling as of a new power +born into the world. + +Those who were present at the Geneva Congress, 1906, will not soon +forget the singing of the song "La Espero" at the solemn closing of +the week's proceedings. The organ rolled out the melody, and when the +gathered thousands that thronged the floor of the hall and packed the +galleries tier on tier to the ceiling took up the opening phrase— + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko,[1] + +they meant every word of it. It was a fitting summary of the impressions +left by the events of the week, and what the lips uttered must have been +in the hearts and minds of all. + + [1]Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call. + +As an ounce of personal experience is worth a pound of second-hand +recital, a brief statement may here be given of the way in which the +present writer came to take up Esperanto, and of the experiences which +soon led him to the conviction of its absolute practicability and +utility. + +In October, 1905, having just returned from an absence of some years in +Canada and the Far East, he had his attention turned to Esperanto for +the first time by reading an account of the Congress of Boulogne. He had +no previous knowledge of, or leanings towards, a universal language; and +if he had thought about it at all, it was only to laugh at the idea as a +wild and visionary scheme. In short, his attitude was quite normal. + +But here was a definite statement, professing to be one of positive +accomplished fact. One of two things: either the newspaper account +was not true; or else, the facts being as represented, here was a +new possibility to be reckoned with. The only course was to send for +the books and test the thing on its merits. Being somewhat used to +languages, he did not take long to see that this one was good enough in +itself. A letter, written in Esperanto, after a few days' study of the +grammar at odd times, with a halfpenny Esperanto-English key enclosed, +was fully understood by the addressee, though he was ignorant up till +then of the very existence of Esperanto. This experience has often been +since repeated; indeed, the correspondent will often write back after a +few days in Esperanto. Such letters have always been found intelligible, +though in no case did the correspondent know Esperanto previously. The +experiment is instructive and amusing, and can be tried by any one for +an expenditure of twopence for keys and a few hours for studying the +sixteen rules and their application. To many minds these are far simpler +and more easy to grasp for practical use than the rules for scoring at +bridge. + +After a month or two's playing with the language in spare time, +the writer further tested it, by sending out a flight of postcards +to various selected Esperantists' addresses in different parts of +the Russian Empire. The addressees ranged from St. Petersburg and +Helsingfors through Poland to the Caucasus and to far Siberia. In nearly +every case answers were received, and in some instances the initial +interchange of postcards led to an extremely interesting correspondence, +throwing much light on the disturbed state of things in the native +town or province of the correspondent. From a Tiflis doctor came a +graphic account of the state of affairs in the Caucasus; while a school +inspector from the depths of Eastern Siberia painted a vivid picture of +the effect of political unrest on the schools—lockouts and "malodorous +chemical obstructions" (_Anglice_—the schools were stunk out). Many +writers expressed themselves with great freedom, but feared their +letters would not pass the censor. Judging by the proportion of answers +received, the censorship was not at that time efficient. In no case was +there any difficulty in grasping the writer's meaning. All the answers +were in Esperanto. + +This was fairly convincing, but still having doubts on the question of +pronunciation, the writer resolved to attend the Esperanto Congress +to be held at Geneva in August 1906. To this end he continued to read +Esperanto at odd minutes and took in an Esperanto gazette. About three +weeks before the congress he got a member of his family to read aloud to +him every day as far as possible a page or two of Esperanto, in order +to attune his ear. He never had an opportunity of speaking the language +before the congress, except once for a few minutes, when he travelled +some distance to attend a meeting of the nearest English group. + +Thus equipped, he went through the Congress of Geneva, and found himself +able to follow most of the proceedings, and to converse freely, though +slowly, with people of the most diverse nationality. At an early sitting +of the congress he found himself next to a Russian from Kischineff, +who had been through the first great _pogrom_, and a most interesting +conversation ensued. Another day the neighbours were an Indian nawab +and an abbé from Madrid. Another time it was a Bulgarian. At the first +official banquet he sat next to a Finn, who rejoiced in the name of +Attila, and, but for the civilizing influence of a universal language, +might have been in the sunny south, like his namesake of the ancient +world, on a very different errand from his present peaceful one. Yet +here he was, rubbing elbows with Italians, as if there had never been +such things as Huns or a sack of Rome by northern barbarians. + +During the meal a Frenchman, finding himself near us English and some +Germans, proposed a toast to the "entente cordiale taking in Germany," +which was honoured with great enthusiasm. This is merely an instance of +the small ways in which such gatherings make for peace and good will. + +With all these people it was perfectly easy to converse in the common +tongue, pronunciation and national idiom being no bar in practice. + +And this experience was general throughout the duration of the congress. +Day by day sittings were held for the transaction of all kinds of +business and the discussion of the most varied subjects. It was +impressive to see people from half the countries of the world rise +from different corners of the hall and contribute their share to the +discussion in the most matter-of-fact way. Day by day the congressists +met in social functions, debates, lectures, and sectional groups +(chemical, medical, legal, etc.) for the regulation of matters touching +their special interests. Everything was done in Esperanto, and never +was there the slightest hitch or misunderstanding, or failure to give +adequate expression to opinions owing to defects of language. The +language difficulty was annihilated. + +Perhaps one of the most striking demonstrations of this return to +pre-Babel conditions was the performance of a three-part comedy by a +Frenchman, a Russian, and a Spaniard. Such a thing would inevitably +have been grotesque in any national language; but here they met on +common neutral ground. No one's accent was "foreign," and none of the +spectators possessed that mother-tongue acquaintance with Esperanto that +would lead them to feel slight divergences shocking, or even noticeable +without extreme attention to the point. Other theatrical performances +were given at Geneva, as also at Boulogne, where a play of Molière +was performed in Esperanto by actors of eight nationalities with one +rehearsal, and with full success. + +In the face of these facts it is idle to oppose a universal artificial +language on the score of impossibility or inadequacy. The theoretical +pronunciation difficulty completely crumbled away before the test of +practice. + +The "war-at-any-price party," the whole-hoggers _à tous crins_ (the +juxtaposition of the two national idioms lends a certain realism, and +heightens the effect of each), are therefore driven back on their +second line of attack, if the Hibernianism may be excused. "Yes," they +say, "your language may be possible, but, after all, why not learn an +existing language, if you've got to learn one anyway?" + +Now, quite apart from the obvious fact that the nations will never agree +to give the preference to the language of one of them to the prejudice +of the others, this argument involves the suggestion that an artificial +language is no easier to learn than a natural one. We thus come to the +question of ease as a qualification. + + + IV + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)—AN + INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS EASY[1] + + [1]Readers who do not care about the reasons for this, but desire + concrete proofs, may skip the next few pages and turn in to p. 20, + par. 6. + +People smile incredulously at the mention of an artificial language, +implying that no easy royal road can be found to language-learning of +any kind. But the odds are all the other way, and they are heavy odds. + +The reason for this is quite simple, and may be briefly put as follows: + +The object of language is to express thought and feeling. Every natural +language contains all kinds of complications and irregularities, +which are of no use whatever in attaining this object, but merely +exist because they happen to have grown. Their sole _raison d'être_ +is historical. In fact, for a language without a history they are +_unnecessary_[1]. Therefore a universal language, whose only object is +to supply to every one the simplest possible means of expressing his +thoughts and feelings in a medium intelligible to every one else, +simply leaves them out. Now, it is precisely in these "unnecessary" +complications that a large proportion—certainly more than half—of +the difficulty of learning a foreign language consists. Therefore an +artificial language, by merely leaving them out, becomes certainly more +than twice as easy to learn as any natural language. + + [1]i.e. they do not assist in attaining its object as a language. One + universal way of forming the plural, past tense, or comparative + expresses plurality, past time, or comparison just as well as fifteen + ways, and with a deal less trouble. + +A little reflection will make this truth so absurdly obvious, that the +only wonder is, not that it is now beginning to be recognized, but that +any one could have ever derided it. + +That the "unnecessary" difficulties of a natural language are more than +one-half of the whole is certainly an under-estimate; for some languages +the proportion would be more like 3:4 or 5:6. Compared with these, the +artificial language would be three times to five times as easy. + +Take an illustration. Compare the work to be done by the learner of +(_a_) Latin, (_b_) Esperanto, in expressing past, present, and future +action. + +(_a_) Latin: + +Present tense active is expressed by— + + 6 endings in the 1st regular conjugation. + 6 " 2nd " + 6 " 3rd " + 6 " 4th " + +Total regular endings: 24. + +To these must be added a vast number of quite different and varying +forms for irregular verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: + +Present tense active is expressed by— + + 1 ending for every verb in the language. + +Total regular and irregular endings: 1. + +It is exactly the same for the past and future. + +Total endings for the 3 tenses active: + +(_a_) Latin: 72 regular forms, plus a very large number of irregular and +defective verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: 3 forms. + +Turning to the passive voice, we get— + +(_a_) Latin: A complete set of different endings, some of them puzzling +in form and liable to confusion with other parts of the verb. + +(_b_) Esperanto: No new endings at all. Merely the three-form regular +active conjugation of the verb _esti_ = to be, with a passive participle. +No confusion possible. + +It is just the same with compound tenses, subjunctives, participles, +etc. Making all due allowances, it is quite safe to say that the Latin +verb is fifty times as hard as the Esperanto verb. + +The proportion would be about the same in the case of substantives, +Latin having innumerable types. + +Comparing modern languages with Esperanto, the proportion in favour of +the latter would not be so high as fifty to one in the inflection of +verbs and nouns, though even here it would be very great, allowing for +subjunctives, auxiliaries, irregularities, etc. But taking the whole +languages, it might well rise to ten to one. + +For what are the chief difficulties in language-learning? + +They are mainly either difficulties of phonetics, or of structure and +vocabulary. + +Difficulties of phonetics are: + +(1) Multiplicity of sounds to be produced, including many sounds and +combinations that do not occur in the language of the learner. + +(2) Variation of accent, and of sounds expressed by the same letter. + +These difficulties are both eliminated in Esperanto. + +(1) Relatively few sounds are adopted into the language, and only such +as are common to nearly all languages. For instance, there are only five +full vowels and three[1] diphthongs, which can be explained to every +speaker in terms of his own language. All the modified vowels, closed +"u's" and "e's," half tones, longs and shorts, open and closed vowels, +etc., which form the chief bugbear in correct pronunciation, and often +render the foreigner unintelligible—all these disappear. + + [1]Omitting the rare _eŭ_. _ej_ and _uj_ are merely simple vowels + plus consonantal _j_ (= English _y_). + +(2) There is no variation of accent or of sound expressed by the +same letter. The principle "one letter, one sound"[1] is adhered to +absolutely. Thus, having learned one simple rule for accent (always on +the last syllable but one), and the uniform sound corresponding to each +letter, no mistake is possible. + + [1]The converse—"one sound, one letter"—is also true, except that + the same sound is expressed by _c_ and _ts_. (See Appendix C.) + +Contrast this with English. Miss Soames gives twenty-one ways of writing +the same sound. Here they are: + +[Transcriber's Note: +Letters originally printed in _italics_ are here CAPITALIZED for +clarity.] + + AtE grEAt fEIGn + bAss EH! wEIGH + pAIn gAOl AYE + pAY gAUgE obEYEd + dAHlia champAGnE wEIGHEd + vEIn campAIGn trAIT + thEY strAIGHt hALFpenny[1] + + [1]Prof. Skeat adds a twenty-second: Lord Reay! + +(Compare eye, lie, high, etc.) + +In Esperanto this sound is expressed only and always by "e." In fact, +the language is absolutely and entirely phonetic, as all real language +was once. + +As regards difficulties of vocabulary, the same may be said as in +the case of the sounds. Esperanto only adopts the minimum of roots +essential, and these are simple, non-ambiguous, and as international +as possible. Owing to the device of word-building by means of a few +suffixes and prefixes with fixed meaning, the number of roots necessary +is very greatly less than in any natural language.[1] + + [1]Most of these roots are already known to educated people. For the + young the learning of a certain number of words presents practically + no difficulty; it is in the practical application of words learnt + that they break down, and this failure is almost entirely due to + "unnecessary" difficulties. + +As for difficulties of structure, some of the chief ones are as follows: + +_Multiplicity and complexity of inflections._ This does not exist in +Esperanto. + +_Irregularities and exceptions of all kinds._ None in Esperanto. + +_Complications of orthography._ None in Esperanto. + +_Different senses of same word, and different words used in same sense._ +Esperanto—"one word, one meaning." + +_Arbitrary and fluctuating idioms._ Esperanto—none. Common sense and +common grammar the only limitation to combination of words. + +_Complexities of syntax._ (Think of the use of the subjunctive and +infinitive in all languages: _ού_ and _μή_ in Greek; indirect speech +in Latin; negatives, comparisons, etc., etc., in all languages.) +Esperanto—none. Common sense the only guide, and no ambiguity in +practice. The perfect limpidity of Esperanto, with no syntactical rules, +is a most instructive proof of the conventionality and arbitrariness of +the niceties of syntax in national languages. After all, the subjunctive +was made for man and not man for the subjunctive. + +But readers will say: "It is all very well to show by a comparison of +forms that Esperanto _ought_ to be much easier than a natural language. +But we want facts." + +Here are some. + +In the last chapter it was mentioned that the present writer first took +up Esperanto in October 1905, worked at it at odd times, never spoke it +or heard it spoken save once, and was able to follow the proceedings +of the Congress of Geneva in August 1906, and talk to all foreigners. +From a long experience of smattering in many languages and learning a +few thoroughly, he is absolutely convinced that this would have been +impossible to him in any national language. + +A lady who began Esperanto three weeks before the congress, and studied +it in a grammar by herself one hour each day, was able to talk in it +with all peoples on very simple subjects, and to follow a considerable +amount of the lectures, etc. + +Amongst the British folk who attended the congress were many clerks +and commercial people, who had merely learnt Esperanto by attending a +class or a local group meeting once a week, often for not many months. +They had never been out of England before, nor learnt any other foreign +language. They would have been utterly at sea if they had attempted to +do what they did on a similar acquaintance with any foreign tongue. +But during the two days spent _en route_ in Paris, where the British +party was fêted and shown round by the French Esperantists, on the +journey to Geneva, which English and French made together, on lake +steamboats, at picnics and dinners, etc., etc., here they were, rattling +away with great ease and mutual entertainment. Many of these came +from the North of England, and it was a real eye-opener, over which +easy-going South-Englanders would do well to ponder, to see what results +could be produced by a little energy and application, building on no +previous linguistic training. The Northern accent was evidently a help +in pronouncing the full-sounding vowels of Esperanto. + +One Englishman, who was talking away gaily with the French +_samideanoj_,[1] was an Esperantist of one year's standing. He had +happened to be at Boulogne in pursuit of a little combined French and +seasiding at the time of the first congress held there, 1905. One day +he got his tongue badly tied up in a cafe, and was helped out of his +linguistic difficulties with the waiter by certain compatriots, who wore +green stars in their buttonholes,[2] and sat at another table conversing +in an unknown lingo with a crowd of foreigners. He made inquiries, and +found it was Esperanto they were talking. He was so much struck by their +facility, and the practical way in which they had set his business to +rights in a minute (the waiter was an Esperantist trained _ad hoc_!), +that he decided to give up French and go in for Esperanto. This man +was a real learner of French, who had spent a long time on it, and +realized with disgust his impotence to wield it practically. To judge +by his conversation next year at Geneva, he had no such difficulty with +Esperanto. He was quite jubilant over the change. + + [1]Terse Esperanto word. = partisans of the same idea (i.e. + Esperanto). + + [2]The Esperanto badge. + +Such examples could be multiplied _ad infinitum_. No one who attended a +congress could fail to be convinced. + +Scientific comparison of the respective difficulty of Esperanto and +other languages, based on properly collected and tabulated results, +does not seem to be yet obtainable. It is difficult to get high-class +schools, where language-teaching is a regular and important part of +the curriculum, to give an artificial language a fair trial. Properly +organized and carried-out tests are greatly to be desired. If and when +they are made, it will probably be found that Esperanto is not only very +easy of acquisition itself, but that it has a beneficial effect upon +other language-learning.[1] + + [1]See pp. 145-55 [Part III, Chapter I]. + +Meantime, the present writer has carried out one small experiment in a +good secondary school for girls, where French and German are regularly +spoken and taught for many hours in the week. The head-mistress +introduced Esperanto as a regular school subject at the beginning of +the Easter term, January 1907. At the end of term a test paper was +set, consisting of English sentences to be rendered into French and +Esperanto without any dictionary or other aid, and one short passage +of English prose to be rendered into both languages with any aid from +books that the pupils wished. The object was to determine how far a few +hours' teaching of Esperanto would produce results comparable with those +obtained in a language learnt for years. + +The examinees ranged from fourteen to sixteen years. They had been +learning French from two to seven years, and had a daily French lesson, +besides speaking French on alternate days in the school. They had learnt +Esperanto for ten weeks, from one to one and a half hours per week. +_Taking the papers all through, the Esperanto results were nearly as +good as the French._ + +One last experiment may be mentioned. It was made under scientific +conditions on September 23, 1905. The subject was an adult, who had +learnt French and German for years at school, and had since taught +French to young boys, but was not a linguist by training or education, +having read mathematics at the university. + +He had had no lessons in Esperanto, and had never studied the language, +his sole knowledge of it being derived from general conversation with +an enthusiast, who had just returned from the Geneva Congress. He +was disposed to laugh at Esperanto, but was persuaded to test its +possibilities as a language that can be written intelligibly by an +educated person merely from dictionary by a few rules. + +He was given a page of carefully prepared English to translate into +Esperanto. The following written aids were given: + + 1. Twenty-five crude roots (e.g. _lern-_ = to learn.) + + 2. One suffix, with explanation of its use. + + 3. A one-page complete grammar of the Esperanto language. + + 4. An Esperanto-English and an English-Esperanto dictionary. + +He produced a good page of perfectly intelligible Esperanto, quite +free from serious grammatical mistake. He admitted that he could not +translate the passage so well into French or German. + +Such experiments go a good way towards proving the case for an +artificial language. More are urgently needed, especially of the last +two types. They serve to convince all those who come within range of the +experiment that an artificial language is a serious project, and may +confer great benefits at small cost. Any one can make them with a little +trouble, if he can secure a victim. A particularly interesting one is +to send a letter in Esperanto to some English or foreign correspondent, +enclosing a penny key. The letter will certainly be understood, and very +likely the answer will be in Esperanto. + +Doubters as to the ease and efficacy of a universal language are not +asked to believe without trial. They are merely asked not to condemn or +be unfavourable until they have a right to an opinion on the subject. +And they are asked to _form_ an opinion by personally testing, or at any +rate by weighing actual facts. "A fair field and no favour." + +The very best way of testing the thing is to study the language for a +few hours and attend a congress. The next congress is to be held in +Cambridge, England, in August 1907. + +Nothing is more unscientific or unintelligent than to scoff at a thing, +while refusing to examine whether there is anything in it. + + + V + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)—THE INTRODUCTION OF + AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE WOULD NOT CAUSE DISLOCATION + +In Chapters II., III., and IV. it was sought to prove that a universal +language is desirable in principle, that it already exists and is +efficient, and that it is very easy. If these propositions are true, +the only valid argument against introducing it at once would be a +demonstration that its introduction is either impracticable or else +attended with such disadvantages as to outweigh the beneficial results. + +Now, it is quite true that certain schemes tending towards international +uniformity of practice and, therefore, ultimately productive of saving +of labour are nevertheless such that their realization would cause an +almost prohibitive dislocation of present organization. A conspicuous +example is the proposed adoption of the decimal system in coinage and +weights and measures. So great is the loss of time and trouble (and +therefore of money) entailed by using an antiquated and cumbrous-system +instead of a simple and modern one that does the work as well, that the +big firm Kynochs some months ago introduced the decimal system, in spite +of the enormous difficulty of having to keep a double method going. +But hitherto, at any rate, the great disturbance to business that the +change would cause has prevented it from being generally made. Both +this matter and the curiously out-of-date[1] system of spelling modern +English present a fairly close analogy to the multilingual system of +international intercourse, as regards unprofitable expenditure of time +and trouble. + + [1]Out of date, because it has failed to keep pace with the change of + pronunciation. Spelling, i.e. use of writing, was merely a device for + representing to the eye the spoken sounds, so that failure to do this + means getting out of date. + +But where the analogy breaks down altogether is in the matter of +obstacles to reform. + +Supposing that all the ministries of education in the world issued +orders, that as from January 1, 1909, an auxiliary language should be +taught in every government school; supposing that merchants took to +doing foreign business wholesale in an auxiliary language, or that men +of science took to issuing all their books and treatises in it; whose +business would be dislocated? What literature or books would become +obsolete? Who, except foreign correspondence clerks and interpreters, +would be a penny the worse? Surely a useful reform need not be delayed +or refused in the interests of interpreters and correspondence clerks. +Even these would only be eliminated gradually as the reform spread. +There would be absolutely no general confusion analogous to that +following on a sudden change to phonetic spelling or the metric system, +because nothing would be displaced. + +Look at the precedents—the adoption of an international maritime code, +and of an international system of cataloguing which puts bibliography +on an equal footing all over the world by means of a common system +of classification. Did any confusion or dislocation follow on these +reforms? Quite the contrary. It was enough for England and France to +agree on the use of the maritime code, and the rest of the nations had +to come into line. It would be the same with the official recognition +by a group of powerful nations of an auxiliary language. As soon as the +world recognizes that it is a labour-saving device on a large scale, and +a matter of public convenience on the same plane as codes, telegraphy, +or shorthand, it will no doubt be introduced. But why wait until there +are rival schemes with large followings and vested interests—in short, +until the same obstacles arise to the choice of an international, +artificial, and neutral language, as now prevent the elevation of any +national language into a universal medium? The plea of impracticability +on the score of dislocation might then be valid. At present it is not. +To have an easy language that will carry you anywhere and enable you to +read anything, it is sufficient to wish for it. Only, as we Britons are +being taught to "think imperially," so must the nations learn in this +matter to _wish internationally_. + + + VI + + INTERNATIONAL ACTION ALREADY TAKEN + FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF AN AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +The main work of educating the public to "wish internationally," the +necessary precedent to official action, has naturally in the past been +done by the adherents of the various language-schemes themselves. An +outline of the most important of these movements is given in the second +part of this book. + +But apart from these there is now an international organization that is +working for the adoption of an international auxiliary language, and a +brief account of it may be given here. + +During the Paris Exhibition of 1900 a number of international congresses +and learned societies, which were holding meetings there, appointed +delegates for the consideration of the international language question. +These delegates met on January 17, 1901, and founded a "Delegation for +the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language." They drew up the +following declaration, which has been approved by all subsequently +elected delegates: + + * * * * * + + DELEGATION FOR THE ADOPTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + + Declaration + +The undersigned, deputed by various Congresses and Societies to study +the question of an international auxiliary language, have agreed on the +following points: + +(1) There is a necessity to choose and to spread the use of an +international language, designed not to replace national idioms in the +individual life of each people, but to serve in the written and oral +relations between persons whose mother-tongues are different. + +(2) In order to fulfil its purpose usefully, an international language +must satisfy the following conditions: + + 1st Condition: It must fulfil the needs of the ordinary intercourse + of social life, of commercial communications, and of scientific and + philosophic relations; + + 2nd Condition: It must be easily acquired by every person of + average elementary education, and especially by persons of European + civilization; + + 3rd Condition: It must not be one of the national languages. + +(3) It is desirable to organize a general DELEGATION representing +all who realize the necessity, as well as the possibility, of an +international auxiliary language, and who are interested in its +employment. This Delegation will appoint a Committee of members who can +meet during a certain period of time. The purpose of this Committee is +defined in the following articles. + +(4) The choice of the auxiliary language belongs in the first instance +to the _International Association of Academies_, or, in case of failure, +to the Committee mentioned in Art. 3. + +(5) Consequently the first duty of the Committee will be to present to +the _International Association of Academies_, in the required forms, the +desires expressed by the constituent Societies and Congresses, and to +invite it respectfully to realize the project of an auxiliary language. + +(6) It will be the duty of the Committee to create a Society for +propaganda, to spread the use of the auxiliary language which is chosen. + +(7) The undersigned, being delegated by various Congresses and +Societies, decide to approach all learned bodies, and all societies of +business men and tourists, in order to obtain their adhesion to the +present project. + +(8) Representatives of regularly constituted Societies which have +agreed to the present _Declaration_ will be admitted as members of the +DELEGATION. + + * * * * * + +This declaration is the official programme of the Delegation. The most +important point of principle to note is Art. 2, 3rd Con.: "It must not +be one of the national languages." + +As regards the methods of action prescribed, no attempt is to be made +to bring direct pressure to bear upon any government. It was rightly +felt that the adoption of a universal language is a matter for private +initiative. No government can properly take up the question, no Ministry +of Education can officially introduce an auxiliary language into the +schools under its control, until the principle has met with a certain +amount of general recognition. The result of a direct appeal to any +government or governments could only have been, in the most favourable +case, the appointment by the government appealed to of a commission to +investigate and report on the question. Such a commission would examine +experts and witnesses from representative bodies, such as academies, +institutes, philological and other learned societies. The best course of +action, therefore, for the promoters of an international language is to +apply direct to such bodies, to bring the question before them and try +to gain their support. This is what the Delegation has done. + +Now, there already exists an international organization whose object +is to represent and focus the opinion of learned societies in all +countries. This is the International Association of Academies, formed in +1900 for the express purpose, according to its statutes, of promoting +"scientific enterprises of international interest." The delegates feel +that the adoption of an international language comes in the fullest +sense within the letter and spirit of this statute. It is, therefore, +to this Association that the choice of language is, in the first place, +left. (Art. 4.) + +The Association meets triennially. At its first meeting (Paris 1901) +the question of international language was brought before it by General +Sébert, of the French Institute, but too late to be included among the +agenda of that meeting. The occasion was important as eliciting an +expression of opinion on the part of the signatories to General Sébert's +address. These included twenty-five members of the French Institute, one +of the most distinguished scientific bodies in the world. + +At the second meeting of the Association (London 1904) the Delegation +did not officially present the question for discussion, but the +following paragraph appears in the report of the proceedings of the +Royal Society, which was the host (_London Royal Society_, 1904, C. +Section of Letters, Thursday, May 26, 1904, p. 33): + +"In the course of the sitting, the chairman (Lord Reay, President of +the British Academy) submitted to the meeting whether the question of +the 'International Auxiliary Language' should be considered, though +not included in the agenda. From many quarters applications had been +made that the subject might be discussed in some form or other. Prof. +Goldziher and M. Perrot spoke against the suggested discussion, +the former maintaining that the matter was a general question of +international communication, and did not specifically affect scientific +interests; the latter announced that he had been commissioned by the +_Académie des Inscriptions_ to oppose the consideration of this subject. +The matter then dropped." + +The third meeting of the Association of Academies was held at Vienna +at the end of May 1907, under the auspices of the Vienna Academy of +Science. The question was officially laid before it by the Delegation. +The Association declared, for formal reasons, that the question did not +fall within its competence.[1] + + [1]In the voting as to the inclusion of the question in the agenda, + eight votes were cast in favour of international language, and twelve + against. This considerable minority shows very encouraging progress + in such a body, considering the newness of the scheme. + +Up till now only two national academies have shown themselves favourable +to the scheme, those of Vienna and Copenhagen. + +The Vienna Academy commissioned one of its most eminent members, +Prof. Schuchardt, to watch the movement on its behalf, and to keep it +informed on the subject. In 1904 he presented a report favourable to +an international language. He and Prof. Jespersen are amongst the most +famous philologists who support the movement. + +It is not therefore anticipated that the Association of Academies will +take up the question; and the Delegation, thinking it desirable not to +wait indefinitely till it is converted, has proceeded to the election +of a committee, as provided in Art. 4 of the Declaration. It consists +of twelve members, with powers to add to their number. It will meet in +Paris, October 5, 1907. It is anticipated that the language chosen will +be Esperanto. None of the members of this international committee are +English, all the English savants invited having declined. + +What may be the practical effect of the choice made by this Committee +remains to be seen. In France there is a permanent Parliamentary +Commission for the consideration of questions affecting public +education. This Commission has for some time had before it a proposal +for the introduction of Esperanto into the State schools of France, +signed by twelve members of Parliament and referred by the House to +the Commission. This year the proposal has been presented again in a +different form. The text of the scheme, which is much more practical +than the former one, is as follows: + +"The study of the international language Esperanto will be included in +the curricula of those government schools in which modern languages are +already taught. + +"This study will be optional, and candidates who offer for the various +examinations English, German, Italian, Spanish, or Arabic, will be +allowed to offer Esperanto as an additional subject. + +"They will be entitled to the advantages enjoyed by candidates who offer +an additional language." + +At present it is a very usual thing to offer an additional language, and +if this project passes, Esperanto will be on exactly the same footing as +other languages for this purpose. The project of recognizing Esperanto +as a principal language for examination was entirely impracticable. It +is far too easy, and would merely have become a "soft option" and a +refuge for the destitute. + +It is said that a majority of the Commission are in favour of +introducing an auxiliary language into the schools, when one has been +chosen by the Delegation or by the Association of Academies. It is +therefore possible that in a year or two Esperanto may be officially +recognized in France; and if this is so, other nations will have to +examine the matter seriously. + +Considering that the French are notoriously bad linguists and, above all +other peoples, devoted to the cult of their own language and literature, +it is somewhat remarkable that the cause of an artificial language +should have made more progress among them than elsewhere. It might have +been anticipated that the obstructionist outcry, raised so freely in all +countries by those who imagine that an insidious attack is being made on +taste, culture, and national language and literature, would have been +particularly loud in France. On the contrary, it is precisely in that +country that the movement has made most popular progress, and that it +numbers the most scientists, scholars, and distinguished men among its +adherents. Is it that history will one day have to record another case +of France leading Europe in the van of progress? + +Encouraged by the number of distinguished signatures obtained in France +to their petition in 1901, the Delegation drew up a formula of assent +to their Declaration, which they circulate amongst (1) members of +academies, (2) members of universities, in all countries. They also +keep a list of societies of all kinds who have declared their adherence +to the scheme. The latest lists (February and March 1907) show 1,060 +signatures of academicians and university members, and 273 societies. +In both cases the most influential backing is in France. Thus among the +signatures figure in Paris alone: + + 10 professors of the College de France; + 8 " " " Faculty of Medicine; + 13 " " " Faculty of Science; + 11 " " " Faculty of Letters; + 12 " " " École Normale; + 37 members of the Academy of Science; + +besides a host of other members of various learned bodies. Many of these +are members of that august body the Institut de France, and one is a +member of the Académie française—M. Lavisse. + +It is the same in the other French Universities: Lyons University, 53 +professors; Dijon, 34; Caen, 18; Besançon, 15; Grenoble, 26; Marseilles, +56, and so on. + +Universities in other lands make a fair showing. America contributes +supporters from John Hopkins University, 20 professors; Boston Academy +of Arts and Sciences, 13 members; Harvard, 7 professors; Columbia +University, 23 professors; Washington Academy of Science, 19 members; +Columbus University, Ohio, 21 professors, etc. Dublin and Edinburgh both +contribute a few. England is represented by one entry: "Cambridge, 2 +professors." Perhaps the Cambridge Congress will change this somewhat. +It will be strange if any one can actually witness a congress without +having his imagination to some extent stirred by the possibilities. + +A noticeable feature of the action of the Delegation throughout has been +the scientific spirit in which it has gone to work, and its absolute +impartiality as to the language to be adopted. It has everywhere, in +its propaganda and circulars, spoken of "an international auxiliary +language," and has been careful not to prejudge in any way the question +as to which shall be adopted. + +It may be news to many that there are several rival languages in the +field. Even the enthusiastic partisans of Esperanto are often completely +ignorant of the existence of competitors. It was partly with the object +of furnishing full information to the Delegates who are to make the +choice, that MM. Couturat and Leau composed their admirable _Histoire +de la langue universelle_. It contains a brief but scientific account +of each language mentioned, the leading principles of its construction, +and an excellent critique. The main principles are disengaged by the +authors with a masterly clearness and precision of analysis from the +mass of material before them. Though they are careful to express no +personal preference, and let fall nothing which might unfairly prejudice +the delegates in favour of any scheme, it is not difficult to judge, by +a comparison of the scientific critiques, which of the competing schemes +analysed most fully carries out the principles which experience now +shows to be essential to success for any artificial language. + +The impression left is, that whether judged by the test of conformity to +necessary principles, or by the old maxim "possession is nine points of +the law," Esperanto has no serious rival. + + + VII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LATIN? + +There are some who fully admit the desirability of an international +language, but say that we have no need to invent one, as we have Latin. +This tends to be the argument of literary persons.[1] They back it up by +pointing out that Latin has already done duty in the Middle Ages as +a common medium, and therefore, they say, what it has once done with +success it can do again. + + [1]It has even cropped up again in the able articles in _The + Times_ on the reformed pronunciation of Latin (April 1907). + +It is hard to argue with such persons, because they have not grasped +the fact that the nature of international communication has undergone +a complete change, and that therefore there is no presumption that +the same medium will suffice for carrying it on. In the Middle Ages +the cosmopolitan public was almost entirely a learned one. The only +people who wanted to communicate with foreigners (except for a certain +amount of commerce) were scholars, and the only things they wanted to +communicate about were learned subjects, mostly of a philosophical +or literary nature, which Latin was adapted to express. The educated +public was extremely small, and foreign travel altogether beyond the +reach of all but the very few. The overwhelming mass of the people were +illiterate, and fast tied to their native spot by lack of pence, lack of +communications, and the general conditions of life. + +Now that everybody can read and write and get about, and all the +conditions of life have changed, the cosmopolitan public, so far from +being confined to a handful of scholars and merchants, extends down +to and is largely made up of that terrible modern production, "the +man in the street." It is quite ridiculous to pretend that because +an Erasmus or a Casaubon could carry on literary controversies, with +amazing fluency and hard-hitting, in Ciceronian Latin, therefore "the +bald-headed man at the back of the omnibus" can give up the time +necessary to obtaining a control of Latin sufficient for the conduct of +his affairs, or for hobnobbing with his kind abroad. + +It is waste of time to argue with those who do not realize that the +absolute essentials of any auxiliary language in these days are ease +of acquirement and accessibility to all. There are actually some +newspapers published in Latin and dealing with modern topics. As an +amusement for the learned they are all very well; but the portentous +periphrases to which they are reduced in describing tramway accidents +or motor-cars, the rank obscurity of the terms in which advertisements +of the most ordinary goods are veiled, ought to be enough to drive +their illusions out of the heads of the modern champions of Latin for +practical purposes. Let these persons take in the Roman _Vox Urbis_ for +a month or two, or get hold of a copy of the London _Alaudae_, and see +how they feel then. + +A dim perception of the requirements of the modern world has inspired +the various schemes for a barbarized and simplified Latin. It is almost +incredible that the authors of such schemes cannot see that debased +Latin suffers from all the defects alleged against an artificial +language, plus quite prohibitory ones of its own, without attaining +the corresponding advantages. It is just as artificial as an entirely +new language, without being nearly so easy (especially to speak) or +adaptable to modern life. It sins against the cardinal principle that +an auxiliary language shall inflict no damage upon any natural one. In +short, it disgusts both parties (scholars and tradesmen), and satisfies +the requirements of neither. Those who want an easy language, within +the reach of the intelligent person with only an elementary school +groundwork of education, don't get it; and the scholarly party, who +treat any artificial language as a cheap commercial scheme, have their +teeth set on edge by unparalleled barbarisms, which must militate most +seriously against the correct use of classical Latin. + +Such schemes are dead of their own dogginess. + +Latin, pure or mongrel, won't do. + + + VIII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE GREEK? + +This chapter might be as short and dogmatic as Mark Twain's celebrated +chapter upon snakes in Ireland. It would be enough to merely answer +"No," but that the indefatigable Mr. Henderson, after running through +three artificial languages of his own, has come to the conclusion that +Greek is the thing. Certainly, as regards flexibility and power of +word-formation, Greek would be better than Latin on its own merits. But +it is too hard, and the scheme has nothing practical about it. + + + IX + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE A MODERN LANGUAGE? + +Jingoes are not wanting who say that it is unpatriotic of any Englishman +to be a party to the introduction of a neutral language, because English +is manifestly destined to be the language of the world. + +Reader, did you ever indulge in the mild witticism of asking a foreigner +where the English are mentioned in the Bible? The answer, of course, is, +_The meek shall inherit the earth_. But if the foreigner is bigger than +you, don't tell him until you have got to a safe distance. + +It is this attitude of self-assertion, coupled with the tacit assumption +that the others don't count much, that makes the English so detested +on the Continent. It is well reflected in the claim to have their own +language adopted as a common means of communication between all other +peoples. + +This claim is not put forward in any spirit of deliberate insolence, +or with the intention of ignoring other people's feelings; though the +very unconsciousness of any arrogance in such an attitude really renders +it more galling, on account of the tacit conclusion involved therein. +It is merely the outcome of ignorance and of that want of tact which +consists of inability to put oneself at the point of view of others. +The interests of English-speaking peoples are enormous, far greater +than those of any other group of nations united by a common bond of +speech. But it is a form of narrow provincial ignorance to refuse on +that account to recognize that, compared to the whole bulk of civilized +people, the English speakers are in a small minority, and that the +majority includes many high-spirited peoples with a strongly developed +sense of nationality, and destined to play a very important part in the +history of the world. Any sort of movement to have English or any other +national language adopted officially as a universal auxiliary language +would at once entail a boycott of the favoured language on the part +of a ring of other powerful nations, who could not afford to give a +rival the benefit of this augmented prestige. And it is precisely upon +universality of adoption that the great use of an international language +will depend. + +To sum up: the ignorance of contemporary history and fact displayed in +the suggestion of giving the preference to any national language is only +equalled by its futility, for it _is_ futile, to put forward a scheme that +has no chance of even being discussed internationally as a matter of +practical politics. + +A proof is that precisely the same objection to an auxiliary language +is raised in France—namely, that it is unpatriotic, because it would +displace French from that proud position. + +The above remarks will be wholly misunderstood if they are taken to +imply any spirit of Little Englandism on the part of the writer. +On the contrary, he is ardently convinced of the mighty _rôle_ that +will be played among the nations by the British Empire, and has had +much good reason in going to and fro in the world to ponder on its +unique achievement in the past. When fully organized on some terms +of partnership as demanded by the growth of the Colonies, it will go +even farther in the future. But all this has nothing to do with an +international language. Howsoever mighty, the British Empire will not +swallow up the earth—at any rate, not in our time. And till it does, it +is not practical politics to expect other peoples to recognize English +as the international language as between themselves. + +There are, in fact, two quite separate questions: + +(1) Supposing it is possible for any national language to become the +international one, which has the best claims? + +(2) Is it possible for any national language to be adopted as the +international one? + +To question (1) the answer undoubtedly is "English." It is already the +language of the sea, and to a large extent the medium for transacting +business between Europeans and Asiatic races, or between the Asiatic +races themselves.[1] Moreover, except for its pronunciation and +spelling, it has intrinsically the best claim, as being the furthest +advanced along the common line of development of Aryan language.[2] But +the discussion of this question has no more than an academic interest, +because the answer to question (2) is, for political reasons, in the +negative. + + [1]Another argument is that based on the comparative numbers + of people who speak the principal European languages as their + mother-tongue. No accurate statistics exist, but an interesting + estimate is quoted by Couturat and Leau (_Hist. de la langue + universelle_), which puts English first with about 120,000,000, + followed at a distance of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 by Russian. + + [2]This is explained in Part III., chap. i., _q.v._ + + + X + + CAN THE EVOLUTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LEFT + TO THE PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION BY FREE COMPETITION? + +"You base your argument for an international language mainly on the +operation of economical laws. Be consistent, then; leave the matter +to Nature. By unlimited competition the best language is bound to be +evolved and come to the top in the struggle for life. Let the fittest +survive, and don't bother about Esperanto." + +On a first hearing this sounds fairly plausible, yet it is honeycombed +with error. + +In the first place, it proves too much. The same argument could be +adduced for the abandonment of effort of all kind whatever to improve +upon Nature and her processes. "You can walk and run and swim. Don't +bother to invent boats and bicycles, trains and aeroplanes, that will +bring you more into touch with other peoples. Let Nature evolve the best +form of international locomotion." + +Again, Nature does not tend towards uniformity. She produces an infinity +of variety in the individual, and out of this variety she selects and +evolves certain prevailing types. But these types differ widely within +the limits of the world under varying conditions of environment. What +we are seeking to establish is world-wide uniformity, in spite of +difference of environment. + +Again, the argument confuses a sub-characteristic with an organism. A +language is not an organism, but one of the characteristics of man. +After the lapse of countless ages there are grey horses and black, bay +and chestnut, presumably because greyness and blackness and the rest +are incidental characteristics of a horse. No one of them gives him a +greater advantage than the others in his struggle for life, or helps him +particularly to perform the functions of horsiness. + +Just in the same way a man may be equally well equipped with all the +qualities that make for success, whether he speaks English or French, +Russian or Japanese. It cannot be shown that language materially helps +one people as against another, or even that the best race evolves the +best language.[1] Take the last mentioned. If there is one people on the +face of the globe who rejoice in an impossible language, it is the +Japanese. In the early days of foreign intercourse a good Jesuit father +reported that the Japanese were courteous and polite to strangers, but +their language was plainly the invention of the devil. To a modern mind +the language may have outlived its putative father, but its reputation +has not improved, so far as ease is concerned. Yet who will say that it +has impaired national efficiency? + + [1]Greece went down before Rome. Which was the better race, meaning + by "better" the more capable of imposing its language and manners on + the world? Yet who doubts that Greek was the better language? + +The fact is, that for purposes of transaction of ordinary affairs by +those who speak it as a mother tongue, one language is about as good as +another. Whether it survives or spreads depends, not upon its intrinsic +qualities as a language, but upon the success of the race that speaks +it.[1] There is, therefore, no presumption that the best or the most +suitable or the easiest language will spread over the world by its own +merits, or even that any easy or regular language will be evolved. +Printing and education have altogether arrested the natural process of +evolution of language on the lips of men. This is one justification for +the application of new artificial reforms to language and spelling, +which tend no longer to move naturally with the times as heretofore. + + [1]A curious phenomenon of our day suggests a possible partial + exception. In Switzerland French is steadily encroaching and bearing + back German. Is this owing to the intrinsic qualities of French + language and civilization? Materially, the Germans have the greater + expansive power. + +As regards free competition between rival artificial languages, the +same considerations hold good. The worse might prevail just as easily +as the better, because the determining factor is not the nature of the +language, but the influence and general capacity of the rival backers. +Of course a very bad or hard artificial language would not prevail +against an easy one. But beyond a certain point of ease a universal +language cannot go (ease meaning the ease of all), and that limit has +probably been about reached now. Between future schemes there will be +such a mere fractional difference in respect of ease, that competition +becomes altogether beside the point. The thing is to take an easy one +and stick to it. + + + XI + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON AESTHETIC GROUNDS + +One of the commonest arguments that advocates of a universal language +have to face runs something like this: + +"Yes, there really does seem to be something in what you say—your +language may save time and money and grease the wheels of business; +but, after all, we are not all business men, nor are we all out after +dollars. Just think what a dull, drab uniformity your scheme would +lay over the lands like a pall. By the artificial removal of natural +barriers you are aiding and abetting the vulgarization of the world. +You are doing what in you lies to eliminate the racy, the local, the +picturesque. The tongues of men are as stately trees, set deep in the +black, mouldering soil of the past, and rich with its secular decay. The +leaves are the words of the people, old yet ever new, and the flowers +are the nation's poems, drawing their life from the thousand tiny roots +that twist and twine unseen about the lives and struggles of bygone +men. You are calling to us to come forth from the cool seclusion of +these trees' shade, to leave their delights and toil in the glare of the +world at raising a mushroom growth on a dull, featureless plain that +reaches everywhither. Modern Macbeths, sophisticated by your modernity +and adding perverted instinct to crime, you are murdering not sleep, +but dreams—dreams that haunt about the mouldering lodges of the past, +and soften the contact with reality by lending their own colouring +atmosphere. You are hammering the last nail into the coffin of the old +leisurely past, the past that raised the cathedrals, to which taste and +feeling were of supreme moment, and when man put something of himself +into his every work." + +The man must be indeed dull of soul who cannot join in a dirge for the +beauty of the vanishing past. Turn where we may now, we find the same +railways, the same trams, music-halls, coats and trousers. The mad rush +of modernity with its levelling tendency really is killing off what is +quaint, out of the way, and racy of the soil. But why visit the sins +of modernity upon an international language? The last sentence of the +indictment itself suggests the line of defence. "You are hammering the +last nail into the coffin of the old, leisurely past...." + +Quite so, you _are_. + +The universal ability to use an auxiliary language on occasion rounds +off and completes the levelling process. But the old leisurely past +will not be any the less dead, or any the less effectually buried, if +one nail is not driven home in the coffin. The slayer is modernity at +large, made up of science, steam, democracy, universal education, and +many other things—but especially universal education. And the verdict +can be, at the most, justifiable, or at any rate inevitable, pasticide. +You cannot eat your cake and have it; you cannot kill off all the bad +things and keep all the good ones. With sterilization goes purification, +pasticide may be accompanied by pasteurization. At any rate, "the old +order changeth," and you've got to let it change. + +The whole history of the "progress" of the world, meaning often material +progress, is eloquent of the lesson that it is vain to set artificial +limits to advancing invention. The substitution of cheap mechanical +processes of manufacture for hand-work involved untold misery to many, +and incidentally led to the partial disappearance of a type of character +which the world could ill afford to lose, and which we would give much +to be able to bring back. The old semi-artist-craftsman, with hand and +eye really trained up to something like their highest level of capacity, +with knowledge not wide, but deep, and all gained from experience, and +not from books or technical education—this type of character is a loss. +Many, with the gravest reason, are dissatisfied with the type which has +already largely replaced it, and which will replace it for good or evil, +but ever more swiftly and surely. But no well-judging person proposes +on that account to forgo the material advantages conferred upon mankind +by the invention of machinery. If the world rejects, on sentimental +grounds, the labour-saving invention of international language, it will +be flying in the face of economic history, and it will not appreciably +retard the disappearance of the picturesque. + +There is another type of argument which may also be classed as +aesthetic, but which differs somewhat from the one just discussed. It +emanates chiefly from literary men and scholars, and may be presented as +follows: + +"Language is precious, and worthy of study, inasmuch as it enshrines +the imperishable monuments of the thought and genius of the race on +whose lips it was born. The study of the words and forms in which a +nation clothed its thoughts throws many a ray of light on phases of the +evolution of the race itself, which would otherwise have remained dark. +The history of a language and literature is in some measure an epitome +of the history of a people. We miss all these points of interest in your +artificial language, and we shall, therefore, refuse to study it, and +hereby commit it to the devil." + +This is a particularly humiliating type of answer to receive, because +it implies that one is an ass. In truth the man who should invent an +artificial language and invite the world to study it for itself would +be a fool, and a very swell-headed fool at that. It seems in vain to +point this out to persons who use the above argument; or to explain to +them that they would be aided in their study of languages that do repay +study by the introduction of an easy international language, because +many commentaries, etc., would become accessible to them, which are not +so now, or only at the expense of deciphering some difficult language in +which the commentary is written, the commentary itself being in no sense +literature, and its form a matter of complete indifference. + +Back comes the old answer in one form or another, every variation +tainted with the heresy that the language is to be studied as a language +for itself. + +Perhaps the least tedious way of giving an idea of this kind of +opposition, and the way in which it may be met, is to give some extracts +from a scholar's letter, and the writer's answer. The letter is fairly +typical. + + "MY DEAR ——, + + "Many thanks for your long letter on Esperanto.... + According to the books, Esperanto can be learnt quickly by any + one. This means that they will forget it quite as rapidly; for + what is easily acquired is soon forgotten.... In my humble + opinion, an Englishman who knows French and German would do + much better to devote any extra time at his disposal to the + study of his own language, which, I repeat, is one of the most + delicate mediums of communication now in existence. It has + taken centuries to construct, while Esperanto was apparently + created in a few hours. One is God's handiwork, and the other + a man's toy. Personally, any living language interests me more + than Esperanto. I am sorry I am such a heretic, but I fear my + love for the English language carries me away.... + + "Yours ever, + "——." + +The points that rankle are artificiality and lack of a history. + + _Reply_ + + "MY DEAR ——, + + "I really can't put it any more plainly, so I must just repeat + it: we are not trying to introduce a language that has any interest + for anybody in itself. An international language is a labour-saving + device. The question is, Is it an efficient one? If so, it must + surely be adopted. The world wants to be saved labour. It never pays + permanently to do things a longer way, if the shorter one produces + equally good results. No one has yet proved, or, in my opinion, + advanced any decent argument tending to show, that the results + produced by a universal language will not be just as good _for many + purposes_[1] as those produced by national languages. That the results + are more economically produced surely does not admit of doubt. + + [1]And those very important ones, relatively to man's whole field + of activity. + + 'Personally, any living language interests me more than + Esperanto.' Of course it does. So it does me, and most sensible + people. But what the digamma does it matter to Esperanto whether we + are interested in it or not? It is not there to interest us. The + question is, Does it, or not, save us or others unprofitable labour + on a large scale? Neither you nor most sane persons are probably + particularly interested in shorthand or Morse codes or any signalling + systems. Yet they bear up. + + "Do try to see that we think there is a certain felt want, amongst + countless numbers of persons, which is much more efficiently and + economically met by a neutral, easy, international language, + than by any national one. That is the position you have got to + controvert, if you are seriously to weaken the argument in favour of + an international language. If you say that it is not a want felt by + many people, I can only say, at the risk of being dogmatic, that you + are wrong. I happen to know that it is.[1] The question then is, Is + there an easy way of meeting that want? And the equally certain and + well-grounded answer is, There is.... + + [1]I have before me a list of 119 societies, representing many + different lines of work and play and many nations, who had already + in 1903 given in their adhesion to a scheme for an international + language. Technical terms alone (in all departments of study) want + standardizing, and an international language affords the best + means. The number of societies is now (1907) over 270. + + "As to your argument that what is easy is more easily + forgotten—it is true. But I think you must see that, neither in + practice nor in principle, does it or should it make for choosing the + harder way of arriving at a given result. Chance the forgetting, if + necessary re-learning as required, and use the time and effort saved + for some more remunerative purpose. + + "'One is God's handiwork, the other a man's toy.' I should have + said the first was man's lip-work, but I see what you mean. It is + God working through his creature's natural development. The same + is equally true of all man's 'toys.' Man moulded his language in + pursuance of his ends under God. Under the same guidance he moulded + the steam engine, the typewriter, shorthand, the semaphore, and all + kinds of signals. What are the philosophical _differentia_ that make + Esperanto a toy, and natural language God's handiwork? Apparently + the fact that Esperanto is 'artificial,' i.e. consciously produced + by art. If this is the criterion, beware lest you damn man's works + wholesale. If this is not the criterion, what is? + + "'An Englishman who knows French and German would do much better + to devote any extra time at his disposal to the study of his own + language.' Yes—if his object is to qualify as an artist in language. + No—if his object is to save time and trouble in communicating with + foreigners. You must compare like with like. It is unscientific + and a confusion of thought to change the subject-matter of a + man's employment of his time on grounds other than those fairly + intercomparable. You have dictated as to how a man should employ + his time by changing his object in employing his time. This makes + the whole discussion irrelevant, in so far as it deals with the + comparative advantage of studying one language or the other. + + "Time's up! I have missed my after-lunch walk, and I expect only + hardened your heart. + + "Yours, + "——." + +And I had! + + + XII + + WILL AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE DISCOURAGE THE STUDY OF MODERN + LANGUAGES, AND THUS BE DETRIMENTAL TO CULTURE?—PARALLEL + WITH THE QUESTION OF COMPULSORY GREEK + +There is a broad, twofold distinction in the aims with which the study +of foreign languages is organized and undertaken. + +It serves: first, purely utilitarian ends, and is a means; secondly, the +purposes of culture, and is an end in itself. + +An international auxiliary language aims at supplanting the first type +of study completely, and, as it claims, with profit to the students. The +second type it hopes to leave wholly intact, and disclaims any attempt +to interfere with it in any way. How far is this possible? + +The answer depends mainly upon the efficiency of the alternative offered +by the new-comer in each case as a possible substitute. + +Firstly, if it is true that a great portion of the human race, +especially in the big polyglot empires and the smaller states of Europe, +are groaning under the incubus of the language difficulty, and have to +spend years on the study of mere words before they can fit themselves +for an active career, then the abolition of this heavy handicap on +due preparation for each man's proper business in life will liberate +much time for more profitable studies. It is certain that the majority +of mankind are non-linguistic by nature and inclination rather than +linguistic—i.e. that the best chance of developing their natural +capacities to the utmost and making them useful and agreeable members of +society does not lie in making all alike swallow an overdose of foreign +languages during the acquisitive years of youth. By doing so, vast waste +is caused, taking the world round. As to the attainment of the object +of this first type of language study, not only is it as efficiently +secured by a single universal language, but far more so. _Ex hypothesi_ +the object is utilitarian; the language is a means. Well, a universal +language is a better means than a national one—first, because, being +universal, it is a means to more; secondly, because, being easy and +one, it is a means that more people can grasp and employ. In fact, it +is in this field an efficient substitute; it saves much, without losing +anything. + +For the second type of language-study, on the other hand, where the +end is culture and the language is studied for itself and in no wise +as an indifferent means, a universal artificial language offers no +substitute at all. This end is not on its programme. Why, then, should +any language-study that is organized in view of culture be given up on +its account? + +It may, of course, be said that the time given to it by those who pursue +culture in language will be taken from the time devoted to more worthy +linguistic study, and will therefore prejudice the learning of other +languages. This is a point of technical pedagogics or psychology. There +is very good reason, from the standpoint of these sciences, to believe +that a study of a simple _type-tongue_ would, on the contrary, pay for +itself in increased facility in learning other languages. But this is +more fully discussed in the chapter for teachers (see pp. 145-55) [Part +III, Chapter I]. + +The question, however, is not in reality quite so simple as this. +There is no water-tight partition between utilitarian and cultural +language-study. They act and react upon each other. There really is some +ground for anxiety, lest the provision of facilities for learning an +easy artificial language at your door may prevent people from going out +of their way to learn national ones, which would have awakened scholarly +instincts in them. The cause of culture would thus sustain some real +hurt. + +The question is another phase—a wider and lower-grade phase—of the +great compulsory Greek question at Oxford and Cambridge. It affects the +masses, whereas the Greek controversy affects the few at the top; but +otherwise the issue at stake is essentially the same. + +In both cases the bedrock of the problem is this, Can we afford to put +the many through a grind, which is on the whole unprofitable to them and +does not attain its object of conferring culture, in order to uphold +the traditional system in the interests of the few? In neither case do +the reformers desire to suppress the study of the old culture-giving +language; rather it is hoped that the interests of scholarly and liberal +learning will benefit by being freed from the dead weight of grammar +grinders, whose mechanical performance and monkey antics are merely a +dodge to catch a copper from the examiners. + +When Greek is no longer bolstered up by the protection of compulsion, +some of the present bounty-fed (i.e. compulsion-fed) facilities for its +study will no doubt disappear from the schools which are at present +forced to provide them. With them will be lost some recruits who would +have been led by the facilities to study Greek, and would have studied +it to their profit. On the other hand, the university will be open to +numbers of students who are at present shut out by the Greek tariff. +Another barrier against modernity will go down, and democracy make +another step out of the proverbial gutter towards the university. + +Similarly, the possession of a universally understood medium of +communication will in some cases deter people from making the effort to +study real language, with all the treasures of original literature to +which it is the key. + + "Tis true, 'tis pity; and pity 'tis, 'tis true. + +But—and this is the great point—it will open the cosmopolitan outlook +to countless thousands who could never hope to grapple successfully with +even one national language. This cannot be a small gain. + +It all comes back to this—you cannot eat your cake and have it too. +_Il faut souffrir pour être belle._ The international language has the +defects of its qualities. But then its qualities are great, and the +world is their sphere of utility. + + + XIII + + OBJECTION TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON THE + GROUND THAT IT WILL SOON SPLIT UP INTO DIALECTS + +This is a particularly unfortunate objection, because it displays a +radical ignorance of the history of language, and of the conditions +under which it develops. + +In the first place, the whole tendency of language in the modern world +is towards disappearance of local dialects, and their absorption into +a uniform literary language. The dialects of England are almost dead +before the onset of universal education, and the great work of Dr. +Wright was only just in time to rescue them from oblivion. Even one +generation hence it will be impossible to collect much of the local +speech recorded in his dictionary. It is the same in Germany and +everywhere, though, of course, all countries are not equally advanced +in this respect. A standard form of words and grammar is fixed by print +for the literary language, and when every one can read and write, it is +all up with national evolution of language, such as has produced all +national languages. A gradual change of the phonetic value given to the +written symbols there may be. This has been pre-eminently the case in +England, though even this will now be arrested by universal education. +But a change of forms or of grammar can only be indefinitely slight +and gradual. When it takes place, it reflects a common advance of the +literary language, and not local or dialectical variation (though the +common advance may have originally spread from one locality). + +In the second place, dialects are variations that spring up under the +stress of local circumstance in the familiar every-day unconscious use +of a common mother tongue among people of the same race and inhabiting +the same district. Now, these are the very circumstances in which an +auxiliary international language never can, and never will, be used. The +only exception is the case of people meeting together for the conscious +practice of the language or using it in jest. + +There are no occasions when an international language would be naturally +used when any variation from standard usage would not be a distinct +disadvantage as tending to unintelligibility. In short, a neutral +language consciously learned as a means of communication with strangers +is not on an equal footing with, or exposed to the same influences as, a +mother tongue used by people every day under like conditions. + +A cardinal point of difference is well illustrated by Esperanto. The +whole foundation of the language, vocabulary, grammar, and everything +else, is contained in one small book of a few pages, called _Fundamento +de Esperanto_. No change can be made in this except by a competent +elected international authority. Of course, no text-books or grammars +will be authorized for the use of any nation that are not in accordance +with the _Fundamento_. People will make mistakes, of course, just as +they make mistakes in any foreign language, and they can help themselves +out with any words from other languages, just as they do now when their +French or German fails them. But the standard is always there, simple +and short, to correct any aberration, and there is no room for any +alterations in form or structure to creep in. + + + XIV + + OBJECTION THAT THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE (ESPERANTO) + IS TOO DOGMATIC, AND REFUSES TO PROFIT BY CRITICISM + +It is true that Esperantists refuse to make any change in their language +at present, and this is found irritating by some able critics, who +wrongly imagine that this attitude amounts to a claim of perfection for +Esperanto. The matter may be easily put right. + +The inadmissibility of change (even for the better) is purely a matter +of policy and dictated by practical considerations. Esperantists +make no claim to infallibility; they want to see their language +universally adopted, and they want to see it as perfect as possible. +Actual and bitter experience shows that the international language +which admits change is lost. Universal acceptance and present change +are incompatible. Esperantists, therefore, bow to the inevitable and +deliberately choose to concentrate for the present on acceptance. +General acceptance, indeed, while it imposes upon the present body of +Esperantists self-restraint in abstaining from change, is in reality +the essential condition of profitable future amendment. When an +international language has attained the degree of dissemination already +enjoyed by Esperanto, the only safe kind of change that can be made +is _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. When Esperanto has been officially +adopted and comes into wide use, actual experience and consensus of +usage amongst its leading writers will indicate the modifications that +are ripe for official adoption. The competent international official +authority will then from time to time duly register such changes, and +they will become officially part of the language. + +Till then, any change can only cause confusion and alienate support. +No one is going to spend time learning a language which is one thing +to-day and another thing to-morrow. When the time comes for change, +the authority will only proceed cautiously one step at a time, and its +decrees will only set the seal upon that which actual use has hit off. + +This, then, is the explanation of the famous adjective "netuŝebla," +applied by Dr. Zamenhof to his language, and so much resented in certain +quarters. Surely not only is this degree of dogmatism amply justified +by practical considerations, but it would amount to positive imprudence +on the part of Esperantists to act otherwise. If the inventor of the +language can show sufficient self-restraint, after long years spent in +touching and retouching his language, to hold his hand at a given point +(and he has declared that self-restraint is necessary), surely others +need not be hurt at their suggestions not being adopted, even though +they may in some cases be real improvements. + +The following extracts, translated from the Preface to _Fundamento +de Esperanto_ (the written basic law of Esperanto), should set the +question in the right light. It will be seen that Dr. Zamenhof expressly +contemplates the "gradual perfection" (_perfektigado_) of his language, +and by no means lays claim to finality or infallibility. + +"Having the character of _fundament_, the three works reprinted in this +volume must be above all inviolable (_netuŝeblaj_).... The fundament +must remain inviolable _even with its errors...._ Having once lost +its strict inviolability, the work would lose its exceptional and +necessary character of dogmatic fundamentality; and the user, finding +one translation in one edition, and another in another, would have +no security that I should not make another change to-morrow, and his +confidence and support would be lost. + +"To any one who shows me an expression that is not good in the +Fundamental book, I shall calmly reply: Yes, it is an error; but it must +remain inviolable, for it belongs to the fundamental document, in which +no one has the right to make any change.... I showed, _in principle_, +how the strict inviolability of the _Fundamento_ will always preserve +the unity of our language, without however preventing the language +not only from becoming richer, but even from constantly becoming more +perfect. But _in practice_ we (for causes already many times explained) +must naturally be very cautious in the process of 'perfecting' the +language: (_a_) we must not do this light-heartedly, but only in case of +absolute necessity; (_b_) it can only be done (after mature judgment) by +some central institution, having indisputable authority for the whole +Esperanto world, and not by any private persons.... + +"Until the time when a central authoritative institution shall decide +to _augment_ (never to _change_) the existing fundament by rendering +official new words or rules, everything good, which is not to be found +in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, is to be regarded not as compulsory, +but only as recommended." + + + XV + + SUMMARY OF OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +An attempt has been made in the preceding chapters to deal with the +more important and obvious arguments put forward by those who will hear +nothing of an international language. The objections are, however, so +numerous, cover such a wide field, and in some cases are so mutually +destructive, that it may be instructive to present them in an orderly +classification. + + For there we have them all "at one fell swoop," + Instead of being scattered through the pages; + They stand forth marshalled in a handsome troop, + To meet the ingenuous youth of future ages. + + BYRON. + +Let us hope that they will die of exposure, like the famous appendix +pilloried by Byron, and that the ingenuous one will be able to regard +them as literary curiosities. + +If the business of an argument is to be unanswerable, the place of +honour certainly belongs to the religious argument. Any one who really +believes that an international language is an impious attempt to reverse +the judgment of Babel will continue firm in his faith, though one speak +with the tongues of men and of angels. + +Here, then, are the objections, classified according to content. + + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +I. _Religious_. + +It is doomed to confusion, because it reverses the judgment of Babel. + +II. _Aesthetic and sentimental_. + +(1) It is a cheap commercial scheme, unworthy of the attention of +scholars. + +(2) It vulgarizes the world and tends to dull uniformity. + +(3) It weakens patriotism by diluting national spirit with +cosmopolitanism. + +(4) It has no history, no link with the past. + +(5) It is artificial, which is a sin in itself. + +III. _Political_. + +(1) It is against English [Frenchmen read "French"] interests, as +diverting prestige from the national tongue. + +(2) It is socialistic and even anarchical in tendency, and will +facilitate the operations of the international disturbers of society. + +IV. _Literary and linguistic_. + +(1) Lacking history and associations, it is unpoetical and unsuited to +render the finer shades of thought and feeling. It will, therefore, +degrade and distort the monuments of national literatures which may be +translated into it. + +(2) It may even discourage authors, ambitious of a wide public, from +writing in their own tongue. Original works in the artificial language +can never have the fine savour of a master's use of his mother tongue. + +(3) Its precisely formal and logical vocabulary and construction +debauches the literary sense for the niceties of expression. Therefore, +even if not used as a substitute for the mother tongue, its concurrent +use, which will be thrust on everybody, will weaken the best work in +native idioms. + +(4) It will split up into dialects. + +(5) Pronunciation will vary so as to be unintelligible. + +(6) It is too dogmatic, and refuses to profit by criticism. + +V. _Educational and cultural_. + +(1) It will prejudice the study of modern languages. + +(2) It will provide a "soft option" for examinees. + +VI. _Personal and particular_. + +It is prejudicial to the vested interests of modern language teachers, +foreign correspondence clerks, interpreters, multilingual waiters and +hotel porters. + +VII. _Technical_. + +This heading includes the criticisms in detail of various schemes—e.g. +it is urged against Esperanto that its accent is monotonous; that its +accusative case is unnecessary; that its principle of word-formation +from roots is not strictly logical; that its vocabulary is too Romance; +that its vocabulary is not Romance enough; and so forth. + +VIII. _Popular_. + +(1) It is a wild idea put forth by a set of cranks, who would be better +occupied in something else. + +(2) It is impossible. + +(3) It is too hard: life isn't long enough. + +(4) It is not hard enough: lessons will be too quickly done, and will +not sink into the mind. + +(5) It will oust all other languages, and thus destroy each nation's +birthright and heritage. + +(6) It will not come in in our time, so the question is of no interest +except to our grandchildren. + +(7) It is doomed to failure—look at Volapük! + +(8) There are quite enough languages already. + +(9) You have to learn three or four languages in order to understand +Esperanto. + +(10) You cannot know it without learning it. + +(11) You have to wear a green star. + +Pains have been taken to make this list exhaustive. If any reader can +think of another objection, he is requested to communicate with the +author. + +Most of the serious arguments have been already dealt with, so that not +many words need be said here. As regards No. VII. (Technical), this is +not the place to deal with actual criticisms of the language (Esperanto) +that holds the field. The reader will not be in a position to judge of +them till he has learnt it. Suffice it to say that they can all be met, +and some of the points criticised as vices are, in reality, virtues in +an artificial language. + +As for Nos. II. and IV. (Sentimental and Literary), most of these +objections are due to the old heresy of the literary man, that an +artificial language claims to compete with natural languages _as a +language_. Once realize that it is primarily a labour-saving device, +and therefore to be judged like any other modern invention such as +telegraphy or shorthand, and most of these objections fall to the +ground. + +A good many of the objections cannot be taken seriously (though they +have all been seriously made), or refute themselves or each other. No. +VIII. (10) sounds like a fake, but this was the criticism of a scholar +and linguist who had been persuaded to look at Esperanto. He complained +that though he, knowing Latin, French, Italian, German, and English, +could read it without ever having learnt it, ordinary Englishmen could +not. It is usual to judge an invention by efficiency compared to cost, +but if an appliance is to be condemned because it needs some trouble to +master it, then not many inventions will survive. + +No. VIII. (9) is of course a mistake. It is like saying that you must +practice looping the loop or circus-riding in order to keep your balance +on a bicycle. The greater, of course, includes the less; but it is +better in both cases to begin with the less. It is much more reasonable +to reverse the argument and say: If you begin by learning Esperanto, +you will possess a valuable aid towards learning three or four national +languages. + +No. VIII. (5) is absurd. It is the hardest thing in the world to +extirpate a national language; and all the forces of organized +repression (e.g. in unhappy Poland) are finding the task too much for +them. What inducement have the common people, who form the bulk of the +population in every land, to substitute in their home intercourse for +their own language one that they have to learn, if at all, artificially +at school? Only those who have much international intercourse will ever +become really at home in international language—i.e. sufficiently at +home to make it possible to use it indifferently as a substitute for +their mother-tongue; and people who engage in prolonged and continuous +international intercourse, though numerous, will always be in a +minority. + + + XVI + + THE WIDER COSMOPOLITANISM—THE COMING OF ASIA + +In the civilized West, where pleasure, business, and science are daily +forging new ties of common interests between the nations, those engaged +in such pursuits have clearly much to gain from the simplification of +their pursuits by a common language. But let us look ahead a little +further still. It may well be that the outstanding feature of the +twentieth century in history will be the coming into line of the peoples +of Asia with their pioneer brethren of the West. Look where you will, +everywhere the symptoms are plain for those who can read them. Japan has +led the way. China is following, and will not be far behind; eventually, +as the Japanese themselves foresee, she will probably outstrip Japan, if +not the world. There seems to be no ground, ethnological or otherwise, +for thinking that the lagging behind of Asia in modern civilization +corresponds to a real inferiority of powers, mental or physical, in the +individual Asiatic. Experience shows that under suitable conditions the +Asiatic can efficiently handle all the white man's tools and weapons; +the complete coming up to date is largely a matter of organization, +education, and the possession of a few really able men at the head of +affairs. Given these, progress may be astonishingly quick. Europeans do +not yet seem to have grasped at all adequately the real significance of +the last fifty years of Japanese history. Do they really think that the +Chinaman is inferior to the Japanese? If so, let them ask any residents +in the Far East. Can it be maintained that a generation ago the peasant +of Eastern Europe was ahead of the country Chinaman? But the last few +years have shown how swiftly modern civilization spreads, both in Europe +and America, from the comparatively small group of nations which in the +main have worked it out to the others, till lately considered backward +and semi-barbarous. And this is the case not merely with the material +products of civilization, the railway and the telegraph, but also as +regards its divers manifestations in all that concerns the life of the +people—constitutional government with growth of representative, elected +authorities and democracy; universal education with universal power of +reading and consequent birth of a cheap press; rise of industry and +consequent growth of towns; universal military service and discipline, +now in force in most lands; rise of a moneyed and leisured class and +consequent growth of sport, and of all kinds of clubs and societies for +promoting various interests, social, sporting, political, religious, +educational, philanthropic, and so forth. In fact, the more the material +side of life is "modernized," the more closely do the citizens of all +lands approximate to one another in their interests and activities, +which ultimately rest upon and grow out of their material conditions. +Meantime wealth and consequently foreign travel everywhere increase, +fresh facilities of communication are constantly provided, men from +different countries are more and more thrown together, and all this +makes for the further strengthening of mutual interests and the growth +of fresh ones in common. + +Now if (1) under the stress of "modernization" life is already becoming +so similar in the lands of the West, and if (2) the Asiatic is not +fundamentally inferior in mental and physical endowments, then it +follows as a certainty that the Asiatic world will, under the same +stress, enter the comity of nations, and approximate to the world-type +of interest and activity. It is only a question of time. In economic +history nothing is more certain than that science, organization, +cheapness, and efficiency must ultimately prevail over sporadic, +unorganized local effort based on tradition and not on scientific +exploitation of natural advantages. Thus the East will adopt the +material civilization of the West; and through the same organization +of industrial and commercial life and generally similar economic +conditions, the same type of moneyed class will grow up, with the same +range of interests on the intellectual and social side, diverse indeed, +but in their very diversity conforming more and more to the world-type. + +Concurrently with this new tendency to uniformity proceeds the weakening +of the two most powerful disintegrating influences of primitive +humanity—religion and tradition. In the earlier stages of society +these are the two most powerful agents for binding together into groups +men already associated by the ties of locality and common ancestry, +and fettering them in the cast-iron bonds of custom and ceremonial +observance. While the members of each group are thus held together by +the ideas which appeal most profoundly to unsophisticated mankind, the +various groups are automatically and by the same process held apart by +the full force of those ideas. Thus are produced castes, with their +deadening opposition to all progress; and thus arise crusades, wars of +religion and persecutions. Religion and tradition are then at once the +mightiest integrants within each single community, and the mightiest +disintegrants as between different communities. + +But this narrow and dissevering spirit of caste dies back before the +spread of knowledge. The tendency to regard a man as unclean or a +barbarian, simply because he does not believe or behave as one's own +people, is merely a product of isolation and ignorance, and disappears +with education and the general opening up of a country. The inquisitor +can no longer boast of "strained relations"—strained physically on the +rack, owing to differences of religious opinion. The state of things +which made it possible for sepoys to revolt because rifle bullets were +greased with the fat of a sacred animal, or for yellow men to tear +up railway tracks because the magic desecrated the tombs of their +ancestors, is rapidly passing away, as Orientals realize the profits to +be made from scientific methods. + +Thus the levelling influence is at work, and the checks upon it are +diminishing. The end can be but one. There will be a greater and greater +similarity of life and occupation the world over, and more and more +actual and potential international intercourse. + +Now, the further we move in this direction, the greater will be the +impatience of vexatious restraints upon the freedom of intercourse; +and of these restraints the difference of language is one of the most +vexatious, because it is one of the easiest to remove. If we devote +millions of pounds to annihilating the barriers of space, can we not +devote a few months to the comparatively modest effort necessary to +annihilate the barriers of language? + +A real cosmopolitanism, in the etymological sense of the word, _world_ +(and not merely European) citizenship, will shift the _onus probandi_ +from the supporters of an international language to its opponents. +It will say to them, "It is admitted that you have much intercourse +with other peoples; it is admitted that diversity of language is an +obstacle in this intercourse; this obstacle is increasing rather than +diminishing as fresh subjects raise their claims upon the few years of +education, and the old leisurely type of linguistic education fails +more and more to train the bulk of the people for life's business, +and as the ranks of the civilized are swelled by fresh peoples for +whom it is harder and harder to learn even one Indo-Germanic tongue, +let alone several; it is proved that this obstacle can be removed +at the cost of a few months' study: this study is not only the most +directly remunerative study in the world, comparing results with cost, +but it is an admirable mental discipline and a direct help towards +further real linguistic culture-giving studies for those who are fit +to undertake them. Show cause, then, why you prefer to suffer under +an unnecessary obstacle, rather than avail yourselves of this means +of removing it." It is easier for the Indo-Germanic peoples to learn +each other's languages—e.g. for an Englishman to learn Swedish or +Russian—than it is for a speaker of one of any of the other families of +languages to learn any Indo-Germanic tongue; so that some idea may be +formed of the magnitude of the task imposed upon the newer converts to +Western civilization by the Indo-Germanic world, in making them learn +one or more of its national languages. At the same time, it is but just +that the peoples who have paid the piper of progress should call the +common lingual tune. Therefore, what more fitting than that they should +provide an essence of their allied languages, reduced to its simplest +and clearest form? This they would offer to the rest of the world to +be taken over as part of the general progress in civilization which it +has to adopt; and this it is which is provided in the international +language, Esperanto. + + + XVII + + IMPORTANCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR THE BLIND + +Now that higher education for the blind is being extended in every +country, owing to the more humanitarian feeling of the present age +that these afflicted members of the community ought to be given a fair +chance, the problem of supplying them with books is beginning to be +felt. The process of producing books for the blind on the Braille system +is, of course, far more costly than ordinary printing, and at the same +time the editions must be necessarily more or less limited. Many an +educated blind person is therefore cruelly circumscribed in the range +of literature open to him by the mere physical obstacle of the lack of +books. This difficulty is accentuated by the fact that three kinds of +Braille type are in use—French, English, and American. + +Now, suppose it is desired to make the works of some good author +accessible to the blind—we will say the works of Milton. A separate +edition has to be done into Braille for the English, another separate +translation for the French, and so on for the blind of each country. +In many cases where translations of a work do not already exist, as in +the case of a modern author, the mere cost of translation into some +one language may not pay, much less then the preparation of a special +Braille edition for the limited blind public of that country. But if one +Braille edition is prepared for the blind of the world in the universal +auxiliary language, a far greater range of literature is at once brought +within their grasp. + +Already there is abundant evidence of the keen appreciation of Esperanto +on the part of the blind, and one striking proof is the fact that the +distinguished French scientist and doctor, Dr. Javal, who himself became +blind during the latter part of his life, was, until his death in March +1907, one of the foremost partisans and benefactors of Esperanto. By +his liberality much has been rendered possible that could not otherwise +have been accomplished. There are many other devoted workers in the same +field, among them Prof. Cart and Mme. Fauvart-Bastoul in France, and Mr. +Rhodes, of Keighley, and Mr. Adams, of Hastings, in England. A special +fund is being raised to enable blind Esperantists from various countries +to attend the Congress at Cambridge in August 1907, and the cause is one +well worthy of assistance by all who are interested in the welfare of +the blind. The day when a universal language is practically recognised +will be one of the greatest in their annals. + +A perfectly phonetic language, as is Esperanto, is peculiarly suited +to the needs of the blind. Its long, full vowels, slow, harmonious +intonation, few and simple sounds, and regular construction make it very +easy to learn through the ear, and to reproduce on any phonetic system +of notation; and as a matter of fact, blind people are found to enjoy +it much. For a blind man to come to an international congress and be +able to compare notes with his fellow-blind from all over the world must +be a lifting of the veil between him and the outer world, coming next +to receiving his sight. To witness this spectacle alone might almost +convince a waverer as to the utility of the common language. + + + XVIII + + IDEAL _v._ PRACTICAL + +From the early days of the Esperanto movement there has flowed within it +a sort of double current. There is the warm and genial Gulf Stream of +Idealism, that raises the temperature on every shore to which it sets, +and calls forth a luxuriant growth of friendly sentiment. This tends to +the enriching of life. There is also the cooler current of practicality, +with a steady drive towards material profit. At present the tide is +flowing free, and, taken at the flood, may lead on to fortune; the two +currents pursue their way harmoniously within it, without clashing, and +sometimes mingling their waters to their mutual benefit. + +But as the movement is sometimes dismissed contemptuously as a pacifist +fad or an unattainable ideal of universal brotherhood, it is as well +to set the matter in its true light. It is true that the inventor of +Esperanto, Dr. Zamenhof, of Warsaw, is an idealist in the best sense of +the word, and that his language was directly inspired by his ardent wish +to remove one cause of misunderstanding in his distracted country. He +has persistently refused to make any profit out of it, and declined to +accept a sum which some enthusiasts collected as a testimonial to his +disinterested work. + +It is equally true that Esperanto seems to possess a rather strange +power of evoking enthusiasm. Meetings of Esperantists are invariably +characterized by great cordiality and good-fellowship, and at the +international congresses so far these feelings have at times risen +to fever heat. It is easy to make fun of this by saying that the +conjunction of Sirius, the fever-shedding constellation of the ancients, +with the green star[1] in the dog days of August, when the congresses +are held, induces hot fits. Those who have drunk enthusiastic toasts +in common, and have rubbed shoulders and compared notes with various +foreigners, and gone home having made perhaps lifelong interesting +friendships which bring them in touch with other lands, will not +undervalue the brotherhood aspect of the common language. + + [1]Badge of the Esperantists. + +On the other hand, the united Esperantists at their first international +meeting expressly and formally dissociated their project from any +connection with political, sentimental, or peace-making schemes. They +did this by drawing up and promulgating a "Deklaracio," adopted by the +Esperantist world, wherein it is declared that Esperanto is a language, +and a language only.[1] It is not a league or a society or agency for +promoting any object whatsoever other than its own dissemination as a +means of communication. Like other tongues, Esperanto may be used for +any purpose whatsoever, and it is declared that a man is equally an +Esperantist whether he uses the language to save life or to kill, to +further his own selfish ends or to labour in any altruistic cause.[2] + + [1]For text of this Declaration, see Part II., chap. vii., p. 115. + + [2]The non-sectarian nature of Esperanto is shown by the fact that + the first two services in the language were held on the same day + in Geneva according to the Roman Catholic and Protestant rites. + The latter was conducted by an English clergyman, whose striking + sermon on unity, in spite of diversity, evidently impressed his + international congregation. The Vatican has officially expressed + its favour towards Esperanto, and the Archbishop of Canterbury has + sanctioned an Esperanto form of the Anglican service, which will + be used in London and Cambridge this summer. Cordial goodwill was + expressed towards the Vatican, on receipt of its message at Geneva, + by speakers who avowed themselves agnostics, but welcomed any advance + towards abolition of barriers. + +The practical nature of the scheme which Esperantists are labouring to +induce the world to adopt is thus sufficiently clearly defined. Dr. +Zamenhof himself, speaking at the Geneva Congress with all the vivid +poignancy attaching to the words of a man fresh from the butcheries +at that moment rife in the Russian Empire,[1] declared that neither +he nor other Esperantists were _naifs_ enough to believe that the +adoption of their language would put an end to such scenes. But he had +_seen_ men at each other's throats, beating each other's brains out with +bludgeons—men who had no personal enmity and had never seen each other +before, but were let loose on each other by pure race prejudice. He _did_ +claim that mutual incomprehensibility amongst men who thus dwell side by +side and should be taking part in a common civic life was one powerful +influence in keeping up cliques and divisions, and artificially holding +asunder those whom common interests should be joining together. It is +hard to refuse credence to this power of language, thus moderately +stated. + + [1]There were bad massacres about that time in Warsaw, where Dr. + Zamenhof lives. During the Congress news came of the assassination + of one of the chief civic officials of Warsaw. + + + XIX + + LITERARY _v._ COMMERCIAL + +Another vexed question is whether it is advisable to run an +international language on a literary or a commercial ticket. +On this rock Volapük split— + + A brave vessel, + That had no doubt some noble creature in her, + Dashed all to pieces;[1] + +and there was no Prospero to conjure away the tempest and send everybody +safe home to port to speak Volapük happily ever afterwards. The moral +is, that it is no good to make exaggerated claims for a universal +language. To attempt to set it on a fully equal footing with national +languages as a literary medium is to court disaster. + + [1]Shakespeare, _The Tempest_. + +The truth seems to be about this. As a potential means of international +communication, Esperanto is unsurpassed, and a long way ahead of any +national language. As a literary language, it is far better than Chinook +or Pidgin, far worse than English or Greek. + +A language, no more than a man, can serve two masters. By attempting to +combine within itself this double function an international language +would cease to attain either object. The reason is simple. + +Its legitimate and proper sphere demands of it as the first essential +that it should be easy and universally accessible. This means that the +words are to be few, and must have but one clearly marked sense each. +There are to be no idioms or set phrases, no words that depend upon +their context or upon allusion for their full sense. + +On the other hand, among the essentials of a literary language are the +exact opposites of all these characteristics. The vocabulary must be +full and plenteous, and there should be a rich variety of synonyms; +there should be delicate half-tones and _nuances_; the words should be +not mere counters or symbols of fixed value, determinable in each case +by a rapid use of the dictionary alone, but must have an atmosphere, +a something dependent upon history, usage, and allusion, by virtue of +which the whole phrase, in the finer styles of writing, amounts to more +than the sum of the individual meanings of the words which it contains, +becoming a separate entity with an individual flavour of its own. To +attempt to create this atmosphere in an artificial language is not +only futile, but would introduce just the difficulties, redundancies, +and complications which it is its chief object to avoid. Take a single +instance, Macbeth's— + + Nay, this my hand would rather + The multitudinous seas incarnadine, + Making the green one red. + +Here the effect is produced by the contrast between the stately march of +the long Latin words of thundrous sound, and the short, sharp English. A +labour-saving language has no business with such words as "incarnadine" +or "multitudinous." In translating such a passage it will reproduce the +sense faithfully and clearly, if necessary by the combination of simple +roots; but the bouquet of the original will vanish in the process. This +is inevitable, and it is even so far an advantage that it removes all +ground from the argument that a universal language will kill scholarly +language-learning. It will be just as necessary as ever to read works of +fine literature in the original, in order to enjoy their full savour; +and the translation into the common tongue will not prejudice such +reading of originals more than, or indeed so much as, translations into +various mother-tongues. + +Again, take the whole question of the imitative use of language. In +national literatures many a passage, poetry or prose, is heightened +in effect by assonance, alliteration, a certain movement or rhythm of +phrase. Subtle suggestion slides in sound through the ear and falls +with mellowing cadence into the heart. Soothed senses murmur their own +music to the mind; the lullaby lilt of the lay swells full the linked +sweetness of the song. + +The How plays fostering round the What. Down the liquid stream of +lingual melody the dirge drifts dying—dying it echoes back into a +ghostly after-life, as the yet throbbing sense wakes the drowsed mind +once more. The Swan-song floats double—song and shadow; and in the +blend—half sensuous, half of thought—man's nature tastes fruition. + +Now, this verbal artistry, whereby the words set themselves in tune to +the thoughts, postulates a varied vocabulary, a rich storehouse wherein +a man may linger and choose among the gems of sound and sense till he +find the fitting stone and fashion it to one of those— + + jewels five-words long, + That on the stretched forefinger of all Time + Sparkle for ever. + +But the word-store of an international tongue must not be a golden +treasury of art, a repository of "bigotry and virtue." On its orderly +rows of shelves must be immediately accessible the right word for the +right place: no superfluity, no disorder, no circumambient margin for +effect. Homocea-like, it "touches the spot," and having deadened the +ache of incomprehensibility, has done its task. "No flowers." + +Naturally some peoples will feel themselves more cramped in a new +artificial language than others. French, incomparably neat and clear +within its limits, but possessing the narrowest "margin for effect," +is less alien in its genius from Esperanto than is English, with its +twofold harmony, its potentiality (too rarely exploited) of Romance +clarity, and its double portion of Germanic vigour and feeling. Yet all +languages must probably witness the obliteration of some finer native +shades in the international tongue. + +But we must not go to the opposite extreme, and deny to the universal +language all power of rendering serious thought. Just how far it +can go, and where its inherent limitations begin, is a matter of +individual taste and judgment. There are Esperanto translations—and +good ones—of _Hamlet_, _The Tempest_, _Julius Caesar_, the _Aeneid_ of +Virgil, parts of Molière and Homer, besides a goodly variety of other +literature. These translations do succeed in giving a very fair idea of +the originals, as any one can test for himself with a little trouble, +but, as pointed out, they must come something short in beauty and +variety of expression. + +There is even a certain style in Esperanto itself in the hands of a good +writer, of which the dominant notes are simplicity and directness—two +qualities not at all to be despised. Further, the unlimited power of +word-building and of forming terse compounds gives the language an +individuality of its own. It contains many expressive self-explanatory +words whose meaning can only be conveyed by a periphrasis in most +languages,[1] and this causes it to take on the manner and feel of a +_living_ tongue, and makes it something far more than a mere copy or +barren extract of storied speech. + + [1]e.g. _samideano_ = partisan of the same cause or idea. _vivipova + lingvo_ = language capable of independent vigorous existence. + +Technically, the fulness of its participial system, rivalled by Greek +alone, and the absence of all defective verbs, lend to it a very great +flexibility; and containing, as it does, a variety of specially neat +devices borrowed from various tongues, it is in a sense neater than any +of them. + +One great test of its capacity for literary expression remains to be +made. This is an adequate translation of the Bible. A religious society, +famed for the variety of its translations of the Scriptures into every +conceivable language, when approached on the subject, replied that +Esperanto was not a language. But Esperantists will not "let it go +at that." Besides Dr. Zamenhof's own _Predikanto_ (Ecclesiastes), an +experiment has been made by two Germans, who published a translation +of St. Matthew's Gospel. It is not a success, and further experiments +have just been made by Prof. Macloskie, of Princeton, U.S.A., and by E. +Metcalfe, M.A. (Oxon), I cannot say with what result, not having seen +copies.[1] + + [1]Cf. also now the "Ordo de Diservo" (special Anglican Church + service), selected and translated from Prayer Book and Bible for + use in England by the Rev. J. C. Rust (obtainable from the British + Esperanto Association, 13, Arundel Street, Strand, price _7d._). + +From one point of view, the directness and simplicity of the Bible would +seem to lend themselves to an Esperanto dress; but there are certain +great difficulties, such as technical expressions, archaic diction, and +phrases hallowed by association. A meeting of those interested in this +great work will take place at Cambridge during the Congress (August +1907). Experimenters in this field will there be brought together from +all countries, the subject will be thoroughly discussed, and substantial +progress may be hoped for. + +In the field of rendering scientific literature and current workaday +prose, whose matter is of more moment than its form, Esperanto has +already won its spurs. Its perfect lucidity makes it particularly +suitable for this form of writing. + +The conclusion then is, that Esperanto is neither wholly commercial nor +yet literary in the full sense in which a grown language is literary; +but it does do what it professes to do, and it is all the better for not +professing the impossible. + + + XX + + IS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE A CRANK'S HOBBY? + +The apostle of a universal language is made to feel pretty plainly that +he is regarded as a crank. He may console himself with the usual defence +that a crank is that which makes revolutions; but for all that, it is +chilling to be met with a certain smile. + +Let us analyse that smile. It varies in intensity, ranging from the +scathing sneer damnatory to the gentle dimple deprecatory. But in any +case it belongs to the category of the smile that won't come off. I know +that grin—it comes from Cheshire. + +What, then, do we mean when we smile at a crank? Firstly and generally +that we think his ideal impracticable. But it has been shown that an +international language is not impracticable. This alone ought to go far +towards removing it from the list of cranks' hobbies. + +Secondly, we often mean that the ideal in question is opposed to common +sense—e.g. when we smile at a man who lives on protein biscuits or +walks about without a hat. We do not impugn the feasibility of his diet +or apparel, but we think he is going out of his way to be peculiar +without reaping adequate advantage by his departure from customary +usage. + +The test of "crankiness," then, lies in the adequacy of the advantage +reaped. A man who learns and uses Esperanto may at present depart as +widely from ordinary usage as a patron of Eustace Miles's restaurant +or a member of the hatless brigade; but is it true that the advantage +thereby accruing is equally disputable or matter of opinion? Is it not, +on the contrary, fairly certain that the use of an auxiliary language, +if universal, would open up for many regions from which exclusion is now +felt as a hindrance? + +Take the case of a doctor, scientist, scholar, researcher in any branch +of knowledge, who desires to keep abreast of the advance of knowledge in +his particular line. He may have to wait for years before a translation +of some work he wishes to read is published in a tongue he knows, and in +any case all the periodical literature of every nation, except the one +or two whose languages he may learn, will be closed to him. The output +of learned work is increasing very fast in all civilized countries, and +therefore results are recorded in an increasing number of languages in +monographs, reports, transactions, and the specialist press. A move +is being made in the right direction by the proposal to print the +publications of the Brussels International Bibliographical Institute in +Esperanto. + +Take a few examples of the hampering effect upon scholarly work of the +language difficulty as it already exists. The diffusion of learning +will, ironically enough, increase the difficulty.[1] The late Prof. +Todhunter, of Cambridge, was driven to learning Russian for mathematical +purposes. He managed to learn enough to enable him to read mathematical +treatises; but how many mathematicians or scientists (or classical +scholars, for that matter) could do as much? And of how much profit was +the learning of Russian, _quâ_ Russian, to Prof. Todhunter? It only took +up time which could have been better spent, as there cannot be anything +very uplifting or cultivating in the language of mathematical Russian. + + [1]By multiplying the languages used. + +Prof. Max Müller proposed that all serious scientific work should be +published in one of the six languages following—English, French, +German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. But why should other nations have +to produce in these languages? and why should serious students have to +be prepared to read six languages? + +All this was many years ago. The balance of culture has since then been +gradually but steadily shifting in favour of other peoples. The present +writer had occasion to make a special study of Byron's influence on the +Continent. It turned out that one of the biggest and most important +works upon the subject was written in Polish. It has therefore remained +inaccessible. This is only an illustration of a difficulty that faces +many workers. + +Thirdly, there is a good large portion of the British public that +regards as a crank anything not British or that does not benefit +themselves personally. It really _is_ hard for an Englishman, Frenchman, +or German, brought up among a homogeneous people of old civilization, +to realize the extent of the incubus under which the smaller nations +of Europe and the polyglot empires further east are groaning. Imagine +yourself an educated Swiss, Dutchman, or a member of any of the thirty +or forty nationalities that make up the Austrian or Russian Empires. +How would you like to have to learn three or four foreign languages for +practical purposes before you could hope to take much of a position in +life? Can any one assert that the kind of grind required, with its heavy +taxation of the memory, is in most cases really educative or confers +culture? + +Think it out. What do you really mean when you jeer at an Esperantist? + + + XXI + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS NOT + +An international language is not an attempt to replace or damage in any +way any existing language or literature. + + + XXII + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS + +An international language is an attempt to save the greatest amount of +labour and open the widest fields of thought and action to the greatest +number. + + + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + + I + + SOME EXISTING INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGES ALREADY IN PARTIAL USE + +Though the idea of an artificially constructed language to meet the +needs of speakers of various tongues seems for some reason to contain +something absurd or repellent to the mind of Western Europeans, there +have, as a matter of fact, been various attempts made at different times +and places to overcome the obvious difficulty in the obvious way; and +all have met with a large measure of success. + +The usual method of procedure has been quite rough and ready. Words +or forms have been taken from a variety of languages, and simply +mixed up together, without any scientific attempt at co-ordination or +simplification. The resulting international languages have varied in +their degree of artificiality, and in the proportions in which they were +consciously or semi-consciously compiled, or else adopted their elements +ready-made, without conscious adaptation, from existing tongues. But +their production, widespread and continuous use, and great practical +utility, showed that they arose in response to a felt want. The wonder +is that the world should have grown so old without supplying this want +in a more systematic way. + +Every one has heard of the _lingua franca_ of the Levant. In India the +master-language that carries a man through among a hundred different +tribes is Hindustanee, or Urdu. At the outset it represented a new need +of an imperial race. It had its origin during the latter half of the +sixteenth century under Akbar, and was born of the sudden extension +of conquest and affairs brought about by the great ruler. Round him +gathered a cosmopolitan crowd of courtiers, soldiers, vassal princes, +and followers of all kinds, and wider dealings than the ordinary local +petty affairs received a great stimulus. Urdu is a good example of a +mix-up language, with a pure Aryan framework developed out of a dialect +of the old Hindi. In fact, it is to India very much what Esperanto might +be to Europe, only it is more empirical, and not so consciously and +scientifically worked out. + +Somewhat analogous to Urdu, in that it is a literary language used +by the educated classes for intercommunication throughout a polygot +empire, is the Mandarin Chinese. If China is not "polygot" in the strict +technical sense of the term, she is so in fact, since the dialects used +in different provinces are mutually incomprehensible for the speakers of +them. Mandarin is the official master-language. + +Rather of the nature of _patois_ are Pidgin-English, Chinook, and +Benguela, the language used throughout the tribes of the Congo. Yet +business of great importance and involving large sums of money is, or +has been, transacted in them, and they are used over a wide area. + +Pidgin consists of a medley of words, largely English, but with a +considerable admixture from other tongues, combined in the framework +of Chinese construction. It is current in ports all over the East, +and is by no means confined to China. The principle is that roots, +chiefly monosyllabic, are used in their crude form without inflection +or agglutination, the mere juxtaposition (without any change of form) +showing whether they are verbs, adjectives, etc. This is the Chinese +contribution to the language. + +Chinook is the key-language to dealings with the huge number of +different tribes of American Indians. It contains a large admixture of +French words, and was to a great extent artificially put together by the +Hudson Bay Company's officials, for the purposes of their business. + +Quite apart from these various more or less consciously constructed +mixed languages, there is a much larger artificial element in many +national languages than is commonly realized. Take modern Hungarian, +Greek, or even Italian. Literary Italian, as we know it, is largely an +artificial construction for literary purposes, made by Dante and others, +on the basis of a vigorous and naturally supple dialect. With modern +Greek this is even more strikingly the case. As a national language +it is almost purely the work of a few scholars, who in modern times +arbitrarily and artificially revived and modified the ancient Greek. + +There seems, then, to be absolutely no foundation in experience for +opposing a universal language on the score of artificiality. + + + II + + OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE + + List of Schemes proposed + +The story of Babel in the Old Testament reflects the popular feeling +that confusion of tongues is a hindrance and a curse. Similarly in the +New Testament the Pentecostal gift of tongues is a direct gift of God. +But apparently it was not till about 300 years ago that philosophers +began to think seriously about a world-language. + +The earliest attempts were based upon the mediaeval idea that man might +attain to a perfect knowledge of the universe. The whole sum of things +might, it was thought, be brought by division and subdivision within +an orderly scheme of classification. To any conceivable idea or thing +capable of being represented by human speech might therefore be attached +a corresponding word, like a label, on a perfectly regular and logical +system. Words would thus be self-explanatory to any person who had +grasped the system, and would serve as an index or key to the things +they represented. Language thus became a branch of philosophy as the men +of the time conceived it, or at all events a useful handmaid. Thus arose +the idea of a "philosophical language." + +A very simple illustration will serve to show what is meant. Go into +a big library and look up any work in the catalogue. You will find +a reference number—say, 04582.g. 35,c. If you learnt the system of +classification of that library, the reference number would explain to +you where to find that particular book out of any number of millions. +The fact of the number beginning with a "0" would at once place the book +in a certain main division, and so on with the other numbers, till "g" +in that series gave you a fairly small subdivision. Within that, "35" +gives you the number of the case, and "c" the shelf within the case. The +book is soon run to earth. + +Just so a word in a philosophical language. Suppose the word is _brabo_. +The final _o_ shows it to be a noun. The monosyllabic root shows it to +be concrete. The initial _b_ shows it to be in the animal category. The +subsequent letters give subdivisions of the animal kingdom, till the +word is narrowed down by its form to membership of one small class of +animals. The other members of the class will be denoted by an ordered +sequence of words in which only the letter denoting the individual is +changed. Thus, if _brabo_ means "dog," _braco_ may be "cat," and so on: +_brado_, _brafo_, _brago_... etc., according to the classification +set up. + +Words, then, are reduced to mere formulae; and grammar, inflections, +etc., are similarly laid out on purely logical, systematic lines, +without taking any account of existing languages and their structure. +To languages of this type the historians of the universal language have +given the name of _a priori_ languages. + +Directly opposed to these is the other group of artificial languages, +called _a posteriori_. These are wholly based on the principle of +borrowing from existing language: their artificiality consists in +choice of words and in regularization and simplification of vocabulary +and grammar. They avoid, as far as possible, any elements of arbitrary +invention, and confine themselves to adapting and making easier what +usage has already sanctioned. + +Between the two main types come the _mixed languages_, partaking of the +nature of each. + +The following list is taken from the _Histoire de la langue +universelle_, by MM. Couturat and Leau: + + + I. A PRIORI LANGUAGES + +1. The philosopher Descartes, in a letter of 1629, forecasts a system +(realized in our days by Zamenhof) of a regular universal grammar: words +to be formed with fixed roots and affixes, and to be in every case +immediately decipherable from the dictionary alone. He rejects this +scheme as fit "for vulgar minds," and proceeds to sketch the outline +of all subsequent "philosophic" languages. Thus the great thinker +anticipates both types of universal language. + +2. Sir Thomas Urquhart, 1653—_Logopandekteision_ (see next chapter). + +3. Dalgarno, 1661—_Ars Signorum_. Dalgarno was a Scotchman born at +Aberdeen in 1626. His language is founded on the classification of +ideas. Of these there are seventeen main classes, represented by +seventeen letters. Each letter is the initial of all the words in its +class. + +4. Wilkins, 1668—_An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical +Language_. Wilkins was Bishop of Chester, and first secretary and one +of the founders of the Royal Society. Present members please note. His +system is a development of Dalgarno's. + +5. Leibnitz, 1646-1716. Leibnitz thought over this matter all his life, +and there are various passages on it scattered through his works, +though no one treatise is devoted to it. He held that the systems of +his predecessors were not philosophical enough. He dreamed of a logic +of thought applicable to all ideas. All complex ideas are compounds of +simple ideas, as non-primary numbers are of primary numbers. Numbers +can be compounded _ad infinitum._ So if numbers are translated into +pronouncible words, these words can be combined so as to represent every +possible idea. + +6. Delormel, 1795 (An III)—_Projet d'une langue universelle_. Delormel +was inspired by the humanitarian ideas of the French Revolution. He +wished to bring mankind together in fraternity. His system rests on a +logical classification of ideas on a decimal basis. + +7. Jean François Sudre, 1817—_Langue musicale universelle_. Sudre was a +schoolmaster, born in 1787. His language is founded on the seven notes +of the scale, and he calls it Solresol. + +8. Grosselin, 1836—_Systeme de langue universelle_. A language +composed of 1500 words, called "roots," with 100 suffixes, or modifying +terminations. + +9. Vidal, 1844—_Langue universelle et analytique_. A curious +combination of letters and numbers. + +10. Letellier, 1852-1855—_Cours complet de langue universelle_, and +many subsequent publications. Letellier was a former schoolmaster and +school inspector. His system is founded on the "theory of language," +which is that the word ought to represent by its component letters an +analysis of the idea it conveys. + +11. Abbé Bonifacio Sotos Ochando, 1852, Madrid. The abbé had been +a deputy to the Spanish Cortes, Spanish master to Louis Philippe's +children, a university professor, and director of a polytechnic +college in Madrid, etc. His language is a logical one, intended for +international scientific use, and chiefly for writing. He does not think +a spoken language for all purposes possible. + +12. _Societé Internationale de linguistique_. First report dated 1856. +The object of the society was to carry out a radical reform of French +orthography, and to prepare the way for a universal language—"the need +of which is beginning to be generally felt." In the report the idea of +adopting one of the most widely spoken national languages is considered +and rejected. The previous projects are reviewed, and that of Sotos +Ochando is recommended as the best. The _a posteriori_ principle is +rejected and the _a priori_ deliberately adopted. This is excusable, +owing to the fact that most projects hitherto had been _a priori_. The +philosopher Charles Renouvier gave proof of remarkable prescience by +condemning the _a priori_ theory in an article in _La Revue_, 1855, in +which he forecasts the _a posteriori_ plan. + +13. Dyer, 1875—_Lingwalumina; or, the Language of Light_. + +14. Reinaux, 1877. + +15. Maldent, 1877—_La langue naturelle_. The author was a civil +engineer. + +16. Nicolas, 1900—_Spokil_. The author is a ship's doctor and former +partisan of Volapük. + +17. Hilbe, 1901—_Die Zablensprache_, Based on numbers which are +translated by vowels. + +18. Dietrich, 1902—_Völkerverkehrssprache_. + +19. Mannus Talundberg, 1904—_Perio, eine auf Logik und Gedachtnisskunst +aufgebaute Weltsprache_. + + + II. MIXED LANGUAGES + +These are chiefly Volapük and its derivates. + +1. August Theodor von Grimm, state councillor of the Russian Empire, +worked out a "programme for the formation of a universal language," +which contains some _a priori_ elements, as well as nearly all the +principles which subsequent authors of _a posteriori_ languages have +realized. This Grimm is not to be confused with the famous philologist +Jacob von Grimm, though he wrote about the same time. + +2. Schleyer, 1879—_Volapük_. (See below.) + +3. Verheggen, 1886—_Nal Bino_. + +4. Menet, 1886—_Langue universelle_. An imitation of Volapük. + +5. Bauer, 1886—_Spelin_. A development of Volapük with more words taken +from neutral languages. + +6. St. de Max, 1887—_Bopal_. An imitation of Volapük. + +7. Dormoy, 1887—_Balta_. A simplification of Volapük. + +8. Fieweger, 1893—_Dil_. An exaggeration of Volapük for good and ill. + +9. Guardiola, 1893—_Orba_. A fantastic language. + +10. W. von Arnim, 1896—_Veltparl_. A derivative of Volapük. + +11. Marchand, 1898—_Dilpok_. Simplified Volapük. + +12. Bollack, 1899—_La langue bleue_. Aims merely at commercial and +common use. Ingenious, but too difficult for the memory. + + + III. A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES + +1. Faiguet, 1765—_Langue nouvelle_. Faiguet was treasurer of France. He +published his project, which is a scheme for simplifying grammar, in the +famous eighteenth-century encyclopaedia of Diderot and d'Alembert. + +2. Schipfer, 1839—_Communicationssprache_. This scheme has an +historical interest for two reasons. First, the fact that it is founded +on French reflects the feeling of the time that French was, as he +says, "already to a certain extent a universal language." The point of +interest is to compare the date when the projects began to be founded on +English. In 1879 Volapük took English for the base. Secondly, Schipfer's +scheme reflects the new consciousness of wider possibilities that were +coming into the world with the development of means of communication by +rail and steamboat. The author recommends the utility of his project by +referring to "the new way of travelling." + +3. De Rudelle, 1858—_Pantos-Dimon-Glossa._ De Rudelle was a +modern-language master in France and afterwards at the London +Polytechnic. His language is based on ten natural languages, especially +Greek, Latin, and the modern derivatives of Latin, with grammatical +hints from English, German, and Russian. It is remarkable for having +been the first to embody several principles of the first importance, +which have since been more fully carried out in other schemes, and are +now seen to be indispensable. Among these are: (1) distinction of the +parts of speech by a fixed form for each; (2) suppression of separate +verbal forms for each person; (3) formation of derivatives by means of +suffixes with fixed meanings. + +4. Pirro, 1868—_Universalsprache_. Based upon five languages—French, +German, English, Italian, and Spanish—and containing a large proportion +of words from the Latin. + +5. Ferrari, 1877—_Monoglottica_ (?). + +6. Volk and Fuchs, 1883—_Weltsprache_. Founded on Latin. + +7. Cesare Meriggi, 1884—_Blaia Zimondal_. + +8. Courtonne, 1885—_Langue Internationale néo-Latine_. Based on the +modern Romance languages, and therefore not sufficiently international. +A peculiarity is that all roots are monosyllabic. The history of this +attempt illustrates the weight of inertia against which any such project +has to struggle. It was presented to the Scientific Society of Nice, +which drew up a report and sent it to all the learned societies of +Romance-speaking countries. Answers were received from three towns—Pau, +Sens, and Nimes. It was then proposed to convene an international +neo-Latin congress; but it is not surprising to hear that nothing came +of it. + +9. Steiner, 1885—_Pasilingua_. A counterblast to Volapük. The author +aims at copying the methods of naturally formed international languages +like the "lingua franca" or Pidgin-English. Based on English, French, +and German; but the English vocabulary forms the groundwork. + +10. Eichhorn, 1887—_Weltsprache_. Based on Latin. A leading principle +is that each part of speech ought to be recognizable by its form. Thus +nouns have two syllables; adjectives, three; pronouns, one; verbal +roots, one syllable beginning and ending with a consonant; and so on. + +11. Zamenhof, 1887—_Esperanto_. (See below.) + +12. Bernhard, 1888—_Lingua franca nuova_. A kind of bastard Italian. + +13. Lauda, 1888—_Kosmos_. Draws all its vocabulary from Latin. + +14. Henderson, 1888—_Lingua_. Latin vocabulary with modern grammar. + +15. Henderson, 1902—_Latinesce_. A simpler and more practical +adaptation of Latin by the same author—_e.g._ the present infinitive form +does duty for several finite tenses, and words are used in their modern +senses. + +16. Hoinix (pseudonym for the same indefatigable Mr. Henderson), +1889—_Anglo-franca_. A mixture of French and English. Both this and the +barbarized Latin schemes are fairly easy and certainly simpler than the +real languages, but they are shocking to the ear, and produce the effect +of mutilation of language. + +17. Stempel, 1889—_Myrana_. Based on Latin with admixture of other +languages. + +18. Stempel, 1894—_Communia_. A simplification of No. 17, with a new +name. + +19. Rosa, 1890—_Nov Latin_. A set of rules for using the Latin +dictionary in a certain way as a key to produce something that can be +similarly deciphered. + +20. Julius Lott, 1890—_Mundolingue_. Founded on Latin. Lott started an +international society for a universal language, proposing to build up +his language by collaboration of savants thus brought together. + +21. Marini, 1891—_Méthode rapide, facile et certaine pour construire un +idiome universel_. + +22. Liptay, 1892—_Langue catholique_. Based on the theory than an +international language already exists (in the words common to many +languages), and has only to be discovered. + +23. Mill, 1893—_Anti-Volapük_. A simple universal grammar to be applied +to the vocabulary of each national language. + +24. Braakman, 1894—_Der Wereldtaal "El Mundolinco," Gramatico del +Mundolinco pro li de Hollando Factore_ (Noordwijk). + +25. Albert Hoessrich (date?)—_Talnovos, Monatsschrift für die +Einführung und Verbreitung der allgemeinen Verkehrssprache_ "_Tal_" +(Sonneberg, Thuringen). + +26. Heintzeler, 1895—_Universala_. Heintzeler compares the twelve chief +artificial languages already proposed, and shows that they have much in +common. He suggests a commission to work out a system on an eclectic +basis. + +27. Beermann, 1895—_Novilatin_. Latin brought up to date by comparison +with six chief modern languages. + +28. _Le Linguist_, 1896-7. A monthly review conducted by a band of +philologists. It contains many discussions of the principles which +should underly an international language, and suggestions, but no +complete scheme. + +29. Puchner, 1897—_Nuove Roman_. Based largely on Spanish, which the +author considers the best of the Romance tongues. + +30. Nilson—_La vest-europish central-dialekt_ (1890); _Lasonebr, un +transitional lingvo_ (1897); _Il dialekt Centralia, un compromiss +entr il lingu universal de Akademi international e la vest-europish +central-dialekt_ (1899). + +31. Kürschner, 1900—_Lingua Komun_. The author was an Esperantist, +but found Esperanto not scientific enough. It is almost incredible +that a man who knew Esperanto should invent a language with several +conjugations of the verb, but this is what Kürschner has done. + +32. International Academy of Universal Language, 1902—_Idiom Neutral_. +(See below.) + +33. Elias Molee, 1902—_Tutonish; or, Anglo-German Union Tongue_. +_Tutonish; a Teutonic International Language_ (1904). + +34. Molenaar—_Panroman, skiz de un ling internazional_ (in _Die +Religion der Menschheit_, March 1903); _Esperanto oder Panroman? Das +Weltsprache-problem und seine einfachste Lösung_ (1906); _Universal +Ling-Panroman_ (in _Menschheitsziele_, 1906); _Gramatik de Universal_ +(Leipzig, Puttmann, 1906). + +35. Peano—_De Latino sine flexione_ (in _Revue de Mathématique_, vol. +viii., Turin, 1903); _Il Latino quale lingua ausiliare internazionale_ +(in _Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino_ 1904); +_Vocabulario de Latino Internationale comparato cum Anglo, Franco, +Germano, Hispano, Italo, Russo, Graeco, et Sanscrito_ (Turin, 1904). See +also the _Formulario mathematico_, vol. v. (Turin, 1906). + +36. Hummler, 1904—_Mundelingua_ (Saulgau). + +37. Victor Hely, 1905—_Esquisse d'une grammaire de la langue +Internationale, 1st part: Les mots et la syntaxe_ (Langres). + +38. Max Wald, 1906—_Pankel (Weltsprache), die leichteste und kürzeste +Sprache für den internationalen Verkehr. Grammatik und Wörterbuch mit +Aufgabe der Wortquelle_ (Gross-Beeren). + +39. Greenwood, 1906—_Ekselsiore, the New Universal Language for All +Nations: a Simplified, Improved Esperanto_ (London, Miller & Gill); +_Ulla, t ulo lingua ä otrs_ (The Ulla Society, Bridlington, 1906). + +40. Trischen, 1907—_Mondlingvo, provisorische Aufstellung einer +internationalen Verkehrssprache_ (Pierson, Dresden). + + + III + + THE EARLIEST BRITISH ATTEMPT + +A perusal of the foregoing list shows that in the early days of the +search for an international language the British were well to the fore. +Of the British pioneers in this field the first two were Scots—a fact +which accords well with the traditional enterprise north of the Tweed, +and readiness to look abroad, beyond their own noses, or, in this case, +beyond their own tongues. It is likewise remarkable that the British +have almost dropped out of the running in recent times, as far as +origination is concerned. Is this fact also typical, a small symptom +of Jeshurun's general fatness? Does it reflect a lesser degree of +nimbleness in moving with the spirit of the times? + +Anyhow, in this case the Briton's content with what he has got at home +is well grounded. He certainly possesses a first-class language. As a +curious example of the quaint use of it by a scholar and clever man in +the middle of the seventeenth century, the following account of Sir +Thomas Urquhart's book may be of some interest. + +Sir Thomas is well known as the translator of Rabelais; and evidently +something of the curious erudition, polyglotism, and quaintness of +conceit of his author stuck to the translator. This book is the rarest +of his tracts, all of which are uncommon, and has been hardly more than +mentioned by name by the previous writers on the subject. + +The title-page runs: + + * * * * * + + LOGOPANDEKTEISION + + OR, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE, + DIGESTED INTO THESE SIX SEVERAL BOOKS + + Neaudethaumata Chryseomystes + Chrestasebeia Neleodicastes + Cleronomaporia Philoponauxesis + + By SIR THOMAS URQUHART, of Cromartie, Knight, + + Now lately contrived and published both for his own Utilitie, + and that of all Pregnant and Ingenious Spirits. + + LONDON + + Printed and are to be sold by GILES CALVERT + at the Black Spread-Eagle at the West-end + of Paul's, and by RICHARD TOMLINS at + the Sun and Bible near Pye Corner. 1653. + + * * * * * + +In a note at the end of the book he apologizes for haste, saying that +the copy was "given out to two several printers, one alone not being +fully able to hold his quill a-going." + +The book opens with: + + "The Epistle Dedicatory to Nobody." + +The first paragraph runs: + + "MOST HONOURABLE, + + "My non-supponent Lord, and Soveraign Master of contradictions + in adjected terms, that unto you I have presumed to tender the + dedicacie of this introduction, will not seem strange to those, that + know how your concurrence did further me to the accomplishment of + that new Language, into the frontispiece whereof it is permitted." + +After some preliminary remarks, he says: + + "Now to the end the Reader may be more enamoured of the Language, + wherein I am to publish a grammar and lexicon, I will here set down + some few qualities and advantages peculiar to itself, and which no + Language else (although all other concurred with it) is able to reach + unto." + +There follow sixty-six "qualities and advantages," which contain the +only definite information about the language, for the promised grammar +and lexicon never appeared. A few may be quoted as typical of the +inducements held out to "pregnant and ingenious spirits," to the end +they "may be more enamoured of the Language." The good Sir Thomas was +plainly an optimist. + + "... Sixthly, in the cases of all the declinable parts of + speech, it surpasseth all other languages whatsoever: for whilst + others have but five or six at most, it hath ten, besides the + nominative. + + "... Eighthly, every word capable of number is better provided + therewith in this language, then [_sic_] by any other: for instead of + two or three numbers which others have, this affordeth you four; to + wit, the singular, dual, plural, and redual. + + "... Tenthly, in this tongue there are eleven genders; wherein + likewise it exceedeth all other languages. + + "... Eleventhly, Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids + have all of them ten tenses, besides the present: which number no + language else is able to attain to. + + "... Thirteenthly, in lieu of six moods, which other languages + have at most, this one enjoyeth seven in its conjugable words." + +Sir Thomas evidently believed in giving his clients plenty for their +money. He is lavish of "Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids," +truly a tempting menagerie. He promises, however, a time-reduction on +learning a quantity: + + "... Seven and fiftiethly, the greatest wonder of all is that + of all the languages in the world it is easiest to learn; a boy of + ten years old being able to attain to the knowledge thereof in three + months' space; because there are in it many facilitations for the + memory, which no other language hath but itself." + +Seventeenth-century boys of tender years must have had a good stomach +for "Mongrels and Hybrids," and such-like dainties of the grammatical +_menu_; but even if they could swallow a mongrel, it is hard to believe +that they would not have strained at ten cases in three months. It might +be called "casual labour," but it would certainly have been "three +months' hard." + +After these examples of grammatical generosity, it is not surprising to +read: + + "... Fifteenthly, in this language the Verbs and Participles + have four voices, although it was never heard that ever any other + language had above three." + +Note that the former colleagues of the "Verbs and Participles," the +"Mongrels and Hybrids," are here dropped out of the category. Perhaps +it is as well, seeing the number of voices attributed to each. A +four-voiced mongrel would have gone one better than the triple-headed +hell-hound Cerberus, and created quite a special Hades of its own for +schoolboys, to say nothing of light sleepers. + +Under "five and twentiethly" we learn that "there is no Hexameter, +Elegiack, Saphick, Asclepiad, lambick, or any other kind of Latin or +Greek verse, but I will afford you another in this language of the same +sort"; which leads up to: + + "... Six and twentiethly, as it trotteth easily with metrical + feet, so at the end of the career of each line, hath it dexterity, + after the manner of our English and other vernaculary tongues, + to stop with the closure of a rhyme; in the framing whereof, the + well-versed in that language shall have so little labour, that for + every word therein he shall be able to furnish at least five hundred + several monosyllables of the same termination with it." + +A remarkable opportunity for every man to become his own poet! + + "... Four and thirtiethly, in this language also words + expressive of herbs represent unto us with what degree of cold, + moisture, heat, or dryness they are qualified, together with some + other property distinguishing them from other herbs." + +In this crops out the idea that haunted the minds of mediaeval +speculators on the subject: that language could play a more important +part than it had hitherto done; that a word, while conveying an idea, +could at the same time in some way describe or symbolize the attributes +of the thing named. Imagine the charge of thought that could be rammed +into a phrase in such a language. Imagine too, you who remember the +cold shudder of your childhood, when you heard the elders discussing a +prospective dose—intensified by all the horrors of imagination when +the discussion was veiled in the "decent obscurity" of French—imagine +the grim realism of a language containing _words expressive of +herbs_,—and expressive to that extent! + +There seems, indeed, to have been something rather cold-blooded about +this language: + + "... Eight and thirtiethly, in the contexture of nouns, + pronouns, and preposital articles united together, it administreth + many wonderful varieties of Laconick expressions, as in the Grammar + thereof shall more at large be made known unto you." + +But, after all, it had a human side: + + "... Three and fourtiethly, as its interjections are more + numerous, so are they more emphatical in their respective expression + of passions, than that part of speech is in any other language + whatsoever. + + "... Eight and fourtiethly, of all languages this is the most + compendious in complement, and consequently fittest for Courtiers and + Ladies." + +Sir Thomas seems to have been a bit of a man of the world too. + + "... Fiftiethly, no language in matter of Prayer and Ejaculations + to Almighty God is able, for conciseness of expression to compare with + it; and therefore, of all other, the most fit for the use of Churchmen + and spirits inclined to devotion." + +This "therefore," with its direct deduction from "conciseness of +expression," recalls the lady patroness who chose her incumbents for +being fast over prayers. She said she could always pick out a parson who +read service daily by his time for the Sunday service. + +Sir Thomas is perhaps over-sanguine to a modern taste when he concludes: + + "Besides the sixty and six advantages above all other languages, + I might have couched thrice as many more of no less consideration + than the aforesaid, but that these same will suffice to sharpen + the longing of the generous Reader after the intrinsecal and most + researched secrets of the new Grammar and Lexicon which I am to + evulge." + + + IV + + HISTORY OF VOLAPÜK—A WARNING + +Volapük is the invention of a "white night." Those who know their _Alice +in Wonderland_ will perhaps involuntarily conjure up the picture of the +kindly and fantastic White Knight, riding about on a horse covered with +mousetraps and other strange caparisons, which he introduced to all and +sundry with the unfailing remark, "It's my own invention." Scoffers +will not be slow to find in Volapük and the White Knight's inventions a +common characteristic—their fantasticness. Perhaps there really is some +analogy in the fact that both inventors had to mount their hobby-horses +and ride errant through sundry lands, thrusting their creations on +an unwilling world. But the particular kind of white night of which +Volapük was born is the _nuit blanche_, literally = "white night," but +idiomatically = "night of insomnia." + +On the night of March 31, 1879, the good Roman Catholic Bishop Schleyer, +curé of Litzelstetten, near Constance, could not get to sleep. From +his over-active brain, charged with a knowledge of more than fifty +languages, sprang the world-speech, as Athene sprang fully armed from +the brain of Zeus. At any rate, this is the legend of the origin of +Volapük. + +As for the name, an Englishman will hardly appreciate the fact that +the word "Volapük" is derived from the two English words "world" and +"speech." This transformation of "world" into _vol_ and "speech" into +_pük_ is a good illustration of the manner in which Volapük is based on +English, and suggests at once a criticism of that all-important point in +an artificial language, the vocabulary. It is too arbitrary. + +Published in 1880, Volapük spread first in South Germany, and then in +France, where its chief apostle was M. Kerckhoffs, modern-language +master in the principal school of commerce in Paris. He founded a +society for its propagation, which soon numbered among its members +several well-known men of science and letters. The great Magasins du +Printemps—a sort of French Whiteley's, and familiar to all who have +shopped in Paris—started a class, attended by over a hundred of its +employees; and altogether fourteen different classes were opened in +Paris, and the pupils were of a good stamp. + +Progress was extraordinarily rapid in other European countries, and +by 1889, only nine years after the publication of Volapük, there were +283 Volapük societies, distributed throughout Europe, America, and +the British Colonies. Instruction books were published in twenty-five +languages, including Volapük itself; numerous newspapers, in and about +Volapük, sprang up all over the world; the number of Volapükists was +estimated at a million. This extraordinarily rapid success is very +striking, and seems to afford proof that there is a widely felt want for +an international language. Three Volapük congresses were held, of which +the third, held in Paris in 1889, with proceedings entirely in Volapük, +was the most important. + +The rapid decline of Volapük is even more instructive than its +sensational rise. The congress of Paris marked its zenith: hopes ran +high, and success seemed assured. Within two years it was practically +dead. No more congresses were held, the partisans dwindled away, the +local clubs dissolved, the newspapers failed, and the whole movement +came to an end. There only remained a new academy founded by Bishop +Schleyer, and here and there a group of the faithful.[1] + + [1]A Volapük journal still appears in Graz, Stiria—_Volapükabled + lezenodik_. The editor has just (March 1907) retired, and the veteran + Bishop Schleyer, now seventy-five years old, is taking up the + editorship again. + +The chief reason of this failure was internal dissension. First arose +the question of principle: Should Volapük aim at being a literary +language, capable of expressing all the finer shades of thought and +feeling? or should it confine itself to being a practical means of +business communication? + +Bishop Schleyer claimed for his invention an equal rank among the +literary languages of the world. The practical party, headed by M. +Kerckhoffs, wished to keep it utilitarian and practical. With the +object of increasing its utility, they proposed certain changes in the +language; and thus there arose, in the second place, differences of +opinion as to fundamental points of structure, such as the nature and +origin of the roots to be adopted. Vital questions were thus reopened, +and the whole language was thrown back into the melting-pot. + +The first congress was held at Friedrichshafen in August 1884, and was +attended almost exclusively by Germans. The second congress, Munich, +August 1887, brought together over 200 Volapükists from different +countries. A professor of geology from Halle University was elected +president, and an International Academy of Volapük was founded. + +Then the trouble began. M. Kerckhoffs was unanimously elected director +of the academy, and Bishop Schleyer was made grand-master (_cifal_) +for life. Questions arose as to the duties of the academy and the +respective powers of the inventor of the language and the academicians. +M. Kerckhoffs was all along the guiding spirit on the side of the +academy. He was in the main supported by the Volapük world, though there +seems to have been some tendency, at any rate at first, on the part of +the Germans to back the bishop. It is impossible to go into details of +the points at issue. Suffice it to say, that eventually the director +of the academy carried a resolution giving the inventor three votes to +every one of ordinary members in all academy divisions, but refusing him +the right of veto, which he claimed. The bishop replied by a threat to +depose M. Kerckhoffs from the directorship, which of course he could not +make good. The constitution of the academy was only binding inasmuch as +it had been drawn up and adopted by the constituent members, and it gave +no such powers to the inventor. + +So here was a very pretty quarrel as to the ownership of Volapük. +The bishop said it belonged to him, as he had invented it: he was +its father. The academy said it belonged to the public, who had a +right to amend it in the common interest. This child, which had newly +opened its eyes and smiled upon the world, and upon which the world +was then smiling back—was it a son domiciled in its father's house +and fully _in patria potestate_? or a ward in the guardianship of its +chief promoters? or an orphan foundling, to be boarded out on the +scattered-home system at the public expense, and to be brought up to be +useful to the community at large? A vexed question of paternity; and the +worst of it was, there was no international court competent to try the +case. + +Meantime the congress of 1889 at Paris came on. Volapük was booming +everywhere. Left to itself, it flourished like a green bay-tree. This +meeting was to set an official seal upon its success; and governments, +convinced by this thing done openly in the _ville lumière_, would accept +the _fait accompli_ and introduce it into their schools. + +Thirteen countries sent representatives, including Turkey and China. +The great Kerckhoffs was elected president. The proceedings were in +Volapük. The foundling's future was canvassed in terms of himself by +a cosmopolitan board of guardians, who did not yet know what he was. +Rather a Gilbertian situation. Trying a higher flight, we may say, in +Platonic phrase, that Volapük seemed to be about midway between being +and not-being. It is a far cry from Gilbert _viâ_ Plato to Mr. Kipling, +but perhaps Volapük, at this juncture, may be most aptly described as +a "sort of a giddy harumphrodite," if not "a devil an' a ostrich an' a +orphan-child in one." + +Business done: The congress discusses. + +The congress passed a resolution that there should be drawn up "a simple +normal grammar, from which all useless rules should be excluded," and +proceeded to adopt a final constitution for the Volapük Academy. + +Article 15 says: "The decisions of the academy must be at once submitted +to the inventor. If the inventor has not within thirty days protested +against the decisions, they are valid. Decisions not approved by the +inventor are referred back to the academy, and are valid if carried by a +two-thirds majority." + +The bishop held out for his right of absolute veto, as his episcopal +fellows and their colleagues are doing "in another place" in England. +The conflict presents some analogy with other graver constitutional +matters, involving discussion of the respective merits of absolute and +suspensive veto, and may therefore have some interest at present, apart +from its great importance in any scheme for an international language. + +The upshot was that dissensions broke out within the academy. The +director, unable to carry a complete scheme of reformed grammar, +resigned (1891), and the academy, whose business it was to arrange the +next congress and keep the movement going, never convened a fourth +congress. Several academicians set to work on new artificial languages +of their own; and what was left of the Academy of Volapük, under a new +director, M. Rosenberger, a St. Petersburg railway engineer, elected +1893, subsequently turned its attention to working out a new language, +to which was given the name Idiom Neutral (see next chapter). + + * * * * * + +It is interesting to note that, when Volapük was nearing its high-water +mark, the American Philosophical Society appointed a committee (October +1887) to inquire into its scientific value. + +This committee reported in November 1887. The report states that the +creation of an international language is in conformity with the general +tendency of modern civilization, and is not merely desirable, but +_will certainly be realized._ It goes on to reject Volapük as the +solution of the problem, as being on the whole retrogade in tendency. +It is too arbitrary in construction, and not international enough in +vocabulary; nor does it correspond to the general trend of development +of language, which is away from a synthetic grammar (inflection by means +of terminations, as in Latin and Greek) and towards an analytic one +(inflection by termination replaced by prepositions and auxiliaries). + +But the committee was so fully convinced of the importance of an +international language, that it proposed to the Philosophical Society +that it should invite all the learned societies of the world to +co-operate in the production of a universal language. A resolution +embodying this recommendation was adopted by the society, and the +invitations were sent out. About twenty societies accepted—among them +the University of Edinburgh. The Scots again! + +The London Philological Society commissioned Mr. Ellis to investigate +the subject, and upon his report declined to co-operate. Mr. Ellis was +a believer in Volapük, and furthermore did not agree with the American +Philosophical Society's conclusion that an international language ought +to be founded on an Indo-Germanic (Aryan) basis. In this Mr. Ellis was +almost certainly wrong, as subsequent experience is tending to show. The +Japanese, among others, are taking up Esperanto with enthusiasm, find +it easy, and make no difficulty about its Aryan basis. But, apart from +linguistic considerations, Mr. Ellis's practical reasoning was certainly +sound. It was to this effect: The main thing is to adopt a language +that is already in wide use and shown to be adequate. Alterations bring +dissension; by sticking to what we have already got, imperfections and +all, strife is avoided, and the thing is at once reduced to practice. + +This was a wise counsel, and applies to-day with double force to the +present holder of the field, Esperanto, which is besides, in the opinion +of experts, a better language than Volapük, and far easier to acquire. + +However, on the question of technical merits, the American Philosophical +Society was probably right, as against the London Philological Society +represented by Mr. Ellis. And the proof is that Volapük died—primarily, +indeed, of dissensions among its partisans, but of dissensions +superinduced on inherent defects of principle. That this is true may +be seen from the subsequent history of the Volapük movement. This is +briefly narrated in the next chapter, under the name of Idiom Neutral. + + + V + + HISTORY OF IDIOM NEUTRAL + +We saw above that M. Kerckhoffs was succeeded in the directorship of the +Volapük Academy, 1893, by M. Rosenberger, of St. Petersburg. During his +term of office the academy continued its work of amending and improving +the language. The method of procedure was as follows: The director +elaborated proposals, which he embodied in circulars and sent round from +time to time to his fellow-academicians. They voted "Yes" or "No," so +that the language, when finished, was approved by them all, and was the +joint product of the academy; but it was, in its new form, to a great +extent, the work of the director. At the end of his term of office it +was practically complete. It had undergone a complete transformation, +and was now called Idiom Neutral. + +In 1898 M. Rosenberger was succeeded by Rev. A.F. Holmes, of Macedon, +New York State. The members of the academy vary from time to time, and +include (or have included since 1898) natives of America, Belgium, +Denmark, England, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Russia. + +Dictionaries of Idiom Neutral have been published in English (in +America), German, and Dutch; but the language hardly seems to be in +use except among the members of the academy. These do not meet, but +carry on their business by means of circulars, drawn up, of course, in +Neutral. There are at present only four groups of Neutralists—those of +St. Petersburg, Nuremberg, Brussels, and San Antonio, Texas. The famous +linguistic club of Nuremberg is remarkable for having gone through the +evolution from Volapük to Idiom Neutral _viâ_ Esperanto! Besides these +four groups, there are isolated Neutralists in certain towns in Great +Britain. The academy seems still to have some points to settle, and the +work of propaganda has hardly yet begun. + +A paper published in Brussels, under the name of _Idei International_, +seems to represent the ideas of scattered Neutralists, and of some +partisans of other schemes based on Romance vocabulary. These languages +resemble each other greatly, and some sanguine spirits dream that they +may be fused together into the ultimate international language. A +few even hope for an amalgamation with Esperanto, through the medium +of a reformed type of Esperanto, which approximates more nearly +to these newer schemes, its vocabulary being, like theirs, almost +entirely Romance. A series of modifications was published tentatively +by Dr. Zamenhof himself in 1894, but was suppressed from practical +considerations, having regard to the fate that overtook Volapük, when +once it fell into the hands of reformers. The so-called reforms never +represented the real ideas of Zamenhof, and were rather in the nature +of reluctant concessions to the weaker brethren. They were never +introduced. + +The reader may be interested to compare for himself specimens of +Volapük, Idiom Neutral (its lineal descendant), and Esperanto. This +Esperanto is the only one in use, most Esperantists having never even +heard of the reform project, which was at once dropped, before the +language had entered upon its present cosmopolitan extension. The +following versions of the Lord's Prayer are taken from MM. Couturat and +Leau's _History_, as are the facts in the above narratives, with the +exception of the latest details: + + VOLAPÜK + +O Fat obas, kel binol in süls, paisaludomöz nem ola! Kömomöd monargän +ola! Jenomöz vil olik, äs in sül, i su tal! Bodi obsik vädeliki givolös +obes adelo! E pardolös obes debis obsik, äs id obs aipardobs debeles +obas. E no obis nindukolös in tentadi; sod aidalivolös obis de bad. +Jenosöd! + + IDIOM NEUTRAL[1] + +Nostr patr kel es in sieli! Ke votr nom es sanktifiked; ke votr regnia +veni; ke votr volu es fasied, kuale in siel, tale et su ter. Dona +sidiurne a noi nostr pan omnidiurnik; e pardona (a) noi nostr debiti, +kuale et noi pardon a nostr debtatori; e no induka noi in tentasion, ma +librifika noi da it mal. + + [1]There are two forms of Idiom Neutral,—one called "pure," + authorized by the academy; the other used in the paper _Idei + International_. + + ESPERANTO + +Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu regeco +via; estu volo via, kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. Panon +nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ; kaj pardonu al ni ŝuldojn niajn, +kiel ni ankaŭ pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj; kaj ne konduku nin en +tenton, sed liberigu nin de la malbono. + +Comparing Volapük with Idiom Neutral, even this brief specimen is +enough to show the main line of improvement. The framers of the latter +had realized the fact that the vocabulary is the first and paramount +consideration for an artificial language. It is hopeless to expect +people to learn strings of words of arbitrary formation and like +nothing they ever saw. Accordingly Idiom Neutral borrows its vocabulary +from natural speech, and thereby abandons a regularity which may be +theoretically more perfect, but which by arbitrary disfigurement of +familiar words overreaches itself, and does more harm than good. + +It is very instructive to note that a body of international language +specialists were brought little by little to adopt an almost exclusively +Romance vocabulary, and this in spite of the fact that they started from +Volapük, whose vocabulary is constructed on quite other lines. In other +points their language suffers from being too exclusively inspired by +Volapükist principles, so that their recognition of the necessity of an +_a posteriori_ vocabulary is the more convincing. + +Given, then, that vocabulary is to be borrowed and not created anew, +it is obvious that the principle of borrowing must be _maximum of +internationality of roots_—i.e. those words will be adopted by +preference which are already common to the greatest number of chief +languages. Now, by far the greater number of such international words +(which are far more numerous than was thought before a special study was +made of the subject) are Romance, being of Latin origin. This is the +justification of the prevalence of the Romance element in any modern +artificial language. It has been frequently made a reproach against +Esperanto that it is a Romance language; but the unanimous verdict of +the competent linguists who composed the academy for the emendation of +Volapük may be taken as final. They threshed the question out once for +all, and their conclusion derives added force from the fact that it is +the result of conversion. + +But it may be doubted whether they have not gone rather far in this +direction and overshot the mark. + +Comparing Idiom Neutral with Esperanto, it will be found that the +latter admits a larger proportion of non-Romance words. While fully +recognizing and doing justice to the accepted principle of selection, +maximum of internationality, Esperanto sometimes gives the preference to +a non-Romance word in order to avoid ambiguity and secure a perfectly +distinct root from which to form derivatives incapable of confusion +with others.[1] There is always a good reason for the choice; but it is +easier to appreciate this after learning the language. + + [1]It is obvious, too, that English, Germans, and Slavs will be more + attracted to a language which borrows some of its features from their + own tongues, than to an entirely Romance language. This relatively + wider international appeal is another advantage of Esperanto. + +But a mere comparison of the brief texts given above will bring out +another point in favour of Esperanto—its full vocalic endings. On the +other hand, many words in Idiom Neutral present a mutilated appearance +to the eye, and, what is a much greater sin in an international +language, offer grave difficulties of pronunciation to speakers of +many nations. Words ending with a double consonant are very frequent, +e.g. _nostr patr_; and these will be unpronounceable for many nations, +e.g. for an Italian or a Japanese. Euphony is one of the strongest +of the many strong points of Esperanto. In it the principle of +maximum of internationality has been applied to _sounds_ as well as +_forms_, and there are very few sounds that will be a stumbling-block +to any considerable number of speakers. Some of its modern rivals +seem to forget that a language is to be spoken as well as written. +When a language is unfamiliar to the listener, he is greatly aided +in understanding it if the vowel-sounds are long and full and the +pronunciation slow, almost drawling. Esperanto fulfils these requisites +in a marked degree. It is far easier to dwell upon two-syllabled words +with full vocalic endings like _patro nia_ than upon awkward words like +_nostr patr_. + +Yet another advantage of Esperanto is illustrated in the same texts. +Owing to its system of inflexion and the possession of an objective +case, it is extremely flexible, and can put the words in almost any +order, without obscuring the sense. Thus, in the translation of the +_Pater Noster_, the Esperanto text follows the Latin _word for word +and in the same order_. It is obvious that this flexibility confers +great advantages for purposes of faithful and spirited translation. + + + VI + + THE NEWEST LANGUAGES: A NEO-LATIN GROUP—GROPINGS + TOWARDS A "PAN-EUROPEAN" AMALGAMATED SCHEME + +A perusal of the list of schemes proposed (pp. 76-87 [Part II, Chapter +II]) shows that the last few years have produced quite a crop of +artificial languages. Now that the main principles necessary to success +are coming to be recognized, the points of difference between the rival +schemes are narrowing down, and, as mentioned in the last chapter, there +is a family likeness between many of the newer projects. The chief of +these are: Idiom Neutral; Pan-Roman or Universal, by Dr. Molenaar; +Latino sine flexione, by Prof. Peano; Mundolingue; Nuove-Roman; and +Lingua Komun. + +These have been grouped together by certain adversaries as "Neo-Roman"; +but their partisans seem to prefer the collective term "Neo-Latin." +There are more or less vague hopes that out of them may be evolved a +final form of international language, for which the names _Pan-European_ +and _Union-Ling_ have been suggested. Dr. Molenaar has declared his +willingness to keep to his original title, Pan-Roman, for his own +language, if the composite one should prefer to be called _Universal_. +Prof. Peano says, in the course of an article (written in his own +language, of course), "any fresh solution in the future can only differ +from Idiom Neutral, as two medical or mathematical treatises dealing +with the same subject." + +The only definite scheme for common action put forth up to now +seems to be that proposed by Dr. Molenaar. In January 1907 he sent +round a circular written in French, in which he makes the following +propositions: + +All authors and notable partisans of Neo-Latin universal languages shall +meet in a special academy, which will elaborate a compromise-language. + +As regards the programme, the three fundamental principles shall be: + + 1. Internationality and comprehensibility. + 2. Simplicity and regularity. + 3. Homogeneity and euphony. + +Of these principles, No. 1 is to take precedence of No. 2, and No. 2 of +No. 3. + +The order of discussion is to be: + + I. GRAMMAR + + (_a_) Alphabet. + (_b_) Articles (necessary or not?). + (_c_) Declension. + (_d_) Plural (_-s_ or _-i_?). + (_e_) Adjective (invariable or not?). + (_f_) Adverb, etc. + + II. VOCABULARY + +The number of collaborators is to be limited to about twenty, and the +chairman is to be a non-partisan. + + * * * * * + +Such, in outline, is the proposal of Dr. Molenaar. An obvious criticism +is that it falls back into the old mistake of putting grammar before +vocabulary. + +From a practical point of view such a composite scheme is not likely +to meet with acceptance. It will be very hard for authors of languages +to be impartial and sacrifice their favourite devices to the common +opinion. M. Bollack, author of the _Langue bleue_, has already refused +the chairmanship. He does not see the use of founding a fresh academy, +and thinks Dr. Molenaar would do better to join forces with the +Neutralists. + +There exists indeed already an "Akademi International de Lingu +Universal," which has produced Idiom Neutral, and of which Mr. Holmes +is still director, now in his second term (see preceding chapter). +This academy is said to be too one-sided in its composition, and not +scientific. But it is hard to see how it will abdicate in favour of a +new one. + +Meantime, the victorious Esperantists, at present in possession of the +field, poke fun at these new-fangled schemes. A parody in Esperanto +verse, entitled _Lingvo de Molenaar_, and sung to the tune of the +American song _Riding down from Bangor_, narrates the fickleness of +Pan-Roman and how it changed into Universal. It is said that a group of +Continental Esperantists, at a convivial sitting, burnt the apostate +Idiom Neutral in effigy by making a bonfire of Neutral literature. On +the other side amenities are not wanting. It is now the fashion to sling +mud at a rival language by calling it "arbitrary" and "fantastic"; and +these epithets are freely applied to Esperanto. Strong in their cause, +the Esperantists are peacefully preparing the Congress of Cambridge. + + + VII + + HISTORY OF ESPERANTO + +Happy is the nation that has no history,—still happier the +international language; for a policy of "pacific penetration" offers few +picturesque incidents to furnish forth a readable narrative. In the case +of Esperanto there have been no splits or factions; no narrow ring of +oligarchs has cornered the language for its own purposes, or insisted +upon its aristocratic and non-popular side in the supposed interests of +culture or literary taste; consequently there has been no secession of +the _plebs_. In the early days of Esperanto there was indeed an attempt +to found an Esperanto league; but when it was seen that the league did +little beyond suggest alterations, it was wisely dissolved in 1894. +Since then Esperanto has been run purely on its merits as a language, +and has expressly dissociated itself from any political, pacifist, or +other propaganda. Its story is one of quiet progress—at first very +slow, but within the last five years wonderfully rapid, and still +accelerating. The most sensational episode in this peaceful advance +was the prohibition of the principal Esperantist organ by the Russian +censorship, so that there is little to do, save record one or two +leading facts and dates. + +The inventor of Esperanto is a Polish doctor, Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof, +now living in Warsaw. He was born in 1859 at Bielostock, a town which +has lately become notorious as the scene of one of the terrible +Russian _pogroms_, or interracial butcheries. This tragedy was only +the culmination of a chronic state of misunderstanding, which long +ago so impressed the young Zamenhof that, when still quite a boy, he +resolved to labour for the removal of one cause of it by facilitating +mutual intercourse. He has practically devoted his life first to the +elaboration of his language, and of later years to the vast amount of +business that its extension involves. And it has been a labour of love. +Zamenhof is an idealist. His action, in all that concerns Esperanto, +has been characterized throughout by a generosity and self-effacement +that well correspond to the humanitarian nature of the inspiration that +produced it. He has renounced all personal rights in and control of the +Esperanto language, and kept studiously in the background till the first +International Congress two years ago forced him into the open, when he +emerged from his retirement to take his rightful place before the eyes +of the peoples whom his invention had brought together. + +But he is not merely an idealist: he is a practical idealist. This is +shown by his self-restraint and practical wisdom in guiding events. +One of the symptoms of "catching Esperanto" is a desire to introduce +improvements. This morbid propensity to jejune amateur tinkering, a kind +of measles of the mind (_morbus linguificus_[1]) attacks the immature in +years or judgment. A riper acquaintance with the history and practical +aims of international language purges it from the system. We have all +been through it. For the inventor of Esperanto, accustomed for so many +years to retouch, modify, and revise, it must require no ordinary +degree of self-control to keep his hands off, and leave the fate of +his offspring to others. It grew with his growth, developing with his +experience, and he best knows where the shoe pinches and what might yet +be done. But he has the fate of Volapük before his eyes. He knows that, +having wrought speech for the people, he must leave it to the people, if +he wishes them to use and keep using it. + + [1]An expressive (homoeopathic) name for this malady may be coined + in Esperanto: _malsano lingvotrudema_ = officious or intrusive + disease, consisting in an itch for coining language. + +Contrast the uncompromising attitude of the inventor of Volapük, Bishop +Schleyer. It will be remembered how he let Volapük run upon the rocks +rather than relinquish the helm. He has been nicknamed "the Volapükist +Pope"—and indeed he made the great and fatal bull of believing in his +own infallibility. Zamenhof has never pretended to this. When he first +published his language, he made no claim to finality on its behalf. He +called for criticisms, and contemplated completing and modifying his +scheme in accordance with them. He even offered to make over this task +to a duly constituted academy, if people would come forward and throw +themselves into the work. Again, some years later, in a pamphlet, _Choix +d'une langue Internationale_, he proposed a scheme for obtaining a +competent impartial verdict, and declared his willingness to submit to +it. At one time he thought of something in the nature of a plebiscite. +Later, his renunciation of the last vestige of control, in giving +up the _aprobo_, or official sanction of books; his attitude at the +international congresses; his refusal to accept the presidency; his +reluctance to name or influence the selection of the members of the +body charged with the control of the language; his declaration that +his own works have no legislative power, but are merely those of an +Esperantist; finally, his sane conception of the scope and method of +future development of the language to meet new needs, and of the limits +within which it is possible—all this bespeaks the man who has a clear +idea of what he is aiming at, and a shrewd grasp of the conditions +necessary to ensure success. + +The word Esperanto is the present participle of the verb _esperi_—"to +hope," used substantially. It was under the pseudonym of Dr. Esperanto +that Zamenhof published his scheme in 1887 at Warsaw, and the name +has stuck to the language. Before publication it had been cast and +recast many times in the mind of its author, and it is curious to +note that in the course of its evolution he had himself been through +the principal stages exhibited in the history of artificial language +projects for the last three hundred years. That is to say, he began with +the idea of an _a priori_ language with made-up words and arbitrary +grammar, and gradually advanced to the conception of an _a posteriori_ +language, borrowing its vocabulary from the roots common to several +existing languages and presenting in its grammar a simplification of +Indo-European grammar. + +He began to learn English at a comparatively advanced stage of his +education, and the simplicity of its grammar and syntax was a revelation +to him. It had a powerful influence in helping him to frame his grammar, +which underwent a new transformation. Specimens of the language as +Zamenhof used to speak it with his school and student friends show +a wide divergence from its present form. He seems to have had cruel +disappointments, and was disillusioned by the falling away of youthful +comrades who had promised to fight the battles of the language they +practised with enthusiasm at school. During long years of depression +work at the language seems to have been almost his one resource. Its +absolute simplicity is deceptive as to the immense labour it must have +cost a single man to work it out. This is only fully to be appreciated +by one who has some knowledge of former attempts. Zamenhof himself +admits that, if he had known earlier of the existence of Volapük, he +would never have had the courage to continue his task, though he was +conscious of the superiority of his own solution. When, after long +hesitation, he made up his mind to try his luck and give his language to +the world, Volapük was strong, but already involved in internal strife. + +Zamenhof's book appeared first in Russian, and the same year (1887) +French and German editions appeared at Warsaw. The first instruction +book in English appeared in the following year. The only name on the +title-page is "St. J.," and it passed quite unnoticed. + +Progress was at first very slow. The first Esperanto society was founded +in St. Petersburg, 1892, under the name of _La Espero_. As early as +1889 the pioneer Esperanto newspaper, _La Esperantisto_[1] conducted +chiefly by Russians and circulated mainly in Russia, began to appear +in Nuremberg, where there was already a distinguished Volapük club, +afterwards converted to Esperanto. Since then Nuremberg has continued +to be a centre of light in the movement for an international language. +The other pioneer newspapers were _L'Espirantiste_, founded in 1898 at +Epernay by the Marquis de Beaufront, and _La Lumo_ of Montreal. + + [1]Afterwards prohibited in Russia, owing to the collaboration of + Count Tolstoi, and transferred to Upsala under the name _Lingvo + Internacia_. Since 1902 it has been published in Paris. + +In Germany in the early days of Esperanto the great apostles were +Einstein and Trompeter, and it was owing to the liberality of the latter +that the Nuremberg venture was rendered possible. + +Somewhat later began in France the activity of the greatest and most +fervent of all the apostles of Esperanto, the Marquis de Beaufront. +By an extraordinary coincidence he had ready for the press a grammar +and complete dictionary of a language of his own, named _Adjuvanto_. +When he became acquainted with Esperanto, he recognized that it was +in certain points superior to his own language, though the two were +remarkably similar. He suppressed his own scheme altogether, and threw +himself heart and soul into the work of spreading Esperanto. In a series +of grammars, commentaries, and dictionaries he expounded the language +and made it accessible to numbers who, without his energy and zeal, +would never have been interested in it. Among other well-known French +leaders are General Sebert, of the French Institute, M. Boirac, Rector +of the Dijon University, and M. Gaston Moch, editor of the _Indépendance +Belge_. + +In England the pioneer was Mr. Joseph Rhodes, who, with Mr. Ellis, +founded the first English group at Keighley in November 1902.[1] +Just a year later appeared the first English Esperanto journal, _The +Esperantist_, edited by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, London. Since 1905 it +has been incorporated with _The British Esperantist_, the official organ +of the British Esperanto Association. The association was founded in +October 1904. + + [1]The foundation of the London Esperanto Club took place at + practically the same time, and the club became the headquarters of + the movement in Great Britain. + +The first international congress was held at Boulogne in August 1905. It +was organized almost entirely by the president of the local group, M. +Michaux, a leading barrister and brilliant lecturer and propagandist. It +was an immense success, and inaugurated a series of annual congresses, +which are doing great work in disseminating the idea of international +language. The second was held in Geneva, August 1906; and the third will +be held at Cambridge, August 10-17, 1907. It is unnecessary to describe +the congresses here, as an account has been given in an early chapter +(see pp. 9-12 and 14-15 [Part I, Chapter III]). + +Within the last three or four years Esperanto has spread all over +the world, and fresh societies and newspapers are springing up on +every side. Since the convincing demonstration afforded by the Geneva +Congress, Switzerland is beginning to take the movement seriously. Many +classes and lectures have been held, and the university is also now +lending its aid. In the present year (1907) an International Esperantist +Scientific Office has been founded in Geneva, with M. René de Saussure +as director, and amongst the members of the auxiliary committee are +seventeen professors and eight privat-docents (lecturers) of the Geneva +University. + +Its object is to secure the recognition of Esperanto for scientific +purposes, and to practically facilitate its use. To this end the office +carries on the work of collecting technical vocabularies of Esperanto, +with the aid of all scientists whose assistance it may receive. This is +perhaps the most practical step yet taken towards the standardization of +technical terms, which is so badly needed in all branches of science. +A universal language offers the best solution of the vexed question, +because it starts with a clean sheet. Once a term has been admitted, by +the competent committee for a particular branch of science, into the +technical Esperanto vocabulary of that science, it becomes universal, +because it has no pre-existent rivals; and its universal recognition +in the auxiliary language will react upon writers' usage in their own +language. + +The Geneva office will also aid in editing scientific Esperantist +reviews; and the chief existing one, the _Internacia Scienca Revuo_, +will henceforth be published in Geneva instead of in Paris, as hitherto. + +The two principal objects of the Esperantist Scientific Association are: + +1. Scientists should always use Esperanto during their international +congresses. + +2. Scientific periodicals should accept articles written in Esperanto +(as they now do in the case of English, French, German, and Italian), +and should publish in Esperanto a brief summary of every article written +in a national language. + +A few weeks after the Geneva Congress there was a controversy on the +subject of Esperanto between two of the best known and most widely +read Swiss and French newspapers—the Paris _Figaro_ and the _Journal +de Geneve_. The respective champions were the Comte d'Haussonville, +of the Académie Française, and M. de Saussure, a member of a highly +distinguished Swiss scientific family; and the matter caused a good deal +of interest on the Continent. France was, in this case, reactionary and +_ancien régime_: the smaller Republic backed Esperanto and progress. +M. de Saussure brought forward facts, and the count served up the old +arguments about Esperanto being unpatriotic and the prejudice it would +inflict upon literature. The whole thing was a good illustration of a +fact that is already becoming prominent in the history of the auxiliary +language movement—the scientists are much more favourable than the +literary men. As regards educational reform, the conservative attitude +of the classicists is well known, though there are many exceptions, +especially among real teachers. But it is somewhat remarkable that, when +the proposed reform deals with language, those whose business it is to +know about languages should not take the trouble to examine the scheme +properly, before giving an opinion one way or the other. + +As this question of the attitude of literary men has, and will have, +a vital bearing upon the prospects of international language, and +consequently upon its history, this is perhaps the place to remove a +misunderstanding. A distinguished literary man objected to the foregoing +passage as a stricture upon men of letters. His point was: "_Of course_ +literary men care less for Esperanto than scientific men do: it _must_ +be so, because they _need_ it less." Now this is quite true: there +is little doubt that to-day science is, perhaps inevitably, more +cosmopolitan than letters, whatever people may say about "the world-wide +republic of letters." But it does not meet the point. Esperantists do +not _complain_ because men of letters are not interested in Esperanto. +They have their own interests and occupations, and nobody would be so +absurd as to make it a grievance that they will not submit to have +thrust upon them a language for which they have no taste or use. What +Esperantists do very strongly object to is that some literary men lend +the weight of their name and position to irresponsible criticism. Let +them take or leave Esperanto as seems good to them. Their _responsible_ +opinions, _based upon due study of the question_, are always eagerly +welcomed. But do not let them misrepresent Esperanto to the public, +thereby unfairly prejudicing its judgment. Such action is unworthy of +serious men. When a man puts forward criticisms of Esperanto based +upon elementary errors of fact, or complains that Esperantists will +not listen to reason because they ignore proposals for change, which +have long ago been threshed out and found wanting, or are obviously +unpractical, he is merely showing that he has not studied the question. +A fair analogy would be the case of a chemist or engineer who had +recently begun to dabble in Greek in his spare moments, and who should +undertake to emend the text of Sophocles. His suggestions would show +that he knew no Greek, that he had never heard of Sir Richard Jebb, and +that he was ignorant of all the results of scientific textual criticism. +But here comes in the difference. Such a critic would be laughed out of +court, and told to mind his own business, or else learn Greek before he +undertook to emend it. But as international language is a novelty to +most people, it is thought that any one can make, mend, or criticise +it. It is not, like Greek, yet recognized as a serious subject, and +therefore irresponsible criticism is too apt to be taken at its face +value, merely on the _ipse dixit_ of the critic, especially if he +happens to be an influential man in some other line. Nobody bothers +about his qualifications in international language; nobody either knows +or cares whether he has any claim to be heard on the subject at all. + +The fact is that international language now has a considerable history +behind it. A large amount of experience has been amassed, and is now +available for any one who is willing and competent to go into the +question. But, in order to do fruitful work in this field, it is just +as necessary as in any other to be properly equipped, and to know where +others have left off, before you begin. + +At the first international congress at Boulogne the history of Esperanto +was well summed up in a thoughtful speech by Dr. Bein, of Poland, +himself a considerable Esperantist author, using the _nom de guerre_ +"Kabe." He pointed out that we are still in the first or propaganda +stage of international language, in which it is necessary to hold +congresses, and the language is treated as an end in itself. There +is good hope that the second stage may soon be reached, in which the +language may be sufficiently recognized to take its proper place as a +means. + +Meantime, the first stage of Esperanto has been marked by three phases +or periods—the Russian period, the French period, and the international +period. Each has left its mark upon the language. + +The Russian period is associated with the names of Kofman, Grabowski, +Silesnjov, Gernet, Zinovjev, and many other writers of considerable +literary power. Being the pioneers, they had to prove the capabilities +of the language to the world, and in doing so they took off some of the +rough of the world's indifference and scepticism. The language benefited +by the fact that the first authors were Slavs. The simplicity of the +Slav syntax, the logical arrangement of the sentences, the perfectly +free and natural order of the words, passed unconsciously from their +native language to the new one in the hands of these writers, and have +been imitated by their successors. + +The French period is associated chiefly with the name of M. de +Beaufront. In Russia, side by side with the good points named above, +certain less desirable Slavisms were creeping in; also there were +hitherto no scientific dictionaries or explanation of syntax. As Dr. +Bein says, de Beaufront may be called "the codifier of Esperanto." A +goodly band of French writers now took the language in hand, and by +their natural power of expression and exposition, which seems inborn in +a Frenchman, and by their national passion for lucidity, they have no +doubt strengthened the impulse of Esperanto towards clear-cut, vigorous +style. + +Possibly theorizing has been overdone in France; for, after all, the +strong point of Esperanto syntax is that there is none to speak of, +common sense being the guide. It is a pity to set up rules where none +are necessary, or to do anything that can produce an impression in +the minds of the uninitiated that learning Esperanto means anything +approaching the memory drudgery necessary in grasping the rules and +constructions of national languages. + +The third period began soon after the turn of the century, and is still +in full force. Take up any chance number of any Esperanto gazette out +of the numbers that are published all over the world; you will hardly +be able to draw any conclusion as to the nationality of the writer of +the article you light upon, save perhaps for an occasional turn of an +unpractised hand. Esperanto now has its style; it is—lucidity based +upon common sense and the rudiments of a minimized grammar. + +This chapter would not be complete without some account of the +_constitution_ of Esperanto, and the means which have been adopted to +safeguard the purity of the language. It will be well to quote in full +the Declaration adopted at Boulogne, in which its aim is set forth, and +which forms, as it were, its written constitution. For the convenience +of readers the Esperanto text and English translation are printed in +parallel columns. + + * * * * * + + DEKLARACIO DECLARATION + +Ĉar pri la esenco de Esperantismo Because many have a very false +multaj havas tre malveran idea of the nature of Esperanto, +ideon, tial ni subskribintoj, therefore we, the undersigned, +reprezentantoj de la Esperantismo representing the cause of +en diversaj landoj de la mondo, Esperanto in different countries +kunvenintaj al la Internacia of the world, having met together +Kongreso Esperantista en at the International Esperanto +Boulogne-sur-Mer, trovis necesa, Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mer, +laŭ la propono de la aŭtoro have thought it necessary, at the +de la lingvo Esperanto, doni la suggestion of the author of the +sekvantan klarigon: Esperanto language, to give the + following explanation: + +1. La Esperantismo estas penado 1. Esperanto in its essence +disvastigi en la tuta mondo is an attempt to diffuse over +la uzadon de lingvo neŭtrale the whole world a language +homa, kiu, "ne entrudante sin belonging to mankind without +en la internan vivon de la distinction, which, "not intruding +popoloj kaj neniom celante upon the internal life of the +elpuŝi la ekzistantajn lingvojn peoples and in nowise aiming to +naciajn," donus al la homoj drive out the existing national +de malsamaj nacioj la eblon languages," should give to +kompreniĝadi inter si, kiu men of different nations the +povus servi kiel paciga lingvo possibility of becoming mutually +de publikaj institucioj en tiuj comprehensible, which might serve +landoj kie diversaj nacioj batalas as a peace-making language for +inter si pri la lingvo, kaj en public institutions in those +kiu povus esti publikigataj tiuj lands where different nations are +verkoj kiuj havas egalan intereson involved in strife about their +por ĉiuj popoloj. language, and in which might + be published those works which + possess an equal interest for all + peoples. + +Ĉiu alia ideo aŭ espero kiun tiu Any other idea or hope which this +aŭ alia Esperantisto ligas kun la or that Esperantist associates +Esperantismo estos lia afero pure with Esperanto will be his purely +privata, por kiu la Esperantismo personal business, for which +ne respondas. Esperanto is not responsible. + +2. Ĉar en la nuna tempo neniu 2. Because at the present time no +esploranto en la tuta mondo one who looks out over the whole +jam dubas pri tio, ke lingvo world any longer doubts that +internacia povas esti nur lingvo an international language can +arta, kaj ĉar, el ĉiuj multegaj only be an artificial one, and +provoj faritaj en la daŭro de because, of all the very numerous +la lastaj du centjaroj, ĉiuj attempts made in the course of +prezentas nur teoriajn projektojn, the last two hundred years, +kaj lingvo efektive finita, all offer merely theoretical +ĉiuflanke elprovita, perfekte solutions, and only one single +vivipova, kaj en ĉiuj rilatoj language, Esperanto, has shown +pleje taŭga montriĝis nur unu itself to be in practice complete, +sola lingvo, Esperanto, tial fully tested on every side, +la amikoj de la ideo de lingvo perfectly capable of living use, +internacia, konsciante ke teoria and in every respect completely +disputado kondukos al nenio kaj adequate, therefore the friends +ke la celo povas esti atingita of the idea of international +nur per laborado praktika, jam de language, recognizing that +longe ĉiuj grupiĝis ĉirkaŭ theoretical discussion will lead +la sola lingvo, Esperanto, kaj to nothing and that the end can +laboras por ĝia disvastigado kaj only be attained by practical +riĉigado de ĝia literaturo. and continuous effort, have long + grouped themselves around one + single language, Esperanto, and + are labouring to disseminate it + and to enrich its literature. + +3. Ĉar la aŭtoro de la lingvo 3. Because the author of the +Esperanto tuj en la komenco Esperanto language from the very +rifuzis, unu fojon por ĉiam, beginning refused, once for all, +ĉiujn personajn rajtojn kaj all personal rights and privileges +privilegiojn rilate tiun lingvon, connected with that language, +tial Esperanto estas "nenies therefore Esperanto is "the +propraĵo," nek en rilato property of no one," either from a +materiala, nek en rilato morala. material or moral point of view. + +Materiala mastro de tiu ĉi lingvo Materially speaking, the whole +estas la tuta mondo, kaj ĉiu world is master of this language, +deziranto povas eldonadi en aŭ and any one who wishes can +pri tiu ĉi lingvo ĉiajn verkojn publish in or about this language +kiajn li deziras, kaj uzadi la works of any kind he wishes, and +lingvon por ĉiaj eblaj celoj go on using the language for +kiel spiritaj mastroj de tiu ĉi any possible object; from an +lingvo estos ĉiam rigardataj intellectual point of view those +tiuj personoj kiuj de la mondo persons will always be regarded as +Esperantista estos konfesataj kiel masters of this language who shall +la plej bonaj kaj la plej talentaj be recognized by the Esperantist +verkistoj de tiu ĉi lingvo. world as the best and most gifted + writers in this language. + +4. Esperanto havas neniun personan 4. Esperanto has no personal +leĝdonanton kaj dependas de neniu law-giver and depends upon +aparta homo. Ĉiuj opinioj kaj no particular person. All +verkoj de la kreinto de Esperanto opinions and works of the creator +havas, simile al la opinioj kaj of Esperanto have, like the +verkoj de ĉiu alia Esperantisto, opinions and works of any other +karakteron absolute privatan kaj Esperantist, an absolutely private +por neniu devigan. La sola, unu character, and are binding upon +fojon por ĉiam deviga por ĉiuj nobody. The sole foundation of +Esperantistoj, fundamento de la the Esperanto language, which is +lingvo Esperanto estas la verketo once for all binding upon all +_Fundamento de Esperanto_, en Esperantists, is the little work +kiu neniu havas la rajton fari _Fundamento de Esperanto_, in +ŝanĝon. Se iu dekliniĝas de la which no one has the right to make +reguloj kaj modeloj donitaj en any change. If any one departs +la dirita verko, li neniam povas from the rules and models given +pravigi sin per la vortoj "tiel in the said work, he can never +deziras aŭ konsilas la aŭtoro justify himself with the words +de Esperanto." Ĉiun ideon, kiu "such is the wish or advice of +ne povas esti oportune esprimata the author of Esperanto." In the +per tiu materialo kiu troviĝas case of any idea which cannot be +en la _Fundamento de Esperanto_, conveniently expressed by means of +ĉiu havas la rajton esprimi en that material which is contained +tia maniero kiun li trovas la in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, +plej ĝusta, tiel same kiel estas every Esperantist has the right to +farate en ĉiu alia lingvo. Sed express it in such manner as he +pro plena unueco de la lingvo, considers most fitting, just as is +al ĉiuj Esperantistoj estas done in the case of every other +rekomendate imitadi kiel eble plej language. But for the sake of +multe tiun stilon kiu troviĝas perfect unity in the language, it +en la verkoj de la kreinto de is recommended to all Esperantists +Esperanto, kiu la plej multe to constantly imitate as far as +laboris por kaj en Esperanto, kaj possible that style which is found +la plej bone konas ĝian spiriton. in the works of the creator of + Esperanto, who laboured the most + abundantly for and in Esperanto, + and who is best acquainted with + the spirit of it. + +5. Esperantisto estas nomata 5. The name of Esperantist is +ĉiu persono kiu scias kaj uzas given to every person who knows +la lingvon Esperanto, tute egale and uses the Esperanto language, +por kiaj celoj li ĝin uzas. no matter for what ends he uses +Apartenado al ia aktiva societo it. Membership of some active +Esperantista por ĉiu Esperantisto Esperanto society is to be +estas rekomendinda, sed ne deviga. recommended for every Esperantist, + but this is not compulsory. + + * * * * * + +By the wise provision of Article 4, that the entire grammar and +framework of Esperanto, as contained within one small book of a few +pages, is absolutely unchangeable, the future of the language is +secured. The _Fundamento_ also contains enough root words to express all +ordinary ideas. Henceforth the worst thing that can happen to Esperanto +by way of adulteration is that some authors may use too many foreign +words. The only practical check upon this, of course, is the penalty of +becoming incomprehensible. But as men are on the whole reasonable, and +as the only object of writing in Esperanto presumably is to appeal to +an Esperantist international public, this check should be sufficient to +prevent the use of any word that usage is not tending to consecrate. +A certain latitude of expansion must be allowed to every language, to +enable it to move with the times; but beyond this, surely few would +have any interest in foisting into their discourse words which their +hearers or readers would not be likely to understand, and those few +would probably belong to the class who do the same thing in using their +mother-tongue. No special legislation is needed to meet their case. + +For a few years (1901-1905) the publishing house of Hachette had the +monopoly of official Esperanto publications, and no work published +elsewhere could find place in the "Kolekto Esperanto aprobita de D-ro +Zamenhof." But at the first congress Zamenhof announced that he had +given up even this control, and Esperanto is now a free language. + +The official authority, which deals with all matters relating to the +language itself, is the _Lingvo Komitato_ (Language Committee). It was +instituted at the first congress, and consists of persons appointed for +their special competence in linguistic matters. The original members +numbered ninety-nine, and represented the following twenty-eight +countries: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chili, Denmark, +Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Hungary, +Iceland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Persia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, +Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. + +This committee decides upon its own organization and procedure. +In practice it selects from among the points submitted to it by +Esperantists those worthy of consideration, and propounds them to its +members by means of circulars. It then appoints a competent person or +small committee to report upon the answers received. Decisions are made +upon the result of the voting in the members' replies to the circulars, +as analyzed and tabulated in the report. The functions of the committee +do not include the making of any alteration whatever in the Esperanto +part of the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, which is equally sacrosanct for +it and for all Esperantists. But there is much to be done in correcting +certain faulty translations of the fundamental Esperanto roots into +national languages, in defining their exact meaning and giving their +authorized equivalent in fresh languages, into which they were not +originally translated. Also the constantly growing output of grammars +and instruction books of all kinds in every country, to say nothing of +dictionaries, which are very important, has to be carefully watched, in +order that errors may be pointed out and corrected before they have time +to take root. + +Thus the Lingva Komitato is in no sense an academy or legislative body, +having for object to change or improve the language; it is the duly +constituted and widely representative authority, which watches the +spread and development of the language, maintaining its purity, and +helping with judicious guidance. + +From this sketch it ought to be clear that Esperanto is no wild-cat +scheme of enthusiasts or faddists, but a wisely organized attempt to +wipe out the world's linguistic arrears. Its aim is to bring progress in +oral and written communication into line with the progress of material +means of communication and of science. + + + VIII + + PRESENT STATE OF ESPERANTO: (_a_) GENERAL; (_b_) IN ENGLAND + + (_a_) _General_ + +The first question usually asked is, "How many Esperantists are there?" +The answer is, "Nobody knows." The most diverse estimates have been +made, but none are based on any reliable method of computation. In the +_Histoire de la langue universelle_, which appeared in 1903 and is +written throughout in an impartial and scientific spirit, 50,000 was +tentatively given as a fairly safe estimate. That was before the days +of the international congresses, and since then the cause has been +advancing by leaps and bounds. Not a month passes without its crop of +new clubs and classes, and the pace is becoming fast and furious. + +A marked change has been noticeable of late in the press of the leading +countries. It is becoming a rare thing now to see Esperanto treated as +a form of madness, and the days of contemptuous silence are passing +away. Esperanto doings are now fairly, fully, and accurately reported. +The tone of criticism is sometimes favourable, sometimes patronizing, +sometimes hostile; but it is generally serious. It is coming to be +recognized that Esperanto is a force to be reckoned with; it cannot be +laughed off. One or two rivals, indeed, are getting a little noisy. +They are mostly one-man (not to say one-horse) shows, and they do not +like to see Esperanto going ahead like steam. High on the mountain-side +they sit in cold isolation, and gaze over the rich fertile plains of +Esperanto, rapidly becoming populous as the immigrants rush in and stake +out their claims in the fair "no-man's land."[1] And it makes them feel +bad, these others! "Jeshurun waxed fat," they cry; "pride goes before a +fall, remember Volapük!" The Esperantists remember Volapük, close their +ranks, and sweep on. + + [1]_Nenies propraĵo._ Esp. Deklaracio, Art. 3 (see p. 117 [Part II, + Chapter VIII]). + +Another good criterion besides the press is the sale of books. Large +editions are going off everywhere, especially, it would seem, in +America, where the folk have a habit, once they have struck a business +proposition, of running it for all it is worth. "Let her go! give +her hell!" is the word, and "the boys" are just now getting next to +Esperanto to beat the band. + +The British Esperanto Association's accounts show a very steady increase +in the sale of literature. Considering that it sells books at trade +prices, that hardly any of them are priced at more than a few pence, and +none above a shilling or two, the sums realized from sale of books in +some months are astonishing, and represent a large and increasing spread +of interest among the public. Owing to the low prices, the profit on +books is of course not great; but, such as it is, it all goes to help +the cause. The association is now registered as a non-profit-making +society under the law of 1867, with no share capital and no dividends. + +As regards official recognition, good progress is being made in England +(see below); but if the language is anywhere adopted universally in +government schools, it will certainly be first in France. (For an +account of the present state of this question, which is at present +before the French Permanent Educational Commission, see Part I., +chap. vi., p. 30). Dr. Zamenhof has been decorated by the French +Government, and Esperanto is already taught in many French schools. For +purposes of education France is divided into districts, called _ressorts +d'Académie_, within each of which there is a complete educational ladder +from the primary schools to the university which is the culmination +of each. The official head of an important district is Rector Boirac, +head of the Dijon University. He is one of the most distinguished of +the Esperantists, and is the leading spirit at the congresses and on +the Lingva Komitato. He has done much for Esperanto in the schools of +his district, and under the guidance of men of his calibre Esperanto is +making serious progress in France. (For lists of university professors +favourable to an international language, see p. 32 [Part I, Chapter +VI]). + +In Germany one of the foremost men of science of his time, Prof. +Ostwald, of Leipzig, is an ardent advocate of the international +language. He recently was lent for a time to Harvard University, U.S.A., +and while there gave a great impetus to the study of Esperanto. He +also spoke in its favour at Aberdeen last year, on the occasion of the +opening of the new University buildings. + +Apropos of the interchange between different countries of professors +and other teachers, which has to some extent been already tried between +America and Germany, it is curious to note the attitude of Prof. Hermann +Diels, Rector of the Berlin University. He is a great supporter of +the extension of this interchange, which also has the approbation of +the Kaiser, who attended formally the inaugural lecture of one of the +American professors, to mark his approbation. Prof. Diels commented on +the fact that diversity of language was a grave obstacle; but though +he seems before to have been a champion of popularized Latin, he now +declares himself strongly against any artificial language,[1] and +advocates the use of English, French, and German. This is a modified +form of the old Max Müller proposal, that all serious scientific work +should be published in one of six languages. It does not seem a very +convincing attitude to take up, because it ignores the facts: (1) that +the actual trend of the world is the other way—towards inclusion +of fresh national languages among the _Kultursprachen_, not towards +accentuation of the predominance of these three; (2) that the increase +of specialization and new studies at universities is leaving less and +less time for mastering several difficult languages merely as means to +other branches of study. Why should everybody have to learn English, +French, and German? + + [1]Herr Diels quaintly finds that Esperanto has only one gender—the + feminine! Surely an ultra-Shavian obsession of femininity. It is + perhaps some distinction to out-Shaw Bernard Shaw in any line. + +For the rest, Esperanto is now beginning to take hold in Germany. +The Germans have, as a general rule, open minds for this kind of +problem, and are trained to take objective views in linguistic matters +on the scientific merits of the case. The reason why they have been +somewhat backward hitherto in the Esperanto movement is no doubt their +disappointment at the failure of Volapük, which they had done much to +promote. But now that, in spite of this special drawback, the first +steps have been made, and clubs and papers are beginning to spring up +again, everything points to powerful co-operation from Germany in the +future. + +In Switzerland progress has been enormous since the Geneva Congress +of 1906. Many clubs and classes are already formed or in process of +formation, and university men are supporting the movement. In one +respect the Swiss are now in the van of the Esperantist world: they have +just started a newspaper, _Esperanto_, the prospectus of which declares +that it will no longer treat the language as an end in itself, or make +propaganda; it will run on the lines of an ordinary weekly, merely using +Esperanto as a means, inasmuch as it is the language of the paper. + +The well-known Swiss veteran philosopher Ernst Naville wrote to the +Geneva Congress that for thirty years he had regarded the introduction +of an international language as a necessity, owing to the advance of +civilization, and the day of realization of this object would be one of +the greatest dates of history. + +It is impossible to go through all the countries of Europe in detail. +It is probable that the greatest numbers of Esperantists are still to +be found among the Slav peoples. The language first took root in their +midst, and was spread far and wide by a distinguished group of Slav +writers. + +Outside Europe, Esperanto is making great strides in the British Empire, +Japan, and America. There are now Esperantist clubs in various parts of +India, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, in Malta, Singapore, etc. Dr. +Pollen, C.I.E., President of the British Esperanto Association, has +just been touring in India, in the interests of the language. Among +many satisfactory results is the guarantee of handsome sums towards +the guarantee fund of the coming Cambridge Congress by several native +rulers, among others the Mir of Khairpur, the Raja of Lunawada, the +Nawab of Radhanpur, and the Diwan of Palanpur. + +In New Zealand, an enterprising pioneer country in many departments, the +Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, is favourable. Not long ago he made a +speech advocating the introduction of Esperanto into the public schools +of the colony. + +In America big Esperantist societies and classes have sprung up with +amazing rapidity during the last year. Several universities now hold +Esperanto classes; the Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology has +more than 100 students in its Esperanto class, and, among schools, the +famous Latin School of Roxbury has led the way with over fifty pupils +under Prof. Lowell. The press is devoting a large amount of attention +to Esperanto, and many journals of good standing are favourable. _The +North American Review_ has taken up the language. It printed articles in +December and January by Dr. Zamenhof and Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, +and followed them up by courses of lessons. It supplies Esperanto +literature to its readers at cost price, and reports that evidences of +interest "have been many and multiply daily." + +Among university supporters are Profs. Huntington and Morse of Harvard, +Prof. Viles, Ohio State University, Prof. Borgerhoff, Western Reserve +University, Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, etc. On the other hand, Prof. +Hugo Munsterberg of Harvard is attacking Esperanto. His is a good +example of the literary man's uninformed criticism of the universal +language project, because it is based upon an old criticism by a German +professor (Prof. Hamel) of the defunct Volapük. Why Esperanto should be +condemned for the sins of Volapük is not obvious. + +One other useful aspect of Esperanto remains to be mentioned—the +establishment of consulships to give linguistic and other assistance. +Many towns have already their Esperanto consuls, and in a few years +there ought to be a haven of refuge for Esperantists abroad nearly +everywhere. + +The following list of principal Esperanto organs will give some idea +of the diffusion of the language. The list makes no pretence of being +complete. + +Principal general reviews: + +_Internacia Scienca Revuo_. + +_La Revuo_ (which enjoys the constant collaboration of Dr. Zamenhof). + +_Tra la Mondo_. (This review has recently held, by the collaboration of +its readers, an international inquiry into education in all countries. +The report is appearing in the February number and following. This is a +good example of the sort of international work which can be done for and +by readers in every corner of the globe.) + +Other organs: + +_The British Esperantist_. + +_Lingvo Internacia_ (the _doyen_ of Esperanto journals). + +_L' Espérantiste_ (France). + +_Germana Esperantisto_. + +_Eĥo_ (Germany). + +_Svisa Espero_. + +_Esperanto_ (Switzerland). + +_Juna Esperantisto_ (Switzerland). + +_Esperanto_ (Hungary). + +_Helpa Lingvo_ (Denmark). + +_La Suno Hispana_ (Spain). + +_Idealo_ (Sicily). + +_La Alĝera Stelo_ (Algiers: has recently ceased to appear). + +_La Belga Sonorilo_ (Belgium). + +_Ruslanda Esperantisto_ (Russia). + +_Pola Esperantisto_ (Poland). + +_Bulgara Esperantisto_ (Bulgaria). + +_Lorena Esperantisto_. + +_Esperantisten_ (Sweden). + +_Časopis Českych Esperantista_ (Bohemia). + +_L'Amerika Esperantisto_ (central American organ, supported by groups in +New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Seattle, Los Angeles). + +_La Lumo_ (Montreal). + +_Antaŭen Esperantistoj_ (Peru). + +_Brazila Revuo Esperantista_ (Brazil). + +_La Japana Esperantisto_ (Japan). + +_La Pioniro_ (India). + +_Espero Katolika_. + +_Foto Revuo_. + +_Socia Revuo_. + +_Unua Paŝo_. + +_Espero Pacifista_. + +_Eksport Ĵurnalo_. + +_Esperanta Ligilo_ (for the blind—in Braille). + +_The New International Review_ (Oxford) recently presented a four-page +Esperanto supplement to its subscribers for some months. + + + (_b_) _Present State of Esperanto in England_ + +The most practical way of spreading Esperanto is to get it taught in the +schools, so it will be best to state first what has been done so far in +this matter. + +Esperanto has been officially accepted by the local educational +authorities in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and other provincial +towns; that is to say, it has been recognized as a subject to be taught +in evening classes, if there is sufficient demand. At present there +are classes under the London County Council at the following schools: +Queen's Road, Dalston (Commercial Centre); Blackheath Road (Commercial +Centre); Plough Road, Clapham Junction (Commercial Centre); Rutland +Street, Mile End (Commercial Centre); Myrdle Street, Commercial Road; +and Hugh Myddleton School, Clerkenwell. Other classes held in London are +at the Northern Polytechnic, Holloway Road; St. Bride's Institute, Bride +Lane; City of London College, White Street; Co-operative Institute, +Plumstead; Working Men's College, St. Pancras; Stepney Library, Mile End +Road; and a large class for teachers is held at the Cusack Institute, +Moorfields. + +At Keighley, Yorks, the Board of Education has recognized the language +as a grant-earning subject. Various local authorities give facilities, +some paying the teacher, others supplying a room. Among these are +Kingston-on-Thames (Technical Institute), Rochdale, Ipswich (Technical +School), Grimsby, etc. + +It does not appear that Esperanto is yet taught in any public elementary +school; educational officials, inspectors, etc., have yet to learn +about the language. Many private schools now teach it, and at least one +private girls' school of the best type teaches it as a regular subject, +alongside French and German. It has been impossible to get any return +or figures as to the extent to which it has penetrated into private +and proprietary schools. The Northern Institute of Languages, perhaps +the most important commercial school in the North of England, held an +Esperanto class with sixty-three students. + +Two large examining bodies—the London Chamber of Commerce and the +Examination Board of the National Union of Teachers—have included +Esperanto in their subjects for commercial certificates. At the London +Chamber of Commerce examination in May 1906 the candidates were as +follows: + + Entries. Passes. + + Teacher's diploma . . . 6 1 + Senior . . . . . 15 15 + Junior . . . . . 109 67 + ——— ——— + 130 83 + +There is now a Teachers' Section of the British Esperanto Association +with an Education Committee, which is carrying on active work in +promoting Esperanto in the schools. + +At an official reception of French teachers in London last year by +the Board of Education, Mr. Lough, speaking on behalf of the Board, +made a sympathetic reference to Esperanto. The incident is amusingly +told in Esperanto by M. Boirac, Rector of Dijon University and a noted +Esperantist, who was amongst the French professors. Not understanding +English, he was growing rather sleepy during a long speech, when the +word "Esperanto" gave him a sudden shock. He thought the English +official was poking fun at him, but was relieved to hear that the +allusion had been sympathetic. + +At this year's meeting of the Modern Language Society at Durham, the +Warden of Durham University, Dean Kitchin, in welcoming the society to +the town and university, gave considerable prominence in his speech to +Esperanto, remarking that, to judge by its rapid growth and the sanity +of its reformed grammar, one might easily believe that it will win +general use.[1] Such references in high places illustrate the tendency +to admit that there may be something in this international language +scheme. + + [1]He continued: "To me it seems that Esperanto in vocabulary and + grammar is a miracle of simplicity." + +There are now (May 1907) seventy local Esperanto societies in Great +Britain on the list of societies affiliated to the British Esperanto +Association, and often several new ones are formed in a month. The +first were Keighley and London, founded 1902. Seven more were formed in +1903; and since the beginning of 1906 no less than thirty-six. Besides +the members of these there are a great many learners in classes and +individual Esperantists who belong to no affiliated group. Every month +one reads lists of lectures given in the most diverse places, very often +with the note that a local club or class resulted, or that a large sale +of Esperanto literature took place. Sometimes the immediate number of +converts is surprising: e.g. on April 22, 1907, after a lecture on +Esperanto at the Technical College, Darlington, seventy-eight students +entered their names for a week's course of lessons to be held in the +college three times a day. + +There are now Esperanto consuls in the following towns: Bradford, +Chester, Edinburgh, Harrogate, Hull, Hunslet, Keighley, Leeds, +Liverpool, Nottingham, Oakworth, Plymouth, Rhos, Southampton, and St. +Helens. Birmingham has within the last few months taken up the cause +with its usual energy, and now has a large class. + +In England the universities have been slow to show interest in +Esperanto; but now that Cambridge has been selected as the seat of the +Congress in 1907, the university is granting every facility, as also +is the town council, in use of rooms and the like, and some professors +and other members of the university are cordially co-operating. Last +October Prof. Skeat, one of the fathers of English philology, took the +chair at a preliminary meeting, and made a speech very favourable to +Esperanto. He said, "I think Esperanto is a very good movement, and I +hope it will succeed." The subject of Esperanto is being well put before +the teachers of Cambridgeshire, and the railway companies all over the +country and abroad are granting special fares for the congress.[1] It +is probable that the overwhelming demonstration of the possibilities of +this international language will open the eyes of many who have hitherto +been indifferent, and that the movement will enter on a new phase of +expansion in England, and through the example of England, which is +closely watched abroad, in the world at large. + + [1]It is a striking fact that six weeks before the opening of the + congress 700 members have already secured their tickets. + + + IX + + LESSONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THE FOREGOING HISTORY + +The extent to which more or less artificial languages are already +used in various parts of the world for the transaction of interracial +business, and the persistent preoccupation of thinkers with the idea +for the last 200 years, culminating in the production of a great +number of schemes in our own times, show that there _is_ a demand for +an international language, more perfect than has yet been available +and universally valid. The list of languages proposed (see Part II., +chap. ii.) by no means represents all that has been written and thought +upon the subject. Many more have proposed solutions of the question, +beginning with such men as Becher (1661), Kirchner (1665), Porele +(1667), Upperdorf (1679), Müller (1681), Lobkowitz (1687), Besuier +(1684), Solbrig (1725), Taboltzafo (1772), and continuing down to the +present day. The striking success of Volapük and Esperanto in gaining, +within a few years of publication, many thousands of ardent supporters +has also been a revelation. It has proved most conclusively that there +is a demand. If so many people in all lands have been willing to give +up time and money to learning and promoting a language from which they +could not expect to reap anything like full benefit for many years, +what must be its value when ripened to yield full profits, i.e. when +universally adopted? + +There are two main obstacles to universal adoption. The first is common +to all projects of reform—the force of inertia. It is hard to win +practical support for a new thing, even when assent is freely given in +theory to its utility. The second is peculiar to Esperanto, and consists +in the discrediting of the cause of international language through the +failure of Volapük. Good examples of its operation are afforded by the +slowness of Germany to recognize Esperanto, and by the criticism of +Prof. Münsterberg (formerly of Freiburg, Germany) in America, based +as it is on an old German criticism of Volapük, and transferred at +second-hand to Esperanto. + +Hence every effort should be made to induce critics of Esperanto to +examine the language before pronouncing judgment—to criticise the real +thing, instead of some bogy of their imagination. + +One bogy which has caused much misdirected criticism is raised by +misunderstanding of the word "universal" in the phrase _universal +language_. It is necessary to insist upon the fact that "universal" +means universally adopted and everywhere current _as an auxiliary_ to +the mother-tongue for purposes of international communication. It does +not mean a universal language for home consumption as a substitute for +national language. In Baconian language, this bogy may be called an +"idol of the market-place," since it rests upon confusion of terms. + +Pursuing the Baconian classification of error, we may call the literary +man's nightmare of the invasion of literature by the universal language +an "idol of the theatre." The lesson of experience is, that it is +well not to alienate the powerful literary interest justly concerned +in upholding the dignity and purity of national speech by making +extravagant claims on behalf of the auxiliary language. It is capable +of conveying _matter_ or _content_ in any department of human activity +with great nicety; but where it is a question of reproducing by +actual translation the _form_ or _manner_ of some masterpiece of national +literature, it will not, by nature of its very virtues, give a full idea +of the rich play of varied synonymic in the original. + +The great practical lesson of Volapük is, that alteration brings +dissension, and dissension brings death. A universal language must +be in essentials, like Esperanto, inviolable. If ever the time comes +for modification in any essential point, it will be after official +international recognition in the schools. Gradual reforms could then, +if necessary, be introduced by authority, as in the case of the recent +French "Tolérations," or the German reforms in orthography. + +So long as the world is divided among rival great powers, no national +language can be recognized as universal by them all. It is therefore +a choice between an artificial language or nothing. As regards the +structure of the artificial language itself, history shows clearly +that it must be _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. It must select its +constituent roots and its spoken sounds on the principle of maximum of +internationality, and its grammar must be a simplification of natural +existing grammar. On the other hand, a recent tendency to brand as +"arbitrary" and _a priori_ everything that makes for regularity, if it +is not directly borrowed, is to be resisted. It is possible to overdo +even the best of rules by slavish and unintelligent application. Thus it +is urged by extremists that some of the neatest labour-saving devices of +Esperanto are arbitrary, and therefore to be condemned. + + Take the Esperanto suffix _-in-_, which denotes the feminine. + " " " prefix _mal-_ " " " opposite. + " " " suffix _-ig-_ " " causative action. + +Given the roots _bov-_ (ox); _fort-_ (strong); _grand-_ (big): Esperanto +forms _bovino_ (cow); _malforta_ (weak); _grandigi_ (to augment); +_malgrandigi_ (to diminish). + +These words are arbitrary, because not borrowed from national language. +Let the public decide for itself whether it prefers a language which +insists (in order not to be "arbitrary") upon borrowing fresh roots +to express these ideas. Let any one who has learnt Latin, French, and +German try how long it takes him to think of the masculine of _vacca_, +_vache_, _Kuh_; the opposite of _fortis_, _fort_, _stark_; the Latin, +French, and German ways of expressing "to make big" and "to make small." +The issue is hardly doubtful. + +Again, the languages upon whose vocabulary and grammar the international +language is to be based must be Aryan (Indo-European). This is a +practical point. The non-European peoples will consent to learn +"simplified Aryan" just as they are adopting Aryan civilization; but the +converse is not true. The Europeans will go without an international +language rather than learn one based to some extent upon Japanese or +Mongolian. The only prescription for securing a large field is—greatest +ease for greatest number, with a handicap in favour of Europeans, to +induce them to enter. + + + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + + I + + ESPERANTO IS SCIENTIFICALLY CONSTRUCTED, + AND FULFILS THE NATURAL TENDENCY IN EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE + +All national languages are full of redundant and overlapping grammatical +devices for expressing what could be equally well expressed by a single +uniform device. They bristle with irregularities and exceptions. Their +forms and phrases are largely the result of chance and partial survival, +arbitrary usage, and false analogy. It is obvious that a perfectly +regular artificial language is far easier to learn. But the point to be +insisted on here is, that artificial simplification of language is no +fantastic craze, but merely a perfect realization of a natural tendency, +which the history of language shows to exist. + +At first sight this may seem to conflict with what was said in Part I., +chap. x. But there is no real inconsistency. As pointed out there, there +is no reason to think that Nature, left to herself, would ever produce a +universal language, or that a simpler language would win, in a struggle +with more complex ones, on account of its simplicity. But this does not +prevent there being a real natural tendency to simplification—though in +natural languages this tendency is constantly thwarted, and can never +produce its full effect. + +How, then, is this tendency to simplification shown in the history of +Aryan (Indo-European) languages? For it must be emphasized that for the +purposes of this discussion history of language means history of Aryan +language. + +The Aryan group of languages includes Sanskrit and its descendants in +the East, Greek, Latin, all modern Romance languages (French, Italian, +Spanish, etc.), all Germanic languages (English, German, Scandinavian, +etc.), all Slav languages (Russian, Polish, etc.)—in fact, all the +principal languages of Europe, except Hungarian, Basque, and Finnish. +The main tendency of this group of languages has been, technically +speaking, to become analytic instead of synthetic—that is, to abandon +complex systems of inflection by means of case and verbal endings, +and to substitute prepositions and auxiliaries. Thus, taking Latin as +the type of old synthetic Aryan language, its declension of nouns and +conjugation of verbs present an enormously greater complexity of forms +than are employed by English, the most advanced of the modern analytical +languages, to express the same grammatical relations. For example: + + Nom. mensă = a table. mensae = tables. + Acc. mensam = a table. mensas = tables. + Gen. mensae = of a table mensarum = of tables. + Dat. mensae = to or for a mensis = to or for tables. + table. + Abl. mensā = by, with, or mensis = by, with, or from + from a table. tables. + +By the time you have learnt these various Latin case endings (_-ă_, +_-am_, _-ae_, _-ae_, _-ā_; _-ae_, _-as_, _-arum_, _-is_, _-is_), you +have only learnt one out of many types of declension. Passing on to +the second Latin type or declension, e.g. _dominus_ = master, you +have to learn a whole fresh set of case endings (_-us_, _-um_, _-i_, +_-o_, _-o_; _-i_, _-os_, _-orum_, _-is_, _-is_) to express the same +grammatical relations; whereas in English you apply the same set of +prepositions to the word "master" without change, except for a uniform +_-s_ in the plural. As there are a great many types of Latin noun, the +simplification in English, effected by using invariable prepositions +without inflection, is very great. It is just the same with the verb. +Take the English regular verb "to love": the four forms _love_, _loves_, +_loving_, _loved_, about exhaust the number of forms to be learned +(omitting the second person singular, which is practically dead); the +rest is done by auxiliaries, which are the same for each verb. Latin, on +the other hand, possesses very numerous forms of the verb, and the whole +set of numerous forms varies for each type of verb. In the aggregate the +simplification in English is enormous. This process of simplification +is common to all the modern Aryan languages, but they have not all made +equal progress in carrying it out. + +Now, it is a remarkable fact, and a very suggestive one for those who +seek to trace the connexion between the course of a nation's language +and its history, that the degree of progress made by the languages of +Europe along their common line of evolution does on the whole, as a +matter of historical fact, correspond with the respective degree of +material, social, and economic advancement attained by the nations +that use them. Take this question of case endings. Russia has retained +a high degree of inflection in her language, having seven cases with +distinct endings. These seven cases are common to the Slav languages +in general; two of them (Sorbish and Slovenish) have, like Gothic and +Greek, a dual number, a feature which has long passed away from the +languages of Western Europe. Again, the Slav tongues decline many more +of the numerals than most Aryan languages. Germany, which, until the +recent formation of the German Empire, was undoubtedly a century slow by +West European time, still has four cases; or, in view of the moribund +dative, should we rather say three and a half? France and England manage +their affairs in a universal nominative[1] (if one can give any name +to a universal case), as far as nouns, adjectives, and articles are +concerned. Their pronouns offer the sole survival of declension by case +endings. Here France, the runner-up, is a trifle slow in the possession +of a real, live dative case of the pronoun (acc. _le_, _la_, _les_; +dat. _lui_, _leur_). England wins by a neck with one universal oblique +case (_him_, _her_, _them_). This insidious suggestion is not meant +to endanger the _entente cordiale_; even perfidious Albion would not +convict the French nation of arrested development on the side-issue of +pronominal atavism. Mark Twain says he paid double for a German dog, +because he bought it in the dative case; but no nation need be damned +for a dative. We have no use for the _coup de Jarnac_. + + [1]Though historically, of course, the Low Latin universal case, from + which many French, and therefore English, words are derived, was the + accusative. + +But consider the article. Here, if anywhere, is a test of the power +of a language to move with the times. For some reason or other (the +real underlying causes of these changes in language needs are obscure) +modern life has need of the article, though the highly civilized Romans +did very well without it. So strong is this need that, in the middle +ages, when Latin was used as an international language by the learned, +a definite article (_hic_ or τó) was foisted into the language. How +is it with the modern world? The Slavs have remained in this matter at +the point of view of the ancient world. They are articleless. Germany +has a cumbrous three-gender, four-case article; France rejoices in a +two-gender, one-case article with a distinct form for the plural. The +ripe product of tendency, the infant heir of the eloquent ages, to whose +birth the law of Aryan evolution groaned and travailed until but now, +the most useful, if not the "mightiest," monosyllable "ever moulded +by the lips of man," the "the," one and indeclinable, was born in the +Anglo-Saxon mouth, and sublimed to its unique simplicity by Anglo-Saxon +progress. + +The general law of progress in language could be illustrated equally +well from the history of genders as exhibited in various languages. +We are here only dealing with Aryan languages, but, merely by way of +illustration, it may be mentioned that a primitive African language +offers seven "genders," or grammatical categories requiring the same +kind of concords as genders. In Europe we pass westward from the three +genders of Germany, curving through feminine and masculine France +(_place aux dames!_) to monogendric Britain. Only linguistic arbitrary +gender is here referred to; this has nothing to do with suffragettes or +"defeminization." + +Again, take agreement of adjectives. In the ancient world, whether +Greek, Latin, Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon, adjectives had to follow nouns +through all the mazes of case and number inflection, and had also to +agree in gender. In this matter German has gone ahead of French, in that +its adjectives do not submit to change of form in order to indicate +agreement, when they are used predicatively (e.g. "ein gut_er_ Mann"; +"der gut_e_ Mann"; but "der Mann ist gut"). But English has distanced +the field, and was alone in at the death of the old concords, which +moistened our childhood's dry Latin _with_ tears. + +Whatever test be applied, the common tendency towards simplification, +from synthesis to analysis, is there; and in its every manifestation +English has gone farthest among the great literary languages. It +is necessary to add this qualification—"among the great literary +languages"—because, in this process of simplification, English has a +very curious rival, and possibly a superior, in the _Taal_ of South +Africa. The curious thing is that a local dialect should have shown +itself so progressive, seeing that the distinctive note of most dialects +is conservatism, their chief characteristics being local survivals.[1] +It is probable that the advanced degree of simplification attained by +the Taal is the result of deliberate and conscious adaptation of their +language by the original settlers to the needs of the natives. Just +as Englishmen speak Pidgin-English to coolies in the East, so the old +trekkers must have removed irregularities and concords from their Dutch, +so that the Kaffirs could understand it. If this is so, it is another +illustration of the essential feature that an international language +must possess. Even the Boer farmers, under the stress of practical +necessity, grasped the need of simplification. + + [1]Of course a difference must be expected between a dialect spoken + by a miscellaneous set of settlers in a foreign land and one in use + as an indigenous growth from father to son. But the _habitants_, + as the French settlers in Quebec are called, who, like the Boers, are + mainly a pastoral and primitive people, have retained an antiquated + form of French, with no simplification. + +The natural tendency towards elimination of exceptions is also strongly +marked in the speech of the uneducated. Miss Loane, who has had +life-long experience of nursing work among the poorest classes in +England, tabulates (_The Queen's Poor_, p. 112) the points in which +at the present day the language of the poor differs from that of the +middle and upper classes. Under the heading of grammar she singles +out specially superabundance of negatives, and then proceeds: "Other +grammatical errors. These are nearly all on the lines of simplification. +It is correct to say 'myself, herself, yourself, ourselves.' Very well: +let us complete the list with 'hisself' and 'theirselves.' Most verbs +are regular: why not all? Let us say 'comed' and 'goed,' 'seed' and +'bringed' and 'teached.'" Miss Loane probably exaggerates with her +"nearly all." For instance, as regards the uneducated form of the past +tense of "to come," surely "come" is a commoner form than "comed." +Similarly the illiterate for "I did" is "I done," not "I doed," which +would be the regular simplification. But the natural tendency is +certainly there, and it is strong. + +Precisely the same tendency is observable in the present development +of literary languages. They have all inherited many irregular verbal +conjugations from the past as part of their national property, and +these, by the nature of the case, comprise most of the commonest +words in the language, because the most used is the most subject to +abbreviation and modification. But these irregular types of inflection +have long been dead, in the sense that they are fossilized survivals, +incapable of propagating their kind. When a new word is admitted into +the language, it is conjugated regularly. Thus, though we still say "I +go—I went; I run—I ran," because we cannot help ourselves, when we are +free to choose we say, "I cycle—I cycled; I wire—I wired"; just as the +French say "télégraphier," and not "télégraphir," -oir, or -re. + +Considering the strength of this stream of natural tendency, it seems a +most natural thing to start again, for international purposes, with a +form of simplified Aryan language, and, being free from the dead hand of +the past, to set up the simplest forms of conjugation, etc., and make +every word in the language conform to them. + +Indeed, this question of artificial simplification of language has of +late years emerged from the scholar's study and become a matter of +practical politics, even as regards the leading national languages. +Within the last few years there have been official edicts in France and +Germany, embodying reforms either in spelling or grammar, with the sole +object of simplifying. The latest attempt at linguistic jerrymandering +has been the somewhat autocratic document of President Roosevelt. He +has found that there are limits to what the American people will stand +even from him, and it seems likely to remain a dead letter. But there is +not the smallest doubt that the English language is heavily handicapped +by its eccentric vowel pronunciation and its spelling that has failed +to keep pace with the development of the language. The same is true, +though in a lesser degree, of the spelling and pronunciation of French. +Since the whole theory of spelling—and, until a few hundred years +ago, its practice too—consisted in nothing else but an attempt to +represent simply and accurately the spoken word, most unprejudiced +people would admit that simplification is in principle advisable. But +the practical difficulties in the way of simplification of a national +language are almost prohibitive. It is hard to see that there are any +such obstacles in the way of the adoption of a simple and perfectly +phonetic international artificial language. We dislike change because it +is change, and new things because they are new. We go on suffering from +a movable Easter, which most practically inconveniences great numbers of +people and interests, and seems to benefit no one at all, simply because +it is no one's business to change it. If once the public could be got +to examine seriously the case for an artificial international language, +they could hardly fail to recognize what an easy, simple, and _natural_ +thing it is, and how soon it would pay off all capital sunk in its +universal adoption, and be pure profit. + + + NOTE + +This seems the best place to deal with a criticism of Esperanto which +has an air of plausibility. It is urged that Esperanto does not carry +the process of simplification far enough, and that in two important +points it shows a retrograde tendency to revert to a more primitive +stage of language, already left behind by the most advanced natural +languages. These points are: + + (1) The possession of an accusative case. + (2) The agreement of adjectives. + +Now, it must be borne in mind that the business of a universal language +is, not to adhere pedantically to any philological theory, not to make +a fetish of principle, not to strive after any theoretical perfection +in the observance of certain laws of construction, but—simply to be +easy. The principle of simplification is an admirable one, because it +furthers this end, and for this reason only. The moment it ceases to +do so, it must give way before a higher canon, which demands that an +international language shall offer the greatest ease, combined with +efficiency, for the greatest number. The fact that a scientific study +of language reveals a strong natural tendency towards simplification, +and that this tendency has in certain languages assumed certain forms, +is not in itself a proof that an artificial language is bound to follow +the historical lines of evolution in every detail. It will follow them +just so far as, and no farther than, they conduce to its paramount +end—greatest ease for greatest number, plus maximum of efficiency. +In constructing an international language, the question then becomes, +in each case that comes up for decision: How far does the proposed +simplification conduce to ease without sacrificing efficiency? Does +the cost of retention (reckoned in terms of sacrifice of ease) of +the unsimplified form outweigh the advantages (reckoned in terms of +efficiency) it confers, and which would be lost if it was simplified out +of existence? Let us then examine briefly the two points criticised, +remembering that the main function of the argument from history of +language is, not to deduce therefrom hard-and-fast rules for the +construction of international language, but to remove the unreasoning +prejudice of numerous objectors, who cannot pardon the international +language for being "artificial," i.e. consciously simplified. + + (1) _The Accusative Case_ + +This is formed in Esperanto by adding the letter _-n_. This one form is +universal for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns singular and plural. Ex.: + + Nom. _bona patro_ (good father), plural, _bonaj patroj_. + Acc. _bonan patron_ " _bonajn patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress this _-n_. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of unsimplified form: Remembering to add this +_-n_. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: The flexibility of the language is +enormously increased; the words can be put in any order without +obscuring or changing the sense. Ex.: + _La patro amas sian filon_ = the father loves his son. + _Sian filon amas la patro_ (in English "his son loves the father" + has a different sense). + _Amas la patro sian filon_ (= the father _loves_ his son, but...). + _La patro sian filon amas_. + _Sian filon la patro amas_ (= it is his son that the father loves). + +In every case the Esperanto sentence is perfectly clear, the meaning +is the same, but great scope is afforded for emphasis and shades of +gradation. Further, every nation is enabled to arrange the words as +suits it best, without becoming less intelligible to other nations. +Readers of Greek and Latin know the enormous advantage of free word +order. For purposes of rendering the spirit and swing of national works +of literature in Esperanto, and for facilitating the writing of verse, +the accusative is a priceless boon. Is the price too high? + +N.B.—Those people who are most apt to omit the _-n_ of the accusative, +having no accusative in their own language, generally make their meaning +perfectly clear without it, because they are accustomed to indicate the +objective case by the order in which they place their words. They make +a mistake of Esperanto by omitting the _-n_, but they are understood, +which is the essential. + + (2) _The Agreement of Adjectives_ + +Adjectives in Esperanto agree with their substantives in number and +case. Ex.: _bona patro_, _bonan patron_, _bonaj patroj_, _bonajn +patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress agreement of adjectives. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of agreement: Remembering to add _-j_ for the +plural and _-n_ for the accusative. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: Greater clearness; conformity with the +usage of the majority of languages; euphony. + +Esperanto has wisely adopted full, vocalic, syllabic endings for words. +Contrast Esp. _bon-o_ with French _bon_, Eng. _good_, Germ. _gut_. By +this means Esperanto is not only rendered slower, more harmonious, and +easier of comprehension; it is also able to denote the parts of speech +clearly to eye and ear by their form. Thus final _-o_ bespeaks a noun; +_-a_, an adjective; _-e_, an adverb; _-i_, an infinitive, etc. + +Now, since all adjectives end in syllabic _-a_, it is much harder +to keep them uninflected than if they ended with a consonant like +the Eng. "good." To talk about _bona patroj_ would not only seem a +hideous barbarism to all Latin peoples, whose languages Esperanto most +resembles, but it would also offend the bulk of Northerners. After a +very little practice it is really easier to say _bonaj patroj_ than +_bona patroj_. The assimilation of termination tempts the ear and +tongue. + +The grammar is also simplified. For if adjectives agreeing with nouns +and pronouns expressed were invariable, it would probably be necessary +to introduce special rules to meet the case of adjectives standing as +nouns, or where the qualified word was suppressed. + +Again, is the price too high compared to the advantages? + + + II + + ESPERANTO FROM AN EDUCATIONAL POINT OF VIEW—IT WILL AID THE + LEARNING OF OTHER LANGUAGES AND STIMULATE INTELLIGENCE + +(1) Esperanto takes a natural place at the beginning of the sequence of +languages, upon which is founded the scheme of language-teaching in the +Reform Schools of Germany, and in some of the more progressive English +schools. + +The principle involved in this scheme is that of orderly progression +from the easier to the more difficult. Only one foreign language is +begun at a time. The easiest language in the school curriculum is +begun first. Enough hours per week are devoted to this language to +allow of decent progress being made. When the pupils have a fair grip +of the elements of one language, another is begun. The bulk of the +school language-teaching hours are now devoted to the new language, and +sufficient weekly hours are given to the language already learnt to +avoid backsliding at least. Thus in a German school of the new type the +linguistic hours are devoted in the lowest classes to the mother-tongue. +When the pupils have some idea what language means, and have acquired +some notion of grammar, they are given a school year or two of French. +After this Latin is begun in the upper part of the school, and Greek at +a corresponding interval after Latin. + +Now, it is one of the commonest complaints of teachers in our secondary +schools that they have to begin teaching Latin or French to boys who +have no knowledge whatever of grammar. Fancy the hopelessness of trying +to teach an English boy the construction of a Latin or French sentence +when he does not know what a relative or demonstrative pronoun means! +This is the fate of so many a master that quite a number of them resign +themselves to giving up a good part of their French or Latin hour to +endeavouring to imbue their flock with some notions of grammar in +general. They naturally try to appeal to their boys through the medium +of their own language. But those who have incautiously upset their class +from the frying-pan of _qui_, _quae_, _quod_, into the fire of English +demonstrative and relative pronouns get a foretaste of the fire that +dieth not. _Facilis descensus Averni._ Happy if they do not lose heart, +and step downward from the fire to ashes—reinforced with sackcloth. + +"I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman said was right." This +is the "abstract and brief chronicle" of their woes—sometimes, indeed, +the epitaph of their pedagogical career, if they are too sickened of +the Sisiphean task of trying to teach grammar on insufficient basis. +And this use, or abuse, of the hardworked word "that" is only an +extreme case which illustrates the difficulty of teaching grammar to +babes, through the medium of a language honeycombed with synonyms, +homonyms, exceptions, and other pitfalls (can you be honeycombed with a +pitfall?)—a language which seems to take a perverse delight in breaking +all its own rules and generally scoring off the beginner. And for the +dull beginner, what language does not seem to conform to this type? +Answer: Esperanto. + +In other words, it would seem that, for the grinding of grammar and the +advancement of sound learning in the initial stage, there is nothing +like an absolutely uniform and regular language,[1] a _type tongue_, +something that corresponds in the linguistic hierarchy to Euclid or +the first rules of arithmetic in the mathematical, something clear, +consistent, self-evident, and of universal application. + + [1]Cf. Sir Oliver Lodge: "It would certainly appear that for this + purpose [i.e. educative language-learning for children] the fully + inflected ancient languages are best and most satisfactory; if + they were still more complete and regular, like Esperanto, they + would be better still to begin with" (_School Teaching and School + Reform_, p. 21: chapter on Curricula and Methods). + +Take our sentence again: "I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman +said was right." If our beginner has imbibed his first notions of +grammar through the medium of a type language, in which a noun is +always a noun, and is stamped as such by its form (this, by the way, +is an enormous aid in making the thing clear to children); in which an +adjective is always an adjective, and is stamped as such by its form; +and so on through all the other parts of speech,—when the teacher +comes to analyse the sentence given, he will be able to explain it by +reference to the known forms of the regular key-language. He will point +out that of the "thats": the first is the Esperanto _ke_ (which is +final, because _ke_ never means anything else); the second is _tiu_ (at +once revealed by its form to be a demonstrative), the fourth _kiu_, and +so on. As for the third "that," which _is_ rather hard for a child to +grasp, he will be able to make it into a noun in form by merely adding +_-o_ to the Esperanto equivalent for any "that" required. He will not +be doing violence to the language; for Esperanto consists of roots, +which habitually do duty as noun, verb, adjective, etc., according +to the termination added. Those who know the value of the concrete +and tangible in dealing with children will grasp the significance of +the new possibilities that are thus for the first time opened up to +language-teachers. + +To sum up: Natural languages are all hard, and the beginner can never +go far enough to get a rule fixed soundly in his mind without meeting +exceptions which puzzle and confuse him. Esperanto is as clear, logical, +and consistent as arithmetic, and, like arithmetic, depends more upon +intelligence than upon memory work. If Esperanto were adopted as the +first foreign language to be taught in schools, and all grammatical +teaching were postponed until Esperanto had been begun, and then given +entirely through the medium of Esperanto until a sound notion of +grammatical rules and categories had been instilled, it would probably +be found that the subsequent task of learning natural languages would +be facilitated and abridged. From the very start it would be possible +to prevent certain common errors and confusions, that tend to become +engrained in juvenile minds by the fluctuating or contradictory usage of +their own language, to their great let and hindrance in the subsequent +stages of language-learning. The skeleton outline of grammatical +theory with concrete examples afforded by Esperanto would shield +against vitiating initial mistakes, in much the same way as the use of +a scientific phonetic alphabet, when a foreign language is presented +for the first time to the English beginner in written form, shields +him against carrying over his native mixed vowel system to languages +which use the same letters as English, but give quite a different value +to them. In both cases[1] the essentials of the new instrument of +learning are the same—that it be of universal application, that it be +sufficiently different from the mother-tongue or alphabet to prevent +confusion by association of ideas, that each of the new forms or letters +convey only one idea or sound respectively, and that this idea or sound +be always and only conveyed by that form or letter. + + [1]i.e. scientific regular type grammar and scientific regular + phonetic alphabet. + +(2) From a psychological point of view Esperanto would be a rewarding +subject of study for children. + +The above remarks on sequence of languages show that, by placing +Esperanto first in the language curriculum, justice is done to the +psychological maxim: from the easier to the harder, from the regular +to the exceptional. It may further be argued (_a_) that Esperanto is +educative in the real sense of the word, i.e. suitable for drawing +out and developing the reasoning powers; (_b_) that it would act as +a stimulus, and by its ease set a higher standard of attainment in +language-learning. + +(_a_) Amidst all the discussion of "educationists" about methods, +curricula, sequence of studies, and the rest, one fundamental fact +continues to face the teacher when he gets down to business; and +that is, that he has got to make the taught think for themselves. +In proportion as his teaching makes them contribute their share of +effort will it be fruitful. This is, of course, the merest truism, +sometimes dignified in the current pedagogical slang by the name of +"self-activity," or the like. But whatever new bottles the theorists, +and their extreme left wing the faddists, may choose to serve up our +old wine in, the fact is there: children have got to be made to use +their own brains. The eternal question that faces the teacher is, how to +provide problems that children really can work out by using their own +brains. The trouble about history, geography, English literature, and +such subjects is that the subject-matter of the problems they offer for +solution lies beyond the experience of the young, and to a large extent +beyond their reasoning powers. In teaching all such subjects there is +accordingly the perpetual danger that the real work done may degenerate +into mere memory work, or parrot-like cramming of notes or dates. + +The same difficulty is encountered in science teaching. Heuristic +methods have been devised to meet the difficulty. Though they are no +doubt psychologically sound, they tend to be very slow in results; hence +the common jibe that a boy may learn as much by them in five years as he +could learn out of a shilling text-book in a term. + +The old argument that "mental gymnastics" are best supplied by Latin +is sound to the extent that Latin really does furnish a perpetual +series of small problems that have to be solved by the aid of grammar +and dictionary, but which do involve real mental effort, since mere +mechanical looking out of words does not suffice for their elucidation. +But for various reasons, such as the remoteness of the ancient world +in time, place, modes of thought, etc., Latin tends to be too hard and +not interesting enough for the average boy. He gets discouraged, and +develops a habit of only working enough to keep out of trouble with the +school authorities, and is apt to leave school with an unintelligent +attitude towards intellectual things in general. This is the result of +early drudging at a subject in which progress is very slow, and which +by its nature is uncongenial. The great desideratum is a linguistic +subject which shall at once inculcate a feeling for language (German +_Sprachgefühl_), and yet be easy enough to admit of rapid progress. +Nothing keeps alive the quickening zest that makes learning fruitful +like the consciousness of making rapid progress. + +Hitherto arithmetic and Euclid have been the ideal subjects for +providing the kind of problem required—one that can be worked out +with certainty by the aid of rule and use of brain, without calling +for knowledge or experience that the child cannot have. The facts +are self-evident, and follow from principles, without involving any +extraneous acquaintance with life or literature, and no deadening +memory work is required. If only there were some analogous subject on +the literary side, to give a general grip of principles, uncomplicated +by any arbitrary element, what a boon it would be! and what a sound +preparation for real and more advanced linguistic study for those who +showed aptitude for this line! Arithmetic and Euclid both really depend +upon common sense; but partly owing to their abstract nature, and partly +because they are always classed as "mathematics," they seem to contain +something repellent to many literary or linguistic types of mind. + +With the invention of a perfectly regular and logically constructed +language, a concrete embodiment of the chief principles of language +structure, we have offered us for the first time the hitherto missing +linguistic equivalent of arithmetic or Euclid. In a regular language, +just because everything goes by rule, problems can be set and worked +out analogous to sums in arithmetic and riders in Euclid. Given the +necessary roots and rules, the learner can manufacture the necessary +vocabulary and produce the answer with the same logical inevitability; +and he has to use his brains to apply his rules, instead of merely +copying words out of a dictionary, or depending upon his memory for +them. + +In this way all that part of language-study which tends to be dead +weight in teaching the young is got rid of in one fell swoop, and +this though the language taught and learnt is a highly developed +instrument for reading, writing, speaking, and literary expression. +This dead weight includes most of the unintelligent memorizing, all +exceptions, all complicated systems of declension and conjugation, +all irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs, all syntactical +subtleties (cf. the sequence of tenses, oratio obliqua, the syntax of +subordinate clauses, in Latin; and the famous conditional sentences, +with the no less notorious _ού_ and _μή_ in Greek), all conflicting and +illogical uses of auxiliaries (cf. _etre_ and _avoir_ in French, and +_sein_ and _haben_ in German), besides a host of other old enemies. +Some of these things of course are not wholly memory work, especially +the syntax, which involves a real feeling for language. But these +would be much better postponed until one easy foreign language has +been learnt thoroughly. Every multilinguist knows that each foreign +language is easier to learn than the last. With a perfectly regular +artificial language you can make so much progress in a short time that +you can use it freely for practical purposes. Yet it does not come of +itself, like the mother-tongue. _This free manipulation of a consciously +acquired language is the very best training for forming a feeling for +language_—far better than weary stumbling over the baby stages of a hard +language. When you can read, write, and speak one very easy artificial +language, which you have had to learn as a foreign one, then is the time +when you can profitably tackle the difficulties of natural language, +appreciating the niceties of syntax, and realizing, by comparison with +your normal key-language, in what points natural languages are merely +arbitrary and have to be learnt by heart. Those who have early conquered +the grammar and syntax of any foreign language, but have had to put in +years of hard (largely memory) work before they could write or speak, +e.g., Latin Latin, French French, or German German, will realize the +saving effected, when they are told that Esperanto has no idiom, no +arbitrary usage. The combination of words is not governed, as in natural +languages, by tradition (which tradition has to be assimilated in the +sweat of the brow), but is free, the only limits being common sense, +common grammar, and lucidity. + +To those who do not know Esperanto it may seem a dark saying that +language riders can be worked out in the same way as geometrical +ones. To understand this some knowledge of the language is necessary +(for sample problems see Appendix A, p. 200). But for the sake of +making the argument intelligible it may here be stated that one of the +labour-saving, vocabulary-saving devices of Esperanto is the employment +of a number of suffixes with fixed meaning, that can be added to any +root. Thus: + + The suffix _-ej-_ denotes place. + " " _-il-_ " instrument. + " " _-ig-_ " causation. + Final _-o_ denotes a noun. + +Given this and the root _san-_ (cf. Lat. _sanus_), containing the +idea of health, form words for "to heal" (_san-ig-i_ = to cause to be +well); "medicine" (_san-ig-il-o_ = instrument of healing); "hospital" +(_san-ig-ej-o_ = place of healing), etc. + +This is merely an example. The combinations and permutations are +infinite; they give a healthy knowledge of word-building, and can be +used in putting whole pages of carefully prepared idiomatic English into +Esperanto. Practical experience shows that, given the necessary crude +roots, the necessary suffixes, and a one-page grammar of the Esperanto +language, an intelligent person can produce in Esperanto a translation +of a page of idiomatic English, not Ollendorfian phrases, _without having +learnt Esperanto_. + +(_b_) Experience also shows that the intelligent one thoroughly enjoys +himself while doing so; and having done so, experiences a thrill of +exhilaration almost amounting to awe at having made a better translation +into a language he has never learnt than he could make into a national +language that he has learnt for years, e.g. Latin, French, or German. + +And what is exhilaration in the dry tree may be sustained working +keenness in the green. The stimulus to the young mind of progress swift +and sure is immense. A child who has learnt to read, write, and speak +Esperanto in six months, as is very possible within the natural limits +of power of expression imposed by his age, not only has a sound working +knowledge of grammatical categories and forms, which will stand him +in good stead in subsequent language-learning; he has also a quite +different attitude of mind—_une tout autre mentalité_, to use recent +jargon—towards foreign languages. His only experience of learning one +has been that he did so with the object and result of being able to +read, write, and speak it within a reasonable time. "By so much the +greater and more resounding the slump into actuality," you will say, +"when he comes to grapple with his next." Perhaps. But even so, the +habit of acquiring fresh words and forms for immediate use must surely +tell—not to mention that he will incidentally have acquired a very +useful Romance vocabulary, and a wholly admirable French lucidity of +construction. + +(3) And this question of lucidity brings us to the third great +educational advantage of Esperanto. Its opponents—without having +ever learnt it to see—have urged that its preciseness will debauch +the literary sense. Surely the exact opposite is the fact. _Le style +c'est l'homme_, and the essence of true style is that a man should give +accurate expression to his thoughts. The French wit, satirizing vapid +fine writing, said that language was given to man to enable him to +conceal his thought. There is no more potent instrument for obscuring +or concealing thought than the ready-made phrase. Take up many a +piece of journalese or other slipshod writing, and note how often the +conventional phrase or word slips from under the pen, meaning nothing +in particular. The very conventionality disguises from writer and +reader the confusion or absolute lack of idea it serves to cloak. Both +are lulled by the familiar sound of the set phrase or word and glide +easily over them. On the other hand, in using a language in which you +construct a good deal of your vocabulary according to logical rule +_tout en marchant_, it is impossible to avoid thinking, at each moment, +exactly what you do mean. Where there is no idiom, no arbitrary usage, +no ready-made phrase, there is also far less danger of yielding to a +fatal facility. + +Take an instance or two. In the Prayer Book occurs the phrase "Fulfil, +O Lord, our desires and petitions." At Sunday lunch a mixed party of +people, after attending morning service, were asked how they would +render into Esperanto the word "desires." They nearly all plumped for +_deziraĵo_. Now, the Esperanto root for "desire" is _dezir-_. By adding +_-o_ it becomes a noun = the act of desiring, a desire. By adding the +suffix _-aĵ_, and then _-o_, it becomes concrete = a desire- (i.e. +desired) thing, a desire. A reference to the dictionary showed that the +English word "desire" has both these meanings, but none of these people +had a sufficiently accurate idea of the use of language to realize this. +It was only when a gentleman passed his plate for a second helping of +beef, and was asked which he expected to be fulfilled—the beef, or his +aspiration for beef—that he, under the stimulus of hunger, adopted the +rendering _dezir-o_, thereby saving at once his bacon and his additional +beef. + +It is not of course necessary for people to define pedantically to +themselves the meaning of every word they use, but surely it must +conduce to clear thinking to use a language in which you are perpetually +called upon, if you are writing seriously, to make just the mental +effort necessary to think what you do mean. + +Again, consider the use of prepositions. This is, in nearly all national +languages, extremely fluctuating and arbitrary. Take a few English +phrases showing the use of the prepositions "at" and "with." "At seven +o'clock"; "at any price"; "at all times"; "at the worst"; "let it go +at that"; "I should say at a guess," etc. "Come with me"; "write with +a pen"; "he came with a rush"; "things are different with us"; "with a +twinkle in his eye"; "with God all things are possible," etc. Try to +turn these phrases into any language you think you know; the odds are +that you will find yourself "up against it pretty badly." The fact is, +that prepositions are very frequently used on no logical plan, not at +all according to any fixed or universal meaning; all that can be said +about them in a given phrase is that they are used there because they +are used. To remember their equivalents in other languages hard memory +work and much phrase-learning is necessary. In Esperanto all that is +necessary is: first, to become clear as to the exact meaning; secondly, +to pick the preposition that conveys it. There is no doubt, as the +Esperanto prepositions are fixed in sense, on the "one word one meaning" +plan. The point is, that there is no memory searching, often so utterly +vain, for there are few people indeed who can write a few pages of the +most familiar foreign languages without getting their prepositions all +wrong, and having "foreigner" stamped large all across their efforts. +In Esperanto, provided you have a clear mind and know your grammar, +_you are right_. No arbitrary usage defeats your efforts and makes +discouraging jargon of your literary attempts. + +This training in clear thought, the first requisite for all good +writing, is surely sound practical pedagogics. By the time you can give +up conscious word-building in Esperanto, and use words and phrases by +rote, you have done enough bracing thinking to teach you caution in the +use of the ready-made phrase and horror of the vague word. + +Fools make phrases, and wise men shun them. Here is a phrase-free +language: need we shun it? + + + III + + COMPARATIVE TABLES ILLUSTRATING LABOUR SAVED IN LEARNING ESPERANTO AS + CONTRASTED WITH OTHER LANGUAGES + + (_a_) WORD-BUILDING + +The following tables are meant to give some idea of the number and +variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto +root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes). By reading +the English, French, and German columns downwards, the reader will see +how many different roots and periphrases these languages employ in order +to express the same ideas. + +As the affixes have fixed meanings, they only have to be learnt once +for all, and many of them (e.g. _-ist_, _-in_, _re-_) are already +familiar. When once acquired, they can be used in unending permutation +and combination with different roots and each other. The tables below +are by no means exhaustive of what can be done with the roots _san-_ +and _lern-_. They are merely illustrative. By referring to the full +table of affixes in Part IV, Chapter IV, the reader can go on forming +new compounds _ad libitum_: e.g. san-o, san-a, san-e, san-i, saneco, +sanilo, sanulo, malsane, malsani, saneti, malsaneti, sanadi, eksani, +eksaniĝi, saninda, sanindi, sanindulo, sanaĵo, sanaĵero, sanilo, +sanigilo, sanigilejo, sanigilujo, sanigilisto, malsanemeco, remalsano, +remalsanigo, sanila, malsanulino, sanistinedzo, sanilingo, sanigestro, +sanigestrino, sanigema, sanega, sanigega, gesanantoj, saniĝontoj, +sanigistido, sanigejano... and so on (kaj tiel plu). + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + san-a healthy +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a ill +ne (not) ne-san-a unwell +-ig (causative) san-ig-i to heal + san-ig-a salutary +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restorative +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i to be convalescent + re-san-iĝ-a getting well again +-ig mal-san-ig-a sickening (transitive) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a sickening (intransitive) +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o doctor +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hospital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o invalid +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o hospital inmates +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o all the men and women patients +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o a lady doctor +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o a doctor's wife + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + san-a bien portant +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a malade +ne (not) ne-san-a (un peu) souffrant +-ig (causative) san-ig-i guérir + san-ig-a salutaire +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restaurant +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i etre convalescent + re-san-iĝ-a en train de se rétablir +-ig mal-san-ig-a écoeurant (qui rend malade) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a languissant +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o médecin +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hôpital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o un malade +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o ensemble des malades +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o les malades hommes et femmes +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o un médecin femme +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o une femme de médecin + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + san-a gesund +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a krank +ne (not) ne-san-a unwohl +-ig (causative) san-ig-i heilen + san-ig-a heilsam +re- (again) re-san-ig-a wiederherstellend +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i sich erholen + re-san-iĝ-a genesend +-ig mal-san-ig-a ekelhaft (krank machend) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a siechend +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o Arzt +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o Krankenhaus +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o ein Kranker +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (un)heilbar +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o Gesamtheit der Kranken +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o die Kranken beider Geschlechter +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o Arztin +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o Frau des Arztes + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + lern-i to learn +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i to teach + lern-ig-a educative +-ej (place) lernej-o school +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o pupil +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj pupils of both sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o class +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o schoolboy +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o schoolgirl +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o headmaster +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o schoolmaster + lern-ej-ist-in-o schoolmistress +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) subject + lern-aĵ-ar-o curriculum +-em (inclination) lern-em-a studious +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a idle +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i to stimulate + lern-ig-o instruction + (act) + lern-ig-aĵ-o instruction + (teaching given) + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + lern-i apprendre +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i enseigner + lern-ig-a éducateur +-ej (place) lernej-o école +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o élève +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj élèves des deux sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o classe +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o écolier +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o ecolière +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o proviseur +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o instituteur (professeur) + lern-ej-ist-in-o institutrice +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) matière d'enseignement + lern-aĵ-ar-o ensemble des matièress + d'enseignement +-em (inclination) lern-em-a appliqué +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a paresseux +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i mettre en train + lern-ig-o instruction + lern-ig-aĵ-o enseignement + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + lern-i lernen +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i lehren + lern-ig-a erzieherisch +-ej (place) lernej-o Schule +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o Schüler +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj Schüler and Schülerinnen +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o Klasse +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o Schulknabe +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o Schulmädchen +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o Direktor +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o Lehrer + lern-ej-ist-in-o Lehrerin +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) Lehrstoff + lern-aĵ-ar-o (Studien)- Laufbahn + Schulprogramm +-em (inclination) lern-em-a fleissig +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a faul +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i anregen + lern-ig-o das Unterrichten + lern-ig-aĵ-o Unterricht + + * * * * * + + (_b_) PARTICIPLES AND AUXILIARIES + +The following table illustrates the perfect simplicity and terseness of +the Esperanto verb. + +Every tense, active and passive, is formed with never more than two +words. Every shade of meaning (continued, potential, etc., action) is +expressed by these two words, of which one is the single auxiliary +_esti_ (itself conjugated regularly). The double auxiliary—"to be" and +"to have"—which infests most modern languages, with all its train of +confusing and often illogical distinctions (cf. French _je suis allé_, +but _j'ai couru_), disappears. Contrast the simplicity of _amota_ with +the cumbersome periphrasis _about to be loved_; or the perfect ease and +clearness of _vi estus amita_ with the treble-barrelled German _Sie +würden geliebt worden sein_. + +This simplicity of the Esperanto verb is entirely due to its full +participial system. There are six participles, present, past, and future +active and passive, each complete in one word. The only natural Aryan +language (of those commonly studied) that compares with Esperanto in +this respect is Greek; and it is precisely the fulness of the Greek +participial system that lends to the language a great part of that +flexibility which all ages have agreed in admiring in it pre-eminently. +Take a page of Plato or any other Greek author, and count the number +of participles and note their use. They will be found more numerous +and more delicately effective than in other languages. Esperanto can +do all this; and it can do it without any of the complexity of form +and irregularity that makes the learning of Greek verbs such a hard +task. Bearing in mind the three characteristic vowels of the three +tenses—present _-a_, past _-i_, future _-o_ (common to finite tenses +and participles)—the proverbial schoolboy, and the dullest at that, +could hardly make the learning of the Esperanto participles last him +half an hour. + +It would be easy to go on filling page after page with the +simplifications effected by Esperanto, but these will not fail to strike +the learner after a very brief acquaintance with the language. But +attention ought to be drawn to one more particularly clever device—the +form of asking questions. An Esperanto statement is converted into a +question without any inversion of subject and verb or any change at +all, except the addition of the interrogative particle _ĉu_. In this +Esperanto agrees with Japanese. But whereas Japanese adds its particle +_ka_ at the end of the sentence, the Esperanto _ĉu_ stands first in its +clause. Thus when, speaking Esperanto, you wish to ask a question, you +begin by shouting out _ĉu_, an admirably distinctive monosyllable which +cannot be confused with any other word in the language. By this means +you get your interlocutor prepared and attending, and you can then frame +your question at leisure. + +Contrast Esperanto and English in the ease with which they respectively +convert a statement into a question. + + English: You went—did you go? + + Esperanto: Vi iris—ĉu vi iris? + +This particle may be considered the equivalent of the initial mark of +interrogation used in Spanish, and serves to remove all complications in +connexion with word order. + + * * * * * + +ESPERANTO ENGLISH + +amanta loving +aminta having loved +amonta about to love +amata being loved +amita (having been) loved +amota about to be loved +mi estas aminta I have loved +vi estis aminta you had loved +li estas amanta he is loving +ŝi estis amata she was being loved +ni estos amintaj we shall have loved +vi estas amataj you are loved +ili estas amitaj they have been loved +mi estus aminta I should have loved +vi estus amita you would have been loved +li estas foririnta he has gone away +ili estus foririntaj they would have gone away + +ESPERANTO FRENCH + +amanta aimant +aminta ayant aimé +amonta devant aimer +amata étant aimé +amita (ayant été) aimé +amota devant être aimé +mi estas aminta j'ai aimé +vi estis aminta vous aviez aimé +li estas amanta il est aimant +ŝi estis amata elle était en train d'être aimée +ni estos amintaj nous aurons aimé +vi estas amataj vous êtes aimés +ili estas amitaj ils ont été aimés +mi estus aminta j'aurais aimé +vi estus amita vous auriez été aimé +li estas foririnta il s'en est allé +ili estus foririntaj il s'en seraient allés + +ESPERANTO GERMAN + +amanta liebend +aminta der geliebt hat +amonta der lieben wird +amata der geliebt wird +amita der geliebt worden ist +amota der geliebt werden soll +mi estas aminta ich habe geliebt +vi estis aminta Sie hatten geliebt +li estas amanta er ist liebend +ŝi estis amata sie war im Zuge geliebt zu werden +ni estos amintaj wir werden geliebt haben +vi estas amataj Sie werden geliebt +ili estas amitaj sie sind geliebt worden +mi estus aminta ich würde geliebt haben +vi estus amita Sie würden geliebt worden sein +li estas foririnta er ist fortgegangen +ili estus foririntaj sie würden fortgegangen sein + + * * * * * + +This chapter on labour-saving may fitly conclude with an estimate +of the amount of mere memorizing work to be done in Esperanto. +Since this is almost _nil_ for grammar, syntax, and idiom, and +since there are no irregularities or exceptions, the memory work +is, broadly speaking, reduced to learning the affixes, the table +of correlatives, and a certain number of new roots. This number is +astonishingly small. Here is an estimate made by Prof. Macloskie, +of Princeton, U.S.A.: + + Number of roots new to an English boy without Latin, about 600* + " " " " " with " " 300 + " " " a college teacher " 100 + + *i.e. about one-third of the whole number in the _Fundamento_. + + + IV + + HOW ESPERANTO CAN BE USED AS A CODE LANGUAGE TO + COMMUNICATE WITH PERSONS WHO HAVE NEVER LEARNT IT + +Technically speaking, Esperanto combines the characteristics of an +inflected language with those of an agglutinative one. This means that +the syllables used as inflexions (_-o_, _-a_, _-e_, _-as_, _-is_, _-os_, +_-ant-_, _-int-_, _-ont-_, etc.), being invariable and of universal +application, can also be regarded as separate words. And as separate +words they all figure in the dictionary, under their initial letters. +Thus anything written in Esperanto can be deciphered by the simple +process of looking out words and parts of words in the dictionary. For +examples, see pieces 1 and 2 in the specimens of Esperanto, pp. 167-8 +[Part IV, Chapter II], and read the Note at the beginning of Part IV. As +the Esperanto dictionary only consists of a few pages, it can be easily +carried in the pocket-book or waistcoat pocket. + +Thus, while to the educated person of Aryan speech Esperanto presents +the natural appearance of an ordinary inflected language, one who +belongs by speech to another lingual family, or any one who has never +heard of Esperanto, can regard every inflected word as a compound of +invariable elements. By turning over very few pages he can determine +the meaning and use of each element, and therefore, by putting them +together, he can arrive at the sense of the compound word, e.g. +_lav'ist'in'o_. Look out _lav-_, and you find "wash"; look out _-ist_, +and you find it expresses the person who does an action; look out _-in_, +and you find it expresses the feminine; look out _-o_, and you find it +denotes a noun. Put the whole together, and you get "female who does +washing, laundress." + +Suppose you are going on an ocean voyage, and you expect to be shut up +for weeks in a ship with persons of many nationalities. You take with +you keys to Esperanto, price one halfpenny each, in various languages. +You wish to tackle a Russian. Write your Esperanto sentence clearly +and put the paper in his hand. At the same time hand him a Russian key +to Esperanto, pointing to the following paragraph (in Russian) on the +outside: + +"Everything written in the international language can be translated by +the help of this vocabulary. If several words together express but a +single idea, they are written in one word, but separated by apostrophes; +e.g. _frat'in'o_, though a single idea, is yet composed of three words, +which must be looked for separately in the vocabulary." + +After he has got over his shock of surprise, your Russian, if a man of +ordinary education, will make out your sentence in a very short time by +using the key. + +As an example Dr. Zamenhof gives the following sentence: "Mi ne +sci'as kie mi las'is la baston'o'n: Ĉu vi ĝi'n ne vid'is?" With the +vocabulary this sentence will work out as follows: + + Mi mi = I I + ne ne = not not + sci'as sci = know + as = sign of present tense do know + kie kie = where where + mi mi = I I + las'is las = leave + is = sign of past tense have left + la la = the the + baston'o'n baston = stick + o = sign of a noun + n = sign of objective case stick + ĉu ĉu = whether, sign of question whether + vi vi = you you + ĝi'n ĝi = it + n = sign of objective case it + ne ne = not not + vid'is vid = leave + is = sign of past tense have seen + +It is obvious that no natural language can be used in the same way as a +code to be deciphered with a small key. + + German French + + Ich I je I + weiss white ne not + nicht not sais ? + wo where pas step + ich I où where + den ? j'ai ? + Stock stick laissé ? + gelassen dispassionate la the + habe: property: canne: reed: + haben to have ne not + Sie she, they, you, l'avez ? + ihn ? vous you + nicht not pas step + gesehen ? vu ? ? + +If your Russian wishes to reply, hand him a Russian-Esperanto +vocabulary, pointing to the following paragraph on the outside: + +"To express anything by means of this vocabulary, in the international +language, look for the words required in the vocabulary itself; and for +the terminations necessary to distinguish the grammatical forms, look in +the grammatical appendix, under the respective headings of the parts of +speech which you desire to express." + +The whole of the grammatical structure is explained in a few lines in +this appendix, so the grammar can be looked out as easily as the root +words. + + + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY + + + NOTE + +The best way of learning Esperanto is to begin at once to read the +language. Do not trouble to learn the grammar and list of suffixes by +themselves first. All this can be picked up easily in the course of +reading. + +In the following specimens the first two pieces are marked for +beginners. Each part of a word marked off by hyphens is to be looked out +separately in the vocabulary. By the time the beginner has read these +two pieces carefully in this way he will know the grammar, and have a +fair idea of the structure of the language and the use of affixes. + +In order to save time in looking out words, and so quicken the process +of learning, the English translation of the third piece is given +in parallel columns. Therefore in this piece only the principal +words, which might be unfamiliar to English readers, are given in the +vocabulary. Word-formation and some points of grammar are explained in +the notes. + +To get a practical grasp of Esperanto, cover the left-hand (Esperanto) +column with a piece of paper after reading it, and re-translate the +English into Esperanto, using the notes. After half an hour per day of +such exercise for two or three weeks, an ordinary educated person will +know Esperanto pretty well. + +N.B.—It is very important to acquire a correct pronunciation at the +start. Study the pronunciation rules, and practise reading aloud before +beginning to translate. _Read slowly._ + + + I + + PRONUNCIATION + +_Vowels_ + +There are no long and short, open and closed, vowels: just five simple, +full-sounding vowels, always pronounced the same. English people must be +particularly careful to make them sufficiently full. + + _a_ as _a_ in Engl. "father." + _e_ " _ey_ " " "they." + _i_ " _ee_ " " "eel." + _o_ " _o_ " " "hole," inclining to _o_ in Engl. "more." + (English speakers find it hard to pronounce + a true _o_.) + _u_ " _oo_ " " "moon." + +In short, the vowels are as in Italian. + +_Diphthongs_ + + _aj_ as _eye_ in Engl. "eye." + _oj_ " _oy_ " " "boy." + _aŭ_ " _ow_ " " "cow." + (_eŭ_ " _e...w_ " " "g_e_t _w_et": this sound does not + often occur.) + +_Consonants_ + +These are pronounced as in English, except the following: + + _c_ as _ts_ in Engl. "bits." + _ĉ_ " _ch_ " " "church." + _g_ " _g_ " " "give." + _ĝ_ " _g_ " " "gentle." + _ĥ_ " _ch_ " Scotch "loch," or German "ich." + _j_ " _y_ " Engl. "yes." + _ĵ_ " _s_ " " "pleasure." + _ŝ_ " _sh_ " " "shilling." + _ŭ_ " _w_ " " "cow" (only occurs in the diphthongs + _aŭ_ and _eŭ_). + +_Accent_ + +Always upon the last syllable but one. + +_Example_ + +The first few lines of piece I in the following specimens may be thus +figured for English readers: + +Gayseenyóroy—mee noon déeros ahl vee káylkine vórtoyn Ayspayráhntay. +Mee kraydahs kay vee ówdos, kay Ayspayráhnto áystahs tray fahtséelah ki +baylsónah léengvo. + +N.B.—The precise sound of _e_ is between _a_ in "b_a_le" and _e_ in +"b_e_ll." + + + II + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + + 1. PAROL-AD-O + +Ge-sinjor-o-j—mi nun dir-os al vi kelk-a-j-n vort-o-j-n Esperant-e. Mi +kred-as ke vi aŭd-os, ke Esperant-o est-as tre facil-a kaj bel-son-a +lingv-o. Ver-e, ĝi est-as tiel facil-a, sonor-a kaj simpl-a, ke oni +tut-e ne hav-as mal-facil-ec-o-n por lern-i ĝi-n. La lern-ant-o-j +pov-as ordinar-e kompren-i, leg-i, skrib-i kaj parol-i ĝin en tre +mal-long-a temp-o. La fakt-o ke Esperant-o en-hav-as tre mal-mult-a-j-n, +vokal-a-j-n son-o-j-n, kaj ke la vokal-o-j est-as ĉiu-j long-a-j kaj +plen-son-a-j, est-ig-as ĝin mult-e pli facil-a ol la ali-a-j lingv-o-j, +ĉiu por aŭ-d-i, ĉiu por el-parol-i. + +Mi kred-as ke mal-long-a lern-ad-o est-os sufiĉ-a por vi-n +kompren-ig-i, ke la hom-o-j de ĉiu-j naci-o-j pov-as inter-parol-i +Esperant-e sen mal-facil-ec-o. + +Mi ne de-ten-os vi-n pli long-e. Fin-ant-e, mi las-os kun vi du +fraz-et-o-j-n: unu-e, por la ideal-ist-o-j, kiu-j cel-as unu frat-ec-o-n +inter la popol-o-j de ĉiu land-o, la Esperant-a-n deviz-o-n—"Dum ni +spir-as ni esper-as": du-e, por la hom-o-j praktik-a-j la praktik-a-n +konsil-o-n—"Lern-u Esperant-o-n." + + + 2. LA MAR-BORD-IST-O-J: ALEGORI-ET-O + +Ĉirkaŭ grand-a mez-ter-a mar-o viv-is mult-a-j popol-o-j. Ili hav-is +mult-a-n inter-a-n komerc-o-n. Ĉar la mar-o est-is oft-e mal-trankvil-a +kaj ili hav-is nur mal-grand-a-j-n ŝip-o-j-n, ili vetur-is laŭ-long-e +la mar-bord-o, neniam perd-ant-e la ter-o-n el la vid-o. + +Cert-a hom-o el-pens-is ŝip-o-n, kiu ir-is per vapor-o. Li dir-is al la +mar-bord-ist-o-j: "Jen, ni met-u ni-a-n mon-o-n kun-e, kaj ni konstru-u +grand-a-j-n vapor-ŝip-o-j-n. Tiel ni vetur-os rekt-e trans la mar-o unu +al ali-a-n; kaj ni far-os pli da komerc-o en mal-pli da temp-o." Sed la +mar-bord-ist-o-j pli am-is ĉirkaŭ-ir-i en mal-grand-a-j ŝip-o-j, kiel +ili kutim-is. La el-pens-int-o ne hav-is sufiĉ-e da mon-o por konstru-i +grand-a-n vapor-ŝip-o-n, kiu tre mult-e en-hav-os kaj tre rapid-e +vojaĝ-os; tial li dev-is vetur-ad-i en si-a mez-grand-a vapor-ŝip-o, +kiu tamen almenaŭ rekt-e ir-is ĉie-n. Sed la mar-bord-ist-o-j +daŭr-ig-is rem-i kaj vel-i ĉirkaŭ-e. + + + 3. NESAĜA GENTO: AN UNWISE[1] RACE: + ALEGORIO AN ALLEGORY + +Malproksime, en nekonata lando, Far[2] away, in an unknown[3] +vivis sovaĝa gento. Ili loĝis en land, there lived a savage race, +la mezo de vasta ebenaĵo, izolata They dwelt in the midst of a +de la ekstera mondo. Unuflanken vast plain,[4] cut off from the +homo dek tagojn vojaĝante venus outer[5] world. Towards one +al montegaro: aliflanke staris side[6] a man journeying[7] ten +granda lago kaj senlimaj marĉoj. days[8] would come to a big +Tiel oni vivadis trankvile laŭ mountain-range[9]; on the other +patra kutimo, tute senzorga pri side stood a great lake and +la ago kaj faro de aliaj homgentoj boundless[10] swamps. Thus[11] +transmontanaj. En somero estis they lived[12] quietly after +varmege, kaj ĉiu vintro ŝajnis the manner of their fathers, +pli malvarma ol la antaŭa; sed caring nothing[13] for the way +la tero estis fruktodona, ĝi of life[14] of other men beyond +donis al ili sufiĉe da greno the hills. In summer it was +por manĝi, kaj la riveroj kaj very hot,[15] and every winter +riveretoj plene provizis puran seemed colder than the last; +trinkaĵon. but the earth was fertile, it + gave them enough corn[16] to + eat, and the streams and rivers + furnished abundance of pure water + to drink.[17] + + [1]Unwise. Wise = _saĝa_; _ne_ = not. [2]Far. Near = _proksim-e_ + (_e_ = adverbial ending). To be near = _proksimi_. _Mal-_ is a + prefix denoting the opposite. [3]Unknown. To know = _koni_. Pres. + part. pass. _-at-_ Negative = _ne_. (_bona_ = good; _malbona_ = + bad; _nebona_ = not good.) [4]Plain. Flat = _eben-a_. _aĵ_ is + a suffix denoting something made from or possessing the quality + of. [5]Outer. Outside (preposition) = _ekster_. _a_ denotes an + adjective. [6]Towards one side. Side = _flank-o_. _e_ denotes an + adverb; _flanke_ = "sidely," i.e. at the side, _n_ denotes motion + towards. [7]Journeying. This participial phrase qualifies the verb, + _venus_, like an adverb. In Esperanto the participle therefore takes + an _e_ which denotes an adverb. [8]Ten days, i.e. for the duration + of ten days. Duration of time is put in the accusative case. [9]Big + mountain-range. Mountain = _mont-o_. _eg_ is a suffix denoting + bigness; _ar_ is a suffix denoting a collection. [10]Boundless. Limit + = _lim-o_. Without = _sen_. [11]Thus. See p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V] + for correlatives. [12]They lived. To live = _viv-i_. _ad_ is a suffix + denoting continued action. [13]Caring nothing. Care = _zorg-o_. + _Sen_ = without. _a_ denotes an adjective. [14]Way of life. Lit. the + acting and doing. [15]It was very hot. In such impersonal uses of + the adjective, the adverbial form is used. [16]Enough corn, _da_ is + used after words of quantity. _Sufiĉan grenon_ would also be right. + [17]Water to drink. Lit. drink-stuff, or drink-thing. + +Tiel ili vivadis ne malfeliĉe, Thus they lived not unhappily, +kaj ilia vivo estis la vivo and their life was the life of +de la prapatroj, ĉar ili ne their forefathers, for they knew +sciis kiel ĝin plibonigi. not how to better[1] it. But +Sed mankis en ilia lando unu in their land one thing[2] was +aĵo, kaj pro tiu ĉi manko lacking; and for[3] lack of this +ili multe suferis: en la tuta they suffered greatly: there +lando ĉeestis nenia ŝirmilo, was[4] no shelter[5] in all the +ĉu kontraŭ la suno en somero, land, whether against the sun in +ĉu por forteni la vintrajn summer, or to keep off[6] the +ventojn. Ĉiuflanke la tero estis winter winds. On every side the +plata; kaj kvankam la greno ground was flat; and although corn +kaj ĉiuspecaj legomoj kreskis and all kinds of[7] vegetables +bone, arboj estis nekonataj. Eĉ grew well, trees were unknown. +la malproksima montaro staris Even the distant mountains stood +tutnuda; kaj kiam la ventoj all bare; and when the winds blew +blovis forte el ĝiaj neĝoj, la strong from amidst their[8] snows, +mizeruloj tremetis pro malvarmeco, the poor folk shivered for cold, +kaj ne povis eĉ en siaj dometoj and could not get comfortable[9] +komfortiĝi, ĉar la penetranta even in their cottages, for the +enfluo de malvarma aero stele penetrating draught of the cold +eniris ĝis la familian kamenon. air crept[10] right in to the + family fireside. + + [1]Better. Good = _bon-a_; better = _pli bona_; suf. _-ig_ is + causative. [2]One thing. The concrete suffix _-aĵ_ by itself may be + used to express "thing." Of course it takes the substantival ending + _o_. [3]For lack. Esperanto is absolutely precise in the use of + prepositions according to sense. No idiom. In this it differs from + all other languages. Here "for" means "by reason of." [4]There was. + _Est-i_ = to be; _ĉe_ = at; _ĉeesti_ = to be present. [5]Shelter. + To shelter = _ŝirm-i_; _il_ is a suffix expressing instrument. + [6]Keep off. To hold = _ten-i_; away = _for_. [7]All kinds of. + Kind = _spec-o_; all = _ĉiu_. _a_ is adjectival ending. [8]Their + snows. Whose snows? The mountains'. Therefore _ĝiaj_, referring + to _montaro_. If "their" referred to "winds," it would be _siaj_. + [9]Get comfortable. Comfort(able) = _komfort-o_; suf. _iĝ_ denotes + becoming. [10]Crept in. To steal = _ŝtel-i_; _-e_ makes it an + adverb. + +Nu okazis ke certa knabo, pensema Now, it happened that a certain +preter siaj jaroj, komencis boy, thoughtful[1] beyond his +pripensi tiun ĉi mizeran staton. years, began to think over this +Li vivis kun sia vidvina patrino, wretched state of things. He +kiu havis du infanetojn krom lived with his[2] widowed mother, +Namezo (tiel nomiĝis la knabo). who had two little children +Ili estis tre malriĉaj, kaj devis besides Namezo (this was the lad's +senĉese labori por nutri sin name[3]). They were very poor, +mem kaj la infanojn. La vidvino and were obliged to work hard +ne havis pli ol kvardek jarojn, without stopping to get food for +sed Namezo rimarkis ke vespere, themselves and the children. The +post la taga laboro, ŝi ŝajnis widow was not more than forty, but +tute lacega, kaj kelkajn jarojn Namezo noticed that of an evening, +post la morto de sia edzo ŝi after the day's work, she seemed +ekmaljuniĝis. Ofte la knabo diris quite tired out,[4] and a few +al ŝi, ke ŝi devus pli ripozi, years[5] after her husband's death +sed ĉiumatene post la nokto ŝi she grew old all at once.[6] Often +havis mienon tiel same lacegan the boy told her she ought to take +kiel vespere; kaj ŝi plendis ke more rest, but every morning[7] +la trablovaj ventoj suferigis sin she had the same worn-out look as +nokte per reŭmatismaj doloroj, in the evening; and she complained +kaj somere ŝi ne povis dormi pro that the winds blowing through of +varmeco. Tiam la knabo turnis a night plagued[8] her with[9] +la okulojn ekster sia hejmo kaj rheumatic pains, and in summer +rigardis ĉirkaŭen. Li vidis ke she could not sleep because of +ĉiuflanke estis tiel same: la the heat. Then the boy turned his +geviroj frue maljuniĝis kaj multe eyes outwards from his home and +suferis. Li pensis, "Baldaŭ estos looked around him. He saw that on +al mi ankaŭ simile; la juneco every side it was the same[10]: +estas mallonga kaj labora, kaj la men and women[11] grew old early +vivo estas longa kaj ĉagrena." and suffered much. He thought, +Fine li malgajadis. "Soon it will be the same with me; + youth[12] is short and full of + work, and life is long and full of + trouble." At last he became gloomy + altogether.[13] + + [1]Thoughtful. To think = _pens-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [2]With his widowed mother, i.e. his own = _sia_. [3]This was + his name. To name = _nom-i_; with suf. _-iĝ_ = to get named, + to be called. [4]Tired out. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. _-eg_ denotes + intensity. [5]A few years. Accusative of time. [6]She grew old all + at once. Young = _jun-a_; old = _maljuna_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming; prefix _ek-_ denotes beginning, or sudden action. [7]Every + morning = _ĉiumatene_. "The whole morning" would be _la tutan + matenon_. [8]Plagued. To suffer = _sufer-i_; suf. _-ig_ is causative; + _suferigi_ = to cause to suffer. [9]With... pains. Think of the + sense. "With" = by means of. [10]It was the same. Impersonal: use + the adverbial form in _-e._ [11]Men and women. Pref. _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [12]Youth. Young = _juna_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. + [13]Became gloomy altogether. Gay = _gaj-a_; gloomy = _malgaja_; suf. + _-ad_ denotes continuance. + +Vintro forpasis, somero alvenis. Winter passed away, summer came +Unu nokton la knabo estis kuŝanta on. One night the boy was lying +en sia lito: li estis laboreginta in his bed: he had been working +en la kampoj, kaj estis tre laca, hard[1] in the fields, and was +sed ju pli li penis ekdormi, very tired, but the more he +des pli li obstine vekiĝadis. tried to go to sleep[2] the +La tutan fajran tagon la suno wider awake he grew. All through +estis malsupren brilinta sur la the long fiery day the sun had +tegmenton de la dometo, tiel ke la been beating down[3] on the roof +kuŝejo nun similis fornon. Namezo of the cottage, so that the +pensis kaj turniĝis, returniĝis sleeping-place[4] was now like an +kaj repensis; la samaj pensoj, oven. Namezo thought and tossed, +ĉiam ronde revenantaj, iĝis tossed and thought again; the same +turmento. Fine li ekdormetis, sed thoughts, always coming round in +la konfuzigaj pensoj, ĉiam la a circle, became[5] a torture. +pensoj, ruladis eĉ en lia dormo At length he fell into a light +senkompate tra lia cerbo. sleep,[6] but the distracting[7] + thoughts, always the thoughts, + kept rolling[8] through his brain + pitilessly, even in his sleep. + +Subite ekfalis sur lin granda All at once a great peace fell +paco. Li ŝajnis stari sur monta upon him. He seemed to be standing +pinto. Laceco kaj zorgo ne estis on a mountain-peak. Weariness[9] +plu. Ĉirkaŭe vasta soleco. Li and care were no more. Around +kaj la monto—krom tio ekzistis vast solitude. He and the +nenio, kaj li estis kontenta. mountain—there was nought else, + and he was glad. + +Al li, tiel lukse enspiranta la While he thus breathed in the +freŝan aeron, alvenis fluge fresh air with delight, a white +blanka birdo. Ĝi aperis, li ne bird came flying.[10] It appeared, +sciis kiel, el la ĉirkaŭanta he knew not how, out of the +soleco, kaj metiĝis apud li sur surrounding solitude,[11] and came +la montan pinton. Ĝi komencis and perched[12] beside him on the +paroli, kaj en lia sonĝo tio ĉi mountain-top. It began to speak, +neniel lin surprizis. and in his dream this[13] in no + way[14] astonished him. + + [1]He had been working hard. Pluperfect, lit. he was having worked. + Suf. _-eg_ denotes intensity. [2]To go to sleep. To sleep = _dorm-i_; + pref. _ek-_ denotes beginning. [3]Down. Above = _supr-e_; below = + _malsupre_; _n_ denotes motion. [4]Sleeping-place. To lie = _kuŝi_; + suf. _-ej_ denotes place. [5]Became. Suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming; + here used as a separate verb. [6]Fell into a light sleep. To sleep + = _dorm-i_; suf. _-et_ denotes light sleep; pref. _ek-_ denotes + beginning. [7]Distracting. Confused = _konfuz-a_; suf. _-ig_ denotes + causation, confusion-causing. [8]Kept rolling. To roll = _rul-i_; + suf. _-ad_ denotes continuance. [9]Weariness. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. + _-ec_ denotes abstract. [10]Came flying. To fly = _flug-i_; root + _flug-_ with adverbial ending _-e_ = flyingly. [11]Solitude. Alone = + _sol-a_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. [12]Came and perched. The idea + of motion is conveyed by the accusative (_-n_) _pinton_. [13]This. + Use neuter form in _-o_, because it stands alone. "This dream" = _tiu + ĉi sonĝo_. [14]In no way. See table of correlatives, p. 193 [Part + IV, Chapter V]. + +"Homa knabo," diris la birdo, "Mortal[1] boy," said the bird, +faligante en lian manon semon dropping[2] a seed into his hand +el sia beko, "prenu tiun ĉi from its beak, "take this seed: +semon: metu ĝin en la teron: put it in the ground: care for +prizorgu ĝin, flegu ĝin, kaj it, tend it, and keep tending it. +flegadu ĝin. Post tempo plenigota In the fulness of time there will +leviĝos el tiu ĉi semo kreskaĵo rise[3] from this seed such[5] a +tia, kian la viaj ĝis nun ne growth[4] as[5] your people[6] +vidis. La aliaj homoj nomas ĝin never yet saw. Other peoples call +_arbon_. Ĝi estos granda; kaj en it a _tree_. It will be big; and +la venontaj jaroj, se oni deve in future[7] years, if it is duly +ĝin flegos, naskiĝos el ĝi tended, there will spring from it +arbaroj, kiuj estos ŝirmilo por groves,[8] which will give shelter +la homaro, kaj por multaj aliaj to men and women, and will be +celoj utilos. Sed flegi ĝin oni useful for many other ends. But +devos, ĉar sen homa penado nenio tended it must be, for without +al homoj prosperas." man's striving nothing turns out + well for men." + +Namezo volis respondi, sed dum Namezo was about to reply, but +li levis la manon por rigardi la as he raised his hand to look at +semon, estis al li kvazaŭ li the seed, he seemed to turn[9] +turniĝis, la kapo malsupren: la head downwards: the mountain +monto malaperis, kaj li disappeared,[10] and he +falis... falis... falis.... fell... fell... fell.... + + [1]Mortal. Man = _hom-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adj. [2]Dropping. + To fall = _fal-i_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to fall. [3]Rise. To + raise = _lev-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive. [4]A growth. + To grow = _kreski_; "grow-thing" — _kresk-aĵ-o_. [5]Such...as. + _Tia...kia_ (= Latin _talis...qualis)._ See table of correlatives, + p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. [6]Your people. You = _vi_; _-a_ makes + it an adj. [7]Future. Future participle active of _ven-i_ = about + to come. [8]Groves. Tree = _arb-o_; suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection + of trees. [9]To turn. _Turn-i_ is transitive; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it + intransitive. [10]Disappeared. To appear = _aper-i_; pref. _mal-_ + denotes opposite. + +Tiam li estis denove veka en la Then he was awake again in the +forna dometo, sed li ne povis sin oven-like[1] hut, but he could +malhelpi, rigardi sian manon, por not refrain[2] from[3] looking at +vidi ĉu la semo enestis. Semo his hand, to see if the seed was +neestis: kaj la pensoj rekomencis in it. There was no seed; and the +ruladi tra lia cerbo—tamen ne plu thoughts began to roll through +la antaŭaj turmentigaj pensoj, his brain again—yet no longer +sed novaj esperplenaj pensoj, ĉar the old[4] worrying thoughts, +li kredis, pasie kredis, ke estas but new thoughts full of hope, +ja ia veraĵo en lia sonĝo. for he believed, passionately + believed, that there was indeed + some truth[5] in his dream. + +Kaj nun la morgaŭa tago And now the new day began to dawn. +eklumiĝis. Li leviĝis kaj iris He got up and went about his work, +al sia laboro, kaj tiun ĉi tagon and this day and many succeeding +kaj multajn sekvantajn tagojn li days he went on working as usual, +laboradis kiel kutime, parolante speaking to no one about his dream +al neniu pri la sema sonĝo. of the seed. + +Sed kiam la tempo de rikolto But when harvest-time was over, +forpasis, li aĉetis dudektagan he bought food[6] enough for +nutraĵon kaj donis al la patrino twenty days and gave his mother +sian restan ŝparaĵon el la the rest[7] of his harvest-tide +rikolta tempo (ĉar vi scias, savings[8] (for you know that +ke en la sezono de rikolto bona in the harvest season a good +laboristo gajnas pli ol alitempe), workman[9] earns more than at +dirante ke li devos vojaĝi, kaj other times), saying that he +forestos dudek tagojn. La patrino must[10] go on a journey, and +miregis, ĉar neniam antaŭe li would[10] be away for twenty days. +estis lasinta ŝin eĉ unu tagon; His mother wondered greatly, for +sed li estis bona filo, kaj ŝi he had never left[11] her before +kontraŭstaris lin en nenio. even for a single day; but he was + a good son to her, and she did not + thwart him in anything. + + [1]Oven-like. Oven = _forn-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [2]Refrain. To help = _help-i_; to hinder = _malhelpi_; to hinder + himself = _malhelpi sin._ [3]Refrain from looking. In Esperanto use + the simplest construction possible, _as long as it is clear_. The + simple infinitive _rigardi_ is clear after _malhelpi sin._ [4]The + old thoughts. Before = _antaŭ_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [5]Truth. Think of the sense. Here truth = "true-thing," so use + suf. _-aĵ_. "Truth" = abstract virtue = _vereco_. [6]Food. To feed + = _nutr-i_; suf. _-aĵ_ denotes stuff. [7]The rest of. The rest = + _rest-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective = remaining. [8]Savings. + To save up = _ŝpar-i_; _ŝpar-aĵ-o_ = save-thing (i.e. sav_ed_ + thing). [9]Workman. To work = _labor-i_; suf. _-ist_ denotes the + agent. [10]He _must_ go... and _would_ be away. Esperanto syntax + is perfectly simple. Just use the tense which the speaker would use, + here the future; or any tense, so long as the meaning is clear. + [11]He had left. Pluperfect = "he was having left," _esti_ with past + part. _active_. _Li estis lasita_ would mean "he had been left." + +Li forvojaĝis do, kaj post kvin So he journeyed forth, and in five +tagoj li ekvidis malproksime sur days he began to see far off on +la horizonto blankan nubon, kiu the horizon a white cloud, which +dum la morgaŭa tago montriĝis turned out[1] in the course of the +kiel monta pinto. Namezo salutis next day to be a mountain-peak. +ĝin, kaj de tiu momento, sen ia Namezo saluted it, and from that +dubo, direktis sian iron tra la moment, without any doubt, bent +ebenaĵo ĉiam al ĝi. his course[2] across the plain + constantly towards it. + +Kiam li alvenis piedon de When he came to the foot[3] of +la montoj, la deka tago jam the mountains, the tenth[4] day +finiĝis. Efektive li estis grave was already drawing to an end. +trompiĝinta pri la distanco. Indeed, Namezo had been greatly +Neniam antaŭe li vidis monton, mistaken[5] in the distance. He +kaj tial, kiam li ekvidis la had never seen a mountain before, +pinton meze de la vojaĝo, li and so, when he caught sight of +kredis ke li ĵus alvenas, kaj the peak half-way, he thought +marŝis pli malrapide. Tri tagojn he was just getting there, and +li pensis ĉiumatene, "Mi estos walked slower. For three days he +hodiaŭ vespere ĉe la montpiedo; thought every morning, "I shall +morgaŭ mi suprenrampos ĝis la be at the foot of the mountains +pinton." Sed nun li sciis, ke li this evening; to-morrow I'll +estas malfrua. Li formanĝis jam climb[6] to the top." But now +la duonon de sia provizaĵo, kaj he knew that he was late.[7] He +dum la lastaj mejloj li ekvidis had already eaten up half[8] of +ke lia pinto estas parto de vasta his provisions,[9] and for the +senlima montegaro, ke ĝi ankoraŭ last few miles he was beginning +malproksimas kaj li tute ne tiel to see that his peak was part +facile supreniros. Li kalkulis ke of a boundless mountain-range, +almenaŭ oktaga nutraĵo estos that it was still far off and +necesa por reiri hejmen de la he would by no means get up so +piedo de la montaro, kaj tiom easily. He calculated that at +li tie enterigis por la returna least eight days' food would be +vojaĝo. Sekve restis nur dutaga needed to get home from the foot +manĝaĵo por la suprena kaj of the mountain-range, and he +malsuprena montiro. buried[10] that amount[11] there + for the return journey. Thus only + two days' provision was left for + the ascent and descent of the + mountain. + + [1]Turned out to be. To show = _montr-i_; with suf. _-iĝ, + montriĝ-i_ = to show itself, to become shown. [2]His course. To go + = _ir-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = a going. [3]To the + foot. Motion; use the _-n_ case. [4]Tenth. Ten = _dek_; to form the + ordinal numbers add _-a_ to the cardinal. [5]Mistaken. To deceive + = _tromp-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive. [6]Climb. _Supr-a, + -e, -en_ = upper, above, upwards. [7]Late. Early = _fru-a_; pref. + _mal_- denotes opposite. [8]Half. Two = _du_; suf. _-on_ denotes + fractions. cf. _kvarono_ = quarter. [9]Provisions. Provide-stuff + (i.e. provid_ed_ stuff). [10]Buried. Earth = _ter-o_; in = _en_; suf. + _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [11]That amount. _Tiom_. See the table + of correlatives, p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. + +Tre frue do li ekiris la dekunuan Very early, then, on the +tagon, kaj penadis ĉiutage eleventh[1] day he set out, and +supren. Vespere li vidis ke li toiled the whole day upwards. +ankoraŭ havas plenan tagvojaĝon In the evening he saw that he +ĝis la pinton, kaj tiel li devos still had a full day's journey +tre ŝpareme uzi sian restan to the top, and so he must be +provizaĵon. La dekdua tago estis very sparing[2] in the use of his +tre doloriga. La monto fariĝis remaining stores. The twelfth day +kruta; li devis rapidi; kaj li was very painful.[3] The mountain +terure malsatis pro ekmankanta grew[4] steep; he had to press on; +manĝaĵo. Malgraŭ ĉio li and he was terribly hungry,[5] +alvenis montpinton je la noktiĝo. as the food was beginning to +La subita ekscito, kune kun la give out. In spite of all, he +laceco kaj malsato, estis tro: en reached the top at nightfall.[6] +la momenta de sukceso li falis en The sudden excitement, with his +sveno sur la teron. weariness and hunger, was too + much: in the moment of success he + fell to the ground in a swoon. + +Jen, dum li kuŝis senkonscie, And lo! as he lay unconscious, +aperis la duan fojon la sama there appeared to him for the +vidaĵo. Birdo blanka alflugis, second time the same vision.[7] +metis en lian manon semon, kaj A white bird flew up, put a seed +diris la samajn vortojn. Denove into his hand, and said the same +li levis la manon, kaj denove li words. Again he raised his hand, +ŝajnis renversiĝi, kaj falis... and again he seemed to turn over, +falis... falis.... and fell... fell... fell.... + +Rekonsciiĝinte, li trovis sin When he came to himself,[8] he +kuŝanta trankvile apud la loko was lying quietly in the very +mem, kie li enterigis sian place where he had buried his +returnan provizaĵon antaŭ la food for the home journey before +supreniro. Li kuŝis sur dolĉa the ascent. He was lying on soft +herbo, kaj sentis sin korpe tute grass, and his body felt free from +mallacigata, kaj granda paco its tiredness,[9] and in his soul +regis en lia animo. Tuj kiam li reigned a great peace. As soon as +malfermis la okulojn, li rigardis he opened[10] his eyes, he looked +en sian manon, kaj tiun ĉi fojon in his hand, and this time the +la semo enestis. seed was there. + + [1]Eleven = _dek-unu_; add _-a_ to make the ordinal. 20 = _dudek_. + [2]Sparing. To save = _ŝpar-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [3]Painful. Pain = _dolor-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [4]Grew. To make = _far-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ + denotes becoming made, growing. [5]Hungry. Satisfied = _sat-a_; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite. To be hungry = _mal-sat-i_. + [6]Nightfall. Night = _nokt-o_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. + [7]Vision. See(n)-thing; _vid-i_ = to see; with suffix _-aĵ_. + [8]When he came to himself. Conscious = _konsci-a_; prefix _re-_ + denotes back again; suffix _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [9]Free from + tiredness. Tired = _lac-a_; _mal-_ denotes opposite; _-ig_ denotes + causing to be. [10]Opened. To shut = _ferm-i_; to open = _malfermi_. + +Longa, labora kaj preskaŭ A long, laborious descent from +sennutra malsupreniro de la the mountain-top almost without +montpinto jam ne necesis, kaj la food was now no longer needful, +hejmvojaĝo trans la ebenaĵo and on the home journey across +prosperis, tiel ke Namezo staris the plain all went well, so that +baldaŭ ree en la patrina dometo. Namezo soon stood again in his +La vilaĝanoj kunvenis amase kaj mother's[1] cottage. The villagers +multe demandis pri lia vojaĝo, flocked in crowds[2] and asked +ĉar neniu el ili estis iam tiel many questions about his journey, +malproksimen foririnta de la for none of them had ever been +hejmo. Namezo ĉion rakontis, so far from home. Namezo told +kaj montris la semon kiun li them everything, and showed the +devos planti. La najbaroj komence seed which he was to plant. At +kredis, ke li volas mirigi ilin, first the neighbours thought he +kiel la vojaĝistoj amas fari, kaj was trying to astonish[3] them, +ili ridis pri liaj rakontaĵoj. as travellers are wont to do, +Sed, kiam ili vidis ke li estis and they laughed at his tales. +serioza, ili ekkoleriĝis kaj But when they saw that he was in +volis forpreni lian semon kaj earnest, they got in a rage,[4] +detrui ĝin. "'_Arbo_' estas and wanted to take away his seed +sensencaĵo," ili diris; "ne and destroy it. "A '_tree_' is +povas ekzisti alia kreskaĵo, foolishness,"[5] they said; "no +krom la rikoltoj kaj la legomoj other plant can exist, except the +kiujn ni kaj niaj patroj jam crops and vegetables that we and +ĉiam kreskigis. Estas neeble our fathers have always grown. +ke io alia kresku kaj iĝu pli It is impossible for anything +granda." Kaj unuj diris ke li else to grow and become[6] bigger +estas vana sonĝisto, kaj aliaj than they." And some said that he +ke li frenezas. Sed lia patrino was an idle dreamer, and others +kuraĝigis lin. that he was mad. But his mother + encouraged him. + + [1]Mother's. Father = _patr-o_; suf. _-in_ denotes feminine; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [2]In crowds. Crowd = _amas-o_; ending + _-e_ makes it an adverb. [3]Astonish. To wonder = _mir-i_; suf. _-ig_ + makes it transitive. [4]Got in a rage. Anger = _koler-o_; pref. _ek-_ + denotes beginning; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [5]Foolishness. + Sense = _senc-o_; without = _sen_; suf. _-aĵ_ = without-sense-stuff. + [6]Become. Suf. _-iĝ_ is here used alone as a verb = to become. + +Kaj Namezo timis por sia semo, kaj And Namezo feared for his seed, +pripensis kiel li povos savi ĝin and thought how he could save it +de la najbaroj kiam ĝi ekkreskos. from the neighbours when it began +Kaj li eliris el la vilaĝo nokte, to grow up. And he went out of the +kaj plantis ĝin malproksime de village by night, and planted it +ĉiuj domoj, apud rivereto en far away from all the houses, by +malleviĝo de la tero, kie oni a little stream in a hollow[1] of +ĝin ne vidos ĝis ĝi estos tre the ground, where it would not be +granda. Kaj komence li iris tien seen till it grew very big. And at +nur nokte; sed, ĉar li ne parolis first he went there only by night; +plu pri sia semo, la vilaĝanoj but, as he said no more about his +forgesis la aferon, tiel ke li seed, the villagers forgot the +povis eliri el la vilaĝo vespere matter, so that he could go out of +post sia taglaboro kiam li volis, the village in the evenings after +kaj neniu zorgis pri tio, kien his day's work whenever he liked, +li iras. Sed li ne kuraĝis ĝin and nobody troubled about where +transplanti apud sian dometon, he was going.[2] But he did not +timante ke oni difektu ĝin aŭ dare to transplant it to his own +ŝerce aŭ malice, kaj sekve cottage, fearing that they would +restis por li la granda laborado damage it in jest or malice, and +iri, kiam li estis jam laca, so the hard work remained for him +malproksimen por flegi ĝin. of going a long way to look after + it, when he was already tired. + + [1]A hollow. To raise = _lev-i_; suf _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite; ending _-o_ makes it a noun. + [2]Where he was going. "Where" here = "whither," therefore add _-n_, + which denotes motion. + +Jaroj forpasadis: Namezo Years passed away: Namezo grew +grandiĝis, sed lia kreskaĵo up,[1] but his plant would not +ne volis grandiĝi. Multfoje grow up too. Many a time he +li malesperis, vidante ke ĝi despaired,[2] seeing that it +kvazaŭ ne kreskadis plu, aŭ seemed as though it had given up +ke ĝi en somero havis velkan growing, or that it had a faded +mienon. Multajn vintrojn ĝi look in summer. Many winters it +preskaŭ mortis per frosto. Sed nearly died of the frosts. But he +li persistis, kaj ĉiuokaze li persevered, and in every case[3] +provis ian novan flegon, ĉar he tried some new treatment, +neniam antaŭe en la tuta lando for never before in the whole +oni kreskigis tielan plantaĵon. land had any one grown[4] such a +Iatempe li metis sterkon: tiam li plant. At one time he would put +subdrenis la teron, ĉirkaŭhakis on manure; then he tried draining +la branĉetojn, aŭ ŝirmis la the ground, pruning the shoots, +burĝonojn kontraŭ la ventoj. or protecting the buds against +Ree, vidante ke malgraŭ ĉio la the winds. Again, seeing that +arbeto ne prosperis, li pretigis in spite of all the little tree +novan teraĵon kaj transplantis did not flourish, he prepared[5] +ĝin, antaŭe enpluginte alispecan a new soil-bed and transplanted +teron. Li eksperimentis per seka, it, having first ploughed in +poste per malseka, subtero: a different kind of earth. He +unuvorte, li senĉese penadis, experimented with dry, and then +diversigante konstante la with damp, sub-soil: in short, he +kondiĉojn ĝis li ĝuste trafos. toiled ceaselessly, constantly +Fine, kiam li jam de longe estis varying[6] the conditions till he +plenaĝa, lia deziro plenumiĝis: should hit off the right thing. +tie, apud la rivereto staris At last, when he had long come to +granda belkreska _arbo_. be a grown man,[7] his desire was + fulfilled:[8] there beside the + stream stood a fine big _tree_. + + [1]Grew up. Big = _grand-a_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. + [2]Despaired. To hope = _esper-i_; pref. _mal-_ denotes opposite. + [3]In every case. To happen = _okaz-i_; any or all = _ĉiu_; + ending _-e_ makes it adverbial = "any-happening-ly," i.e. whatever + happened. [4]Grown. To grow (intrans.) = _kresk-i_; suf. _-ig_ makes + it transitive. [5]Prepared. Ready = _pret-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to make + ready. [6]Varying. Diverse = _divers-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to render + diverse. [7]A grown man. Age = _aĝ-o_; full = _plen-a_; ending _-a_ + denotes adj. [8]Was fulfilled. To fulfil = _plenum-i_; _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming. + +En somero, kiam la folioj estis In summer, when it was in full +plenaj, li kondukis tien kelkajn leaf, he took his friends there, +amikojn, kaj ili ĝojis sidantaj and they rejoiced sitting in the +vespere sub la freŝa ombro. En cool shade at evening. In autumn +aŭtuno ili kolektis la semujojn, they collected the pods,[1] took +portis ilin en la vilaĝon, kaj them to the village, and tried to +penis decidigi la vilaĝanojn get the villagers to plant the +planti la semaron apud siaj seed by their homes, to give them +dometoj, por havi ŝirmilon. Sed shelter. But the villagers would +la vilaĝanoj ne volis. not have them. + +Unu diris, "Arbo estas neebla."* One said, "A tree is + impossible."[2] + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Arbo And Namezo answered, "A tree +ekzistas. Venu kun mi, kaj mi exists. Come with me, and I will +vidigos vin." show[3] you." + +Sed li diris, "Arbo estas neebla." But he said, "A tree is + impossible." + + *For this and the following objections of the villagers, compare + Part I., chap. xv., pp. 54-6. + + [1]Pods. Seed = _sem-o_; suf. _-uj_ denotes that which contains. + [2]Impossible. Suf. _-ebl_ denotes possibility, and can, like all + suffixes, be used by itself. _Ne-ebl-a_ = not possible. [3]Show. + To see = _vid-i_; with suf. _-ig_ = to cause to see. + +Ree Namezo diris, "Se vi nur tiom Again Namezo said, "If you will +da peno faros, kiom necesas por only take as much trouble[1] as +eliri el la vilaĝo, mi montros is necessary to go out of the +al vi arbon, sub kiu miaj amikoj village, I will show you a tree, +kaj mi ŝirmiĝas ĉiuvespere. under which my friends and I take +Venu nur kaj provu se ĝi plaĉos shelter every evening. Only just +ankaŭ al vi." come and try whether it pleases + you also." + +Sed li diris, "Mi ne volas eliri. But he said, "I will not go out. A +Arbo estas neebla." tree is impossible." + +Alia diris, "Mi vidis vian arbon, Another said, "I have seen your +kaj mi trovas ĝin tute senutila." tree, and I consider it perfectly + useless." + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Kial?" And Namezo answered, "Why?" + +Kaj li diris, "Niaj patroj ne And he said, "Our fathers had no +havis arbon." trees." + +Namezo diris, "Niaj patroj suferis Namezo said, "Our fathers suffered +pro manko de ŝirmado." from want of shelter." + +Kaj li diris, "Tial mi ankaŭ And he said, "Therefore I too will +suferos." suffer." + +Alia diris, "Ni havas ja sufiĉe Another said, "We have enough +da kreskaĵoj. Niaj rikoltoj kaj plants. Our crops and vegetables +legomoj provizas nutraĵon, kaj la provide food, and our gay flowers +belaj floroj ĉarmas la okulon. charm the eye. Another growing +Alia kreskaĵo estus superflua." thing would be superfluous." + + [1]Trouble. To try = _pen-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = + trying, effort. + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Bone. Niaj And Namezo answered, "Good. The +ĝisnunaj kreskaĵoj plenumas la plants we have already[1] fulfil +ĉefajn bezonojn de la homaro. the chief needs of mankind. +Manĝo kaj certa ornamo estas Food and some ornament are +necesaĵoj por la homa naturo, necessities[2] for human nature, +kaj por tiuj ĉi uzoj ni havas and for these uses we have the +rikoltojn kaj florojn. Sed la vivo crops and flowers. But life would +estus pli plezura se ni estus pli be pleasanter if we were better +bone ŝirmataj. Tiun ĉi apartan sheltered. This special service[3] +servon prezentas la arboj, kaj ni is done by the trees, and we can +povos ĝui ĝin sen fordoni la enjoy it without foregoing the +profiton de floro kaj rikolto. Ne, advantage of flower and crop. +plue, niaj rikoltoj, ŝirmataj Nay, more, our crops, sheltered +de la montaj ventoj, pli facile from the winds that blow from the +maturiĝos: tiel ni havos pli da mountains, will ripen[4] more +tempo por la plezurigaj laboroj, easily: thus we shall have more +kaj la floroj estos ankoraŭ pli time for the work that brings +belaj." pleasure,[5] and the flowers will + be even more lovely." + +Kaj li diris, "Tagmeze, kiam la And he said, "At noon,[6] when the +suno brilas, mi kuŝas inter sun shines warm, I lie amidst the +la altstaranta greno. Tiu ĉi deep standing corn. This shelter +ŝirmilo sufiĉas. Ni havas is enough. We have plants enough. +sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. Arbo A tree is not a plant; it is a +ne estas kreskaĵo; ĝi estas monster. Go to the devil!" +monstro. Iru diablon!" + +Kaj Namezo iris al la diablo, And Namezo went to the devil, +ĉar li estis preta iri kien ajn, for he was ready to go anywhere, +plivole ol daŭrigi paroli kun la rather than continue to talk to +vilaĝanoj. the villagers. + +Li diris, "Via diabla Moŝto, la He said, "Your devilish Majesty, +vilaĝanoj naŭzadas min, kaj mi the villagers make me sick,[7] and +estas laca je mia vivo. Faru el mi I am tired of[8] my life. Do with +kion vi volas." me as you will." + + [1]The plants we have already. Lit. our till-now plants. + [2]necessities. Necessary = _neces-a_: with suf. _-aĵ_ = necessary + things. [3]Service. To serve = _serv-i_; ending _-o_ makes it + a substantive. [4]Ripen. Ripe = _matur-a_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming. [5]Work that brings pleasure. Pleasure = _plezur-o_; + suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [6]Noon. Day = _tag-o_; middle = + _mez-o_; ending _-e_ is adverbial. [7]Make me sick. To make sick = + _naŭz-i_; _-ad_ denotes continuation. [8]Tired of. The preposition + _je_ is used when no other preposition exactly fits. + +Respondis la diablo, "Mi ne The devil made answer, "I +povas ion fari por vi, mizerulo! can do nothing for you, poor +La vilaĝanoj estas venkintaj wretch![1] The villagers have +min; kaj mi retiras min de la beaten me; and I am retiring from +aferoj. Neniam, eĉ en miaj plej business. Never, even in my most +eltrovemaj tagoj, mi elpensis ingenious[2] days, did I invent +tiel mortigan turmenton por such a deadly[3] torment for a +progresema homo, kiel sukcesi en progressive man, as to succeed in +la produkto de profitiga uzilo, producing a beneficial[4] device, +kaj tiam devi penadi, por igi and then have to keep striving to +siajn kunulojn alpreni ĝin. get his fellows[5] to adopt it. +Reiru al la vilaĝanoj kaj donu Go back again to the villagers, +al ili miajn respektplenajn and give them my respectful +komplimentojn." compliments." + +Pezakore, Namezo reiris hejmen, Heavy at heart, Namezo went home +kaj envoje li renkontis again, and on the way he fell +vilaĝanaron portantan hakilojn. in with a band of villagers[6] +Li demandis kial ili portas carrying axes.[7] He asked why +hakilojn. they were carrying axes. + +"Por dehaki la arbon," respondis "To cut down the tree," replied +la grupestro; "ni timas ke ĝi the leader of the band[8]; "we are +etendiĝos sur la tutan landon. afraid that it will spread and +Se oni prenos la fruktetojn kaj fill the whole land. If the people +plantos ilin apud sia loĝejo, la take the fruits and plant them at +arboj entrudos sin en la kampojn their own homes,[9] trees will +kaj en la florbedojn, kaj elpuŝos encroach upon the fields and upon +la aliajn kreskaĵojn." the flower-beds, and will drive + out the other plants." + + [1]Wretch. Misery = _miser-o_; suf. _-ul_ denotes having the quality + of. [2]Ingenious. To find = _trov-i_; out = _el_; suf. _-em_ denotes + propensity or aptitude. [3]Deadly. To die = _mort-i_; suf. _-ig_ + denotes to cause to die. [4]Beneficial. Profit-causing; suf. _-ig_. + [5]Fellows. With = _kun_; suf. _-ul_ denotes state or quality. [6]A + band of villagers. Suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection. [7]Axes. To hew + = _hak-i_; suf. _-il_ denotes instrument. [8]Leader of the band. + Band = _grup-o_; suf. _-estr_ enotes chief of. [9]Homes. To dwell = + _loĝ-i_; suf. _-ej_ denotes place. + +"Sed vi tute ne devos planti "But you must not plant the trees +la arbojn en la kampoj kaj in the fields and flower-beds," +florbedoj," diris Namezo. La arboj said Namezo. "Trees have a +havas utilon diferencan de la different use from other plants, +aliaj kreskaĵoj kaj oni plantos and they will be planted in quite +ilin en aparta loko. Se okaze arbo separate places. If by chance a +altrudos sin inter la rikoltojn, tree pushes itself in amongst the +oni elradikos ĝin tuj, antaŭ ol crops, it will be rooted out at +ĝi grandiĝos." once, before it gets big." + +"Ne, arbo estas danĝera," kriis "No, trees are dangerous," cried +la hakilistoj; kaj Namezo devis the men with the axes;[1] and +alvoki siajn amikojn por defendi Namezo had to call up his friends +la arbon. to defend the tree. + +Poste Namezo iris hejmen kaj After this Namezo went home and +enfermis sin en sia dometo. Lia shut himself up in his cottage. +patrino estis jam de longe morta, His mother was by this time +kaj la gefratoj jam edziĝis, kaj long dead, and his brother and +li vivadis sole. Sed li nun ne sister[2] were now married,[3] +povis eĉ resti sola. Venis la and he lived all alone. But now +saĝuloj de la vilaĝo, kaj ili he could not even remain alone. +kriadis tra la fenestro, "Arbo The wise men of the village came +estas bona ideo, sed vi kreskigis along, and they kept shouting +vian arbon malprave. Lasu nin do through the window, "Trees are a +flegi ĝin laŭ nia bontrovo, good idea, but you have grown your +kaj ni baldaŭ plibonigos ĝin, tree the wrong way. So let us look +tiel ke ĝi estos vere alpreninda after it as we see fit, and we'll +arbo." soon improve[4] it, so that it + shall be a tree really fit for us + to take to."[5] + + [1]The men with the axes. To hew = _hak-i_; _-il_ denotes instrument; + _-ist_ denotes agent. [2]Brother and sister. Prefix _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [3]Were married. Husband (wife) = _edz_ (_in_) _-o_; + suffix _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [4]Improve. Good = _bon-a_; more + = _pli_; _-ig_ denotes causation. [5]Fit to take to. To take = + _pren-i_; to = _al_; _-ind_ denotes worthy. + +Kaj al ili Namezo respondis And to these Namezo answered +nenion. Li sciis ke li estis nothing. He knew that he had given +doninta grandan parton de sia a great part of his life to making +vivo por eksperimenti kaj estis experiment and had produced a +produktinta belkreskan arbon, dum well-grown tree, while the clever +la lertuloj nun estis vidantaj men were now seeing a tree for +arbon je la unua fojo, kaj tute the first time, and were wholly +malsciis la malfacilecojn kiujn ignorant of the difficulties that +oni devas venki, kaj eĉ ne had to be overcome, and did not +komprenis la demandon kiun ili even understand the question they +entreprenis solvi. Sed li sciis were undertaking to solve. But +ankaŭ ke tiela konsidero estas he also knew that to clever men +por lertuloj malpli ol nenio. such a consideration is less than +Estis malutile argumenti kun nothing. It was no good to argue +ili, ĉar ili ne sciis ke ili ne with them, for they did not know +scias, kaj tio ĉi estas plej that they did not know, and this +malfacila lerni. Tial li lasis is the hardest thing to learn. So +ilin paroladi, kaj flegis sian he let them keep on talking, and +arbon kiel antaŭe. "Ĉar," tended his tree as before. "For," +li diris al si mem, "kiam la said he to himself, "when the tree +arbo estos disvastiĝinta kaj has spread and multiplied after +multobliĝinta laŭspece tra its kind throughout the land, from +la lando, per la grada sperto many men's gradual experience +de multaj homoj fariĝos arba there will arise a science of +scienco, kaj tial ni fine ellernos trees, and thus we shall in the +la plej bonan flegmanieron." end find out the best way of +Ankaŭ li pensis, "la diablo estis tending them." Also he thought, +prava: la diablo estas lertulo." "The devil was right: the devil is + a clever man." + +Iom poste alvenis en la vilaĝon Now, some time after there arrived +homoj el aliaj lokoj, kunportantaj in the village men from other +diversajn semojn. Ĉiu el ili places, bringing with them various +laŭdis sian propran semon, seeds. Each of them praised his +dirante ke li estas kreskiginta own seed, telling how he had grown +belan arbon el tia semo, kaj a fine tree from such seed, and +postulante ke la vilaĝanoj plantu urging the villagers to plant his +nur liajn semojn. Tiam iuj diris, seeds only. Then certain of them +"Ni metu ĉiujn la diversajn said, "Let us put all the divers +semojn kunen, kaj ni kreskigu el seeds together, and let us grow +ili unu bonan arbon." Kaj tiuj from them one good tree." And +ĉi petis Namezon ke li neniigu these begged Namezo to destroy[1] +sian arbon kaj pistu ĝiajn semojn his own tree and pound its seeds +kaj almiksu ilin en la kunmetatan and stir them into the compound +semaĵon, por ke unu bona arbo seedstuff, that one good tree +elkresku. might grow out of it. + +Tiel ili babiladis kaj bataladis Thus they babbled and kept +inter si; kaj ili ĉirkaŭ iradis quarrelling among themselves; +en la vilaĝo, montrante modelojn and they went round about in the +de siaj arboj kaj pruvante, ĉiu village showing models of their +ke la sia estas la plej bona. Kaj trees and proving each that his +fine la vilaĝanoj enuiĝis kaj own was the best. And at last +denove volis dehaki ĉiun kaj the villagers grew weary of it, +ĉies arbon. and wanted again to hew down + every tree, no matter to whom it + belonged.[2] + + [1]Destroy. Nothing = _neni-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation. [2]No + matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every one's. + +Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis But Namezo and his friends had +jam du aŭ tri grandajn arbojn, by this time two or three big +kaj ĝis nun prosperis al ili trees, and up to this day they +defendi ilin kontraŭ la atakoj de have succeeded in defending them +la vilaĝanoj. Kaj ĉiam, kiam la against the villagers' attacks. +vetero estas varmega, ili sidas And always, when the weather is +sub la arboj vespere kaj ĝuas very hot, they sit under their +la freŝecon. Tamen ili havas trees in the evening and enjoy the +nur duonan profiton el ili, ĉar coolness. Yet have they only half +la vilaĝanoj malpermesas planti profit by them, for the villagers +ian arbon en la vilaĝo, kaj tial forbid them to plant any tree +la arbanoj devas ĉiufoje marŝi in the village, and so the tree +malproksimen kaj aparte viziti people have to walk a long way +siajn arbojn, anstataŭ havi ilin each time and have to make special +apud siaj pordoj. visits to their trees, instead of + having them at their doors. + +Kaj la plej granda parto de la And the greater part of the +vilaĝanoj, malgraŭ ke oni povas villagers, though the trees are +facile piediri al la arboj, diras within a walk, still say, "Trees +ankoraŭ, "Arbo estas neebla." are impossible." + +Kaj la diablo ridas. And the devil laughs. + + + III + + GRAMMAR + +1. There is one definite article, _la_, invariable. There is no +indefinite article. + +2. Nouns always end in _-o_. Ex. _patro_ = father. + +3. Adjectives always end in _-a_. Ex. _patra_ = paternal. + +4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except +only the personal pronouns) ends in _j_. Ex. _patroj_ = fathers; _bonaj +patroj_ = good fathers. + +5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in _-n_. Ex. _Mi amas +mian bonan patron_ = I love my good father. _Ni amas niajn bonajn +patrojn_ = we love our good fathers. + +6. Adverbs always end in _-e_. Ex. _bone_ = well; _patre_ = paternally. +(There are a few non-derived adverbs without the ending _-e_, as _jam, +ankaŭ, tiel, kiel_). + +7. The personal pronouns are: + + mi = I ŝi = she ni = we + vi = you ĝi = it vi = you + li = he oni = one ili = they + +Also a reflexive pronoun, _si_, which always refers to the subject of +its own clause. + +All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding _-n_. + +8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number. + +The present ends in _-as_. Ex. _mi amas_ = I love. + +The past ends in _-is_. Ex. _vi amis_ = you loved. + +The future ends in _-os_. Ex. _li amos_ = he will love. + +The conditional ends in _-us_. Ex. _ni amus_ = we should love. + +The imperative ends in _-u_. Ex. _amu_ = love! _ni amu_ = let us love. +This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. _Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu +la alian_ = God commands us to love one another. + +The infinitive ends in _-i_. Ex. _ami_ = to love. + +There are three active participles. + +The present participle active is formed by _-ant_. Ex. _amanta_ = +loving; _amanto_ = a lover. + +The past participle active is formed by _-int_. Ex. _aminta_ = having +loved; _la skribinto_ = the author (lit. the man who has written). + +The future participle active is formed by _-ont_. Ex. _amonta_ = being +about to love. + +There are three passive participles. + +The present participle passive is formed by _-at_. Ex. _amata_ = being +loved. + +The past participle passive is formed by _-it_. Ex. _amita_ = having +been loved. + +The future participle passive is formed by _-ot_. Ex. _amota_ = being +about to be loved. + +All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by the +verb _esti_ (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are employed only +when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. _mi estas aminta_ = I have +loved (lit. I am having loved); _vi estis aminta_ = you had loved (lit. +you were having loved); _ili estas amataj_ = they are loved; _ŝi estas +amita_ = she has been loved; _ni estis amitaj_ = we had been loved; _ili +estos amintaj_ = they will have loved; _ŝi estus aminta_ = she would +have loved; _mi estus amita_ = I should have been loved. + + + IV + + LIST OF AFFIXES + + I. _Prefixes_ + +_bo-_ denotes relation by marriage: _bopatro_ = father-in-law. + +_dis-_ denotes dissemination, division: _dismeti_ = to put apart, about, +in pieces. + +_ek-_ denotes sudden action or beginning: _ekdormi_ = to fall asleep; +_ekiri_ = to start. + +_ge-_ denotes both sexes: _gepatroj_ = parents; _geviroj_ = men and +women. + +_mal-_ denotes the opposite: _bona_ = good; _malbona_ = bad. + +_re-_ denotes back, again: _repagi_ = to repay; _rekomenci_ = to begin +again. + + + II. _Suffixes_ + +_-ad_ denotes continuation: _penadi_ = to keep striving, to make +continued effort. + +_-aĵ_ denotes something concrete, made of the material, or possessing +the qualities of the root to which it is attached: _bovo_ = ox; +_bovaĵo_ = beef; _okazi_ = to happen; _okazaĵoj_ = happenings, events. +(For English speakers a good rule is to add "thing" or "stuff" to the +English word; _propra_ = one's own, _propraĵo_ = own-thing, property; +_vidindaĵoj_ = see-worthy-things, notable sights. N.B.: _-aĵ_ added +to transitive verbal stems generally has a passive sense: _tondi_ = +to clip, _tondaĵo_ = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas _tondilo_ = +clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's explanation of -aĵ, _La Revuo_, +Vol. I., No. 8 (April), pp. 374-5. + +_-an_ denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: _urbano_ = a +town-dweller; _Kristano_ = a Christian. + +_-ar_ denotes a collection: _vortaro_ = a dictionary; _arbaro_ = a +forest; _homaro_ = mankind. + +_-ĉj_ denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: _paĉjo_ = daddy; +_Arĉjo_ = Archie. + +_-ebl_ denotes possibility: _kredebla_ = credible. + +_-ec_ denotes abstract quality: _boneco_ = goodness. + +_-eg_ denotes great size or intensity: _grandega_ = enormous; +_varmega_ = intensely hot. + +_-ej_ denotes place: _lernejo_ = a learn-place, a school. + +_-em_ denotes propensity to: _lernema_ = studious; _kredema_ = +credulous. + +_-er_ denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: _sablero_ = a grain +of sand; _fajrero_ = a spark. + +_-estr_ denotes a chief or leader: _lernejestro_ = a head master. + +_-et_ denotes diminution: _infaneto_ = a little child; _varmeta_ = +warmish. + +_-id_ denotes the young of, descendant of: _bovido_ = a calf. + +_-ig_ denotes causation: _bonigi_, _plibonigi_ = to make good, to +improve; _mortigi_ = to kill; _venigi_ = to cause to come, to send for. + +_-iĝ_ denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: _saniĝi_, +_resaniĝi_ = to get well (again); _paliĝi_ = to grow pale; +_troviĝi_ = to be found, occur. + +_-il_ denotes an instrument: _razilo_ = a razor. + +_-in_ denotes feminine: _patrino_ = mother; _bovino_ = cow. + +_-ind_ denotes worthiness: _laŭdinda_ = laudable, praiseworthy. + +_-ing_ denotes a holder: _kandelingo_ = a candlestick; _glavingo_ = +scabbard. + +_-ist_ denotes profession or occupation; _maristo_ = a sailor; +_bonfaristo_ = a benefactor. + +_-nj_ denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: _Manjo_ = Polly; +_patrinjo_ (or _panjo_) = mamma. + +_-uj_ denotes containing or producing: _inkujo_ = inkpot; _Anglujo_ = +England. + +_-ul_ denotes characteristic: _timulo_ = a coward: _avarulo_ = a miser. + +[The suffix _-aĉ_ (not in the _Fundamento_) is coming into use as a +pejorative (= Italian _-accio_): _ridi_ = to laugh; _ridaĉi_ = to grin, +sneer.] + + + V + + TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS + + DEMONSTRA- RELATIVE NEGATIVE. UNIVERSAL. INDEFINITE. + TIVE. AND INTER- + ROGATIVE. + +PERSON* tiu kiu neniu ĉiu iu + that who, no one every, all, some, + which every one some one + +THING* tio kio nenio ĉio io + that what, nothing everything something + (thing) which + +QUALITY tia kia nenia ĉia ia + that kind what kind no, each, every any, some + of a of a no kind of kind of kind of + +TIME tiam kiam neniam ĉiam iam + then when never always ever, at + some time + +PLACE tie kie nenie ĉie ie + there where nowhere everywhere somewhere + +MANNER tiel kiel neniel ĉiel iel + thus, so how in no way in every way in some way, + somehow + +MOTIVE tial kial nenial ĉial ial + therefore why for no for all for some + reason reasons reasons + +QUANTITY tiom kiom neniom ĉiom iom + so/as much how much none the whole somewhat, + so/as many how many amount a certain + amount + +POSSESSION ties kies nenies ĉies ies + of that whose, nobody's everybody's somebody's + of which + +In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," +add _ĉi_. + +*N.B.—_Tiu_, _kiu_, etc., are used in agreement with a noun expressed, +even when it does not represent a person. + +Ex. _Tiu libro, kiun mi legis_ = that book which I read. _Tiuj ĉi +floroj_ = these flowers. + +_Tio_, _kio_, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they stand +alone. + +Ex. _Tio estas vera_ = that is true; _kion vi diris?_ = what did you +say? _Tio ĉi estas pli granda ol tio_ = this is bigger than that. + +N.B.—In memorizing the above, it is well to remember that _t_ = +demonstrative, _k_ = relative-interrogative, _ĉ_ = distributive, _i_ = +indefinite, _nen_ = negative. + + + VI + + VOCABULARY + + = A = + +-a = termination of adjectives. +aĉet-i = to buy. +-ad = suffix denoting continued action. +aer-o = air. +ag-i = to act. +-aĵ = suffix denoting concrete substance. +ajn = (what)ever; _kiu ajn_, whoever. +al = to. +ali-a = other. +almenaŭ = at least. +alt-a = high. +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, mass. +ankaŭ = also. +ankoraŭ = still. +anstataŭ = instead of. +-ant = present participle active. +antaŭ = before (time and place). +apart-a = special. +apud = at. +-ar = suffix denoting a collection. +arb-o = tree. +-as = ending of present tense. +aŭd-i = to hear. + + = B = + +baldaŭ = soon. +bed-o = flower bed. +bel-a = fine, beautiful. +bezon-o = need. +blank-a = white. +bon-a = good. +bord-o = edge, shore. +bril-i = to shine. +burĝon-o = bud. + + = C = + +cel-o = object, aim. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain. + + = Ĉ = + +ĉagren-o = trouble. +ĉar = for, because. +ĉe = at. +ĉes-i = to cease. +ĉi = added to demonstrative _tiu_, expresses nearer connexion: + _tiu_ = that; _tiu ĉi_ = this. +ĉiam = always. +ĉie = everywhere. +ĉirkaŭ = around. +ĉiu = all, each, every. +ĉu = interrogative particle. + + = D = + +da = used after words of quantity: Ex. _multe da vino_, much wine. +daŭr-i = to last, continue. +de = of, from, by (with passive). +des = comparative particle; _ju...des_, the...the: + Ex. _ju pli des pli bone_, the more the better. +dev-i = to owe, to be obliged to. +deviz-o = device, motto. +difekt-i = to spoil. +dir-i = to say. +dom-o = house. +don-i = to give. +du = two. +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = whilst. + + = E = + +-e = ending of adverbs. +eben-a = flat, level. +-ebl = suffix denoting possibility. +-ec = suffix denoting abstract quality: _bon-ec-o_, goodness. +eĉ = even. +edz-(in)-o = husband (wife). +-eg = suffix denoting great size. +-ej = suffix denoting place. +ek- = prefix denoting beginning. +ekster = outside. +el = out of. +-em = suffix denoting propensity. +en = in. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +enu-i = to weary, bore. +esper-i = to hope. +Esperant-o = Esperanto. +est-i = to be. +-et = suffix denoting little. +etend-i = to stretch. + + = F = + +facil-a = easy. +fajr-o = fire. +fakt-o = fact. +far-i = to do. +fenestr-o = window. +ferm-i = to shut. +fil-o = son. +fin-o = end. +flank-o = side. +fleg-i = tend. +flu-i = flow. +flug-i = to fly. +foj-o = time; _du fojoj_, twice. +foli-o = leaf. +for = away. +forn-o = oven. +frat-o = brother. +fraz-o = sentence. +frenez-o = madness. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. + + = G = + +ge- = prefix denoting both sexes. +gent-o = race, tribe. +grand-a = big, great. + + = Ĝ = + +ĝi = it. +ĝis = until. +ĝoj-o = joy. +ĝu-i = to enjoy. + + = H = + +hav-i = to have. +hejm-o = home. +hodiaŭ = to-day. +hom-o = man (mortal; no distinction of sex). + + = I = + +-i = ending of infinitive. +ideal-o = ideal. +-ig = suffix denoting causation. +-iĝ = suffix denoting becoming. +-il = suffix denoting instrument. +ili = they. +-int = past participle active. +inter = between, among. +ir-i = to go. +-is = ending of past tense. +-ist = suffix denoting agent. +iu = some one. + + = J = + +-j = ending of plural. +jam = already. +jar-o = year. +jen = here is, here are (French _voici_). +ju = comparative particle. See _des_. +jun-a = young. + + = Ĵ = + +ĵus = just now. + + = K = + +kaj = and. +kamen-o = fireplace. +kamp-o = field. +kap-o = head. +ke = that (conjunction). +kelk-a = some. +kiam = when. +kiel = how, as. +kiu = who, which. +knab-o = boy. +komerc-o = commerce. +kompat-o = sympathy, pity. +kompren-i = to understand. +kon-i = to know. +konsil-i = to counsel. +konstru-i = to build. +kontraŭ = against. +kred-i = to believe. +kresk-i = to grow. +krom = besides. +krut-a = steep. +kun = with. +kuŝ-i = to lie. +kutim-i = to be accustomed. +kvankam = although. +kvar = four. +kvazaŭ = as if. +kvin = five. + + = L = + +la = the. +lac-a = tired. +lag-o = lake. +land-o = land. +lang-o = tongue. +las-i = to let, leave. +laŭ = according to. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever. +lev-i = to raise. +li = he. +lim-o = limit. +lingv-o = language. +lit-o = bed. +long-a = long. +lum-o = light. + + = M = + +mal- = prefix denoting the opposite. +malgraŭ = in spite of. +manĝ-i = to eat. +mank-i = to be wanting. +mar-o = sea. +marĉ-o = swamp. +maten-o = morning. +mem = self. +met-i = to put. +mez-o = middle. +mi = I. +mien-o = look, air, gait. +mir-i = to wonder. +mon-o = money. +mond-o = world. +montr-i = to show. +morgaŭ = to-morrow. +Moŝt-o = term of respect: your Highness, Worship, Honour. +mult-a = much, many. + + = N = + +-n = ending of accusative: also denotes motion towards + and duration of time. +naci-o = nation. +nask-i = to beget. +ne = no, not. +neĝ-o = snow. +neniam = never. +neniu = no one. +ni = we. +nom-o = name. +nov-a = new. +nub-o = cloud. +nun = now. +nur = only. +nutr-i = to feed. + + = O = + +-o = ending of nouns. +oft-e = often. +ok = eight. +okaz-i = to happen. +okul-o = eye. +ol = than. +-on = suffix denoting fraction. +oni = one, people (indef pron.). +-ont = future participle active. +orel-o = ear. +-os = ending of future. + + = P = + +pac-o = peace. +parol-i = to speak. +pen-i = to try. +pens-i = to think. +per = by means of. +perd-i = to lose. +pez-a = heavy. +pied-o = foot. +pint-o = point, peak. +pist-i = to pound. +plaĉ-i = to please. +plat-a = flat. +plej = most. +plen-a = full. +plend-i = to complain. +plenum-i = to fulfill. +pli = more. +plu = more, further, farther. +plug-i = to plough. +popol-o = people, race. +por = for. +pord-o = door. +post = after, behind (time and place). +pov-i = to be able. +pra = original, great-(grandfather). +prav-a = right. +pren-i = to take. +preskaŭ = almost. +pret-a = ready. +preter = beyond, by. +pri = about, concerning. +pro = on account of. + + = R = + +rakont-i = to narrate. +ramp-i = to crawl, climb. +rapid-a = quick. +rekt-a = straight. +rem-i = to row. +renkont-i = to meet. +renvers-i = to upset, overthrow. +rikolt-o = crop. + + = S = + +sat-a = satisfied, full, replete. +sci-i = to know. +sed = but. +sek-a = dry. +sekv-i = to follow. +sem-o = seed. +sen = without. +sent-i = to feel. +si = self, relexive pronoun. +sid-i = to sit. +sinjor-o = sir, Mr., gentleman. +skrib-i = to write. +sol-a = alone, only. +son-o = sound. +sonĝ-o = dream. +sonor-a = sonorous. +spec-o = kind, sort. +spert-o = experience. +spir-i = to breathe. +star-i = to stand. +sterk-o = manure. +subit-a = sudden. +sufiĉ-a = sufficient. +supr-a = upper, superior. +sven-i = to swoon. + + = Ŝ = + +ŝajn-i = to seem. +ŝerc-i = to joke. +ŝip-o = ship. +ŝirm-i = to shelter. +ŝpar-i = to save up, economize. +ŝtel-i = to steal. + + = T = + +tag-o = day. +tamen = yet, nevertheless. +tegment-o = roof. +temp-o = time. +ten-i = to hold, keep. +ter-o = earth. +tial = therefore. +tiel = thus, so. +tiom = so much, so many. +tiu = that. +tra = through. +traf-i = to hit the mark. +trans = across. +tre = very. +trem-i = to tremble. +tro = too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +trov-i = to find. +trud-i = to shove, thrust. +tuj = immediately. +tut-a = all. + + = U = + +-u = ending of imperative subjunctive. +-uj = suffix denoting "holder". +-ul = suffix denoting characteristic. +unu = one. + + = V = + +vapor-o = steam. +vek-i = to wake (trans.). +vel-o = sail. +velk-a = faded. +ven-i = to come. +venk-i = to conquer. +vent-o = wind. +ver-a = true. +vesper-o = evening. +vetur-i = to travel by vehicle (train, carriage, boat, etc.). +vi = you. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-(in)-o = widow(er). +vir-(in)-o = man (woman). +viv-i = to live. +voj-o = way. +vojaĝ-o = voyage, journey. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to wish. +vom-i = to vomit, be sick. +vort-o = word. + + = Z = + +zorg-o = care. + + + + + APPENDIX A + + SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN REGULAR LANGUAGE + + +Word-building can be made quite an amusing game for children. For +instance, give them the suffixes _-ej_ (denoting place) and _-il_ +(denoting instrument), and set them to form words for "school," +"church," "factory," "knife," "warming-pan," etc. (_lernejo_, +_preĝejo_, _fabrikejo_, _tranĉito_, _varmigilo_). + +But since the language is perfectly regular in form and construction, +and the learner can therefore argue from case to case, it is a useful +instrument for instilling clear ideas of grammatical categories. Thus +give the roots— + + viv-i = to live san-a = healthy hom-o = man + long-a = long saĝ-a = wise Di-o = God + don-i = to give + +and set such sentences as the following to be worked out— + +"He lives long"; "A long life is a gift of God"; "It is wise to live +healthily"; "God is divine, man is human"; "Human life is short," etc. + +The same roots constantly recur with an _-o_, _-a_, or _-e_ tacked on; +and the practice in sorting out the endings, and attaching them like +labels to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, soon marks off the +corresponding ideas clearly in the learner's mind. + +Analogous to simple sums and conducive to clear thinking are such +sentences as the following, for rather more advanced pupils: + +Given— + + raz-i = to shave serv-i = to serve san-a = healthy + akr-a = sharp mort-i = to die ven-i = to come + uz-i = to use hak-i = to hew kun = with + sent-i = to feel + +and the table of affixes (pp. 191-2 [Part IV, Chapter IV]). + +Translate—"Constant use had blunted his razor"; "He had his servant +shaved"; "He killed his companion with an axe"; "Let us send for the +doctor." + +More advanced exercise (on the same roots): + +Translate—"O Death, where is thy sting?" "Community of service brings +together men subject to death, and dulls the perception of their common +mortality. Willing service dissipates the weariness of the server; the +deadliness of disease is mitigated, and the place of sickness becomes a +place of health." + +By referring to the table of affixes, the use of which has of course +been explained, the learner can work out the answers as follows: + +Uz-ad-o estis mal-akr-ig-int-a lian raz-il-on. Li raz-ig-is sian +serv-ant-(_or_ ist)on. Li mort-ig-is sian kun-ul-on per hak-il-o. +Ni ven-ig-u la san-ig-ist-on. + +More advanced: + +Ho Morto, kie estas via akr-ec-o? Kun-servo (_or_ kuneco de servo) +kun-ig-as la mort-em-(ul)-ojn, kaj mal-akr-ig-as la sent-on de ilia +kun-a mort-em-ec-o. Serv-em-ec-o dis-ig-as la el-uz-it-ec-on de la +serv-ant-o; la mort-ig-ec-o de la mal-san-ec-o mal-akr-iĝ-as, kaj la +mal-san-ej-o iĝas san-ej-o. + +No national language could be used in this way for building sentences +according to rules, and such exercises should give a practical grip +of clear use of language. The student is obliged to analyse the exact +meaning of every word of the English sentence, and this necessity +inculcates a nice discrimination in the use of words. At the same time +the necessary word-building depends upon clear-headed and logical +application of rule. There is no memory work, but the mind is kept on +the stretch, and the exercise is wholesome as combating confusion of +thought and slovenliness of expression. + + + + + APPENDIX B + + ESPERANTO HYMN BY DR. ZAMENHOF + + + LA ESPERO + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko; + Per flugiloj de facila vento + Nun de loko flugu ĝi al loko. + Ne al glavo sangon soifanta + Ĝi la homan tiras familion: + Al la mond' eterne militanta + Ĝi promesas sanktan harmonion. + Sub la sankta signo de l'espero + Kolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj, + Kaj rapide kreskas la afero + Per laboro de la esperantoj. + Forte staras muroj de miljaroj + Inter la popoloj dividitaj; + Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj, + Per la sankta amo disbatitaj. + Sub neŭtrala lingva fundamento, + Komprenante unu la alian, + La popoloj faros en konsento + Unu grandan rondon familian. + Nia diligenta kolegaro + En laboro paca ne laciĝos, + Ĝis la bela sonĝo de l'homaro + Por eterna ben' efektiviĝos. + + + LITERAL TRANSLATION + + HOPE + + Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call; + On light wind-wings + Now may it fly from place to place. + Not to the sword thirsting for blood + Does it draw the human family: + To the world eternally at war + It promises holy harmony. + Beneath the holy banner of hope + Throng the soldiers of peace, + And swiftly spreads the Cause + Through the labour of the hopeful. + Strong stand the walls of a thousand years + Between the sundered peoples; + But the stubborn bars shall leap apart, + Battered to pieces by holy love. + On the fair foundation of common speech, + Understanding one another, + The peoples in concord shall make up + One great family circle. + Our busy band of comrades + Shall never weary in the work of peace, + Till humanity's grand dream + Shall become the truth of eternal blessing. + + + + + APPENDIX C + + THE LETTER _C_ IN ESPERANTO + + +_c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." + +This has given rise to much criticism. The same sound is also expressed +by the letters _ts_. Why depart from the Esperanto principle, "one +sound, one letter," and have two symbols (_c_ and _ts_) for the same +sound? + +A standing difficulty of an international language is: What equivalent +shall be adopted for the _c_ of national languages? The difficulty +arises owing to the diversity of value and history of the _c_ in diverse +tongues. Philologists, who know the history of the Latin hard _c_ and +its various descendants in modern languages, will appreciate this. + +(1) Shall _c_ be adopted in the international language, or omitted? +If it is omitted, many useful words, which it is desirable to adopt +and which are ordinarily spelt with a _c_, will have to be arbitrarily +deformed, and this deformation may amount to actual obscuring of their +sense. E.g. _cento_ = hundred; _centro_ = centre; _cerbo_ = brain; +_certa_ = certain; _cirkonstanco_ = circumstance; _civila_ = civil, etc. +Such works would become almost unrecognizable for many in the forms +kento, sento, tsento, etc. + +(2) If, then, _c"_is retained, what value is to be given to it? The +hard and soft sounds of the English _c_ (as in English "cat," "civil") +are already represented by _k_ and _s_. Neither of these letters can +be dispensed with in the international language; and it is undesirable +to confuse orthographically or phonetically _c_-roots with _s_- or +_k_-roots. Therefore another value must be found for the symbol _c_. +The choice is practically narrowed down to the Italian soft _c_ = _ch_, +as in English "church," and the German[1] _c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." +Now _ch_ is a useful and distinctive sound, and has been adopted in +Esperanto with a symbol of its own: ĉ. Therefore _ts_ remains. + + [1]Also late Latin and early Norman French. + +(3) Why not then abolish _c_ and write _ts_ instead? For answer, see +No. (1) above. It is a worse evil to introduce such monstrosities as +_tsento_, _tsivila_, etc., than to allow two symbols for the same sound, +_ts_ and _c_. International language has to appeal to the eye as well as +to the ear. + +This matter of the _c_ is only one more instance of the wisdom of Dr. +Zamenhof in refusing to make a fetish of slavish adherence to rule. +Practical common-sense is a safer guide than theory in attaining the +desired goal—ease (of eye, ear, tongue, and pen) for greatest number. +In practice no confusion arises between _c_ and _ts_. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's International Language, by Walter J. 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