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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/16737-0.txt b/16737-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d152d97 --- /dev/null +++ b/16737-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8453 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language, by Walter J. Clark + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: International Language + Past, Present and Future: With Specimens of Esperanto and Grammar + +Author: Walter J. Clark + +Release Date: September 24, 2005 [EBook #16737] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, William Patterson and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + INTERNATIONAL + LANGUAGE + + PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE + + WITH SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + AND GRAMMAR + + + BY W. J. CLARK + M.A. OXON., PH.D. LEIPZIG + LICENCIÉ-ÈS-LETTRES, BACHELIER-EN-DROIT + PARIS + + + LONDON + J. M. DENT & COMPANY + 1907 + + + PRINTED BY + HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., + LONDON AND AYLESBURY. + + + * * * * * + + + PREFACE + + An artificial language may be more regular, more perfect, + and easier to learn than a natural one.—MAX MÜLLER. + +The world is spinning fast down the grooves of change. The old disorder +changeth. Haply it is yielding place to new. The tongue is a little +member. It should no longer be allowed to divide the nations. + +Two things stand out in the swift change. Science with all its works is +spreading to all lands. The East, led by Japan, is coming into line with +the West. + +Standardization of life may fittingly be accompanied by standardization +of language. The effect may be twofold—Practical and Ideal. + + _Practical._ The World has a thousand tongues, + Science but one: + They'll climb up a thousand rungs + When Babel's done. + + _Ideal._ Mankind has a thousand tongues, + Friendship but one: + _Banzai!_ then from heart and lungs + For the Rising Sun. + + W. J. C. + +NOTE.—The following pages have had the advantage of being read in +MS. by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, and I am indebted to him for many +corrections and suggestions. + + + * * * * * + + + AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +NOTE.—To avoid repeating the cumbrous phrase "international auxiliary +language," the word _auxiliary_ is usually omitted. It must be clearly +understood that when "international" or "universal" language is spoken +of, _auxiliary_ is also implied. + + + PART I + + GENERAL + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Introductory . . . . . . . . . 1 + II. The Question of Principle—Economic Advantage of + an International Language . . . . . . 4 + III. The Question of Practice—An International Language + is Possible . . . . . . . . . 8 + IV. The Question of Practice (_continued_)—An International + Language is Easy . . . . . . . . 16 + V. The Question of Practice (_continued_)—The Introduction + of an International Language would not cause + Dislocation . . . . . . . . . 24 + VI. International Action already taken for the Introduction + of an Auxiliary Language . . . . . . 26 + VII. Can the International Language be Latin? . . . . 33 + VIII. Can the International Language be Greek? . . . . 35 + IX. Can the International Language be a Modern + Language? . . . . . . . . . 36 + X. Can the Evolution of an International Language be + left to the Process of Natural Selection by Free + Competition? . . . . . . . . . 38 + XI. Objections to an International Language on Aesthetic + Grounds . . . . . . . . . . 40 + XII. Will an International Language discourage the Study + of Modern Languages, and thus be Detrimental to + Culture?—Parallel with the Question of Compulsory + Greek . . . . . . . . . . 46 + XIII. Objection to an International Language on the Ground + that it will soon split up into Dialects . . . 49 + XIV. Objection that the Present International Language + (Esperanto) is too Dogmatic, and refuses to + profit by Criticism . . . . . . . 51 + XV. Summary of Objections to an International Language . . 53 + XVI. The Wider Cosmopolitanism—The Coming of Asia . . . 57 + XVII. Importance of an International Language for the Blind . 61 + XVIII. Ideal _v._ Practical . . . . . . . . 63 + XIX. Literary _v._ Commercial . . . . . . . 65 + XX. Is an International Language a Crank's Hobby? . . . 70 + XXI. What an International Language is not . . . . 73 + XXII. What an International Language is . . . . . 73 + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Some Existing International Languages already in + Partial Use . . . . . . . . . 74 + II. Outline of History of the Idea of a Universal Language—List + of Schemes proposed . . . . . . . . 76 + III. The Earliest British Attempt . . . . . . 87 + IV. History of Volapük—a Warning . . . . . . 92 + V. History of Idiom Neutral . . . . . . . 98 + VI. The Newest Languages: a Neo-Latin Group—Gropings + towards a "Pan-European" Amalgamated + Scheme . . . . . . . . . . 103 + VII. History of Esperanto . . . . . . . . 105 + VIII. Present State of Esperanto: (_a_) General; (_b_) in England 121 + IX. Lessons to be drawn from the Foregoing History . . . 131 + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF + THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Esperanto is scientifically constructed, and fulfils the + Natural Tendency in Evolution of Language . . . 135 + II. Esperanto from an Educational Point of View—It will + aid the learning of other Languages and stimulate + Intelligence . . . . . . . . . 145 + III. Comparative Tables illustrating Labour saved in learning + Esperanto as contrasted with other Languages: + (_a_) Word-building; (_b_) Participles and Auxiliaries . 155 + IV. How Esperanto can be used as a Code Language to + communicate with Persons who have never learnt it . . 161 + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND + VOCABULARY + + CHAP. PAGE + + Note . . . . . . . . . . . 165 + I. Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . 166 + II. Specimens of Esperanto: + 1. Parolado . . . . . . . . . 167 + 2. La Marbordistoj . . . . . . . . 168 + 3. Nesaĝa Gento: Alegorio . . . . . . 168 + III. Grammar . . . . . . . . . . 189 + IV. List of Affixes . . . . . . . . . 191 + V. Table of Correlative Words . . . . . . . 193 + VI. Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . 194 + + + APPENDIX A + + Sample Problems (see Part III., chap, ii.) in Regular Language . 200 + + + APPENDIX B + + Esperanto Hymn by Dr. Zamenhof . . . . . . . 202 + + + APPENDIX C + + The Letter _c_ in Esperanto . . . . . . . . 204 + + + * * * * * + + + PART I + + GENERAL + + + I + + INTRODUCTORY + +In dealing with the problem of the introduction of an international +language, we are met on the threshold by two main questions: + + 1. The question of principle. + + 2. The question of practice. + +By the question of principle is meant, Is it desirable to have a +universal language? do we wish for one? in short, is there a demand? + +The question of practice includes the inquiries, Is such a language +possible? is it easy? would its introduction be fraught with prohibitive +difficulties? and the like. + +It is clear that, however possible or easy it may be to do a thing, +there is no case for doing it unless it is wanted; therefore the +question of principle must be taken first. In the case before us +the question of principle involves many considerations—aesthetic, +political, social, even religious. These will be glanced at in their +proper place; but for our present purpose they are all subordinate +to the one great paramount consideration—the economic one. In the +world of affairs experience shows that, given a demand of any kind +whatever, as between an economical method of supplying that demand and a +non-economical method, in the long run the economical method will surely +prevail. + +If, then, it can be shown that there is a growing need for means of +international communication, and that a unilingual solution is more +economical than a multilingual one, there is good ground for thinking +that the unilingual method of transacting international affairs will +surely prevail. It then becomes a question of time and method: When will +men feel the pressure of the demand sufficiently strongly to set about +supplying it? and what means will they adopt? + +The time and the method are by no means indifferent. Though a demand +(for what is possible) is sure, in the long run, to get itself supplied, +a long period of wasteful and needless groping may be avoided by a +clear-sighted and timely realization of the demand, and by consequent +organized co-operation in supplying it. Intelligent anticipation +sometimes helps events to occur. It is the object of this book to +call attention to the present state of affairs, and to emphasize the +fact that the time is now ripe for dealing with the question, and the +present moment propitious for solving the problem once for all in an +orderly way. The merest glance at the list of projects for a universal +language[1] and their dates will strengthen the conviction from an +historical point of view that the fulness of time is accomplished, while +the history of the rise and fall of _Volapük_ and of the extraordinary +rise of _Esperanto_, in spite of its precursor's failure, are exceedingly +significant. + + [1]See pp. 78-87. [Part II, Chapter II] + +One language has been born, come to maturity, and died of dissension, +and the world stood by indifferent. Another is now in the first full +flush of youth and strength. After twenty-nine years of daily developing +cosmopolitanism—years that have witnessed the rising of a new star in +the East and an uninterrupted growth of interchange of ideas between +the nations of the earth, whether in politics, literature, or science, +without a single check to the ever-rising tide of internationalism—are +we again to let the favourable moment pass unused, just for want of +making up our minds? At present one language holds the field. It is +well organized; it has abundant enthusiastic partisans accustomed to +communicate and transact their common business in it, and only too +anxious to show the way to others. If it be not officially adopted and +put under the regulation of a duly constituted international authority, +it may wither away or split into factions as Volapük did.[1] Or it may +continue to grow and flourish, but others of its numerous rivals may +secure adherents and dispute its claim. This would be even worse. It is +far harder to rally a multitude of conflicting rivals in the same camp, +than it is to take over a well-organized, homogeneous, and efficient +volunteer force, legalize its position, and raise it to the status of a +regular army. In any case, if no concerted action be taken, the question +will remain in a state of chaos, and the lack of official organization +brings a great risk of overlapping, dissension, and creation of rival +interests, and generally produces a state of affairs calculated to +postpone indefinitely the supply of the demand. Competition that neither +tends to keep down the price nor to improve the quality of the thing +produced is mere dissipation of energy. + + [1]Esperanto itself is admirably organized (see p. 119) [Part II, + Chapter VII], and there are no factions or symptoms of dissension. + But Esperantists need official support and recognition. + +In a word, the one thing needful at present is not a more highly +perfected language to adopt, but the adoption of the highly perfected +one we possess. By the admission of experts, no less than by the +practical experience of great numbers of persons in using it over a +number of years, it has been found adequate. Once found adequate, its +absolute utility merely depends upon universal adoption. + +With utility in direct proportion to numbers of adherents, every recruit +augments its value—a thought which may well encourage waverers to make +the slight effort necessary to at any rate learn to read it. + + + II + + THE QUESTION OF PRINCIPLE—ECONOMIC + ADVANTAGE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +As stated above, the question of principle will be treated here from +a purely economical point of view, since practical value, measured +by saving of time, money, and effort, must be the ultimate criterion +by which the success or failure of so far-reaching a reform as the +introduction of an international, auxiliary language will be decided. +The bearing of such a reform upon education, culture, race supremacy, +etc., is not without importance; but the discussion of these points must +be postponed as subsidiary. + +Reduced to its simplest form, the economical argument is this: + +(1) The volume of international intercourse is great and increasing. + +(2) This intercourse is at present carried on in many different +languages of varying degrees of difficulty, but all relatively hard of +acquisition for those who do not know them as a mother-tongue. This is +uneconomical. + +(3) It is economically sounder to carry on international intercourse in +one easy language than in a large number of hard ones. + +(4) Therefore in principle an easy international language is desirable. + +Let us glance at these four points a little more in detail. + +No. 1 surely needs no demonstration. Every year there is more +communication between men of different race and language. And it is not +business, in the narrow sense of the term, that is exclusively or even +chiefly affected by diversity of language. Besides the enormous bulk +of pleasure travel, international congresses are growing in number and +importance; municipal fraternization is the latest fashion, and many +a worthy alderman, touring at the ratepayers' expense, must wish that +he had some German in Berlin, or a little Italian in Milan. Indeed, it +is at these points of international contact that language is a real +bar, actually preventing much intercourse that would otherwise have +taken place, rather than in business, which is organized in view of the +difficulty. Then there is the whole realm of scientific and learned +literature—work of which the accessibility to all concerned is of the +first importance, but is often hindered because a translation into one +language does not pay, or, if made, only reaches a limited public. Such +bars to freedom of interchange cannot be reckoned in money; but modern +economics recognizes the personal and social factor, and any obstacle to +research is certainly a public loss. + +But important as are these various spheres of action, an even wider +international contact of thought and feeling is springing up in our +days. Democracy, science, and universal education are producing +everywhere similarity of institutions, of industry, of the whole +organization of life. Similarity of life will breed community of +interests, and from this arises real converse—more give and take in the +things that matter, less purely superficial dealings of the guide-book +or conversation-manual type. + +(2) "Business," meaning commerce, in so far as it is international, +may at present be carried on mainly in half a dozen of the principal +languages of Western Europe. Even so, their multiplicity is vexatious. +But outside the world of business other languages are entering the +field, and striving for equal rights. The tendency is all towards +self-assertion on the part of the nationalities that are beginning a +new era of national life and importance. The language difficulty in the +Austrian Empire reflects the growing self-consciousness of the Magyars. +Everywhere where young peoples are pushing their rights to take equal +rank among the nations of the world, the language question is put in +the forefront. The politicians of Ireland and Wales have realized the +importance of language in asserting nationality, but such engineered +language-agitation offers but a feeble reflex of the vitality of the +question in lands where the native language is as much in use for +all purposes as is English in England. These lands will fight harder +and harder against the claims to supremacy of a handful of Western +intruders. A famous foreign philologist,[1] in a report on the subject +presented to the Academy of Vienna, notes the increasing tendency of +Russian to take rank among the recognized languages for purposes of +polite learning. He is well placed to observe. With Russia knocking at +the door and Hungary waiting to storm the breach, what tongue may not +our descendants of the next century have to learn, under pain of losing +touch with important currents of thought? It is high time something +were done to standardize means of transmission. Owing to political +conditions, there are linguistically disintegrating forces at work, +which are at variance with the integrating forces of natural tendency. + + [1]Prof. Shuchardt + +From an economical point of view, a considerable amount of time, effort, +and money must be unreproductively invested in overcoming the "language +difficulty." In money alone the amount must run into thousands of +pounds yearly. Among the unreproductive investments are—the employment +of foreign correspondence clerks, the time and money spent upon the +installation of educational plant for their production, the time and +money spent upon translations and interpreters for the proceedings +of international conferences and negotiations, the time devoted by +professors and other researchers (often nonlinguists in virtue of their +calling) to deciphering special treatises and learned periodicals in +languages not their own.[1] + + [1]These are some of the actual visible losses owing to the + _presence_ of the language difficulty. No one can estimate the + value of the losses entailed by the _absence_ of free intercourse + due to removable linguistic barriers. Potential (but at present + non-realized) extension of goodwill, swifter progress, and wider + knowledge represent one side of their value; while consequent + non-realized increase in volume of actual business represents their + value in money. The negative statement of absence of results from + intercourse that never took place affords no measure of positive + results obtainable under a better system. + +The tendency of those engaged in advancing material progress, which +consists in the subjection of nature to man's ends, is to adapt more and +more quickly their methods to changing conditions. Has the world yet +faced in a business-like spirit the problem of wiping out wastage on +words? + +Big industrial concerns scrap machinery while it is yet perfectly +capable of running and turning out good work, in order to replace it by +newer machinery, capable of turning out more work in the same time. Time +is money. Can the busy world afford a language difficulty? + +(3) The proposition that it is economically sounder to carry on +international intercourse in one easy language than in a large number of +hard ones rests upon the principle that it does not pay to do a thing a +hard way, if the same results can be produced by an easy way. + +The whole industrial revolution brought about by the invention of +machinery depended upon this principle. Since an artificial language, +like machinery, is a means invented by man of furthering his ends, there +seems to be no abuse of analogy in comparing them. + +When it was found that machinery would turn out a hundred pieces of +cloth while the hand-loom turned out one, the hand-loom was doomed, +except in so far as it may serve other ends, antiquarian, aesthetic, or +artistic, which are not equally well served by machinery. Similarly, +to take another revolution which is going on in our own day through +a further application of machinery, when it is found that corn can +be reaped and threshed by machinery, that hay can be cut, made, +carried, and stacked by machinery, that man can travel the high road +by machinery, sooner or later machinery is bound to get the bulk of +the job, because it produces the same results at greater speed and +less cost. So, in the field of international intercourse, if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency and at less cost produce +the same results as a multiplicity of natural ones, in many lines +of human activity, and making all reserves in matters antiquarian, +aesthetic, and artistic, sooner or later the multiplicity will have to +go to the scrap-heap[1] as cumbrous and out of date. It may be a hundred +years; it may be fifty; it may be even twenty. Almost certainly the +irresistible trend of economic pressure will work its will and insist +that what has to be done shall be done in the most economical way. + + [1]But only, of course, in those lines in which an international + auxiliary language can produce equally good results. This excludes + home use, national literature, philology, scholarly study of national + languages, etc. + +So much, then, for the question of principle. In treating it, certain +large assumptions have been made; e.g. it is said above, "if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency... produce the same +results," etc. Here it is assumed that the artificial language is (1) +easy, and (2) that it is possible for it to produce the same results. +Again, however easy and possible, its introduction might cost more than +it saved. These are questions of fact, and are treated in the three +following chapters under the heading of "The Question of Practice." + + + III + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE—AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS POSSIBLE + +The man who says a thing is impossible without troubling to find out +whether it has been done is merely "talking through his hat," to use +an Americanism, and we need not waste much time on him. Any one, who +maintains that it is impossible to transact the ordinary business of +life and write lucid treatises on scientific and other subjects in an +artificial language, is simply in the position of the French engineer, +who gave a full scientific demonstration of the fact that an engine +could not possibly travel by steam. + +The plain fact is that not only one artificial language, but several, +already exist, which not only can express, but already have expressed +all the ideas current in social intercourse, business, and serious +exposition. It is only necessary to state the facts briefly. + +First—_Volapük_. + +Three congresses were held in all for the promotion of this language. +The third (Paris, 1889) was the most important. It was attended by +Volapükists from many different nations, who carried on all their +business in Volapük, and found no difficulty in understanding one +another. Besides this, there were a great many newspapers published in +Volapük, which treated of all kinds of subjects. + +Secondly—_Idiom Neutral_, the lineal descendant of Volapük. + +It is regulated by an international academy, which sends round circulars +and does all its business in Idiom Neutral. + +Thirdly—_Esperanto_. + +Since the publication of the language in 1887 it has had a gradually +increasing number of adherents, who have used it for all ordinary +purposes of communication. A great number of newspapers and reviews of +all kinds are now published regularly in Esperanto in a great variety +of countries. I take up a chance number of the _Internacia Scienca +Revuo_, which happens to be on my table, and find the following subjects +among the contents of the month: "_Rôle_ of living beings in the general +physiology of the earth," "The carnivorous animals of Sweden," "The part +played by heredity in the etiology of chronic nephritis," "The migration +of the lemings," "Notices of books," "Notes and correspondence," etc. +In fact, the Review has all the appearance of an ordinary scientific +periodical, and the articles are as clearly expressed and as easy to +read as those in any similar review in a national language. + +Even more convincing perhaps, for the uninitiated, is the evidence +afforded by the International Congresses of Esperantists. The first was +held at Boulogne in August 1905. It marked an epoch in the lives of +many of the participants, whose doubts as to the practical nature of an +artificial language there, for good and all, yielded to the logic of +facts; and it may well be that it will some day be rather an outstanding +landmark in the history of civilization. A brief description will, +therefore, not be out of place. + +In the little seaport town on the north coast of France had come +together men and women of more than twenty different races. Some were +experts, some were beginners; but all save a very few must have been +alike in this, that they had learnt their Esperanto at home, and, as +far as oral use went, had only been able to speak it (if at all) with +members of their own national groups—that is, with compatriots who had +acquired the language under the same conditions as to pronunciation, +etc., as themselves. Experts and beginners, those who from practical +experience knew the great possibilities of the new tongue as a written +medium, no less than the neophytes and tentative experimenters who had +come to see whether the thing was worth taking seriously, they were now +to make the decisive trial—in the one case to test the faith that was +in them, in the other to set all doubt at rest in one sense or the other +for good and all. + +The town theatre had been generously placed at the disposal of the +Congress, and the author of the language, Dr. Zamenhof, had left his +eye-patients at Warsaw and come to preside at the coming out of his +_kara lingvo_, now well on in her 'teens, and about to leave the +academic seclusion of scholastic use and emerge into the larger sphere +of social and practical activity. + +On Saturday evening, August 5, at eight o'clock, the Boulogne Theatre +was packed with a cosmopolitan audience. The unique assembly was +pervaded by an indefinable feeling of expectancy; as in the lull before +the thunderstorm, there was the hush of excitement, the tense silence +charged with the premonition of some vast force about to be let loose +on the world. After a few preliminaries, there was a really dramatic +moment when Dr. Zamenhof stood up for the first time to address his +world-audience in the world-tongue. Would they understand him? Was their +hope about to be justified? or was it all a chimera, "such stuff as +dreams are made on"? + +_Gesinjoroj_ (= Ladies and gentlemen)—the great audience +craned forward like one man, straining eyes and ears towards the +speaker,—_Kun granda plezuro mi akceptis la proponon..._ The +crowd drank in the words with an almost pathetic agony of anxiety. +Gradually, as the clear-cut sentences poured forth in a continuous +stream of perfect lucidity, and the audience realized that they were +all listening to and all understanding a really international speech +in a really international tongue—a tongue which secured to them, as +here in Boulogne so throughout the world, full comprehension and a +sense of comradeship and fellow-citizenship on equal terms with all +users of it—the anxiety gave way to a scene of wild enthusiasm. Men +shook hands with perfect strangers, and all cheered and cheered again. +Zamenhof finished with a solemn declamation of one of his hymns (given +as an appendix to this volume, with translation), embodying the lofty +ideal which has inspired him all through and sustained him through the +many difficulties he has had to face. When he came to the end, the fine +passage beginning with the words, _Ni inter popoloj la murojn detruos_ +("we shall throw down the walls between the peoples"), and ending _amo +kaj vero ekregos sur tero_ ("love and truth shall begin their reign on +earth"), the whole concourse rose to their feet with prolonged cries of +"Vivu Zamenhof!" + +No doubt this enthusiasm may sound rather forced and unreal to those +who have not attended a congress, and the cheers may ring hollow across +intervening time and space. Neither would it be good for this or any +movement to rely upon facile enthusiasm, as easily damped as aroused. +There is something far more than this in the international language +movement. + +At the same time, it is impossible for any one who has not tried it to +realize the thrill—not a weak, sentimental thrill, but a reasonable +thrill, starting from objective fact and running down the marrow of +things—given by the first real contact with an international language +in an international setting. There really is a feeling as of a new power +born into the world. + +Those who were present at the Geneva Congress, 1906, will not soon +forget the singing of the song "La Espero" at the solemn closing of +the week's proceedings. The organ rolled out the melody, and when the +gathered thousands that thronged the floor of the hall and packed the +galleries tier on tier to the ceiling took up the opening phrase— + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko,[1] + +they meant every word of it. It was a fitting summary of the impressions +left by the events of the week, and what the lips uttered must have been +in the hearts and minds of all. + + [1]Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call. + +As an ounce of personal experience is worth a pound of second-hand +recital, a brief statement may here be given of the way in which the +present writer came to take up Esperanto, and of the experiences which +soon led him to the conviction of its absolute practicability and +utility. + +In October, 1905, having just returned from an absence of some years in +Canada and the Far East, he had his attention turned to Esperanto for +the first time by reading an account of the Congress of Boulogne. He had +no previous knowledge of, or leanings towards, a universal language; and +if he had thought about it at all, it was only to laugh at the idea as a +wild and visionary scheme. In short, his attitude was quite normal. + +But here was a definite statement, professing to be one of positive +accomplished fact. One of two things: either the newspaper account +was not true; or else, the facts being as represented, here was a +new possibility to be reckoned with. The only course was to send for +the books and test the thing on its merits. Being somewhat used to +languages, he did not take long to see that this one was good enough in +itself. A letter, written in Esperanto, after a few days' study of the +grammar at odd times, with a halfpenny Esperanto-English key enclosed, +was fully understood by the addressee, though he was ignorant up till +then of the very existence of Esperanto. This experience has often been +since repeated; indeed, the correspondent will often write back after a +few days in Esperanto. Such letters have always been found intelligible, +though in no case did the correspondent know Esperanto previously. The +experiment is instructive and amusing, and can be tried by any one for +an expenditure of twopence for keys and a few hours for studying the +sixteen rules and their application. To many minds these are far simpler +and more easy to grasp for practical use than the rules for scoring at +bridge. + +After a month or two's playing with the language in spare time, +the writer further tested it, by sending out a flight of postcards +to various selected Esperantists' addresses in different parts of +the Russian Empire. The addressees ranged from St. Petersburg and +Helsingfors through Poland to the Caucasus and to far Siberia. In nearly +every case answers were received, and in some instances the initial +interchange of postcards led to an extremely interesting correspondence, +throwing much light on the disturbed state of things in the native +town or province of the correspondent. From a Tiflis doctor came a +graphic account of the state of affairs in the Caucasus; while a school +inspector from the depths of Eastern Siberia painted a vivid picture of +the effect of political unrest on the schools—lockouts and "malodorous +chemical obstructions" (_Anglice_—the schools were stunk out). Many +writers expressed themselves with great freedom, but feared their +letters would not pass the censor. Judging by the proportion of answers +received, the censorship was not at that time efficient. In no case was +there any difficulty in grasping the writer's meaning. All the answers +were in Esperanto. + +This was fairly convincing, but still having doubts on the question of +pronunciation, the writer resolved to attend the Esperanto Congress +to be held at Geneva in August 1906. To this end he continued to read +Esperanto at odd minutes and took in an Esperanto gazette. About three +weeks before the congress he got a member of his family to read aloud to +him every day as far as possible a page or two of Esperanto, in order +to attune his ear. He never had an opportunity of speaking the language +before the congress, except once for a few minutes, when he travelled +some distance to attend a meeting of the nearest English group. + +Thus equipped, he went through the Congress of Geneva, and found himself +able to follow most of the proceedings, and to converse freely, though +slowly, with people of the most diverse nationality. At an early sitting +of the congress he found himself next to a Russian from Kischineff, +who had been through the first great _pogrom_, and a most interesting +conversation ensued. Another day the neighbours were an Indian nawab +and an abbé from Madrid. Another time it was a Bulgarian. At the first +official banquet he sat next to a Finn, who rejoiced in the name of +Attila, and, but for the civilizing influence of a universal language, +might have been in the sunny south, like his namesake of the ancient +world, on a very different errand from his present peaceful one. Yet +here he was, rubbing elbows with Italians, as if there had never been +such things as Huns or a sack of Rome by northern barbarians. + +During the meal a Frenchman, finding himself near us English and some +Germans, proposed a toast to the "entente cordiale taking in Germany," +which was honoured with great enthusiasm. This is merely an instance of +the small ways in which such gatherings make for peace and good will. + +With all these people it was perfectly easy to converse in the common +tongue, pronunciation and national idiom being no bar in practice. + +And this experience was general throughout the duration of the congress. +Day by day sittings were held for the transaction of all kinds of +business and the discussion of the most varied subjects. It was +impressive to see people from half the countries of the world rise +from different corners of the hall and contribute their share to the +discussion in the most matter-of-fact way. Day by day the congressists +met in social functions, debates, lectures, and sectional groups +(chemical, medical, legal, etc.) for the regulation of matters touching +their special interests. Everything was done in Esperanto, and never +was there the slightest hitch or misunderstanding, or failure to give +adequate expression to opinions owing to defects of language. The +language difficulty was annihilated. + +Perhaps one of the most striking demonstrations of this return to +pre-Babel conditions was the performance of a three-part comedy by a +Frenchman, a Russian, and a Spaniard. Such a thing would inevitably +have been grotesque in any national language; but here they met on +common neutral ground. No one's accent was "foreign," and none of the +spectators possessed that mother-tongue acquaintance with Esperanto that +would lead them to feel slight divergences shocking, or even noticeable +without extreme attention to the point. Other theatrical performances +were given at Geneva, as also at Boulogne, where a play of Molière +was performed in Esperanto by actors of eight nationalities with one +rehearsal, and with full success. + +In the face of these facts it is idle to oppose a universal artificial +language on the score of impossibility or inadequacy. The theoretical +pronunciation difficulty completely crumbled away before the test of +practice. + +The "war-at-any-price party," the whole-hoggers _à tous crins_ (the +juxtaposition of the two national idioms lends a certain realism, and +heightens the effect of each), are therefore driven back on their +second line of attack, if the Hibernianism may be excused. "Yes," they +say, "your language may be possible, but, after all, why not learn an +existing language, if you've got to learn one anyway?" + +Now, quite apart from the obvious fact that the nations will never agree +to give the preference to the language of one of them to the prejudice +of the others, this argument involves the suggestion that an artificial +language is no easier to learn than a natural one. We thus come to the +question of ease as a qualification. + + + IV + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)—AN + INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS EASY[1] + + [1]Readers who do not care about the reasons for this, but desire + concrete proofs, may skip the next few pages and turn in to p. 20, + par. 6. + +People smile incredulously at the mention of an artificial language, +implying that no easy royal road can be found to language-learning of +any kind. But the odds are all the other way, and they are heavy odds. + +The reason for this is quite simple, and may be briefly put as follows: + +The object of language is to express thought and feeling. Every natural +language contains all kinds of complications and irregularities, +which are of no use whatever in attaining this object, but merely +exist because they happen to have grown. Their sole _raison d'être_ +is historical. In fact, for a language without a history they are +_unnecessary_[1]. Therefore a universal language, whose only object is +to supply to every one the simplest possible means of expressing his +thoughts and feelings in a medium intelligible to every one else, +simply leaves them out. Now, it is precisely in these "unnecessary" +complications that a large proportion—certainly more than half—of +the difficulty of learning a foreign language consists. Therefore an +artificial language, by merely leaving them out, becomes certainly more +than twice as easy to learn as any natural language. + + [1]i.e. they do not assist in attaining its object as a language. One + universal way of forming the plural, past tense, or comparative + expresses plurality, past time, or comparison just as well as fifteen + ways, and with a deal less trouble. + +A little reflection will make this truth so absurdly obvious, that the +only wonder is, not that it is now beginning to be recognized, but that +any one could have ever derided it. + +That the "unnecessary" difficulties of a natural language are more than +one-half of the whole is certainly an under-estimate; for some languages +the proportion would be more like 3:4 or 5:6. Compared with these, the +artificial language would be three times to five times as easy. + +Take an illustration. Compare the work to be done by the learner of +(_a_) Latin, (_b_) Esperanto, in expressing past, present, and future +action. + +(_a_) Latin: + +Present tense active is expressed by— + + 6 endings in the 1st regular conjugation. + 6 " 2nd " + 6 " 3rd " + 6 " 4th " + +Total regular endings: 24. + +To these must be added a vast number of quite different and varying +forms for irregular verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: + +Present tense active is expressed by— + + 1 ending for every verb in the language. + +Total regular and irregular endings: 1. + +It is exactly the same for the past and future. + +Total endings for the 3 tenses active: + +(_a_) Latin: 72 regular forms, plus a very large number of irregular and +defective verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: 3 forms. + +Turning to the passive voice, we get— + +(_a_) Latin: A complete set of different endings, some of them puzzling +in form and liable to confusion with other parts of the verb. + +(_b_) Esperanto: No new endings at all. Merely the three-form regular +active conjugation of the verb _esti_ = to be, with a passive participle. +No confusion possible. + +It is just the same with compound tenses, subjunctives, participles, +etc. Making all due allowances, it is quite safe to say that the Latin +verb is fifty times as hard as the Esperanto verb. + +The proportion would be about the same in the case of substantives, +Latin having innumerable types. + +Comparing modern languages with Esperanto, the proportion in favour of +the latter would not be so high as fifty to one in the inflection of +verbs and nouns, though even here it would be very great, allowing for +subjunctives, auxiliaries, irregularities, etc. But taking the whole +languages, it might well rise to ten to one. + +For what are the chief difficulties in language-learning? + +They are mainly either difficulties of phonetics, or of structure and +vocabulary. + +Difficulties of phonetics are: + +(1) Multiplicity of sounds to be produced, including many sounds and +combinations that do not occur in the language of the learner. + +(2) Variation of accent, and of sounds expressed by the same letter. + +These difficulties are both eliminated in Esperanto. + +(1) Relatively few sounds are adopted into the language, and only such +as are common to nearly all languages. For instance, there are only five +full vowels and three[1] diphthongs, which can be explained to every +speaker in terms of his own language. All the modified vowels, closed +"u's" and "e's," half tones, longs and shorts, open and closed vowels, +etc., which form the chief bugbear in correct pronunciation, and often +render the foreigner unintelligible—all these disappear. + + [1]Omitting the rare _eŭ_. _ej_ and _uj_ are merely simple vowels + plus consonantal _j_ (= English _y_). + +(2) There is no variation of accent or of sound expressed by the +same letter. The principle "one letter, one sound"[1] is adhered to +absolutely. Thus, having learned one simple rule for accent (always on +the last syllable but one), and the uniform sound corresponding to each +letter, no mistake is possible. + + [1]The converse—"one sound, one letter"—is also true, except that + the same sound is expressed by _c_ and _ts_. (See Appendix C.) + +Contrast this with English. Miss Soames gives twenty-one ways of writing +the same sound. Here they are: + +[Transcriber's Note: +Letters originally printed in _italics_ are here CAPITALIZED for +clarity.] + + AtE grEAt fEIGn + bAss EH! wEIGH + pAIn gAOl AYE + pAY gAUgE obEYEd + dAHlia champAGnE wEIGHEd + vEIn campAIGn trAIT + thEY strAIGHt hALFpenny[1] + + [1]Prof. Skeat adds a twenty-second: Lord Reay! + +(Compare eye, lie, high, etc.) + +In Esperanto this sound is expressed only and always by "e." In fact, +the language is absolutely and entirely phonetic, as all real language +was once. + +As regards difficulties of vocabulary, the same may be said as in +the case of the sounds. Esperanto only adopts the minimum of roots +essential, and these are simple, non-ambiguous, and as international +as possible. Owing to the device of word-building by means of a few +suffixes and prefixes with fixed meaning, the number of roots necessary +is very greatly less than in any natural language.[1] + + [1]Most of these roots are already known to educated people. For the + young the learning of a certain number of words presents practically + no difficulty; it is in the practical application of words learnt + that they break down, and this failure is almost entirely due to + "unnecessary" difficulties. + +As for difficulties of structure, some of the chief ones are as follows: + +_Multiplicity and complexity of inflections._ This does not exist in +Esperanto. + +_Irregularities and exceptions of all kinds._ None in Esperanto. + +_Complications of orthography._ None in Esperanto. + +_Different senses of same word, and different words used in same sense._ +Esperanto—"one word, one meaning." + +_Arbitrary and fluctuating idioms._ Esperanto—none. Common sense and +common grammar the only limitation to combination of words. + +_Complexities of syntax._ (Think of the use of the subjunctive and +infinitive in all languages: _ού_ and _μή_ in Greek; indirect speech +in Latin; negatives, comparisons, etc., etc., in all languages.) +Esperanto—none. Common sense the only guide, and no ambiguity in +practice. The perfect limpidity of Esperanto, with no syntactical rules, +is a most instructive proof of the conventionality and arbitrariness of +the niceties of syntax in national languages. After all, the subjunctive +was made for man and not man for the subjunctive. + +But readers will say: "It is all very well to show by a comparison of +forms that Esperanto _ought_ to be much easier than a natural language. +But we want facts." + +Here are some. + +In the last chapter it was mentioned that the present writer first took +up Esperanto in October 1905, worked at it at odd times, never spoke it +or heard it spoken save once, and was able to follow the proceedings +of the Congress of Geneva in August 1906, and talk to all foreigners. +From a long experience of smattering in many languages and learning a +few thoroughly, he is absolutely convinced that this would have been +impossible to him in any national language. + +A lady who began Esperanto three weeks before the congress, and studied +it in a grammar by herself one hour each day, was able to talk in it +with all peoples on very simple subjects, and to follow a considerable +amount of the lectures, etc. + +Amongst the British folk who attended the congress were many clerks +and commercial people, who had merely learnt Esperanto by attending a +class or a local group meeting once a week, often for not many months. +They had never been out of England before, nor learnt any other foreign +language. They would have been utterly at sea if they had attempted to +do what they did on a similar acquaintance with any foreign tongue. +But during the two days spent _en route_ in Paris, where the British +party was fêted and shown round by the French Esperantists, on the +journey to Geneva, which English and French made together, on lake +steamboats, at picnics and dinners, etc., etc., here they were, rattling +away with great ease and mutual entertainment. Many of these came +from the North of England, and it was a real eye-opener, over which +easy-going South-Englanders would do well to ponder, to see what results +could be produced by a little energy and application, building on no +previous linguistic training. The Northern accent was evidently a help +in pronouncing the full-sounding vowels of Esperanto. + +One Englishman, who was talking away gaily with the French +_samideanoj_,[1] was an Esperantist of one year's standing. He had +happened to be at Boulogne in pursuit of a little combined French and +seasiding at the time of the first congress held there, 1905. One day +he got his tongue badly tied up in a cafe, and was helped out of his +linguistic difficulties with the waiter by certain compatriots, who wore +green stars in their buttonholes,[2] and sat at another table conversing +in an unknown lingo with a crowd of foreigners. He made inquiries, and +found it was Esperanto they were talking. He was so much struck by their +facility, and the practical way in which they had set his business to +rights in a minute (the waiter was an Esperantist trained _ad hoc_!), +that he decided to give up French and go in for Esperanto. This man +was a real learner of French, who had spent a long time on it, and +realized with disgust his impotence to wield it practically. To judge +by his conversation next year at Geneva, he had no such difficulty with +Esperanto. He was quite jubilant over the change. + + [1]Terse Esperanto word. = partisans of the same idea (i.e. + Esperanto). + + [2]The Esperanto badge. + +Such examples could be multiplied _ad infinitum_. No one who attended a +congress could fail to be convinced. + +Scientific comparison of the respective difficulty of Esperanto and +other languages, based on properly collected and tabulated results, +does not seem to be yet obtainable. It is difficult to get high-class +schools, where language-teaching is a regular and important part of +the curriculum, to give an artificial language a fair trial. Properly +organized and carried-out tests are greatly to be desired. If and when +they are made, it will probably be found that Esperanto is not only very +easy of acquisition itself, but that it has a beneficial effect upon +other language-learning.[1] + + [1]See pp. 145-55 [Part III, Chapter I]. + +Meantime, the present writer has carried out one small experiment in a +good secondary school for girls, where French and German are regularly +spoken and taught for many hours in the week. The head-mistress +introduced Esperanto as a regular school subject at the beginning of +the Easter term, January 1907. At the end of term a test paper was +set, consisting of English sentences to be rendered into French and +Esperanto without any dictionary or other aid, and one short passage +of English prose to be rendered into both languages with any aid from +books that the pupils wished. The object was to determine how far a few +hours' teaching of Esperanto would produce results comparable with those +obtained in a language learnt for years. + +The examinees ranged from fourteen to sixteen years. They had been +learning French from two to seven years, and had a daily French lesson, +besides speaking French on alternate days in the school. They had learnt +Esperanto for ten weeks, from one to one and a half hours per week. +_Taking the papers all through, the Esperanto results were nearly as +good as the French._ + +One last experiment may be mentioned. It was made under scientific +conditions on September 23, 1905. The subject was an adult, who had +learnt French and German for years at school, and had since taught +French to young boys, but was not a linguist by training or education, +having read mathematics at the university. + +He had had no lessons in Esperanto, and had never studied the language, +his sole knowledge of it being derived from general conversation with +an enthusiast, who had just returned from the Geneva Congress. He +was disposed to laugh at Esperanto, but was persuaded to test its +possibilities as a language that can be written intelligibly by an +educated person merely from dictionary by a few rules. + +He was given a page of carefully prepared English to translate into +Esperanto. The following written aids were given: + + 1. Twenty-five crude roots (e.g. _lern-_ = to learn.) + + 2. One suffix, with explanation of its use. + + 3. A one-page complete grammar of the Esperanto language. + + 4. An Esperanto-English and an English-Esperanto dictionary. + +He produced a good page of perfectly intelligible Esperanto, quite +free from serious grammatical mistake. He admitted that he could not +translate the passage so well into French or German. + +Such experiments go a good way towards proving the case for an +artificial language. More are urgently needed, especially of the last +two types. They serve to convince all those who come within range of the +experiment that an artificial language is a serious project, and may +confer great benefits at small cost. Any one can make them with a little +trouble, if he can secure a victim. A particularly interesting one is +to send a letter in Esperanto to some English or foreign correspondent, +enclosing a penny key. The letter will certainly be understood, and very +likely the answer will be in Esperanto. + +Doubters as to the ease and efficacy of a universal language are not +asked to believe without trial. They are merely asked not to condemn or +be unfavourable until they have a right to an opinion on the subject. +And they are asked to _form_ an opinion by personally testing, or at any +rate by weighing actual facts. "A fair field and no favour." + +The very best way of testing the thing is to study the language for a +few hours and attend a congress. The next congress is to be held in +Cambridge, England, in August 1907. + +Nothing is more unscientific or unintelligent than to scoff at a thing, +while refusing to examine whether there is anything in it. + + + V + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)—THE INTRODUCTION OF + AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE WOULD NOT CAUSE DISLOCATION + +In Chapters II., III., and IV. it was sought to prove that a universal +language is desirable in principle, that it already exists and is +efficient, and that it is very easy. If these propositions are true, +the only valid argument against introducing it at once would be a +demonstration that its introduction is either impracticable or else +attended with such disadvantages as to outweigh the beneficial results. + +Now, it is quite true that certain schemes tending towards international +uniformity of practice and, therefore, ultimately productive of saving +of labour are nevertheless such that their realization would cause an +almost prohibitive dislocation of present organization. A conspicuous +example is the proposed adoption of the decimal system in coinage and +weights and measures. So great is the loss of time and trouble (and +therefore of money) entailed by using an antiquated and cumbrous-system +instead of a simple and modern one that does the work as well, that the +big firm Kynochs some months ago introduced the decimal system, in spite +of the enormous difficulty of having to keep a double method going. +But hitherto, at any rate, the great disturbance to business that the +change would cause has prevented it from being generally made. Both +this matter and the curiously out-of-date[1] system of spelling modern +English present a fairly close analogy to the multilingual system of +international intercourse, as regards unprofitable expenditure of time +and trouble. + + [1]Out of date, because it has failed to keep pace with the change of + pronunciation. Spelling, i.e. use of writing, was merely a device for + representing to the eye the spoken sounds, so that failure to do this + means getting out of date. + +But where the analogy breaks down altogether is in the matter of +obstacles to reform. + +Supposing that all the ministries of education in the world issued +orders, that as from January 1, 1909, an auxiliary language should be +taught in every government school; supposing that merchants took to +doing foreign business wholesale in an auxiliary language, or that men +of science took to issuing all their books and treatises in it; whose +business would be dislocated? What literature or books would become +obsolete? Who, except foreign correspondence clerks and interpreters, +would be a penny the worse? Surely a useful reform need not be delayed +or refused in the interests of interpreters and correspondence clerks. +Even these would only be eliminated gradually as the reform spread. +There would be absolutely no general confusion analogous to that +following on a sudden change to phonetic spelling or the metric system, +because nothing would be displaced. + +Look at the precedents—the adoption of an international maritime code, +and of an international system of cataloguing which puts bibliography +on an equal footing all over the world by means of a common system +of classification. Did any confusion or dislocation follow on these +reforms? Quite the contrary. It was enough for England and France to +agree on the use of the maritime code, and the rest of the nations had +to come into line. It would be the same with the official recognition +by a group of powerful nations of an auxiliary language. As soon as the +world recognizes that it is a labour-saving device on a large scale, and +a matter of public convenience on the same plane as codes, telegraphy, +or shorthand, it will no doubt be introduced. But why wait until there +are rival schemes with large followings and vested interests—in short, +until the same obstacles arise to the choice of an international, +artificial, and neutral language, as now prevent the elevation of any +national language into a universal medium? The plea of impracticability +on the score of dislocation might then be valid. At present it is not. +To have an easy language that will carry you anywhere and enable you to +read anything, it is sufficient to wish for it. Only, as we Britons are +being taught to "think imperially," so must the nations learn in this +matter to _wish internationally_. + + + VI + + INTERNATIONAL ACTION ALREADY TAKEN + FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF AN AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +The main work of educating the public to "wish internationally," the +necessary precedent to official action, has naturally in the past been +done by the adherents of the various language-schemes themselves. An +outline of the most important of these movements is given in the second +part of this book. + +But apart from these there is now an international organization that is +working for the adoption of an international auxiliary language, and a +brief account of it may be given here. + +During the Paris Exhibition of 1900 a number of international congresses +and learned societies, which were holding meetings there, appointed +delegates for the consideration of the international language question. +These delegates met on January 17, 1901, and founded a "Delegation for +the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language." They drew up the +following declaration, which has been approved by all subsequently +elected delegates: + + * * * * * + + DELEGATION FOR THE ADOPTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + + Declaration + +The undersigned, deputed by various Congresses and Societies to study +the question of an international auxiliary language, have agreed on the +following points: + +(1) There is a necessity to choose and to spread the use of an +international language, designed not to replace national idioms in the +individual life of each people, but to serve in the written and oral +relations between persons whose mother-tongues are different. + +(2) In order to fulfil its purpose usefully, an international language +must satisfy the following conditions: + + 1st Condition: It must fulfil the needs of the ordinary intercourse + of social life, of commercial communications, and of scientific and + philosophic relations; + + 2nd Condition: It must be easily acquired by every person of + average elementary education, and especially by persons of European + civilization; + + 3rd Condition: It must not be one of the national languages. + +(3) It is desirable to organize a general DELEGATION representing +all who realize the necessity, as well as the possibility, of an +international auxiliary language, and who are interested in its +employment. This Delegation will appoint a Committee of members who can +meet during a certain period of time. The purpose of this Committee is +defined in the following articles. + +(4) The choice of the auxiliary language belongs in the first instance +to the _International Association of Academies_, or, in case of failure, +to the Committee mentioned in Art. 3. + +(5) Consequently the first duty of the Committee will be to present to +the _International Association of Academies_, in the required forms, the +desires expressed by the constituent Societies and Congresses, and to +invite it respectfully to realize the project of an auxiliary language. + +(6) It will be the duty of the Committee to create a Society for +propaganda, to spread the use of the auxiliary language which is chosen. + +(7) The undersigned, being delegated by various Congresses and +Societies, decide to approach all learned bodies, and all societies of +business men and tourists, in order to obtain their adhesion to the +present project. + +(8) Representatives of regularly constituted Societies which have +agreed to the present _Declaration_ will be admitted as members of the +DELEGATION. + + * * * * * + +This declaration is the official programme of the Delegation. The most +important point of principle to note is Art. 2, 3rd Con.: "It must not +be one of the national languages." + +As regards the methods of action prescribed, no attempt is to be made +to bring direct pressure to bear upon any government. It was rightly +felt that the adoption of a universal language is a matter for private +initiative. No government can properly take up the question, no Ministry +of Education can officially introduce an auxiliary language into the +schools under its control, until the principle has met with a certain +amount of general recognition. The result of a direct appeal to any +government or governments could only have been, in the most favourable +case, the appointment by the government appealed to of a commission to +investigate and report on the question. Such a commission would examine +experts and witnesses from representative bodies, such as academies, +institutes, philological and other learned societies. The best course of +action, therefore, for the promoters of an international language is to +apply direct to such bodies, to bring the question before them and try +to gain their support. This is what the Delegation has done. + +Now, there already exists an international organization whose object +is to represent and focus the opinion of learned societies in all +countries. This is the International Association of Academies, formed in +1900 for the express purpose, according to its statutes, of promoting +"scientific enterprises of international interest." The delegates feel +that the adoption of an international language comes in the fullest +sense within the letter and spirit of this statute. It is, therefore, +to this Association that the choice of language is, in the first place, +left. (Art. 4.) + +The Association meets triennially. At its first meeting (Paris 1901) +the question of international language was brought before it by General +Sébert, of the French Institute, but too late to be included among the +agenda of that meeting. The occasion was important as eliciting an +expression of opinion on the part of the signatories to General Sébert's +address. These included twenty-five members of the French Institute, one +of the most distinguished scientific bodies in the world. + +At the second meeting of the Association (London 1904) the Delegation +did not officially present the question for discussion, but the +following paragraph appears in the report of the proceedings of the +Royal Society, which was the host (_London Royal Society_, 1904, C. +Section of Letters, Thursday, May 26, 1904, p. 33): + +"In the course of the sitting, the chairman (Lord Reay, President of +the British Academy) submitted to the meeting whether the question of +the 'International Auxiliary Language' should be considered, though +not included in the agenda. From many quarters applications had been +made that the subject might be discussed in some form or other. Prof. +Goldziher and M. Perrot spoke against the suggested discussion, +the former maintaining that the matter was a general question of +international communication, and did not specifically affect scientific +interests; the latter announced that he had been commissioned by the +_Académie des Inscriptions_ to oppose the consideration of this subject. +The matter then dropped." + +The third meeting of the Association of Academies was held at Vienna +at the end of May 1907, under the auspices of the Vienna Academy of +Science. The question was officially laid before it by the Delegation. +The Association declared, for formal reasons, that the question did not +fall within its competence.[1] + + [1]In the voting as to the inclusion of the question in the agenda, + eight votes were cast in favour of international language, and twelve + against. This considerable minority shows very encouraging progress + in such a body, considering the newness of the scheme. + +Up till now only two national academies have shown themselves favourable +to the scheme, those of Vienna and Copenhagen. + +The Vienna Academy commissioned one of its most eminent members, +Prof. Schuchardt, to watch the movement on its behalf, and to keep it +informed on the subject. In 1904 he presented a report favourable to +an international language. He and Prof. Jespersen are amongst the most +famous philologists who support the movement. + +It is not therefore anticipated that the Association of Academies will +take up the question; and the Delegation, thinking it desirable not to +wait indefinitely till it is converted, has proceeded to the election +of a committee, as provided in Art. 4 of the Declaration. It consists +of twelve members, with powers to add to their number. It will meet in +Paris, October 5, 1907. It is anticipated that the language chosen will +be Esperanto. None of the members of this international committee are +English, all the English savants invited having declined. + +What may be the practical effect of the choice made by this Committee +remains to be seen. In France there is a permanent Parliamentary +Commission for the consideration of questions affecting public +education. This Commission has for some time had before it a proposal +for the introduction of Esperanto into the State schools of France, +signed by twelve members of Parliament and referred by the House to +the Commission. This year the proposal has been presented again in a +different form. The text of the scheme, which is much more practical +than the former one, is as follows: + +"The study of the international language Esperanto will be included in +the curricula of those government schools in which modern languages are +already taught. + +"This study will be optional, and candidates who offer for the various +examinations English, German, Italian, Spanish, or Arabic, will be +allowed to offer Esperanto as an additional subject. + +"They will be entitled to the advantages enjoyed by candidates who offer +an additional language." + +At present it is a very usual thing to offer an additional language, and +if this project passes, Esperanto will be on exactly the same footing as +other languages for this purpose. The project of recognizing Esperanto +as a principal language for examination was entirely impracticable. It +is far too easy, and would merely have become a "soft option" and a +refuge for the destitute. + +It is said that a majority of the Commission are in favour of +introducing an auxiliary language into the schools, when one has been +chosen by the Delegation or by the Association of Academies. It is +therefore possible that in a year or two Esperanto may be officially +recognized in France; and if this is so, other nations will have to +examine the matter seriously. + +Considering that the French are notoriously bad linguists and, above all +other peoples, devoted to the cult of their own language and literature, +it is somewhat remarkable that the cause of an artificial language +should have made more progress among them than elsewhere. It might have +been anticipated that the obstructionist outcry, raised so freely in all +countries by those who imagine that an insidious attack is being made on +taste, culture, and national language and literature, would have been +particularly loud in France. On the contrary, it is precisely in that +country that the movement has made most popular progress, and that it +numbers the most scientists, scholars, and distinguished men among its +adherents. Is it that history will one day have to record another case +of France leading Europe in the van of progress? + +Encouraged by the number of distinguished signatures obtained in France +to their petition in 1901, the Delegation drew up a formula of assent +to their Declaration, which they circulate amongst (1) members of +academies, (2) members of universities, in all countries. They also +keep a list of societies of all kinds who have declared their adherence +to the scheme. The latest lists (February and March 1907) show 1,060 +signatures of academicians and university members, and 273 societies. +In both cases the most influential backing is in France. Thus among the +signatures figure in Paris alone: + + 10 professors of the College de France; + 8 " " " Faculty of Medicine; + 13 " " " Faculty of Science; + 11 " " " Faculty of Letters; + 12 " " " École Normale; + 37 members of the Academy of Science; + +besides a host of other members of various learned bodies. Many of these +are members of that august body the Institut de France, and one is a +member of the Académie française—M. Lavisse. + +It is the same in the other French Universities: Lyons University, 53 +professors; Dijon, 34; Caen, 18; Besançon, 15; Grenoble, 26; Marseilles, +56, and so on. + +Universities in other lands make a fair showing. America contributes +supporters from John Hopkins University, 20 professors; Boston Academy +of Arts and Sciences, 13 members; Harvard, 7 professors; Columbia +University, 23 professors; Washington Academy of Science, 19 members; +Columbus University, Ohio, 21 professors, etc. Dublin and Edinburgh both +contribute a few. England is represented by one entry: "Cambridge, 2 +professors." Perhaps the Cambridge Congress will change this somewhat. +It will be strange if any one can actually witness a congress without +having his imagination to some extent stirred by the possibilities. + +A noticeable feature of the action of the Delegation throughout has been +the scientific spirit in which it has gone to work, and its absolute +impartiality as to the language to be adopted. It has everywhere, in +its propaganda and circulars, spoken of "an international auxiliary +language," and has been careful not to prejudge in any way the question +as to which shall be adopted. + +It may be news to many that there are several rival languages in the +field. Even the enthusiastic partisans of Esperanto are often completely +ignorant of the existence of competitors. It was partly with the object +of furnishing full information to the Delegates who are to make the +choice, that MM. Couturat and Leau composed their admirable _Histoire +de la langue universelle_. It contains a brief but scientific account +of each language mentioned, the leading principles of its construction, +and an excellent critique. The main principles are disengaged by the +authors with a masterly clearness and precision of analysis from the +mass of material before them. Though they are careful to express no +personal preference, and let fall nothing which might unfairly prejudice +the delegates in favour of any scheme, it is not difficult to judge, by +a comparison of the scientific critiques, which of the competing schemes +analysed most fully carries out the principles which experience now +shows to be essential to success for any artificial language. + +The impression left is, that whether judged by the test of conformity to +necessary principles, or by the old maxim "possession is nine points of +the law," Esperanto has no serious rival. + + + VII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LATIN? + +There are some who fully admit the desirability of an international +language, but say that we have no need to invent one, as we have Latin. +This tends to be the argument of literary persons.[1] They back it up by +pointing out that Latin has already done duty in the Middle Ages as +a common medium, and therefore, they say, what it has once done with +success it can do again. + + [1]It has even cropped up again in the able articles in _The + Times_ on the reformed pronunciation of Latin (April 1907). + +It is hard to argue with such persons, because they have not grasped +the fact that the nature of international communication has undergone +a complete change, and that therefore there is no presumption that +the same medium will suffice for carrying it on. In the Middle Ages +the cosmopolitan public was almost entirely a learned one. The only +people who wanted to communicate with foreigners (except for a certain +amount of commerce) were scholars, and the only things they wanted to +communicate about were learned subjects, mostly of a philosophical +or literary nature, which Latin was adapted to express. The educated +public was extremely small, and foreign travel altogether beyond the +reach of all but the very few. The overwhelming mass of the people were +illiterate, and fast tied to their native spot by lack of pence, lack of +communications, and the general conditions of life. + +Now that everybody can read and write and get about, and all the +conditions of life have changed, the cosmopolitan public, so far from +being confined to a handful of scholars and merchants, extends down +to and is largely made up of that terrible modern production, "the +man in the street." It is quite ridiculous to pretend that because +an Erasmus or a Casaubon could carry on literary controversies, with +amazing fluency and hard-hitting, in Ciceronian Latin, therefore "the +bald-headed man at the back of the omnibus" can give up the time +necessary to obtaining a control of Latin sufficient for the conduct of +his affairs, or for hobnobbing with his kind abroad. + +It is waste of time to argue with those who do not realize that the +absolute essentials of any auxiliary language in these days are ease +of acquirement and accessibility to all. There are actually some +newspapers published in Latin and dealing with modern topics. As an +amusement for the learned they are all very well; but the portentous +periphrases to which they are reduced in describing tramway accidents +or motor-cars, the rank obscurity of the terms in which advertisements +of the most ordinary goods are veiled, ought to be enough to drive +their illusions out of the heads of the modern champions of Latin for +practical purposes. Let these persons take in the Roman _Vox Urbis_ for +a month or two, or get hold of a copy of the London _Alaudae_, and see +how they feel then. + +A dim perception of the requirements of the modern world has inspired +the various schemes for a barbarized and simplified Latin. It is almost +incredible that the authors of such schemes cannot see that debased +Latin suffers from all the defects alleged against an artificial +language, plus quite prohibitory ones of its own, without attaining +the corresponding advantages. It is just as artificial as an entirely +new language, without being nearly so easy (especially to speak) or +adaptable to modern life. It sins against the cardinal principle that +an auxiliary language shall inflict no damage upon any natural one. In +short, it disgusts both parties (scholars and tradesmen), and satisfies +the requirements of neither. Those who want an easy language, within +the reach of the intelligent person with only an elementary school +groundwork of education, don't get it; and the scholarly party, who +treat any artificial language as a cheap commercial scheme, have their +teeth set on edge by unparalleled barbarisms, which must militate most +seriously against the correct use of classical Latin. + +Such schemes are dead of their own dogginess. + +Latin, pure or mongrel, won't do. + + + VIII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE GREEK? + +This chapter might be as short and dogmatic as Mark Twain's celebrated +chapter upon snakes in Ireland. It would be enough to merely answer +"No," but that the indefatigable Mr. Henderson, after running through +three artificial languages of his own, has come to the conclusion that +Greek is the thing. Certainly, as regards flexibility and power of +word-formation, Greek would be better than Latin on its own merits. But +it is too hard, and the scheme has nothing practical about it. + + + IX + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE A MODERN LANGUAGE? + +Jingoes are not wanting who say that it is unpatriotic of any Englishman +to be a party to the introduction of a neutral language, because English +is manifestly destined to be the language of the world. + +Reader, did you ever indulge in the mild witticism of asking a foreigner +where the English are mentioned in the Bible? The answer, of course, is, +_The meek shall inherit the earth_. But if the foreigner is bigger than +you, don't tell him until you have got to a safe distance. + +It is this attitude of self-assertion, coupled with the tacit assumption +that the others don't count much, that makes the English so detested +on the Continent. It is well reflected in the claim to have their own +language adopted as a common means of communication between all other +peoples. + +This claim is not put forward in any spirit of deliberate insolence, +or with the intention of ignoring other people's feelings; though the +very unconsciousness of any arrogance in such an attitude really renders +it more galling, on account of the tacit conclusion involved therein. +It is merely the outcome of ignorance and of that want of tact which +consists of inability to put oneself at the point of view of others. +The interests of English-speaking peoples are enormous, far greater +than those of any other group of nations united by a common bond of +speech. But it is a form of narrow provincial ignorance to refuse on +that account to recognize that, compared to the whole bulk of civilized +people, the English speakers are in a small minority, and that the +majority includes many high-spirited peoples with a strongly developed +sense of nationality, and destined to play a very important part in the +history of the world. Any sort of movement to have English or any other +national language adopted officially as a universal auxiliary language +would at once entail a boycott of the favoured language on the part +of a ring of other powerful nations, who could not afford to give a +rival the benefit of this augmented prestige. And it is precisely upon +universality of adoption that the great use of an international language +will depend. + +To sum up: the ignorance of contemporary history and fact displayed in +the suggestion of giving the preference to any national language is only +equalled by its futility, for it _is_ futile, to put forward a scheme that +has no chance of even being discussed internationally as a matter of +practical politics. + +A proof is that precisely the same objection to an auxiliary language +is raised in France—namely, that it is unpatriotic, because it would +displace French from that proud position. + +The above remarks will be wholly misunderstood if they are taken to +imply any spirit of Little Englandism on the part of the writer. +On the contrary, he is ardently convinced of the mighty _rôle_ that +will be played among the nations by the British Empire, and has had +much good reason in going to and fro in the world to ponder on its +unique achievement in the past. When fully organized on some terms +of partnership as demanded by the growth of the Colonies, it will go +even farther in the future. But all this has nothing to do with an +international language. Howsoever mighty, the British Empire will not +swallow up the earth—at any rate, not in our time. And till it does, it +is not practical politics to expect other peoples to recognize English +as the international language as between themselves. + +There are, in fact, two quite separate questions: + +(1) Supposing it is possible for any national language to become the +international one, which has the best claims? + +(2) Is it possible for any national language to be adopted as the +international one? + +To question (1) the answer undoubtedly is "English." It is already the +language of the sea, and to a large extent the medium for transacting +business between Europeans and Asiatic races, or between the Asiatic +races themselves.[1] Moreover, except for its pronunciation and +spelling, it has intrinsically the best claim, as being the furthest +advanced along the common line of development of Aryan language.[2] But +the discussion of this question has no more than an academic interest, +because the answer to question (2) is, for political reasons, in the +negative. + + [1]Another argument is that based on the comparative numbers + of people who speak the principal European languages as their + mother-tongue. No accurate statistics exist, but an interesting + estimate is quoted by Couturat and Leau (_Hist. de la langue + universelle_), which puts English first with about 120,000,000, + followed at a distance of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 by Russian. + + [2]This is explained in Part III., chap. i., _q.v._ + + + X + + CAN THE EVOLUTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LEFT + TO THE PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION BY FREE COMPETITION? + +"You base your argument for an international language mainly on the +operation of economical laws. Be consistent, then; leave the matter +to Nature. By unlimited competition the best language is bound to be +evolved and come to the top in the struggle for life. Let the fittest +survive, and don't bother about Esperanto." + +On a first hearing this sounds fairly plausible, yet it is honeycombed +with error. + +In the first place, it proves too much. The same argument could be +adduced for the abandonment of effort of all kind whatever to improve +upon Nature and her processes. "You can walk and run and swim. Don't +bother to invent boats and bicycles, trains and aeroplanes, that will +bring you more into touch with other peoples. Let Nature evolve the best +form of international locomotion." + +Again, Nature does not tend towards uniformity. She produces an infinity +of variety in the individual, and out of this variety she selects and +evolves certain prevailing types. But these types differ widely within +the limits of the world under varying conditions of environment. What +we are seeking to establish is world-wide uniformity, in spite of +difference of environment. + +Again, the argument confuses a sub-characteristic with an organism. A +language is not an organism, but one of the characteristics of man. +After the lapse of countless ages there are grey horses and black, bay +and chestnut, presumably because greyness and blackness and the rest +are incidental characteristics of a horse. No one of them gives him a +greater advantage than the others in his struggle for life, or helps him +particularly to perform the functions of horsiness. + +Just in the same way a man may be equally well equipped with all the +qualities that make for success, whether he speaks English or French, +Russian or Japanese. It cannot be shown that language materially helps +one people as against another, or even that the best race evolves the +best language.[1] Take the last mentioned. If there is one people on the +face of the globe who rejoice in an impossible language, it is the +Japanese. In the early days of foreign intercourse a good Jesuit father +reported that the Japanese were courteous and polite to strangers, but +their language was plainly the invention of the devil. To a modern mind +the language may have outlived its putative father, but its reputation +has not improved, so far as ease is concerned. Yet who will say that it +has impaired national efficiency? + + [1]Greece went down before Rome. Which was the better race, meaning + by "better" the more capable of imposing its language and manners on + the world? Yet who doubts that Greek was the better language? + +The fact is, that for purposes of transaction of ordinary affairs by +those who speak it as a mother tongue, one language is about as good as +another. Whether it survives or spreads depends, not upon its intrinsic +qualities as a language, but upon the success of the race that speaks +it.[1] There is, therefore, no presumption that the best or the most +suitable or the easiest language will spread over the world by its own +merits, or even that any easy or regular language will be evolved. +Printing and education have altogether arrested the natural process of +evolution of language on the lips of men. This is one justification for +the application of new artificial reforms to language and spelling, +which tend no longer to move naturally with the times as heretofore. + + [1]A curious phenomenon of our day suggests a possible partial + exception. In Switzerland French is steadily encroaching and bearing + back German. Is this owing to the intrinsic qualities of French + language and civilization? Materially, the Germans have the greater + expansive power. + +As regards free competition between rival artificial languages, the +same considerations hold good. The worse might prevail just as easily +as the better, because the determining factor is not the nature of the +language, but the influence and general capacity of the rival backers. +Of course a very bad or hard artificial language would not prevail +against an easy one. But beyond a certain point of ease a universal +language cannot go (ease meaning the ease of all), and that limit has +probably been about reached now. Between future schemes there will be +such a mere fractional difference in respect of ease, that competition +becomes altogether beside the point. The thing is to take an easy one +and stick to it. + + + XI + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON AESTHETIC GROUNDS + +One of the commonest arguments that advocates of a universal language +have to face runs something like this: + +"Yes, there really does seem to be something in what you say—your +language may save time and money and grease the wheels of business; +but, after all, we are not all business men, nor are we all out after +dollars. Just think what a dull, drab uniformity your scheme would +lay over the lands like a pall. By the artificial removal of natural +barriers you are aiding and abetting the vulgarization of the world. +You are doing what in you lies to eliminate the racy, the local, the +picturesque. The tongues of men are as stately trees, set deep in the +black, mouldering soil of the past, and rich with its secular decay. The +leaves are the words of the people, old yet ever new, and the flowers +are the nation's poems, drawing their life from the thousand tiny roots +that twist and twine unseen about the lives and struggles of bygone +men. You are calling to us to come forth from the cool seclusion of +these trees' shade, to leave their delights and toil in the glare of the +world at raising a mushroom growth on a dull, featureless plain that +reaches everywhither. Modern Macbeths, sophisticated by your modernity +and adding perverted instinct to crime, you are murdering not sleep, +but dreams—dreams that haunt about the mouldering lodges of the past, +and soften the contact with reality by lending their own colouring +atmosphere. You are hammering the last nail into the coffin of the old +leisurely past, the past that raised the cathedrals, to which taste and +feeling were of supreme moment, and when man put something of himself +into his every work." + +The man must be indeed dull of soul who cannot join in a dirge for the +beauty of the vanishing past. Turn where we may now, we find the same +railways, the same trams, music-halls, coats and trousers. The mad rush +of modernity with its levelling tendency really is killing off what is +quaint, out of the way, and racy of the soil. But why visit the sins +of modernity upon an international language? The last sentence of the +indictment itself suggests the line of defence. "You are hammering the +last nail into the coffin of the old, leisurely past...." + +Quite so, you _are_. + +The universal ability to use an auxiliary language on occasion rounds +off and completes the levelling process. But the old leisurely past +will not be any the less dead, or any the less effectually buried, if +one nail is not driven home in the coffin. The slayer is modernity at +large, made up of science, steam, democracy, universal education, and +many other things—but especially universal education. And the verdict +can be, at the most, justifiable, or at any rate inevitable, pasticide. +You cannot eat your cake and have it; you cannot kill off all the bad +things and keep all the good ones. With sterilization goes purification, +pasticide may be accompanied by pasteurization. At any rate, "the old +order changeth," and you've got to let it change. + +The whole history of the "progress" of the world, meaning often material +progress, is eloquent of the lesson that it is vain to set artificial +limits to advancing invention. The substitution of cheap mechanical +processes of manufacture for hand-work involved untold misery to many, +and incidentally led to the partial disappearance of a type of character +which the world could ill afford to lose, and which we would give much +to be able to bring back. The old semi-artist-craftsman, with hand and +eye really trained up to something like their highest level of capacity, +with knowledge not wide, but deep, and all gained from experience, and +not from books or technical education—this type of character is a loss. +Many, with the gravest reason, are dissatisfied with the type which has +already largely replaced it, and which will replace it for good or evil, +but ever more swiftly and surely. But no well-judging person proposes +on that account to forgo the material advantages conferred upon mankind +by the invention of machinery. If the world rejects, on sentimental +grounds, the labour-saving invention of international language, it will +be flying in the face of economic history, and it will not appreciably +retard the disappearance of the picturesque. + +There is another type of argument which may also be classed as +aesthetic, but which differs somewhat from the one just discussed. It +emanates chiefly from literary men and scholars, and may be presented as +follows: + +"Language is precious, and worthy of study, inasmuch as it enshrines +the imperishable monuments of the thought and genius of the race on +whose lips it was born. The study of the words and forms in which a +nation clothed its thoughts throws many a ray of light on phases of the +evolution of the race itself, which would otherwise have remained dark. +The history of a language and literature is in some measure an epitome +of the history of a people. We miss all these points of interest in your +artificial language, and we shall, therefore, refuse to study it, and +hereby commit it to the devil." + +This is a particularly humiliating type of answer to receive, because +it implies that one is an ass. In truth the man who should invent an +artificial language and invite the world to study it for itself would +be a fool, and a very swell-headed fool at that. It seems in vain to +point this out to persons who use the above argument; or to explain to +them that they would be aided in their study of languages that do repay +study by the introduction of an easy international language, because +many commentaries, etc., would become accessible to them, which are not +so now, or only at the expense of deciphering some difficult language in +which the commentary is written, the commentary itself being in no sense +literature, and its form a matter of complete indifference. + +Back comes the old answer in one form or another, every variation +tainted with the heresy that the language is to be studied as a language +for itself. + +Perhaps the least tedious way of giving an idea of this kind of +opposition, and the way in which it may be met, is to give some extracts +from a scholar's letter, and the writer's answer. The letter is fairly +typical. + + "MY DEAR ——, + + "Many thanks for your long letter on Esperanto.... + According to the books, Esperanto can be learnt quickly by any + one. This means that they will forget it quite as rapidly; for + what is easily acquired is soon forgotten.... In my humble + opinion, an Englishman who knows French and German would do + much better to devote any extra time at his disposal to the + study of his own language, which, I repeat, is one of the most + delicate mediums of communication now in existence. It has + taken centuries to construct, while Esperanto was apparently + created in a few hours. One is God's handiwork, and the other + a man's toy. Personally, any living language interests me more + than Esperanto. I am sorry I am such a heretic, but I fear my + love for the English language carries me away.... + + "Yours ever, + "——." + +The points that rankle are artificiality and lack of a history. + + _Reply_ + + "MY DEAR ——, + + "I really can't put it any more plainly, so I must just repeat + it: we are not trying to introduce a language that has any interest + for anybody in itself. An international language is a labour-saving + device. The question is, Is it an efficient one? If so, it must + surely be adopted. The world wants to be saved labour. It never pays + permanently to do things a longer way, if the shorter one produces + equally good results. No one has yet proved, or, in my opinion, + advanced any decent argument tending to show, that the results + produced by a universal language will not be just as good _for many + purposes_[1] as those produced by national languages. That the results + are more economically produced surely does not admit of doubt. + + [1]And those very important ones, relatively to man's whole field + of activity. + + 'Personally, any living language interests me more than + Esperanto.' Of course it does. So it does me, and most sensible + people. But what the digamma does it matter to Esperanto whether we + are interested in it or not? It is not there to interest us. The + question is, Does it, or not, save us or others unprofitable labour + on a large scale? Neither you nor most sane persons are probably + particularly interested in shorthand or Morse codes or any signalling + systems. Yet they bear up. + + "Do try to see that we think there is a certain felt want, amongst + countless numbers of persons, which is much more efficiently and + economically met by a neutral, easy, international language, + than by any national one. That is the position you have got to + controvert, if you are seriously to weaken the argument in favour of + an international language. If you say that it is not a want felt by + many people, I can only say, at the risk of being dogmatic, that you + are wrong. I happen to know that it is.[1] The question then is, Is + there an easy way of meeting that want? And the equally certain and + well-grounded answer is, There is.... + + [1]I have before me a list of 119 societies, representing many + different lines of work and play and many nations, who had already + in 1903 given in their adhesion to a scheme for an international + language. Technical terms alone (in all departments of study) want + standardizing, and an international language affords the best + means. The number of societies is now (1907) over 270. + + "As to your argument that what is easy is more easily + forgotten—it is true. But I think you must see that, neither in + practice nor in principle, does it or should it make for choosing the + harder way of arriving at a given result. Chance the forgetting, if + necessary re-learning as required, and use the time and effort saved + for some more remunerative purpose. + + "'One is God's handiwork, the other a man's toy.' I should have + said the first was man's lip-work, but I see what you mean. It is + God working through his creature's natural development. The same + is equally true of all man's 'toys.' Man moulded his language in + pursuance of his ends under God. Under the same guidance he moulded + the steam engine, the typewriter, shorthand, the semaphore, and all + kinds of signals. What are the philosophical _differentia_ that make + Esperanto a toy, and natural language God's handiwork? Apparently + the fact that Esperanto is 'artificial,' i.e. consciously produced + by art. If this is the criterion, beware lest you damn man's works + wholesale. If this is not the criterion, what is? + + "'An Englishman who knows French and German would do much better + to devote any extra time at his disposal to the study of his own + language.' Yes—if his object is to qualify as an artist in language. + No—if his object is to save time and trouble in communicating with + foreigners. You must compare like with like. It is unscientific + and a confusion of thought to change the subject-matter of a + man's employment of his time on grounds other than those fairly + intercomparable. You have dictated as to how a man should employ + his time by changing his object in employing his time. This makes + the whole discussion irrelevant, in so far as it deals with the + comparative advantage of studying one language or the other. + + "Time's up! I have missed my after-lunch walk, and I expect only + hardened your heart. + + "Yours, + "——." + +And I had! + + + XII + + WILL AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE DISCOURAGE THE STUDY OF MODERN + LANGUAGES, AND THUS BE DETRIMENTAL TO CULTURE?—PARALLEL + WITH THE QUESTION OF COMPULSORY GREEK + +There is a broad, twofold distinction in the aims with which the study +of foreign languages is organized and undertaken. + +It serves: first, purely utilitarian ends, and is a means; secondly, the +purposes of culture, and is an end in itself. + +An international auxiliary language aims at supplanting the first type +of study completely, and, as it claims, with profit to the students. The +second type it hopes to leave wholly intact, and disclaims any attempt +to interfere with it in any way. How far is this possible? + +The answer depends mainly upon the efficiency of the alternative offered +by the new-comer in each case as a possible substitute. + +Firstly, if it is true that a great portion of the human race, +especially in the big polyglot empires and the smaller states of Europe, +are groaning under the incubus of the language difficulty, and have to +spend years on the study of mere words before they can fit themselves +for an active career, then the abolition of this heavy handicap on +due preparation for each man's proper business in life will liberate +much time for more profitable studies. It is certain that the majority +of mankind are non-linguistic by nature and inclination rather than +linguistic—i.e. that the best chance of developing their natural +capacities to the utmost and making them useful and agreeable members of +society does not lie in making all alike swallow an overdose of foreign +languages during the acquisitive years of youth. By doing so, vast waste +is caused, taking the world round. As to the attainment of the object +of this first type of language study, not only is it as efficiently +secured by a single universal language, but far more so. _Ex hypothesi_ +the object is utilitarian; the language is a means. Well, a universal +language is a better means than a national one—first, because, being +universal, it is a means to more; secondly, because, being easy and +one, it is a means that more people can grasp and employ. In fact, it +is in this field an efficient substitute; it saves much, without losing +anything. + +For the second type of language-study, on the other hand, where the +end is culture and the language is studied for itself and in no wise +as an indifferent means, a universal artificial language offers no +substitute at all. This end is not on its programme. Why, then, should +any language-study that is organized in view of culture be given up on +its account? + +It may, of course, be said that the time given to it by those who pursue +culture in language will be taken from the time devoted to more worthy +linguistic study, and will therefore prejudice the learning of other +languages. This is a point of technical pedagogics or psychology. There +is very good reason, from the standpoint of these sciences, to believe +that a study of a simple _type-tongue_ would, on the contrary, pay for +itself in increased facility in learning other languages. But this is +more fully discussed in the chapter for teachers (see pp. 145-55) [Part +III, Chapter I]. + +The question, however, is not in reality quite so simple as this. +There is no water-tight partition between utilitarian and cultural +language-study. They act and react upon each other. There really is some +ground for anxiety, lest the provision of facilities for learning an +easy artificial language at your door may prevent people from going out +of their way to learn national ones, which would have awakened scholarly +instincts in them. The cause of culture would thus sustain some real +hurt. + +The question is another phase—a wider and lower-grade phase—of the +great compulsory Greek question at Oxford and Cambridge. It affects the +masses, whereas the Greek controversy affects the few at the top; but +otherwise the issue at stake is essentially the same. + +In both cases the bedrock of the problem is this, Can we afford to put +the many through a grind, which is on the whole unprofitable to them and +does not attain its object of conferring culture, in order to uphold +the traditional system in the interests of the few? In neither case do +the reformers desire to suppress the study of the old culture-giving +language; rather it is hoped that the interests of scholarly and liberal +learning will benefit by being freed from the dead weight of grammar +grinders, whose mechanical performance and monkey antics are merely a +dodge to catch a copper from the examiners. + +When Greek is no longer bolstered up by the protection of compulsion, +some of the present bounty-fed (i.e. compulsion-fed) facilities for its +study will no doubt disappear from the schools which are at present +forced to provide them. With them will be lost some recruits who would +have been led by the facilities to study Greek, and would have studied +it to their profit. On the other hand, the university will be open to +numbers of students who are at present shut out by the Greek tariff. +Another barrier against modernity will go down, and democracy make +another step out of the proverbial gutter towards the university. + +Similarly, the possession of a universally understood medium of +communication will in some cases deter people from making the effort to +study real language, with all the treasures of original literature to +which it is the key. + + "Tis true, 'tis pity; and pity 'tis, 'tis true. + +But—and this is the great point—it will open the cosmopolitan outlook +to countless thousands who could never hope to grapple successfully with +even one national language. This cannot be a small gain. + +It all comes back to this—you cannot eat your cake and have it too. +_Il faut souffrir pour être belle._ The international language has the +defects of its qualities. But then its qualities are great, and the +world is their sphere of utility. + + + XIII + + OBJECTION TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON THE + GROUND THAT IT WILL SOON SPLIT UP INTO DIALECTS + +This is a particularly unfortunate objection, because it displays a +radical ignorance of the history of language, and of the conditions +under which it develops. + +In the first place, the whole tendency of language in the modern world +is towards disappearance of local dialects, and their absorption into +a uniform literary language. The dialects of England are almost dead +before the onset of universal education, and the great work of Dr. +Wright was only just in time to rescue them from oblivion. Even one +generation hence it will be impossible to collect much of the local +speech recorded in his dictionary. It is the same in Germany and +everywhere, though, of course, all countries are not equally advanced +in this respect. A standard form of words and grammar is fixed by print +for the literary language, and when every one can read and write, it is +all up with national evolution of language, such as has produced all +national languages. A gradual change of the phonetic value given to the +written symbols there may be. This has been pre-eminently the case in +England, though even this will now be arrested by universal education. +But a change of forms or of grammar can only be indefinitely slight +and gradual. When it takes place, it reflects a common advance of the +literary language, and not local or dialectical variation (though the +common advance may have originally spread from one locality). + +In the second place, dialects are variations that spring up under the +stress of local circumstance in the familiar every-day unconscious use +of a common mother tongue among people of the same race and inhabiting +the same district. Now, these are the very circumstances in which an +auxiliary international language never can, and never will, be used. The +only exception is the case of people meeting together for the conscious +practice of the language or using it in jest. + +There are no occasions when an international language would be naturally +used when any variation from standard usage would not be a distinct +disadvantage as tending to unintelligibility. In short, a neutral +language consciously learned as a means of communication with strangers +is not on an equal footing with, or exposed to the same influences as, a +mother tongue used by people every day under like conditions. + +A cardinal point of difference is well illustrated by Esperanto. The +whole foundation of the language, vocabulary, grammar, and everything +else, is contained in one small book of a few pages, called _Fundamento +de Esperanto_. No change can be made in this except by a competent +elected international authority. Of course, no text-books or grammars +will be authorized for the use of any nation that are not in accordance +with the _Fundamento_. People will make mistakes, of course, just as +they make mistakes in any foreign language, and they can help themselves +out with any words from other languages, just as they do now when their +French or German fails them. But the standard is always there, simple +and short, to correct any aberration, and there is no room for any +alterations in form or structure to creep in. + + + XIV + + OBJECTION THAT THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE (ESPERANTO) + IS TOO DOGMATIC, AND REFUSES TO PROFIT BY CRITICISM + +It is true that Esperantists refuse to make any change in their language +at present, and this is found irritating by some able critics, who +wrongly imagine that this attitude amounts to a claim of perfection for +Esperanto. The matter may be easily put right. + +The inadmissibility of change (even for the better) is purely a matter +of policy and dictated by practical considerations. Esperantists +make no claim to infallibility; they want to see their language +universally adopted, and they want to see it as perfect as possible. +Actual and bitter experience shows that the international language +which admits change is lost. Universal acceptance and present change +are incompatible. Esperantists, therefore, bow to the inevitable and +deliberately choose to concentrate for the present on acceptance. +General acceptance, indeed, while it imposes upon the present body of +Esperantists self-restraint in abstaining from change, is in reality +the essential condition of profitable future amendment. When an +international language has attained the degree of dissemination already +enjoyed by Esperanto, the only safe kind of change that can be made +is _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. When Esperanto has been officially +adopted and comes into wide use, actual experience and consensus of +usage amongst its leading writers will indicate the modifications that +are ripe for official adoption. The competent international official +authority will then from time to time duly register such changes, and +they will become officially part of the language. + +Till then, any change can only cause confusion and alienate support. +No one is going to spend time learning a language which is one thing +to-day and another thing to-morrow. When the time comes for change, +the authority will only proceed cautiously one step at a time, and its +decrees will only set the seal upon that which actual use has hit off. + +This, then, is the explanation of the famous adjective "netuŝebla," +applied by Dr. Zamenhof to his language, and so much resented in certain +quarters. Surely not only is this degree of dogmatism amply justified +by practical considerations, but it would amount to positive imprudence +on the part of Esperantists to act otherwise. If the inventor of the +language can show sufficient self-restraint, after long years spent in +touching and retouching his language, to hold his hand at a given point +(and he has declared that self-restraint is necessary), surely others +need not be hurt at their suggestions not being adopted, even though +they may in some cases be real improvements. + +The following extracts, translated from the Preface to _Fundamento +de Esperanto_ (the written basic law of Esperanto), should set the +question in the right light. It will be seen that Dr. Zamenhof expressly +contemplates the "gradual perfection" (_perfektigado_) of his language, +and by no means lays claim to finality or infallibility. + +"Having the character of _fundament_, the three works reprinted in this +volume must be above all inviolable (_netuŝeblaj_).... The fundament +must remain inviolable _even with its errors...._ Having once lost +its strict inviolability, the work would lose its exceptional and +necessary character of dogmatic fundamentality; and the user, finding +one translation in one edition, and another in another, would have +no security that I should not make another change to-morrow, and his +confidence and support would be lost. + +"To any one who shows me an expression that is not good in the +Fundamental book, I shall calmly reply: Yes, it is an error; but it must +remain inviolable, for it belongs to the fundamental document, in which +no one has the right to make any change.... I showed, _in principle_, +how the strict inviolability of the _Fundamento_ will always preserve +the unity of our language, without however preventing the language +not only from becoming richer, but even from constantly becoming more +perfect. But _in practice_ we (for causes already many times explained) +must naturally be very cautious in the process of 'perfecting' the +language: (_a_) we must not do this light-heartedly, but only in case of +absolute necessity; (_b_) it can only be done (after mature judgment) by +some central institution, having indisputable authority for the whole +Esperanto world, and not by any private persons.... + +"Until the time when a central authoritative institution shall decide +to _augment_ (never to _change_) the existing fundament by rendering +official new words or rules, everything good, which is not to be found +in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, is to be regarded not as compulsory, +but only as recommended." + + + XV + + SUMMARY OF OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +An attempt has been made in the preceding chapters to deal with the +more important and obvious arguments put forward by those who will hear +nothing of an international language. The objections are, however, so +numerous, cover such a wide field, and in some cases are so mutually +destructive, that it may be instructive to present them in an orderly +classification. + + For there we have them all "at one fell swoop," + Instead of being scattered through the pages; + They stand forth marshalled in a handsome troop, + To meet the ingenuous youth of future ages. + + BYRON. + +Let us hope that they will die of exposure, like the famous appendix +pilloried by Byron, and that the ingenuous one will be able to regard +them as literary curiosities. + +If the business of an argument is to be unanswerable, the place of +honour certainly belongs to the religious argument. Any one who really +believes that an international language is an impious attempt to reverse +the judgment of Babel will continue firm in his faith, though one speak +with the tongues of men and of angels. + +Here, then, are the objections, classified according to content. + + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +I. _Religious_. + +It is doomed to confusion, because it reverses the judgment of Babel. + +II. _Aesthetic and sentimental_. + +(1) It is a cheap commercial scheme, unworthy of the attention of +scholars. + +(2) It vulgarizes the world and tends to dull uniformity. + +(3) It weakens patriotism by diluting national spirit with +cosmopolitanism. + +(4) It has no history, no link with the past. + +(5) It is artificial, which is a sin in itself. + +III. _Political_. + +(1) It is against English [Frenchmen read "French"] interests, as +diverting prestige from the national tongue. + +(2) It is socialistic and even anarchical in tendency, and will +facilitate the operations of the international disturbers of society. + +IV. _Literary and linguistic_. + +(1) Lacking history and associations, it is unpoetical and unsuited to +render the finer shades of thought and feeling. It will, therefore, +degrade and distort the monuments of national literatures which may be +translated into it. + +(2) It may even discourage authors, ambitious of a wide public, from +writing in their own tongue. Original works in the artificial language +can never have the fine savour of a master's use of his mother tongue. + +(3) Its precisely formal and logical vocabulary and construction +debauches the literary sense for the niceties of expression. Therefore, +even if not used as a substitute for the mother tongue, its concurrent +use, which will be thrust on everybody, will weaken the best work in +native idioms. + +(4) It will split up into dialects. + +(5) Pronunciation will vary so as to be unintelligible. + +(6) It is too dogmatic, and refuses to profit by criticism. + +V. _Educational and cultural_. + +(1) It will prejudice the study of modern languages. + +(2) It will provide a "soft option" for examinees. + +VI. _Personal and particular_. + +It is prejudicial to the vested interests of modern language teachers, +foreign correspondence clerks, interpreters, multilingual waiters and +hotel porters. + +VII. _Technical_. + +This heading includes the criticisms in detail of various schemes—e.g. +it is urged against Esperanto that its accent is monotonous; that its +accusative case is unnecessary; that its principle of word-formation +from roots is not strictly logical; that its vocabulary is too Romance; +that its vocabulary is not Romance enough; and so forth. + +VIII. _Popular_. + +(1) It is a wild idea put forth by a set of cranks, who would be better +occupied in something else. + +(2) It is impossible. + +(3) It is too hard: life isn't long enough. + +(4) It is not hard enough: lessons will be too quickly done, and will +not sink into the mind. + +(5) It will oust all other languages, and thus destroy each nation's +birthright and heritage. + +(6) It will not come in in our time, so the question is of no interest +except to our grandchildren. + +(7) It is doomed to failure—look at Volapük! + +(8) There are quite enough languages already. + +(9) You have to learn three or four languages in order to understand +Esperanto. + +(10) You cannot know it without learning it. + +(11) You have to wear a green star. + +Pains have been taken to make this list exhaustive. If any reader can +think of another objection, he is requested to communicate with the +author. + +Most of the serious arguments have been already dealt with, so that not +many words need be said here. As regards No. VII. (Technical), this is +not the place to deal with actual criticisms of the language (Esperanto) +that holds the field. The reader will not be in a position to judge of +them till he has learnt it. Suffice it to say that they can all be met, +and some of the points criticised as vices are, in reality, virtues in +an artificial language. + +As for Nos. II. and IV. (Sentimental and Literary), most of these +objections are due to the old heresy of the literary man, that an +artificial language claims to compete with natural languages _as a +language_. Once realize that it is primarily a labour-saving device, +and therefore to be judged like any other modern invention such as +telegraphy or shorthand, and most of these objections fall to the +ground. + +A good many of the objections cannot be taken seriously (though they +have all been seriously made), or refute themselves or each other. No. +VIII. (10) sounds like a fake, but this was the criticism of a scholar +and linguist who had been persuaded to look at Esperanto. He complained +that though he, knowing Latin, French, Italian, German, and English, +could read it without ever having learnt it, ordinary Englishmen could +not. It is usual to judge an invention by efficiency compared to cost, +but if an appliance is to be condemned because it needs some trouble to +master it, then not many inventions will survive. + +No. VIII. (9) is of course a mistake. It is like saying that you must +practice looping the loop or circus-riding in order to keep your balance +on a bicycle. The greater, of course, includes the less; but it is +better in both cases to begin with the less. It is much more reasonable +to reverse the argument and say: If you begin by learning Esperanto, +you will possess a valuable aid towards learning three or four national +languages. + +No. VIII. (5) is absurd. It is the hardest thing in the world to +extirpate a national language; and all the forces of organized +repression (e.g. in unhappy Poland) are finding the task too much for +them. What inducement have the common people, who form the bulk of the +population in every land, to substitute in their home intercourse for +their own language one that they have to learn, if at all, artificially +at school? Only those who have much international intercourse will ever +become really at home in international language—i.e. sufficiently at +home to make it possible to use it indifferently as a substitute for +their mother-tongue; and people who engage in prolonged and continuous +international intercourse, though numerous, will always be in a +minority. + + + XVI + + THE WIDER COSMOPOLITANISM—THE COMING OF ASIA + +In the civilized West, where pleasure, business, and science are daily +forging new ties of common interests between the nations, those engaged +in such pursuits have clearly much to gain from the simplification of +their pursuits by a common language. But let us look ahead a little +further still. It may well be that the outstanding feature of the +twentieth century in history will be the coming into line of the peoples +of Asia with their pioneer brethren of the West. Look where you will, +everywhere the symptoms are plain for those who can read them. Japan has +led the way. China is following, and will not be far behind; eventually, +as the Japanese themselves foresee, she will probably outstrip Japan, if +not the world. There seems to be no ground, ethnological or otherwise, +for thinking that the lagging behind of Asia in modern civilization +corresponds to a real inferiority of powers, mental or physical, in the +individual Asiatic. Experience shows that under suitable conditions the +Asiatic can efficiently handle all the white man's tools and weapons; +the complete coming up to date is largely a matter of organization, +education, and the possession of a few really able men at the head of +affairs. Given these, progress may be astonishingly quick. Europeans do +not yet seem to have grasped at all adequately the real significance of +the last fifty years of Japanese history. Do they really think that the +Chinaman is inferior to the Japanese? If so, let them ask any residents +in the Far East. Can it be maintained that a generation ago the peasant +of Eastern Europe was ahead of the country Chinaman? But the last few +years have shown how swiftly modern civilization spreads, both in Europe +and America, from the comparatively small group of nations which in the +main have worked it out to the others, till lately considered backward +and semi-barbarous. And this is the case not merely with the material +products of civilization, the railway and the telegraph, but also as +regards its divers manifestations in all that concerns the life of the +people—constitutional government with growth of representative, elected +authorities and democracy; universal education with universal power of +reading and consequent birth of a cheap press; rise of industry and +consequent growth of towns; universal military service and discipline, +now in force in most lands; rise of a moneyed and leisured class and +consequent growth of sport, and of all kinds of clubs and societies for +promoting various interests, social, sporting, political, religious, +educational, philanthropic, and so forth. In fact, the more the material +side of life is "modernized," the more closely do the citizens of all +lands approximate to one another in their interests and activities, +which ultimately rest upon and grow out of their material conditions. +Meantime wealth and consequently foreign travel everywhere increase, +fresh facilities of communication are constantly provided, men from +different countries are more and more thrown together, and all this +makes for the further strengthening of mutual interests and the growth +of fresh ones in common. + +Now if (1) under the stress of "modernization" life is already becoming +so similar in the lands of the West, and if (2) the Asiatic is not +fundamentally inferior in mental and physical endowments, then it +follows as a certainty that the Asiatic world will, under the same +stress, enter the comity of nations, and approximate to the world-type +of interest and activity. It is only a question of time. In economic +history nothing is more certain than that science, organization, +cheapness, and efficiency must ultimately prevail over sporadic, +unorganized local effort based on tradition and not on scientific +exploitation of natural advantages. Thus the East will adopt the +material civilization of the West; and through the same organization +of industrial and commercial life and generally similar economic +conditions, the same type of moneyed class will grow up, with the same +range of interests on the intellectual and social side, diverse indeed, +but in their very diversity conforming more and more to the world-type. + +Concurrently with this new tendency to uniformity proceeds the weakening +of the two most powerful disintegrating influences of primitive +humanity—religion and tradition. In the earlier stages of society +these are the two most powerful agents for binding together into groups +men already associated by the ties of locality and common ancestry, +and fettering them in the cast-iron bonds of custom and ceremonial +observance. While the members of each group are thus held together by +the ideas which appeal most profoundly to unsophisticated mankind, the +various groups are automatically and by the same process held apart by +the full force of those ideas. Thus are produced castes, with their +deadening opposition to all progress; and thus arise crusades, wars of +religion and persecutions. Religion and tradition are then at once the +mightiest integrants within each single community, and the mightiest +disintegrants as between different communities. + +But this narrow and dissevering spirit of caste dies back before the +spread of knowledge. The tendency to regard a man as unclean or a +barbarian, simply because he does not believe or behave as one's own +people, is merely a product of isolation and ignorance, and disappears +with education and the general opening up of a country. The inquisitor +can no longer boast of "strained relations"—strained physically on the +rack, owing to differences of religious opinion. The state of things +which made it possible for sepoys to revolt because rifle bullets were +greased with the fat of a sacred animal, or for yellow men to tear +up railway tracks because the magic desecrated the tombs of their +ancestors, is rapidly passing away, as Orientals realize the profits to +be made from scientific methods. + +Thus the levelling influence is at work, and the checks upon it are +diminishing. The end can be but one. There will be a greater and greater +similarity of life and occupation the world over, and more and more +actual and potential international intercourse. + +Now, the further we move in this direction, the greater will be the +impatience of vexatious restraints upon the freedom of intercourse; +and of these restraints the difference of language is one of the most +vexatious, because it is one of the easiest to remove. If we devote +millions of pounds to annihilating the barriers of space, can we not +devote a few months to the comparatively modest effort necessary to +annihilate the barriers of language? + +A real cosmopolitanism, in the etymological sense of the word, _world_ +(and not merely European) citizenship, will shift the _onus probandi_ +from the supporters of an international language to its opponents. +It will say to them, "It is admitted that you have much intercourse +with other peoples; it is admitted that diversity of language is an +obstacle in this intercourse; this obstacle is increasing rather than +diminishing as fresh subjects raise their claims upon the few years of +education, and the old leisurely type of linguistic education fails +more and more to train the bulk of the people for life's business, +and as the ranks of the civilized are swelled by fresh peoples for +whom it is harder and harder to learn even one Indo-Germanic tongue, +let alone several; it is proved that this obstacle can be removed +at the cost of a few months' study: this study is not only the most +directly remunerative study in the world, comparing results with cost, +but it is an admirable mental discipline and a direct help towards +further real linguistic culture-giving studies for those who are fit +to undertake them. Show cause, then, why you prefer to suffer under +an unnecessary obstacle, rather than avail yourselves of this means +of removing it." It is easier for the Indo-Germanic peoples to learn +each other's languages—e.g. for an Englishman to learn Swedish or +Russian—than it is for a speaker of one of any of the other families of +languages to learn any Indo-Germanic tongue; so that some idea may be +formed of the magnitude of the task imposed upon the newer converts to +Western civilization by the Indo-Germanic world, in making them learn +one or more of its national languages. At the same time, it is but just +that the peoples who have paid the piper of progress should call the +common lingual tune. Therefore, what more fitting than that they should +provide an essence of their allied languages, reduced to its simplest +and clearest form? This they would offer to the rest of the world to +be taken over as part of the general progress in civilization which it +has to adopt; and this it is which is provided in the international +language, Esperanto. + + + XVII + + IMPORTANCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR THE BLIND + +Now that higher education for the blind is being extended in every +country, owing to the more humanitarian feeling of the present age +that these afflicted members of the community ought to be given a fair +chance, the problem of supplying them with books is beginning to be +felt. The process of producing books for the blind on the Braille system +is, of course, far more costly than ordinary printing, and at the same +time the editions must be necessarily more or less limited. Many an +educated blind person is therefore cruelly circumscribed in the range +of literature open to him by the mere physical obstacle of the lack of +books. This difficulty is accentuated by the fact that three kinds of +Braille type are in use—French, English, and American. + +Now, suppose it is desired to make the works of some good author +accessible to the blind—we will say the works of Milton. A separate +edition has to be done into Braille for the English, another separate +translation for the French, and so on for the blind of each country. +In many cases where translations of a work do not already exist, as in +the case of a modern author, the mere cost of translation into some +one language may not pay, much less then the preparation of a special +Braille edition for the limited blind public of that country. But if one +Braille edition is prepared for the blind of the world in the universal +auxiliary language, a far greater range of literature is at once brought +within their grasp. + +Already there is abundant evidence of the keen appreciation of Esperanto +on the part of the blind, and one striking proof is the fact that the +distinguished French scientist and doctor, Dr. Javal, who himself became +blind during the latter part of his life, was, until his death in March +1907, one of the foremost partisans and benefactors of Esperanto. By +his liberality much has been rendered possible that could not otherwise +have been accomplished. There are many other devoted workers in the same +field, among them Prof. Cart and Mme. Fauvart-Bastoul in France, and Mr. +Rhodes, of Keighley, and Mr. Adams, of Hastings, in England. A special +fund is being raised to enable blind Esperantists from various countries +to attend the Congress at Cambridge in August 1907, and the cause is one +well worthy of assistance by all who are interested in the welfare of +the blind. The day when a universal language is practically recognised +will be one of the greatest in their annals. + +A perfectly phonetic language, as is Esperanto, is peculiarly suited +to the needs of the blind. Its long, full vowels, slow, harmonious +intonation, few and simple sounds, and regular construction make it very +easy to learn through the ear, and to reproduce on any phonetic system +of notation; and as a matter of fact, blind people are found to enjoy +it much. For a blind man to come to an international congress and be +able to compare notes with his fellow-blind from all over the world must +be a lifting of the veil between him and the outer world, coming next +to receiving his sight. To witness this spectacle alone might almost +convince a waverer as to the utility of the common language. + + + XVIII + + IDEAL _v._ PRACTICAL + +From the early days of the Esperanto movement there has flowed within it +a sort of double current. There is the warm and genial Gulf Stream of +Idealism, that raises the temperature on every shore to which it sets, +and calls forth a luxuriant growth of friendly sentiment. This tends to +the enriching of life. There is also the cooler current of practicality, +with a steady drive towards material profit. At present the tide is +flowing free, and, taken at the flood, may lead on to fortune; the two +currents pursue their way harmoniously within it, without clashing, and +sometimes mingling their waters to their mutual benefit. + +But as the movement is sometimes dismissed contemptuously as a pacifist +fad or an unattainable ideal of universal brotherhood, it is as well +to set the matter in its true light. It is true that the inventor of +Esperanto, Dr. Zamenhof, of Warsaw, is an idealist in the best sense of +the word, and that his language was directly inspired by his ardent wish +to remove one cause of misunderstanding in his distracted country. He +has persistently refused to make any profit out of it, and declined to +accept a sum which some enthusiasts collected as a testimonial to his +disinterested work. + +It is equally true that Esperanto seems to possess a rather strange +power of evoking enthusiasm. Meetings of Esperantists are invariably +characterized by great cordiality and good-fellowship, and at the +international congresses so far these feelings have at times risen +to fever heat. It is easy to make fun of this by saying that the +conjunction of Sirius, the fever-shedding constellation of the ancients, +with the green star[1] in the dog days of August, when the congresses +are held, induces hot fits. Those who have drunk enthusiastic toasts +in common, and have rubbed shoulders and compared notes with various +foreigners, and gone home having made perhaps lifelong interesting +friendships which bring them in touch with other lands, will not +undervalue the brotherhood aspect of the common language. + + [1]Badge of the Esperantists. + +On the other hand, the united Esperantists at their first international +meeting expressly and formally dissociated their project from any +connection with political, sentimental, or peace-making schemes. They +did this by drawing up and promulgating a "Deklaracio," adopted by the +Esperantist world, wherein it is declared that Esperanto is a language, +and a language only.[1] It is not a league or a society or agency for +promoting any object whatsoever other than its own dissemination as a +means of communication. Like other tongues, Esperanto may be used for +any purpose whatsoever, and it is declared that a man is equally an +Esperantist whether he uses the language to save life or to kill, to +further his own selfish ends or to labour in any altruistic cause.[2] + + [1]For text of this Declaration, see Part II., chap. vii., p. 115. + + [2]The non-sectarian nature of Esperanto is shown by the fact that + the first two services in the language were held on the same day + in Geneva according to the Roman Catholic and Protestant rites. + The latter was conducted by an English clergyman, whose striking + sermon on unity, in spite of diversity, evidently impressed his + international congregation. The Vatican has officially expressed + its favour towards Esperanto, and the Archbishop of Canterbury has + sanctioned an Esperanto form of the Anglican service, which will + be used in London and Cambridge this summer. Cordial goodwill was + expressed towards the Vatican, on receipt of its message at Geneva, + by speakers who avowed themselves agnostics, but welcomed any advance + towards abolition of barriers. + +The practical nature of the scheme which Esperantists are labouring to +induce the world to adopt is thus sufficiently clearly defined. Dr. +Zamenhof himself, speaking at the Geneva Congress with all the vivid +poignancy attaching to the words of a man fresh from the butcheries +at that moment rife in the Russian Empire,[1] declared that neither +he nor other Esperantists were _naifs_ enough to believe that the +adoption of their language would put an end to such scenes. But he had +_seen_ men at each other's throats, beating each other's brains out with +bludgeons—men who had no personal enmity and had never seen each other +before, but were let loose on each other by pure race prejudice. He _did_ +claim that mutual incomprehensibility amongst men who thus dwell side by +side and should be taking part in a common civic life was one powerful +influence in keeping up cliques and divisions, and artificially holding +asunder those whom common interests should be joining together. It is +hard to refuse credence to this power of language, thus moderately +stated. + + [1]There were bad massacres about that time in Warsaw, where Dr. + Zamenhof lives. During the Congress news came of the assassination + of one of the chief civic officials of Warsaw. + + + XIX + + LITERARY _v._ COMMERCIAL + +Another vexed question is whether it is advisable to run an +international language on a literary or a commercial ticket. +On this rock Volapük split— + + A brave vessel, + That had no doubt some noble creature in her, + Dashed all to pieces;[1] + +and there was no Prospero to conjure away the tempest and send everybody +safe home to port to speak Volapük happily ever afterwards. The moral +is, that it is no good to make exaggerated claims for a universal +language. To attempt to set it on a fully equal footing with national +languages as a literary medium is to court disaster. + + [1]Shakespeare, _The Tempest_. + +The truth seems to be about this. As a potential means of international +communication, Esperanto is unsurpassed, and a long way ahead of any +national language. As a literary language, it is far better than Chinook +or Pidgin, far worse than English or Greek. + +A language, no more than a man, can serve two masters. By attempting to +combine within itself this double function an international language +would cease to attain either object. The reason is simple. + +Its legitimate and proper sphere demands of it as the first essential +that it should be easy and universally accessible. This means that the +words are to be few, and must have but one clearly marked sense each. +There are to be no idioms or set phrases, no words that depend upon +their context or upon allusion for their full sense. + +On the other hand, among the essentials of a literary language are the +exact opposites of all these characteristics. The vocabulary must be +full and plenteous, and there should be a rich variety of synonyms; +there should be delicate half-tones and _nuances_; the words should be +not mere counters or symbols of fixed value, determinable in each case +by a rapid use of the dictionary alone, but must have an atmosphere, +a something dependent upon history, usage, and allusion, by virtue of +which the whole phrase, in the finer styles of writing, amounts to more +than the sum of the individual meanings of the words which it contains, +becoming a separate entity with an individual flavour of its own. To +attempt to create this atmosphere in an artificial language is not +only futile, but would introduce just the difficulties, redundancies, +and complications which it is its chief object to avoid. Take a single +instance, Macbeth's— + + Nay, this my hand would rather + The multitudinous seas incarnadine, + Making the green one red. + +Here the effect is produced by the contrast between the stately march of +the long Latin words of thundrous sound, and the short, sharp English. A +labour-saving language has no business with such words as "incarnadine" +or "multitudinous." In translating such a passage it will reproduce the +sense faithfully and clearly, if necessary by the combination of simple +roots; but the bouquet of the original will vanish in the process. This +is inevitable, and it is even so far an advantage that it removes all +ground from the argument that a universal language will kill scholarly +language-learning. It will be just as necessary as ever to read works of +fine literature in the original, in order to enjoy their full savour; +and the translation into the common tongue will not prejudice such +reading of originals more than, or indeed so much as, translations into +various mother-tongues. + +Again, take the whole question of the imitative use of language. In +national literatures many a passage, poetry or prose, is heightened +in effect by assonance, alliteration, a certain movement or rhythm of +phrase. Subtle suggestion slides in sound through the ear and falls +with mellowing cadence into the heart. Soothed senses murmur their own +music to the mind; the lullaby lilt of the lay swells full the linked +sweetness of the song. + +The How plays fostering round the What. Down the liquid stream of +lingual melody the dirge drifts dying—dying it echoes back into a +ghostly after-life, as the yet throbbing sense wakes the drowsed mind +once more. The Swan-song floats double—song and shadow; and in the +blend—half sensuous, half of thought—man's nature tastes fruition. + +Now, this verbal artistry, whereby the words set themselves in tune to +the thoughts, postulates a varied vocabulary, a rich storehouse wherein +a man may linger and choose among the gems of sound and sense till he +find the fitting stone and fashion it to one of those— + + jewels five-words long, + That on the stretched forefinger of all Time + Sparkle for ever. + +But the word-store of an international tongue must not be a golden +treasury of art, a repository of "bigotry and virtue." On its orderly +rows of shelves must be immediately accessible the right word for the +right place: no superfluity, no disorder, no circumambient margin for +effect. Homocea-like, it "touches the spot," and having deadened the +ache of incomprehensibility, has done its task. "No flowers." + +Naturally some peoples will feel themselves more cramped in a new +artificial language than others. French, incomparably neat and clear +within its limits, but possessing the narrowest "margin for effect," +is less alien in its genius from Esperanto than is English, with its +twofold harmony, its potentiality (too rarely exploited) of Romance +clarity, and its double portion of Germanic vigour and feeling. Yet all +languages must probably witness the obliteration of some finer native +shades in the international tongue. + +But we must not go to the opposite extreme, and deny to the universal +language all power of rendering serious thought. Just how far it +can go, and where its inherent limitations begin, is a matter of +individual taste and judgment. There are Esperanto translations—and +good ones—of _Hamlet_, _The Tempest_, _Julius Caesar_, the _Aeneid_ of +Virgil, parts of Molière and Homer, besides a goodly variety of other +literature. These translations do succeed in giving a very fair idea of +the originals, as any one can test for himself with a little trouble, +but, as pointed out, they must come something short in beauty and +variety of expression. + +There is even a certain style in Esperanto itself in the hands of a good +writer, of which the dominant notes are simplicity and directness—two +qualities not at all to be despised. Further, the unlimited power of +word-building and of forming terse compounds gives the language an +individuality of its own. It contains many expressive self-explanatory +words whose meaning can only be conveyed by a periphrasis in most +languages,[1] and this causes it to take on the manner and feel of a +_living_ tongue, and makes it something far more than a mere copy or +barren extract of storied speech. + + [1]e.g. _samideano_ = partisan of the same cause or idea. _vivipova + lingvo_ = language capable of independent vigorous existence. + +Technically, the fulness of its participial system, rivalled by Greek +alone, and the absence of all defective verbs, lend to it a very great +flexibility; and containing, as it does, a variety of specially neat +devices borrowed from various tongues, it is in a sense neater than any +of them. + +One great test of its capacity for literary expression remains to be +made. This is an adequate translation of the Bible. A religious society, +famed for the variety of its translations of the Scriptures into every +conceivable language, when approached on the subject, replied that +Esperanto was not a language. But Esperantists will not "let it go +at that." Besides Dr. Zamenhof's own _Predikanto_ (Ecclesiastes), an +experiment has been made by two Germans, who published a translation +of St. Matthew's Gospel. It is not a success, and further experiments +have just been made by Prof. Macloskie, of Princeton, U.S.A., and by E. +Metcalfe, M.A. (Oxon), I cannot say with what result, not having seen +copies.[1] + + [1]Cf. also now the "Ordo de Diservo" (special Anglican Church + service), selected and translated from Prayer Book and Bible for + use in England by the Rev. J. C. Rust (obtainable from the British + Esperanto Association, 13, Arundel Street, Strand, price _7d._). + +From one point of view, the directness and simplicity of the Bible would +seem to lend themselves to an Esperanto dress; but there are certain +great difficulties, such as technical expressions, archaic diction, and +phrases hallowed by association. A meeting of those interested in this +great work will take place at Cambridge during the Congress (August +1907). Experimenters in this field will there be brought together from +all countries, the subject will be thoroughly discussed, and substantial +progress may be hoped for. + +In the field of rendering scientific literature and current workaday +prose, whose matter is of more moment than its form, Esperanto has +already won its spurs. Its perfect lucidity makes it particularly +suitable for this form of writing. + +The conclusion then is, that Esperanto is neither wholly commercial nor +yet literary in the full sense in which a grown language is literary; +but it does do what it professes to do, and it is all the better for not +professing the impossible. + + + XX + + IS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE A CRANK'S HOBBY? + +The apostle of a universal language is made to feel pretty plainly that +he is regarded as a crank. He may console himself with the usual defence +that a crank is that which makes revolutions; but for all that, it is +chilling to be met with a certain smile. + +Let us analyse that smile. It varies in intensity, ranging from the +scathing sneer damnatory to the gentle dimple deprecatory. But in any +case it belongs to the category of the smile that won't come off. I know +that grin—it comes from Cheshire. + +What, then, do we mean when we smile at a crank? Firstly and generally +that we think his ideal impracticable. But it has been shown that an +international language is not impracticable. This alone ought to go far +towards removing it from the list of cranks' hobbies. + +Secondly, we often mean that the ideal in question is opposed to common +sense—e.g. when we smile at a man who lives on protein biscuits or +walks about without a hat. We do not impugn the feasibility of his diet +or apparel, but we think he is going out of his way to be peculiar +without reaping adequate advantage by his departure from customary +usage. + +The test of "crankiness," then, lies in the adequacy of the advantage +reaped. A man who learns and uses Esperanto may at present depart as +widely from ordinary usage as a patron of Eustace Miles's restaurant +or a member of the hatless brigade; but is it true that the advantage +thereby accruing is equally disputable or matter of opinion? Is it not, +on the contrary, fairly certain that the use of an auxiliary language, +if universal, would open up for many regions from which exclusion is now +felt as a hindrance? + +Take the case of a doctor, scientist, scholar, researcher in any branch +of knowledge, who desires to keep abreast of the advance of knowledge in +his particular line. He may have to wait for years before a translation +of some work he wishes to read is published in a tongue he knows, and in +any case all the periodical literature of every nation, except the one +or two whose languages he may learn, will be closed to him. The output +of learned work is increasing very fast in all civilized countries, and +therefore results are recorded in an increasing number of languages in +monographs, reports, transactions, and the specialist press. A move +is being made in the right direction by the proposal to print the +publications of the Brussels International Bibliographical Institute in +Esperanto. + +Take a few examples of the hampering effect upon scholarly work of the +language difficulty as it already exists. The diffusion of learning +will, ironically enough, increase the difficulty.[1] The late Prof. +Todhunter, of Cambridge, was driven to learning Russian for mathematical +purposes. He managed to learn enough to enable him to read mathematical +treatises; but how many mathematicians or scientists (or classical +scholars, for that matter) could do as much? And of how much profit was +the learning of Russian, _quâ_ Russian, to Prof. Todhunter? It only took +up time which could have been better spent, as there cannot be anything +very uplifting or cultivating in the language of mathematical Russian. + + [1]By multiplying the languages used. + +Prof. Max Müller proposed that all serious scientific work should be +published in one of the six languages following—English, French, +German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. But why should other nations have +to produce in these languages? and why should serious students have to +be prepared to read six languages? + +All this was many years ago. The balance of culture has since then been +gradually but steadily shifting in favour of other peoples. The present +writer had occasion to make a special study of Byron's influence on the +Continent. It turned out that one of the biggest and most important +works upon the subject was written in Polish. It has therefore remained +inaccessible. This is only an illustration of a difficulty that faces +many workers. + +Thirdly, there is a good large portion of the British public that +regards as a crank anything not British or that does not benefit +themselves personally. It really _is_ hard for an Englishman, Frenchman, +or German, brought up among a homogeneous people of old civilization, +to realize the extent of the incubus under which the smaller nations +of Europe and the polyglot empires further east are groaning. Imagine +yourself an educated Swiss, Dutchman, or a member of any of the thirty +or forty nationalities that make up the Austrian or Russian Empires. +How would you like to have to learn three or four foreign languages for +practical purposes before you could hope to take much of a position in +life? Can any one assert that the kind of grind required, with its heavy +taxation of the memory, is in most cases really educative or confers +culture? + +Think it out. What do you really mean when you jeer at an Esperantist? + + + XXI + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS NOT + +An international language is not an attempt to replace or damage in any +way any existing language or literature. + + + XXII + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS + +An international language is an attempt to save the greatest amount of +labour and open the widest fields of thought and action to the greatest +number. + + + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + + I + + SOME EXISTING INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGES ALREADY IN PARTIAL USE + +Though the idea of an artificially constructed language to meet the +needs of speakers of various tongues seems for some reason to contain +something absurd or repellent to the mind of Western Europeans, there +have, as a matter of fact, been various attempts made at different times +and places to overcome the obvious difficulty in the obvious way; and +all have met with a large measure of success. + +The usual method of procedure has been quite rough and ready. Words +or forms have been taken from a variety of languages, and simply +mixed up together, without any scientific attempt at co-ordination or +simplification. The resulting international languages have varied in +their degree of artificiality, and in the proportions in which they were +consciously or semi-consciously compiled, or else adopted their elements +ready-made, without conscious adaptation, from existing tongues. But +their production, widespread and continuous use, and great practical +utility, showed that they arose in response to a felt want. The wonder +is that the world should have grown so old without supplying this want +in a more systematic way. + +Every one has heard of the _lingua franca_ of the Levant. In India the +master-language that carries a man through among a hundred different +tribes is Hindustanee, or Urdu. At the outset it represented a new need +of an imperial race. It had its origin during the latter half of the +sixteenth century under Akbar, and was born of the sudden extension +of conquest and affairs brought about by the great ruler. Round him +gathered a cosmopolitan crowd of courtiers, soldiers, vassal princes, +and followers of all kinds, and wider dealings than the ordinary local +petty affairs received a great stimulus. Urdu is a good example of a +mix-up language, with a pure Aryan framework developed out of a dialect +of the old Hindi. In fact, it is to India very much what Esperanto might +be to Europe, only it is more empirical, and not so consciously and +scientifically worked out. + +Somewhat analogous to Urdu, in that it is a literary language used +by the educated classes for intercommunication throughout a polygot +empire, is the Mandarin Chinese. If China is not "polygot" in the strict +technical sense of the term, she is so in fact, since the dialects used +in different provinces are mutually incomprehensible for the speakers of +them. Mandarin is the official master-language. + +Rather of the nature of _patois_ are Pidgin-English, Chinook, and +Benguela, the language used throughout the tribes of the Congo. Yet +business of great importance and involving large sums of money is, or +has been, transacted in them, and they are used over a wide area. + +Pidgin consists of a medley of words, largely English, but with a +considerable admixture from other tongues, combined in the framework +of Chinese construction. It is current in ports all over the East, +and is by no means confined to China. The principle is that roots, +chiefly monosyllabic, are used in their crude form without inflection +or agglutination, the mere juxtaposition (without any change of form) +showing whether they are verbs, adjectives, etc. This is the Chinese +contribution to the language. + +Chinook is the key-language to dealings with the huge number of +different tribes of American Indians. It contains a large admixture of +French words, and was to a great extent artificially put together by the +Hudson Bay Company's officials, for the purposes of their business. + +Quite apart from these various more or less consciously constructed +mixed languages, there is a much larger artificial element in many +national languages than is commonly realized. Take modern Hungarian, +Greek, or even Italian. Literary Italian, as we know it, is largely an +artificial construction for literary purposes, made by Dante and others, +on the basis of a vigorous and naturally supple dialect. With modern +Greek this is even more strikingly the case. As a national language +it is almost purely the work of a few scholars, who in modern times +arbitrarily and artificially revived and modified the ancient Greek. + +There seems, then, to be absolutely no foundation in experience for +opposing a universal language on the score of artificiality. + + + II + + OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE + + List of Schemes proposed + +The story of Babel in the Old Testament reflects the popular feeling +that confusion of tongues is a hindrance and a curse. Similarly in the +New Testament the Pentecostal gift of tongues is a direct gift of God. +But apparently it was not till about 300 years ago that philosophers +began to think seriously about a world-language. + +The earliest attempts were based upon the mediaeval idea that man might +attain to a perfect knowledge of the universe. The whole sum of things +might, it was thought, be brought by division and subdivision within +an orderly scheme of classification. To any conceivable idea or thing +capable of being represented by human speech might therefore be attached +a corresponding word, like a label, on a perfectly regular and logical +system. Words would thus be self-explanatory to any person who had +grasped the system, and would serve as an index or key to the things +they represented. Language thus became a branch of philosophy as the men +of the time conceived it, or at all events a useful handmaid. Thus arose +the idea of a "philosophical language." + +A very simple illustration will serve to show what is meant. Go into +a big library and look up any work in the catalogue. You will find +a reference number—say, 04582.g. 35,c. If you learnt the system of +classification of that library, the reference number would explain to +you where to find that particular book out of any number of millions. +The fact of the number beginning with a "0" would at once place the book +in a certain main division, and so on with the other numbers, till "g" +in that series gave you a fairly small subdivision. Within that, "35" +gives you the number of the case, and "c" the shelf within the case. The +book is soon run to earth. + +Just so a word in a philosophical language. Suppose the word is _brabo_. +The final _o_ shows it to be a noun. The monosyllabic root shows it to +be concrete. The initial _b_ shows it to be in the animal category. The +subsequent letters give subdivisions of the animal kingdom, till the +word is narrowed down by its form to membership of one small class of +animals. The other members of the class will be denoted by an ordered +sequence of words in which only the letter denoting the individual is +changed. Thus, if _brabo_ means "dog," _braco_ may be "cat," and so on: +_brado_, _brafo_, _brago_... etc., according to the classification +set up. + +Words, then, are reduced to mere formulae; and grammar, inflections, +etc., are similarly laid out on purely logical, systematic lines, +without taking any account of existing languages and their structure. +To languages of this type the historians of the universal language have +given the name of _a priori_ languages. + +Directly opposed to these is the other group of artificial languages, +called _a posteriori_. These are wholly based on the principle of +borrowing from existing language: their artificiality consists in +choice of words and in regularization and simplification of vocabulary +and grammar. They avoid, as far as possible, any elements of arbitrary +invention, and confine themselves to adapting and making easier what +usage has already sanctioned. + +Between the two main types come the _mixed languages_, partaking of the +nature of each. + +The following list is taken from the _Histoire de la langue +universelle_, by MM. Couturat and Leau: + + + I. A PRIORI LANGUAGES + +1. The philosopher Descartes, in a letter of 1629, forecasts a system +(realized in our days by Zamenhof) of a regular universal grammar: words +to be formed with fixed roots and affixes, and to be in every case +immediately decipherable from the dictionary alone. He rejects this +scheme as fit "for vulgar minds," and proceeds to sketch the outline +of all subsequent "philosophic" languages. Thus the great thinker +anticipates both types of universal language. + +2. Sir Thomas Urquhart, 1653—_Logopandekteision_ (see next chapter). + +3. Dalgarno, 1661—_Ars Signorum_. Dalgarno was a Scotchman born at +Aberdeen in 1626. His language is founded on the classification of +ideas. Of these there are seventeen main classes, represented by +seventeen letters. Each letter is the initial of all the words in its +class. + +4. Wilkins, 1668—_An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical +Language_. Wilkins was Bishop of Chester, and first secretary and one +of the founders of the Royal Society. Present members please note. His +system is a development of Dalgarno's. + +5. Leibnitz, 1646-1716. Leibnitz thought over this matter all his life, +and there are various passages on it scattered through his works, +though no one treatise is devoted to it. He held that the systems of +his predecessors were not philosophical enough. He dreamed of a logic +of thought applicable to all ideas. All complex ideas are compounds of +simple ideas, as non-primary numbers are of primary numbers. Numbers +can be compounded _ad infinitum._ So if numbers are translated into +pronouncible words, these words can be combined so as to represent every +possible idea. + +6. Delormel, 1795 (An III)—_Projet d'une langue universelle_. Delormel +was inspired by the humanitarian ideas of the French Revolution. He +wished to bring mankind together in fraternity. His system rests on a +logical classification of ideas on a decimal basis. + +7. Jean François Sudre, 1817—_Langue musicale universelle_. Sudre was a +schoolmaster, born in 1787. His language is founded on the seven notes +of the scale, and he calls it Solresol. + +8. Grosselin, 1836—_Systeme de langue universelle_. A language +composed of 1500 words, called "roots," with 100 suffixes, or modifying +terminations. + +9. Vidal, 1844—_Langue universelle et analytique_. A curious +combination of letters and numbers. + +10. Letellier, 1852-1855—_Cours complet de langue universelle_, and +many subsequent publications. Letellier was a former schoolmaster and +school inspector. His system is founded on the "theory of language," +which is that the word ought to represent by its component letters an +analysis of the idea it conveys. + +11. Abbé Bonifacio Sotos Ochando, 1852, Madrid. The abbé had been +a deputy to the Spanish Cortes, Spanish master to Louis Philippe's +children, a university professor, and director of a polytechnic +college in Madrid, etc. His language is a logical one, intended for +international scientific use, and chiefly for writing. He does not think +a spoken language for all purposes possible. + +12. _Societé Internationale de linguistique_. First report dated 1856. +The object of the society was to carry out a radical reform of French +orthography, and to prepare the way for a universal language—"the need +of which is beginning to be generally felt." In the report the idea of +adopting one of the most widely spoken national languages is considered +and rejected. The previous projects are reviewed, and that of Sotos +Ochando is recommended as the best. The _a posteriori_ principle is +rejected and the _a priori_ deliberately adopted. This is excusable, +owing to the fact that most projects hitherto had been _a priori_. The +philosopher Charles Renouvier gave proof of remarkable prescience by +condemning the _a priori_ theory in an article in _La Revue_, 1855, in +which he forecasts the _a posteriori_ plan. + +13. Dyer, 1875—_Lingwalumina; or, the Language of Light_. + +14. Reinaux, 1877. + +15. Maldent, 1877—_La langue naturelle_. The author was a civil +engineer. + +16. Nicolas, 1900—_Spokil_. The author is a ship's doctor and former +partisan of Volapük. + +17. Hilbe, 1901—_Die Zablensprache_, Based on numbers which are +translated by vowels. + +18. Dietrich, 1902—_Völkerverkehrssprache_. + +19. Mannus Talundberg, 1904—_Perio, eine auf Logik und Gedachtnisskunst +aufgebaute Weltsprache_. + + + II. MIXED LANGUAGES + +These are chiefly Volapük and its derivates. + +1. August Theodor von Grimm, state councillor of the Russian Empire, +worked out a "programme for the formation of a universal language," +which contains some _a priori_ elements, as well as nearly all the +principles which subsequent authors of _a posteriori_ languages have +realized. This Grimm is not to be confused with the famous philologist +Jacob von Grimm, though he wrote about the same time. + +2. Schleyer, 1879—_Volapük_. (See below.) + +3. Verheggen, 1886—_Nal Bino_. + +4. Menet, 1886—_Langue universelle_. An imitation of Volapük. + +5. Bauer, 1886—_Spelin_. A development of Volapük with more words taken +from neutral languages. + +6. St. de Max, 1887—_Bopal_. An imitation of Volapük. + +7. Dormoy, 1887—_Balta_. A simplification of Volapük. + +8. Fieweger, 1893—_Dil_. An exaggeration of Volapük for good and ill. + +9. Guardiola, 1893—_Orba_. A fantastic language. + +10. W. von Arnim, 1896—_Veltparl_. A derivative of Volapük. + +11. Marchand, 1898—_Dilpok_. Simplified Volapük. + +12. Bollack, 1899—_La langue bleue_. Aims merely at commercial and +common use. Ingenious, but too difficult for the memory. + + + III. A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES + +1. Faiguet, 1765—_Langue nouvelle_. Faiguet was treasurer of France. He +published his project, which is a scheme for simplifying grammar, in the +famous eighteenth-century encyclopaedia of Diderot and d'Alembert. + +2. Schipfer, 1839—_Communicationssprache_. This scheme has an +historical interest for two reasons. First, the fact that it is founded +on French reflects the feeling of the time that French was, as he +says, "already to a certain extent a universal language." The point of +interest is to compare the date when the projects began to be founded on +English. In 1879 Volapük took English for the base. Secondly, Schipfer's +scheme reflects the new consciousness of wider possibilities that were +coming into the world with the development of means of communication by +rail and steamboat. The author recommends the utility of his project by +referring to "the new way of travelling." + +3. De Rudelle, 1858—_Pantos-Dimon-Glossa._ De Rudelle was a +modern-language master in France and afterwards at the London +Polytechnic. His language is based on ten natural languages, especially +Greek, Latin, and the modern derivatives of Latin, with grammatical +hints from English, German, and Russian. It is remarkable for having +been the first to embody several principles of the first importance, +which have since been more fully carried out in other schemes, and are +now seen to be indispensable. Among these are: (1) distinction of the +parts of speech by a fixed form for each; (2) suppression of separate +verbal forms for each person; (3) formation of derivatives by means of +suffixes with fixed meanings. + +4. Pirro, 1868—_Universalsprache_. Based upon five languages—French, +German, English, Italian, and Spanish—and containing a large proportion +of words from the Latin. + +5. Ferrari, 1877—_Monoglottica_ (?). + +6. Volk and Fuchs, 1883—_Weltsprache_. Founded on Latin. + +7. Cesare Meriggi, 1884—_Blaia Zimondal_. + +8. Courtonne, 1885—_Langue Internationale néo-Latine_. Based on the +modern Romance languages, and therefore not sufficiently international. +A peculiarity is that all roots are monosyllabic. The history of this +attempt illustrates the weight of inertia against which any such project +has to struggle. It was presented to the Scientific Society of Nice, +which drew up a report and sent it to all the learned societies of +Romance-speaking countries. Answers were received from three towns—Pau, +Sens, and Nimes. It was then proposed to convene an international +neo-Latin congress; but it is not surprising to hear that nothing came +of it. + +9. Steiner, 1885—_Pasilingua_. A counterblast to Volapük. The author +aims at copying the methods of naturally formed international languages +like the "lingua franca" or Pidgin-English. Based on English, French, +and German; but the English vocabulary forms the groundwork. + +10. Eichhorn, 1887—_Weltsprache_. Based on Latin. A leading principle +is that each part of speech ought to be recognizable by its form. Thus +nouns have two syllables; adjectives, three; pronouns, one; verbal +roots, one syllable beginning and ending with a consonant; and so on. + +11. Zamenhof, 1887—_Esperanto_. (See below.) + +12. Bernhard, 1888—_Lingua franca nuova_. A kind of bastard Italian. + +13. Lauda, 1888—_Kosmos_. Draws all its vocabulary from Latin. + +14. Henderson, 1888—_Lingua_. Latin vocabulary with modern grammar. + +15. Henderson, 1902—_Latinesce_. A simpler and more practical +adaptation of Latin by the same author—_e.g._ the present infinitive form +does duty for several finite tenses, and words are used in their modern +senses. + +16. Hoinix (pseudonym for the same indefatigable Mr. Henderson), +1889—_Anglo-franca_. A mixture of French and English. Both this and the +barbarized Latin schemes are fairly easy and certainly simpler than the +real languages, but they are shocking to the ear, and produce the effect +of mutilation of language. + +17. Stempel, 1889—_Myrana_. Based on Latin with admixture of other +languages. + +18. Stempel, 1894—_Communia_. A simplification of No. 17, with a new +name. + +19. Rosa, 1890—_Nov Latin_. A set of rules for using the Latin +dictionary in a certain way as a key to produce something that can be +similarly deciphered. + +20. Julius Lott, 1890—_Mundolingue_. Founded on Latin. Lott started an +international society for a universal language, proposing to build up +his language by collaboration of savants thus brought together. + +21. Marini, 1891—_Méthode rapide, facile et certaine pour construire un +idiome universel_. + +22. Liptay, 1892—_Langue catholique_. Based on the theory than an +international language already exists (in the words common to many +languages), and has only to be discovered. + +23. Mill, 1893—_Anti-Volapük_. A simple universal grammar to be applied +to the vocabulary of each national language. + +24. Braakman, 1894—_Der Wereldtaal "El Mundolinco," Gramatico del +Mundolinco pro li de Hollando Factore_ (Noordwijk). + +25. Albert Hoessrich (date?)—_Talnovos, Monatsschrift für die +Einführung und Verbreitung der allgemeinen Verkehrssprache_ "_Tal_" +(Sonneberg, Thuringen). + +26. Heintzeler, 1895—_Universala_. Heintzeler compares the twelve chief +artificial languages already proposed, and shows that they have much in +common. He suggests a commission to work out a system on an eclectic +basis. + +27. Beermann, 1895—_Novilatin_. Latin brought up to date by comparison +with six chief modern languages. + +28. _Le Linguist_, 1896-7. A monthly review conducted by a band of +philologists. It contains many discussions of the principles which +should underly an international language, and suggestions, but no +complete scheme. + +29. Puchner, 1897—_Nuove Roman_. Based largely on Spanish, which the +author considers the best of the Romance tongues. + +30. Nilson—_La vest-europish central-dialekt_ (1890); _Lasonebr, un +transitional lingvo_ (1897); _Il dialekt Centralia, un compromiss +entr il lingu universal de Akademi international e la vest-europish +central-dialekt_ (1899). + +31. Kürschner, 1900—_Lingua Komun_. The author was an Esperantist, +but found Esperanto not scientific enough. It is almost incredible +that a man who knew Esperanto should invent a language with several +conjugations of the verb, but this is what Kürschner has done. + +32. International Academy of Universal Language, 1902—_Idiom Neutral_. +(See below.) + +33. Elias Molee, 1902—_Tutonish; or, Anglo-German Union Tongue_. +_Tutonish; a Teutonic International Language_ (1904). + +34. Molenaar—_Panroman, skiz de un ling internazional_ (in _Die +Religion der Menschheit_, March 1903); _Esperanto oder Panroman? Das +Weltsprache-problem und seine einfachste Lösung_ (1906); _Universal +Ling-Panroman_ (in _Menschheitsziele_, 1906); _Gramatik de Universal_ +(Leipzig, Puttmann, 1906). + +35. Peano—_De Latino sine flexione_ (in _Revue de Mathématique_, vol. +viii., Turin, 1903); _Il Latino quale lingua ausiliare internazionale_ +(in _Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino_ 1904); +_Vocabulario de Latino Internationale comparato cum Anglo, Franco, +Germano, Hispano, Italo, Russo, Graeco, et Sanscrito_ (Turin, 1904). See +also the _Formulario mathematico_, vol. v. (Turin, 1906). + +36. Hummler, 1904—_Mundelingua_ (Saulgau). + +37. Victor Hely, 1905—_Esquisse d'une grammaire de la langue +Internationale, 1st part: Les mots et la syntaxe_ (Langres). + +38. Max Wald, 1906—_Pankel (Weltsprache), die leichteste und kürzeste +Sprache für den internationalen Verkehr. Grammatik und Wörterbuch mit +Aufgabe der Wortquelle_ (Gross-Beeren). + +39. Greenwood, 1906—_Ekselsiore, the New Universal Language for All +Nations: a Simplified, Improved Esperanto_ (London, Miller & Gill); +_Ulla, t ulo lingua ä otrs_ (The Ulla Society, Bridlington, 1906). + +40. Trischen, 1907—_Mondlingvo, provisorische Aufstellung einer +internationalen Verkehrssprache_ (Pierson, Dresden). + + + III + + THE EARLIEST BRITISH ATTEMPT + +A perusal of the foregoing list shows that in the early days of the +search for an international language the British were well to the fore. +Of the British pioneers in this field the first two were Scots—a fact +which accords well with the traditional enterprise north of the Tweed, +and readiness to look abroad, beyond their own noses, or, in this case, +beyond their own tongues. It is likewise remarkable that the British +have almost dropped out of the running in recent times, as far as +origination is concerned. Is this fact also typical, a small symptom +of Jeshurun's general fatness? Does it reflect a lesser degree of +nimbleness in moving with the spirit of the times? + +Anyhow, in this case the Briton's content with what he has got at home +is well grounded. He certainly possesses a first-class language. As a +curious example of the quaint use of it by a scholar and clever man in +the middle of the seventeenth century, the following account of Sir +Thomas Urquhart's book may be of some interest. + +Sir Thomas is well known as the translator of Rabelais; and evidently +something of the curious erudition, polyglotism, and quaintness of +conceit of his author stuck to the translator. This book is the rarest +of his tracts, all of which are uncommon, and has been hardly more than +mentioned by name by the previous writers on the subject. + +The title-page runs: + + * * * * * + + LOGOPANDEKTEISION + + OR, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE, + DIGESTED INTO THESE SIX SEVERAL BOOKS + + Neaudethaumata Chryseomystes + Chrestasebeia Neleodicastes + Cleronomaporia Philoponauxesis + + By SIR THOMAS URQUHART, of Cromartie, Knight, + + Now lately contrived and published both for his own Utilitie, + and that of all Pregnant and Ingenious Spirits. + + LONDON + + Printed and are to be sold by GILES CALVERT + at the Black Spread-Eagle at the West-end + of Paul's, and by RICHARD TOMLINS at + the Sun and Bible near Pye Corner. 1653. + + * * * * * + +In a note at the end of the book he apologizes for haste, saying that +the copy was "given out to two several printers, one alone not being +fully able to hold his quill a-going." + +The book opens with: + + "The Epistle Dedicatory to Nobody." + +The first paragraph runs: + + "MOST HONOURABLE, + + "My non-supponent Lord, and Soveraign Master of contradictions + in adjected terms, that unto you I have presumed to tender the + dedicacie of this introduction, will not seem strange to those, that + know how your concurrence did further me to the accomplishment of + that new Language, into the frontispiece whereof it is permitted." + +After some preliminary remarks, he says: + + "Now to the end the Reader may be more enamoured of the Language, + wherein I am to publish a grammar and lexicon, I will here set down + some few qualities and advantages peculiar to itself, and which no + Language else (although all other concurred with it) is able to reach + unto." + +There follow sixty-six "qualities and advantages," which contain the +only definite information about the language, for the promised grammar +and lexicon never appeared. A few may be quoted as typical of the +inducements held out to "pregnant and ingenious spirits," to the end +they "may be more enamoured of the Language." The good Sir Thomas was +plainly an optimist. + + "... Sixthly, in the cases of all the declinable parts of + speech, it surpasseth all other languages whatsoever: for whilst + others have but five or six at most, it hath ten, besides the + nominative. + + "... Eighthly, every word capable of number is better provided + therewith in this language, then [_sic_] by any other: for instead of + two or three numbers which others have, this affordeth you four; to + wit, the singular, dual, plural, and redual. + + "... Tenthly, in this tongue there are eleven genders; wherein + likewise it exceedeth all other languages. + + "... Eleventhly, Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids + have all of them ten tenses, besides the present: which number no + language else is able to attain to. + + "... Thirteenthly, in lieu of six moods, which other languages + have at most, this one enjoyeth seven in its conjugable words." + +Sir Thomas evidently believed in giving his clients plenty for their +money. He is lavish of "Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids," +truly a tempting menagerie. He promises, however, a time-reduction on +learning a quantity: + + "... Seven and fiftiethly, the greatest wonder of all is that + of all the languages in the world it is easiest to learn; a boy of + ten years old being able to attain to the knowledge thereof in three + months' space; because there are in it many facilitations for the + memory, which no other language hath but itself." + +Seventeenth-century boys of tender years must have had a good stomach +for "Mongrels and Hybrids," and such-like dainties of the grammatical +_menu_; but even if they could swallow a mongrel, it is hard to believe +that they would not have strained at ten cases in three months. It might +be called "casual labour," but it would certainly have been "three +months' hard." + +After these examples of grammatical generosity, it is not surprising to +read: + + "... Fifteenthly, in this language the Verbs and Participles + have four voices, although it was never heard that ever any other + language had above three." + +Note that the former colleagues of the "Verbs and Participles," the +"Mongrels and Hybrids," are here dropped out of the category. Perhaps +it is as well, seeing the number of voices attributed to each. A +four-voiced mongrel would have gone one better than the triple-headed +hell-hound Cerberus, and created quite a special Hades of its own for +schoolboys, to say nothing of light sleepers. + +Under "five and twentiethly" we learn that "there is no Hexameter, +Elegiack, Saphick, Asclepiad, lambick, or any other kind of Latin or +Greek verse, but I will afford you another in this language of the same +sort"; which leads up to: + + "... Six and twentiethly, as it trotteth easily with metrical + feet, so at the end of the career of each line, hath it dexterity, + after the manner of our English and other vernaculary tongues, + to stop with the closure of a rhyme; in the framing whereof, the + well-versed in that language shall have so little labour, that for + every word therein he shall be able to furnish at least five hundred + several monosyllables of the same termination with it." + +A remarkable opportunity for every man to become his own poet! + + "... Four and thirtiethly, in this language also words + expressive of herbs represent unto us with what degree of cold, + moisture, heat, or dryness they are qualified, together with some + other property distinguishing them from other herbs." + +In this crops out the idea that haunted the minds of mediaeval +speculators on the subject: that language could play a more important +part than it had hitherto done; that a word, while conveying an idea, +could at the same time in some way describe or symbolize the attributes +of the thing named. Imagine the charge of thought that could be rammed +into a phrase in such a language. Imagine too, you who remember the +cold shudder of your childhood, when you heard the elders discussing a +prospective dose—intensified by all the horrors of imagination when +the discussion was veiled in the "decent obscurity" of French—imagine +the grim realism of a language containing _words expressive of +herbs_,—and expressive to that extent! + +There seems, indeed, to have been something rather cold-blooded about +this language: + + "... Eight and thirtiethly, in the contexture of nouns, + pronouns, and preposital articles united together, it administreth + many wonderful varieties of Laconick expressions, as in the Grammar + thereof shall more at large be made known unto you." + +But, after all, it had a human side: + + "... Three and fourtiethly, as its interjections are more + numerous, so are they more emphatical in their respective expression + of passions, than that part of speech is in any other language + whatsoever. + + "... Eight and fourtiethly, of all languages this is the most + compendious in complement, and consequently fittest for Courtiers and + Ladies." + +Sir Thomas seems to have been a bit of a man of the world too. + + "... Fiftiethly, no language in matter of Prayer and Ejaculations + to Almighty God is able, for conciseness of expression to compare with + it; and therefore, of all other, the most fit for the use of Churchmen + and spirits inclined to devotion." + +This "therefore," with its direct deduction from "conciseness of +expression," recalls the lady patroness who chose her incumbents for +being fast over prayers. She said she could always pick out a parson who +read service daily by his time for the Sunday service. + +Sir Thomas is perhaps over-sanguine to a modern taste when he concludes: + + "Besides the sixty and six advantages above all other languages, + I might have couched thrice as many more of no less consideration + than the aforesaid, but that these same will suffice to sharpen + the longing of the generous Reader after the intrinsecal and most + researched secrets of the new Grammar and Lexicon which I am to + evulge." + + + IV + + HISTORY OF VOLAPÜK—A WARNING + +Volapük is the invention of a "white night." Those who know their _Alice +in Wonderland_ will perhaps involuntarily conjure up the picture of the +kindly and fantastic White Knight, riding about on a horse covered with +mousetraps and other strange caparisons, which he introduced to all and +sundry with the unfailing remark, "It's my own invention." Scoffers +will not be slow to find in Volapük and the White Knight's inventions a +common characteristic—their fantasticness. Perhaps there really is some +analogy in the fact that both inventors had to mount their hobby-horses +and ride errant through sundry lands, thrusting their creations on +an unwilling world. But the particular kind of white night of which +Volapük was born is the _nuit blanche_, literally = "white night," but +idiomatically = "night of insomnia." + +On the night of March 31, 1879, the good Roman Catholic Bishop Schleyer, +curé of Litzelstetten, near Constance, could not get to sleep. From +his over-active brain, charged with a knowledge of more than fifty +languages, sprang the world-speech, as Athene sprang fully armed from +the brain of Zeus. At any rate, this is the legend of the origin of +Volapük. + +As for the name, an Englishman will hardly appreciate the fact that +the word "Volapük" is derived from the two English words "world" and +"speech." This transformation of "world" into _vol_ and "speech" into +_pük_ is a good illustration of the manner in which Volapük is based on +English, and suggests at once a criticism of that all-important point in +an artificial language, the vocabulary. It is too arbitrary. + +Published in 1880, Volapük spread first in South Germany, and then in +France, where its chief apostle was M. Kerckhoffs, modern-language +master in the principal school of commerce in Paris. He founded a +society for its propagation, which soon numbered among its members +several well-known men of science and letters. The great Magasins du +Printemps—a sort of French Whiteley's, and familiar to all who have +shopped in Paris—started a class, attended by over a hundred of its +employees; and altogether fourteen different classes were opened in +Paris, and the pupils were of a good stamp. + +Progress was extraordinarily rapid in other European countries, and +by 1889, only nine years after the publication of Volapük, there were +283 Volapük societies, distributed throughout Europe, America, and +the British Colonies. Instruction books were published in twenty-five +languages, including Volapük itself; numerous newspapers, in and about +Volapük, sprang up all over the world; the number of Volapükists was +estimated at a million. This extraordinarily rapid success is very +striking, and seems to afford proof that there is a widely felt want for +an international language. Three Volapük congresses were held, of which +the third, held in Paris in 1889, with proceedings entirely in Volapük, +was the most important. + +The rapid decline of Volapük is even more instructive than its +sensational rise. The congress of Paris marked its zenith: hopes ran +high, and success seemed assured. Within two years it was practically +dead. No more congresses were held, the partisans dwindled away, the +local clubs dissolved, the newspapers failed, and the whole movement +came to an end. There only remained a new academy founded by Bishop +Schleyer, and here and there a group of the faithful.[1] + + [1]A Volapük journal still appears in Graz, Stiria—_Volapükabled + lezenodik_. The editor has just (March 1907) retired, and the veteran + Bishop Schleyer, now seventy-five years old, is taking up the + editorship again. + +The chief reason of this failure was internal dissension. First arose +the question of principle: Should Volapük aim at being a literary +language, capable of expressing all the finer shades of thought and +feeling? or should it confine itself to being a practical means of +business communication? + +Bishop Schleyer claimed for his invention an equal rank among the +literary languages of the world. The practical party, headed by M. +Kerckhoffs, wished to keep it utilitarian and practical. With the +object of increasing its utility, they proposed certain changes in the +language; and thus there arose, in the second place, differences of +opinion as to fundamental points of structure, such as the nature and +origin of the roots to be adopted. Vital questions were thus reopened, +and the whole language was thrown back into the melting-pot. + +The first congress was held at Friedrichshafen in August 1884, and was +attended almost exclusively by Germans. The second congress, Munich, +August 1887, brought together over 200 Volapükists from different +countries. A professor of geology from Halle University was elected +president, and an International Academy of Volapük was founded. + +Then the trouble began. M. Kerckhoffs was unanimously elected director +of the academy, and Bishop Schleyer was made grand-master (_cifal_) +for life. Questions arose as to the duties of the academy and the +respective powers of the inventor of the language and the academicians. +M. Kerckhoffs was all along the guiding spirit on the side of the +academy. He was in the main supported by the Volapük world, though there +seems to have been some tendency, at any rate at first, on the part of +the Germans to back the bishop. It is impossible to go into details of +the points at issue. Suffice it to say, that eventually the director +of the academy carried a resolution giving the inventor three votes to +every one of ordinary members in all academy divisions, but refusing him +the right of veto, which he claimed. The bishop replied by a threat to +depose M. Kerckhoffs from the directorship, which of course he could not +make good. The constitution of the academy was only binding inasmuch as +it had been drawn up and adopted by the constituent members, and it gave +no such powers to the inventor. + +So here was a very pretty quarrel as to the ownership of Volapük. +The bishop said it belonged to him, as he had invented it: he was +its father. The academy said it belonged to the public, who had a +right to amend it in the common interest. This child, which had newly +opened its eyes and smiled upon the world, and upon which the world +was then smiling back—was it a son domiciled in its father's house +and fully _in patria potestate_? or a ward in the guardianship of its +chief promoters? or an orphan foundling, to be boarded out on the +scattered-home system at the public expense, and to be brought up to be +useful to the community at large? A vexed question of paternity; and the +worst of it was, there was no international court competent to try the +case. + +Meantime the congress of 1889 at Paris came on. Volapük was booming +everywhere. Left to itself, it flourished like a green bay-tree. This +meeting was to set an official seal upon its success; and governments, +convinced by this thing done openly in the _ville lumière_, would accept +the _fait accompli_ and introduce it into their schools. + +Thirteen countries sent representatives, including Turkey and China. +The great Kerckhoffs was elected president. The proceedings were in +Volapük. The foundling's future was canvassed in terms of himself by +a cosmopolitan board of guardians, who did not yet know what he was. +Rather a Gilbertian situation. Trying a higher flight, we may say, in +Platonic phrase, that Volapük seemed to be about midway between being +and not-being. It is a far cry from Gilbert _viâ_ Plato to Mr. Kipling, +but perhaps Volapük, at this juncture, may be most aptly described as +a "sort of a giddy harumphrodite," if not "a devil an' a ostrich an' a +orphan-child in one." + +Business done: The congress discusses. + +The congress passed a resolution that there should be drawn up "a simple +normal grammar, from which all useless rules should be excluded," and +proceeded to adopt a final constitution for the Volapük Academy. + +Article 15 says: "The decisions of the academy must be at once submitted +to the inventor. If the inventor has not within thirty days protested +against the decisions, they are valid. Decisions not approved by the +inventor are referred back to the academy, and are valid if carried by a +two-thirds majority." + +The bishop held out for his right of absolute veto, as his episcopal +fellows and their colleagues are doing "in another place" in England. +The conflict presents some analogy with other graver constitutional +matters, involving discussion of the respective merits of absolute and +suspensive veto, and may therefore have some interest at present, apart +from its great importance in any scheme for an international language. + +The upshot was that dissensions broke out within the academy. The +director, unable to carry a complete scheme of reformed grammar, +resigned (1891), and the academy, whose business it was to arrange the +next congress and keep the movement going, never convened a fourth +congress. Several academicians set to work on new artificial languages +of their own; and what was left of the Academy of Volapük, under a new +director, M. Rosenberger, a St. Petersburg railway engineer, elected +1893, subsequently turned its attention to working out a new language, +to which was given the name Idiom Neutral (see next chapter). + + * * * * * + +It is interesting to note that, when Volapük was nearing its high-water +mark, the American Philosophical Society appointed a committee (October +1887) to inquire into its scientific value. + +This committee reported in November 1887. The report states that the +creation of an international language is in conformity with the general +tendency of modern civilization, and is not merely desirable, but +_will certainly be realized._ It goes on to reject Volapük as the +solution of the problem, as being on the whole retrogade in tendency. +It is too arbitrary in construction, and not international enough in +vocabulary; nor does it correspond to the general trend of development +of language, which is away from a synthetic grammar (inflection by means +of terminations, as in Latin and Greek) and towards an analytic one +(inflection by termination replaced by prepositions and auxiliaries). + +But the committee was so fully convinced of the importance of an +international language, that it proposed to the Philosophical Society +that it should invite all the learned societies of the world to +co-operate in the production of a universal language. A resolution +embodying this recommendation was adopted by the society, and the +invitations were sent out. About twenty societies accepted—among them +the University of Edinburgh. The Scots again! + +The London Philological Society commissioned Mr. Ellis to investigate +the subject, and upon his report declined to co-operate. Mr. Ellis was +a believer in Volapük, and furthermore did not agree with the American +Philosophical Society's conclusion that an international language ought +to be founded on an Indo-Germanic (Aryan) basis. In this Mr. Ellis was +almost certainly wrong, as subsequent experience is tending to show. The +Japanese, among others, are taking up Esperanto with enthusiasm, find +it easy, and make no difficulty about its Aryan basis. But, apart from +linguistic considerations, Mr. Ellis's practical reasoning was certainly +sound. It was to this effect: The main thing is to adopt a language +that is already in wide use and shown to be adequate. Alterations bring +dissension; by sticking to what we have already got, imperfections and +all, strife is avoided, and the thing is at once reduced to practice. + +This was a wise counsel, and applies to-day with double force to the +present holder of the field, Esperanto, which is besides, in the opinion +of experts, a better language than Volapük, and far easier to acquire. + +However, on the question of technical merits, the American Philosophical +Society was probably right, as against the London Philological Society +represented by Mr. Ellis. And the proof is that Volapük died—primarily, +indeed, of dissensions among its partisans, but of dissensions +superinduced on inherent defects of principle. That this is true may +be seen from the subsequent history of the Volapük movement. This is +briefly narrated in the next chapter, under the name of Idiom Neutral. + + + V + + HISTORY OF IDIOM NEUTRAL + +We saw above that M. Kerckhoffs was succeeded in the directorship of the +Volapük Academy, 1893, by M. Rosenberger, of St. Petersburg. During his +term of office the academy continued its work of amending and improving +the language. The method of procedure was as follows: The director +elaborated proposals, which he embodied in circulars and sent round from +time to time to his fellow-academicians. They voted "Yes" or "No," so +that the language, when finished, was approved by them all, and was the +joint product of the academy; but it was, in its new form, to a great +extent, the work of the director. At the end of his term of office it +was practically complete. It had undergone a complete transformation, +and was now called Idiom Neutral. + +In 1898 M. Rosenberger was succeeded by Rev. A.F. Holmes, of Macedon, +New York State. The members of the academy vary from time to time, and +include (or have included since 1898) natives of America, Belgium, +Denmark, England, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Russia. + +Dictionaries of Idiom Neutral have been published in English (in +America), German, and Dutch; but the language hardly seems to be in +use except among the members of the academy. These do not meet, but +carry on their business by means of circulars, drawn up, of course, in +Neutral. There are at present only four groups of Neutralists—those of +St. Petersburg, Nuremberg, Brussels, and San Antonio, Texas. The famous +linguistic club of Nuremberg is remarkable for having gone through the +evolution from Volapük to Idiom Neutral _viâ_ Esperanto! Besides these +four groups, there are isolated Neutralists in certain towns in Great +Britain. The academy seems still to have some points to settle, and the +work of propaganda has hardly yet begun. + +A paper published in Brussels, under the name of _Idei International_, +seems to represent the ideas of scattered Neutralists, and of some +partisans of other schemes based on Romance vocabulary. These languages +resemble each other greatly, and some sanguine spirits dream that they +may be fused together into the ultimate international language. A +few even hope for an amalgamation with Esperanto, through the medium +of a reformed type of Esperanto, which approximates more nearly +to these newer schemes, its vocabulary being, like theirs, almost +entirely Romance. A series of modifications was published tentatively +by Dr. Zamenhof himself in 1894, but was suppressed from practical +considerations, having regard to the fate that overtook Volapük, when +once it fell into the hands of reformers. The so-called reforms never +represented the real ideas of Zamenhof, and were rather in the nature +of reluctant concessions to the weaker brethren. They were never +introduced. + +The reader may be interested to compare for himself specimens of +Volapük, Idiom Neutral (its lineal descendant), and Esperanto. This +Esperanto is the only one in use, most Esperantists having never even +heard of the reform project, which was at once dropped, before the +language had entered upon its present cosmopolitan extension. The +following versions of the Lord's Prayer are taken from MM. Couturat and +Leau's _History_, as are the facts in the above narratives, with the +exception of the latest details: + + VOLAPÜK + +O Fat obas, kel binol in süls, paisaludomöz nem ola! Kömomöd monargän +ola! Jenomöz vil olik, äs in sül, i su tal! Bodi obsik vädeliki givolös +obes adelo! E pardolös obes debis obsik, äs id obs aipardobs debeles +obas. E no obis nindukolös in tentadi; sod aidalivolös obis de bad. +Jenosöd! + + IDIOM NEUTRAL[1] + +Nostr patr kel es in sieli! Ke votr nom es sanktifiked; ke votr regnia +veni; ke votr volu es fasied, kuale in siel, tale et su ter. Dona +sidiurne a noi nostr pan omnidiurnik; e pardona (a) noi nostr debiti, +kuale et noi pardon a nostr debtatori; e no induka noi in tentasion, ma +librifika noi da it mal. + + [1]There are two forms of Idiom Neutral,—one called "pure," + authorized by the academy; the other used in the paper _Idei + International_. + + ESPERANTO + +Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu regeco +via; estu volo via, kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. Panon +nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ; kaj pardonu al ni ŝuldojn niajn, +kiel ni ankaŭ pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj; kaj ne konduku nin en +tenton, sed liberigu nin de la malbono. + +Comparing Volapük with Idiom Neutral, even this brief specimen is +enough to show the main line of improvement. The framers of the latter +had realized the fact that the vocabulary is the first and paramount +consideration for an artificial language. It is hopeless to expect +people to learn strings of words of arbitrary formation and like +nothing they ever saw. Accordingly Idiom Neutral borrows its vocabulary +from natural speech, and thereby abandons a regularity which may be +theoretically more perfect, but which by arbitrary disfigurement of +familiar words overreaches itself, and does more harm than good. + +It is very instructive to note that a body of international language +specialists were brought little by little to adopt an almost exclusively +Romance vocabulary, and this in spite of the fact that they started from +Volapük, whose vocabulary is constructed on quite other lines. In other +points their language suffers from being too exclusively inspired by +Volapükist principles, so that their recognition of the necessity of an +_a posteriori_ vocabulary is the more convincing. + +Given, then, that vocabulary is to be borrowed and not created anew, +it is obvious that the principle of borrowing must be _maximum of +internationality of roots_—i.e. those words will be adopted by +preference which are already common to the greatest number of chief +languages. Now, by far the greater number of such international words +(which are far more numerous than was thought before a special study was +made of the subject) are Romance, being of Latin origin. This is the +justification of the prevalence of the Romance element in any modern +artificial language. It has been frequently made a reproach against +Esperanto that it is a Romance language; but the unanimous verdict of +the competent linguists who composed the academy for the emendation of +Volapük may be taken as final. They threshed the question out once for +all, and their conclusion derives added force from the fact that it is +the result of conversion. + +But it may be doubted whether they have not gone rather far in this +direction and overshot the mark. + +Comparing Idiom Neutral with Esperanto, it will be found that the +latter admits a larger proportion of non-Romance words. While fully +recognizing and doing justice to the accepted principle of selection, +maximum of internationality, Esperanto sometimes gives the preference to +a non-Romance word in order to avoid ambiguity and secure a perfectly +distinct root from which to form derivatives incapable of confusion +with others.[1] There is always a good reason for the choice; but it is +easier to appreciate this after learning the language. + + [1]It is obvious, too, that English, Germans, and Slavs will be more + attracted to a language which borrows some of its features from their + own tongues, than to an entirely Romance language. This relatively + wider international appeal is another advantage of Esperanto. + +But a mere comparison of the brief texts given above will bring out +another point in favour of Esperanto—its full vocalic endings. On the +other hand, many words in Idiom Neutral present a mutilated appearance +to the eye, and, what is a much greater sin in an international +language, offer grave difficulties of pronunciation to speakers of +many nations. Words ending with a double consonant are very frequent, +e.g. _nostr patr_; and these will be unpronounceable for many nations, +e.g. for an Italian or a Japanese. Euphony is one of the strongest +of the many strong points of Esperanto. In it the principle of +maximum of internationality has been applied to _sounds_ as well as +_forms_, and there are very few sounds that will be a stumbling-block +to any considerable number of speakers. Some of its modern rivals +seem to forget that a language is to be spoken as well as written. +When a language is unfamiliar to the listener, he is greatly aided +in understanding it if the vowel-sounds are long and full and the +pronunciation slow, almost drawling. Esperanto fulfils these requisites +in a marked degree. It is far easier to dwell upon two-syllabled words +with full vocalic endings like _patro nia_ than upon awkward words like +_nostr patr_. + +Yet another advantage of Esperanto is illustrated in the same texts. +Owing to its system of inflexion and the possession of an objective +case, it is extremely flexible, and can put the words in almost any +order, without obscuring the sense. Thus, in the translation of the +_Pater Noster_, the Esperanto text follows the Latin _word for word +and in the same order_. It is obvious that this flexibility confers +great advantages for purposes of faithful and spirited translation. + + + VI + + THE NEWEST LANGUAGES: A NEO-LATIN GROUP—GROPINGS + TOWARDS A "PAN-EUROPEAN" AMALGAMATED SCHEME + +A perusal of the list of schemes proposed (pp. 76-87 [Part II, Chapter +II]) shows that the last few years have produced quite a crop of +artificial languages. Now that the main principles necessary to success +are coming to be recognized, the points of difference between the rival +schemes are narrowing down, and, as mentioned in the last chapter, there +is a family likeness between many of the newer projects. The chief of +these are: Idiom Neutral; Pan-Roman or Universal, by Dr. Molenaar; +Latino sine flexione, by Prof. Peano; Mundolingue; Nuove-Roman; and +Lingua Komun. + +These have been grouped together by certain adversaries as "Neo-Roman"; +but their partisans seem to prefer the collective term "Neo-Latin." +There are more or less vague hopes that out of them may be evolved a +final form of international language, for which the names _Pan-European_ +and _Union-Ling_ have been suggested. Dr. Molenaar has declared his +willingness to keep to his original title, Pan-Roman, for his own +language, if the composite one should prefer to be called _Universal_. +Prof. Peano says, in the course of an article (written in his own +language, of course), "any fresh solution in the future can only differ +from Idiom Neutral, as two medical or mathematical treatises dealing +with the same subject." + +The only definite scheme for common action put forth up to now +seems to be that proposed by Dr. Molenaar. In January 1907 he sent +round a circular written in French, in which he makes the following +propositions: + +All authors and notable partisans of Neo-Latin universal languages shall +meet in a special academy, which will elaborate a compromise-language. + +As regards the programme, the three fundamental principles shall be: + + 1. Internationality and comprehensibility. + 2. Simplicity and regularity. + 3. Homogeneity and euphony. + +Of these principles, No. 1 is to take precedence of No. 2, and No. 2 of +No. 3. + +The order of discussion is to be: + + I. GRAMMAR + + (_a_) Alphabet. + (_b_) Articles (necessary or not?). + (_c_) Declension. + (_d_) Plural (_-s_ or _-i_?). + (_e_) Adjective (invariable or not?). + (_f_) Adverb, etc. + + II. VOCABULARY + +The number of collaborators is to be limited to about twenty, and the +chairman is to be a non-partisan. + + * * * * * + +Such, in outline, is the proposal of Dr. Molenaar. An obvious criticism +is that it falls back into the old mistake of putting grammar before +vocabulary. + +From a practical point of view such a composite scheme is not likely +to meet with acceptance. It will be very hard for authors of languages +to be impartial and sacrifice their favourite devices to the common +opinion. M. Bollack, author of the _Langue bleue_, has already refused +the chairmanship. He does not see the use of founding a fresh academy, +and thinks Dr. Molenaar would do better to join forces with the +Neutralists. + +There exists indeed already an "Akademi International de Lingu +Universal," which has produced Idiom Neutral, and of which Mr. Holmes +is still director, now in his second term (see preceding chapter). +This academy is said to be too one-sided in its composition, and not +scientific. But it is hard to see how it will abdicate in favour of a +new one. + +Meantime, the victorious Esperantists, at present in possession of the +field, poke fun at these new-fangled schemes. A parody in Esperanto +verse, entitled _Lingvo de Molenaar_, and sung to the tune of the +American song _Riding down from Bangor_, narrates the fickleness of +Pan-Roman and how it changed into Universal. It is said that a group of +Continental Esperantists, at a convivial sitting, burnt the apostate +Idiom Neutral in effigy by making a bonfire of Neutral literature. On +the other side amenities are not wanting. It is now the fashion to sling +mud at a rival language by calling it "arbitrary" and "fantastic"; and +these epithets are freely applied to Esperanto. Strong in their cause, +the Esperantists are peacefully preparing the Congress of Cambridge. + + + VII + + HISTORY OF ESPERANTO + +Happy is the nation that has no history,—still happier the +international language; for a policy of "pacific penetration" offers few +picturesque incidents to furnish forth a readable narrative. In the case +of Esperanto there have been no splits or factions; no narrow ring of +oligarchs has cornered the language for its own purposes, or insisted +upon its aristocratic and non-popular side in the supposed interests of +culture or literary taste; consequently there has been no secession of +the _plebs_. In the early days of Esperanto there was indeed an attempt +to found an Esperanto league; but when it was seen that the league did +little beyond suggest alterations, it was wisely dissolved in 1894. +Since then Esperanto has been run purely on its merits as a language, +and has expressly dissociated itself from any political, pacifist, or +other propaganda. Its story is one of quiet progress—at first very +slow, but within the last five years wonderfully rapid, and still +accelerating. The most sensational episode in this peaceful advance +was the prohibition of the principal Esperantist organ by the Russian +censorship, so that there is little to do, save record one or two +leading facts and dates. + +The inventor of Esperanto is a Polish doctor, Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof, +now living in Warsaw. He was born in 1859 at Bielostock, a town which +has lately become notorious as the scene of one of the terrible +Russian _pogroms_, or interracial butcheries. This tragedy was only +the culmination of a chronic state of misunderstanding, which long +ago so impressed the young Zamenhof that, when still quite a boy, he +resolved to labour for the removal of one cause of it by facilitating +mutual intercourse. He has practically devoted his life first to the +elaboration of his language, and of later years to the vast amount of +business that its extension involves. And it has been a labour of love. +Zamenhof is an idealist. His action, in all that concerns Esperanto, +has been characterized throughout by a generosity and self-effacement +that well correspond to the humanitarian nature of the inspiration that +produced it. He has renounced all personal rights in and control of the +Esperanto language, and kept studiously in the background till the first +International Congress two years ago forced him into the open, when he +emerged from his retirement to take his rightful place before the eyes +of the peoples whom his invention had brought together. + +But he is not merely an idealist: he is a practical idealist. This is +shown by his self-restraint and practical wisdom in guiding events. +One of the symptoms of "catching Esperanto" is a desire to introduce +improvements. This morbid propensity to jejune amateur tinkering, a kind +of measles of the mind (_morbus linguificus_[1]) attacks the immature in +years or judgment. A riper acquaintance with the history and practical +aims of international language purges it from the system. We have all +been through it. For the inventor of Esperanto, accustomed for so many +years to retouch, modify, and revise, it must require no ordinary +degree of self-control to keep his hands off, and leave the fate of +his offspring to others. It grew with his growth, developing with his +experience, and he best knows where the shoe pinches and what might yet +be done. But he has the fate of Volapük before his eyes. He knows that, +having wrought speech for the people, he must leave it to the people, if +he wishes them to use and keep using it. + + [1]An expressive (homoeopathic) name for this malady may be coined + in Esperanto: _malsano lingvotrudema_ = officious or intrusive + disease, consisting in an itch for coining language. + +Contrast the uncompromising attitude of the inventor of Volapük, Bishop +Schleyer. It will be remembered how he let Volapük run upon the rocks +rather than relinquish the helm. He has been nicknamed "the Volapükist +Pope"—and indeed he made the great and fatal bull of believing in his +own infallibility. Zamenhof has never pretended to this. When he first +published his language, he made no claim to finality on its behalf. He +called for criticisms, and contemplated completing and modifying his +scheme in accordance with them. He even offered to make over this task +to a duly constituted academy, if people would come forward and throw +themselves into the work. Again, some years later, in a pamphlet, _Choix +d'une langue Internationale_, he proposed a scheme for obtaining a +competent impartial verdict, and declared his willingness to submit to +it. At one time he thought of something in the nature of a plebiscite. +Later, his renunciation of the last vestige of control, in giving +up the _aprobo_, or official sanction of books; his attitude at the +international congresses; his refusal to accept the presidency; his +reluctance to name or influence the selection of the members of the +body charged with the control of the language; his declaration that +his own works have no legislative power, but are merely those of an +Esperantist; finally, his sane conception of the scope and method of +future development of the language to meet new needs, and of the limits +within which it is possible—all this bespeaks the man who has a clear +idea of what he is aiming at, and a shrewd grasp of the conditions +necessary to ensure success. + +The word Esperanto is the present participle of the verb _esperi_—"to +hope," used substantially. It was under the pseudonym of Dr. Esperanto +that Zamenhof published his scheme in 1887 at Warsaw, and the name +has stuck to the language. Before publication it had been cast and +recast many times in the mind of its author, and it is curious to +note that in the course of its evolution he had himself been through +the principal stages exhibited in the history of artificial language +projects for the last three hundred years. That is to say, he began with +the idea of an _a priori_ language with made-up words and arbitrary +grammar, and gradually advanced to the conception of an _a posteriori_ +language, borrowing its vocabulary from the roots common to several +existing languages and presenting in its grammar a simplification of +Indo-European grammar. + +He began to learn English at a comparatively advanced stage of his +education, and the simplicity of its grammar and syntax was a revelation +to him. It had a powerful influence in helping him to frame his grammar, +which underwent a new transformation. Specimens of the language as +Zamenhof used to speak it with his school and student friends show +a wide divergence from its present form. He seems to have had cruel +disappointments, and was disillusioned by the falling away of youthful +comrades who had promised to fight the battles of the language they +practised with enthusiasm at school. During long years of depression +work at the language seems to have been almost his one resource. Its +absolute simplicity is deceptive as to the immense labour it must have +cost a single man to work it out. This is only fully to be appreciated +by one who has some knowledge of former attempts. Zamenhof himself +admits that, if he had known earlier of the existence of Volapük, he +would never have had the courage to continue his task, though he was +conscious of the superiority of his own solution. When, after long +hesitation, he made up his mind to try his luck and give his language to +the world, Volapük was strong, but already involved in internal strife. + +Zamenhof's book appeared first in Russian, and the same year (1887) +French and German editions appeared at Warsaw. The first instruction +book in English appeared in the following year. The only name on the +title-page is "St. J.," and it passed quite unnoticed. + +Progress was at first very slow. The first Esperanto society was founded +in St. Petersburg, 1892, under the name of _La Espero_. As early as +1889 the pioneer Esperanto newspaper, _La Esperantisto_[1] conducted +chiefly by Russians and circulated mainly in Russia, began to appear +in Nuremberg, where there was already a distinguished Volapük club, +afterwards converted to Esperanto. Since then Nuremberg has continued +to be a centre of light in the movement for an international language. +The other pioneer newspapers were _L'Espirantiste_, founded in 1898 at +Epernay by the Marquis de Beaufront, and _La Lumo_ of Montreal. + + [1]Afterwards prohibited in Russia, owing to the collaboration of + Count Tolstoi, and transferred to Upsala under the name _Lingvo + Internacia_. Since 1902 it has been published in Paris. + +In Germany in the early days of Esperanto the great apostles were +Einstein and Trompeter, and it was owing to the liberality of the latter +that the Nuremberg venture was rendered possible. + +Somewhat later began in France the activity of the greatest and most +fervent of all the apostles of Esperanto, the Marquis de Beaufront. +By an extraordinary coincidence he had ready for the press a grammar +and complete dictionary of a language of his own, named _Adjuvanto_. +When he became acquainted with Esperanto, he recognized that it was +in certain points superior to his own language, though the two were +remarkably similar. He suppressed his own scheme altogether, and threw +himself heart and soul into the work of spreading Esperanto. In a series +of grammars, commentaries, and dictionaries he expounded the language +and made it accessible to numbers who, without his energy and zeal, +would never have been interested in it. Among other well-known French +leaders are General Sebert, of the French Institute, M. Boirac, Rector +of the Dijon University, and M. Gaston Moch, editor of the _Indépendance +Belge_. + +In England the pioneer was Mr. Joseph Rhodes, who, with Mr. Ellis, +founded the first English group at Keighley in November 1902.[1] +Just a year later appeared the first English Esperanto journal, _The +Esperantist_, edited by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, London. Since 1905 it +has been incorporated with _The British Esperantist_, the official organ +of the British Esperanto Association. The association was founded in +October 1904. + + [1]The foundation of the London Esperanto Club took place at + practically the same time, and the club became the headquarters of + the movement in Great Britain. + +The first international congress was held at Boulogne in August 1905. It +was organized almost entirely by the president of the local group, M. +Michaux, a leading barrister and brilliant lecturer and propagandist. It +was an immense success, and inaugurated a series of annual congresses, +which are doing great work in disseminating the idea of international +language. The second was held in Geneva, August 1906; and the third will +be held at Cambridge, August 10-17, 1907. It is unnecessary to describe +the congresses here, as an account has been given in an early chapter +(see pp. 9-12 and 14-15 [Part I, Chapter III]). + +Within the last three or four years Esperanto has spread all over +the world, and fresh societies and newspapers are springing up on +every side. Since the convincing demonstration afforded by the Geneva +Congress, Switzerland is beginning to take the movement seriously. Many +classes and lectures have been held, and the university is also now +lending its aid. In the present year (1907) an International Esperantist +Scientific Office has been founded in Geneva, with M. René de Saussure +as director, and amongst the members of the auxiliary committee are +seventeen professors and eight privat-docents (lecturers) of the Geneva +University. + +Its object is to secure the recognition of Esperanto for scientific +purposes, and to practically facilitate its use. To this end the office +carries on the work of collecting technical vocabularies of Esperanto, +with the aid of all scientists whose assistance it may receive. This is +perhaps the most practical step yet taken towards the standardization of +technical terms, which is so badly needed in all branches of science. +A universal language offers the best solution of the vexed question, +because it starts with a clean sheet. Once a term has been admitted, by +the competent committee for a particular branch of science, into the +technical Esperanto vocabulary of that science, it becomes universal, +because it has no pre-existent rivals; and its universal recognition +in the auxiliary language will react upon writers' usage in their own +language. + +The Geneva office will also aid in editing scientific Esperantist +reviews; and the chief existing one, the _Internacia Scienca Revuo_, +will henceforth be published in Geneva instead of in Paris, as hitherto. + +The two principal objects of the Esperantist Scientific Association are: + +1. Scientists should always use Esperanto during their international +congresses. + +2. Scientific periodicals should accept articles written in Esperanto +(as they now do in the case of English, French, German, and Italian), +and should publish in Esperanto a brief summary of every article written +in a national language. + +A few weeks after the Geneva Congress there was a controversy on the +subject of Esperanto between two of the best known and most widely +read Swiss and French newspapers—the Paris _Figaro_ and the _Journal +de Geneve_. The respective champions were the Comte d'Haussonville, +of the Académie Française, and M. de Saussure, a member of a highly +distinguished Swiss scientific family; and the matter caused a good deal +of interest on the Continent. France was, in this case, reactionary and +_ancien régime_: the smaller Republic backed Esperanto and progress. +M. de Saussure brought forward facts, and the count served up the old +arguments about Esperanto being unpatriotic and the prejudice it would +inflict upon literature. The whole thing was a good illustration of a +fact that is already becoming prominent in the history of the auxiliary +language movement—the scientists are much more favourable than the +literary men. As regards educational reform, the conservative attitude +of the classicists is well known, though there are many exceptions, +especially among real teachers. But it is somewhat remarkable that, when +the proposed reform deals with language, those whose business it is to +know about languages should not take the trouble to examine the scheme +properly, before giving an opinion one way or the other. + +As this question of the attitude of literary men has, and will have, +a vital bearing upon the prospects of international language, and +consequently upon its history, this is perhaps the place to remove a +misunderstanding. A distinguished literary man objected to the foregoing +passage as a stricture upon men of letters. His point was: "_Of course_ +literary men care less for Esperanto than scientific men do: it _must_ +be so, because they _need_ it less." Now this is quite true: there +is little doubt that to-day science is, perhaps inevitably, more +cosmopolitan than letters, whatever people may say about "the world-wide +republic of letters." But it does not meet the point. Esperantists do +not _complain_ because men of letters are not interested in Esperanto. +They have their own interests and occupations, and nobody would be so +absurd as to make it a grievance that they will not submit to have +thrust upon them a language for which they have no taste or use. What +Esperantists do very strongly object to is that some literary men lend +the weight of their name and position to irresponsible criticism. Let +them take or leave Esperanto as seems good to them. Their _responsible_ +opinions, _based upon due study of the question_, are always eagerly +welcomed. But do not let them misrepresent Esperanto to the public, +thereby unfairly prejudicing its judgment. Such action is unworthy of +serious men. When a man puts forward criticisms of Esperanto based +upon elementary errors of fact, or complains that Esperantists will +not listen to reason because they ignore proposals for change, which +have long ago been threshed out and found wanting, or are obviously +unpractical, he is merely showing that he has not studied the question. +A fair analogy would be the case of a chemist or engineer who had +recently begun to dabble in Greek in his spare moments, and who should +undertake to emend the text of Sophocles. His suggestions would show +that he knew no Greek, that he had never heard of Sir Richard Jebb, and +that he was ignorant of all the results of scientific textual criticism. +But here comes in the difference. Such a critic would be laughed out of +court, and told to mind his own business, or else learn Greek before he +undertook to emend it. But as international language is a novelty to +most people, it is thought that any one can make, mend, or criticise +it. It is not, like Greek, yet recognized as a serious subject, and +therefore irresponsible criticism is too apt to be taken at its face +value, merely on the _ipse dixit_ of the critic, especially if he +happens to be an influential man in some other line. Nobody bothers +about his qualifications in international language; nobody either knows +or cares whether he has any claim to be heard on the subject at all. + +The fact is that international language now has a considerable history +behind it. A large amount of experience has been amassed, and is now +available for any one who is willing and competent to go into the +question. But, in order to do fruitful work in this field, it is just +as necessary as in any other to be properly equipped, and to know where +others have left off, before you begin. + +At the first international congress at Boulogne the history of Esperanto +was well summed up in a thoughtful speech by Dr. Bein, of Poland, +himself a considerable Esperantist author, using the _nom de guerre_ +"Kabe." He pointed out that we are still in the first or propaganda +stage of international language, in which it is necessary to hold +congresses, and the language is treated as an end in itself. There +is good hope that the second stage may soon be reached, in which the +language may be sufficiently recognized to take its proper place as a +means. + +Meantime, the first stage of Esperanto has been marked by three phases +or periods—the Russian period, the French period, and the international +period. Each has left its mark upon the language. + +The Russian period is associated with the names of Kofman, Grabowski, +Silesnjov, Gernet, Zinovjev, and many other writers of considerable +literary power. Being the pioneers, they had to prove the capabilities +of the language to the world, and in doing so they took off some of the +rough of the world's indifference and scepticism. The language benefited +by the fact that the first authors were Slavs. The simplicity of the +Slav syntax, the logical arrangement of the sentences, the perfectly +free and natural order of the words, passed unconsciously from their +native language to the new one in the hands of these writers, and have +been imitated by their successors. + +The French period is associated chiefly with the name of M. de +Beaufront. In Russia, side by side with the good points named above, +certain less desirable Slavisms were creeping in; also there were +hitherto no scientific dictionaries or explanation of syntax. As Dr. +Bein says, de Beaufront may be called "the codifier of Esperanto." A +goodly band of French writers now took the language in hand, and by +their natural power of expression and exposition, which seems inborn in +a Frenchman, and by their national passion for lucidity, they have no +doubt strengthened the impulse of Esperanto towards clear-cut, vigorous +style. + +Possibly theorizing has been overdone in France; for, after all, the +strong point of Esperanto syntax is that there is none to speak of, +common sense being the guide. It is a pity to set up rules where none +are necessary, or to do anything that can produce an impression in +the minds of the uninitiated that learning Esperanto means anything +approaching the memory drudgery necessary in grasping the rules and +constructions of national languages. + +The third period began soon after the turn of the century, and is still +in full force. Take up any chance number of any Esperanto gazette out +of the numbers that are published all over the world; you will hardly +be able to draw any conclusion as to the nationality of the writer of +the article you light upon, save perhaps for an occasional turn of an +unpractised hand. Esperanto now has its style; it is—lucidity based +upon common sense and the rudiments of a minimized grammar. + +This chapter would not be complete without some account of the +_constitution_ of Esperanto, and the means which have been adopted to +safeguard the purity of the language. It will be well to quote in full +the Declaration adopted at Boulogne, in which its aim is set forth, and +which forms, as it were, its written constitution. For the convenience +of readers the Esperanto text and English translation are printed in +parallel columns. + + * * * * * + + DEKLARACIO DECLARATION + +Ĉar pri la esenco de Esperantismo Because many have a very false +multaj havas tre malveran idea of the nature of Esperanto, +ideon, tial ni subskribintoj, therefore we, the undersigned, +reprezentantoj de la Esperantismo representing the cause of +en diversaj landoj de la mondo, Esperanto in different countries +kunvenintaj al la Internacia of the world, having met together +Kongreso Esperantista en at the International Esperanto +Boulogne-sur-Mer, trovis necesa, Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mer, +laŭ la propono de la aŭtoro have thought it necessary, at the +de la lingvo Esperanto, doni la suggestion of the author of the +sekvantan klarigon: Esperanto language, to give the + following explanation: + +1. La Esperantismo estas penado 1. Esperanto in its essence +disvastigi en la tuta mondo is an attempt to diffuse over +la uzadon de lingvo neŭtrale the whole world a language +homa, kiu, "ne entrudante sin belonging to mankind without +en la internan vivon de la distinction, which, "not intruding +popoloj kaj neniom celante upon the internal life of the +elpuŝi la ekzistantajn lingvojn peoples and in nowise aiming to +naciajn," donus al la homoj drive out the existing national +de malsamaj nacioj la eblon languages," should give to +kompreniĝadi inter si, kiu men of different nations the +povus servi kiel paciga lingvo possibility of becoming mutually +de publikaj institucioj en tiuj comprehensible, which might serve +landoj kie diversaj nacioj batalas as a peace-making language for +inter si pri la lingvo, kaj en public institutions in those +kiu povus esti publikigataj tiuj lands where different nations are +verkoj kiuj havas egalan intereson involved in strife about their +por ĉiuj popoloj. language, and in which might + be published those works which + possess an equal interest for all + peoples. + +Ĉiu alia ideo aŭ espero kiun tiu Any other idea or hope which this +aŭ alia Esperantisto ligas kun la or that Esperantist associates +Esperantismo estos lia afero pure with Esperanto will be his purely +privata, por kiu la Esperantismo personal business, for which +ne respondas. Esperanto is not responsible. + +2. Ĉar en la nuna tempo neniu 2. Because at the present time no +esploranto en la tuta mondo one who looks out over the whole +jam dubas pri tio, ke lingvo world any longer doubts that +internacia povas esti nur lingvo an international language can +arta, kaj ĉar, el ĉiuj multegaj only be an artificial one, and +provoj faritaj en la daŭro de because, of all the very numerous +la lastaj du centjaroj, ĉiuj attempts made in the course of +prezentas nur teoriajn projektojn, the last two hundred years, +kaj lingvo efektive finita, all offer merely theoretical +ĉiuflanke elprovita, perfekte solutions, and only one single +vivipova, kaj en ĉiuj rilatoj language, Esperanto, has shown +pleje taŭga montriĝis nur unu itself to be in practice complete, +sola lingvo, Esperanto, tial fully tested on every side, +la amikoj de la ideo de lingvo perfectly capable of living use, +internacia, konsciante ke teoria and in every respect completely +disputado kondukos al nenio kaj adequate, therefore the friends +ke la celo povas esti atingita of the idea of international +nur per laborado praktika, jam de language, recognizing that +longe ĉiuj grupiĝis ĉirkaŭ theoretical discussion will lead +la sola lingvo, Esperanto, kaj to nothing and that the end can +laboras por ĝia disvastigado kaj only be attained by practical +riĉigado de ĝia literaturo. and continuous effort, have long + grouped themselves around one + single language, Esperanto, and + are labouring to disseminate it + and to enrich its literature. + +3. Ĉar la aŭtoro de la lingvo 3. Because the author of the +Esperanto tuj en la komenco Esperanto language from the very +rifuzis, unu fojon por ĉiam, beginning refused, once for all, +ĉiujn personajn rajtojn kaj all personal rights and privileges +privilegiojn rilate tiun lingvon, connected with that language, +tial Esperanto estas "nenies therefore Esperanto is "the +propraĵo," nek en rilato property of no one," either from a +materiala, nek en rilato morala. material or moral point of view. + +Materiala mastro de tiu ĉi lingvo Materially speaking, the whole +estas la tuta mondo, kaj ĉiu world is master of this language, +deziranto povas eldonadi en aŭ and any one who wishes can +pri tiu ĉi lingvo ĉiajn verkojn publish in or about this language +kiajn li deziras, kaj uzadi la works of any kind he wishes, and +lingvon por ĉiaj eblaj celoj go on using the language for +kiel spiritaj mastroj de tiu ĉi any possible object; from an +lingvo estos ĉiam rigardataj intellectual point of view those +tiuj personoj kiuj de la mondo persons will always be regarded as +Esperantista estos konfesataj kiel masters of this language who shall +la plej bonaj kaj la plej talentaj be recognized by the Esperantist +verkistoj de tiu ĉi lingvo. world as the best and most gifted + writers in this language. + +4. Esperanto havas neniun personan 4. Esperanto has no personal +leĝdonanton kaj dependas de neniu law-giver and depends upon +aparta homo. Ĉiuj opinioj kaj no particular person. All +verkoj de la kreinto de Esperanto opinions and works of the creator +havas, simile al la opinioj kaj of Esperanto have, like the +verkoj de ĉiu alia Esperantisto, opinions and works of any other +karakteron absolute privatan kaj Esperantist, an absolutely private +por neniu devigan. La sola, unu character, and are binding upon +fojon por ĉiam deviga por ĉiuj nobody. The sole foundation of +Esperantistoj, fundamento de la the Esperanto language, which is +lingvo Esperanto estas la verketo once for all binding upon all +_Fundamento de Esperanto_, en Esperantists, is the little work +kiu neniu havas la rajton fari _Fundamento de Esperanto_, in +ŝanĝon. Se iu dekliniĝas de la which no one has the right to make +reguloj kaj modeloj donitaj en any change. If any one departs +la dirita verko, li neniam povas from the rules and models given +pravigi sin per la vortoj "tiel in the said work, he can never +deziras aŭ konsilas la aŭtoro justify himself with the words +de Esperanto." Ĉiun ideon, kiu "such is the wish or advice of +ne povas esti oportune esprimata the author of Esperanto." In the +per tiu materialo kiu troviĝas case of any idea which cannot be +en la _Fundamento de Esperanto_, conveniently expressed by means of +ĉiu havas la rajton esprimi en that material which is contained +tia maniero kiun li trovas la in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, +plej ĝusta, tiel same kiel estas every Esperantist has the right to +farate en ĉiu alia lingvo. Sed express it in such manner as he +pro plena unueco de la lingvo, considers most fitting, just as is +al ĉiuj Esperantistoj estas done in the case of every other +rekomendate imitadi kiel eble plej language. But for the sake of +multe tiun stilon kiu troviĝas perfect unity in the language, it +en la verkoj de la kreinto de is recommended to all Esperantists +Esperanto, kiu la plej multe to constantly imitate as far as +laboris por kaj en Esperanto, kaj possible that style which is found +la plej bone konas ĝian spiriton. in the works of the creator of + Esperanto, who laboured the most + abundantly for and in Esperanto, + and who is best acquainted with + the spirit of it. + +5. Esperantisto estas nomata 5. The name of Esperantist is +ĉiu persono kiu scias kaj uzas given to every person who knows +la lingvon Esperanto, tute egale and uses the Esperanto language, +por kiaj celoj li ĝin uzas. no matter for what ends he uses +Apartenado al ia aktiva societo it. Membership of some active +Esperantista por ĉiu Esperantisto Esperanto society is to be +estas rekomendinda, sed ne deviga. recommended for every Esperantist, + but this is not compulsory. + + * * * * * + +By the wise provision of Article 4, that the entire grammar and +framework of Esperanto, as contained within one small book of a few +pages, is absolutely unchangeable, the future of the language is +secured. The _Fundamento_ also contains enough root words to express all +ordinary ideas. Henceforth the worst thing that can happen to Esperanto +by way of adulteration is that some authors may use too many foreign +words. The only practical check upon this, of course, is the penalty of +becoming incomprehensible. But as men are on the whole reasonable, and +as the only object of writing in Esperanto presumably is to appeal to +an Esperantist international public, this check should be sufficient to +prevent the use of any word that usage is not tending to consecrate. +A certain latitude of expansion must be allowed to every language, to +enable it to move with the times; but beyond this, surely few would +have any interest in foisting into their discourse words which their +hearers or readers would not be likely to understand, and those few +would probably belong to the class who do the same thing in using their +mother-tongue. No special legislation is needed to meet their case. + +For a few years (1901-1905) the publishing house of Hachette had the +monopoly of official Esperanto publications, and no work published +elsewhere could find place in the "Kolekto Esperanto aprobita de D-ro +Zamenhof." But at the first congress Zamenhof announced that he had +given up even this control, and Esperanto is now a free language. + +The official authority, which deals with all matters relating to the +language itself, is the _Lingvo Komitato_ (Language Committee). It was +instituted at the first congress, and consists of persons appointed for +their special competence in linguistic matters. The original members +numbered ninety-nine, and represented the following twenty-eight +countries: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chili, Denmark, +Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Hungary, +Iceland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Persia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, +Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. + +This committee decides upon its own organization and procedure. +In practice it selects from among the points submitted to it by +Esperantists those worthy of consideration, and propounds them to its +members by means of circulars. It then appoints a competent person or +small committee to report upon the answers received. Decisions are made +upon the result of the voting in the members' replies to the circulars, +as analyzed and tabulated in the report. The functions of the committee +do not include the making of any alteration whatever in the Esperanto +part of the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, which is equally sacrosanct for +it and for all Esperantists. But there is much to be done in correcting +certain faulty translations of the fundamental Esperanto roots into +national languages, in defining their exact meaning and giving their +authorized equivalent in fresh languages, into which they were not +originally translated. Also the constantly growing output of grammars +and instruction books of all kinds in every country, to say nothing of +dictionaries, which are very important, has to be carefully watched, in +order that errors may be pointed out and corrected before they have time +to take root. + +Thus the Lingva Komitato is in no sense an academy or legislative body, +having for object to change or improve the language; it is the duly +constituted and widely representative authority, which watches the +spread and development of the language, maintaining its purity, and +helping with judicious guidance. + +From this sketch it ought to be clear that Esperanto is no wild-cat +scheme of enthusiasts or faddists, but a wisely organized attempt to +wipe out the world's linguistic arrears. Its aim is to bring progress in +oral and written communication into line with the progress of material +means of communication and of science. + + + VIII + + PRESENT STATE OF ESPERANTO: (_a_) GENERAL; (_b_) IN ENGLAND + + (_a_) _General_ + +The first question usually asked is, "How many Esperantists are there?" +The answer is, "Nobody knows." The most diverse estimates have been +made, but none are based on any reliable method of computation. In the +_Histoire de la langue universelle_, which appeared in 1903 and is +written throughout in an impartial and scientific spirit, 50,000 was +tentatively given as a fairly safe estimate. That was before the days +of the international congresses, and since then the cause has been +advancing by leaps and bounds. Not a month passes without its crop of +new clubs and classes, and the pace is becoming fast and furious. + +A marked change has been noticeable of late in the press of the leading +countries. It is becoming a rare thing now to see Esperanto treated as +a form of madness, and the days of contemptuous silence are passing +away. Esperanto doings are now fairly, fully, and accurately reported. +The tone of criticism is sometimes favourable, sometimes patronizing, +sometimes hostile; but it is generally serious. It is coming to be +recognized that Esperanto is a force to be reckoned with; it cannot be +laughed off. One or two rivals, indeed, are getting a little noisy. +They are mostly one-man (not to say one-horse) shows, and they do not +like to see Esperanto going ahead like steam. High on the mountain-side +they sit in cold isolation, and gaze over the rich fertile plains of +Esperanto, rapidly becoming populous as the immigrants rush in and stake +out their claims in the fair "no-man's land."[1] And it makes them feel +bad, these others! "Jeshurun waxed fat," they cry; "pride goes before a +fall, remember Volapük!" The Esperantists remember Volapük, close their +ranks, and sweep on. + + [1]_Nenies propraĵo._ Esp. Deklaracio, Art. 3 (see p. 117 [Part II, + Chapter VIII]). + +Another good criterion besides the press is the sale of books. Large +editions are going off everywhere, especially, it would seem, in +America, where the folk have a habit, once they have struck a business +proposition, of running it for all it is worth. "Let her go! give +her hell!" is the word, and "the boys" are just now getting next to +Esperanto to beat the band. + +The British Esperanto Association's accounts show a very steady increase +in the sale of literature. Considering that it sells books at trade +prices, that hardly any of them are priced at more than a few pence, and +none above a shilling or two, the sums realized from sale of books in +some months are astonishing, and represent a large and increasing spread +of interest among the public. Owing to the low prices, the profit on +books is of course not great; but, such as it is, it all goes to help +the cause. The association is now registered as a non-profit-making +society under the law of 1867, with no share capital and no dividends. + +As regards official recognition, good progress is being made in England +(see below); but if the language is anywhere adopted universally in +government schools, it will certainly be first in France. (For an +account of the present state of this question, which is at present +before the French Permanent Educational Commission, see Part I., +chap. vi., p. 30). Dr. Zamenhof has been decorated by the French +Government, and Esperanto is already taught in many French schools. For +purposes of education France is divided into districts, called _ressorts +d'Académie_, within each of which there is a complete educational ladder +from the primary schools to the university which is the culmination +of each. The official head of an important district is Rector Boirac, +head of the Dijon University. He is one of the most distinguished of +the Esperantists, and is the leading spirit at the congresses and on +the Lingva Komitato. He has done much for Esperanto in the schools of +his district, and under the guidance of men of his calibre Esperanto is +making serious progress in France. (For lists of university professors +favourable to an international language, see p. 32 [Part I, Chapter +VI]). + +In Germany one of the foremost men of science of his time, Prof. +Ostwald, of Leipzig, is an ardent advocate of the international +language. He recently was lent for a time to Harvard University, U.S.A., +and while there gave a great impetus to the study of Esperanto. He +also spoke in its favour at Aberdeen last year, on the occasion of the +opening of the new University buildings. + +Apropos of the interchange between different countries of professors +and other teachers, which has to some extent been already tried between +America and Germany, it is curious to note the attitude of Prof. Hermann +Diels, Rector of the Berlin University. He is a great supporter of +the extension of this interchange, which also has the approbation of +the Kaiser, who attended formally the inaugural lecture of one of the +American professors, to mark his approbation. Prof. Diels commented on +the fact that diversity of language was a grave obstacle; but though +he seems before to have been a champion of popularized Latin, he now +declares himself strongly against any artificial language,[1] and +advocates the use of English, French, and German. This is a modified +form of the old Max Müller proposal, that all serious scientific work +should be published in one of six languages. It does not seem a very +convincing attitude to take up, because it ignores the facts: (1) that +the actual trend of the world is the other way—towards inclusion +of fresh national languages among the _Kultursprachen_, not towards +accentuation of the predominance of these three; (2) that the increase +of specialization and new studies at universities is leaving less and +less time for mastering several difficult languages merely as means to +other branches of study. Why should everybody have to learn English, +French, and German? + + [1]Herr Diels quaintly finds that Esperanto has only one gender—the + feminine! Surely an ultra-Shavian obsession of femininity. It is + perhaps some distinction to out-Shaw Bernard Shaw in any line. + +For the rest, Esperanto is now beginning to take hold in Germany. +The Germans have, as a general rule, open minds for this kind of +problem, and are trained to take objective views in linguistic matters +on the scientific merits of the case. The reason why they have been +somewhat backward hitherto in the Esperanto movement is no doubt their +disappointment at the failure of Volapük, which they had done much to +promote. But now that, in spite of this special drawback, the first +steps have been made, and clubs and papers are beginning to spring up +again, everything points to powerful co-operation from Germany in the +future. + +In Switzerland progress has been enormous since the Geneva Congress +of 1906. Many clubs and classes are already formed or in process of +formation, and university men are supporting the movement. In one +respect the Swiss are now in the van of the Esperantist world: they have +just started a newspaper, _Esperanto_, the prospectus of which declares +that it will no longer treat the language as an end in itself, or make +propaganda; it will run on the lines of an ordinary weekly, merely using +Esperanto as a means, inasmuch as it is the language of the paper. + +The well-known Swiss veteran philosopher Ernst Naville wrote to the +Geneva Congress that for thirty years he had regarded the introduction +of an international language as a necessity, owing to the advance of +civilization, and the day of realization of this object would be one of +the greatest dates of history. + +It is impossible to go through all the countries of Europe in detail. +It is probable that the greatest numbers of Esperantists are still to +be found among the Slav peoples. The language first took root in their +midst, and was spread far and wide by a distinguished group of Slav +writers. + +Outside Europe, Esperanto is making great strides in the British Empire, +Japan, and America. There are now Esperantist clubs in various parts of +India, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, in Malta, Singapore, etc. Dr. +Pollen, C.I.E., President of the British Esperanto Association, has +just been touring in India, in the interests of the language. Among +many satisfactory results is the guarantee of handsome sums towards +the guarantee fund of the coming Cambridge Congress by several native +rulers, among others the Mir of Khairpur, the Raja of Lunawada, the +Nawab of Radhanpur, and the Diwan of Palanpur. + +In New Zealand, an enterprising pioneer country in many departments, the +Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, is favourable. Not long ago he made a +speech advocating the introduction of Esperanto into the public schools +of the colony. + +In America big Esperantist societies and classes have sprung up with +amazing rapidity during the last year. Several universities now hold +Esperanto classes; the Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology has +more than 100 students in its Esperanto class, and, among schools, the +famous Latin School of Roxbury has led the way with over fifty pupils +under Prof. Lowell. The press is devoting a large amount of attention +to Esperanto, and many journals of good standing are favourable. _The +North American Review_ has taken up the language. It printed articles in +December and January by Dr. Zamenhof and Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, +and followed them up by courses of lessons. It supplies Esperanto +literature to its readers at cost price, and reports that evidences of +interest "have been many and multiply daily." + +Among university supporters are Profs. Huntington and Morse of Harvard, +Prof. Viles, Ohio State University, Prof. Borgerhoff, Western Reserve +University, Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, etc. On the other hand, Prof. +Hugo Munsterberg of Harvard is attacking Esperanto. His is a good +example of the literary man's uninformed criticism of the universal +language project, because it is based upon an old criticism by a German +professor (Prof. Hamel) of the defunct Volapük. Why Esperanto should be +condemned for the sins of Volapük is not obvious. + +One other useful aspect of Esperanto remains to be mentioned—the +establishment of consulships to give linguistic and other assistance. +Many towns have already their Esperanto consuls, and in a few years +there ought to be a haven of refuge for Esperantists abroad nearly +everywhere. + +The following list of principal Esperanto organs will give some idea +of the diffusion of the language. The list makes no pretence of being +complete. + +Principal general reviews: + +_Internacia Scienca Revuo_. + +_La Revuo_ (which enjoys the constant collaboration of Dr. Zamenhof). + +_Tra la Mondo_. (This review has recently held, by the collaboration of +its readers, an international inquiry into education in all countries. +The report is appearing in the February number and following. This is a +good example of the sort of international work which can be done for and +by readers in every corner of the globe.) + +Other organs: + +_The British Esperantist_. + +_Lingvo Internacia_ (the _doyen_ of Esperanto journals). + +_L' Espérantiste_ (France). + +_Germana Esperantisto_. + +_Eĥo_ (Germany). + +_Svisa Espero_. + +_Esperanto_ (Switzerland). + +_Juna Esperantisto_ (Switzerland). + +_Esperanto_ (Hungary). + +_Helpa Lingvo_ (Denmark). + +_La Suno Hispana_ (Spain). + +_Idealo_ (Sicily). + +_La Alĝera Stelo_ (Algiers: has recently ceased to appear). + +_La Belga Sonorilo_ (Belgium). + +_Ruslanda Esperantisto_ (Russia). + +_Pola Esperantisto_ (Poland). + +_Bulgara Esperantisto_ (Bulgaria). + +_Lorena Esperantisto_. + +_Esperantisten_ (Sweden). + +_Časopis Českych Esperantista_ (Bohemia). + +_L'Amerika Esperantisto_ (central American organ, supported by groups in +New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Seattle, Los Angeles). + +_La Lumo_ (Montreal). + +_Antaŭen Esperantistoj_ (Peru). + +_Brazila Revuo Esperantista_ (Brazil). + +_La Japana Esperantisto_ (Japan). + +_La Pioniro_ (India). + +_Espero Katolika_. + +_Foto Revuo_. + +_Socia Revuo_. + +_Unua Paŝo_. + +_Espero Pacifista_. + +_Eksport Ĵurnalo_. + +_Esperanta Ligilo_ (for the blind—in Braille). + +_The New International Review_ (Oxford) recently presented a four-page +Esperanto supplement to its subscribers for some months. + + + (_b_) _Present State of Esperanto in England_ + +The most practical way of spreading Esperanto is to get it taught in the +schools, so it will be best to state first what has been done so far in +this matter. + +Esperanto has been officially accepted by the local educational +authorities in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and other provincial +towns; that is to say, it has been recognized as a subject to be taught +in evening classes, if there is sufficient demand. At present there +are classes under the London County Council at the following schools: +Queen's Road, Dalston (Commercial Centre); Blackheath Road (Commercial +Centre); Plough Road, Clapham Junction (Commercial Centre); Rutland +Street, Mile End (Commercial Centre); Myrdle Street, Commercial Road; +and Hugh Myddleton School, Clerkenwell. Other classes held in London are +at the Northern Polytechnic, Holloway Road; St. Bride's Institute, Bride +Lane; City of London College, White Street; Co-operative Institute, +Plumstead; Working Men's College, St. Pancras; Stepney Library, Mile End +Road; and a large class for teachers is held at the Cusack Institute, +Moorfields. + +At Keighley, Yorks, the Board of Education has recognized the language +as a grant-earning subject. Various local authorities give facilities, +some paying the teacher, others supplying a room. Among these are +Kingston-on-Thames (Technical Institute), Rochdale, Ipswich (Technical +School), Grimsby, etc. + +It does not appear that Esperanto is yet taught in any public elementary +school; educational officials, inspectors, etc., have yet to learn +about the language. Many private schools now teach it, and at least one +private girls' school of the best type teaches it as a regular subject, +alongside French and German. It has been impossible to get any return +or figures as to the extent to which it has penetrated into private +and proprietary schools. The Northern Institute of Languages, perhaps +the most important commercial school in the North of England, held an +Esperanto class with sixty-three students. + +Two large examining bodies—the London Chamber of Commerce and the +Examination Board of the National Union of Teachers—have included +Esperanto in their subjects for commercial certificates. At the London +Chamber of Commerce examination in May 1906 the candidates were as +follows: + + Entries. Passes. + + Teacher's diploma . . . 6 1 + Senior . . . . . 15 15 + Junior . . . . . 109 67 + ——— ——— + 130 83 + +There is now a Teachers' Section of the British Esperanto Association +with an Education Committee, which is carrying on active work in +promoting Esperanto in the schools. + +At an official reception of French teachers in London last year by +the Board of Education, Mr. Lough, speaking on behalf of the Board, +made a sympathetic reference to Esperanto. The incident is amusingly +told in Esperanto by M. Boirac, Rector of Dijon University and a noted +Esperantist, who was amongst the French professors. Not understanding +English, he was growing rather sleepy during a long speech, when the +word "Esperanto" gave him a sudden shock. He thought the English +official was poking fun at him, but was relieved to hear that the +allusion had been sympathetic. + +At this year's meeting of the Modern Language Society at Durham, the +Warden of Durham University, Dean Kitchin, in welcoming the society to +the town and university, gave considerable prominence in his speech to +Esperanto, remarking that, to judge by its rapid growth and the sanity +of its reformed grammar, one might easily believe that it will win +general use.[1] Such references in high places illustrate the tendency +to admit that there may be something in this international language +scheme. + + [1]He continued: "To me it seems that Esperanto in vocabulary and + grammar is a miracle of simplicity." + +There are now (May 1907) seventy local Esperanto societies in Great +Britain on the list of societies affiliated to the British Esperanto +Association, and often several new ones are formed in a month. The +first were Keighley and London, founded 1902. Seven more were formed in +1903; and since the beginning of 1906 no less than thirty-six. Besides +the members of these there are a great many learners in classes and +individual Esperantists who belong to no affiliated group. Every month +one reads lists of lectures given in the most diverse places, very often +with the note that a local club or class resulted, or that a large sale +of Esperanto literature took place. Sometimes the immediate number of +converts is surprising: e.g. on April 22, 1907, after a lecture on +Esperanto at the Technical College, Darlington, seventy-eight students +entered their names for a week's course of lessons to be held in the +college three times a day. + +There are now Esperanto consuls in the following towns: Bradford, +Chester, Edinburgh, Harrogate, Hull, Hunslet, Keighley, Leeds, +Liverpool, Nottingham, Oakworth, Plymouth, Rhos, Southampton, and St. +Helens. Birmingham has within the last few months taken up the cause +with its usual energy, and now has a large class. + +In England the universities have been slow to show interest in +Esperanto; but now that Cambridge has been selected as the seat of the +Congress in 1907, the university is granting every facility, as also +is the town council, in use of rooms and the like, and some professors +and other members of the university are cordially co-operating. Last +October Prof. Skeat, one of the fathers of English philology, took the +chair at a preliminary meeting, and made a speech very favourable to +Esperanto. He said, "I think Esperanto is a very good movement, and I +hope it will succeed." The subject of Esperanto is being well put before +the teachers of Cambridgeshire, and the railway companies all over the +country and abroad are granting special fares for the congress.[1] It +is probable that the overwhelming demonstration of the possibilities of +this international language will open the eyes of many who have hitherto +been indifferent, and that the movement will enter on a new phase of +expansion in England, and through the example of England, which is +closely watched abroad, in the world at large. + + [1]It is a striking fact that six weeks before the opening of the + congress 700 members have already secured their tickets. + + + IX + + LESSONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THE FOREGOING HISTORY + +The extent to which more or less artificial languages are already +used in various parts of the world for the transaction of interracial +business, and the persistent preoccupation of thinkers with the idea +for the last 200 years, culminating in the production of a great +number of schemes in our own times, show that there _is_ a demand for +an international language, more perfect than has yet been available +and universally valid. The list of languages proposed (see Part II., +chap. ii.) by no means represents all that has been written and thought +upon the subject. Many more have proposed solutions of the question, +beginning with such men as Becher (1661), Kirchner (1665), Porele +(1667), Upperdorf (1679), Müller (1681), Lobkowitz (1687), Besuier +(1684), Solbrig (1725), Taboltzafo (1772), and continuing down to the +present day. The striking success of Volapük and Esperanto in gaining, +within a few years of publication, many thousands of ardent supporters +has also been a revelation. It has proved most conclusively that there +is a demand. If so many people in all lands have been willing to give +up time and money to learning and promoting a language from which they +could not expect to reap anything like full benefit for many years, +what must be its value when ripened to yield full profits, i.e. when +universally adopted? + +There are two main obstacles to universal adoption. The first is common +to all projects of reform—the force of inertia. It is hard to win +practical support for a new thing, even when assent is freely given in +theory to its utility. The second is peculiar to Esperanto, and consists +in the discrediting of the cause of international language through the +failure of Volapük. Good examples of its operation are afforded by the +slowness of Germany to recognize Esperanto, and by the criticism of +Prof. Münsterberg (formerly of Freiburg, Germany) in America, based +as it is on an old German criticism of Volapük, and transferred at +second-hand to Esperanto. + +Hence every effort should be made to induce critics of Esperanto to +examine the language before pronouncing judgment—to criticise the real +thing, instead of some bogy of their imagination. + +One bogy which has caused much misdirected criticism is raised by +misunderstanding of the word "universal" in the phrase _universal +language_. It is necessary to insist upon the fact that "universal" +means universally adopted and everywhere current _as an auxiliary_ to +the mother-tongue for purposes of international communication. It does +not mean a universal language for home consumption as a substitute for +national language. In Baconian language, this bogy may be called an +"idol of the market-place," since it rests upon confusion of terms. + +Pursuing the Baconian classification of error, we may call the literary +man's nightmare of the invasion of literature by the universal language +an "idol of the theatre." The lesson of experience is, that it is +well not to alienate the powerful literary interest justly concerned +in upholding the dignity and purity of national speech by making +extravagant claims on behalf of the auxiliary language. It is capable +of conveying _matter_ or _content_ in any department of human activity +with great nicety; but where it is a question of reproducing by +actual translation the _form_ or _manner_ of some masterpiece of national +literature, it will not, by nature of its very virtues, give a full idea +of the rich play of varied synonymic in the original. + +The great practical lesson of Volapük is, that alteration brings +dissension, and dissension brings death. A universal language must +be in essentials, like Esperanto, inviolable. If ever the time comes +for modification in any essential point, it will be after official +international recognition in the schools. Gradual reforms could then, +if necessary, be introduced by authority, as in the case of the recent +French "Tolérations," or the German reforms in orthography. + +So long as the world is divided among rival great powers, no national +language can be recognized as universal by them all. It is therefore +a choice between an artificial language or nothing. As regards the +structure of the artificial language itself, history shows clearly +that it must be _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. It must select its +constituent roots and its spoken sounds on the principle of maximum of +internationality, and its grammar must be a simplification of natural +existing grammar. On the other hand, a recent tendency to brand as +"arbitrary" and _a priori_ everything that makes for regularity, if it +is not directly borrowed, is to be resisted. It is possible to overdo +even the best of rules by slavish and unintelligent application. Thus it +is urged by extremists that some of the neatest labour-saving devices of +Esperanto are arbitrary, and therefore to be condemned. + + Take the Esperanto suffix _-in-_, which denotes the feminine. + " " " prefix _mal-_ " " " opposite. + " " " suffix _-ig-_ " " causative action. + +Given the roots _bov-_ (ox); _fort-_ (strong); _grand-_ (big): Esperanto +forms _bovino_ (cow); _malforta_ (weak); _grandigi_ (to augment); +_malgrandigi_ (to diminish). + +These words are arbitrary, because not borrowed from national language. +Let the public decide for itself whether it prefers a language which +insists (in order not to be "arbitrary") upon borrowing fresh roots +to express these ideas. Let any one who has learnt Latin, French, and +German try how long it takes him to think of the masculine of _vacca_, +_vache_, _Kuh_; the opposite of _fortis_, _fort_, _stark_; the Latin, +French, and German ways of expressing "to make big" and "to make small." +The issue is hardly doubtful. + +Again, the languages upon whose vocabulary and grammar the international +language is to be based must be Aryan (Indo-European). This is a +practical point. The non-European peoples will consent to learn +"simplified Aryan" just as they are adopting Aryan civilization; but the +converse is not true. The Europeans will go without an international +language rather than learn one based to some extent upon Japanese or +Mongolian. The only prescription for securing a large field is—greatest +ease for greatest number, with a handicap in favour of Europeans, to +induce them to enter. + + + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + + I + + ESPERANTO IS SCIENTIFICALLY CONSTRUCTED, + AND FULFILS THE NATURAL TENDENCY IN EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE + +All national languages are full of redundant and overlapping grammatical +devices for expressing what could be equally well expressed by a single +uniform device. They bristle with irregularities and exceptions. Their +forms and phrases are largely the result of chance and partial survival, +arbitrary usage, and false analogy. It is obvious that a perfectly +regular artificial language is far easier to learn. But the point to be +insisted on here is, that artificial simplification of language is no +fantastic craze, but merely a perfect realization of a natural tendency, +which the history of language shows to exist. + +At first sight this may seem to conflict with what was said in Part I., +chap. x. But there is no real inconsistency. As pointed out there, there +is no reason to think that Nature, left to herself, would ever produce a +universal language, or that a simpler language would win, in a struggle +with more complex ones, on account of its simplicity. But this does not +prevent there being a real natural tendency to simplification—though in +natural languages this tendency is constantly thwarted, and can never +produce its full effect. + +How, then, is this tendency to simplification shown in the history of +Aryan (Indo-European) languages? For it must be emphasized that for the +purposes of this discussion history of language means history of Aryan +language. + +The Aryan group of languages includes Sanskrit and its descendants in +the East, Greek, Latin, all modern Romance languages (French, Italian, +Spanish, etc.), all Germanic languages (English, German, Scandinavian, +etc.), all Slav languages (Russian, Polish, etc.)—in fact, all the +principal languages of Europe, except Hungarian, Basque, and Finnish. +The main tendency of this group of languages has been, technically +speaking, to become analytic instead of synthetic—that is, to abandon +complex systems of inflection by means of case and verbal endings, +and to substitute prepositions and auxiliaries. Thus, taking Latin as +the type of old synthetic Aryan language, its declension of nouns and +conjugation of verbs present an enormously greater complexity of forms +than are employed by English, the most advanced of the modern analytical +languages, to express the same grammatical relations. For example: + + Nom. mensă = a table. mensae = tables. + Acc. mensam = a table. mensas = tables. + Gen. mensae = of a table mensarum = of tables. + Dat. mensae = to or for a mensis = to or for tables. + table. + Abl. mensā = by, with, or mensis = by, with, or from + from a table. tables. + +By the time you have learnt these various Latin case endings (_-ă_, +_-am_, _-ae_, _-ae_, _-ā_; _-ae_, _-as_, _-arum_, _-is_, _-is_), you +have only learnt one out of many types of declension. Passing on to +the second Latin type or declension, e.g. _dominus_ = master, you +have to learn a whole fresh set of case endings (_-us_, _-um_, _-i_, +_-o_, _-o_; _-i_, _-os_, _-orum_, _-is_, _-is_) to express the same +grammatical relations; whereas in English you apply the same set of +prepositions to the word "master" without change, except for a uniform +_-s_ in the plural. As there are a great many types of Latin noun, the +simplification in English, effected by using invariable prepositions +without inflection, is very great. It is just the same with the verb. +Take the English regular verb "to love": the four forms _love_, _loves_, +_loving_, _loved_, about exhaust the number of forms to be learned +(omitting the second person singular, which is practically dead); the +rest is done by auxiliaries, which are the same for each verb. Latin, on +the other hand, possesses very numerous forms of the verb, and the whole +set of numerous forms varies for each type of verb. In the aggregate the +simplification in English is enormous. This process of simplification +is common to all the modern Aryan languages, but they have not all made +equal progress in carrying it out. + +Now, it is a remarkable fact, and a very suggestive one for those who +seek to trace the connexion between the course of a nation's language +and its history, that the degree of progress made by the languages of +Europe along their common line of evolution does on the whole, as a +matter of historical fact, correspond with the respective degree of +material, social, and economic advancement attained by the nations +that use them. Take this question of case endings. Russia has retained +a high degree of inflection in her language, having seven cases with +distinct endings. These seven cases are common to the Slav languages +in general; two of them (Sorbish and Slovenish) have, like Gothic and +Greek, a dual number, a feature which has long passed away from the +languages of Western Europe. Again, the Slav tongues decline many more +of the numerals than most Aryan languages. Germany, which, until the +recent formation of the German Empire, was undoubtedly a century slow by +West European time, still has four cases; or, in view of the moribund +dative, should we rather say three and a half? France and England manage +their affairs in a universal nominative[1] (if one can give any name +to a universal case), as far as nouns, adjectives, and articles are +concerned. Their pronouns offer the sole survival of declension by case +endings. Here France, the runner-up, is a trifle slow in the possession +of a real, live dative case of the pronoun (acc. _le_, _la_, _les_; +dat. _lui_, _leur_). England wins by a neck with one universal oblique +case (_him_, _her_, _them_). This insidious suggestion is not meant +to endanger the _entente cordiale_; even perfidious Albion would not +convict the French nation of arrested development on the side-issue of +pronominal atavism. Mark Twain says he paid double for a German dog, +because he bought it in the dative case; but no nation need be damned +for a dative. We have no use for the _coup de Jarnac_. + + [1]Though historically, of course, the Low Latin universal case, from + which many French, and therefore English, words are derived, was the + accusative. + +But consider the article. Here, if anywhere, is a test of the power +of a language to move with the times. For some reason or other (the +real underlying causes of these changes in language needs are obscure) +modern life has need of the article, though the highly civilized Romans +did very well without it. So strong is this need that, in the middle +ages, when Latin was used as an international language by the learned, +a definite article (_hic_ or τó) was foisted into the language. How +is it with the modern world? The Slavs have remained in this matter at +the point of view of the ancient world. They are articleless. Germany +has a cumbrous three-gender, four-case article; France rejoices in a +two-gender, one-case article with a distinct form for the plural. The +ripe product of tendency, the infant heir of the eloquent ages, to whose +birth the law of Aryan evolution groaned and travailed until but now, +the most useful, if not the "mightiest," monosyllable "ever moulded +by the lips of man," the "the," one and indeclinable, was born in the +Anglo-Saxon mouth, and sublimed to its unique simplicity by Anglo-Saxon +progress. + +The general law of progress in language could be illustrated equally +well from the history of genders as exhibited in various languages. +We are here only dealing with Aryan languages, but, merely by way of +illustration, it may be mentioned that a primitive African language +offers seven "genders," or grammatical categories requiring the same +kind of concords as genders. In Europe we pass westward from the three +genders of Germany, curving through feminine and masculine France +(_place aux dames!_) to monogendric Britain. Only linguistic arbitrary +gender is here referred to; this has nothing to do with suffragettes or +"defeminization." + +Again, take agreement of adjectives. In the ancient world, whether +Greek, Latin, Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon, adjectives had to follow nouns +through all the mazes of case and number inflection, and had also to +agree in gender. In this matter German has gone ahead of French, in that +its adjectives do not submit to change of form in order to indicate +agreement, when they are used predicatively (e.g. "ein gut_er_ Mann"; +"der gut_e_ Mann"; but "der Mann ist gut"). But English has distanced +the field, and was alone in at the death of the old concords, which +moistened our childhood's dry Latin _with_ tears. + +Whatever test be applied, the common tendency towards simplification, +from synthesis to analysis, is there; and in its every manifestation +English has gone farthest among the great literary languages. It +is necessary to add this qualification—"among the great literary +languages"—because, in this process of simplification, English has a +very curious rival, and possibly a superior, in the _Taal_ of South +Africa. The curious thing is that a local dialect should have shown +itself so progressive, seeing that the distinctive note of most dialects +is conservatism, their chief characteristics being local survivals.[1] +It is probable that the advanced degree of simplification attained by +the Taal is the result of deliberate and conscious adaptation of their +language by the original settlers to the needs of the natives. Just +as Englishmen speak Pidgin-English to coolies in the East, so the old +trekkers must have removed irregularities and concords from their Dutch, +so that the Kaffirs could understand it. If this is so, it is another +illustration of the essential feature that an international language +must possess. Even the Boer farmers, under the stress of practical +necessity, grasped the need of simplification. + + [1]Of course a difference must be expected between a dialect spoken + by a miscellaneous set of settlers in a foreign land and one in use + as an indigenous growth from father to son. But the _habitants_, + as the French settlers in Quebec are called, who, like the Boers, are + mainly a pastoral and primitive people, have retained an antiquated + form of French, with no simplification. + +The natural tendency towards elimination of exceptions is also strongly +marked in the speech of the uneducated. Miss Loane, who has had +life-long experience of nursing work among the poorest classes in +England, tabulates (_The Queen's Poor_, p. 112) the points in which +at the present day the language of the poor differs from that of the +middle and upper classes. Under the heading of grammar she singles +out specially superabundance of negatives, and then proceeds: "Other +grammatical errors. These are nearly all on the lines of simplification. +It is correct to say 'myself, herself, yourself, ourselves.' Very well: +let us complete the list with 'hisself' and 'theirselves.' Most verbs +are regular: why not all? Let us say 'comed' and 'goed,' 'seed' and +'bringed' and 'teached.'" Miss Loane probably exaggerates with her +"nearly all." For instance, as regards the uneducated form of the past +tense of "to come," surely "come" is a commoner form than "comed." +Similarly the illiterate for "I did" is "I done," not "I doed," which +would be the regular simplification. But the natural tendency is +certainly there, and it is strong. + +Precisely the same tendency is observable in the present development +of literary languages. They have all inherited many irregular verbal +conjugations from the past as part of their national property, and +these, by the nature of the case, comprise most of the commonest +words in the language, because the most used is the most subject to +abbreviation and modification. But these irregular types of inflection +have long been dead, in the sense that they are fossilized survivals, +incapable of propagating their kind. When a new word is admitted into +the language, it is conjugated regularly. Thus, though we still say "I +go—I went; I run—I ran," because we cannot help ourselves, when we are +free to choose we say, "I cycle—I cycled; I wire—I wired"; just as the +French say "télégraphier," and not "télégraphir," -oir, or -re. + +Considering the strength of this stream of natural tendency, it seems a +most natural thing to start again, for international purposes, with a +form of simplified Aryan language, and, being free from the dead hand of +the past, to set up the simplest forms of conjugation, etc., and make +every word in the language conform to them. + +Indeed, this question of artificial simplification of language has of +late years emerged from the scholar's study and become a matter of +practical politics, even as regards the leading national languages. +Within the last few years there have been official edicts in France and +Germany, embodying reforms either in spelling or grammar, with the sole +object of simplifying. The latest attempt at linguistic jerrymandering +has been the somewhat autocratic document of President Roosevelt. He +has found that there are limits to what the American people will stand +even from him, and it seems likely to remain a dead letter. But there is +not the smallest doubt that the English language is heavily handicapped +by its eccentric vowel pronunciation and its spelling that has failed +to keep pace with the development of the language. The same is true, +though in a lesser degree, of the spelling and pronunciation of French. +Since the whole theory of spelling—and, until a few hundred years +ago, its practice too—consisted in nothing else but an attempt to +represent simply and accurately the spoken word, most unprejudiced +people would admit that simplification is in principle advisable. But +the practical difficulties in the way of simplification of a national +language are almost prohibitive. It is hard to see that there are any +such obstacles in the way of the adoption of a simple and perfectly +phonetic international artificial language. We dislike change because it +is change, and new things because they are new. We go on suffering from +a movable Easter, which most practically inconveniences great numbers of +people and interests, and seems to benefit no one at all, simply because +it is no one's business to change it. If once the public could be got +to examine seriously the case for an artificial international language, +they could hardly fail to recognize what an easy, simple, and _natural_ +thing it is, and how soon it would pay off all capital sunk in its +universal adoption, and be pure profit. + + + NOTE + +This seems the best place to deal with a criticism of Esperanto which +has an air of plausibility. It is urged that Esperanto does not carry +the process of simplification far enough, and that in two important +points it shows a retrograde tendency to revert to a more primitive +stage of language, already left behind by the most advanced natural +languages. These points are: + + (1) The possession of an accusative case. + (2) The agreement of adjectives. + +Now, it must be borne in mind that the business of a universal language +is, not to adhere pedantically to any philological theory, not to make +a fetish of principle, not to strive after any theoretical perfection +in the observance of certain laws of construction, but—simply to be +easy. The principle of simplification is an admirable one, because it +furthers this end, and for this reason only. The moment it ceases to +do so, it must give way before a higher canon, which demands that an +international language shall offer the greatest ease, combined with +efficiency, for the greatest number. The fact that a scientific study +of language reveals a strong natural tendency towards simplification, +and that this tendency has in certain languages assumed certain forms, +is not in itself a proof that an artificial language is bound to follow +the historical lines of evolution in every detail. It will follow them +just so far as, and no farther than, they conduce to its paramount +end—greatest ease for greatest number, plus maximum of efficiency. +In constructing an international language, the question then becomes, +in each case that comes up for decision: How far does the proposed +simplification conduce to ease without sacrificing efficiency? Does +the cost of retention (reckoned in terms of sacrifice of ease) of +the unsimplified form outweigh the advantages (reckoned in terms of +efficiency) it confers, and which would be lost if it was simplified out +of existence? Let us then examine briefly the two points criticised, +remembering that the main function of the argument from history of +language is, not to deduce therefrom hard-and-fast rules for the +construction of international language, but to remove the unreasoning +prejudice of numerous objectors, who cannot pardon the international +language for being "artificial," i.e. consciously simplified. + + (1) _The Accusative Case_ + +This is formed in Esperanto by adding the letter _-n_. This one form is +universal for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns singular and plural. Ex.: + + Nom. _bona patro_ (good father), plural, _bonaj patroj_. + Acc. _bonan patron_ " _bonajn patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress this _-n_. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of unsimplified form: Remembering to add this +_-n_. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: The flexibility of the language is +enormously increased; the words can be put in any order without +obscuring or changing the sense. Ex.: + _La patro amas sian filon_ = the father loves his son. + _Sian filon amas la patro_ (in English "his son loves the father" + has a different sense). + _Amas la patro sian filon_ (= the father _loves_ his son, but...). + _La patro sian filon amas_. + _Sian filon la patro amas_ (= it is his son that the father loves). + +In every case the Esperanto sentence is perfectly clear, the meaning +is the same, but great scope is afforded for emphasis and shades of +gradation. Further, every nation is enabled to arrange the words as +suits it best, without becoming less intelligible to other nations. +Readers of Greek and Latin know the enormous advantage of free word +order. For purposes of rendering the spirit and swing of national works +of literature in Esperanto, and for facilitating the writing of verse, +the accusative is a priceless boon. Is the price too high? + +N.B.—Those people who are most apt to omit the _-n_ of the accusative, +having no accusative in their own language, generally make their meaning +perfectly clear without it, because they are accustomed to indicate the +objective case by the order in which they place their words. They make +a mistake of Esperanto by omitting the _-n_, but they are understood, +which is the essential. + + (2) _The Agreement of Adjectives_ + +Adjectives in Esperanto agree with their substantives in number and +case. Ex.: _bona patro_, _bonan patron_, _bonaj patroj_, _bonajn +patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress agreement of adjectives. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of agreement: Remembering to add _-j_ for the +plural and _-n_ for the accusative. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: Greater clearness; conformity with the +usage of the majority of languages; euphony. + +Esperanto has wisely adopted full, vocalic, syllabic endings for words. +Contrast Esp. _bon-o_ with French _bon_, Eng. _good_, Germ. _gut_. By +this means Esperanto is not only rendered slower, more harmonious, and +easier of comprehension; it is also able to denote the parts of speech +clearly to eye and ear by their form. Thus final _-o_ bespeaks a noun; +_-a_, an adjective; _-e_, an adverb; _-i_, an infinitive, etc. + +Now, since all adjectives end in syllabic _-a_, it is much harder +to keep them uninflected than if they ended with a consonant like +the Eng. "good." To talk about _bona patroj_ would not only seem a +hideous barbarism to all Latin peoples, whose languages Esperanto most +resembles, but it would also offend the bulk of Northerners. After a +very little practice it is really easier to say _bonaj patroj_ than +_bona patroj_. The assimilation of termination tempts the ear and +tongue. + +The grammar is also simplified. For if adjectives agreeing with nouns +and pronouns expressed were invariable, it would probably be necessary +to introduce special rules to meet the case of adjectives standing as +nouns, or where the qualified word was suppressed. + +Again, is the price too high compared to the advantages? + + + II + + ESPERANTO FROM AN EDUCATIONAL POINT OF VIEW—IT WILL AID THE + LEARNING OF OTHER LANGUAGES AND STIMULATE INTELLIGENCE + +(1) Esperanto takes a natural place at the beginning of the sequence of +languages, upon which is founded the scheme of language-teaching in the +Reform Schools of Germany, and in some of the more progressive English +schools. + +The principle involved in this scheme is that of orderly progression +from the easier to the more difficult. Only one foreign language is +begun at a time. The easiest language in the school curriculum is +begun first. Enough hours per week are devoted to this language to +allow of decent progress being made. When the pupils have a fair grip +of the elements of one language, another is begun. The bulk of the +school language-teaching hours are now devoted to the new language, and +sufficient weekly hours are given to the language already learnt to +avoid backsliding at least. Thus in a German school of the new type the +linguistic hours are devoted in the lowest classes to the mother-tongue. +When the pupils have some idea what language means, and have acquired +some notion of grammar, they are given a school year or two of French. +After this Latin is begun in the upper part of the school, and Greek at +a corresponding interval after Latin. + +Now, it is one of the commonest complaints of teachers in our secondary +schools that they have to begin teaching Latin or French to boys who +have no knowledge whatever of grammar. Fancy the hopelessness of trying +to teach an English boy the construction of a Latin or French sentence +when he does not know what a relative or demonstrative pronoun means! +This is the fate of so many a master that quite a number of them resign +themselves to giving up a good part of their French or Latin hour to +endeavouring to imbue their flock with some notions of grammar in +general. They naturally try to appeal to their boys through the medium +of their own language. But those who have incautiously upset their class +from the frying-pan of _qui_, _quae_, _quod_, into the fire of English +demonstrative and relative pronouns get a foretaste of the fire that +dieth not. _Facilis descensus Averni._ Happy if they do not lose heart, +and step downward from the fire to ashes—reinforced with sackcloth. + +"I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman said was right." This +is the "abstract and brief chronicle" of their woes—sometimes, indeed, +the epitaph of their pedagogical career, if they are too sickened of +the Sisiphean task of trying to teach grammar on insufficient basis. +And this use, or abuse, of the hardworked word "that" is only an +extreme case which illustrates the difficulty of teaching grammar to +babes, through the medium of a language honeycombed with synonyms, +homonyms, exceptions, and other pitfalls (can you be honeycombed with a +pitfall?)—a language which seems to take a perverse delight in breaking +all its own rules and generally scoring off the beginner. And for the +dull beginner, what language does not seem to conform to this type? +Answer: Esperanto. + +In other words, it would seem that, for the grinding of grammar and the +advancement of sound learning in the initial stage, there is nothing +like an absolutely uniform and regular language,[1] a _type tongue_, +something that corresponds in the linguistic hierarchy to Euclid or +the first rules of arithmetic in the mathematical, something clear, +consistent, self-evident, and of universal application. + + [1]Cf. Sir Oliver Lodge: "It would certainly appear that for this + purpose [i.e. educative language-learning for children] the fully + inflected ancient languages are best and most satisfactory; if + they were still more complete and regular, like Esperanto, they + would be better still to begin with" (_School Teaching and School + Reform_, p. 21: chapter on Curricula and Methods). + +Take our sentence again: "I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman +said was right." If our beginner has imbibed his first notions of +grammar through the medium of a type language, in which a noun is +always a noun, and is stamped as such by its form (this, by the way, +is an enormous aid in making the thing clear to children); in which an +adjective is always an adjective, and is stamped as such by its form; +and so on through all the other parts of speech,—when the teacher +comes to analyse the sentence given, he will be able to explain it by +reference to the known forms of the regular key-language. He will point +out that of the "thats": the first is the Esperanto _ke_ (which is +final, because _ke_ never means anything else); the second is _tiu_ (at +once revealed by its form to be a demonstrative), the fourth _kiu_, and +so on. As for the third "that," which _is_ rather hard for a child to +grasp, he will be able to make it into a noun in form by merely adding +_-o_ to the Esperanto equivalent for any "that" required. He will not +be doing violence to the language; for Esperanto consists of roots, +which habitually do duty as noun, verb, adjective, etc., according +to the termination added. Those who know the value of the concrete +and tangible in dealing with children will grasp the significance of +the new possibilities that are thus for the first time opened up to +language-teachers. + +To sum up: Natural languages are all hard, and the beginner can never +go far enough to get a rule fixed soundly in his mind without meeting +exceptions which puzzle and confuse him. Esperanto is as clear, logical, +and consistent as arithmetic, and, like arithmetic, depends more upon +intelligence than upon memory work. If Esperanto were adopted as the +first foreign language to be taught in schools, and all grammatical +teaching were postponed until Esperanto had been begun, and then given +entirely through the medium of Esperanto until a sound notion of +grammatical rules and categories had been instilled, it would probably +be found that the subsequent task of learning natural languages would +be facilitated and abridged. From the very start it would be possible +to prevent certain common errors and confusions, that tend to become +engrained in juvenile minds by the fluctuating or contradictory usage of +their own language, to their great let and hindrance in the subsequent +stages of language-learning. The skeleton outline of grammatical +theory with concrete examples afforded by Esperanto would shield +against vitiating initial mistakes, in much the same way as the use of +a scientific phonetic alphabet, when a foreign language is presented +for the first time to the English beginner in written form, shields +him against carrying over his native mixed vowel system to languages +which use the same letters as English, but give quite a different value +to them. In both cases[1] the essentials of the new instrument of +learning are the same—that it be of universal application, that it be +sufficiently different from the mother-tongue or alphabet to prevent +confusion by association of ideas, that each of the new forms or letters +convey only one idea or sound respectively, and that this idea or sound +be always and only conveyed by that form or letter. + + [1]i.e. scientific regular type grammar and scientific regular + phonetic alphabet. + +(2) From a psychological point of view Esperanto would be a rewarding +subject of study for children. + +The above remarks on sequence of languages show that, by placing +Esperanto first in the language curriculum, justice is done to the +psychological maxim: from the easier to the harder, from the regular +to the exceptional. It may further be argued (_a_) that Esperanto is +educative in the real sense of the word, i.e. suitable for drawing +out and developing the reasoning powers; (_b_) that it would act as +a stimulus, and by its ease set a higher standard of attainment in +language-learning. + +(_a_) Amidst all the discussion of "educationists" about methods, +curricula, sequence of studies, and the rest, one fundamental fact +continues to face the teacher when he gets down to business; and +that is, that he has got to make the taught think for themselves. +In proportion as his teaching makes them contribute their share of +effort will it be fruitful. This is, of course, the merest truism, +sometimes dignified in the current pedagogical slang by the name of +"self-activity," or the like. But whatever new bottles the theorists, +and their extreme left wing the faddists, may choose to serve up our +old wine in, the fact is there: children have got to be made to use +their own brains. The eternal question that faces the teacher is, how to +provide problems that children really can work out by using their own +brains. The trouble about history, geography, English literature, and +such subjects is that the subject-matter of the problems they offer for +solution lies beyond the experience of the young, and to a large extent +beyond their reasoning powers. In teaching all such subjects there is +accordingly the perpetual danger that the real work done may degenerate +into mere memory work, or parrot-like cramming of notes or dates. + +The same difficulty is encountered in science teaching. Heuristic +methods have been devised to meet the difficulty. Though they are no +doubt psychologically sound, they tend to be very slow in results; hence +the common jibe that a boy may learn as much by them in five years as he +could learn out of a shilling text-book in a term. + +The old argument that "mental gymnastics" are best supplied by Latin +is sound to the extent that Latin really does furnish a perpetual +series of small problems that have to be solved by the aid of grammar +and dictionary, but which do involve real mental effort, since mere +mechanical looking out of words does not suffice for their elucidation. +But for various reasons, such as the remoteness of the ancient world +in time, place, modes of thought, etc., Latin tends to be too hard and +not interesting enough for the average boy. He gets discouraged, and +develops a habit of only working enough to keep out of trouble with the +school authorities, and is apt to leave school with an unintelligent +attitude towards intellectual things in general. This is the result of +early drudging at a subject in which progress is very slow, and which +by its nature is uncongenial. The great desideratum is a linguistic +subject which shall at once inculcate a feeling for language (German +_Sprachgefühl_), and yet be easy enough to admit of rapid progress. +Nothing keeps alive the quickening zest that makes learning fruitful +like the consciousness of making rapid progress. + +Hitherto arithmetic and Euclid have been the ideal subjects for +providing the kind of problem required—one that can be worked out +with certainty by the aid of rule and use of brain, without calling +for knowledge or experience that the child cannot have. The facts +are self-evident, and follow from principles, without involving any +extraneous acquaintance with life or literature, and no deadening +memory work is required. If only there were some analogous subject on +the literary side, to give a general grip of principles, uncomplicated +by any arbitrary element, what a boon it would be! and what a sound +preparation for real and more advanced linguistic study for those who +showed aptitude for this line! Arithmetic and Euclid both really depend +upon common sense; but partly owing to their abstract nature, and partly +because they are always classed as "mathematics," they seem to contain +something repellent to many literary or linguistic types of mind. + +With the invention of a perfectly regular and logically constructed +language, a concrete embodiment of the chief principles of language +structure, we have offered us for the first time the hitherto missing +linguistic equivalent of arithmetic or Euclid. In a regular language, +just because everything goes by rule, problems can be set and worked +out analogous to sums in arithmetic and riders in Euclid. Given the +necessary roots and rules, the learner can manufacture the necessary +vocabulary and produce the answer with the same logical inevitability; +and he has to use his brains to apply his rules, instead of merely +copying words out of a dictionary, or depending upon his memory for +them. + +In this way all that part of language-study which tends to be dead +weight in teaching the young is got rid of in one fell swoop, and +this though the language taught and learnt is a highly developed +instrument for reading, writing, speaking, and literary expression. +This dead weight includes most of the unintelligent memorizing, all +exceptions, all complicated systems of declension and conjugation, +all irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs, all syntactical +subtleties (cf. the sequence of tenses, oratio obliqua, the syntax of +subordinate clauses, in Latin; and the famous conditional sentences, +with the no less notorious _ού_ and _μή_ in Greek), all conflicting and +illogical uses of auxiliaries (cf. _etre_ and _avoir_ in French, and +_sein_ and _haben_ in German), besides a host of other old enemies. +Some of these things of course are not wholly memory work, especially +the syntax, which involves a real feeling for language. But these +would be much better postponed until one easy foreign language has +been learnt thoroughly. Every multilinguist knows that each foreign +language is easier to learn than the last. With a perfectly regular +artificial language you can make so much progress in a short time that +you can use it freely for practical purposes. Yet it does not come of +itself, like the mother-tongue. _This free manipulation of a consciously +acquired language is the very best training for forming a feeling for +language_—far better than weary stumbling over the baby stages of a hard +language. When you can read, write, and speak one very easy artificial +language, which you have had to learn as a foreign one, then is the time +when you can profitably tackle the difficulties of natural language, +appreciating the niceties of syntax, and realizing, by comparison with +your normal key-language, in what points natural languages are merely +arbitrary and have to be learnt by heart. Those who have early conquered +the grammar and syntax of any foreign language, but have had to put in +years of hard (largely memory) work before they could write or speak, +e.g., Latin Latin, French French, or German German, will realize the +saving effected, when they are told that Esperanto has no idiom, no +arbitrary usage. The combination of words is not governed, as in natural +languages, by tradition (which tradition has to be assimilated in the +sweat of the brow), but is free, the only limits being common sense, +common grammar, and lucidity. + +To those who do not know Esperanto it may seem a dark saying that +language riders can be worked out in the same way as geometrical +ones. To understand this some knowledge of the language is necessary +(for sample problems see Appendix A, p. 200). But for the sake of +making the argument intelligible it may here be stated that one of the +labour-saving, vocabulary-saving devices of Esperanto is the employment +of a number of suffixes with fixed meaning, that can be added to any +root. Thus: + + The suffix _-ej-_ denotes place. + " " _-il-_ " instrument. + " " _-ig-_ " causation. + Final _-o_ denotes a noun. + +Given this and the root _san-_ (cf. Lat. _sanus_), containing the +idea of health, form words for "to heal" (_san-ig-i_ = to cause to be +well); "medicine" (_san-ig-il-o_ = instrument of healing); "hospital" +(_san-ig-ej-o_ = place of healing), etc. + +This is merely an example. The combinations and permutations are +infinite; they give a healthy knowledge of word-building, and can be +used in putting whole pages of carefully prepared idiomatic English into +Esperanto. Practical experience shows that, given the necessary crude +roots, the necessary suffixes, and a one-page grammar of the Esperanto +language, an intelligent person can produce in Esperanto a translation +of a page of idiomatic English, not Ollendorfian phrases, _without having +learnt Esperanto_. + +(_b_) Experience also shows that the intelligent one thoroughly enjoys +himself while doing so; and having done so, experiences a thrill of +exhilaration almost amounting to awe at having made a better translation +into a language he has never learnt than he could make into a national +language that he has learnt for years, e.g. Latin, French, or German. + +And what is exhilaration in the dry tree may be sustained working +keenness in the green. The stimulus to the young mind of progress swift +and sure is immense. A child who has learnt to read, write, and speak +Esperanto in six months, as is very possible within the natural limits +of power of expression imposed by his age, not only has a sound working +knowledge of grammatical categories and forms, which will stand him +in good stead in subsequent language-learning; he has also a quite +different attitude of mind—_une tout autre mentalité_, to use recent +jargon—towards foreign languages. His only experience of learning one +has been that he did so with the object and result of being able to +read, write, and speak it within a reasonable time. "By so much the +greater and more resounding the slump into actuality," you will say, +"when he comes to grapple with his next." Perhaps. But even so, the +habit of acquiring fresh words and forms for immediate use must surely +tell—not to mention that he will incidentally have acquired a very +useful Romance vocabulary, and a wholly admirable French lucidity of +construction. + +(3) And this question of lucidity brings us to the third great +educational advantage of Esperanto. Its opponents—without having +ever learnt it to see—have urged that its preciseness will debauch +the literary sense. Surely the exact opposite is the fact. _Le style +c'est l'homme_, and the essence of true style is that a man should give +accurate expression to his thoughts. The French wit, satirizing vapid +fine writing, said that language was given to man to enable him to +conceal his thought. There is no more potent instrument for obscuring +or concealing thought than the ready-made phrase. Take up many a +piece of journalese or other slipshod writing, and note how often the +conventional phrase or word slips from under the pen, meaning nothing +in particular. The very conventionality disguises from writer and +reader the confusion or absolute lack of idea it serves to cloak. Both +are lulled by the familiar sound of the set phrase or word and glide +easily over them. On the other hand, in using a language in which you +construct a good deal of your vocabulary according to logical rule +_tout en marchant_, it is impossible to avoid thinking, at each moment, +exactly what you do mean. Where there is no idiom, no arbitrary usage, +no ready-made phrase, there is also far less danger of yielding to a +fatal facility. + +Take an instance or two. In the Prayer Book occurs the phrase "Fulfil, +O Lord, our desires and petitions." At Sunday lunch a mixed party of +people, after attending morning service, were asked how they would +render into Esperanto the word "desires." They nearly all plumped for +_deziraĵo_. Now, the Esperanto root for "desire" is _dezir-_. By adding +_-o_ it becomes a noun = the act of desiring, a desire. By adding the +suffix _-aĵ_, and then _-o_, it becomes concrete = a desire- (i.e. +desired) thing, a desire. A reference to the dictionary showed that the +English word "desire" has both these meanings, but none of these people +had a sufficiently accurate idea of the use of language to realize this. +It was only when a gentleman passed his plate for a second helping of +beef, and was asked which he expected to be fulfilled—the beef, or his +aspiration for beef—that he, under the stimulus of hunger, adopted the +rendering _dezir-o_, thereby saving at once his bacon and his additional +beef. + +It is not of course necessary for people to define pedantically to +themselves the meaning of every word they use, but surely it must +conduce to clear thinking to use a language in which you are perpetually +called upon, if you are writing seriously, to make just the mental +effort necessary to think what you do mean. + +Again, consider the use of prepositions. This is, in nearly all national +languages, extremely fluctuating and arbitrary. Take a few English +phrases showing the use of the prepositions "at" and "with." "At seven +o'clock"; "at any price"; "at all times"; "at the worst"; "let it go +at that"; "I should say at a guess," etc. "Come with me"; "write with +a pen"; "he came with a rush"; "things are different with us"; "with a +twinkle in his eye"; "with God all things are possible," etc. Try to +turn these phrases into any language you think you know; the odds are +that you will find yourself "up against it pretty badly." The fact is, +that prepositions are very frequently used on no logical plan, not at +all according to any fixed or universal meaning; all that can be said +about them in a given phrase is that they are used there because they +are used. To remember their equivalents in other languages hard memory +work and much phrase-learning is necessary. In Esperanto all that is +necessary is: first, to become clear as to the exact meaning; secondly, +to pick the preposition that conveys it. There is no doubt, as the +Esperanto prepositions are fixed in sense, on the "one word one meaning" +plan. The point is, that there is no memory searching, often so utterly +vain, for there are few people indeed who can write a few pages of the +most familiar foreign languages without getting their prepositions all +wrong, and having "foreigner" stamped large all across their efforts. +In Esperanto, provided you have a clear mind and know your grammar, +_you are right_. No arbitrary usage defeats your efforts and makes +discouraging jargon of your literary attempts. + +This training in clear thought, the first requisite for all good +writing, is surely sound practical pedagogics. By the time you can give +up conscious word-building in Esperanto, and use words and phrases by +rote, you have done enough bracing thinking to teach you caution in the +use of the ready-made phrase and horror of the vague word. + +Fools make phrases, and wise men shun them. Here is a phrase-free +language: need we shun it? + + + III + + COMPARATIVE TABLES ILLUSTRATING LABOUR SAVED IN LEARNING ESPERANTO AS + CONTRASTED WITH OTHER LANGUAGES + + (_a_) WORD-BUILDING + +The following tables are meant to give some idea of the number and +variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto +root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes). By reading +the English, French, and German columns downwards, the reader will see +how many different roots and periphrases these languages employ in order +to express the same ideas. + +As the affixes have fixed meanings, they only have to be learnt once +for all, and many of them (e.g. _-ist_, _-in_, _re-_) are already +familiar. When once acquired, they can be used in unending permutation +and combination with different roots and each other. The tables below +are by no means exhaustive of what can be done with the roots _san-_ +and _lern-_. They are merely illustrative. By referring to the full +table of affixes in Part IV, Chapter IV, the reader can go on forming +new compounds _ad libitum_: e.g. san-o, san-a, san-e, san-i, saneco, +sanilo, sanulo, malsane, malsani, saneti, malsaneti, sanadi, eksani, +eksaniĝi, saninda, sanindi, sanindulo, sanaĵo, sanaĵero, sanilo, +sanigilo, sanigilejo, sanigilujo, sanigilisto, malsanemeco, remalsano, +remalsanigo, sanila, malsanulino, sanistinedzo, sanilingo, sanigestro, +sanigestrino, sanigema, sanega, sanigega, gesanantoj, saniĝontoj, +sanigistido, sanigejano... and so on (kaj tiel plu). + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + san-a healthy +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a ill +ne (not) ne-san-a unwell +-ig (causative) san-ig-i to heal + san-ig-a salutary +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restorative +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i to be convalescent + re-san-iĝ-a getting well again +-ig mal-san-ig-a sickening (transitive) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a sickening (intransitive) +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o doctor +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hospital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o invalid +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o hospital inmates +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o all the men and women patients +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o a lady doctor +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o a doctor's wife + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + san-a bien portant +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a malade +ne (not) ne-san-a (un peu) souffrant +-ig (causative) san-ig-i guérir + san-ig-a salutaire +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restaurant +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i etre convalescent + re-san-iĝ-a en train de se rétablir +-ig mal-san-ig-a écoeurant (qui rend malade) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a languissant +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o médecin +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hôpital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o un malade +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o ensemble des malades +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o les malades hommes et femmes +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o un médecin femme +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o une femme de médecin + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + san-a gesund +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a krank +ne (not) ne-san-a unwohl +-ig (causative) san-ig-i heilen + san-ig-a heilsam +re- (again) re-san-ig-a wiederherstellend +-iĝ (becoming) san-iĝ-i sich erholen + re-san-iĝ-a genesend +-ig mal-san-ig-a ekelhaft (krank machend) +-iĝ mal-san-iĝ-a siechend +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o Arzt +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o Krankenhaus +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o ein Kranker +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (un)heilbar +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o Gesamtheit der Kranken +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o die Kranken beider Geschlechter +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o Arztin +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o Frau des Arztes + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + lern-i to learn +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i to teach + lern-ig-a educative +-ej (place) lernej-o school +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o pupil +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj pupils of both sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o class +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o schoolboy +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o schoolgirl +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o headmaster +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o schoolmaster + lern-ej-ist-in-o schoolmistress +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) subject + lern-aĵ-ar-o curriculum +-em (inclination) lern-em-a studious +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a idle +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i to stimulate + lern-ig-o instruction + (act) + lern-ig-aĵ-o instruction + (teaching given) + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + lern-i apprendre +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i enseigner + lern-ig-a éducateur +-ej (place) lernej-o école +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o élève +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj élèves des deux sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o classe +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o écolier +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o ecolière +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o proviseur +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o instituteur (professeur) + lern-ej-ist-in-o institutrice +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) matière d'enseignement + lern-aĵ-ar-o ensemble des matièress + d'enseignement +-em (inclination) lern-em-a appliqué +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a paresseux +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i mettre en train + lern-ig-o instruction + lern-ig-aĵ-o enseignement + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + lern-i lernen +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i lehren + lern-ig-a erzieherisch +-ej (place) lernej-o Schule +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o Schüler +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj Schüler and Schülerinnen +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o Klasse +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o Schulknabe +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o Schulmädchen +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o Direktor +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o Lehrer + lern-ej-ist-in-o Lehrerin +-aĵo (concrete) lern-aĵ-o (learnt-stuff) Lehrstoff + lern-aĵ-ar-o (Studien)- Laufbahn + Schulprogramm +-em (inclination) lern-em-a fleissig +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a faul +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i anregen + lern-ig-o das Unterrichten + lern-ig-aĵ-o Unterricht + + * * * * * + + (_b_) PARTICIPLES AND AUXILIARIES + +The following table illustrates the perfect simplicity and terseness of +the Esperanto verb. + +Every tense, active and passive, is formed with never more than two +words. Every shade of meaning (continued, potential, etc., action) is +expressed by these two words, of which one is the single auxiliary +_esti_ (itself conjugated regularly). The double auxiliary—"to be" and +"to have"—which infests most modern languages, with all its train of +confusing and often illogical distinctions (cf. French _je suis allé_, +but _j'ai couru_), disappears. Contrast the simplicity of _amota_ with +the cumbersome periphrasis _about to be loved_; or the perfect ease and +clearness of _vi estus amita_ with the treble-barrelled German _Sie +würden geliebt worden sein_. + +This simplicity of the Esperanto verb is entirely due to its full +participial system. There are six participles, present, past, and future +active and passive, each complete in one word. The only natural Aryan +language (of those commonly studied) that compares with Esperanto in +this respect is Greek; and it is precisely the fulness of the Greek +participial system that lends to the language a great part of that +flexibility which all ages have agreed in admiring in it pre-eminently. +Take a page of Plato or any other Greek author, and count the number +of participles and note their use. They will be found more numerous +and more delicately effective than in other languages. Esperanto can +do all this; and it can do it without any of the complexity of form +and irregularity that makes the learning of Greek verbs such a hard +task. Bearing in mind the three characteristic vowels of the three +tenses—present _-a_, past _-i_, future _-o_ (common to finite tenses +and participles)—the proverbial schoolboy, and the dullest at that, +could hardly make the learning of the Esperanto participles last him +half an hour. + +It would be easy to go on filling page after page with the +simplifications effected by Esperanto, but these will not fail to strike +the learner after a very brief acquaintance with the language. But +attention ought to be drawn to one more particularly clever device—the +form of asking questions. An Esperanto statement is converted into a +question without any inversion of subject and verb or any change at +all, except the addition of the interrogative particle _ĉu_. In this +Esperanto agrees with Japanese. But whereas Japanese adds its particle +_ka_ at the end of the sentence, the Esperanto _ĉu_ stands first in its +clause. Thus when, speaking Esperanto, you wish to ask a question, you +begin by shouting out _ĉu_, an admirably distinctive monosyllable which +cannot be confused with any other word in the language. By this means +you get your interlocutor prepared and attending, and you can then frame +your question at leisure. + +Contrast Esperanto and English in the ease with which they respectively +convert a statement into a question. + + English: You went—did you go? + + Esperanto: Vi iris—ĉu vi iris? + +This particle may be considered the equivalent of the initial mark of +interrogation used in Spanish, and serves to remove all complications in +connexion with word order. + + * * * * * + +ESPERANTO ENGLISH + +amanta loving +aminta having loved +amonta about to love +amata being loved +amita (having been) loved +amota about to be loved +mi estas aminta I have loved +vi estis aminta you had loved +li estas amanta he is loving +ŝi estis amata she was being loved +ni estos amintaj we shall have loved +vi estas amataj you are loved +ili estas amitaj they have been loved +mi estus aminta I should have loved +vi estus amita you would have been loved +li estas foririnta he has gone away +ili estus foririntaj they would have gone away + +ESPERANTO FRENCH + +amanta aimant +aminta ayant aimé +amonta devant aimer +amata étant aimé +amita (ayant été) aimé +amota devant être aimé +mi estas aminta j'ai aimé +vi estis aminta vous aviez aimé +li estas amanta il est aimant +ŝi estis amata elle était en train d'être aimée +ni estos amintaj nous aurons aimé +vi estas amataj vous êtes aimés +ili estas amitaj ils ont été aimés +mi estus aminta j'aurais aimé +vi estus amita vous auriez été aimé +li estas foririnta il s'en est allé +ili estus foririntaj il s'en seraient allés + +ESPERANTO GERMAN + +amanta liebend +aminta der geliebt hat +amonta der lieben wird +amata der geliebt wird +amita der geliebt worden ist +amota der geliebt werden soll +mi estas aminta ich habe geliebt +vi estis aminta Sie hatten geliebt +li estas amanta er ist liebend +ŝi estis amata sie war im Zuge geliebt zu werden +ni estos amintaj wir werden geliebt haben +vi estas amataj Sie werden geliebt +ili estas amitaj sie sind geliebt worden +mi estus aminta ich würde geliebt haben +vi estus amita Sie würden geliebt worden sein +li estas foririnta er ist fortgegangen +ili estus foririntaj sie würden fortgegangen sein + + * * * * * + +This chapter on labour-saving may fitly conclude with an estimate +of the amount of mere memorizing work to be done in Esperanto. +Since this is almost _nil_ for grammar, syntax, and idiom, and +since there are no irregularities or exceptions, the memory work +is, broadly speaking, reduced to learning the affixes, the table +of correlatives, and a certain number of new roots. This number is +astonishingly small. Here is an estimate made by Prof. Macloskie, +of Princeton, U.S.A.: + + Number of roots new to an English boy without Latin, about 600* + " " " " " with " " 300 + " " " a college teacher " 100 + + *i.e. about one-third of the whole number in the _Fundamento_. + + + IV + + HOW ESPERANTO CAN BE USED AS A CODE LANGUAGE TO + COMMUNICATE WITH PERSONS WHO HAVE NEVER LEARNT IT + +Technically speaking, Esperanto combines the characteristics of an +inflected language with those of an agglutinative one. This means that +the syllables used as inflexions (_-o_, _-a_, _-e_, _-as_, _-is_, _-os_, +_-ant-_, _-int-_, _-ont-_, etc.), being invariable and of universal +application, can also be regarded as separate words. And as separate +words they all figure in the dictionary, under their initial letters. +Thus anything written in Esperanto can be deciphered by the simple +process of looking out words and parts of words in the dictionary. For +examples, see pieces 1 and 2 in the specimens of Esperanto, pp. 167-8 +[Part IV, Chapter II], and read the Note at the beginning of Part IV. As +the Esperanto dictionary only consists of a few pages, it can be easily +carried in the pocket-book or waistcoat pocket. + +Thus, while to the educated person of Aryan speech Esperanto presents +the natural appearance of an ordinary inflected language, one who +belongs by speech to another lingual family, or any one who has never +heard of Esperanto, can regard every inflected word as a compound of +invariable elements. By turning over very few pages he can determine +the meaning and use of each element, and therefore, by putting them +together, he can arrive at the sense of the compound word, e.g. +_lav'ist'in'o_. Look out _lav-_, and you find "wash"; look out _-ist_, +and you find it expresses the person who does an action; look out _-in_, +and you find it expresses the feminine; look out _-o_, and you find it +denotes a noun. Put the whole together, and you get "female who does +washing, laundress." + +Suppose you are going on an ocean voyage, and you expect to be shut up +for weeks in a ship with persons of many nationalities. You take with +you keys to Esperanto, price one halfpenny each, in various languages. +You wish to tackle a Russian. Write your Esperanto sentence clearly +and put the paper in his hand. At the same time hand him a Russian key +to Esperanto, pointing to the following paragraph (in Russian) on the +outside: + +"Everything written in the international language can be translated by +the help of this vocabulary. If several words together express but a +single idea, they are written in one word, but separated by apostrophes; +e.g. _frat'in'o_, though a single idea, is yet composed of three words, +which must be looked for separately in the vocabulary." + +After he has got over his shock of surprise, your Russian, if a man of +ordinary education, will make out your sentence in a very short time by +using the key. + +As an example Dr. Zamenhof gives the following sentence: "Mi ne +sci'as kie mi las'is la baston'o'n: Ĉu vi ĝi'n ne vid'is?" With the +vocabulary this sentence will work out as follows: + + Mi mi = I I + ne ne = not not + sci'as sci = know + as = sign of present tense do know + kie kie = where where + mi mi = I I + las'is las = leave + is = sign of past tense have left + la la = the the + baston'o'n baston = stick + o = sign of a noun + n = sign of objective case stick + ĉu ĉu = whether, sign of question whether + vi vi = you you + ĝi'n ĝi = it + n = sign of objective case it + ne ne = not not + vid'is vid = leave + is = sign of past tense have seen + +It is obvious that no natural language can be used in the same way as a +code to be deciphered with a small key. + + German French + + Ich I je I + weiss white ne not + nicht not sais ? + wo where pas step + ich I où where + den ? j'ai ? + Stock stick laissé ? + gelassen dispassionate la the + habe: property: canne: reed: + haben to have ne not + Sie she, they, you, l'avez ? + ihn ? vous you + nicht not pas step + gesehen ? vu ? ? + +If your Russian wishes to reply, hand him a Russian-Esperanto +vocabulary, pointing to the following paragraph on the outside: + +"To express anything by means of this vocabulary, in the international +language, look for the words required in the vocabulary itself; and for +the terminations necessary to distinguish the grammatical forms, look in +the grammatical appendix, under the respective headings of the parts of +speech which you desire to express." + +The whole of the grammatical structure is explained in a few lines in +this appendix, so the grammar can be looked out as easily as the root +words. + + + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY + + + NOTE + +The best way of learning Esperanto is to begin at once to read the +language. Do not trouble to learn the grammar and list of suffixes by +themselves first. All this can be picked up easily in the course of +reading. + +In the following specimens the first two pieces are marked for +beginners. Each part of a word marked off by hyphens is to be looked out +separately in the vocabulary. By the time the beginner has read these +two pieces carefully in this way he will know the grammar, and have a +fair idea of the structure of the language and the use of affixes. + +In order to save time in looking out words, and so quicken the process +of learning, the English translation of the third piece is given +in parallel columns. Therefore in this piece only the principal +words, which might be unfamiliar to English readers, are given in the +vocabulary. Word-formation and some points of grammar are explained in +the notes. + +To get a practical grasp of Esperanto, cover the left-hand (Esperanto) +column with a piece of paper after reading it, and re-translate the +English into Esperanto, using the notes. After half an hour per day of +such exercise for two or three weeks, an ordinary educated person will +know Esperanto pretty well. + +N.B.—It is very important to acquire a correct pronunciation at the +start. Study the pronunciation rules, and practise reading aloud before +beginning to translate. _Read slowly._ + + + I + + PRONUNCIATION + +_Vowels_ + +There are no long and short, open and closed, vowels: just five simple, +full-sounding vowels, always pronounced the same. English people must be +particularly careful to make them sufficiently full. + + _a_ as _a_ in Engl. "father." + _e_ " _ey_ " " "they." + _i_ " _ee_ " " "eel." + _o_ " _o_ " " "hole," inclining to _o_ in Engl. "more." + (English speakers find it hard to pronounce + a true _o_.) + _u_ " _oo_ " " "moon." + +In short, the vowels are as in Italian. + +_Diphthongs_ + + _aj_ as _eye_ in Engl. "eye." + _oj_ " _oy_ " " "boy." + _aŭ_ " _ow_ " " "cow." + (_eŭ_ " _e...w_ " " "g_e_t _w_et": this sound does not + often occur.) + +_Consonants_ + +These are pronounced as in English, except the following: + + _c_ as _ts_ in Engl. "bits." + _ĉ_ " _ch_ " " "church." + _g_ " _g_ " " "give." + _ĝ_ " _g_ " " "gentle." + _ĥ_ " _ch_ " Scotch "loch," or German "ich." + _j_ " _y_ " Engl. "yes." + _ĵ_ " _s_ " " "pleasure." + _ŝ_ " _sh_ " " "shilling." + _ŭ_ " _w_ " " "cow" (only occurs in the diphthongs + _aŭ_ and _eŭ_). + +_Accent_ + +Always upon the last syllable but one. + +_Example_ + +The first few lines of piece I in the following specimens may be thus +figured for English readers: + +Gayseenyóroy—mee noon déeros ahl vee káylkine vórtoyn Ayspayráhntay. +Mee kraydahs kay vee ówdos, kay Ayspayráhnto áystahs tray fahtséelah ki +baylsónah léengvo. + +N.B.—The precise sound of _e_ is between _a_ in "b_a_le" and _e_ in +"b_e_ll." + + + II + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + + 1. PAROL-AD-O + +Ge-sinjor-o-j—mi nun dir-os al vi kelk-a-j-n vort-o-j-n Esperant-e. Mi +kred-as ke vi aŭd-os, ke Esperant-o est-as tre facil-a kaj bel-son-a +lingv-o. Ver-e, ĝi est-as tiel facil-a, sonor-a kaj simpl-a, ke oni +tut-e ne hav-as mal-facil-ec-o-n por lern-i ĝi-n. La lern-ant-o-j +pov-as ordinar-e kompren-i, leg-i, skrib-i kaj parol-i ĝin en tre +mal-long-a temp-o. La fakt-o ke Esperant-o en-hav-as tre mal-mult-a-j-n, +vokal-a-j-n son-o-j-n, kaj ke la vokal-o-j est-as ĉiu-j long-a-j kaj +plen-son-a-j, est-ig-as ĝin mult-e pli facil-a ol la ali-a-j lingv-o-j, +ĉiu por aŭ-d-i, ĉiu por el-parol-i. + +Mi kred-as ke mal-long-a lern-ad-o est-os sufiĉ-a por vi-n +kompren-ig-i, ke la hom-o-j de ĉiu-j naci-o-j pov-as inter-parol-i +Esperant-e sen mal-facil-ec-o. + +Mi ne de-ten-os vi-n pli long-e. Fin-ant-e, mi las-os kun vi du +fraz-et-o-j-n: unu-e, por la ideal-ist-o-j, kiu-j cel-as unu frat-ec-o-n +inter la popol-o-j de ĉiu land-o, la Esperant-a-n deviz-o-n—"Dum ni +spir-as ni esper-as": du-e, por la hom-o-j praktik-a-j la praktik-a-n +konsil-o-n—"Lern-u Esperant-o-n." + + + 2. LA MAR-BORD-IST-O-J: ALEGORI-ET-O + +Ĉirkaŭ grand-a mez-ter-a mar-o viv-is mult-a-j popol-o-j. Ili hav-is +mult-a-n inter-a-n komerc-o-n. Ĉar la mar-o est-is oft-e mal-trankvil-a +kaj ili hav-is nur mal-grand-a-j-n ŝip-o-j-n, ili vetur-is laŭ-long-e +la mar-bord-o, neniam perd-ant-e la ter-o-n el la vid-o. + +Cert-a hom-o el-pens-is ŝip-o-n, kiu ir-is per vapor-o. Li dir-is al la +mar-bord-ist-o-j: "Jen, ni met-u ni-a-n mon-o-n kun-e, kaj ni konstru-u +grand-a-j-n vapor-ŝip-o-j-n. Tiel ni vetur-os rekt-e trans la mar-o unu +al ali-a-n; kaj ni far-os pli da komerc-o en mal-pli da temp-o." Sed la +mar-bord-ist-o-j pli am-is ĉirkaŭ-ir-i en mal-grand-a-j ŝip-o-j, kiel +ili kutim-is. La el-pens-int-o ne hav-is sufiĉ-e da mon-o por konstru-i +grand-a-n vapor-ŝip-o-n, kiu tre mult-e en-hav-os kaj tre rapid-e +vojaĝ-os; tial li dev-is vetur-ad-i en si-a mez-grand-a vapor-ŝip-o, +kiu tamen almenaŭ rekt-e ir-is ĉie-n. Sed la mar-bord-ist-o-j +daŭr-ig-is rem-i kaj vel-i ĉirkaŭ-e. + + + 3. NESAĜA GENTO: AN UNWISE[1] RACE: + ALEGORIO AN ALLEGORY + +Malproksime, en nekonata lando, Far[2] away, in an unknown[3] +vivis sovaĝa gento. Ili loĝis en land, there lived a savage race, +la mezo de vasta ebenaĵo, izolata They dwelt in the midst of a +de la ekstera mondo. Unuflanken vast plain,[4] cut off from the +homo dek tagojn vojaĝante venus outer[5] world. Towards one +al montegaro: aliflanke staris side[6] a man journeying[7] ten +granda lago kaj senlimaj marĉoj. days[8] would come to a big +Tiel oni vivadis trankvile laŭ mountain-range[9]; on the other +patra kutimo, tute senzorga pri side stood a great lake and +la ago kaj faro de aliaj homgentoj boundless[10] swamps. Thus[11] +transmontanaj. En somero estis they lived[12] quietly after +varmege, kaj ĉiu vintro ŝajnis the manner of their fathers, +pli malvarma ol la antaŭa; sed caring nothing[13] for the way +la tero estis fruktodona, ĝi of life[14] of other men beyond +donis al ili sufiĉe da greno the hills. In summer it was +por manĝi, kaj la riveroj kaj very hot,[15] and every winter +riveretoj plene provizis puran seemed colder than the last; +trinkaĵon. but the earth was fertile, it + gave them enough corn[16] to + eat, and the streams and rivers + furnished abundance of pure water + to drink.[17] + + [1]Unwise. Wise = _saĝa_; _ne_ = not. [2]Far. Near = _proksim-e_ + (_e_ = adverbial ending). To be near = _proksimi_. _Mal-_ is a + prefix denoting the opposite. [3]Unknown. To know = _koni_. Pres. + part. pass. _-at-_ Negative = _ne_. (_bona_ = good; _malbona_ = + bad; _nebona_ = not good.) [4]Plain. Flat = _eben-a_. _aĵ_ is + a suffix denoting something made from or possessing the quality + of. [5]Outer. Outside (preposition) = _ekster_. _a_ denotes an + adjective. [6]Towards one side. Side = _flank-o_. _e_ denotes an + adverb; _flanke_ = "sidely," i.e. at the side, _n_ denotes motion + towards. [7]Journeying. This participial phrase qualifies the verb, + _venus_, like an adverb. In Esperanto the participle therefore takes + an _e_ which denotes an adverb. [8]Ten days, i.e. for the duration + of ten days. Duration of time is put in the accusative case. [9]Big + mountain-range. Mountain = _mont-o_. _eg_ is a suffix denoting + bigness; _ar_ is a suffix denoting a collection. [10]Boundless. Limit + = _lim-o_. Without = _sen_. [11]Thus. See p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V] + for correlatives. [12]They lived. To live = _viv-i_. _ad_ is a suffix + denoting continued action. [13]Caring nothing. Care = _zorg-o_. + _Sen_ = without. _a_ denotes an adjective. [14]Way of life. Lit. the + acting and doing. [15]It was very hot. In such impersonal uses of + the adjective, the adverbial form is used. [16]Enough corn, _da_ is + used after words of quantity. _Sufiĉan grenon_ would also be right. + [17]Water to drink. Lit. drink-stuff, or drink-thing. + +Tiel ili vivadis ne malfeliĉe, Thus they lived not unhappily, +kaj ilia vivo estis la vivo and their life was the life of +de la prapatroj, ĉar ili ne their forefathers, for they knew +sciis kiel ĝin plibonigi. not how to better[1] it. But +Sed mankis en ilia lando unu in their land one thing[2] was +aĵo, kaj pro tiu ĉi manko lacking; and for[3] lack of this +ili multe suferis: en la tuta they suffered greatly: there +lando ĉeestis nenia ŝirmilo, was[4] no shelter[5] in all the +ĉu kontraŭ la suno en somero, land, whether against the sun in +ĉu por forteni la vintrajn summer, or to keep off[6] the +ventojn. Ĉiuflanke la tero estis winter winds. On every side the +plata; kaj kvankam la greno ground was flat; and although corn +kaj ĉiuspecaj legomoj kreskis and all kinds of[7] vegetables +bone, arboj estis nekonataj. Eĉ grew well, trees were unknown. +la malproksima montaro staris Even the distant mountains stood +tutnuda; kaj kiam la ventoj all bare; and when the winds blew +blovis forte el ĝiaj neĝoj, la strong from amidst their[8] snows, +mizeruloj tremetis pro malvarmeco, the poor folk shivered for cold, +kaj ne povis eĉ en siaj dometoj and could not get comfortable[9] +komfortiĝi, ĉar la penetranta even in their cottages, for the +enfluo de malvarma aero stele penetrating draught of the cold +eniris ĝis la familian kamenon. air crept[10] right in to the + family fireside. + + [1]Better. Good = _bon-a_; better = _pli bona_; suf. _-ig_ is + causative. [2]One thing. The concrete suffix _-aĵ_ by itself may be + used to express "thing." Of course it takes the substantival ending + _o_. [3]For lack. Esperanto is absolutely precise in the use of + prepositions according to sense. No idiom. In this it differs from + all other languages. Here "for" means "by reason of." [4]There was. + _Est-i_ = to be; _ĉe_ = at; _ĉeesti_ = to be present. [5]Shelter. + To shelter = _ŝirm-i_; _il_ is a suffix expressing instrument. + [6]Keep off. To hold = _ten-i_; away = _for_. [7]All kinds of. + Kind = _spec-o_; all = _ĉiu_. _a_ is adjectival ending. [8]Their + snows. Whose snows? The mountains'. Therefore _ĝiaj_, referring + to _montaro_. If "their" referred to "winds," it would be _siaj_. + [9]Get comfortable. Comfort(able) = _komfort-o_; suf. _iĝ_ denotes + becoming. [10]Crept in. To steal = _ŝtel-i_; _-e_ makes it an + adverb. + +Nu okazis ke certa knabo, pensema Now, it happened that a certain +preter siaj jaroj, komencis boy, thoughtful[1] beyond his +pripensi tiun ĉi mizeran staton. years, began to think over this +Li vivis kun sia vidvina patrino, wretched state of things. He +kiu havis du infanetojn krom lived with his[2] widowed mother, +Namezo (tiel nomiĝis la knabo). who had two little children +Ili estis tre malriĉaj, kaj devis besides Namezo (this was the lad's +senĉese labori por nutri sin name[3]). They were very poor, +mem kaj la infanojn. La vidvino and were obliged to work hard +ne havis pli ol kvardek jarojn, without stopping to get food for +sed Namezo rimarkis ke vespere, themselves and the children. The +post la taga laboro, ŝi ŝajnis widow was not more than forty, but +tute lacega, kaj kelkajn jarojn Namezo noticed that of an evening, +post la morto de sia edzo ŝi after the day's work, she seemed +ekmaljuniĝis. Ofte la knabo diris quite tired out,[4] and a few +al ŝi, ke ŝi devus pli ripozi, years[5] after her husband's death +sed ĉiumatene post la nokto ŝi she grew old all at once.[6] Often +havis mienon tiel same lacegan the boy told her she ought to take +kiel vespere; kaj ŝi plendis ke more rest, but every morning[7] +la trablovaj ventoj suferigis sin she had the same worn-out look as +nokte per reŭmatismaj doloroj, in the evening; and she complained +kaj somere ŝi ne povis dormi pro that the winds blowing through of +varmeco. Tiam la knabo turnis a night plagued[8] her with[9] +la okulojn ekster sia hejmo kaj rheumatic pains, and in summer +rigardis ĉirkaŭen. Li vidis ke she could not sleep because of +ĉiuflanke estis tiel same: la the heat. Then the boy turned his +geviroj frue maljuniĝis kaj multe eyes outwards from his home and +suferis. Li pensis, "Baldaŭ estos looked around him. He saw that on +al mi ankaŭ simile; la juneco every side it was the same[10]: +estas mallonga kaj labora, kaj la men and women[11] grew old early +vivo estas longa kaj ĉagrena." and suffered much. He thought, +Fine li malgajadis. "Soon it will be the same with me; + youth[12] is short and full of + work, and life is long and full of + trouble." At last he became gloomy + altogether.[13] + + [1]Thoughtful. To think = _pens-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [2]With his widowed mother, i.e. his own = _sia_. [3]This was + his name. To name = _nom-i_; with suf. _-iĝ_ = to get named, + to be called. [4]Tired out. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. _-eg_ denotes + intensity. [5]A few years. Accusative of time. [6]She grew old all + at once. Young = _jun-a_; old = _maljuna_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming; prefix _ek-_ denotes beginning, or sudden action. [7]Every + morning = _ĉiumatene_. "The whole morning" would be _la tutan + matenon_. [8]Plagued. To suffer = _sufer-i_; suf. _-ig_ is causative; + _suferigi_ = to cause to suffer. [9]With... pains. Think of the + sense. "With" = by means of. [10]It was the same. Impersonal: use + the adverbial form in _-e._ [11]Men and women. Pref. _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [12]Youth. Young = _juna_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. + [13]Became gloomy altogether. Gay = _gaj-a_; gloomy = _malgaja_; suf. + _-ad_ denotes continuance. + +Vintro forpasis, somero alvenis. Winter passed away, summer came +Unu nokton la knabo estis kuŝanta on. One night the boy was lying +en sia lito: li estis laboreginta in his bed: he had been working +en la kampoj, kaj estis tre laca, hard[1] in the fields, and was +sed ju pli li penis ekdormi, very tired, but the more he +des pli li obstine vekiĝadis. tried to go to sleep[2] the +La tutan fajran tagon la suno wider awake he grew. All through +estis malsupren brilinta sur la the long fiery day the sun had +tegmenton de la dometo, tiel ke la been beating down[3] on the roof +kuŝejo nun similis fornon. Namezo of the cottage, so that the +pensis kaj turniĝis, returniĝis sleeping-place[4] was now like an +kaj repensis; la samaj pensoj, oven. Namezo thought and tossed, +ĉiam ronde revenantaj, iĝis tossed and thought again; the same +turmento. Fine li ekdormetis, sed thoughts, always coming round in +la konfuzigaj pensoj, ĉiam la a circle, became[5] a torture. +pensoj, ruladis eĉ en lia dormo At length he fell into a light +senkompate tra lia cerbo. sleep,[6] but the distracting[7] + thoughts, always the thoughts, + kept rolling[8] through his brain + pitilessly, even in his sleep. + +Subite ekfalis sur lin granda All at once a great peace fell +paco. Li ŝajnis stari sur monta upon him. He seemed to be standing +pinto. Laceco kaj zorgo ne estis on a mountain-peak. Weariness[9] +plu. Ĉirkaŭe vasta soleco. Li and care were no more. Around +kaj la monto—krom tio ekzistis vast solitude. He and the +nenio, kaj li estis kontenta. mountain—there was nought else, + and he was glad. + +Al li, tiel lukse enspiranta la While he thus breathed in the +freŝan aeron, alvenis fluge fresh air with delight, a white +blanka birdo. Ĝi aperis, li ne bird came flying.[10] It appeared, +sciis kiel, el la ĉirkaŭanta he knew not how, out of the +soleco, kaj metiĝis apud li sur surrounding solitude,[11] and came +la montan pinton. Ĝi komencis and perched[12] beside him on the +paroli, kaj en lia sonĝo tio ĉi mountain-top. It began to speak, +neniel lin surprizis. and in his dream this[13] in no + way[14] astonished him. + + [1]He had been working hard. Pluperfect, lit. he was having worked. + Suf. _-eg_ denotes intensity. [2]To go to sleep. To sleep = _dorm-i_; + pref. _ek-_ denotes beginning. [3]Down. Above = _supr-e_; below = + _malsupre_; _n_ denotes motion. [4]Sleeping-place. To lie = _kuŝi_; + suf. _-ej_ denotes place. [5]Became. Suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming; + here used as a separate verb. [6]Fell into a light sleep. To sleep + = _dorm-i_; suf. _-et_ denotes light sleep; pref. _ek-_ denotes + beginning. [7]Distracting. Confused = _konfuz-a_; suf. _-ig_ denotes + causation, confusion-causing. [8]Kept rolling. To roll = _rul-i_; + suf. _-ad_ denotes continuance. [9]Weariness. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. + _-ec_ denotes abstract. [10]Came flying. To fly = _flug-i_; root + _flug-_ with adverbial ending _-e_ = flyingly. [11]Solitude. Alone = + _sol-a_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. [12]Came and perched. The idea + of motion is conveyed by the accusative (_-n_) _pinton_. [13]This. + Use neuter form in _-o_, because it stands alone. "This dream" = _tiu + ĉi sonĝo_. [14]In no way. See table of correlatives, p. 193 [Part + IV, Chapter V]. + +"Homa knabo," diris la birdo, "Mortal[1] boy," said the bird, +faligante en lian manon semon dropping[2] a seed into his hand +el sia beko, "prenu tiun ĉi from its beak, "take this seed: +semon: metu ĝin en la teron: put it in the ground: care for +prizorgu ĝin, flegu ĝin, kaj it, tend it, and keep tending it. +flegadu ĝin. Post tempo plenigota In the fulness of time there will +leviĝos el tiu ĉi semo kreskaĵo rise[3] from this seed such[5] a +tia, kian la viaj ĝis nun ne growth[4] as[5] your people[6] +vidis. La aliaj homoj nomas ĝin never yet saw. Other peoples call +_arbon_. Ĝi estos granda; kaj en it a _tree_. It will be big; and +la venontaj jaroj, se oni deve in future[7] years, if it is duly +ĝin flegos, naskiĝos el ĝi tended, there will spring from it +arbaroj, kiuj estos ŝirmilo por groves,[8] which will give shelter +la homaro, kaj por multaj aliaj to men and women, and will be +celoj utilos. Sed flegi ĝin oni useful for many other ends. But +devos, ĉar sen homa penado nenio tended it must be, for without +al homoj prosperas." man's striving nothing turns out + well for men." + +Namezo volis respondi, sed dum Namezo was about to reply, but +li levis la manon por rigardi la as he raised his hand to look at +semon, estis al li kvazaŭ li the seed, he seemed to turn[9] +turniĝis, la kapo malsupren: la head downwards: the mountain +monto malaperis, kaj li disappeared,[10] and he +falis... falis... falis.... fell... fell... fell.... + + [1]Mortal. Man = _hom-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adj. [2]Dropping. + To fall = _fal-i_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to fall. [3]Rise. To + raise = _lev-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive. [4]A growth. + To grow = _kreski_; "grow-thing" — _kresk-aĵ-o_. [5]Such...as. + _Tia...kia_ (= Latin _talis...qualis)._ See table of correlatives, + p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. [6]Your people. You = _vi_; _-a_ makes + it an adj. [7]Future. Future participle active of _ven-i_ = about + to come. [8]Groves. Tree = _arb-o_; suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection + of trees. [9]To turn. _Turn-i_ is transitive; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it + intransitive. [10]Disappeared. To appear = _aper-i_; pref. _mal-_ + denotes opposite. + +Tiam li estis denove veka en la Then he was awake again in the +forna dometo, sed li ne povis sin oven-like[1] hut, but he could +malhelpi, rigardi sian manon, por not refrain[2] from[3] looking at +vidi ĉu la semo enestis. Semo his hand, to see if the seed was +neestis: kaj la pensoj rekomencis in it. There was no seed; and the +ruladi tra lia cerbo—tamen ne plu thoughts began to roll through +la antaŭaj turmentigaj pensoj, his brain again—yet no longer +sed novaj esperplenaj pensoj, ĉar the old[4] worrying thoughts, +li kredis, pasie kredis, ke estas but new thoughts full of hope, +ja ia veraĵo en lia sonĝo. for he believed, passionately + believed, that there was indeed + some truth[5] in his dream. + +Kaj nun la morgaŭa tago And now the new day began to dawn. +eklumiĝis. Li leviĝis kaj iris He got up and went about his work, +al sia laboro, kaj tiun ĉi tagon and this day and many succeeding +kaj multajn sekvantajn tagojn li days he went on working as usual, +laboradis kiel kutime, parolante speaking to no one about his dream +al neniu pri la sema sonĝo. of the seed. + +Sed kiam la tempo de rikolto But when harvest-time was over, +forpasis, li aĉetis dudektagan he bought food[6] enough for +nutraĵon kaj donis al la patrino twenty days and gave his mother +sian restan ŝparaĵon el la the rest[7] of his harvest-tide +rikolta tempo (ĉar vi scias, savings[8] (for you know that +ke en la sezono de rikolto bona in the harvest season a good +laboristo gajnas pli ol alitempe), workman[9] earns more than at +dirante ke li devos vojaĝi, kaj other times), saying that he +forestos dudek tagojn. La patrino must[10] go on a journey, and +miregis, ĉar neniam antaŭe li would[10] be away for twenty days. +estis lasinta ŝin eĉ unu tagon; His mother wondered greatly, for +sed li estis bona filo, kaj ŝi he had never left[11] her before +kontraŭstaris lin en nenio. even for a single day; but he was + a good son to her, and she did not + thwart him in anything. + + [1]Oven-like. Oven = _forn-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [2]Refrain. To help = _help-i_; to hinder = _malhelpi_; to hinder + himself = _malhelpi sin._ [3]Refrain from looking. In Esperanto use + the simplest construction possible, _as long as it is clear_. The + simple infinitive _rigardi_ is clear after _malhelpi sin._ [4]The + old thoughts. Before = _antaŭ_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [5]Truth. Think of the sense. Here truth = "true-thing," so use + suf. _-aĵ_. "Truth" = abstract virtue = _vereco_. [6]Food. To feed + = _nutr-i_; suf. _-aĵ_ denotes stuff. [7]The rest of. The rest = + _rest-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective = remaining. [8]Savings. + To save up = _ŝpar-i_; _ŝpar-aĵ-o_ = save-thing (i.e. sav_ed_ + thing). [9]Workman. To work = _labor-i_; suf. _-ist_ denotes the + agent. [10]He _must_ go... and _would_ be away. Esperanto syntax + is perfectly simple. Just use the tense which the speaker would use, + here the future; or any tense, so long as the meaning is clear. + [11]He had left. Pluperfect = "he was having left," _esti_ with past + part. _active_. _Li estis lasita_ would mean "he had been left." + +Li forvojaĝis do, kaj post kvin So he journeyed forth, and in five +tagoj li ekvidis malproksime sur days he began to see far off on +la horizonto blankan nubon, kiu the horizon a white cloud, which +dum la morgaŭa tago montriĝis turned out[1] in the course of the +kiel monta pinto. Namezo salutis next day to be a mountain-peak. +ĝin, kaj de tiu momento, sen ia Namezo saluted it, and from that +dubo, direktis sian iron tra la moment, without any doubt, bent +ebenaĵo ĉiam al ĝi. his course[2] across the plain + constantly towards it. + +Kiam li alvenis piedon de When he came to the foot[3] of +la montoj, la deka tago jam the mountains, the tenth[4] day +finiĝis. Efektive li estis grave was already drawing to an end. +trompiĝinta pri la distanco. Indeed, Namezo had been greatly +Neniam antaŭe li vidis monton, mistaken[5] in the distance. He +kaj tial, kiam li ekvidis la had never seen a mountain before, +pinton meze de la vojaĝo, li and so, when he caught sight of +kredis ke li ĵus alvenas, kaj the peak half-way, he thought +marŝis pli malrapide. Tri tagojn he was just getting there, and +li pensis ĉiumatene, "Mi estos walked slower. For three days he +hodiaŭ vespere ĉe la montpiedo; thought every morning, "I shall +morgaŭ mi suprenrampos ĝis la be at the foot of the mountains +pinton." Sed nun li sciis, ke li this evening; to-morrow I'll +estas malfrua. Li formanĝis jam climb[6] to the top." But now +la duonon de sia provizaĵo, kaj he knew that he was late.[7] He +dum la lastaj mejloj li ekvidis had already eaten up half[8] of +ke lia pinto estas parto de vasta his provisions,[9] and for the +senlima montegaro, ke ĝi ankoraŭ last few miles he was beginning +malproksimas kaj li tute ne tiel to see that his peak was part +facile supreniros. Li kalkulis ke of a boundless mountain-range, +almenaŭ oktaga nutraĵo estos that it was still far off and +necesa por reiri hejmen de la he would by no means get up so +piedo de la montaro, kaj tiom easily. He calculated that at +li tie enterigis por la returna least eight days' food would be +vojaĝo. Sekve restis nur dutaga needed to get home from the foot +manĝaĵo por la suprena kaj of the mountain-range, and he +malsuprena montiro. buried[10] that amount[11] there + for the return journey. Thus only + two days' provision was left for + the ascent and descent of the + mountain. + + [1]Turned out to be. To show = _montr-i_; with suf. _-iĝ, + montriĝ-i_ = to show itself, to become shown. [2]His course. To go + = _ir-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = a going. [3]To the + foot. Motion; use the _-n_ case. [4]Tenth. Ten = _dek_; to form the + ordinal numbers add _-a_ to the cardinal. [5]Mistaken. To deceive + = _tromp-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive. [6]Climb. _Supr-a, + -e, -en_ = upper, above, upwards. [7]Late. Early = _fru-a_; pref. + _mal_- denotes opposite. [8]Half. Two = _du_; suf. _-on_ denotes + fractions. cf. _kvarono_ = quarter. [9]Provisions. Provide-stuff + (i.e. provid_ed_ stuff). [10]Buried. Earth = _ter-o_; in = _en_; suf. + _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [11]That amount. _Tiom_. See the table + of correlatives, p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. + +Tre frue do li ekiris la dekunuan Very early, then, on the +tagon, kaj penadis ĉiutage eleventh[1] day he set out, and +supren. Vespere li vidis ke li toiled the whole day upwards. +ankoraŭ havas plenan tagvojaĝon In the evening he saw that he +ĝis la pinton, kaj tiel li devos still had a full day's journey +tre ŝpareme uzi sian restan to the top, and so he must be +provizaĵon. La dekdua tago estis very sparing[2] in the use of his +tre doloriga. La monto fariĝis remaining stores. The twelfth day +kruta; li devis rapidi; kaj li was very painful.[3] The mountain +terure malsatis pro ekmankanta grew[4] steep; he had to press on; +manĝaĵo. Malgraŭ ĉio li and he was terribly hungry,[5] +alvenis montpinton je la noktiĝo. as the food was beginning to +La subita ekscito, kune kun la give out. In spite of all, he +laceco kaj malsato, estis tro: en reached the top at nightfall.[6] +la momenta de sukceso li falis en The sudden excitement, with his +sveno sur la teron. weariness and hunger, was too + much: in the moment of success he + fell to the ground in a swoon. + +Jen, dum li kuŝis senkonscie, And lo! as he lay unconscious, +aperis la duan fojon la sama there appeared to him for the +vidaĵo. Birdo blanka alflugis, second time the same vision.[7] +metis en lian manon semon, kaj A white bird flew up, put a seed +diris la samajn vortojn. Denove into his hand, and said the same +li levis la manon, kaj denove li words. Again he raised his hand, +ŝajnis renversiĝi, kaj falis... and again he seemed to turn over, +falis... falis.... and fell... fell... fell.... + +Rekonsciiĝinte, li trovis sin When he came to himself,[8] he +kuŝanta trankvile apud la loko was lying quietly in the very +mem, kie li enterigis sian place where he had buried his +returnan provizaĵon antaŭ la food for the home journey before +supreniro. Li kuŝis sur dolĉa the ascent. He was lying on soft +herbo, kaj sentis sin korpe tute grass, and his body felt free from +mallacigata, kaj granda paco its tiredness,[9] and in his soul +regis en lia animo. Tuj kiam li reigned a great peace. As soon as +malfermis la okulojn, li rigardis he opened[10] his eyes, he looked +en sian manon, kaj tiun ĉi fojon in his hand, and this time the +la semo enestis. seed was there. + + [1]Eleven = _dek-unu_; add _-a_ to make the ordinal. 20 = _dudek_. + [2]Sparing. To save = _ŝpar-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [3]Painful. Pain = _dolor-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [4]Grew. To make = _far-i_; suf. _-iĝ_ + denotes becoming made, growing. [5]Hungry. Satisfied = _sat-a_; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite. To be hungry = _mal-sat-i_. + [6]Nightfall. Night = _nokt-o_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. + [7]Vision. See(n)-thing; _vid-i_ = to see; with suffix _-aĵ_. + [8]When he came to himself. Conscious = _konsci-a_; prefix _re-_ + denotes back again; suffix _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [9]Free from + tiredness. Tired = _lac-a_; _mal-_ denotes opposite; _-ig_ denotes + causing to be. [10]Opened. To shut = _ferm-i_; to open = _malfermi_. + +Longa, labora kaj preskaŭ A long, laborious descent from +sennutra malsupreniro de la the mountain-top almost without +montpinto jam ne necesis, kaj la food was now no longer needful, +hejmvojaĝo trans la ebenaĵo and on the home journey across +prosperis, tiel ke Namezo staris the plain all went well, so that +baldaŭ ree en la patrina dometo. Namezo soon stood again in his +La vilaĝanoj kunvenis amase kaj mother's[1] cottage. The villagers +multe demandis pri lia vojaĝo, flocked in crowds[2] and asked +ĉar neniu el ili estis iam tiel many questions about his journey, +malproksimen foririnta de la for none of them had ever been +hejmo. Namezo ĉion rakontis, so far from home. Namezo told +kaj montris la semon kiun li them everything, and showed the +devos planti. La najbaroj komence seed which he was to plant. At +kredis, ke li volas mirigi ilin, first the neighbours thought he +kiel la vojaĝistoj amas fari, kaj was trying to astonish[3] them, +ili ridis pri liaj rakontaĵoj. as travellers are wont to do, +Sed, kiam ili vidis ke li estis and they laughed at his tales. +serioza, ili ekkoleriĝis kaj But when they saw that he was in +volis forpreni lian semon kaj earnest, they got in a rage,[4] +detrui ĝin. "'_Arbo_' estas and wanted to take away his seed +sensencaĵo," ili diris; "ne and destroy it. "A '_tree_' is +povas ekzisti alia kreskaĵo, foolishness,"[5] they said; "no +krom la rikoltoj kaj la legomoj other plant can exist, except the +kiujn ni kaj niaj patroj jam crops and vegetables that we and +ĉiam kreskigis. Estas neeble our fathers have always grown. +ke io alia kresku kaj iĝu pli It is impossible for anything +granda." Kaj unuj diris ke li else to grow and become[6] bigger +estas vana sonĝisto, kaj aliaj than they." And some said that he +ke li frenezas. Sed lia patrino was an idle dreamer, and others +kuraĝigis lin. that he was mad. But his mother + encouraged him. + + [1]Mother's. Father = _patr-o_; suf. _-in_ denotes feminine; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [2]In crowds. Crowd = _amas-o_; ending + _-e_ makes it an adverb. [3]Astonish. To wonder = _mir-i_; suf. _-ig_ + makes it transitive. [4]Got in a rage. Anger = _koler-o_; pref. _ek-_ + denotes beginning; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [5]Foolishness. + Sense = _senc-o_; without = _sen_; suf. _-aĵ_ = without-sense-stuff. + [6]Become. Suf. _-iĝ_ is here used alone as a verb = to become. + +Kaj Namezo timis por sia semo, kaj And Namezo feared for his seed, +pripensis kiel li povos savi ĝin and thought how he could save it +de la najbaroj kiam ĝi ekkreskos. from the neighbours when it began +Kaj li eliris el la vilaĝo nokte, to grow up. And he went out of the +kaj plantis ĝin malproksime de village by night, and planted it +ĉiuj domoj, apud rivereto en far away from all the houses, by +malleviĝo de la tero, kie oni a little stream in a hollow[1] of +ĝin ne vidos ĝis ĝi estos tre the ground, where it would not be +granda. Kaj komence li iris tien seen till it grew very big. And at +nur nokte; sed, ĉar li ne parolis first he went there only by night; +plu pri sia semo, la vilaĝanoj but, as he said no more about his +forgesis la aferon, tiel ke li seed, the villagers forgot the +povis eliri el la vilaĝo vespere matter, so that he could go out of +post sia taglaboro kiam li volis, the village in the evenings after +kaj neniu zorgis pri tio, kien his day's work whenever he liked, +li iras. Sed li ne kuraĝis ĝin and nobody troubled about where +transplanti apud sian dometon, he was going.[2] But he did not +timante ke oni difektu ĝin aŭ dare to transplant it to his own +ŝerce aŭ malice, kaj sekve cottage, fearing that they would +restis por li la granda laborado damage it in jest or malice, and +iri, kiam li estis jam laca, so the hard work remained for him +malproksimen por flegi ĝin. of going a long way to look after + it, when he was already tired. + + [1]A hollow. To raise = _lev-i_; suf _-iĝ_ makes it intransitive; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite; ending _-o_ makes it a noun. + [2]Where he was going. "Where" here = "whither," therefore add _-n_, + which denotes motion. + +Jaroj forpasadis: Namezo Years passed away: Namezo grew +grandiĝis, sed lia kreskaĵo up,[1] but his plant would not +ne volis grandiĝi. Multfoje grow up too. Many a time he +li malesperis, vidante ke ĝi despaired,[2] seeing that it +kvazaŭ ne kreskadis plu, aŭ seemed as though it had given up +ke ĝi en somero havis velkan growing, or that it had a faded +mienon. Multajn vintrojn ĝi look in summer. Many winters it +preskaŭ mortis per frosto. Sed nearly died of the frosts. But he +li persistis, kaj ĉiuokaze li persevered, and in every case[3] +provis ian novan flegon, ĉar he tried some new treatment, +neniam antaŭe en la tuta lando for never before in the whole +oni kreskigis tielan plantaĵon. land had any one grown[4] such a +Iatempe li metis sterkon: tiam li plant. At one time he would put +subdrenis la teron, ĉirkaŭhakis on manure; then he tried draining +la branĉetojn, aŭ ŝirmis la the ground, pruning the shoots, +burĝonojn kontraŭ la ventoj. or protecting the buds against +Ree, vidante ke malgraŭ ĉio la the winds. Again, seeing that +arbeto ne prosperis, li pretigis in spite of all the little tree +novan teraĵon kaj transplantis did not flourish, he prepared[5] +ĝin, antaŭe enpluginte alispecan a new soil-bed and transplanted +teron. Li eksperimentis per seka, it, having first ploughed in +poste per malseka, subtero: a different kind of earth. He +unuvorte, li senĉese penadis, experimented with dry, and then +diversigante konstante la with damp, sub-soil: in short, he +kondiĉojn ĝis li ĝuste trafos. toiled ceaselessly, constantly +Fine, kiam li jam de longe estis varying[6] the conditions till he +plenaĝa, lia deziro plenumiĝis: should hit off the right thing. +tie, apud la rivereto staris At last, when he had long come to +granda belkreska _arbo_. be a grown man,[7] his desire was + fulfilled:[8] there beside the + stream stood a fine big _tree_. + + [1]Grew up. Big = _grand-a_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. + [2]Despaired. To hope = _esper-i_; pref. _mal-_ denotes opposite. + [3]In every case. To happen = _okaz-i_; any or all = _ĉiu_; + ending _-e_ makes it adverbial = "any-happening-ly," i.e. whatever + happened. [4]Grown. To grow (intrans.) = _kresk-i_; suf. _-ig_ makes + it transitive. [5]Prepared. Ready = _pret-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to make + ready. [6]Varying. Diverse = _divers-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to render + diverse. [7]A grown man. Age = _aĝ-o_; full = _plen-a_; ending _-a_ + denotes adj. [8]Was fulfilled. To fulfil = _plenum-i_; _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming. + +En somero, kiam la folioj estis In summer, when it was in full +plenaj, li kondukis tien kelkajn leaf, he took his friends there, +amikojn, kaj ili ĝojis sidantaj and they rejoiced sitting in the +vespere sub la freŝa ombro. En cool shade at evening. In autumn +aŭtuno ili kolektis la semujojn, they collected the pods,[1] took +portis ilin en la vilaĝon, kaj them to the village, and tried to +penis decidigi la vilaĝanojn get the villagers to plant the +planti la semaron apud siaj seed by their homes, to give them +dometoj, por havi ŝirmilon. Sed shelter. But the villagers would +la vilaĝanoj ne volis. not have them. + +Unu diris, "Arbo estas neebla."* One said, "A tree is + impossible."[2] + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Arbo And Namezo answered, "A tree +ekzistas. Venu kun mi, kaj mi exists. Come with me, and I will +vidigos vin." show[3] you." + +Sed li diris, "Arbo estas neebla." But he said, "A tree is + impossible." + + *For this and the following objections of the villagers, compare + Part I., chap. xv., pp. 54-6. + + [1]Pods. Seed = _sem-o_; suf. _-uj_ denotes that which contains. + [2]Impossible. Suf. _-ebl_ denotes possibility, and can, like all + suffixes, be used by itself. _Ne-ebl-a_ = not possible. [3]Show. + To see = _vid-i_; with suf. _-ig_ = to cause to see. + +Ree Namezo diris, "Se vi nur tiom Again Namezo said, "If you will +da peno faros, kiom necesas por only take as much trouble[1] as +eliri el la vilaĝo, mi montros is necessary to go out of the +al vi arbon, sub kiu miaj amikoj village, I will show you a tree, +kaj mi ŝirmiĝas ĉiuvespere. under which my friends and I take +Venu nur kaj provu se ĝi plaĉos shelter every evening. Only just +ankaŭ al vi." come and try whether it pleases + you also." + +Sed li diris, "Mi ne volas eliri. But he said, "I will not go out. A +Arbo estas neebla." tree is impossible." + +Alia diris, "Mi vidis vian arbon, Another said, "I have seen your +kaj mi trovas ĝin tute senutila." tree, and I consider it perfectly + useless." + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Kial?" And Namezo answered, "Why?" + +Kaj li diris, "Niaj patroj ne And he said, "Our fathers had no +havis arbon." trees." + +Namezo diris, "Niaj patroj suferis Namezo said, "Our fathers suffered +pro manko de ŝirmado." from want of shelter." + +Kaj li diris, "Tial mi ankaŭ And he said, "Therefore I too will +suferos." suffer." + +Alia diris, "Ni havas ja sufiĉe Another said, "We have enough +da kreskaĵoj. Niaj rikoltoj kaj plants. Our crops and vegetables +legomoj provizas nutraĵon, kaj la provide food, and our gay flowers +belaj floroj ĉarmas la okulon. charm the eye. Another growing +Alia kreskaĵo estus superflua." thing would be superfluous." + + [1]Trouble. To try = _pen-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = + trying, effort. + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Bone. Niaj And Namezo answered, "Good. The +ĝisnunaj kreskaĵoj plenumas la plants we have already[1] fulfil +ĉefajn bezonojn de la homaro. the chief needs of mankind. +Manĝo kaj certa ornamo estas Food and some ornament are +necesaĵoj por la homa naturo, necessities[2] for human nature, +kaj por tiuj ĉi uzoj ni havas and for these uses we have the +rikoltojn kaj florojn. Sed la vivo crops and flowers. But life would +estus pli plezura se ni estus pli be pleasanter if we were better +bone ŝirmataj. Tiun ĉi apartan sheltered. This special service[3] +servon prezentas la arboj, kaj ni is done by the trees, and we can +povos ĝui ĝin sen fordoni la enjoy it without foregoing the +profiton de floro kaj rikolto. Ne, advantage of flower and crop. +plue, niaj rikoltoj, ŝirmataj Nay, more, our crops, sheltered +de la montaj ventoj, pli facile from the winds that blow from the +maturiĝos: tiel ni havos pli da mountains, will ripen[4] more +tempo por la plezurigaj laboroj, easily: thus we shall have more +kaj la floroj estos ankoraŭ pli time for the work that brings +belaj." pleasure,[5] and the flowers will + be even more lovely." + +Kaj li diris, "Tagmeze, kiam la And he said, "At noon,[6] when the +suno brilas, mi kuŝas inter sun shines warm, I lie amidst the +la altstaranta greno. Tiu ĉi deep standing corn. This shelter +ŝirmilo sufiĉas. Ni havas is enough. We have plants enough. +sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. Arbo A tree is not a plant; it is a +ne estas kreskaĵo; ĝi estas monster. Go to the devil!" +monstro. Iru diablon!" + +Kaj Namezo iris al la diablo, And Namezo went to the devil, +ĉar li estis preta iri kien ajn, for he was ready to go anywhere, +plivole ol daŭrigi paroli kun la rather than continue to talk to +vilaĝanoj. the villagers. + +Li diris, "Via diabla Moŝto, la He said, "Your devilish Majesty, +vilaĝanoj naŭzadas min, kaj mi the villagers make me sick,[7] and +estas laca je mia vivo. Faru el mi I am tired of[8] my life. Do with +kion vi volas." me as you will." + + [1]The plants we have already. Lit. our till-now plants. + [2]necessities. Necessary = _neces-a_: with suf. _-aĵ_ = necessary + things. [3]Service. To serve = _serv-i_; ending _-o_ makes it + a substantive. [4]Ripen. Ripe = _matur-a_; suf. _-iĝ_ denotes + becoming. [5]Work that brings pleasure. Pleasure = _plezur-o_; + suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [6]Noon. Day = _tag-o_; middle = + _mez-o_; ending _-e_ is adverbial. [7]Make me sick. To make sick = + _naŭz-i_; _-ad_ denotes continuation. [8]Tired of. The preposition + _je_ is used when no other preposition exactly fits. + +Respondis la diablo, "Mi ne The devil made answer, "I +povas ion fari por vi, mizerulo! can do nothing for you, poor +La vilaĝanoj estas venkintaj wretch![1] The villagers have +min; kaj mi retiras min de la beaten me; and I am retiring from +aferoj. Neniam, eĉ en miaj plej business. Never, even in my most +eltrovemaj tagoj, mi elpensis ingenious[2] days, did I invent +tiel mortigan turmenton por such a deadly[3] torment for a +progresema homo, kiel sukcesi en progressive man, as to succeed in +la produkto de profitiga uzilo, producing a beneficial[4] device, +kaj tiam devi penadi, por igi and then have to keep striving to +siajn kunulojn alpreni ĝin. get his fellows[5] to adopt it. +Reiru al la vilaĝanoj kaj donu Go back again to the villagers, +al ili miajn respektplenajn and give them my respectful +komplimentojn." compliments." + +Pezakore, Namezo reiris hejmen, Heavy at heart, Namezo went home +kaj envoje li renkontis again, and on the way he fell +vilaĝanaron portantan hakilojn. in with a band of villagers[6] +Li demandis kial ili portas carrying axes.[7] He asked why +hakilojn. they were carrying axes. + +"Por dehaki la arbon," respondis "To cut down the tree," replied +la grupestro; "ni timas ke ĝi the leader of the band[8]; "we are +etendiĝos sur la tutan landon. afraid that it will spread and +Se oni prenos la fruktetojn kaj fill the whole land. If the people +plantos ilin apud sia loĝejo, la take the fruits and plant them at +arboj entrudos sin en la kampojn their own homes,[9] trees will +kaj en la florbedojn, kaj elpuŝos encroach upon the fields and upon +la aliajn kreskaĵojn." the flower-beds, and will drive + out the other plants." + + [1]Wretch. Misery = _miser-o_; suf. _-ul_ denotes having the quality + of. [2]Ingenious. To find = _trov-i_; out = _el_; suf. _-em_ denotes + propensity or aptitude. [3]Deadly. To die = _mort-i_; suf. _-ig_ + denotes to cause to die. [4]Beneficial. Profit-causing; suf. _-ig_. + [5]Fellows. With = _kun_; suf. _-ul_ denotes state or quality. [6]A + band of villagers. Suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection. [7]Axes. To hew + = _hak-i_; suf. _-il_ denotes instrument. [8]Leader of the band. + Band = _grup-o_; suf. _-estr_ enotes chief of. [9]Homes. To dwell = + _loĝ-i_; suf. _-ej_ denotes place. + +"Sed vi tute ne devos planti "But you must not plant the trees +la arbojn en la kampoj kaj in the fields and flower-beds," +florbedoj," diris Namezo. La arboj said Namezo. "Trees have a +havas utilon diferencan de la different use from other plants, +aliaj kreskaĵoj kaj oni plantos and they will be planted in quite +ilin en aparta loko. Se okaze arbo separate places. If by chance a +altrudos sin inter la rikoltojn, tree pushes itself in amongst the +oni elradikos ĝin tuj, antaŭ ol crops, it will be rooted out at +ĝi grandiĝos." once, before it gets big." + +"Ne, arbo estas danĝera," kriis "No, trees are dangerous," cried +la hakilistoj; kaj Namezo devis the men with the axes;[1] and +alvoki siajn amikojn por defendi Namezo had to call up his friends +la arbon. to defend the tree. + +Poste Namezo iris hejmen kaj After this Namezo went home and +enfermis sin en sia dometo. Lia shut himself up in his cottage. +patrino estis jam de longe morta, His mother was by this time +kaj la gefratoj jam edziĝis, kaj long dead, and his brother and +li vivadis sole. Sed li nun ne sister[2] were now married,[3] +povis eĉ resti sola. Venis la and he lived all alone. But now +saĝuloj de la vilaĝo, kaj ili he could not even remain alone. +kriadis tra la fenestro, "Arbo The wise men of the village came +estas bona ideo, sed vi kreskigis along, and they kept shouting +vian arbon malprave. Lasu nin do through the window, "Trees are a +flegi ĝin laŭ nia bontrovo, good idea, but you have grown your +kaj ni baldaŭ plibonigos ĝin, tree the wrong way. So let us look +tiel ke ĝi estos vere alpreninda after it as we see fit, and we'll +arbo." soon improve[4] it, so that it + shall be a tree really fit for us + to take to."[5] + + [1]The men with the axes. To hew = _hak-i_; _-il_ denotes instrument; + _-ist_ denotes agent. [2]Brother and sister. Prefix _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [3]Were married. Husband (wife) = _edz_ (_in_) _-o_; + suffix _-iĝ_ denotes becoming. [4]Improve. Good = _bon-a_; more + = _pli_; _-ig_ denotes causation. [5]Fit to take to. To take = + _pren-i_; to = _al_; _-ind_ denotes worthy. + +Kaj al ili Namezo respondis And to these Namezo answered +nenion. Li sciis ke li estis nothing. He knew that he had given +doninta grandan parton de sia a great part of his life to making +vivo por eksperimenti kaj estis experiment and had produced a +produktinta belkreskan arbon, dum well-grown tree, while the clever +la lertuloj nun estis vidantaj men were now seeing a tree for +arbon je la unua fojo, kaj tute the first time, and were wholly +malsciis la malfacilecojn kiujn ignorant of the difficulties that +oni devas venki, kaj eĉ ne had to be overcome, and did not +komprenis la demandon kiun ili even understand the question they +entreprenis solvi. Sed li sciis were undertaking to solve. But +ankaŭ ke tiela konsidero estas he also knew that to clever men +por lertuloj malpli ol nenio. such a consideration is less than +Estis malutile argumenti kun nothing. It was no good to argue +ili, ĉar ili ne sciis ke ili ne with them, for they did not know +scias, kaj tio ĉi estas plej that they did not know, and this +malfacila lerni. Tial li lasis is the hardest thing to learn. So +ilin paroladi, kaj flegis sian he let them keep on talking, and +arbon kiel antaŭe. "Ĉar," tended his tree as before. "For," +li diris al si mem, "kiam la said he to himself, "when the tree +arbo estos disvastiĝinta kaj has spread and multiplied after +multobliĝinta laŭspece tra its kind throughout the land, from +la lando, per la grada sperto many men's gradual experience +de multaj homoj fariĝos arba there will arise a science of +scienco, kaj tial ni fine ellernos trees, and thus we shall in the +la plej bonan flegmanieron." end find out the best way of +Ankaŭ li pensis, "la diablo estis tending them." Also he thought, +prava: la diablo estas lertulo." "The devil was right: the devil is + a clever man." + +Iom poste alvenis en la vilaĝon Now, some time after there arrived +homoj el aliaj lokoj, kunportantaj in the village men from other +diversajn semojn. Ĉiu el ili places, bringing with them various +laŭdis sian propran semon, seeds. Each of them praised his +dirante ke li estas kreskiginta own seed, telling how he had grown +belan arbon el tia semo, kaj a fine tree from such seed, and +postulante ke la vilaĝanoj plantu urging the villagers to plant his +nur liajn semojn. Tiam iuj diris, seeds only. Then certain of them +"Ni metu ĉiujn la diversajn said, "Let us put all the divers +semojn kunen, kaj ni kreskigu el seeds together, and let us grow +ili unu bonan arbon." Kaj tiuj from them one good tree." And +ĉi petis Namezon ke li neniigu these begged Namezo to destroy[1] +sian arbon kaj pistu ĝiajn semojn his own tree and pound its seeds +kaj almiksu ilin en la kunmetatan and stir them into the compound +semaĵon, por ke unu bona arbo seedstuff, that one good tree +elkresku. might grow out of it. + +Tiel ili babiladis kaj bataladis Thus they babbled and kept +inter si; kaj ili ĉirkaŭ iradis quarrelling among themselves; +en la vilaĝo, montrante modelojn and they went round about in the +de siaj arboj kaj pruvante, ĉiu village showing models of their +ke la sia estas la plej bona. Kaj trees and proving each that his +fine la vilaĝanoj enuiĝis kaj own was the best. And at last +denove volis dehaki ĉiun kaj the villagers grew weary of it, +ĉies arbon. and wanted again to hew down + every tree, no matter to whom it + belonged.[2] + + [1]Destroy. Nothing = _neni-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation. [2]No + matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every one's. + +Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis But Namezo and his friends had +jam du aŭ tri grandajn arbojn, by this time two or three big +kaj ĝis nun prosperis al ili trees, and up to this day they +defendi ilin kontraŭ la atakoj de have succeeded in defending them +la vilaĝanoj. Kaj ĉiam, kiam la against the villagers' attacks. +vetero estas varmega, ili sidas And always, when the weather is +sub la arboj vespere kaj ĝuas very hot, they sit under their +la freŝecon. Tamen ili havas trees in the evening and enjoy the +nur duonan profiton el ili, ĉar coolness. Yet have they only half +la vilaĝanoj malpermesas planti profit by them, for the villagers +ian arbon en la vilaĝo, kaj tial forbid them to plant any tree +la arbanoj devas ĉiufoje marŝi in the village, and so the tree +malproksimen kaj aparte viziti people have to walk a long way +siajn arbojn, anstataŭ havi ilin each time and have to make special +apud siaj pordoj. visits to their trees, instead of + having them at their doors. + +Kaj la plej granda parto de la And the greater part of the +vilaĝanoj, malgraŭ ke oni povas villagers, though the trees are +facile piediri al la arboj, diras within a walk, still say, "Trees +ankoraŭ, "Arbo estas neebla." are impossible." + +Kaj la diablo ridas. And the devil laughs. + + + III + + GRAMMAR + +1. There is one definite article, _la_, invariable. There is no +indefinite article. + +2. Nouns always end in _-o_. Ex. _patro_ = father. + +3. Adjectives always end in _-a_. Ex. _patra_ = paternal. + +4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except +only the personal pronouns) ends in _j_. Ex. _patroj_ = fathers; _bonaj +patroj_ = good fathers. + +5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in _-n_. Ex. _Mi amas +mian bonan patron_ = I love my good father. _Ni amas niajn bonajn +patrojn_ = we love our good fathers. + +6. Adverbs always end in _-e_. Ex. _bone_ = well; _patre_ = paternally. +(There are a few non-derived adverbs without the ending _-e_, as _jam, +ankaŭ, tiel, kiel_). + +7. The personal pronouns are: + + mi = I ŝi = she ni = we + vi = you ĝi = it vi = you + li = he oni = one ili = they + +Also a reflexive pronoun, _si_, which always refers to the subject of +its own clause. + +All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding _-n_. + +8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number. + +The present ends in _-as_. Ex. _mi amas_ = I love. + +The past ends in _-is_. Ex. _vi amis_ = you loved. + +The future ends in _-os_. Ex. _li amos_ = he will love. + +The conditional ends in _-us_. Ex. _ni amus_ = we should love. + +The imperative ends in _-u_. Ex. _amu_ = love! _ni amu_ = let us love. +This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. _Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu +la alian_ = God commands us to love one another. + +The infinitive ends in _-i_. Ex. _ami_ = to love. + +There are three active participles. + +The present participle active is formed by _-ant_. Ex. _amanta_ = +loving; _amanto_ = a lover. + +The past participle active is formed by _-int_. Ex. _aminta_ = having +loved; _la skribinto_ = the author (lit. the man who has written). + +The future participle active is formed by _-ont_. Ex. _amonta_ = being +about to love. + +There are three passive participles. + +The present participle passive is formed by _-at_. Ex. _amata_ = being +loved. + +The past participle passive is formed by _-it_. Ex. _amita_ = having +been loved. + +The future participle passive is formed by _-ot_. Ex. _amota_ = being +about to be loved. + +All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by the +verb _esti_ (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are employed only +when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. _mi estas aminta_ = I have +loved (lit. I am having loved); _vi estis aminta_ = you had loved (lit. +you were having loved); _ili estas amataj_ = they are loved; _ŝi estas +amita_ = she has been loved; _ni estis amitaj_ = we had been loved; _ili +estos amintaj_ = they will have loved; _ŝi estus aminta_ = she would +have loved; _mi estus amita_ = I should have been loved. + + + IV + + LIST OF AFFIXES + + I. _Prefixes_ + +_bo-_ denotes relation by marriage: _bopatro_ = father-in-law. + +_dis-_ denotes dissemination, division: _dismeti_ = to put apart, about, +in pieces. + +_ek-_ denotes sudden action or beginning: _ekdormi_ = to fall asleep; +_ekiri_ = to start. + +_ge-_ denotes both sexes: _gepatroj_ = parents; _geviroj_ = men and +women. + +_mal-_ denotes the opposite: _bona_ = good; _malbona_ = bad. + +_re-_ denotes back, again: _repagi_ = to repay; _rekomenci_ = to begin +again. + + + II. _Suffixes_ + +_-ad_ denotes continuation: _penadi_ = to keep striving, to make +continued effort. + +_-aĵ_ denotes something concrete, made of the material, or possessing +the qualities of the root to which it is attached: _bovo_ = ox; +_bovaĵo_ = beef; _okazi_ = to happen; _okazaĵoj_ = happenings, events. +(For English speakers a good rule is to add "thing" or "stuff" to the +English word; _propra_ = one's own, _propraĵo_ = own-thing, property; +_vidindaĵoj_ = see-worthy-things, notable sights. N.B.: _-aĵ_ added +to transitive verbal stems generally has a passive sense: _tondi_ = +to clip, _tondaĵo_ = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas _tondilo_ = +clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's explanation of -aĵ, _La Revuo_, +Vol. I., No. 8 (April), pp. 374-5. + +_-an_ denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: _urbano_ = a +town-dweller; _Kristano_ = a Christian. + +_-ar_ denotes a collection: _vortaro_ = a dictionary; _arbaro_ = a +forest; _homaro_ = mankind. + +_-ĉj_ denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: _paĉjo_ = daddy; +_Arĉjo_ = Archie. + +_-ebl_ denotes possibility: _kredebla_ = credible. + +_-ec_ denotes abstract quality: _boneco_ = goodness. + +_-eg_ denotes great size or intensity: _grandega_ = enormous; +_varmega_ = intensely hot. + +_-ej_ denotes place: _lernejo_ = a learn-place, a school. + +_-em_ denotes propensity to: _lernema_ = studious; _kredema_ = +credulous. + +_-er_ denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: _sablero_ = a grain +of sand; _fajrero_ = a spark. + +_-estr_ denotes a chief or leader: _lernejestro_ = a head master. + +_-et_ denotes diminution: _infaneto_ = a little child; _varmeta_ = +warmish. + +_-id_ denotes the young of, descendant of: _bovido_ = a calf. + +_-ig_ denotes causation: _bonigi_, _plibonigi_ = to make good, to +improve; _mortigi_ = to kill; _venigi_ = to cause to come, to send for. + +_-iĝ_ denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: _saniĝi_, +_resaniĝi_ = to get well (again); _paliĝi_ = to grow pale; +_troviĝi_ = to be found, occur. + +_-il_ denotes an instrument: _razilo_ = a razor. + +_-in_ denotes feminine: _patrino_ = mother; _bovino_ = cow. + +_-ind_ denotes worthiness: _laŭdinda_ = laudable, praiseworthy. + +_-ing_ denotes a holder: _kandelingo_ = a candlestick; _glavingo_ = +scabbard. + +_-ist_ denotes profession or occupation; _maristo_ = a sailor; +_bonfaristo_ = a benefactor. + +_-nj_ denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: _Manjo_ = Polly; +_patrinjo_ (or _panjo_) = mamma. + +_-uj_ denotes containing or producing: _inkujo_ = inkpot; _Anglujo_ = +England. + +_-ul_ denotes characteristic: _timulo_ = a coward: _avarulo_ = a miser. + +[The suffix _-aĉ_ (not in the _Fundamento_) is coming into use as a +pejorative (= Italian _-accio_): _ridi_ = to laugh; _ridaĉi_ = to grin, +sneer.] + + + V + + TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS + + DEMONSTRA- RELATIVE NEGATIVE. UNIVERSAL. INDEFINITE. + TIVE. AND INTER- + ROGATIVE. + +PERSON* tiu kiu neniu ĉiu iu + that who, no one every, all, some, + which every one some one + +THING* tio kio nenio ĉio io + that what, nothing everything something + (thing) which + +QUALITY tia kia nenia ĉia ia + that kind what kind no, each, every any, some + of a of a no kind of kind of kind of + +TIME tiam kiam neniam ĉiam iam + then when never always ever, at + some time + +PLACE tie kie nenie ĉie ie + there where nowhere everywhere somewhere + +MANNER tiel kiel neniel ĉiel iel + thus, so how in no way in every way in some way, + somehow + +MOTIVE tial kial nenial ĉial ial + therefore why for no for all for some + reason reasons reasons + +QUANTITY tiom kiom neniom ĉiom iom + so/as much how much none the whole somewhat, + so/as many how many amount a certain + amount + +POSSESSION ties kies nenies ĉies ies + of that whose, nobody's everybody's somebody's + of which + +In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," +add _ĉi_. + +*N.B.—_Tiu_, _kiu_, etc., are used in agreement with a noun expressed, +even when it does not represent a person. + +Ex. _Tiu libro, kiun mi legis_ = that book which I read. _Tiuj ĉi +floroj_ = these flowers. + +_Tio_, _kio_, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they stand +alone. + +Ex. _Tio estas vera_ = that is true; _kion vi diris?_ = what did you +say? _Tio ĉi estas pli granda ol tio_ = this is bigger than that. + +N.B.—In memorizing the above, it is well to remember that _t_ = +demonstrative, _k_ = relative-interrogative, _ĉ_ = distributive, _i_ = +indefinite, _nen_ = negative. + + + VI + + VOCABULARY + + = A = + +-a = termination of adjectives. +aĉet-i = to buy. +-ad = suffix denoting continued action. +aer-o = air. +ag-i = to act. +-aĵ = suffix denoting concrete substance. +ajn = (what)ever; _kiu ajn_, whoever. +al = to. +ali-a = other. +almenaŭ = at least. +alt-a = high. +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, mass. +ankaŭ = also. +ankoraŭ = still. +anstataŭ = instead of. +-ant = present participle active. +antaŭ = before (time and place). +apart-a = special. +apud = at. +-ar = suffix denoting a collection. +arb-o = tree. +-as = ending of present tense. +aŭd-i = to hear. + + = B = + +baldaŭ = soon. +bed-o = flower bed. +bel-a = fine, beautiful. +bezon-o = need. +blank-a = white. +bon-a = good. +bord-o = edge, shore. +bril-i = to shine. +burĝon-o = bud. + + = C = + +cel-o = object, aim. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain. + + = Ĉ = + +ĉagren-o = trouble. +ĉar = for, because. +ĉe = at. +ĉes-i = to cease. +ĉi = added to demonstrative _tiu_, expresses nearer connexion: + _tiu_ = that; _tiu ĉi_ = this. +ĉiam = always. +ĉie = everywhere. +ĉirkaŭ = around. +ĉiu = all, each, every. +ĉu = interrogative particle. + + = D = + +da = used after words of quantity: Ex. _multe da vino_, much wine. +daŭr-i = to last, continue. +de = of, from, by (with passive). +des = comparative particle; _ju...des_, the...the: + Ex. _ju pli des pli bone_, the more the better. +dev-i = to owe, to be obliged to. +deviz-o = device, motto. +difekt-i = to spoil. +dir-i = to say. +dom-o = house. +don-i = to give. +du = two. +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = whilst. + + = E = + +-e = ending of adverbs. +eben-a = flat, level. +-ebl = suffix denoting possibility. +-ec = suffix denoting abstract quality: _bon-ec-o_, goodness. +eĉ = even. +edz-(in)-o = husband (wife). +-eg = suffix denoting great size. +-ej = suffix denoting place. +ek- = prefix denoting beginning. +ekster = outside. +el = out of. +-em = suffix denoting propensity. +en = in. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +enu-i = to weary, bore. +esper-i = to hope. +Esperant-o = Esperanto. +est-i = to be. +-et = suffix denoting little. +etend-i = to stretch. + + = F = + +facil-a = easy. +fajr-o = fire. +fakt-o = fact. +far-i = to do. +fenestr-o = window. +ferm-i = to shut. +fil-o = son. +fin-o = end. +flank-o = side. +fleg-i = tend. +flu-i = flow. +flug-i = to fly. +foj-o = time; _du fojoj_, twice. +foli-o = leaf. +for = away. +forn-o = oven. +frat-o = brother. +fraz-o = sentence. +frenez-o = madness. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. + + = G = + +ge- = prefix denoting both sexes. +gent-o = race, tribe. +grand-a = big, great. + + = Ĝ = + +ĝi = it. +ĝis = until. +ĝoj-o = joy. +ĝu-i = to enjoy. + + = H = + +hav-i = to have. +hejm-o = home. +hodiaŭ = to-day. +hom-o = man (mortal; no distinction of sex). + + = I = + +-i = ending of infinitive. +ideal-o = ideal. +-ig = suffix denoting causation. +-iĝ = suffix denoting becoming. +-il = suffix denoting instrument. +ili = they. +-int = past participle active. +inter = between, among. +ir-i = to go. +-is = ending of past tense. +-ist = suffix denoting agent. +iu = some one. + + = J = + +-j = ending of plural. +jam = already. +jar-o = year. +jen = here is, here are (French _voici_). +ju = comparative particle. See _des_. +jun-a = young. + + = Ĵ = + +ĵus = just now. + + = K = + +kaj = and. +kamen-o = fireplace. +kamp-o = field. +kap-o = head. +ke = that (conjunction). +kelk-a = some. +kiam = when. +kiel = how, as. +kiu = who, which. +knab-o = boy. +komerc-o = commerce. +kompat-o = sympathy, pity. +kompren-i = to understand. +kon-i = to know. +konsil-i = to counsel. +konstru-i = to build. +kontraŭ = against. +kred-i = to believe. +kresk-i = to grow. +krom = besides. +krut-a = steep. +kun = with. +kuŝ-i = to lie. +kutim-i = to be accustomed. +kvankam = although. +kvar = four. +kvazaŭ = as if. +kvin = five. + + = L = + +la = the. +lac-a = tired. +lag-o = lake. +land-o = land. +lang-o = tongue. +las-i = to let, leave. +laŭ = according to. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever. +lev-i = to raise. +li = he. +lim-o = limit. +lingv-o = language. +lit-o = bed. +long-a = long. +lum-o = light. + + = M = + +mal- = prefix denoting the opposite. +malgraŭ = in spite of. +manĝ-i = to eat. +mank-i = to be wanting. +mar-o = sea. +marĉ-o = swamp. +maten-o = morning. +mem = self. +met-i = to put. +mez-o = middle. +mi = I. +mien-o = look, air, gait. +mir-i = to wonder. +mon-o = money. +mond-o = world. +montr-i = to show. +morgaŭ = to-morrow. +Moŝt-o = term of respect: your Highness, Worship, Honour. +mult-a = much, many. + + = N = + +-n = ending of accusative: also denotes motion towards + and duration of time. +naci-o = nation. +nask-i = to beget. +ne = no, not. +neĝ-o = snow. +neniam = never. +neniu = no one. +ni = we. +nom-o = name. +nov-a = new. +nub-o = cloud. +nun = now. +nur = only. +nutr-i = to feed. + + = O = + +-o = ending of nouns. +oft-e = often. +ok = eight. +okaz-i = to happen. +okul-o = eye. +ol = than. +-on = suffix denoting fraction. +oni = one, people (indef pron.). +-ont = future participle active. +orel-o = ear. +-os = ending of future. + + = P = + +pac-o = peace. +parol-i = to speak. +pen-i = to try. +pens-i = to think. +per = by means of. +perd-i = to lose. +pez-a = heavy. +pied-o = foot. +pint-o = point, peak. +pist-i = to pound. +plaĉ-i = to please. +plat-a = flat. +plej = most. +plen-a = full. +plend-i = to complain. +plenum-i = to fulfill. +pli = more. +plu = more, further, farther. +plug-i = to plough. +popol-o = people, race. +por = for. +pord-o = door. +post = after, behind (time and place). +pov-i = to be able. +pra = original, great-(grandfather). +prav-a = right. +pren-i = to take. +preskaŭ = almost. +pret-a = ready. +preter = beyond, by. +pri = about, concerning. +pro = on account of. + + = R = + +rakont-i = to narrate. +ramp-i = to crawl, climb. +rapid-a = quick. +rekt-a = straight. +rem-i = to row. +renkont-i = to meet. +renvers-i = to upset, overthrow. +rikolt-o = crop. + + = S = + +sat-a = satisfied, full, replete. +sci-i = to know. +sed = but. +sek-a = dry. +sekv-i = to follow. +sem-o = seed. +sen = without. +sent-i = to feel. +si = self, relexive pronoun. +sid-i = to sit. +sinjor-o = sir, Mr., gentleman. +skrib-i = to write. +sol-a = alone, only. +son-o = sound. +sonĝ-o = dream. +sonor-a = sonorous. +spec-o = kind, sort. +spert-o = experience. +spir-i = to breathe. +star-i = to stand. +sterk-o = manure. +subit-a = sudden. +sufiĉ-a = sufficient. +supr-a = upper, superior. +sven-i = to swoon. + + = Ŝ = + +ŝajn-i = to seem. +ŝerc-i = to joke. +ŝip-o = ship. +ŝirm-i = to shelter. +ŝpar-i = to save up, economize. +ŝtel-i = to steal. + + = T = + +tag-o = day. +tamen = yet, nevertheless. +tegment-o = roof. +temp-o = time. +ten-i = to hold, keep. +ter-o = earth. +tial = therefore. +tiel = thus, so. +tiom = so much, so many. +tiu = that. +tra = through. +traf-i = to hit the mark. +trans = across. +tre = very. +trem-i = to tremble. +tro = too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +trov-i = to find. +trud-i = to shove, thrust. +tuj = immediately. +tut-a = all. + + = U = + +-u = ending of imperative subjunctive. +-uj = suffix denoting "holder". +-ul = suffix denoting characteristic. +unu = one. + + = V = + +vapor-o = steam. +vek-i = to wake (trans.). +vel-o = sail. +velk-a = faded. +ven-i = to come. +venk-i = to conquer. +vent-o = wind. +ver-a = true. +vesper-o = evening. +vetur-i = to travel by vehicle (train, carriage, boat, etc.). +vi = you. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-(in)-o = widow(er). +vir-(in)-o = man (woman). +viv-i = to live. +voj-o = way. +vojaĝ-o = voyage, journey. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to wish. +vom-i = to vomit, be sick. +vort-o = word. + + = Z = + +zorg-o = care. + + + + + APPENDIX A + + SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN REGULAR LANGUAGE + + +Word-building can be made quite an amusing game for children. For +instance, give them the suffixes _-ej_ (denoting place) and _-il_ +(denoting instrument), and set them to form words for "school," +"church," "factory," "knife," "warming-pan," etc. (_lernejo_, +_preĝejo_, _fabrikejo_, _tranĉito_, _varmigilo_). + +But since the language is perfectly regular in form and construction, +and the learner can therefore argue from case to case, it is a useful +instrument for instilling clear ideas of grammatical categories. Thus +give the roots— + + viv-i = to live san-a = healthy hom-o = man + long-a = long saĝ-a = wise Di-o = God + don-i = to give + +and set such sentences as the following to be worked out— + +"He lives long"; "A long life is a gift of God"; "It is wise to live +healthily"; "God is divine, man is human"; "Human life is short," etc. + +The same roots constantly recur with an _-o_, _-a_, or _-e_ tacked on; +and the practice in sorting out the endings, and attaching them like +labels to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, soon marks off the +corresponding ideas clearly in the learner's mind. + +Analogous to simple sums and conducive to clear thinking are such +sentences as the following, for rather more advanced pupils: + +Given— + + raz-i = to shave serv-i = to serve san-a = healthy + akr-a = sharp mort-i = to die ven-i = to come + uz-i = to use hak-i = to hew kun = with + sent-i = to feel + +and the table of affixes (pp. 191-2 [Part IV, Chapter IV]). + +Translate—"Constant use had blunted his razor"; "He had his servant +shaved"; "He killed his companion with an axe"; "Let us send for the +doctor." + +More advanced exercise (on the same roots): + +Translate—"O Death, where is thy sting?" "Community of service brings +together men subject to death, and dulls the perception of their common +mortality. Willing service dissipates the weariness of the server; the +deadliness of disease is mitigated, and the place of sickness becomes a +place of health." + +By referring to the table of affixes, the use of which has of course +been explained, the learner can work out the answers as follows: + +Uz-ad-o estis mal-akr-ig-int-a lian raz-il-on. Li raz-ig-is sian +serv-ant-(_or_ ist)on. Li mort-ig-is sian kun-ul-on per hak-il-o. +Ni ven-ig-u la san-ig-ist-on. + +More advanced: + +Ho Morto, kie estas via akr-ec-o? Kun-servo (_or_ kuneco de servo) +kun-ig-as la mort-em-(ul)-ojn, kaj mal-akr-ig-as la sent-on de ilia +kun-a mort-em-ec-o. Serv-em-ec-o dis-ig-as la el-uz-it-ec-on de la +serv-ant-o; la mort-ig-ec-o de la mal-san-ec-o mal-akr-iĝ-as, kaj la +mal-san-ej-o iĝas san-ej-o. + +No national language could be used in this way for building sentences +according to rules, and such exercises should give a practical grip +of clear use of language. The student is obliged to analyse the exact +meaning of every word of the English sentence, and this necessity +inculcates a nice discrimination in the use of words. At the same time +the necessary word-building depends upon clear-headed and logical +application of rule. There is no memory work, but the mind is kept on +the stretch, and the exercise is wholesome as combating confusion of +thought and slovenliness of expression. + + + + + APPENDIX B + + ESPERANTO HYMN BY DR. ZAMENHOF + + + LA ESPERO + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko; + Per flugiloj de facila vento + Nun de loko flugu ĝi al loko. + Ne al glavo sangon soifanta + Ĝi la homan tiras familion: + Al la mond' eterne militanta + Ĝi promesas sanktan harmonion. + Sub la sankta signo de l'espero + Kolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj, + Kaj rapide kreskas la afero + Per laboro de la esperantoj. + Forte staras muroj de miljaroj + Inter la popoloj dividitaj; + Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj, + Per la sankta amo disbatitaj. + Sub neŭtrala lingva fundamento, + Komprenante unu la alian, + La popoloj faros en konsento + Unu grandan rondon familian. + Nia diligenta kolegaro + En laboro paca ne laciĝos, + Ĝis la bela sonĝo de l'homaro + Por eterna ben' efektiviĝos. + + + LITERAL TRANSLATION + + HOPE + + Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call; + On light wind-wings + Now may it fly from place to place. + Not to the sword thirsting for blood + Does it draw the human family: + To the world eternally at war + It promises holy harmony. + Beneath the holy banner of hope + Throng the soldiers of peace, + And swiftly spreads the Cause + Through the labour of the hopeful. + Strong stand the walls of a thousand years + Between the sundered peoples; + But the stubborn bars shall leap apart, + Battered to pieces by holy love. + On the fair foundation of common speech, + Understanding one another, + The peoples in concord shall make up + One great family circle. + Our busy band of comrades + Shall never weary in the work of peace, + Till humanity's grand dream + Shall become the truth of eternal blessing. + + + + + APPENDIX C + + THE LETTER _C_ IN ESPERANTO + + +_c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." + +This has given rise to much criticism. The same sound is also expressed +by the letters _ts_. Why depart from the Esperanto principle, "one +sound, one letter," and have two symbols (_c_ and _ts_) for the same +sound? + +A standing difficulty of an international language is: What equivalent +shall be adopted for the _c_ of national languages? The difficulty +arises owing to the diversity of value and history of the _c_ in diverse +tongues. Philologists, who know the history of the Latin hard _c_ and +its various descendants in modern languages, will appreciate this. + +(1) Shall _c_ be adopted in the international language, or omitted? +If it is omitted, many useful words, which it is desirable to adopt +and which are ordinarily spelt with a _c_, will have to be arbitrarily +deformed, and this deformation may amount to actual obscuring of their +sense. E.g. _cento_ = hundred; _centro_ = centre; _cerbo_ = brain; +_certa_ = certain; _cirkonstanco_ = circumstance; _civila_ = civil, etc. +Such works would become almost unrecognizable for many in the forms +kento, sento, tsento, etc. + +(2) If, then, _c"_is retained, what value is to be given to it? The +hard and soft sounds of the English _c_ (as in English "cat," "civil") +are already represented by _k_ and _s_. Neither of these letters can +be dispensed with in the international language; and it is undesirable +to confuse orthographically or phonetically _c_-roots with _s_- or +_k_-roots. Therefore another value must be found for the symbol _c_. +The choice is practically narrowed down to the Italian soft _c_ = _ch_, +as in English "church," and the German[1] _c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." +Now _ch_ is a useful and distinctive sound, and has been adopted in +Esperanto with a symbol of its own: ĉ. Therefore _ts_ remains. + + [1]Also late Latin and early Norman French. + +(3) Why not then abolish _c_ and write _ts_ instead? For answer, see +No. (1) above. It is a worse evil to introduce such monstrosities as +_tsento_, _tsivila_, etc., than to allow two symbols for the same sound, +_ts_ and _c_. International language has to appeal to the eye as well as +to the ear. + +This matter of the _c_ is only one more instance of the wisdom of Dr. +Zamenhof in refusing to make a fetish of slavish adherence to rule. +Practical common-sense is a safer guide than theory in attaining the +desired goal—ease (of eye, ear, tongue, and pen) for greatest number. +In practice no confusion arises between _c_ and _ts_. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's International Language, by Walter J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: International Language + Past, Present and Future: With Specimens of Esperanto and Grammar + +Author: Walter J. Clark + +Release Date: September 24, 2005 [EBook #16737] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, William Patterson and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +======================================================================== + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +This e-text uses the digraphs "cx", "gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to +represent letters unavailable in the latin-1 character set. The problems +of transliteration are discussed in full at the end of the file. + +======================================================================== + + + INTERNATIONAL + LANGUAGE + + PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE + + WITH SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + AND GRAMMAR + + + BY W. J. CLARK + M.A. OXON., PH.D. LEIPZIG + LICENCI-S-LETTRES, BACHELIER-EN-DROIT + PARIS + + + LONDON + J. M. DENT & COMPANY + 1907 + + + PRINTED BY + HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., + LONDON AND AYLESBURY. + + + + * * * * * + + + + PREFACE + + An artificial language may be more regular, more perfect, + and easier to learn than a natural one.--MAX MLLER. + +The world is spinning fast down the grooves of change. The old disorder +changeth. Haply it is yielding place to new. The tongue is a little +member. It should no longer be allowed to divide the nations. + +Two things stand out in the swift change. Science with all its works is +spreading to all lands. The East, led by Japan, is coming into line with +the West. + +Standardization of life may fittingly be accompanied by standardization +of language. The effect may be twofold--Practical and Ideal. + + _Practical._ The World has a thousand tongues, + Science but one: + They'll climb up a thousand rungs + When Babel's done. + + _Ideal._ Mankind has a thousand tongues, + Friendship but one: + _Banzai!_ then from heart and lungs + For the Rising Sun. + + W. J. C. + +NOTE.--The following pages have had the advantage of being read in +MS. by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, and I am indebted to him for many +corrections and suggestions. + + + * * * * * + + + AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +NOTE.--To avoid repeating the cumbrous phrase "international auxiliary +language," the word _auxiliary_ is usually omitted. It must be clearly +understood that when "international" or "universal" language is spoken +of, _auxiliary_ is also implied. + + + PART I + + GENERAL + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Introductory . . . . . . . . . 1 + II. The Question of Principle--Economic Advantage of + an International Language . . . . . . 4 + III. The Question of Practice--An International Language + is Possible . . . . . . . . . 8 + IV. The Question of Practice (_continued_)--An International + Language is Easy . . . . . . . . 16 + V. The Question of Practice (_continued_)--The Introduction + of an International Language would not cause + Dislocation . . . . . . . . . 24 + VI. International Action already taken for the Introduction + of an Auxiliary Language . . . . . . 26 + VII. Can the International Language be Latin? . . . . 33 + VIII. Can the International Language be Greek? . . . . 35 + IX. Can the International Language be a Modern + Language? . . . . . . . . . 36 + X. Can the Evolution of an International Language be + left to the Process of Natural Selection by Free + Competition? . . . . . . . . . 38 + XI. Objections to an International Language on Aesthetic + Grounds . . . . . . . . . . 40 + XII. Will an International Language discourage the Study + of Modern Languages, and thus be Detrimental to + Culture?--Parallel with the Question of Compulsory + Greek . . . . . . . . . . 46 + XIII. Objection to an International Language on the Ground + that it will soon split up into Dialects . . . 49 + XIV. Objection that the Present International Language + (Esperanto) is too Dogmatic, and refuses to + profit by Criticism . . . . . . . 51 + XV. Summary of Objections to an International Language . . 53 + XVI. The Wider Cosmopolitanism--The Coming of Asia . . . 57 + XVII. Importance of an International Language for the Blind . 61 + XVIII. Ideal _v._ Practical . . . . . . . . 63 + XIX. Literary _v._ Commercial . . . . . . . 65 + XX. Is an International Language a Crank's Hobby? . . . 70 + XXI. What an International Language is not . . . . 73 + XXII. What an International Language is . . . . . 73 + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Some Existing International Languages already in + Partial Use . . . . . . . . . 74 + II. Outline of History of the Idea of a Universal Language--List + of Schemes proposed . . . . . . . . 76 + III. The Earliest British Attempt . . . . . . 87 + IV. History of Volapk--a Warning . . . . . . 92 + V. History of Idiom Neutral . . . . . . . 98 + VI. The Newest Languages: a Neo-Latin Group--Gropings + towards a "Pan-European" Amalgamated + Scheme . . . . . . . . . . 103 + VII. History of Esperanto . . . . . . . . 105 + VIII. Present State of Esperanto: (_a_) General; (_b_) in England 121 + IX. Lessons to be drawn from the Foregoing History . . . 131 + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF + THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + CHAP. PAGE + + I. Esperanto is scientifically constructed, and fulfils the + Natural Tendency in Evolution of Language . . . 135 + II. Esperanto from an Educational Point of View--It will + aid the learning of other Languages and stimulate + Intelligence . . . . . . . . . 145 + III. Comparative Tables illustrating Labour saved in learning + Esperanto as contrasted with other Languages: + (_a_) Word-building; (_b_) Participles and Auxiliaries . 155 + IV. How Esperanto can be used as a Code Language to + communicate with Persons who have never learnt it . . 161 + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND + VOCABULARY + + CHAP. PAGE + + Note . . . . . . . . . . . 165 + I. Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . 166 + II. Specimens of Esperanto: + 1. Parolado . . . . . . . . . 167 + 2. La Marbordistoj . . . . . . . . 168 + 3. Nesagxa Gento: Alegorio . . . . . . 168 + III. Grammar . . . . . . . . . . 189 + IV. List of Affixes . . . . . . . . . 191 + V. Table of Correlative Words . . . . . . . 193 + VI. Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . 194 + + + APPENDIX A + + Sample Problems (see Part III., chap, ii.) in Regular Language . 200 + + + APPENDIX B + + Esperanto Hymn by Dr. Zamenhof . . . . . . . 202 + + + APPENDIX C + + The Letter _c_ in Esperanto . . . . . . . . 204 + + + * * * * * + + + + + PART I + + GENERAL + + + I + + INTRODUCTORY + +In dealing with the problem of the introduction of an international +language, we are met on the threshold by two main questions: + + 1. The question of principle. + + 2. The question of practice. + +By the question of principle is meant, Is it desirable to have a +universal language? do we wish for one? in short, is there a demand? + +The question of practice includes the inquiries, Is such a language +possible? is it easy? would its introduction be fraught with prohibitive +difficulties? and the like. + +It is clear that, however possible or easy it may be to do a thing, +there is no case for doing it unless it is wanted; therefore the +question of principle must be taken first. In the case before us +the question of principle involves many considerations--aesthetic, +political, social, even religious. These will be glanced at in their +proper place; but for our present purpose they are all subordinate +to the one great paramount consideration--the economic one. In the +world of affairs experience shows that, given a demand of any kind +whatever, as between an economical method of supplying that demand and a +non-economical method, in the long run the economical method will surely +prevail. + +If, then, it can be shown that there is a growing need for means of +international communication, and that a unilingual solution is more +economical than a multilingual one, there is good ground for thinking +that the unilingual method of transacting international affairs will +surely prevail. It then becomes a question of time and method: When will +men feel the pressure of the demand sufficiently strongly to set about +supplying it? and what means will they adopt? + +The time and the method are by no means indifferent. Though a demand +(for what is possible) is sure, in the long run, to get itself supplied, +a long period of wasteful and needless groping may be avoided by a +clear-sighted and timely realization of the demand, and by consequent +organized co-operation in supplying it. Intelligent anticipation +sometimes helps events to occur. It is the object of this book to +call attention to the present state of affairs, and to emphasize the +fact that the time is now ripe for dealing with the question, and the +present moment propitious for solving the problem once for all in an +orderly way. The merest glance at the list of projects for a universal +language[1] and their dates will strengthen the conviction from an +historical point of view that the fulness of time is accomplished, while +the history of the rise and fall of _Volapk_ and of the extraordinary +rise of _Esperanto_, in spite of its precursor's failure, are exceedingly +significant. + + [1]See pp. 78-87. [Part II, Chapter II] + +One language has been born, come to maturity, and died of dissension, +and the world stood by indifferent. Another is now in the first full +flush of youth and strength. After twenty-nine years of daily developing +cosmopolitanism--years that have witnessed the rising of a new star in +the East and an uninterrupted growth of interchange of ideas between +the nations of the earth, whether in politics, literature, or science, +without a single check to the ever-rising tide of internationalism--are +we again to let the favourable moment pass unused, just for want of +making up our minds? At present one language holds the field. It is +well organized; it has abundant enthusiastic partisans accustomed to +communicate and transact their common business in it, and only too +anxious to show the way to others. If it be not officially adopted and +put under the regulation of a duly constituted international authority, +it may wither away or split into factions as Volapk did.[1] Or it may +continue to grow and flourish, but others of its numerous rivals may +secure adherents and dispute its claim. This would be even worse. It is +far harder to rally a multitude of conflicting rivals in the same camp, +than it is to take over a well-organized, homogeneous, and efficient +volunteer force, legalize its position, and raise it to the status of a +regular army. In any case, if no concerted action be taken, the question +will remain in a state of chaos, and the lack of official organization +brings a great risk of overlapping, dissension, and creation of rival +interests, and generally produces a state of affairs calculated to +postpone indefinitely the supply of the demand. Competition that neither +tends to keep down the price nor to improve the quality of the thing +produced is mere dissipation of energy. + + [1]Esperanto itself is admirably organized (see p. 119) [Part II, + Chapter VII], and there are no factions or symptoms of dissension. + But Esperantists need official support and recognition. + +In a word, the one thing needful at present is not a more highly +perfected language to adopt, but the adoption of the highly perfected +one we possess. By the admission of experts, no less than by the +practical experience of great numbers of persons in using it over a +number of years, it has been found adequate. Once found adequate, its +absolute utility merely depends upon universal adoption. + +With utility in direct proportion to numbers of adherents, every recruit +augments its value--a thought which may well encourage waverers to make +the slight effort necessary to at any rate learn to read it. + + + II + + THE QUESTION OF PRINCIPLE--ECONOMIC + ADVANTAGE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +As stated above, the question of principle will be treated here from +a purely economical point of view, since practical value, measured +by saving of time, money, and effort, must be the ultimate criterion +by which the success or failure of so far-reaching a reform as the +introduction of an international, auxiliary language will be decided. +The bearing of such a reform upon education, culture, race supremacy, +etc., is not without importance; but the discussion of these points must +be postponed as subsidiary. + +Reduced to its simplest form, the economical argument is this: + +(1) The volume of international intercourse is great and increasing. + +(2) This intercourse is at present carried on in many different +languages of varying degrees of difficulty, but all relatively hard of +acquisition for those who do not know them as a mother-tongue. This is +uneconomical. + +(3) It is economically sounder to carry on international intercourse in +one easy language than in a large number of hard ones. + +(4) Therefore in principle an easy international language is desirable. + +Let us glance at these four points a little more in detail. + +No. 1 surely needs no demonstration. Every year there is more +communication between men of different race and language. And it is not +business, in the narrow sense of the term, that is exclusively or even +chiefly affected by diversity of language. Besides the enormous bulk +of pleasure travel, international congresses are growing in number and +importance; municipal fraternization is the latest fashion, and many +a worthy alderman, touring at the ratepayers' expense, must wish that +he had some German in Berlin, or a little Italian in Milan. Indeed, it +is at these points of international contact that language is a real +bar, actually preventing much intercourse that would otherwise have +taken place, rather than in business, which is organized in view of the +difficulty. Then there is the whole realm of scientific and learned +literature--work of which the accessibility to all concerned is of the +first importance, but is often hindered because a translation into one +language does not pay, or, if made, only reaches a limited public. Such +bars to freedom of interchange cannot be reckoned in money; but modern +economics recognizes the personal and social factor, and any obstacle to +research is certainly a public loss. + +But important as are these various spheres of action, an even wider +international contact of thought and feeling is springing up in our +days. Democracy, science, and universal education are producing +everywhere similarity of institutions, of industry, of the whole +organization of life. Similarity of life will breed community of +interests, and from this arises real converse--more give and take in the +things that matter, less purely superficial dealings of the guide-book +or conversation-manual type. + +(2) "Business," meaning commerce, in so far as it is international, +may at present be carried on mainly in half a dozen of the principal +languages of Western Europe. Even so, their multiplicity is vexatious. +But outside the world of business other languages are entering the +field, and striving for equal rights. The tendency is all towards +self-assertion on the part of the nationalities that are beginning a +new era of national life and importance. The language difficulty in the +Austrian Empire reflects the growing self-consciousness of the Magyars. +Everywhere where young peoples are pushing their rights to take equal +rank among the nations of the world, the language question is put in +the forefront. The politicians of Ireland and Wales have realized the +importance of language in asserting nationality, but such engineered +language-agitation offers but a feeble reflex of the vitality of the +question in lands where the native language is as much in use for +all purposes as is English in England. These lands will fight harder +and harder against the claims to supremacy of a handful of Western +intruders. A famous foreign philologist,[1] in a report on the subject +presented to the Academy of Vienna, notes the increasing tendency of +Russian to take rank among the recognized languages for purposes of +polite learning. He is well placed to observe. With Russia knocking at +the door and Hungary waiting to storm the breach, what tongue may not +our descendants of the next century have to learn, under pain of losing +touch with important currents of thought? It is high time something +were done to standardize means of transmission. Owing to political +conditions, there are linguistically disintegrating forces at work, +which are at variance with the integrating forces of natural tendency. + + [1]Prof. Shuchardt + +From an economical point of view, a considerable amount of time, effort, +and money must be unreproductively invested in overcoming the "language +difficulty." In money alone the amount must run into thousands of +pounds yearly. Among the unreproductive investments are--the employment +of foreign correspondence clerks, the time and money spent upon the +installation of educational plant for their production, the time and +money spent upon translations and interpreters for the proceedings +of international conferences and negotiations, the time devoted by +professors and other researchers (often nonlinguists in virtue of their +calling) to deciphering special treatises and learned periodicals in +languages not their own.[1] + + [1]These are some of the actual visible losses owing to the + _presence_ of the language difficulty. No one can estimate the + value of the losses entailed by the _absence_ of free intercourse + due to removable linguistic barriers. Potential (but at present + non-realized) extension of goodwill, swifter progress, and wider + knowledge represent one side of their value; while consequent + non-realized increase in volume of actual business represents their + value in money. The negative statement of absence of results from + intercourse that never took place affords no measure of positive + results obtainable under a better system. + +The tendency of those engaged in advancing material progress, which +consists in the subjection of nature to man's ends, is to adapt more and +more quickly their methods to changing conditions. Has the world yet +faced in a business-like spirit the problem of wiping out wastage on +words? + +Big industrial concerns scrap machinery while it is yet perfectly +capable of running and turning out good work, in order to replace it by +newer machinery, capable of turning out more work in the same time. Time +is money. Can the busy world afford a language difficulty? + +(3) The proposition that it is economically sounder to carry on +international intercourse in one easy language than in a large number of +hard ones rests upon the principle that it does not pay to do a thing a +hard way, if the same results can be produced by an easy way. + +The whole industrial revolution brought about by the invention of +machinery depended upon this principle. Since an artificial language, +like machinery, is a means invented by man of furthering his ends, there +seems to be no abuse of analogy in comparing them. + +When it was found that machinery would turn out a hundred pieces of +cloth while the hand-loom turned out one, the hand-loom was doomed, +except in so far as it may serve other ends, antiquarian, aesthetic, or +artistic, which are not equally well served by machinery. Similarly, +to take another revolution which is going on in our own day through +a further application of machinery, when it is found that corn can +be reaped and threshed by machinery, that hay can be cut, made, +carried, and stacked by machinery, that man can travel the high road +by machinery, sooner or later machinery is bound to get the bulk of +the job, because it produces the same results at greater speed and +less cost. So, in the field of international intercourse, if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency and at less cost produce +the same results as a multiplicity of natural ones, in many lines +of human activity, and making all reserves in matters antiquarian, +aesthetic, and artistic, sooner or later the multiplicity will have to +go to the scrap-heap[1] as cumbrous and out of date. It may be a hundred +years; it may be fifty; it may be even twenty. Almost certainly the +irresistible trend of economic pressure will work its will and insist +that what has to be done shall be done in the most economical way. + + [1]But only, of course, in those lines in which an international + auxiliary language can produce equally good results. This excludes + home use, national literature, philology, scholarly study of national + languages, etc. + +So much, then, for the question of principle. In treating it, certain +large assumptions have been made; e.g. it is said above, "if an easy +artificial language can with equal efficiency... produce the same +results," etc. Here it is assumed that the artificial language is (1) +easy, and (2) that it is possible for it to produce the same results. +Again, however easy and possible, its introduction might cost more than +it saved. These are questions of fact, and are treated in the three +following chapters under the heading of "The Question of Practice." + + + III + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE--AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS POSSIBLE + +The man who says a thing is impossible without troubling to find out +whether it has been done is merely "talking through his hat," to use +an Americanism, and we need not waste much time on him. Any one, who +maintains that it is impossible to transact the ordinary business of +life and write lucid treatises on scientific and other subjects in an +artificial language, is simply in the position of the French engineer, +who gave a full scientific demonstration of the fact that an engine +could not possibly travel by steam. + +The plain fact is that not only one artificial language, but several, +already exist, which not only can express, but already have expressed +all the ideas current in social intercourse, business, and serious +exposition. It is only necessary to state the facts briefly. + +First--_Volapk_. + +Three congresses were held in all for the promotion of this language. +The third (Paris, 1889) was the most important. It was attended by +Volapkists from many different nations, who carried on all their +business in Volapk, and found no difficulty in understanding one +another. Besides this, there were a great many newspapers published in +Volapk, which treated of all kinds of subjects. + +Secondly--_Idiom Neutral_, the lineal descendant of Volapk. + +It is regulated by an international academy, which sends round circulars +and does all its business in Idiom Neutral. + +Thirdly--_Esperanto_. + +Since the publication of the language in 1887 it has had a gradually +increasing number of adherents, who have used it for all ordinary +purposes of communication. A great number of newspapers and reviews of +all kinds are now published regularly in Esperanto in a great variety +of countries. I take up a chance number of the _Internacia Scienca +Revuo_, which happens to be on my table, and find the following subjects +among the contents of the month: "_Rle_ of living beings in the general +physiology of the earth," "The carnivorous animals of Sweden," "The part +played by heredity in the etiology of chronic nephritis," "The migration +of the lemings," "Notices of books," "Notes and correspondence," etc. +In fact, the Review has all the appearance of an ordinary scientific +periodical, and the articles are as clearly expressed and as easy to +read as those in any similar review in a national language. + +Even more convincing perhaps, for the uninitiated, is the evidence +afforded by the International Congresses of Esperantists. The first was +held at Boulogne in August 1905. It marked an epoch in the lives of +many of the participants, whose doubts as to the practical nature of an +artificial language there, for good and all, yielded to the logic of +facts; and it may well be that it will some day be rather an outstanding +landmark in the history of civilization. A brief description will, +therefore, not be out of place. + +In the little seaport town on the north coast of France had come +together men and women of more than twenty different races. Some were +experts, some were beginners; but all save a very few must have been +alike in this, that they had learnt their Esperanto at home, and, as +far as oral use went, had only been able to speak it (if at all) with +members of their own national groups--that is, with compatriots who had +acquired the language under the same conditions as to pronunciation, +etc., as themselves. Experts and beginners, those who from practical +experience knew the great possibilities of the new tongue as a written +medium, no less than the neophytes and tentative experimenters who had +come to see whether the thing was worth taking seriously, they were now +to make the decisive trial--in the one case to test the faith that was +in them, in the other to set all doubt at rest in one sense or the other +for good and all. + +The town theatre had been generously placed at the disposal of the +Congress, and the author of the language, Dr. Zamenhof, had left his +eye-patients at Warsaw and come to preside at the coming out of his +_kara lingvo_, now well on in her 'teens, and about to leave the +academic seclusion of scholastic use and emerge into the larger sphere +of social and practical activity. + +On Saturday evening, August 5, at eight o'clock, the Boulogne Theatre +was packed with a cosmopolitan audience. The unique assembly was +pervaded by an indefinable feeling of expectancy; as in the lull before +the thunderstorm, there was the hush of excitement, the tense silence +charged with the premonition of some vast force about to be let loose +on the world. After a few preliminaries, there was a really dramatic +moment when Dr. Zamenhof stood up for the first time to address his +world-audience in the world-tongue. Would they understand him? Was their +hope about to be justified? or was it all a chimera, "such stuff as +dreams are made on"? + +_Gesinjoroj_ (= Ladies and gentlemen)--the great audience +craned forward like one man, straining eyes and ears towards the +speaker,--_Kun granda plezuro mi akceptis la proponon..._ The +crowd drank in the words with an almost pathetic agony of anxiety. +Gradually, as the clear-cut sentences poured forth in a continuous +stream of perfect lucidity, and the audience realized that they were +all listening to and all understanding a really international speech +in a really international tongue--a tongue which secured to them, as +here in Boulogne so throughout the world, full comprehension and a +sense of comradeship and fellow-citizenship on equal terms with all +users of it--the anxiety gave way to a scene of wild enthusiasm. Men +shook hands with perfect strangers, and all cheered and cheered again. +Zamenhof finished with a solemn declamation of one of his hymns (given +as an appendix to this volume, with translation), embodying the lofty +ideal which has inspired him all through and sustained him through the +many difficulties he has had to face. When he came to the end, the fine +passage beginning with the words, _Ni inter popoloj la murojn detruos_ +("we shall throw down the walls between the peoples"), and ending _amo +kaj vero ekregos sur tero_ ("love and truth shall begin their reign on +earth"), the whole concourse rose to their feet with prolonged cries of +"Vivu Zamenhof!" + +No doubt this enthusiasm may sound rather forced and unreal to those +who have not attended a congress, and the cheers may ring hollow across +intervening time and space. Neither would it be good for this or any +movement to rely upon facile enthusiasm, as easily damped as aroused. +There is something far more than this in the international language +movement. + +At the same time, it is impossible for any one who has not tried it to +realize the thrill--not a weak, sentimental thrill, but a reasonable +thrill, starting from objective fact and running down the marrow of +things--given by the first real contact with an international language +in an international setting. There really is a feeling as of a new power +born into the world. + +Those who were present at the Geneva Congress, 1906, will not soon +forget the singing of the song "La Espero" at the solemn closing of +the week's proceedings. The organ rolled out the melody, and when the +gathered thousands that thronged the floor of the hall and packed the +galleries tier on tier to the ceiling took up the opening phrase-- + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko,[1] + +they meant every word of it. It was a fitting summary of the impressions +left by the events of the week, and what the lips uttered must have been +in the hearts and minds of all. + + [1]Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call. + +As an ounce of personal experience is worth a pound of second-hand +recital, a brief statement may here be given of the way in which the +present writer came to take up Esperanto, and of the experiences which +soon led him to the conviction of its absolute practicability and +utility. + +In October, 1905, having just returned from an absence of some years in +Canada and the Far East, he had his attention turned to Esperanto for +the first time by reading an account of the Congress of Boulogne. He had +no previous knowledge of, or leanings towards, a universal language; and +if he had thought about it at all, it was only to laugh at the idea as a +wild and visionary scheme. In short, his attitude was quite normal. + +But here was a definite statement, professing to be one of positive +accomplished fact. One of two things: either the newspaper account +was not true; or else, the facts being as represented, here was a +new possibility to be reckoned with. The only course was to send for +the books and test the thing on its merits. Being somewhat used to +languages, he did not take long to see that this one was good enough in +itself. A letter, written in Esperanto, after a few days' study of the +grammar at odd times, with a halfpenny Esperanto-English key enclosed, +was fully understood by the addressee, though he was ignorant up till +then of the very existence of Esperanto. This experience has often been +since repeated; indeed, the correspondent will often write back after a +few days in Esperanto. Such letters have always been found intelligible, +though in no case did the correspondent know Esperanto previously. The +experiment is instructive and amusing, and can be tried by any one for +an expenditure of twopence for keys and a few hours for studying the +sixteen rules and their application. To many minds these are far simpler +and more easy to grasp for practical use than the rules for scoring at +bridge. + +After a month or two's playing with the language in spare time, +the writer further tested it, by sending out a flight of postcards +to various selected Esperantists' addresses in different parts of +the Russian Empire. The addressees ranged from St. Petersburg and +Helsingfors through Poland to the Caucasus and to far Siberia. In nearly +every case answers were received, and in some instances the initial +interchange of postcards led to an extremely interesting correspondence, +throwing much light on the disturbed state of things in the native +town or province of the correspondent. From a Tiflis doctor came a +graphic account of the state of affairs in the Caucasus; while a school +inspector from the depths of Eastern Siberia painted a vivid picture of +the effect of political unrest on the schools--lockouts and "malodorous +chemical obstructions" (_Anglice_--the schools were stunk out). Many +writers expressed themselves with great freedom, but feared their +letters would not pass the censor. Judging by the proportion of answers +received, the censorship was not at that time efficient. In no case was +there any difficulty in grasping the writer's meaning. All the answers +were in Esperanto. + +This was fairly convincing, but still having doubts on the question of +pronunciation, the writer resolved to attend the Esperanto Congress +to be held at Geneva in August 1906. To this end he continued to read +Esperanto at odd minutes and took in an Esperanto gazette. About three +weeks before the congress he got a member of his family to read aloud to +him every day as far as possible a page or two of Esperanto, in order +to attune his ear. He never had an opportunity of speaking the language +before the congress, except once for a few minutes, when he travelled +some distance to attend a meeting of the nearest English group. + +Thus equipped, he went through the Congress of Geneva, and found himself +able to follow most of the proceedings, and to converse freely, though +slowly, with people of the most diverse nationality. At an early sitting +of the congress he found himself next to a Russian from Kischineff, +who had been through the first great _pogrom_, and a most interesting +conversation ensued. Another day the neighbours were an Indian nawab +and an abb from Madrid. Another time it was a Bulgarian. At the first +official banquet he sat next to a Finn, who rejoiced in the name of +Attila, and, but for the civilizing influence of a universal language, +might have been in the sunny south, like his namesake of the ancient +world, on a very different errand from his present peaceful one. Yet +here he was, rubbing elbows with Italians, as if there had never been +such things as Huns or a sack of Rome by northern barbarians. + +During the meal a Frenchman, finding himself near us English and some +Germans, proposed a toast to the "entente cordiale taking in Germany," +which was honoured with great enthusiasm. This is merely an instance of +the small ways in which such gatherings make for peace and good will. + +With all these people it was perfectly easy to converse in the common +tongue, pronunciation and national idiom being no bar in practice. + +And this experience was general throughout the duration of the congress. +Day by day sittings were held for the transaction of all kinds of +business and the discussion of the most varied subjects. It was +impressive to see people from half the countries of the world rise +from different corners of the hall and contribute their share to the +discussion in the most matter-of-fact way. Day by day the congressists +met in social functions, debates, lectures, and sectional groups +(chemical, medical, legal, etc.) for the regulation of matters touching +their special interests. Everything was done in Esperanto, and never +was there the slightest hitch or misunderstanding, or failure to give +adequate expression to opinions owing to defects of language. The +language difficulty was annihilated. + +Perhaps one of the most striking demonstrations of this return to +pre-Babel conditions was the performance of a three-part comedy by a +Frenchman, a Russian, and a Spaniard. Such a thing would inevitably +have been grotesque in any national language; but here they met on +common neutral ground. No one's accent was "foreign," and none of the +spectators possessed that mother-tongue acquaintance with Esperanto that +would lead them to feel slight divergences shocking, or even noticeable +without extreme attention to the point. Other theatrical performances +were given at Geneva, as also at Boulogne, where a play of Molire +was performed in Esperanto by actors of eight nationalities with one +rehearsal, and with full success. + +In the face of these facts it is idle to oppose a universal artificial +language on the score of impossibility or inadequacy. The theoretical +pronunciation difficulty completely crumbled away before the test of +practice. + +The "war-at-any-price party," the whole-hoggers _ tous crins_ (the +juxtaposition of the two national idioms lends a certain realism, and +heightens the effect of each), are therefore driven back on their +second line of attack, if the Hibernianism may be excused. "Yes," they +say, "your language may be possible, but, after all, why not learn an +existing language, if you've got to learn one anyway?" + +Now, quite apart from the obvious fact that the nations will never agree +to give the preference to the language of one of them to the prejudice +of the others, this argument involves the suggestion that an artificial +language is no easier to learn than a natural one. We thus come to the +question of ease as a qualification. + + + IV + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)--AN + INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS EASY[1] + + [1]Readers who do not care about the reasons for this, but desire + concrete proofs, may skip the next few pages and turn in to p. 20, + par. 6. + +People smile incredulously at the mention of an artificial language, +implying that no easy royal road can be found to language-learning of +any kind. But the odds are all the other way, and they are heavy odds. + +The reason for this is quite simple, and may be briefly put as follows: + +The object of language is to express thought and feeling. Every natural +language contains all kinds of complications and irregularities, +which are of no use whatever in attaining this object, but merely +exist because they happen to have grown. Their sole _raison d'tre_ +is historical. In fact, for a language without a history they are +_unnecessary_[1]. Therefore a universal language, whose only object is +to supply to every one the simplest possible means of expressing his +thoughts and feelings in a medium intelligible to every one else, +simply leaves them out. Now, it is precisely in these "unnecessary" +complications that a large proportion--certainly more than half--of +the difficulty of learning a foreign language consists. Therefore an +artificial language, by merely leaving them out, becomes certainly more +than twice as easy to learn as any natural language. + + [1]i.e. they do not assist in attaining its object as a language. One + universal way of forming the plural, past tense, or comparative + expresses plurality, past time, or comparison just as well as fifteen + ways, and with a deal less trouble. + +A little reflection will make this truth so absurdly obvious, that the +only wonder is, not that it is now beginning to be recognized, but that +any one could have ever derided it. + +That the "unnecessary" difficulties of a natural language are more than +one-half of the whole is certainly an under-estimate; for some languages +the proportion would be more like 3:4 or 5:6. Compared with these, the +artificial language would be three times to five times as easy. + +Take an illustration. Compare the work to be done by the learner of +(_a_) Latin, (_b_) Esperanto, in expressing past, present, and future +action. + +(_a_) Latin: + +Present tense active is expressed by-- + + 6 endings in the 1st regular conjugation. + 6 " 2nd " + 6 " 3rd " + 6 " 4th " + +Total regular endings: 24. + +To these must be added a vast number of quite different and varying +forms for irregular verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: + +Present tense active is expressed by-- + + 1 ending for every verb in the language. + +Total regular and irregular endings: 1. + +It is exactly the same for the past and future. + +Total endings for the 3 tenses active: + +(_a_) Latin: 72 regular forms, plus a very large number of irregular and +defective verbs. + +(_b_) Esperanto: 3 forms. + +Turning to the passive voice, we get-- + +(_a_) Latin: A complete set of different endings, some of them puzzling +in form and liable to confusion with other parts of the verb. + +(_b_) Esperanto: No new endings at all. Merely the three-form regular +active conjugation of the verb _esti_ = to be, with a passive participle. +No confusion possible. + +It is just the same with compound tenses, subjunctives, participles, +etc. Making all due allowances, it is quite safe to say that the Latin +verb is fifty times as hard as the Esperanto verb. + +The proportion would be about the same in the case of substantives, +Latin having innumerable types. + +Comparing modern languages with Esperanto, the proportion in favour of +the latter would not be so high as fifty to one in the inflection of +verbs and nouns, though even here it would be very great, allowing for +subjunctives, auxiliaries, irregularities, etc. But taking the whole +languages, it might well rise to ten to one. + +For what are the chief difficulties in language-learning? + +They are mainly either difficulties of phonetics, or of structure and +vocabulary. + +Difficulties of phonetics are: + +(1) Multiplicity of sounds to be produced, including many sounds and +combinations that do not occur in the language of the learner. + +(2) Variation of accent, and of sounds expressed by the same letter. + +These difficulties are both eliminated in Esperanto. + +(1) Relatively few sounds are adopted into the language, and only such +as are common to nearly all languages. For instance, there are only five +full vowels and three[1] diphthongs, which can be explained to every +speaker in terms of his own language. All the modified vowels, closed +"u's" and "e's," half tones, longs and shorts, open and closed vowels, +etc., which form the chief bugbear in correct pronunciation, and often +render the foreigner unintelligible--all these disappear. + + [1]Omitting the rare _eux_. _ej_ and _uj_ are merely simple vowels + plus consonantal _j_ (= English _y_). + +(2) There is no variation of accent or of sound expressed by the +same letter. The principle "one letter, one sound"[1] is adhered to +absolutely. Thus, having learned one simple rule for accent (always on +the last syllable but one), and the uniform sound corresponding to each +letter, no mistake is possible. + + [1]The converse--"one sound, one letter"--is also true, except that + the same sound is expressed by _c_ and _ts_. (See Appendix C.) + +Contrast this with English. Miss Soames gives twenty-one ways of writing +the same sound. Here they are: + +[Transcriber's Note: +Letters originally printed in _italics_ are here CAPITALIZED for +clarity.] + + AtE grEAt fEIGn + bAss EH! wEIGH + pAIn gAOl AYE + pAY gAUgE obEYEd + dAHlia champAGnE wEIGHEd + vEIn campAIGn trAIT + thEY strAIGHt hALFpenny[1] + + [1]Prof. Skeat adds a twenty-second: Lord Reay! + +(Compare eye, lie, high, etc.) + +In Esperanto this sound is expressed only and always by "e." In fact, +the language is absolutely and entirely phonetic, as all real language +was once. + +As regards difficulties of vocabulary, the same may be said as in +the case of the sounds. Esperanto only adopts the minimum of roots +essential, and these are simple, non-ambiguous, and as international +as possible. Owing to the device of word-building by means of a few +suffixes and prefixes with fixed meaning, the number of roots necessary +is very greatly less than in any natural language.[1] + + [1]Most of these roots are already known to educated people. For the + young the learning of a certain number of words presents practically + no difficulty; it is in the practical application of words learnt + that they break down, and this failure is almost entirely due to + "unnecessary" difficulties. + +As for difficulties of structure, some of the chief ones are as follows: + +_Multiplicity and complexity of inflections._ This does not exist in +Esperanto. + +_Irregularities and exceptions of all kinds._ None in Esperanto. + +_Complications of orthography._ None in Esperanto. + +_Different senses of same word, and different words used in same sense._ +Esperanto--"one word, one meaning." + +_Arbitrary and fluctuating idioms._ Esperanto--none. Common sense and +common grammar the only limitation to combination of words. + +_Complexities of syntax._ (Think of the use of the subjunctive and +infinitive in all languages: _on_ and _me_ in Greek; indirect speech +in Latin; negatives, comparisons, etc., etc., in all languages.) +Esperanto--none. Common sense the only guide, and no ambiguity in +practice. The perfect limpidity of Esperanto, with no syntactical rules, +is a most instructive proof of the conventionality and arbitrariness of +the niceties of syntax in national languages. After all, the subjunctive +was made for man and not man for the subjunctive. + +But readers will say: "It is all very well to show by a comparison of +forms that Esperanto _ought_ to be much easier than a natural language. +But we want facts." + +Here are some. + +In the last chapter it was mentioned that the present writer first took +up Esperanto in October 1905, worked at it at odd times, never spoke it +or heard it spoken save once, and was able to follow the proceedings +of the Congress of Geneva in August 1906, and talk to all foreigners. +From a long experience of smattering in many languages and learning a +few thoroughly, he is absolutely convinced that this would have been +impossible to him in any national language. + +A lady who began Esperanto three weeks before the congress, and studied +it in a grammar by herself one hour each day, was able to talk in it +with all peoples on very simple subjects, and to follow a considerable +amount of the lectures, etc. + +Amongst the British folk who attended the congress were many clerks +and commercial people, who had merely learnt Esperanto by attending a +class or a local group meeting once a week, often for not many months. +They had never been out of England before, nor learnt any other foreign +language. They would have been utterly at sea if they had attempted to +do what they did on a similar acquaintance with any foreign tongue. +But during the two days spent _en route_ in Paris, where the British +party was fted and shown round by the French Esperantists, on the +journey to Geneva, which English and French made together, on lake +steamboats, at picnics and dinners, etc., etc., here they were, rattling +away with great ease and mutual entertainment. Many of these came +from the North of England, and it was a real eye-opener, over which +easy-going South-Englanders would do well to ponder, to see what results +could be produced by a little energy and application, building on no +previous linguistic training. The Northern accent was evidently a help +in pronouncing the full-sounding vowels of Esperanto. + +One Englishman, who was talking away gaily with the French +_samideanoj_,[1] was an Esperantist of one year's standing. He had +happened to be at Boulogne in pursuit of a little combined French and +seasiding at the time of the first congress held there, 1905. One day +he got his tongue badly tied up in a cafe, and was helped out of his +linguistic difficulties with the waiter by certain compatriots, who wore +green stars in their buttonholes,[2] and sat at another table conversing +in an unknown lingo with a crowd of foreigners. He made inquiries, and +found it was Esperanto they were talking. He was so much struck by their +facility, and the practical way in which they had set his business to +rights in a minute (the waiter was an Esperantist trained _ad hoc_!), +that he decided to give up French and go in for Esperanto. This man +was a real learner of French, who had spent a long time on it, and +realized with disgust his impotence to wield it practically. To judge +by his conversation next year at Geneva, he had no such difficulty with +Esperanto. He was quite jubilant over the change. + + [1]Terse Esperanto word. = partisans of the same idea (i.e. + Esperanto). + + [2]The Esperanto badge. + +Such examples could be multiplied _ad infinitum_. No one who attended a +congress could fail to be convinced. + +Scientific comparison of the respective difficulty of Esperanto and +other languages, based on properly collected and tabulated results, +does not seem to be yet obtainable. It is difficult to get high-class +schools, where language-teaching is a regular and important part of +the curriculum, to give an artificial language a fair trial. Properly +organized and carried-out tests are greatly to be desired. If and when +they are made, it will probably be found that Esperanto is not only very +easy of acquisition itself, but that it has a beneficial effect upon +other language-learning.[1] + + [1]See pp. 145-55 [Part III, Chapter I]. + +Meantime, the present writer has carried out one small experiment in a +good secondary school for girls, where French and German are regularly +spoken and taught for many hours in the week. The head-mistress +introduced Esperanto as a regular school subject at the beginning of +the Easter term, January 1907. At the end of term a test paper was +set, consisting of English sentences to be rendered into French and +Esperanto without any dictionary or other aid, and one short passage +of English prose to be rendered into both languages with any aid from +books that the pupils wished. The object was to determine how far a few +hours' teaching of Esperanto would produce results comparable with those +obtained in a language learnt for years. + +The examinees ranged from fourteen to sixteen years. They had been +learning French from two to seven years, and had a daily French lesson, +besides speaking French on alternate days in the school. They had learnt +Esperanto for ten weeks, from one to one and a half hours per week. +_Taking the papers all through, the Esperanto results were nearly as +good as the French._ + +One last experiment may be mentioned. It was made under scientific +conditions on September 23, 1905. The subject was an adult, who had +learnt French and German for years at school, and had since taught +French to young boys, but was not a linguist by training or education, +having read mathematics at the university. + +He had had no lessons in Esperanto, and had never studied the language, +his sole knowledge of it being derived from general conversation with +an enthusiast, who had just returned from the Geneva Congress. He +was disposed to laugh at Esperanto, but was persuaded to test its +possibilities as a language that can be written intelligibly by an +educated person merely from dictionary by a few rules. + +He was given a page of carefully prepared English to translate into +Esperanto. The following written aids were given: + + 1. Twenty-five crude roots (e.g. _lern-_ = to learn.) + + 2. One suffix, with explanation of its use. + + 3. A one-page complete grammar of the Esperanto language. + + 4. An Esperanto-English and an English-Esperanto dictionary. + +He produced a good page of perfectly intelligible Esperanto, quite +free from serious grammatical mistake. He admitted that he could not +translate the passage so well into French or German. + +Such experiments go a good way towards proving the case for an +artificial language. More are urgently needed, especially of the last +two types. They serve to convince all those who come within range of the +experiment that an artificial language is a serious project, and may +confer great benefits at small cost. Any one can make them with a little +trouble, if he can secure a victim. A particularly interesting one is +to send a letter in Esperanto to some English or foreign correspondent, +enclosing a penny key. The letter will certainly be understood, and very +likely the answer will be in Esperanto. + +Doubters as to the ease and efficacy of a universal language are not +asked to believe without trial. They are merely asked not to condemn or +be unfavourable until they have a right to an opinion on the subject. +And they are asked to _form_ an opinion by personally testing, or at any +rate by weighing actual facts. "A fair field and no favour." + +The very best way of testing the thing is to study the language for a +few hours and attend a congress. The next congress is to be held in +Cambridge, England, in August 1907. + +Nothing is more unscientific or unintelligent than to scoff at a thing, +while refusing to examine whether there is anything in it. + + + V + + THE QUESTION OF PRACTICE (_continued_)--THE INTRODUCTION OF + AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE WOULD NOT CAUSE DISLOCATION + +In Chapters II., III., and IV. it was sought to prove that a universal +language is desirable in principle, that it already exists and is +efficient, and that it is very easy. If these propositions are true, +the only valid argument against introducing it at once would be a +demonstration that its introduction is either impracticable or else +attended with such disadvantages as to outweigh the beneficial results. + +Now, it is quite true that certain schemes tending towards international +uniformity of practice and, therefore, ultimately productive of saving +of labour are nevertheless such that their realization would cause an +almost prohibitive dislocation of present organization. A conspicuous +example is the proposed adoption of the decimal system in coinage and +weights and measures. So great is the loss of time and trouble (and +therefore of money) entailed by using an antiquated and cumbrous-system +instead of a simple and modern one that does the work as well, that the +big firm Kynochs some months ago introduced the decimal system, in spite +of the enormous difficulty of having to keep a double method going. +But hitherto, at any rate, the great disturbance to business that the +change would cause has prevented it from being generally made. Both +this matter and the curiously out-of-date[1] system of spelling modern +English present a fairly close analogy to the multilingual system of +international intercourse, as regards unprofitable expenditure of time +and trouble. + + [1]Out of date, because it has failed to keep pace with the change of + pronunciation. Spelling, i.e. use of writing, was merely a device for + representing to the eye the spoken sounds, so that failure to do this + means getting out of date. + +But where the analogy breaks down altogether is in the matter of +obstacles to reform. + +Supposing that all the ministries of education in the world issued +orders, that as from January 1, 1909, an auxiliary language should be +taught in every government school; supposing that merchants took to +doing foreign business wholesale in an auxiliary language, or that men +of science took to issuing all their books and treatises in it; whose +business would be dislocated? What literature or books would become +obsolete? Who, except foreign correspondence clerks and interpreters, +would be a penny the worse? Surely a useful reform need not be delayed +or refused in the interests of interpreters and correspondence clerks. +Even these would only be eliminated gradually as the reform spread. +There would be absolutely no general confusion analogous to that +following on a sudden change to phonetic spelling or the metric system, +because nothing would be displaced. + +Look at the precedents--the adoption of an international maritime code, +and of an international system of cataloguing which puts bibliography +on an equal footing all over the world by means of a common system +of classification. Did any confusion or dislocation follow on these +reforms? Quite the contrary. It was enough for England and France to +agree on the use of the maritime code, and the rest of the nations had +to come into line. It would be the same with the official recognition +by a group of powerful nations of an auxiliary language. As soon as the +world recognizes that it is a labour-saving device on a large scale, and +a matter of public convenience on the same plane as codes, telegraphy, +or shorthand, it will no doubt be introduced. But why wait until there +are rival schemes with large followings and vested interests--in short, +until the same obstacles arise to the choice of an international, +artificial, and neutral language, as now prevent the elevation of any +national language into a universal medium? The plea of impracticability +on the score of dislocation might then be valid. At present it is not. +To have an easy language that will carry you anywhere and enable you to +read anything, it is sufficient to wish for it. Only, as we Britons are +being taught to "think imperially," so must the nations learn in this +matter to _wish internationally_. + + + VI + + INTERNATIONAL ACTION ALREADY TAKEN + FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF AN AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + +The main work of educating the public to "wish internationally," the +necessary precedent to official action, has naturally in the past been +done by the adherents of the various language-schemes themselves. An +outline of the most important of these movements is given in the second +part of this book. + +But apart from these there is now an international organization that is +working for the adoption of an international auxiliary language, and a +brief account of it may be given here. + +During the Paris Exhibition of 1900 a number of international congresses +and learned societies, which were holding meetings there, appointed +delegates for the consideration of the international language question. +These delegates met on January 17, 1901, and founded a "Delegation for +the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language." They drew up the +following declaration, which has been approved by all subsequently +elected delegates: + + * * * * * + + DELEGATION FOR THE ADOPTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE + + Declaration + +The undersigned, deputed by various Congresses and Societies to study +the question of an international auxiliary language, have agreed on the +following points: + +(1) There is a necessity to choose and to spread the use of an +international language, designed not to replace national idioms in the +individual life of each people, but to serve in the written and oral +relations between persons whose mother-tongues are different. + +(2) In order to fulfil its purpose usefully, an international language +must satisfy the following conditions: + + 1st Condition: It must fulfil the needs of the ordinary intercourse + of social life, of commercial communications, and of scientific and + philosophic relations; + + 2nd Condition: It must be easily acquired by every person of + average elementary education, and especially by persons of European + civilization; + + 3rd Condition: It must not be one of the national languages. + +(3) It is desirable to organize a general DELEGATION representing +all who realize the necessity, as well as the possibility, of an +international auxiliary language, and who are interested in its +employment. This Delegation will appoint a Committee of members who can +meet during a certain period of time. The purpose of this Committee is +defined in the following articles. + +(4) The choice of the auxiliary language belongs in the first instance +to the _International Association of Academies_, or, in case of failure, +to the Committee mentioned in Art. 3. + +(5) Consequently the first duty of the Committee will be to present to +the _International Association of Academies_, in the required forms, the +desires expressed by the constituent Societies and Congresses, and to +invite it respectfully to realize the project of an auxiliary language. + +(6) It will be the duty of the Committee to create a Society for +propaganda, to spread the use of the auxiliary language which is chosen. + +(7) The undersigned, being delegated by various Congresses and +Societies, decide to approach all learned bodies, and all societies of +business men and tourists, in order to obtain their adhesion to the +present project. + +(8) Representatives of regularly constituted Societies which have +agreed to the present _Declaration_ will be admitted as members of the +DELEGATION. + + * * * * * + +This declaration is the official programme of the Delegation. The most +important point of principle to note is Art. 2, 3rd Con.: "It must not +be one of the national languages." + +As regards the methods of action prescribed, no attempt is to be made +to bring direct pressure to bear upon any government. It was rightly +felt that the adoption of a universal language is a matter for private +initiative. No government can properly take up the question, no Ministry +of Education can officially introduce an auxiliary language into the +schools under its control, until the principle has met with a certain +amount of general recognition. The result of a direct appeal to any +government or governments could only have been, in the most favourable +case, the appointment by the government appealed to of a commission to +investigate and report on the question. Such a commission would examine +experts and witnesses from representative bodies, such as academies, +institutes, philological and other learned societies. The best course of +action, therefore, for the promoters of an international language is to +apply direct to such bodies, to bring the question before them and try +to gain their support. This is what the Delegation has done. + +Now, there already exists an international organization whose object +is to represent and focus the opinion of learned societies in all +countries. This is the International Association of Academies, formed in +1900 for the express purpose, according to its statutes, of promoting +"scientific enterprises of international interest." The delegates feel +that the adoption of an international language comes in the fullest +sense within the letter and spirit of this statute. It is, therefore, +to this Association that the choice of language is, in the first place, +left. (Art. 4.) + +The Association meets triennially. At its first meeting (Paris 1901) +the question of international language was brought before it by General +Sbert, of the French Institute, but too late to be included among the +agenda of that meeting. The occasion was important as eliciting an +expression of opinion on the part of the signatories to General Sbert's +address. These included twenty-five members of the French Institute, one +of the most distinguished scientific bodies in the world. + +At the second meeting of the Association (London 1904) the Delegation +did not officially present the question for discussion, but the +following paragraph appears in the report of the proceedings of the +Royal Society, which was the host (_London Royal Society_, 1904, C. +Section of Letters, Thursday, May 26, 1904, p. 33): + +"In the course of the sitting, the chairman (Lord Reay, President of +the British Academy) submitted to the meeting whether the question of +the 'International Auxiliary Language' should be considered, though +not included in the agenda. From many quarters applications had been +made that the subject might be discussed in some form or other. Prof. +Goldziher and M. Perrot spoke against the suggested discussion, +the former maintaining that the matter was a general question of +international communication, and did not specifically affect scientific +interests; the latter announced that he had been commissioned by the +_Acadmie des Inscriptions_ to oppose the consideration of this subject. +The matter then dropped." + +The third meeting of the Association of Academies was held at Vienna +at the end of May 1907, under the auspices of the Vienna Academy of +Science. The question was officially laid before it by the Delegation. +The Association declared, for formal reasons, that the question did not +fall within its competence.[1] + + [1]In the voting as to the inclusion of the question in the agenda, + eight votes were cast in favour of international language, and twelve + against. This considerable minority shows very encouraging progress + in such a body, considering the newness of the scheme. + +Up till now only two national academies have shown themselves favourable +to the scheme, those of Vienna and Copenhagen. + +The Vienna Academy commissioned one of its most eminent members, +Prof. Schuchardt, to watch the movement on its behalf, and to keep it +informed on the subject. In 1904 he presented a report favourable to +an international language. He and Prof. Jespersen are amongst the most +famous philologists who support the movement. + +It is not therefore anticipated that the Association of Academies will +take up the question; and the Delegation, thinking it desirable not to +wait indefinitely till it is converted, has proceeded to the election +of a committee, as provided in Art. 4 of the Declaration. It consists +of twelve members, with powers to add to their number. It will meet in +Paris, October 5, 1907. It is anticipated that the language chosen will +be Esperanto. None of the members of this international committee are +English, all the English savants invited having declined. + +What may be the practical effect of the choice made by this Committee +remains to be seen. In France there is a permanent Parliamentary +Commission for the consideration of questions affecting public +education. This Commission has for some time had before it a proposal +for the introduction of Esperanto into the State schools of France, +signed by twelve members of Parliament and referred by the House to +the Commission. This year the proposal has been presented again in a +different form. The text of the scheme, which is much more practical +than the former one, is as follows: + +"The study of the international language Esperanto will be included in +the curricula of those government schools in which modern languages are +already taught. + +"This study will be optional, and candidates who offer for the various +examinations English, German, Italian, Spanish, or Arabic, will be +allowed to offer Esperanto as an additional subject. + +"They will be entitled to the advantages enjoyed by candidates who offer +an additional language." + +At present it is a very usual thing to offer an additional language, and +if this project passes, Esperanto will be on exactly the same footing as +other languages for this purpose. The project of recognizing Esperanto +as a principal language for examination was entirely impracticable. It +is far too easy, and would merely have become a "soft option" and a +refuge for the destitute. + +It is said that a majority of the Commission are in favour of +introducing an auxiliary language into the schools, when one has been +chosen by the Delegation or by the Association of Academies. It is +therefore possible that in a year or two Esperanto may be officially +recognized in France; and if this is so, other nations will have to +examine the matter seriously. + +Considering that the French are notoriously bad linguists and, above all +other peoples, devoted to the cult of their own language and literature, +it is somewhat remarkable that the cause of an artificial language +should have made more progress among them than elsewhere. It might have +been anticipated that the obstructionist outcry, raised so freely in all +countries by those who imagine that an insidious attack is being made on +taste, culture, and national language and literature, would have been +particularly loud in France. On the contrary, it is precisely in that +country that the movement has made most popular progress, and that it +numbers the most scientists, scholars, and distinguished men among its +adherents. Is it that history will one day have to record another case +of France leading Europe in the van of progress? + +Encouraged by the number of distinguished signatures obtained in France +to their petition in 1901, the Delegation drew up a formula of assent +to their Declaration, which they circulate amongst (1) members of +academies, (2) members of universities, in all countries. They also +keep a list of societies of all kinds who have declared their adherence +to the scheme. The latest lists (February and March 1907) show 1,060 +signatures of academicians and university members, and 273 societies. +In both cases the most influential backing is in France. Thus among the +signatures figure in Paris alone: + + 10 professors of the College de France; + 8 " " " Faculty of Medicine; + 13 " " " Faculty of Science; + 11 " " " Faculty of Letters; + 12 " " " cole Normale; + 37 members of the Academy of Science; + +besides a host of other members of various learned bodies. Many of these +are members of that august body the Institut de France, and one is a +member of the Acadmie franaise--M. Lavisse. + +It is the same in the other French Universities: Lyons University, 53 +professors; Dijon, 34; Caen, 18; Besanon, 15; Grenoble, 26; Marseilles, +56, and so on. + +Universities in other lands make a fair showing. America contributes +supporters from John Hopkins University, 20 professors; Boston Academy +of Arts and Sciences, 13 members; Harvard, 7 professors; Columbia +University, 23 professors; Washington Academy of Science, 19 members; +Columbus University, Ohio, 21 professors, etc. Dublin and Edinburgh both +contribute a few. England is represented by one entry: "Cambridge, 2 +professors." Perhaps the Cambridge Congress will change this somewhat. +It will be strange if any one can actually witness a congress without +having his imagination to some extent stirred by the possibilities. + +A noticeable feature of the action of the Delegation throughout has been +the scientific spirit in which it has gone to work, and its absolute +impartiality as to the language to be adopted. It has everywhere, in +its propaganda and circulars, spoken of "an international auxiliary +language," and has been careful not to prejudge in any way the question +as to which shall be adopted. + +It may be news to many that there are several rival languages in the +field. Even the enthusiastic partisans of Esperanto are often completely +ignorant of the existence of competitors. It was partly with the object +of furnishing full information to the Delegates who are to make the +choice, that MM. Couturat and Leau composed their admirable _Histoire +de la langue universelle_. It contains a brief but scientific account +of each language mentioned, the leading principles of its construction, +and an excellent critique. The main principles are disengaged by the +authors with a masterly clearness and precision of analysis from the +mass of material before them. Though they are careful to express no +personal preference, and let fall nothing which might unfairly prejudice +the delegates in favour of any scheme, it is not difficult to judge, by +a comparison of the scientific critiques, which of the competing schemes +analysed most fully carries out the principles which experience now +shows to be essential to success for any artificial language. + +The impression left is, that whether judged by the test of conformity to +necessary principles, or by the old maxim "possession is nine points of +the law," Esperanto has no serious rival. + + + VII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LATIN? + +There are some who fully admit the desirability of an international +language, but say that we have no need to invent one, as we have Latin. +This tends to be the argument of literary persons.[1] They back it up by +pointing out that Latin has already done duty in the Middle Ages as +a common medium, and therefore, they say, what it has once done with +success it can do again. + + [1]It has even cropped up again in the able articles in _The + Times_ on the reformed pronunciation of Latin (April 1907). + +It is hard to argue with such persons, because they have not grasped +the fact that the nature of international communication has undergone +a complete change, and that therefore there is no presumption that +the same medium will suffice for carrying it on. In the Middle Ages +the cosmopolitan public was almost entirely a learned one. The only +people who wanted to communicate with foreigners (except for a certain +amount of commerce) were scholars, and the only things they wanted to +communicate about were learned subjects, mostly of a philosophical +or literary nature, which Latin was adapted to express. The educated +public was extremely small, and foreign travel altogether beyond the +reach of all but the very few. The overwhelming mass of the people were +illiterate, and fast tied to their native spot by lack of pence, lack of +communications, and the general conditions of life. + +Now that everybody can read and write and get about, and all the +conditions of life have changed, the cosmopolitan public, so far from +being confined to a handful of scholars and merchants, extends down +to and is largely made up of that terrible modern production, "the +man in the street." It is quite ridiculous to pretend that because +an Erasmus or a Casaubon could carry on literary controversies, with +amazing fluency and hard-hitting, in Ciceronian Latin, therefore "the +bald-headed man at the back of the omnibus" can give up the time +necessary to obtaining a control of Latin sufficient for the conduct of +his affairs, or for hobnobbing with his kind abroad. + +It is waste of time to argue with those who do not realize that the +absolute essentials of any auxiliary language in these days are ease +of acquirement and accessibility to all. There are actually some +newspapers published in Latin and dealing with modern topics. As an +amusement for the learned they are all very well; but the portentous +periphrases to which they are reduced in describing tramway accidents +or motor-cars, the rank obscurity of the terms in which advertisements +of the most ordinary goods are veiled, ought to be enough to drive +their illusions out of the heads of the modern champions of Latin for +practical purposes. Let these persons take in the Roman _Vox Urbis_ for +a month or two, or get hold of a copy of the London _Alaudae_, and see +how they feel then. + +A dim perception of the requirements of the modern world has inspired +the various schemes for a barbarized and simplified Latin. It is almost +incredible that the authors of such schemes cannot see that debased +Latin suffers from all the defects alleged against an artificial +language, plus quite prohibitory ones of its own, without attaining +the corresponding advantages. It is just as artificial as an entirely +new language, without being nearly so easy (especially to speak) or +adaptable to modern life. It sins against the cardinal principle that +an auxiliary language shall inflict no damage upon any natural one. In +short, it disgusts both parties (scholars and tradesmen), and satisfies +the requirements of neither. Those who want an easy language, within +the reach of the intelligent person with only an elementary school +groundwork of education, don't get it; and the scholarly party, who +treat any artificial language as a cheap commercial scheme, have their +teeth set on edge by unparalleled barbarisms, which must militate most +seriously against the correct use of classical Latin. + +Such schemes are dead of their own dogginess. + +Latin, pure or mongrel, won't do. + + + VIII + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE GREEK? + +This chapter might be as short and dogmatic as Mark Twain's celebrated +chapter upon snakes in Ireland. It would be enough to merely answer +"No," but that the indefatigable Mr. Henderson, after running through +three artificial languages of his own, has come to the conclusion that +Greek is the thing. Certainly, as regards flexibility and power of +word-formation, Greek would be better than Latin on its own merits. But +it is too hard, and the scheme has nothing practical about it. + + + IX + + CAN THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE A MODERN LANGUAGE? + +Jingoes are not wanting who say that it is unpatriotic of any Englishman +to be a party to the introduction of a neutral language, because English +is manifestly destined to be the language of the world. + +Reader, did you ever indulge in the mild witticism of asking a foreigner +where the English are mentioned in the Bible? The answer, of course, is, +_The meek shall inherit the earth_. But if the foreigner is bigger than +you, don't tell him until you have got to a safe distance. + +It is this attitude of self-assertion, coupled with the tacit assumption +that the others don't count much, that makes the English so detested +on the Continent. It is well reflected in the claim to have their own +language adopted as a common means of communication between all other +peoples. + +This claim is not put forward in any spirit of deliberate insolence, +or with the intention of ignoring other people's feelings; though the +very unconsciousness of any arrogance in such an attitude really renders +it more galling, on account of the tacit conclusion involved therein. +It is merely the outcome of ignorance and of that want of tact which +consists of inability to put oneself at the point of view of others. +The interests of English-speaking peoples are enormous, far greater +than those of any other group of nations united by a common bond of +speech. But it is a form of narrow provincial ignorance to refuse on +that account to recognize that, compared to the whole bulk of civilized +people, the English speakers are in a small minority, and that the +majority includes many high-spirited peoples with a strongly developed +sense of nationality, and destined to play a very important part in the +history of the world. Any sort of movement to have English or any other +national language adopted officially as a universal auxiliary language +would at once entail a boycott of the favoured language on the part +of a ring of other powerful nations, who could not afford to give a +rival the benefit of this augmented prestige. And it is precisely upon +universality of adoption that the great use of an international language +will depend. + +To sum up: the ignorance of contemporary history and fact displayed in +the suggestion of giving the preference to any national language is only +equalled by its futility, for it _is_ futile, to put forward a scheme that +has no chance of even being discussed internationally as a matter of +practical politics. + +A proof is that precisely the same objection to an auxiliary language +is raised in France--namely, that it is unpatriotic, because it would +displace French from that proud position. + +The above remarks will be wholly misunderstood if they are taken to +imply any spirit of Little Englandism on the part of the writer. +On the contrary, he is ardently convinced of the mighty _rle_ that +will be played among the nations by the British Empire, and has had +much good reason in going to and fro in the world to ponder on its +unique achievement in the past. When fully organized on some terms +of partnership as demanded by the growth of the Colonies, it will go +even farther in the future. But all this has nothing to do with an +international language. Howsoever mighty, the British Empire will not +swallow up the earth--at any rate, not in our time. And till it does, it +is not practical politics to expect other peoples to recognize English +as the international language as between themselves. + +There are, in fact, two quite separate questions: + +(1) Supposing it is possible for any national language to become the +international one, which has the best claims? + +(2) Is it possible for any national language to be adopted as the +international one? + +To question (1) the answer undoubtedly is "English." It is already the +language of the sea, and to a large extent the medium for transacting +business between Europeans and Asiatic races, or between the Asiatic +races themselves.[1] Moreover, except for its pronunciation and +spelling, it has intrinsically the best claim, as being the furthest +advanced along the common line of development of Aryan language.[2] But +the discussion of this question has no more than an academic interest, +because the answer to question (2) is, for political reasons, in the +negative. + + [1]Another argument is that based on the comparative numbers + of people who speak the principal European languages as their + mother-tongue. No accurate statistics exist, but an interesting + estimate is quoted by Couturat and Leau (_Hist. de la langue + universelle_), which puts English first with about 120,000,000, + followed at a distance of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 by Russian. + + [2]This is explained in Part III., chap. i., _q.v._ + + + X + + CAN THE EVOLUTION OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE BE LEFT + TO THE PROCESS OF NATURAL SELECTION BY FREE COMPETITION? + +"You base your argument for an international language mainly on the +operation of economical laws. Be consistent, then; leave the matter +to Nature. By unlimited competition the best language is bound to be +evolved and come to the top in the struggle for life. Let the fittest +survive, and don't bother about Esperanto." + +On a first hearing this sounds fairly plausible, yet it is honeycombed +with error. + +In the first place, it proves too much. The same argument could be +adduced for the abandonment of effort of all kind whatever to improve +upon Nature and her processes. "You can walk and run and swim. Don't +bother to invent boats and bicycles, trains and aeroplanes, that will +bring you more into touch with other peoples. Let Nature evolve the best +form of international locomotion." + +Again, Nature does not tend towards uniformity. She produces an infinity +of variety in the individual, and out of this variety she selects and +evolves certain prevailing types. But these types differ widely within +the limits of the world under varying conditions of environment. What +we are seeking to establish is world-wide uniformity, in spite of +difference of environment. + +Again, the argument confuses a sub-characteristic with an organism. A +language is not an organism, but one of the characteristics of man. +After the lapse of countless ages there are grey horses and black, bay +and chestnut, presumably because greyness and blackness and the rest +are incidental characteristics of a horse. No one of them gives him a +greater advantage than the others in his struggle for life, or helps him +particularly to perform the functions of horsiness. + +Just in the same way a man may be equally well equipped with all the +qualities that make for success, whether he speaks English or French, +Russian or Japanese. It cannot be shown that language materially helps +one people as against another, or even that the best race evolves the +best language.[1] Take the last mentioned. If there is one people on the +face of the globe who rejoice in an impossible language, it is the +Japanese. In the early days of foreign intercourse a good Jesuit father +reported that the Japanese were courteous and polite to strangers, but +their language was plainly the invention of the devil. To a modern mind +the language may have outlived its putative father, but its reputation +has not improved, so far as ease is concerned. Yet who will say that it +has impaired national efficiency? + + [1]Greece went down before Rome. Which was the better race, meaning + by "better" the more capable of imposing its language and manners on + the world? Yet who doubts that Greek was the better language? + +The fact is, that for purposes of transaction of ordinary affairs by +those who speak it as a mother tongue, one language is about as good as +another. Whether it survives or spreads depends, not upon its intrinsic +qualities as a language, but upon the success of the race that speaks +it.[1] There is, therefore, no presumption that the best or the most +suitable or the easiest language will spread over the world by its own +merits, or even that any easy or regular language will be evolved. +Printing and education have altogether arrested the natural process of +evolution of language on the lips of men. This is one justification for +the application of new artificial reforms to language and spelling, +which tend no longer to move naturally with the times as heretofore. + + [1]A curious phenomenon of our day suggests a possible partial + exception. In Switzerland French is steadily encroaching and bearing + back German. Is this owing to the intrinsic qualities of French + language and civilization? Materially, the Germans have the greater + expansive power. + +As regards free competition between rival artificial languages, the +same considerations hold good. The worse might prevail just as easily +as the better, because the determining factor is not the nature of the +language, but the influence and general capacity of the rival backers. +Of course a very bad or hard artificial language would not prevail +against an easy one. But beyond a certain point of ease a universal +language cannot go (ease meaning the ease of all), and that limit has +probably been about reached now. Between future schemes there will be +such a mere fractional difference in respect of ease, that competition +becomes altogether beside the point. The thing is to take an easy one +and stick to it. + + + XI + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON AESTHETIC GROUNDS + +One of the commonest arguments that advocates of a universal language +have to face runs something like this: + +"Yes, there really does seem to be something in what you say--your +language may save time and money and grease the wheels of business; +but, after all, we are not all business men, nor are we all out after +dollars. Just think what a dull, drab uniformity your scheme would +lay over the lands like a pall. By the artificial removal of natural +barriers you are aiding and abetting the vulgarization of the world. +You are doing what in you lies to eliminate the racy, the local, the +picturesque. The tongues of men are as stately trees, set deep in the +black, mouldering soil of the past, and rich with its secular decay. The +leaves are the words of the people, old yet ever new, and the flowers +are the nation's poems, drawing their life from the thousand tiny roots +that twist and twine unseen about the lives and struggles of bygone +men. You are calling to us to come forth from the cool seclusion of +these trees' shade, to leave their delights and toil in the glare of the +world at raising a mushroom growth on a dull, featureless plain that +reaches everywhither. Modern Macbeths, sophisticated by your modernity +and adding perverted instinct to crime, you are murdering not sleep, +but dreams--dreams that haunt about the mouldering lodges of the past, +and soften the contact with reality by lending their own colouring +atmosphere. You are hammering the last nail into the coffin of the old +leisurely past, the past that raised the cathedrals, to which taste and +feeling were of supreme moment, and when man put something of himself +into his every work." + +The man must be indeed dull of soul who cannot join in a dirge for the +beauty of the vanishing past. Turn where we may now, we find the same +railways, the same trams, music-halls, coats and trousers. The mad rush +of modernity with its levelling tendency really is killing off what is +quaint, out of the way, and racy of the soil. But why visit the sins +of modernity upon an international language? The last sentence of the +indictment itself suggests the line of defence. "You are hammering the +last nail into the coffin of the old, leisurely past...." + +Quite so, you _are_. + +The universal ability to use an auxiliary language on occasion rounds +off and completes the levelling process. But the old leisurely past +will not be any the less dead, or any the less effectually buried, if +one nail is not driven home in the coffin. The slayer is modernity at +large, made up of science, steam, democracy, universal education, and +many other things--but especially universal education. And the verdict +can be, at the most, justifiable, or at any rate inevitable, pasticide. +You cannot eat your cake and have it; you cannot kill off all the bad +things and keep all the good ones. With sterilization goes purification, +pasticide may be accompanied by pasteurization. At any rate, "the old +order changeth," and you've got to let it change. + +The whole history of the "progress" of the world, meaning often material +progress, is eloquent of the lesson that it is vain to set artificial +limits to advancing invention. The substitution of cheap mechanical +processes of manufacture for hand-work involved untold misery to many, +and incidentally led to the partial disappearance of a type of character +which the world could ill afford to lose, and which we would give much +to be able to bring back. The old semi-artist-craftsman, with hand and +eye really trained up to something like their highest level of capacity, +with knowledge not wide, but deep, and all gained from experience, and +not from books or technical education--this type of character is a loss. +Many, with the gravest reason, are dissatisfied with the type which has +already largely replaced it, and which will replace it for good or evil, +but ever more swiftly and surely. But no well-judging person proposes +on that account to forgo the material advantages conferred upon mankind +by the invention of machinery. If the world rejects, on sentimental +grounds, the labour-saving invention of international language, it will +be flying in the face of economic history, and it will not appreciably +retard the disappearance of the picturesque. + +There is another type of argument which may also be classed as +aesthetic, but which differs somewhat from the one just discussed. It +emanates chiefly from literary men and scholars, and may be presented as +follows: + +"Language is precious, and worthy of study, inasmuch as it enshrines +the imperishable monuments of the thought and genius of the race on +whose lips it was born. The study of the words and forms in which a +nation clothed its thoughts throws many a ray of light on phases of the +evolution of the race itself, which would otherwise have remained dark. +The history of a language and literature is in some measure an epitome +of the history of a people. We miss all these points of interest in your +artificial language, and we shall, therefore, refuse to study it, and +hereby commit it to the devil." + +This is a particularly humiliating type of answer to receive, because +it implies that one is an ass. In truth the man who should invent an +artificial language and invite the world to study it for itself would +be a fool, and a very swell-headed fool at that. It seems in vain to +point this out to persons who use the above argument; or to explain to +them that they would be aided in their study of languages that do repay +study by the introduction of an easy international language, because +many commentaries, etc., would become accessible to them, which are not +so now, or only at the expense of deciphering some difficult language in +which the commentary is written, the commentary itself being in no sense +literature, and its form a matter of complete indifference. + +Back comes the old answer in one form or another, every variation +tainted with the heresy that the language is to be studied as a language +for itself. + +Perhaps the least tedious way of giving an idea of this kind of +opposition, and the way in which it may be met, is to give some extracts +from a scholar's letter, and the writer's answer. The letter is fairly +typical. + + "MY DEAR ----, + + "Many thanks for your long letter on Esperanto.... + According to the books, Esperanto can be learnt quickly by any + one. This means that they will forget it quite as rapidly; for + what is easily acquired is soon forgotten.... In my humble + opinion, an Englishman who knows French and German would do + much better to devote any extra time at his disposal to the + study of his own language, which, I repeat, is one of the most + delicate mediums of communication now in existence. It has + taken centuries to construct, while Esperanto was apparently + created in a few hours. One is God's handiwork, and the other + a man's toy. Personally, any living language interests me more + than Esperanto. I am sorry I am such a heretic, but I fear my + love for the English language carries me away.... + + "Yours ever, + "----." + +The points that rankle are artificiality and lack of a history. + + _Reply_ + + "MY DEAR ----, + + "I really can't put it any more plainly, so I must just repeat + it: we are not trying to introduce a language that has any interest + for anybody in itself. An international language is a labour-saving + device. The question is, Is it an efficient one? If so, it must + surely be adopted. The world wants to be saved labour. It never pays + permanently to do things a longer way, if the shorter one produces + equally good results. No one has yet proved, or, in my opinion, + advanced any decent argument tending to show, that the results + produced by a universal language will not be just as good _for many + purposes_[1] as those produced by national languages. That the results + are more economically produced surely does not admit of doubt. + + [1]And those very important ones, relatively to man's whole field + of activity. + + 'Personally, any living language interests me more than + Esperanto.' Of course it does. So it does me, and most sensible + people. But what the digamma does it matter to Esperanto whether we + are interested in it or not? It is not there to interest us. The + question is, Does it, or not, save us or others unprofitable labour + on a large scale? Neither you nor most sane persons are probably + particularly interested in shorthand or Morse codes or any signalling + systems. Yet they bear up. + + "Do try to see that we think there is a certain felt want, amongst + countless numbers of persons, which is much more efficiently and + economically met by a neutral, easy, international language, + than by any national one. That is the position you have got to + controvert, if you are seriously to weaken the argument in favour of + an international language. If you say that it is not a want felt by + many people, I can only say, at the risk of being dogmatic, that you + are wrong. I happen to know that it is.[1] The question then is, Is + there an easy way of meeting that want? And the equally certain and + well-grounded answer is, There is.... + + [1]I have before me a list of 119 societies, representing many + different lines of work and play and many nations, who had already + in 1903 given in their adhesion to a scheme for an international + language. Technical terms alone (in all departments of study) want + standardizing, and an international language affords the best + means. The number of societies is now (1907) over 270. + + "As to your argument that what is easy is more easily + forgotten--it is true. But I think you must see that, neither in + practice nor in principle, does it or should it make for choosing the + harder way of arriving at a given result. Chance the forgetting, if + necessary re-learning as required, and use the time and effort saved + for some more remunerative purpose. + + "'One is God's handiwork, the other a man's toy.' I should have + said the first was man's lip-work, but I see what you mean. It is + God working through his creature's natural development. The same + is equally true of all man's 'toys.' Man moulded his language in + pursuance of his ends under God. Under the same guidance he moulded + the steam engine, the typewriter, shorthand, the semaphore, and all + kinds of signals. What are the philosophical _differentia_ that make + Esperanto a toy, and natural language God's handiwork? Apparently + the fact that Esperanto is 'artificial,' i.e. consciously produced + by art. If this is the criterion, beware lest you damn man's works + wholesale. If this is not the criterion, what is? + + "'An Englishman who knows French and German would do much better + to devote any extra time at his disposal to the study of his own + language.' Yes--if his object is to qualify as an artist in language. + No--if his object is to save time and trouble in communicating with + foreigners. You must compare like with like. It is unscientific + and a confusion of thought to change the subject-matter of a + man's employment of his time on grounds other than those fairly + intercomparable. You have dictated as to how a man should employ + his time by changing his object in employing his time. This makes + the whole discussion irrelevant, in so far as it deals with the + comparative advantage of studying one language or the other. + + "Time's up! I have missed my after-lunch walk, and I expect only + hardened your heart. + + "Yours, + "----." + +And I had! + + + XII + + WILL AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE DISCOURAGE THE STUDY OF MODERN + LANGUAGES, AND THUS BE DETRIMENTAL TO CULTURE?--PARALLEL + WITH THE QUESTION OF COMPULSORY GREEK + +There is a broad, twofold distinction in the aims with which the study +of foreign languages is organized and undertaken. + +It serves: first, purely utilitarian ends, and is a means; secondly, the +purposes of culture, and is an end in itself. + +An international auxiliary language aims at supplanting the first type +of study completely, and, as it claims, with profit to the students. The +second type it hopes to leave wholly intact, and disclaims any attempt +to interfere with it in any way. How far is this possible? + +The answer depends mainly upon the efficiency of the alternative offered +by the new-comer in each case as a possible substitute. + +Firstly, if it is true that a great portion of the human race, +especially in the big polyglot empires and the smaller states of Europe, +are groaning under the incubus of the language difficulty, and have to +spend years on the study of mere words before they can fit themselves +for an active career, then the abolition of this heavy handicap on +due preparation for each man's proper business in life will liberate +much time for more profitable studies. It is certain that the majority +of mankind are non-linguistic by nature and inclination rather than +linguistic--i.e. that the best chance of developing their natural +capacities to the utmost and making them useful and agreeable members of +society does not lie in making all alike swallow an overdose of foreign +languages during the acquisitive years of youth. By doing so, vast waste +is caused, taking the world round. As to the attainment of the object +of this first type of language study, not only is it as efficiently +secured by a single universal language, but far more so. _Ex hypothesi_ +the object is utilitarian; the language is a means. Well, a universal +language is a better means than a national one--first, because, being +universal, it is a means to more; secondly, because, being easy and +one, it is a means that more people can grasp and employ. In fact, it +is in this field an efficient substitute; it saves much, without losing +anything. + +For the second type of language-study, on the other hand, where the +end is culture and the language is studied for itself and in no wise +as an indifferent means, a universal artificial language offers no +substitute at all. This end is not on its programme. Why, then, should +any language-study that is organized in view of culture be given up on +its account? + +It may, of course, be said that the time given to it by those who pursue +culture in language will be taken from the time devoted to more worthy +linguistic study, and will therefore prejudice the learning of other +languages. This is a point of technical pedagogics or psychology. There +is very good reason, from the standpoint of these sciences, to believe +that a study of a simple _type-tongue_ would, on the contrary, pay for +itself in increased facility in learning other languages. But this is +more fully discussed in the chapter for teachers (see pp. 145-55) [Part +III, Chapter I]. + +The question, however, is not in reality quite so simple as this. +There is no water-tight partition between utilitarian and cultural +language-study. They act and react upon each other. There really is some +ground for anxiety, lest the provision of facilities for learning an +easy artificial language at your door may prevent people from going out +of their way to learn national ones, which would have awakened scholarly +instincts in them. The cause of culture would thus sustain some real +hurt. + +The question is another phase--a wider and lower-grade phase--of the +great compulsory Greek question at Oxford and Cambridge. It affects the +masses, whereas the Greek controversy affects the few at the top; but +otherwise the issue at stake is essentially the same. + +In both cases the bedrock of the problem is this, Can we afford to put +the many through a grind, which is on the whole unprofitable to them and +does not attain its object of conferring culture, in order to uphold +the traditional system in the interests of the few? In neither case do +the reformers desire to suppress the study of the old culture-giving +language; rather it is hoped that the interests of scholarly and liberal +learning will benefit by being freed from the dead weight of grammar +grinders, whose mechanical performance and monkey antics are merely a +dodge to catch a copper from the examiners. + +When Greek is no longer bolstered up by the protection of compulsion, +some of the present bounty-fed (i.e. compulsion-fed) facilities for its +study will no doubt disappear from the schools which are at present +forced to provide them. With them will be lost some recruits who would +have been led by the facilities to study Greek, and would have studied +it to their profit. On the other hand, the university will be open to +numbers of students who are at present shut out by the Greek tariff. +Another barrier against modernity will go down, and democracy make +another step out of the proverbial gutter towards the university. + +Similarly, the possession of a universally understood medium of +communication will in some cases deter people from making the effort to +study real language, with all the treasures of original literature to +which it is the key. + + "Tis true, 'tis pity; and pity 'tis, 'tis true. + +But--and this is the great point--it will open the cosmopolitan outlook +to countless thousands who could never hope to grapple successfully with +even one national language. This cannot be a small gain. + +It all comes back to this--you cannot eat your cake and have it too. +_Il faut souffrir pour tre belle._ The international language has the +defects of its qualities. But then its qualities are great, and the +world is their sphere of utility. + + + XIII + + OBJECTION TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ON THE + GROUND THAT IT WILL SOON SPLIT UP INTO DIALECTS + +This is a particularly unfortunate objection, because it displays a +radical ignorance of the history of language, and of the conditions +under which it develops. + +In the first place, the whole tendency of language in the modern world +is towards disappearance of local dialects, and their absorption into +a uniform literary language. The dialects of England are almost dead +before the onset of universal education, and the great work of Dr. +Wright was only just in time to rescue them from oblivion. Even one +generation hence it will be impossible to collect much of the local +speech recorded in his dictionary. It is the same in Germany and +everywhere, though, of course, all countries are not equally advanced +in this respect. A standard form of words and grammar is fixed by print +for the literary language, and when every one can read and write, it is +all up with national evolution of language, such as has produced all +national languages. A gradual change of the phonetic value given to the +written symbols there may be. This has been pre-eminently the case in +England, though even this will now be arrested by universal education. +But a change of forms or of grammar can only be indefinitely slight +and gradual. When it takes place, it reflects a common advance of the +literary language, and not local or dialectical variation (though the +common advance may have originally spread from one locality). + +In the second place, dialects are variations that spring up under the +stress of local circumstance in the familiar every-day unconscious use +of a common mother tongue among people of the same race and inhabiting +the same district. Now, these are the very circumstances in which an +auxiliary international language never can, and never will, be used. The +only exception is the case of people meeting together for the conscious +practice of the language or using it in jest. + +There are no occasions when an international language would be naturally +used when any variation from standard usage would not be a distinct +disadvantage as tending to unintelligibility. In short, a neutral +language consciously learned as a means of communication with strangers +is not on an equal footing with, or exposed to the same influences as, a +mother tongue used by people every day under like conditions. + +A cardinal point of difference is well illustrated by Esperanto. The +whole foundation of the language, vocabulary, grammar, and everything +else, is contained in one small book of a few pages, called _Fundamento +de Esperanto_. No change can be made in this except by a competent +elected international authority. Of course, no text-books or grammars +will be authorized for the use of any nation that are not in accordance +with the _Fundamento_. People will make mistakes, of course, just as +they make mistakes in any foreign language, and they can help themselves +out with any words from other languages, just as they do now when their +French or German fails them. But the standard is always there, simple +and short, to correct any aberration, and there is no room for any +alterations in form or structure to creep in. + + XIV + + OBJECTION THAT THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE (ESPERANTO) + IS TOO DOGMATIC, AND REFUSES TO PROFIT BY CRITICISM + +It is true that Esperantists refuse to make any change in their language +at present, and this is found irritating by some able critics, who +wrongly imagine that this attitude amounts to a claim of perfection for +Esperanto. The matter may be easily put right. + +The inadmissibility of change (even for the better) is purely a matter +of policy and dictated by practical considerations. Esperantists +make no claim to infallibility; they want to see their language +universally adopted, and they want to see it as perfect as possible. +Actual and bitter experience shows that the international language +which admits change is lost. Universal acceptance and present change +are incompatible. Esperantists, therefore, bow to the inevitable and +deliberately choose to concentrate for the present on acceptance. +General acceptance, indeed, while it imposes upon the present body of +Esperantists self-restraint in abstaining from change, is in reality +the essential condition of profitable future amendment. When an +international language has attained the degree of dissemination already +enjoyed by Esperanto, the only safe kind of change that can be made +is _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. When Esperanto has been officially +adopted and comes into wide use, actual experience and consensus of +usage amongst its leading writers will indicate the modifications that +are ripe for official adoption. The competent international official +authority will then from time to time duly register such changes, and +they will become officially part of the language. + +Till then, any change can only cause confusion and alienate support. +No one is going to spend time learning a language which is one thing +to-day and another thing to-morrow. When the time comes for change, +the authority will only proceed cautiously one step at a time, and its +decrees will only set the seal upon that which actual use has hit off. + +This, then, is the explanation of the famous adjective "netusxebla," +applied by Dr. Zamenhof to his language, and so much resented in certain +quarters. Surely not only is this degree of dogmatism amply justified +by practical considerations, but it would amount to positive imprudence +on the part of Esperantists to act otherwise. If the inventor of the +language can show sufficient self-restraint, after long years spent in +touching and retouching his language, to hold his hand at a given point +(and he has declared that self-restraint is necessary), surely others +need not be hurt at their suggestions not being adopted, even though +they may in some cases be real improvements. + +The following extracts, translated from the Preface to _Fundamento +de Esperanto_ (the written basic law of Esperanto), should set the +question in the right light. It will be seen that Dr. Zamenhof expressly +contemplates the "gradual perfection" (_perfektigado_) of his language, +and by no means lays claim to finality or infallibility. + +"Having the character of _fundament_, the three works reprinted in this +volume must be above all inviolable (_netusxeblaj_).... The fundament +must remain inviolable _even with its errors...._ Having once lost +its strict inviolability, the work would lose its exceptional and +necessary character of dogmatic fundamentality; and the user, finding +one translation in one edition, and another in another, would have +no security that I should not make another change to-morrow, and his +confidence and support would be lost. + +"To any one who shows me an expression that is not good in the +Fundamental book, I shall calmly reply: Yes, it is an error; but it must +remain inviolable, for it belongs to the fundamental document, in which +no one has the right to make any change.... I showed, _in principle_, +how the strict inviolability of the _Fundamento_ will always preserve +the unity of our language, without however preventing the language +not only from becoming richer, but even from constantly becoming more +perfect. But _in practice_ we (for causes already many times explained) +must naturally be very cautious in the process of 'perfecting' the +language: (_a_) we must not do this light-heartedly, but only in case of +absolute necessity; (_b_) it can only be done (after mature judgment) by +some central institution, having indisputable authority for the whole +Esperanto world, and not by any private persons.... + +"Until the time when a central authoritative institution shall decide +to _augment_ (never to _change_) the existing fundament by rendering +official new words or rules, everything good, which is not to be found +in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, is to be regarded not as compulsory, +but only as recommended." + + + XV + + SUMMARY OF OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +An attempt has been made in the preceding chapters to deal with the +more important and obvious arguments put forward by those who will hear +nothing of an international language. The objections are, however, so +numerous, cover such a wide field, and in some cases are so mutually +destructive, that it may be instructive to present them in an orderly +classification. + + For there we have them all "at one fell swoop," + Instead of being scattered through the pages; + They stand forth marshalled in a handsome troop, + To meet the ingenuous youth of future ages. + + BYRON. + +Let us hope that they will die of exposure, like the famous appendix +pilloried by Byron, and that the ingenuous one will be able to regard +them as literary curiosities. + +If the business of an argument is to be unanswerable, the place of +honour certainly belongs to the religious argument. Any one who really +believes that an international language is an impious attempt to reverse +the judgment of Babel will continue firm in his faith, though one speak +with the tongues of men and of angels. + +Here, then, are the objections, classified according to content. + + + OBJECTIONS TO AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE + +I. _Religious_. + +It is doomed to confusion, because it reverses the judgment of Babel. + +II. _Aesthetic and sentimental_. + +(1) It is a cheap commercial scheme, unworthy of the attention of +scholars. + +(2) It vulgarizes the world and tends to dull uniformity. + +(3) It weakens patriotism by diluting national spirit with +cosmopolitanism. + +(4) It has no history, no link with the past. + +(5) It is artificial, which is a sin in itself. + +III. _Political_. + +(1) It is against English [Frenchmen read "French"] interests, as +diverting prestige from the national tongue. + +(2) It is socialistic and even anarchical in tendency, and will +facilitate the operations of the international disturbers of society. + +IV. _Literary and linguistic_. + +(1) Lacking history and associations, it is unpoetical and unsuited to +render the finer shades of thought and feeling. It will, therefore, +degrade and distort the monuments of national literatures which may be +translated into it. + +(2) It may even discourage authors, ambitious of a wide public, from +writing in their own tongue. Original works in the artificial language +can never have the fine savour of a master's use of his mother tongue. + +(3) Its precisely formal and logical vocabulary and construction +debauches the literary sense for the niceties of expression. Therefore, +even if not used as a substitute for the mother tongue, its concurrent +use, which will be thrust on everybody, will weaken the best work in +native idioms. + +(4) It will split up into dialects. + +(5) Pronunciation will vary so as to be unintelligible. + +(6) It is too dogmatic, and refuses to profit by criticism. + +V. _Educational and cultural_. + +(1) It will prejudice the study of modern languages. + +(2) It will provide a "soft option" for examinees. + +VI. _Personal and particular_. + +It is prejudicial to the vested interests of modern language teachers, +foreign correspondence clerks, interpreters, multilingual waiters and +hotel porters. + +VII. _Technical_. + +This heading includes the criticisms in detail of various schemes--e.g. +it is urged against Esperanto that its accent is monotonous; that its +accusative case is unnecessary; that its principle of word-formation +from roots is not strictly logical; that its vocabulary is too Romance; +that its vocabulary is not Romance enough; and so forth. + +VIII. _Popular_. + +(1) It is a wild idea put forth by a set of cranks, who would be better +occupied in something else. + +(2) It is impossible. + +(3) It is too hard: life isn't long enough. + +(4) It is not hard enough: lessons will be too quickly done, and will +not sink into the mind. + +(5) It will oust all other languages, and thus destroy each nation's +birthright and heritage. + +(6) It will not come in in our time, so the question is of no interest +except to our grandchildren. + +(7) It is doomed to failure--look at Volapk! + +(8) There are quite enough languages already. + +(9) You have to learn three or four languages in order to understand +Esperanto. + +(10) You cannot know it without learning it. + +(11) You have to wear a green star. + +Pains have been taken to make this list exhaustive. If any reader can +think of another objection, he is requested to communicate with the +author. + +Most of the serious arguments have been already dealt with, so that not +many words need be said here. As regards No. VII. (Technical), this is +not the place to deal with actual criticisms of the language (Esperanto) +that holds the field. The reader will not be in a position to judge of +them till he has learnt it. Suffice it to say that they can all be met, +and some of the points criticised as vices are, in reality, virtues in +an artificial language. + +As for Nos. II. and IV. (Sentimental and Literary), most of these +objections are due to the old heresy of the literary man, that an +artificial language claims to compete with natural languages _as a +language_. Once realize that it is primarily a labour-saving device, +and therefore to be judged like any other modern invention such as +telegraphy or shorthand, and most of these objections fall to the +ground. + +A good many of the objections cannot be taken seriously (though they +have all been seriously made), or refute themselves or each other. No. +VIII. (10) sounds like a fake, but this was the criticism of a scholar +and linguist who had been persuaded to look at Esperanto. He complained +that though he, knowing Latin, French, Italian, German, and English, +could read it without ever having learnt it, ordinary Englishmen could +not. It is usual to judge an invention by efficiency compared to cost, +but if an appliance is to be condemned because it needs some trouble to +master it, then not many inventions will survive. + +No. VIII. (9) is of course a mistake. It is like saying that you must +practice looping the loop or circus-riding in order to keep your balance +on a bicycle. The greater, of course, includes the less; but it is +better in both cases to begin with the less. It is much more reasonable +to reverse the argument and say: If you begin by learning Esperanto, +you will possess a valuable aid towards learning three or four national +languages. + +No. VIII. (5) is absurd. It is the hardest thing in the world to +extirpate a national language; and all the forces of organized +repression (e.g. in unhappy Poland) are finding the task too much for +them. What inducement have the common people, who form the bulk of the +population in every land, to substitute in their home intercourse for +their own language one that they have to learn, if at all, artificially +at school? Only those who have much international intercourse will ever +become really at home in international language--i.e. sufficiently at +home to make it possible to use it indifferently as a substitute for +their mother-tongue; and people who engage in prolonged and continuous +international intercourse, though numerous, will always be in a +minority. + + + XVI + + THE WIDER COSMOPOLITANISM--THE COMING OF ASIA + +In the civilized West, where pleasure, business, and science are daily +forging new ties of common interests between the nations, those engaged +in such pursuits have clearly much to gain from the simplification of +their pursuits by a common language. But let us look ahead a little +further still. It may well be that the outstanding feature of the +twentieth century in history will be the coming into line of the peoples +of Asia with their pioneer brethren of the West. Look where you will, +everywhere the symptoms are plain for those who can read them. Japan has +led the way. China is following, and will not be far behind; eventually, +as the Japanese themselves foresee, she will probably outstrip Japan, if +not the world. There seems to be no ground, ethnological or otherwise, +for thinking that the lagging behind of Asia in modern civilization +corresponds to a real inferiority of powers, mental or physical, in the +individual Asiatic. Experience shows that under suitable conditions the +Asiatic can efficiently handle all the white man's tools and weapons; +the complete coming up to date is largely a matter of organization, +education, and the possession of a few really able men at the head of +affairs. Given these, progress may be astonishingly quick. Europeans do +not yet seem to have grasped at all adequately the real significance of +the last fifty years of Japanese history. Do they really think that the +Chinaman is inferior to the Japanese? If so, let them ask any residents +in the Far East. Can it be maintained that a generation ago the peasant +of Eastern Europe was ahead of the country Chinaman? But the last few +years have shown how swiftly modern civilization spreads, both in Europe +and America, from the comparatively small group of nations which in the +main have worked it out to the others, till lately considered backward +and semi-barbarous. And this is the case not merely with the material +products of civilization, the railway and the telegraph, but also as +regards its divers manifestations in all that concerns the life of the +people--constitutional government with growth of representative, elected +authorities and democracy; universal education with universal power of +reading and consequent birth of a cheap press; rise of industry and +consequent growth of towns; universal military service and discipline, +now in force in most lands; rise of a moneyed and leisured class and +consequent growth of sport, and of all kinds of clubs and societies for +promoting various interests, social, sporting, political, religious, +educational, philanthropic, and so forth. In fact, the more the material +side of life is "modernized," the more closely do the citizens of all +lands approximate to one another in their interests and activities, +which ultimately rest upon and grow out of their material conditions. +Meantime wealth and consequently foreign travel everywhere increase, +fresh facilities of communication are constantly provided, men from +different countries are more and more thrown together, and all this +makes for the further strengthening of mutual interests and the growth +of fresh ones in common. + +Now if (1) under the stress of "modernization" life is already becoming +so similar in the lands of the West, and if (2) the Asiatic is not +fundamentally inferior in mental and physical endowments, then it +follows as a certainty that the Asiatic world will, under the same +stress, enter the comity of nations, and approximate to the world-type +of interest and activity. It is only a question of time. In economic +history nothing is more certain than that science, organization, +cheapness, and efficiency must ultimately prevail over sporadic, +unorganized local effort based on tradition and not on scientific +exploitation of natural advantages. Thus the East will adopt the +material civilization of the West; and through the same organization +of industrial and commercial life and generally similar economic +conditions, the same type of moneyed class will grow up, with the same +range of interests on the intellectual and social side, diverse indeed, +but in their very diversity conforming more and more to the world-type. + +Concurrently with this new tendency to uniformity proceeds the weakening +of the two most powerful disintegrating influences of primitive +humanity--religion and tradition. In the earlier stages of society +these are the two most powerful agents for binding together into groups +men already associated by the ties of locality and common ancestry, +and fettering them in the cast-iron bonds of custom and ceremonial +observance. While the members of each group are thus held together by +the ideas which appeal most profoundly to unsophisticated mankind, the +various groups are automatically and by the same process held apart by +the full force of those ideas. Thus are produced castes, with their +deadening opposition to all progress; and thus arise crusades, wars of +religion and persecutions. Religion and tradition are then at once the +mightiest integrants within each single community, and the mightiest +disintegrants as between different communities. + +But this narrow and dissevering spirit of caste dies back before the +spread of knowledge. The tendency to regard a man as unclean or a +barbarian, simply because he does not believe or behave as one's own +people, is merely a product of isolation and ignorance, and disappears +with education and the general opening up of a country. The inquisitor +can no longer boast of "strained relations"--strained physically on the +rack, owing to differences of religious opinion. The state of things +which made it possible for sepoys to revolt because rifle bullets were +greased with the fat of a sacred animal, or for yellow men to tear +up railway tracks because the magic desecrated the tombs of their +ancestors, is rapidly passing away, as Orientals realize the profits to +be made from scientific methods. + +Thus the levelling influence is at work, and the checks upon it are +diminishing. The end can be but one. There will be a greater and greater +similarity of life and occupation the world over, and more and more +actual and potential international intercourse. + +Now, the further we move in this direction, the greater will be the +impatience of vexatious restraints upon the freedom of intercourse; +and of these restraints the difference of language is one of the most +vexatious, because it is one of the easiest to remove. If we devote +millions of pounds to annihilating the barriers of space, can we not +devote a few months to the comparatively modest effort necessary to +annihilate the barriers of language? + +A real cosmopolitanism, in the etymological sense of the word, _world_ +(and not merely European) citizenship, will shift the _onus probandi_ +from the supporters of an international language to its opponents. +It will say to them, "It is admitted that you have much intercourse +with other peoples; it is admitted that diversity of language is an +obstacle in this intercourse; this obstacle is increasing rather than +diminishing as fresh subjects raise their claims upon the few years of +education, and the old leisurely type of linguistic education fails +more and more to train the bulk of the people for life's business, +and as the ranks of the civilized are swelled by fresh peoples for +whom it is harder and harder to learn even one Indo-Germanic tongue, +let alone several; it is proved that this obstacle can be removed +at the cost of a few months' study: this study is not only the most +directly remunerative study in the world, comparing results with cost, +but it is an admirable mental discipline and a direct help towards +further real linguistic culture-giving studies for those who are fit +to undertake them. Show cause, then, why you prefer to suffer under +an unnecessary obstacle, rather than avail yourselves of this means +of removing it." It is easier for the Indo-Germanic peoples to learn +each other's languages--e.g. for an Englishman to learn Swedish or +Russian--than it is for a speaker of one of any of the other families of +languages to learn any Indo-Germanic tongue; so that some idea may be +formed of the magnitude of the task imposed upon the newer converts to +Western civilization by the Indo-Germanic world, in making them learn +one or more of its national languages. At the same time, it is but just +that the peoples who have paid the piper of progress should call the +common lingual tune. Therefore, what more fitting than that they should +provide an essence of their allied languages, reduced to its simplest +and clearest form? This they would offer to the rest of the world to +be taken over as part of the general progress in civilization which it +has to adopt; and this it is which is provided in the international +language, Esperanto. + + + XVII + + IMPORTANCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE FOR THE BLIND + +Now that higher education for the blind is being extended in every +country, owing to the more humanitarian feeling of the present age +that these afflicted members of the community ought to be given a fair +chance, the problem of supplying them with books is beginning to be +felt. The process of producing books for the blind on the Braille system +is, of course, far more costly than ordinary printing, and at the same +time the editions must be necessarily more or less limited. Many an +educated blind person is therefore cruelly circumscribed in the range +of literature open to him by the mere physical obstacle of the lack of +books. This difficulty is accentuated by the fact that three kinds of +Braille type are in use--French, English, and American. + +Now, suppose it is desired to make the works of some good author +accessible to the blind--we will say the works of Milton. A separate +edition has to be done into Braille for the English, another separate +translation for the French, and so on for the blind of each country. +In many cases where translations of a work do not already exist, as in +the case of a modern author, the mere cost of translation into some +one language may not pay, much less then the preparation of a special +Braille edition for the limited blind public of that country. But if one +Braille edition is prepared for the blind of the world in the universal +auxiliary language, a far greater range of literature is at once brought +within their grasp. + +Already there is abundant evidence of the keen appreciation of Esperanto +on the part of the blind, and one striking proof is the fact that the +distinguished French scientist and doctor, Dr. Javal, who himself became +blind during the latter part of his life, was, until his death in March +1907, one of the foremost partisans and benefactors of Esperanto. By +his liberality much has been rendered possible that could not otherwise +have been accomplished. There are many other devoted workers in the same +field, among them Prof. Cart and Mme. Fauvart-Bastoul in France, and Mr. +Rhodes, of Keighley, and Mr. Adams, of Hastings, in England. A special +fund is being raised to enable blind Esperantists from various countries +to attend the Congress at Cambridge in August 1907, and the cause is one +well worthy of assistance by all who are interested in the welfare of +the blind. The day when a universal language is practically recognised +will be one of the greatest in their annals. + +A perfectly phonetic language, as is Esperanto, is peculiarly suited +to the needs of the blind. Its long, full vowels, slow, harmonious +intonation, few and simple sounds, and regular construction make it very +easy to learn through the ear, and to reproduce on any phonetic system +of notation; and as a matter of fact, blind people are found to enjoy +it much. For a blind man to come to an international congress and be +able to compare notes with his fellow-blind from all over the world must +be a lifting of the veil between him and the outer world, coming next +to receiving his sight. To witness this spectacle alone might almost +convince a waverer as to the utility of the common language. + + + XVIII + + IDEAL _v._ PRACTICAL + +From the early days of the Esperanto movement there has flowed within it +a sort of double current. There is the warm and genial Gulf Stream of +Idealism, that raises the temperature on every shore to which it sets, +and calls forth a luxuriant growth of friendly sentiment. This tends to +the enriching of life. There is also the cooler current of practicality, +with a steady drive towards material profit. At present the tide is +flowing free, and, taken at the flood, may lead on to fortune; the two +currents pursue their way harmoniously within it, without clashing, and +sometimes mingling their waters to their mutual benefit. + +But as the movement is sometimes dismissed contemptuously as a pacifist +fad or an unattainable ideal of universal brotherhood, it is as well +to set the matter in its true light. It is true that the inventor of +Esperanto, Dr. Zamenhof, of Warsaw, is an idealist in the best sense of +the word, and that his language was directly inspired by his ardent wish +to remove one cause of misunderstanding in his distracted country. He +has persistently refused to make any profit out of it, and declined to +accept a sum which some enthusiasts collected as a testimonial to his +disinterested work. + +It is equally true that Esperanto seems to possess a rather strange +power of evoking enthusiasm. Meetings of Esperantists are invariably +characterized by great cordiality and good-fellowship, and at the +international congresses so far these feelings have at times risen +to fever heat. It is easy to make fun of this by saying that the +conjunction of Sirius, the fever-shedding constellation of the ancients, +with the green star[1] in the dog days of August, when the congresses +are held, induces hot fits. Those who have drunk enthusiastic toasts +in common, and have rubbed shoulders and compared notes with various +foreigners, and gone home having made perhaps lifelong interesting +friendships which bring them in touch with other lands, will not +undervalue the brotherhood aspect of the common language. + + [1]Badge of the Esperantists. + +On the other hand, the united Esperantists at their first international +meeting expressly and formally dissociated their project from any +connection with political, sentimental, or peace-making schemes. They +did this by drawing up and promulgating a "Deklaracio," adopted by the +Esperantist world, wherein it is declared that Esperanto is a language, +and a language only.[1] It is not a league or a society or agency for +promoting any object whatsoever other than its own dissemination as a +means of communication. Like other tongues, Esperanto may be used for +any purpose whatsoever, and it is declared that a man is equally an +Esperantist whether he uses the language to save life or to kill, to +further his own selfish ends or to labour in any altruistic cause.[2] + + [1]For text of this Declaration, see Part II., chap. vii., p. 115. + + [2]The non-sectarian nature of Esperanto is shown by the fact that + the first two services in the language were held on the same day + in Geneva according to the Roman Catholic and Protestant rites. + The latter was conducted by an English clergyman, whose striking + sermon on unity, in spite of diversity, evidently impressed his + international congregation. The Vatican has officially expressed + its favour towards Esperanto, and the Archbishop of Canterbury has + sanctioned an Esperanto form of the Anglican service, which will + be used in London and Cambridge this summer. Cordial goodwill was + expressed towards the Vatican, on receipt of its message at Geneva, + by speakers who avowed themselves agnostics, but welcomed any advance + towards abolition of barriers. + +The practical nature of the scheme which Esperantists are labouring to +induce the world to adopt is thus sufficiently clearly defined. Dr. +Zamenhof himself, speaking at the Geneva Congress with all the vivid +poignancy attaching to the words of a man fresh from the butcheries +at that moment rife in the Russian Empire,[1] declared that neither +he nor other Esperantists were _naifs_ enough to believe that the +adoption of their language would put an end to such scenes. But he had +_seen_ men at each other's throats, beating each other's brains out with +bludgeons--men who had no personal enmity and had never seen each other +before, but were let loose on each other by pure race prejudice. He _did_ +claim that mutual incomprehensibility amongst men who thus dwell side by +side and should be taking part in a common civic life was one powerful +influence in keeping up cliques and divisions, and artificially holding +asunder those whom common interests should be joining together. It is +hard to refuse credence to this power of language, thus moderately +stated. + + [1]There were bad massacres about that time in Warsaw, where Dr. + Zamenhof lives. During the Congress news came of the assassination + of one of the chief civic officials of Warsaw. + + + XIX + + LITERARY _v._ COMMERCIAL + +Another vexed question is whether it is advisable to run an +international language on a literary or a commercial ticket. +On this rock Volapk split-- + + A brave vessel, + That had no doubt some noble creature in her, + Dashed all to pieces;[1] + +and there was no Prospero to conjure away the tempest and send everybody +safe home to port to speak Volapk happily ever afterwards. The moral +is, that it is no good to make exaggerated claims for a universal +language. To attempt to set it on a fully equal footing with national +languages as a literary medium is to court disaster. + + [1]Shakespeare, _The Tempest_. + +The truth seems to be about this. As a potential means of international +communication, Esperanto is unsurpassed, and a long way ahead of any +national language. As a literary language, it is far better than Chinook +or Pidgin, far worse than English or Greek. + +A language, no more than a man, can serve two masters. By attempting to +combine within itself this double function an international language +would cease to attain either object. The reason is simple. + +Its legitimate and proper sphere demands of it as the first essential +that it should be easy and universally accessible. This means that the +words are to be few, and must have but one clearly marked sense each. +There are to be no idioms or set phrases, no words that depend upon +their context or upon allusion for their full sense. + +On the other hand, among the essentials of a literary language are the +exact opposites of all these characteristics. The vocabulary must be +full and plenteous, and there should be a rich variety of synonyms; +there should be delicate half-tones and _nuances_; the words should be +not mere counters or symbols of fixed value, determinable in each case +by a rapid use of the dictionary alone, but must have an atmosphere, +a something dependent upon history, usage, and allusion, by virtue of +which the whole phrase, in the finer styles of writing, amounts to more +than the sum of the individual meanings of the words which it contains, +becoming a separate entity with an individual flavour of its own. To +attempt to create this atmosphere in an artificial language is not +only futile, but would introduce just the difficulties, redundancies, +and complications which it is its chief object to avoid. Take a single +instance, Macbeth's-- + + Nay, this my hand would rather + The multitudinous seas incarnadine, + Making the green one red. + +Here the effect is produced by the contrast between the stately march of +the long Latin words of thundrous sound, and the short, sharp English. A +labour-saving language has no business with such words as "incarnadine" +or "multitudinous." In translating such a passage it will reproduce the +sense faithfully and clearly, if necessary by the combination of simple +roots; but the bouquet of the original will vanish in the process. This +is inevitable, and it is even so far an advantage that it removes all +ground from the argument that a universal language will kill scholarly +language-learning. It will be just as necessary as ever to read works of +fine literature in the original, in order to enjoy their full savour; +and the translation into the common tongue will not prejudice such +reading of originals more than, or indeed so much as, translations into +various mother-tongues. + +Again, take the whole question of the imitative use of language. In +national literatures many a passage, poetry or prose, is heightened +in effect by assonance, alliteration, a certain movement or rhythm of +phrase. Subtle suggestion slides in sound through the ear and falls +with mellowing cadence into the heart. Soothed senses murmur their own +music to the mind; the lullaby lilt of the lay swells full the linked +sweetness of the song. + +The How plays fostering round the What. Down the liquid stream of +lingual melody the dirge drifts dying--dying it echoes back into a +ghostly after-life, as the yet throbbing sense wakes the drowsed mind +once more. The Swan-song floats double--song and shadow; and in the +blend--half sensuous, half of thought--man's nature tastes fruition. + +Now, this verbal artistry, whereby the words set themselves in tune to +the thoughts, postulates a varied vocabulary, a rich storehouse wherein +a man may linger and choose among the gems of sound and sense till he +find the fitting stone and fashion it to one of those-- + + jewels five-words long, + That on the stretched forefinger of all Time + Sparkle for ever. + +But the word-store of an international tongue must not be a golden +treasury of art, a repository of "bigotry and virtue." On its orderly +rows of shelves must be immediately accessible the right word for the +right place: no superfluity, no disorder, no circumambient margin for +effect. Homocea-like, it "touches the spot," and having deadened the +ache of incomprehensibility, has done its task. "No flowers." + +Naturally some peoples will feel themselves more cramped in a new +artificial language than others. French, incomparably neat and clear +within its limits, but possessing the narrowest "margin for effect," +is less alien in its genius from Esperanto than is English, with its +twofold harmony, its potentiality (too rarely exploited) of Romance +clarity, and its double portion of Germanic vigour and feeling. Yet all +languages must probably witness the obliteration of some finer native +shades in the international tongue. + +But we must not go to the opposite extreme, and deny to the universal +language all power of rendering serious thought. Just how far it +can go, and where its inherent limitations begin, is a matter of +individual taste and judgment. There are Esperanto translations--and +good ones--of _Hamlet_, _The Tempest_, _Julius Caesar_, the _Aeneid_ of +Virgil, parts of Molire and Homer, besides a goodly variety of other +literature. These translations do succeed in giving a very fair idea of +the originals, as any one can test for himself with a little trouble, +but, as pointed out, they must come something short in beauty and +variety of expression. + +There is even a certain style in Esperanto itself in the hands of a good +writer, of which the dominant notes are simplicity and directness--two +qualities not at all to be despised. Further, the unlimited power of +word-building and of forming terse compounds gives the language an +individuality of its own. It contains many expressive self-explanatory +words whose meaning can only be conveyed by a periphrasis in most +languages,[1] and this causes it to take on the manner and feel of a +_living_ tongue, and makes it something far more than a mere copy or +barren extract of storied speech. + + [1]e.g. _samideano_ = partisan of the same cause or idea. _vivipova + lingvo_ = language capable of independent vigorous existence. + +Technically, the fulness of its participial system, rivalled by Greek +alone, and the absence of all defective verbs, lend to it a very great +flexibility; and containing, as it does, a variety of specially neat +devices borrowed from various tongues, it is in a sense neater than any +of them. + +One great test of its capacity for literary expression remains to be +made. This is an adequate translation of the Bible. A religious society, +famed for the variety of its translations of the Scriptures into every +conceivable language, when approached on the subject, replied that +Esperanto was not a language. But Esperantists will not "let it go +at that." Besides Dr. Zamenhof's own _Predikanto_ (Ecclesiastes), an +experiment has been made by two Germans, who published a translation +of St. Matthew's Gospel. It is not a success, and further experiments +have just been made by Prof. Macloskie, of Princeton, U.S.A., and by E. +Metcalfe, M.A. (Oxon), I cannot say with what result, not having seen +copies.[1] + + [1]Cf. also now the "Ordo de Diservo" (special Anglican Church + service), selected and translated from Prayer Book and Bible for + use in England by the Rev. J. C. Rust (obtainable from the British + Esperanto Association, 13, Arundel Street, Strand, price _7d._). + +From one point of view, the directness and simplicity of the Bible would +seem to lend themselves to an Esperanto dress; but there are certain +great difficulties, such as technical expressions, archaic diction, and +phrases hallowed by association. A meeting of those interested in this +great work will take place at Cambridge during the Congress (August +1907). Experimenters in this field will there be brought together from +all countries, the subject will be thoroughly discussed, and substantial +progress may be hoped for. + +In the field of rendering scientific literature and current workaday +prose, whose matter is of more moment than its form, Esperanto has +already won its spurs. Its perfect lucidity makes it particularly +suitable for this form of writing. + +The conclusion then is, that Esperanto is neither wholly commercial nor +yet literary in the full sense in which a grown language is literary; +but it does do what it professes to do, and it is all the better for not +professing the impossible. + + + XX + + IS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE A CRANK'S HOBBY? + +The apostle of a universal language is made to feel pretty plainly that +he is regarded as a crank. He may console himself with the usual defence +that a crank is that which makes revolutions; but for all that, it is +chilling to be met with a certain smile. + +Let us analyse that smile. It varies in intensity, ranging from the +scathing sneer damnatory to the gentle dimple deprecatory. But in any +case it belongs to the category of the smile that won't come off. I know +that grin--it comes from Cheshire. + +What, then, do we mean when we smile at a crank? Firstly and generally +that we think his ideal impracticable. But it has been shown that an +international language is not impracticable. This alone ought to go far +towards removing it from the list of cranks' hobbies. + +Secondly, we often mean that the ideal in question is opposed to common +sense--e.g. when we smile at a man who lives on protein biscuits or +walks about without a hat. We do not impugn the feasibility of his diet +or apparel, but we think he is going out of his way to be peculiar +without reaping adequate advantage by his departure from customary +usage. + +The test of "crankiness," then, lies in the adequacy of the advantage +reaped. A man who learns and uses Esperanto may at present depart as +widely from ordinary usage as a patron of Eustace Miles's restaurant +or a member of the hatless brigade; but is it true that the advantage +thereby accruing is equally disputable or matter of opinion? Is it not, +on the contrary, fairly certain that the use of an auxiliary language, +if universal, would open up for many regions from which exclusion is now +felt as a hindrance? + +Take the case of a doctor, scientist, scholar, researcher in any branch +of knowledge, who desires to keep abreast of the advance of knowledge in +his particular line. He may have to wait for years before a translation +of some work he wishes to read is published in a tongue he knows, and in +any case all the periodical literature of every nation, except the one +or two whose languages he may learn, will be closed to him. The output +of learned work is increasing very fast in all civilized countries, and +therefore results are recorded in an increasing number of languages in +monographs, reports, transactions, and the specialist press. A move +is being made in the right direction by the proposal to print the +publications of the Brussels International Bibliographical Institute in +Esperanto. + +Take a few examples of the hampering effect upon scholarly work of the +language difficulty as it already exists. The diffusion of learning +will, ironically enough, increase the difficulty.[1] The late Prof. +Todhunter, of Cambridge, was driven to learning Russian for mathematical +purposes. He managed to learn enough to enable him to read mathematical +treatises; but how many mathematicians or scientists (or classical +scholars, for that matter) could do as much? And of how much profit was +the learning of Russian, _qu_ Russian, to Prof. Todhunter? It only took +up time which could have been better spent, as there cannot be anything +very uplifting or cultivating in the language of mathematical Russian. + + [1]By multiplying the languages used. + +Prof. Max Mller proposed that all serious scientific work should be +published in one of the six languages following--English, French, +German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. But why should other nations have +to produce in these languages? and why should serious students have to +be prepared to read six languages? + +All this was many years ago. The balance of culture has since then been +gradually but steadily shifting in favour of other peoples. The present +writer had occasion to make a special study of Byron's influence on the +Continent. It turned out that one of the biggest and most important +works upon the subject was written in Polish. It has therefore remained +inaccessible. This is only an illustration of a difficulty that faces +many workers. + +Thirdly, there is a good large portion of the British public that +regards as a crank anything not British or that does not benefit +themselves personally. It really _is_ hard for an Englishman, Frenchman, +or German, brought up among a homogeneous people of old civilization, +to realize the extent of the incubus under which the smaller nations +of Europe and the polyglot empires further east are groaning. Imagine +yourself an educated Swiss, Dutchman, or a member of any of the thirty +or forty nationalities that make up the Austrian or Russian Empires. +How would you like to have to learn three or four foreign languages for +practical purposes before you could hope to take much of a position in +life? Can any one assert that the kind of grind required, with its heavy +taxation of the memory, is in most cases really educative or confers +culture? + +Think it out. What do you really mean when you jeer at an Esperantist? + + + XXI + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS NOT + +An international language is not an attempt to replace or damage in any +way any existing language or literature. + + + XXII + + WHAT AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IS + +An international language is an attempt to save the greatest amount of +labour and open the widest fields of thought and action to the greatest +number. + + + + + PART II + + HISTORICAL + + + I + + SOME EXISTING INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGES ALREADY IN PARTIAL USE + +Though the idea of an artificially constructed language to meet the +needs of speakers of various tongues seems for some reason to contain +something absurd or repellent to the mind of Western Europeans, there +have, as a matter of fact, been various attempts made at different times +and places to overcome the obvious difficulty in the obvious way; and +all have met with a large measure of success. + +The usual method of procedure has been quite rough and ready. Words +or forms have been taken from a variety of languages, and simply +mixed up together, without any scientific attempt at co-ordination or +simplification. The resulting international languages have varied in +their degree of artificiality, and in the proportions in which they were +consciously or semi-consciously compiled, or else adopted their elements +ready-made, without conscious adaptation, from existing tongues. But +their production, widespread and continuous use, and great practical +utility, showed that they arose in response to a felt want. The wonder +is that the world should have grown so old without supplying this want +in a more systematic way. + +Every one has heard of the _lingua franca_ of the Levant. In India the +master-language that carries a man through among a hundred different +tribes is Hindustanee, or Urdu. At the outset it represented a new need +of an imperial race. It had its origin during the latter half of the +sixteenth century under Akbar, and was born of the sudden extension +of conquest and affairs brought about by the great ruler. Round him +gathered a cosmopolitan crowd of courtiers, soldiers, vassal princes, +and followers of all kinds, and wider dealings than the ordinary local +petty affairs received a great stimulus. Urdu is a good example of a +mix-up language, with a pure Aryan framework developed out of a dialect +of the old Hindi. In fact, it is to India very much what Esperanto might +be to Europe, only it is more empirical, and not so consciously and +scientifically worked out. + +Somewhat analogous to Urdu, in that it is a literary language used +by the educated classes for intercommunication throughout a polygot +empire, is the Mandarin Chinese. If China is not "polygot" in the strict +technical sense of the term, she is so in fact, since the dialects used +in different provinces are mutually incomprehensible for the speakers of +them. Mandarin is the official master-language. + +Rather of the nature of _patois_ are Pidgin-English, Chinook, and +Benguela, the language used throughout the tribes of the Congo. Yet +business of great importance and involving large sums of money is, or +has been, transacted in them, and they are used over a wide area. + +Pidgin consists of a medley of words, largely English, but with a +considerable admixture from other tongues, combined in the framework +of Chinese construction. It is current in ports all over the East, +and is by no means confined to China. The principle is that roots, +chiefly monosyllabic, are used in their crude form without inflection +or agglutination, the mere juxtaposition (without any change of form) +showing whether they are verbs, adjectives, etc. This is the Chinese +contribution to the language. + +Chinook is the key-language to dealings with the huge number of +different tribes of American Indians. It contains a large admixture of +French words, and was to a great extent artificially put together by the +Hudson Bay Company's officials, for the purposes of their business. + +Quite apart from these various more or less consciously constructed +mixed languages, there is a much larger artificial element in many +national languages than is commonly realized. Take modern Hungarian, +Greek, or even Italian. Literary Italian, as we know it, is largely an +artificial construction for literary purposes, made by Dante and others, +on the basis of a vigorous and naturally supple dialect. With modern +Greek this is even more strikingly the case. As a national language +it is almost purely the work of a few scholars, who in modern times +arbitrarily and artificially revived and modified the ancient Greek. + +There seems, then, to be absolutely no foundation in experience for +opposing a universal language on the score of artificiality. + + + II + + OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF A UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE + + List of Schemes proposed + +The story of Babel in the Old Testament reflects the popular feeling +that confusion of tongues is a hindrance and a curse. Similarly in the +New Testament the Pentecostal gift of tongues is a direct gift of God. +But apparently it was not till about 300 years ago that philosophers +began to think seriously about a world-language. + +The earliest attempts were based upon the mediaeval idea that man might +attain to a perfect knowledge of the universe. The whole sum of things +might, it was thought, be brought by division and subdivision within +an orderly scheme of classification. To any conceivable idea or thing +capable of being represented by human speech might therefore be attached +a corresponding word, like a label, on a perfectly regular and logical +system. Words would thus be self-explanatory to any person who had +grasped the system, and would serve as an index or key to the things +they represented. Language thus became a branch of philosophy as the men +of the time conceived it, or at all events a useful handmaid. Thus arose +the idea of a "philosophical language." + +A very simple illustration will serve to show what is meant. Go into +a big library and look up any work in the catalogue. You will find +a reference number--say, 04582.g. 35,c. If you learnt the system of +classification of that library, the reference number would explain to +you where to find that particular book out of any number of millions. +The fact of the number beginning with a "0" would at once place the book +in a certain main division, and so on with the other numbers, till "g" +in that series gave you a fairly small subdivision. Within that, "35" +gives you the number of the case, and "c" the shelf within the case. The +book is soon run to earth. + +Just so a word in a philosophical language. Suppose the word is _brabo_. +The final _o_ shows it to be a noun. The monosyllabic root shows it to +be concrete. The initial _b_ shows it to be in the animal category. The +subsequent letters give subdivisions of the animal kingdom, till the +word is narrowed down by its form to membership of one small class of +animals. The other members of the class will be denoted by an ordered +sequence of words in which only the letter denoting the individual is +changed. Thus, if _brabo_ means "dog," _braco_ may be "cat," and so on: +_brado_, _brafo_, _brago_... etc., according to the classification +set up. + +Words, then, are reduced to mere formulae; and grammar, inflections, +etc., are similarly laid out on purely logical, systematic lines, +without taking any account of existing languages and their structure. +To languages of this type the historians of the universal language have +given the name of _a priori_ languages. + +Directly opposed to these is the other group of artificial languages, +called _a posteriori_. These are wholly based on the principle of +borrowing from existing language: their artificiality consists in +choice of words and in regularization and simplification of vocabulary +and grammar. They avoid, as far as possible, any elements of arbitrary +invention, and confine themselves to adapting and making easier what +usage has already sanctioned. + +Between the two main types come the _mixed languages_, partaking of the +nature of each. + +The following list is taken from the _Histoire de la langue +universelle_, by MM. Couturat and Leau: + + + I. A PRIORI LANGUAGES + +1. The philosopher Descartes, in a letter of 1629, forecasts a system +(realized in our days by Zamenhof) of a regular universal grammar: words +to be formed with fixed roots and affixes, and to be in every case +immediately decipherable from the dictionary alone. He rejects this +scheme as fit "for vulgar minds," and proceeds to sketch the outline +of all subsequent "philosophic" languages. Thus the great thinker +anticipates both types of universal language. + +2. Sir Thomas Urquhart, 1653--_Logopandekteision_ (see next chapter). + +3. Dalgarno, 1661--_Ars Signorum_. Dalgarno was a Scotchman born at +Aberdeen in 1626. His language is founded on the classification of +ideas. Of these there are seventeen main classes, represented by +seventeen letters. Each letter is the initial of all the words in its +class. + +4. Wilkins, 1668--_An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical +Language_. Wilkins was Bishop of Chester, and first secretary and one +of the founders of the Royal Society. Present members please note. His +system is a development of Dalgarno's. + +5. Leibnitz, 1646-1716. Leibnitz thought over this matter all his life, +and there are various passages on it scattered through his works, +though no one treatise is devoted to it. He held that the systems of +his predecessors were not philosophical enough. He dreamed of a logic +of thought applicable to all ideas. All complex ideas are compounds of +simple ideas, as non-primary numbers are of primary numbers. Numbers +can be compounded _ad infinitum._ So if numbers are translated into +pronouncible words, these words can be combined so as to represent every +possible idea. + +6. Delormel, 1795 (An III)--_Projet d'une langue universelle_. Delormel +was inspired by the humanitarian ideas of the French Revolution. He +wished to bring mankind together in fraternity. His system rests on a +logical classification of ideas on a decimal basis. + +7. Jean Franois Sudre, 1817--_Langue musicale universelle_. Sudre was a +schoolmaster, born in 1787. His language is founded on the seven notes +of the scale, and he calls it Solresol. + +8. Grosselin, 1836--_Systeme de langue universelle_. A language +composed of 1500 words, called "roots," with 100 suffixes, or modifying +terminations. + +9. Vidal, 1844--_Langue universelle et analytique_. A curious +combination of letters and numbers. + +10. Letellier, 1852-1855--_Cours complet de langue universelle_, and +many subsequent publications. Letellier was a former schoolmaster and +school inspector. His system is founded on the "theory of language," +which is that the word ought to represent by its component letters an +analysis of the idea it conveys. + +11. Abb Bonifacio Sotos Ochando, 1852, Madrid. The abb had been +a deputy to the Spanish Cortes, Spanish master to Louis Philippe's +children, a university professor, and director of a polytechnic +college in Madrid, etc. His language is a logical one, intended for +international scientific use, and chiefly for writing. He does not think +a spoken language for all purposes possible. + +12. _Societ Internationale de linguistique_. First report dated 1856. +The object of the society was to carry out a radical reform of French +orthography, and to prepare the way for a universal language--"the need +of which is beginning to be generally felt." In the report the idea of +adopting one of the most widely spoken national languages is considered +and rejected. The previous projects are reviewed, and that of Sotos +Ochando is recommended as the best. The _a posteriori_ principle is +rejected and the _a priori_ deliberately adopted. This is excusable, +owing to the fact that most projects hitherto had been _a priori_. The +philosopher Charles Renouvier gave proof of remarkable prescience by +condemning the _a priori_ theory in an article in _La Revue_, 1855, in +which he forecasts the _a posteriori_ plan. + +13. Dyer, 1875--_Lingwalumina; or, the Language of Light_. + +14. Reinaux, 1877. + +15. Maldent, 1877--_La langue naturelle_. The author was a civil +engineer. + +16. Nicolas, 1900--_Spokil_. The author is a ship's doctor and former +partisan of Volapk. + +17. Hilbe, 1901--_Die Zablensprache_, Based on numbers which are +translated by vowels. + +18. Dietrich, 1902--_Vlkerverkehrssprache_. + +19. Mannus Talundberg, 1904--_Perio, eine auf Logik und Gedachtnisskunst +aufgebaute Weltsprache_. + + + II. MIXED LANGUAGES + +These are chiefly Volapk and its derivates. + +1. August Theodor von Grimm, state councillor of the Russian Empire, +worked out a "programme for the formation of a universal language," +which contains some _a priori_ elements, as well as nearly all the +principles which subsequent authors of _a posteriori_ languages have +realized. This Grimm is not to be confused with the famous philologist +Jacob von Grimm, though he wrote about the same time. + +2. Schleyer, 1879--_Volapk_. (See below.) + +3. Verheggen, 1886--_Nal Bino_. + +4. Menet, 1886--_Langue universelle_. An imitation of Volapk. + +5. Bauer, 1886--_Spelin_. A development of Volapk with more words taken +from neutral languages. + +6. St. de Max, 1887--_Bopal_. An imitation of Volapk. + +7. Dormoy, 1887--_Balta_. A simplification of Volapk. + +8. Fieweger, 1893--_Dil_. An exaggeration of Volapk for good and ill. + +9. Guardiola, 1893--_Orba_. A fantastic language. + +10. W. von Arnim, 1896--_Veltparl_. A derivative of Volapk. + +11. Marchand, 1898--_Dilpok_. Simplified Volapk. + +12. Bollack, 1899--_La langue bleue_. Aims merely at commercial and +common use. Ingenious, but too difficult for the memory. + + + III. A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES + +1. Faiguet, 1765--_Langue nouvelle_. Faiguet was treasurer of France. He +published his project, which is a scheme for simplifying grammar, in the +famous eighteenth-century encyclopaedia of Diderot and d'Alembert. + +2. Schipfer, 1839--_Communicationssprache_. This scheme has an +historical interest for two reasons. First, the fact that it is founded +on French reflects the feeling of the time that French was, as he +says, "already to a certain extent a universal language." The point of +interest is to compare the date when the projects began to be founded on +English. In 1879 Volapk took English for the base. Secondly, Schipfer's +scheme reflects the new consciousness of wider possibilities that were +coming into the world with the development of means of communication by +rail and steamboat. The author recommends the utility of his project by +referring to "the new way of travelling." + +3. De Rudelle, 1858--_Pantos-Dimon-Glossa._ De Rudelle was a +modern-language master in France and afterwards at the London +Polytechnic. His language is based on ten natural languages, especially +Greek, Latin, and the modern derivatives of Latin, with grammatical +hints from English, German, and Russian. It is remarkable for having +been the first to embody several principles of the first importance, +which have since been more fully carried out in other schemes, and are +now seen to be indispensable. Among these are: (1) distinction of the +parts of speech by a fixed form for each; (2) suppression of separate +verbal forms for each person; (3) formation of derivatives by means of +suffixes with fixed meanings. + +4. Pirro, 1868--_Universalsprache_. Based upon five languages--French, +German, English, Italian, and Spanish--and containing a large proportion +of words from the Latin. + +5. Ferrari, 1877--_Monoglottica_ (?). + +6. Volk and Fuchs, 1883--_Weltsprache_. Founded on Latin. + +7. Cesare Meriggi, 1884--_Blaia Zimondal_. + +8. Courtonne, 1885--_Langue Internationale no-Latine_. Based on the +modern Romance languages, and therefore not sufficiently international. +A peculiarity is that all roots are monosyllabic. The history of this +attempt illustrates the weight of inertia against which any such project +has to struggle. It was presented to the Scientific Society of Nice, +which drew up a report and sent it to all the learned societies of +Romance-speaking countries. Answers were received from three towns--Pau, +Sens, and Nimes. It was then proposed to convene an international +neo-Latin congress; but it is not surprising to hear that nothing came +of it. + +9. Steiner, 1885--_Pasilingua_. A counterblast to Volapk. The author +aims at copying the methods of naturally formed international languages +like the "lingua franca" or Pidgin-English. Based on English, French, +and German; but the English vocabulary forms the groundwork. + +10. Eichhorn, 1887--_Weltsprache_. Based on Latin. A leading principle +is that each part of speech ought to be recognizable by its form. Thus +nouns have two syllables; adjectives, three; pronouns, one; verbal +roots, one syllable beginning and ending with a consonant; and so on. + +11. Zamenhof, 1887--_Esperanto_. (See below.) + +12. Bernhard, 1888--_Lingua franca nuova_. A kind of bastard Italian. + +13. Lauda, 1888--_Kosmos_. Draws all its vocabulary from Latin. + +14. Henderson, 1888--_Lingua_. Latin vocabulary with modern grammar. + +15. Henderson, 1902--_Latinesce_. A simpler and more practical +adaptation of Latin by the same author--_e.g._ the present infinitive +form does duty for several finite tenses, and words are used in their +modern senses. + +16. Hoinix (pseudonym for the same indefatigable Mr. Henderson), +1889--_Anglo-franca_. A mixture of French and English. Both this and the +barbarized Latin schemes are fairly easy and certainly simpler than the +real languages, but they are shocking to the ear, and produce the effect +of mutilation of language. + +17. Stempel, 1889--_Myrana_. Based on Latin with admixture of other +languages. + +18. Stempel, 1894--_Communia_. A simplification of No. 17, with a new +name. + +19. Rosa, 1890--_Nov Latin_. A set of rules for using the Latin +dictionary in a certain way as a key to produce something that can be +similarly deciphered. + +20. Julius Lott, 1890--_Mundolingue_. Founded on Latin. Lott started an +international society for a universal language, proposing to build up +his language by collaboration of savants thus brought together. + +21. Marini, 1891--_Mthode rapide, facile et certaine pour construire un +idiome universel_. + +22. Liptay, 1892--_Langue catholique_. Based on the theory than an +international language already exists (in the words common to many +languages), and has only to be discovered. + +23. Mill, 1893--_Anti-Volapk_. A simple universal grammar to be applied +to the vocabulary of each national language. + +24. Braakman, 1894--_Der Wereldtaal "El Mundolinco," Gramatico del +Mundolinco pro li de Hollando Factore_ (Noordwijk). + +25. Albert Hoessrich (date?)--_Talnovos, Monatsschrift fr die +Einfhrung und Verbreitung der allgemeinen Verkehrssprache_ "_Tal_" +(Sonneberg, Thuringen). + +26. Heintzeler, 1895--_Universala_. Heintzeler compares the twelve chief +artificial languages already proposed, and shows that they have much in +common. He suggests a commission to work out a system on an eclectic +basis. + +27. Beermann, 1895--_Novilatin_. Latin brought up to date by comparison +with six chief modern languages. + +28. _Le Linguist_, 1896-7. A monthly review conducted by a band of +philologists. It contains many discussions of the principles which +should underly an international language, and suggestions, but no +complete scheme. + +29. Puchner, 1897--_Nuove Roman_. Based largely on Spanish, which the +author considers the best of the Romance tongues. + +30. Nilson--_La vest-europish central-dialekt_ (1890); _Lasonebr, un +transitional lingvo_ (1897); _Il dialekt Centralia, un compromiss +entr il lingu universal de Akademi international e la vest-europish +central-dialekt_ (1899). + +31. Krschner, 1900--_Lingua Komun_. The author was an Esperantist, +but found Esperanto not scientific enough. It is almost incredible +that a man who knew Esperanto should invent a language with several +conjugations of the verb, but this is what Krschner has done. + +32. International Academy of Universal Language, 1902--_Idiom Neutral_. +(See below.) + +33. Elias Molee, 1902--_Tutonish; or, Anglo-German Union Tongue_. +_Tutonish; a Teutonic International Language_ (1904). + +34. Molenaar--_Panroman, skiz de un ling internazional_ (in _Die +Religion der Menschheit_, March 1903); _Esperanto oder Panroman? Das +Weltsprache-problem und seine einfachste Lsung_ (1906); _Universal +Ling-Panroman_ (in _Menschheitsziele_, 1906); _Gramatik de Universal_ +(Leipzig, Puttmann, 1906). + +35. Peano--_De Latino sine flexione_ (in _Revue de Mathmatique_, vol. +viii., Turin, 1903); _Il Latino quale lingua ausiliare internazionale_ +(in _Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze di Torino_ 1904); +_Vocabulario de Latino Internationale comparato cum Anglo, Franco, +Germano, Hispano, Italo, Russo, Graeco, et Sanscrito_ (Turin, 1904). See +also the _Formulario mathematico_, vol. v. (Turin, 1906). + +36. Hummler, 1904--_Mundelingua_ (Saulgau). + +37. Victor Hely, 1905--_Esquisse d'une grammaire de la langue +Internationale, 1st part: Les mots et la syntaxe_ (Langres). + +38. Max Wald, 1906--_Pankel (Weltsprache), die leichteste und krzeste +Sprache fr den internationalen Verkehr. Grammatik und Wrterbuch mit +Aufgabe der Wortquelle_ (Gross-Beeren). + +39. Greenwood, 1906--_Ekselsiore, the New Universal Language for All +Nations: a Simplified, Improved Esperanto_ (London, Miller & Gill); +_Ulla, t ulo lingua otrs_ (The Ulla Society, Bridlington, 1906). + +40. Trischen, 1907--_Mondlingvo, provisorische Aufstellung einer +internationalen Verkehrssprache_ (Pierson, Dresden). + + + III + + THE EARLIEST BRITISH ATTEMPT + +A perusal of the foregoing list shows that in the early days of the +search for an international language the British were well to the fore. +Of the British pioneers in this field the first two were Scots--a fact +which accords well with the traditional enterprise north of the Tweed, +and readiness to look abroad, beyond their own noses, or, in this case, +beyond their own tongues. It is likewise remarkable that the British +have almost dropped out of the running in recent times, as far as +origination is concerned. Is this fact also typical, a small symptom +of Jeshurun's general fatness? Does it reflect a lesser degree of +nimbleness in moving with the spirit of the times? + +Anyhow, in this case the Briton's content with what he has got at home +is well grounded. He certainly possesses a first-class language. As a +curious example of the quaint use of it by a scholar and clever man in +the middle of the seventeenth century, the following account of Sir +Thomas Urquhart's book may be of some interest. + +Sir Thomas is well known as the translator of Rabelais; and evidently +something of the curious erudition, polyglotism, and quaintness of +conceit of his author stuck to the translator. This book is the rarest +of his tracts, all of which are uncommon, and has been hardly more than +mentioned by name by the previous writers on the subject. + +The title-page runs: + + * * * * * + + LOGOPANDEKTEISION + + OR, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE, + DIGESTED INTO THESE SIX SEVERAL BOOKS + + Neaudethaumata Chryseomystes + Chrestasebeia Neleodicastes + Cleronomaporia Philoponauxesis + + By SIR THOMAS URQUHART, of Cromartie, Knight, + + Now lately contrived and published both for his own Utilitie, + and that of all Pregnant and Ingenious Spirits. + + LONDON + + Printed and are to be sold by GILES CALVERT + at the Black Spread-Eagle at the West-end + of Paul's, and by RICHARD TOMLINS at + the Sun and Bible near Pye Corner. 1653. + + * * * * * + +In a note at the end of the book he apologizes for haste, saying that +the copy was "given out to two several printers, one alone not being +fully able to hold his quill a-going." + +The book opens with: + + "The Epistle Dedicatory to Nobody." + +The first paragraph runs: + + "MOST HONOURABLE, + + "My non-supponent Lord, and Soveraign Master of contradictions + in adjected terms, that unto you I have presumed to tender the + dedicacie of this introduction, will not seem strange to those, that + know how your concurrence did further me to the accomplishment of + that new Language, into the frontispiece whereof it is permitted." + +After some preliminary remarks, he says: + + "Now to the end the Reader may be more enamoured of the Language, + wherein I am to publish a grammar and lexicon, I will here set down + some few qualities and advantages peculiar to itself, and which no + Language else (although all other concurred with it) is able to reach + unto." + +There follow sixty-six "qualities and advantages," which contain the +only definite information about the language, for the promised grammar +and lexicon never appeared. A few may be quoted as typical of the +inducements held out to "pregnant and ingenious spirits," to the end +they "may be more enamoured of the Language." The good Sir Thomas was +plainly an optimist. + + "... Sixthly, in the cases of all the declinable parts of + speech, it surpasseth all other languages whatsoever: for whilst + others have but five or six at most, it hath ten, besides the + nominative. + + "... Eighthly, every word capable of number is better provided + therewith in this language, then [_sic_] by any other: for instead of + two or three numbers which others have, this affordeth you four; to + wit, the singular, dual, plural, and redual. + + "... Tenthly, in this tongue there are eleven genders; wherein + likewise it exceedeth all other languages. + + "... Eleventhly, Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids + have all of them ten tenses, besides the present: which number no + language else is able to attain to. + + "... Thirteenthly, in lieu of six moods, which other languages + have at most, this one enjoyeth seven in its conjugable words." + +Sir Thomas evidently believed in giving his clients plenty for their +money. He is lavish of "Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and Hybrids," +truly a tempting menagerie. He promises, however, a time-reduction on +learning a quantity: + + "... Seven and fiftiethly, the greatest wonder of all is that + of all the languages in the world it is easiest to learn; a boy of + ten years old being able to attain to the knowledge thereof in three + months' space; because there are in it many facilitations for the + memory, which no other language hath but itself." + +Seventeenth-century boys of tender years must have had a good stomach +for "Mongrels and Hybrids," and such-like dainties of the grammatical +_menu_; but even if they could swallow a mongrel, it is hard to believe +that they would not have strained at ten cases in three months. It might +be called "casual labour," but it would certainly have been "three +months' hard." + +After these examples of grammatical generosity, it is not surprising to +read: + + "... Fifteenthly, in this language the Verbs and Participles + have four voices, although it was never heard that ever any other + language had above three." + +Note that the former colleagues of the "Verbs and Participles," the +"Mongrels and Hybrids," are here dropped out of the category. Perhaps +it is as well, seeing the number of voices attributed to each. A +four-voiced mongrel would have gone one better than the triple-headed +hell-hound Cerberus, and created quite a special Hades of its own for +schoolboys, to say nothing of light sleepers. + +Under "five and twentiethly" we learn that "there is no Hexameter, +Elegiack, Saphick, Asclepiad, lambick, or any other kind of Latin or +Greek verse, but I will afford you another in this language of the same +sort"; which leads up to: + + "... Six and twentiethly, as it trotteth easily with metrical + feet, so at the end of the career of each line, hath it dexterity, + after the manner of our English and other vernaculary tongues, + to stop with the closure of a rhyme; in the framing whereof, the + well-versed in that language shall have so little labour, that for + every word therein he shall be able to furnish at least five hundred + several monosyllables of the same termination with it." + +A remarkable opportunity for every man to become his own poet! + + "... Four and thirtiethly, in this language also words + expressive of herbs represent unto us with what degree of cold, + moisture, heat, or dryness they are qualified, together with some + other property distinguishing them from other herbs." + +In this crops out the idea that haunted the minds of mediaeval +speculators on the subject: that language could play a more important +part than it had hitherto done; that a word, while conveying an idea, +could at the same time in some way describe or symbolize the attributes +of the thing named. Imagine the charge of thought that could be rammed +into a phrase in such a language. Imagine too, you who remember the +cold shudder of your childhood, when you heard the elders discussing a +prospective dose--intensified by all the horrors of imagination when +the discussion was veiled in the "decent obscurity" of French--imagine +the grim realism of a language containing _words expressive of +herbs_,--and expressive to that extent! + +There seems, indeed, to have been something rather cold-blooded about +this language: + + "... Eight and thirtiethly, in the contexture of nouns, + pronouns, and preposital articles united together, it administreth + many wonderful varieties of Laconick expressions, as in the Grammar + thereof shall more at large be made known unto you." + +But, after all, it had a human side: + + "... Three and fourtiethly, as its interjections are more + numerous, so are they more emphatical in their respective expression + of passions, than that part of speech is in any other language + whatsoever. + + "... Eight and fourtiethly, of all languages this is the most + compendious in complement, and consequently fittest for Courtiers and + Ladies." + +Sir Thomas seems to have been a bit of a man of the world too. + + "... Fiftiethly, no language in matter of Prayer and Ejaculations + to Almighty God is able, for conciseness of expression to compare with + it; and therefore, of all other, the most fit for the use of Churchmen + and spirits inclined to devotion." + +This "therefore," with its direct deduction from "conciseness of +expression," recalls the lady patroness who chose her incumbents for +being fast over prayers. She said she could always pick out a parson who +read service daily by his time for the Sunday service. + +Sir Thomas is perhaps over-sanguine to a modern taste when he concludes: + + "Besides the sixty and six advantages above all other languages, + I might have couched thrice as many more of no less consideration + than the aforesaid, but that these same will suffice to sharpen + the longing of the generous Reader after the intrinsecal and most + researched secrets of the new Grammar and Lexicon which I am to + evulge." + + + IV + + HISTORY OF VOLAPK--A WARNING + +Volapk is the invention of a "white night." Those who know their _Alice +in Wonderland_ will perhaps involuntarily conjure up the picture of the +kindly and fantastic White Knight, riding about on a horse covered with +mousetraps and other strange caparisons, which he introduced to all and +sundry with the unfailing remark, "It's my own invention." Scoffers +will not be slow to find in Volapk and the White Knight's inventions a +common characteristic--their fantasticness. Perhaps there really is some +analogy in the fact that both inventors had to mount their hobby-horses +and ride errant through sundry lands, thrusting their creations on +an unwilling world. But the particular kind of white night of which +Volapk was born is the _nuit blanche_, literally = "white night," but +idiomatically = "night of insomnia." + +On the night of March 31, 1879, the good Roman Catholic Bishop Schleyer, +cur of Litzelstetten, near Constance, could not get to sleep. From +his over-active brain, charged with a knowledge of more than fifty +languages, sprang the world-speech, as Athene sprang fully armed from +the brain of Zeus. At any rate, this is the legend of the origin of +Volapk. + +As for the name, an Englishman will hardly appreciate the fact that +the word "Volapk" is derived from the two English words "world" and +"speech." This transformation of "world" into _vol_ and "speech" into +_pk_ is a good illustration of the manner in which Volapk is based on +English, and suggests at once a criticism of that all-important point in +an artificial language, the vocabulary. It is too arbitrary. + +Published in 1880, Volapk spread first in South Germany, and then in +France, where its chief apostle was M. Kerckhoffs, modern-language +master in the principal school of commerce in Paris. He founded a +society for its propagation, which soon numbered among its members +several well-known men of science and letters. The great Magasins du +Printemps--a sort of French Whiteley's, and familiar to all who have +shopped in Paris--started a class, attended by over a hundred of its +employees; and altogether fourteen different classes were opened in +Paris, and the pupils were of a good stamp. + +Progress was extraordinarily rapid in other European countries, and +by 1889, only nine years after the publication of Volapk, there were +283 Volapk societies, distributed throughout Europe, America, and +the British Colonies. Instruction books were published in twenty-five +languages, including Volapk itself; numerous newspapers, in and about +Volapk, sprang up all over the world; the number of Volapkists was +estimated at a million. This extraordinarily rapid success is very +striking, and seems to afford proof that there is a widely felt want for +an international language. Three Volapk congresses were held, of which +the third, held in Paris in 1889, with proceedings entirely in Volapk, +was the most important. + +The rapid decline of Volapk is even more instructive than its +sensational rise. The congress of Paris marked its zenith: hopes ran +high, and success seemed assured. Within two years it was practically +dead. No more congresses were held, the partisans dwindled away, the +local clubs dissolved, the newspapers failed, and the whole movement +came to an end. There only remained a new academy founded by Bishop +Schleyer, and here and there a group of the faithful.[1] + + [1]A Volapk journal still appears in Graz, Stiria--_Volapkabled + lezenodik_. The editor has just (March 1907) retired, and the veteran + Bishop Schleyer, now seventy-five years old, is taking up the + editorship again. + +The chief reason of this failure was internal dissension. First arose +the question of principle: Should Volapk aim at being a literary +language, capable of expressing all the finer shades of thought and +feeling? or should it confine itself to being a practical means of +business communication? + +Bishop Schleyer claimed for his invention an equal rank among the +literary languages of the world. The practical party, headed by M. +Kerckhoffs, wished to keep it utilitarian and practical. With the +object of increasing its utility, they proposed certain changes in the +language; and thus there arose, in the second place, differences of +opinion as to fundamental points of structure, such as the nature and +origin of the roots to be adopted. Vital questions were thus reopened, +and the whole language was thrown back into the melting-pot. + +The first congress was held at Friedrichshafen in August 1884, and was +attended almost exclusively by Germans. The second congress, Munich, +August 1887, brought together over 200 Volapkists from different +countries. A professor of geology from Halle University was elected +president, and an International Academy of Volapk was founded. + +Then the trouble began. M. Kerckhoffs was unanimously elected director +of the academy, and Bishop Schleyer was made grand-master (_cifal_) +for life. Questions arose as to the duties of the academy and the +respective powers of the inventor of the language and the academicians. +M. Kerckhoffs was all along the guiding spirit on the side of the +academy. He was in the main supported by the Volapk world, though there +seems to have been some tendency, at any rate at first, on the part of +the Germans to back the bishop. It is impossible to go into details of +the points at issue. Suffice it to say, that eventually the director +of the academy carried a resolution giving the inventor three votes to +every one of ordinary members in all academy divisions, but refusing him +the right of veto, which he claimed. The bishop replied by a threat to +depose M. Kerckhoffs from the directorship, which of course he could not +make good. The constitution of the academy was only binding inasmuch as +it had been drawn up and adopted by the constituent members, and it gave +no such powers to the inventor. + +So here was a very pretty quarrel as to the ownership of Volapk. +The bishop said it belonged to him, as he had invented it: he was +its father. The academy said it belonged to the public, who had a +right to amend it in the common interest. This child, which had newly +opened its eyes and smiled upon the world, and upon which the world +was then smiling back--was it a son domiciled in its father's house +and fully _in patria potestate_? or a ward in the guardianship of its +chief promoters? or an orphan foundling, to be boarded out on the +scattered-home system at the public expense, and to be brought up to be +useful to the community at large? A vexed question of paternity; and the +worst of it was, there was no international court competent to try the +case. + +Meantime the congress of 1889 at Paris came on. Volapk was booming +everywhere. Left to itself, it flourished like a green bay-tree. This +meeting was to set an official seal upon its success; and governments, +convinced by this thing done openly in the _ville lumire_, would accept +the _fait accompli_ and introduce it into their schools. + +Thirteen countries sent representatives, including Turkey and China. +The great Kerckhoffs was elected president. The proceedings were in +Volapk. The foundling's future was canvassed in terms of himself by +a cosmopolitan board of guardians, who did not yet know what he was. +Rather a Gilbertian situation. Trying a higher flight, we may say, in +Platonic phrase, that Volapk seemed to be about midway between being +and not-being. It is a far cry from Gilbert _vi_ Plato to Mr. Kipling, +but perhaps Volapk, at this juncture, may be most aptly described as +a "sort of a giddy harumphrodite," if not "a devil an' a ostrich an' a +orphan-child in one." + +Business done: The congress discusses. + +The congress passed a resolution that there should be drawn up "a simple +normal grammar, from which all useless rules should be excluded," and +proceeded to adopt a final constitution for the Volapk Academy. + +Article 15 says: "The decisions of the academy must be at once submitted +to the inventor. If the inventor has not within thirty days protested +against the decisions, they are valid. Decisions not approved by the +inventor are referred back to the academy, and are valid if carried by a +two-thirds majority." + +The bishop held out for his right of absolute veto, as his episcopal +fellows and their colleagues are doing "in another place" in England. +The conflict presents some analogy with other graver constitutional +matters, involving discussion of the respective merits of absolute and +suspensive veto, and may therefore have some interest at present, apart +from its great importance in any scheme for an international language. + +The upshot was that dissensions broke out within the academy. The +director, unable to carry a complete scheme of reformed grammar, +resigned (1891), and the academy, whose business it was to arrange the +next congress and keep the movement going, never convened a fourth +congress. Several academicians set to work on new artificial languages +of their own; and what was left of the Academy of Volapk, under a new +director, M. Rosenberger, a St. Petersburg railway engineer, elected +1893, subsequently turned its attention to working out a new language, +to which was given the name Idiom Neutral (see next chapter). + + * * * * * + +It is interesting to note that, when Volapk was nearing its high-water +mark, the American Philosophical Society appointed a committee (October +1887) to inquire into its scientific value. + +This committee reported in November 1887. The report states that the +creation of an international language is in conformity with the general +tendency of modern civilization, and is not merely desirable, but +_will certainly be realized._ It goes on to reject Volapk as the +solution of the problem, as being on the whole retrogade in tendency. +It is too arbitrary in construction, and not international enough in +vocabulary; nor does it correspond to the general trend of development +of language, which is away from a synthetic grammar (inflection by means +of terminations, as in Latin and Greek) and towards an analytic one +(inflection by termination replaced by prepositions and auxiliaries). + +But the committee was so fully convinced of the importance of an +international language, that it proposed to the Philosophical Society +that it should invite all the learned societies of the world to +co-operate in the production of a universal language. A resolution +embodying this recommendation was adopted by the society, and the +invitations were sent out. About twenty societies accepted--among them +the University of Edinburgh. The Scots again! + +The London Philological Society commissioned Mr. Ellis to investigate +the subject, and upon his report declined to co-operate. Mr. Ellis was +a believer in Volapk, and furthermore did not agree with the American +Philosophical Society's conclusion that an international language ought +to be founded on an Indo-Germanic (Aryan) basis. In this Mr. Ellis was +almost certainly wrong, as subsequent experience is tending to show. The +Japanese, among others, are taking up Esperanto with enthusiasm, find +it easy, and make no difficulty about its Aryan basis. But, apart from +linguistic considerations, Mr. Ellis's practical reasoning was certainly +sound. It was to this effect: The main thing is to adopt a language +that is already in wide use and shown to be adequate. Alterations bring +dissension; by sticking to what we have already got, imperfections and +all, strife is avoided, and the thing is at once reduced to practice. + +This was a wise counsel, and applies to-day with double force to the +present holder of the field, Esperanto, which is besides, in the opinion +of experts, a better language than Volapk, and far easier to acquire. + +However, on the question of technical merits, the American Philosophical +Society was probably right, as against the London Philological Society +represented by Mr. Ellis. And the proof is that Volapk died--primarily, +indeed, of dissensions among its partisans, but of dissensions +superinduced on inherent defects of principle. That this is true may +be seen from the subsequent history of the Volapk movement. This is +briefly narrated in the next chapter, under the name of Idiom Neutral. + + + V + + HISTORY OF IDIOM NEUTRAL + +We saw above that M. Kerckhoffs was succeeded in the directorship of the +Volapk Academy, 1893, by M. Rosenberger, of St. Petersburg. During his +term of office the academy continued its work of amending and improving +the language. The method of procedure was as follows: The director +elaborated proposals, which he embodied in circulars and sent round from +time to time to his fellow-academicians. They voted "Yes" or "No," so +that the language, when finished, was approved by them all, and was the +joint product of the academy; but it was, in its new form, to a great +extent, the work of the director. At the end of his term of office it +was practically complete. It had undergone a complete transformation, +and was now called Idiom Neutral. + +In 1898 M. Rosenberger was succeeded by Rev. A.F. Holmes, of Macedon, +New York State. The members of the academy vary from time to time, and +include (or have included since 1898) natives of America, Belgium, +Denmark, England, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Russia. + +Dictionaries of Idiom Neutral have been published in English (in +America), German, and Dutch; but the language hardly seems to be in +use except among the members of the academy. These do not meet, but +carry on their business by means of circulars, drawn up, of course, in +Neutral. There are at present only four groups of Neutralists--those of +St. Petersburg, Nuremberg, Brussels, and San Antonio, Texas. The famous +linguistic club of Nuremberg is remarkable for having gone through the +evolution from Volapk to Idiom Neutral _vi_ Esperanto! Besides these +four groups, there are isolated Neutralists in certain towns in Great +Britain. The academy seems still to have some points to settle, and the +work of propaganda has hardly yet begun. + +A paper published in Brussels, under the name of _Idei International_, +seems to represent the ideas of scattered Neutralists, and of some +partisans of other schemes based on Romance vocabulary. These languages +resemble each other greatly, and some sanguine spirits dream that they +may be fused together into the ultimate international language. A +few even hope for an amalgamation with Esperanto, through the medium +of a reformed type of Esperanto, which approximates more nearly +to these newer schemes, its vocabulary being, like theirs, almost +entirely Romance. A series of modifications was published tentatively +by Dr. Zamenhof himself in 1894, but was suppressed from practical +considerations, having regard to the fate that overtook Volapk, when +once it fell into the hands of reformers. The so-called reforms never +represented the real ideas of Zamenhof, and were rather in the nature +of reluctant concessions to the weaker brethren. They were never +introduced. + +The reader may be interested to compare for himself specimens of +Volapk, Idiom Neutral (its lineal descendant), and Esperanto. This +Esperanto is the only one in use, most Esperantists having never even +heard of the reform project, which was at once dropped, before the +language had entered upon its present cosmopolitan extension. The +following versions of the Lord's Prayer are taken from MM. Couturat and +Leau's _History_, as are the facts in the above narratives, with the +exception of the latest details: + + VOLAPK + +O Fat obas, kel binol in sls, paisaludomz nem ola! Kmomd monargn +ola! Jenomz vil olik, s in sl, i su tal! Bodi obsik vdeliki givols +obes adelo! E pardols obes debis obsik, s id obs aipardobs debeles +obas. E no obis nindukols in tentadi; sod aidalivols obis de bad. +Jenosd! + + IDIOM NEUTRAL[1] + +Nostr patr kel es in sieli! Ke votr nom es sanktifiked; ke votr regnia +veni; ke votr volu es fasied, kuale in siel, tale et su ter. Dona +sidiurne a noi nostr pan omnidiurnik; e pardona (a) noi nostr debiti, +kuale et noi pardon a nostr debtatori; e no induka noi in tentasion, ma +librifika noi da it mal. + + [1]There are two forms of Idiom Neutral,--one called "pure," + authorized by the academy; the other used in the paper _Idei + International_. + + ESPERANTO + +Patro nia, kiu estas en la cxielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu regeco +via; estu volo via, kiel en la cxielo, tiel ankaux sur la tero. Panon +nian cxiutagan donu al ni hodiaux; kaj pardonu al ni sxuldojn niajn, +kiel ni ankaux pardonas al niaj sxuldantoj; kaj ne konduku nin en +tenton, sed liberigu nin de la malbono. + +Comparing Volapk with Idiom Neutral, even this brief specimen is +enough to show the main line of improvement. The framers of the latter +had realized the fact that the vocabulary is the first and paramount +consideration for an artificial language. It is hopeless to expect +people to learn strings of words of arbitrary formation and like +nothing they ever saw. Accordingly Idiom Neutral borrows its vocabulary +from natural speech, and thereby abandons a regularity which may be +theoretically more perfect, but which by arbitrary disfigurement of +familiar words overreaches itself, and does more harm than good. + +It is very instructive to note that a body of international language +specialists were brought little by little to adopt an almost exclusively +Romance vocabulary, and this in spite of the fact that they started from +Volapk, whose vocabulary is constructed on quite other lines. In other +points their language suffers from being too exclusively inspired by +Volapkist principles, so that their recognition of the necessity of an +_a posteriori_ vocabulary is the more convincing. + +Given, then, that vocabulary is to be borrowed and not created anew, +it is obvious that the principle of borrowing must be _maximum of +internationality of roots_--i.e. those words will be adopted by +preference which are already common to the greatest number of chief +languages. Now, by far the greater number of such international words +(which are far more numerous than was thought before a special study was +made of the subject) are Romance, being of Latin origin. This is the +justification of the prevalence of the Romance element in any modern +artificial language. It has been frequently made a reproach against +Esperanto that it is a Romance language; but the unanimous verdict of +the competent linguists who composed the academy for the emendation of +Volapk may be taken as final. They threshed the question out once for +all, and their conclusion derives added force from the fact that it is +the result of conversion. + +But it may be doubted whether they have not gone rather far in this +direction and overshot the mark. + +Comparing Idiom Neutral with Esperanto, it will be found that the +latter admits a larger proportion of non-Romance words. While fully +recognizing and doing justice to the accepted principle of selection, +maximum of internationality, Esperanto sometimes gives the preference to +a non-Romance word in order to avoid ambiguity and secure a perfectly +distinct root from which to form derivatives incapable of confusion +with others.[1] There is always a good reason for the choice; but it is +easier to appreciate this after learning the language. + + [1]It is obvious, too, that English, Germans, and Slavs will be more + attracted to a language which borrows some of its features from their + own tongues, than to an entirely Romance language. This relatively + wider international appeal is another advantage of Esperanto. + +But a mere comparison of the brief texts given above will bring out +another point in favour of Esperanto--its full vocalic endings. On the +other hand, many words in Idiom Neutral present a mutilated appearance +to the eye, and, what is a much greater sin in an international +language, offer grave difficulties of pronunciation to speakers of +many nations. Words ending with a double consonant are very frequent, +e.g. _nostr patr_; and these will be unpronounceable for many nations, +e.g. for an Italian or a Japanese. Euphony is one of the strongest +of the many strong points of Esperanto. In it the principle of +maximum of internationality has been applied to _sounds_ as well as +_forms_, and there are very few sounds that will be a stumbling-block +to any considerable number of speakers. Some of its modern rivals +seem to forget that a language is to be spoken as well as written. +When a language is unfamiliar to the listener, he is greatly aided +in understanding it if the vowel-sounds are long and full and the +pronunciation slow, almost drawling. Esperanto fulfils these requisites +in a marked degree. It is far easier to dwell upon two-syllabled words +with full vocalic endings like _patro nia_ than upon awkward words like +_nostr patr_. + +Yet another advantage of Esperanto is illustrated in the same texts. +Owing to its system of inflexion and the possession of an objective +case, it is extremely flexible, and can put the words in almost any +order, without obscuring the sense. Thus, in the translation of the +_Pater Noster_, the Esperanto text follows the Latin _word for word +and in the same order_. It is obvious that this flexibility confers +great advantages for purposes of faithful and spirited translation. + + + VI + + THE NEWEST LANGUAGES: A NEO-LATIN GROUP--GROPINGS + TOWARDS A "PAN-EUROPEAN" AMALGAMATED SCHEME + +A perusal of the list of schemes proposed (pp. 76-87 [Part II, Chapter +II]) shows that the last few years have produced quite a crop of +artificial languages. Now that the main principles necessary to success +are coming to be recognized, the points of difference between the rival +schemes are narrowing down, and, as mentioned in the last chapter, there +is a family likeness between many of the newer projects. The chief of +these are: Idiom Neutral; Pan-Roman or Universal, by Dr. Molenaar; +Latino sine flexione, by Prof. Peano; Mundolingue; Nuove-Roman; and +Lingua Komun. + +These have been grouped together by certain adversaries as "Neo-Roman"; +but their partisans seem to prefer the collective term "Neo-Latin." +There are more or less vague hopes that out of them may be evolved a +final form of international language, for which the names _Pan-European_ +and _Union-Ling_ have been suggested. Dr. Molenaar has declared his +willingness to keep to his original title, Pan-Roman, for his own +language, if the composite one should prefer to be called _Universal_. +Prof. Peano says, in the course of an article (written in his own +language, of course), "any fresh solution in the future can only differ +from Idiom Neutral, as two medical or mathematical treatises dealing +with the same subject." + +The only definite scheme for common action put forth up to now +seems to be that proposed by Dr. Molenaar. In January 1907 he sent +round a circular written in French, in which he makes the following +propositions: + +All authors and notable partisans of Neo-Latin universal languages shall +meet in a special academy, which will elaborate a compromise-language. + +As regards the programme, the three fundamental principles shall be: + + 1. Internationality and comprehensibility. + 2. Simplicity and regularity. + 3. Homogeneity and euphony. + +Of these principles, No. 1 is to take precedence of No. 2, and No. 2 of +No. 3. + +The order of discussion is to be: + + I. GRAMMAR + + (_a_) Alphabet. + (_b_) Articles (necessary or not?). + (_c_) Declension. + (_d_) Plural (_-s_ or _-i_?). + (_e_) Adjective (invariable or not?). + (_f_) Adverb, etc. + + II. VOCABULARY + +The number of collaborators is to be limited to about twenty, and the +chairman is to be a non-partisan. + + * * * * * + +Such, in outline, is the proposal of Dr. Molenaar. An obvious criticism +is that it falls back into the old mistake of putting grammar before +vocabulary. + +From a practical point of view such a composite scheme is not likely +to meet with acceptance. It will be very hard for authors of languages +to be impartial and sacrifice their favourite devices to the common +opinion. M. Bollack, author of the _Langue bleue_, has already refused +the chairmanship. He does not see the use of founding a fresh academy, +and thinks Dr. Molenaar would do better to join forces with the +Neutralists. + +There exists indeed already an "Akademi International de Lingu +Universal," which has produced Idiom Neutral, and of which Mr. Holmes +is still director, now in his second term (see preceding chapter). +This academy is said to be too one-sided in its composition, and not +scientific. But it is hard to see how it will abdicate in favour of a +new one. + +Meantime, the victorious Esperantists, at present in possession of the +field, poke fun at these new-fangled schemes. A parody in Esperanto +verse, entitled _Lingvo de Molenaar_, and sung to the tune of the +American song _Riding down from Bangor_, narrates the fickleness of +Pan-Roman and how it changed into Universal. It is said that a group of +Continental Esperantists, at a convivial sitting, burnt the apostate +Idiom Neutral in effigy by making a bonfire of Neutral literature. On +the other side amenities are not wanting. It is now the fashion to sling +mud at a rival language by calling it "arbitrary" and "fantastic"; and +these epithets are freely applied to Esperanto. Strong in their cause, +the Esperantists are peacefully preparing the Congress of Cambridge. + + + VII + + HISTORY OF ESPERANTO + +Happy is the nation that has no history,--still happier the +international language; for a policy of "pacific penetration" offers few +picturesque incidents to furnish forth a readable narrative. In the case +of Esperanto there have been no splits or factions; no narrow ring of +oligarchs has cornered the language for its own purposes, or insisted +upon its aristocratic and non-popular side in the supposed interests of +culture or literary taste; consequently there has been no secession of +the _plebs_. In the early days of Esperanto there was indeed an attempt +to found an Esperanto league; but when it was seen that the league did +little beyond suggest alterations, it was wisely dissolved in 1894. +Since then Esperanto has been run purely on its merits as a language, +and has expressly dissociated itself from any political, pacifist, or +other propaganda. Its story is one of quiet progress--at first very +slow, but within the last five years wonderfully rapid, and still +accelerating. The most sensational episode in this peaceful advance +was the prohibition of the principal Esperantist organ by the Russian +censorship, so that there is little to do, save record one or two +leading facts and dates. + +The inventor of Esperanto is a Polish doctor, Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof, +now living in Warsaw. He was born in 1859 at Bielostock, a town which +has lately become notorious as the scene of one of the terrible +Russian _pogroms_, or interracial butcheries. This tragedy was only +the culmination of a chronic state of misunderstanding, which long +ago so impressed the young Zamenhof that, when still quite a boy, he +resolved to labour for the removal of one cause of it by facilitating +mutual intercourse. He has practically devoted his life first to the +elaboration of his language, and of later years to the vast amount of +business that its extension involves. And it has been a labour of love. +Zamenhof is an idealist. His action, in all that concerns Esperanto, +has been characterized throughout by a generosity and self-effacement +that well correspond to the humanitarian nature of the inspiration that +produced it. He has renounced all personal rights in and control of the +Esperanto language, and kept studiously in the background till the first +International Congress two years ago forced him into the open, when he +emerged from his retirement to take his rightful place before the eyes +of the peoples whom his invention had brought together. + +But he is not merely an idealist: he is a practical idealist. This is +shown by his self-restraint and practical wisdom in guiding events. +One of the symptoms of "catching Esperanto" is a desire to introduce +improvements. This morbid propensity to jejune amateur tinkering, a kind +of measles of the mind (_morbus linguificus_[1]) attacks the immature in +years or judgment. A riper acquaintance with the history and practical +aims of international language purges it from the system. We have all +been through it. For the inventor of Esperanto, accustomed for so many +years to retouch, modify, and revise, it must require no ordinary +degree of self-control to keep his hands off, and leave the fate of +his offspring to others. It grew with his growth, developing with his +experience, and he best knows where the shoe pinches and what might yet +be done. But he has the fate of Volapk before his eyes. He knows that, +having wrought speech for the people, he must leave it to the people, if +he wishes them to use and keep using it. + + [1]An expressive (homoeopathic) name for this malady may be coined + in Esperanto: _malsano lingvotrudema_ = officious or intrusive + disease, consisting in an itch for coining language. + +Contrast the uncompromising attitude of the inventor of Volapk, Bishop +Schleyer. It will be remembered how he let Volapk run upon the rocks +rather than relinquish the helm. He has been nicknamed "the Volapkist +Pope"--and indeed he made the great and fatal bull of believing in his +own infallibility. Zamenhof has never pretended to this. When he first +published his language, he made no claim to finality on its behalf. He +called for criticisms, and contemplated completing and modifying his +scheme in accordance with them. He even offered to make over this task +to a duly constituted academy, if people would come forward and throw +themselves into the work. Again, some years later, in a pamphlet, _Choix +d'une langue Internationale_, he proposed a scheme for obtaining a +competent impartial verdict, and declared his willingness to submit to +it. At one time he thought of something in the nature of a plebiscite. +Later, his renunciation of the last vestige of control, in giving +up the _aprobo_, or official sanction of books; his attitude at the +international congresses; his refusal to accept the presidency; his +reluctance to name or influence the selection of the members of the +body charged with the control of the language; his declaration that +his own works have no legislative power, but are merely those of an +Esperantist; finally, his sane conception of the scope and method of +future development of the language to meet new needs, and of the limits +within which it is possible--all this bespeaks the man who has a clear +idea of what he is aiming at, and a shrewd grasp of the conditions +necessary to ensure success. + +The word Esperanto is the present participle of the verb _esperi_--"to +hope," used substantially. It was under the pseudonym of Dr. Esperanto +that Zamenhof published his scheme in 1887 at Warsaw, and the name +has stuck to the language. Before publication it had been cast and +recast many times in the mind of its author, and it is curious to +note that in the course of its evolution he had himself been through +the principal stages exhibited in the history of artificial language +projects for the last three hundred years. That is to say, he began with +the idea of an _a priori_ language with made-up words and arbitrary +grammar, and gradually advanced to the conception of an _a posteriori_ +language, borrowing its vocabulary from the roots common to several +existing languages and presenting in its grammar a simplification of +Indo-European grammar. + +He began to learn English at a comparatively advanced stage of his +education, and the simplicity of its grammar and syntax was a revelation +to him. It had a powerful influence in helping him to frame his grammar, +which underwent a new transformation. Specimens of the language as +Zamenhof used to speak it with his school and student friends show +a wide divergence from its present form. He seems to have had cruel +disappointments, and was disillusioned by the falling away of youthful +comrades who had promised to fight the battles of the language they +practised with enthusiasm at school. During long years of depression +work at the language seems to have been almost his one resource. Its +absolute simplicity is deceptive as to the immense labour it must have +cost a single man to work it out. This is only fully to be appreciated +by one who has some knowledge of former attempts. Zamenhof himself +admits that, if he had known earlier of the existence of Volapk, he +would never have had the courage to continue his task, though he was +conscious of the superiority of his own solution. When, after long +hesitation, he made up his mind to try his luck and give his language to +the world, Volapk was strong, but already involved in internal strife. + +Zamenhof's book appeared first in Russian, and the same year (1887) +French and German editions appeared at Warsaw. The first instruction +book in English appeared in the following year. The only name on the +title-page is "St. J.," and it passed quite unnoticed. + +Progress was at first very slow. The first Esperanto society was founded +in St. Petersburg, 1892, under the name of _La Espero_. As early as +1889 the pioneer Esperanto newspaper, _La Esperantisto_[1] conducted +chiefly by Russians and circulated mainly in Russia, began to appear +in Nuremberg, where there was already a distinguished Volapk club, +afterwards converted to Esperanto. Since then Nuremberg has continued +to be a centre of light in the movement for an international language. +The other pioneer newspapers were _L'Espirantiste_, founded in 1898 at +Epernay by the Marquis de Beaufront, and _La Lumo_ of Montreal. + + [1]Afterwards prohibited in Russia, owing to the collaboration of + Count Tolstoi, and transferred to Upsala under the name _Lingvo + Internacia_. Since 1902 it has been published in Paris. + +In Germany in the early days of Esperanto the great apostles were +Einstein and Trompeter, and it was owing to the liberality of the latter +that the Nuremberg venture was rendered possible. + +Somewhat later began in France the activity of the greatest and most +fervent of all the apostles of Esperanto, the Marquis de Beaufront. +By an extraordinary coincidence he had ready for the press a grammar +and complete dictionary of a language of his own, named _Adjuvanto_. +When he became acquainted with Esperanto, he recognized that it was +in certain points superior to his own language, though the two were +remarkably similar. He suppressed his own scheme altogether, and threw +himself heart and soul into the work of spreading Esperanto. In a series +of grammars, commentaries, and dictionaries he expounded the language +and made it accessible to numbers who, without his energy and zeal, +would never have been interested in it. Among other well-known French +leaders are General Sebert, of the French Institute, M. Boirac, Rector +of the Dijon University, and M. Gaston Moch, editor of the _Indpendance +Belge_. + +In England the pioneer was Mr. Joseph Rhodes, who, with Mr. Ellis, +founded the first English group at Keighley in November 1902.[1] +Just a year later appeared the first English Esperanto journal, _The +Esperantist_, edited by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, London. Since 1905 it +has been incorporated with _The British Esperantist_, the official organ +of the British Esperanto Association. The association was founded in +October 1904. + + [1]The foundation of the London Esperanto Club took place at + practically the same time, and the club became the headquarters of + the movement in Great Britain. + +The first international congress was held at Boulogne in August 1905. It +was organized almost entirely by the president of the local group, M. +Michaux, a leading barrister and brilliant lecturer and propagandist. It +was an immense success, and inaugurated a series of annual congresses, +which are doing great work in disseminating the idea of international +language. The second was held in Geneva, August 1906; and the third will +be held at Cambridge, August 10-17, 1907. It is unnecessary to describe +the congresses here, as an account has been given in an early chapter +(see pp. 9-12 and 14-15 [Part I, Chapter III]). + +Within the last three or four years Esperanto has spread all over +the world, and fresh societies and newspapers are springing up on +every side. Since the convincing demonstration afforded by the Geneva +Congress, Switzerland is beginning to take the movement seriously. Many +classes and lectures have been held, and the university is also now +lending its aid. In the present year (1907) an International Esperantist +Scientific Office has been founded in Geneva, with M. Ren de Saussure +as director, and amongst the members of the auxiliary committee are +seventeen professors and eight privat-docents (lecturers) of the Geneva +University. + +Its object is to secure the recognition of Esperanto for scientific +purposes, and to practically facilitate its use. To this end the office +carries on the work of collecting technical vocabularies of Esperanto, +with the aid of all scientists whose assistance it may receive. This is +perhaps the most practical step yet taken towards the standardization of +technical terms, which is so badly needed in all branches of science. +A universal language offers the best solution of the vexed question, +because it starts with a clean sheet. Once a term has been admitted, by +the competent committee for a particular branch of science, into the +technical Esperanto vocabulary of that science, it becomes universal, +because it has no pre-existent rivals; and its universal recognition +in the auxiliary language will react upon writers' usage in their own +language. + +The Geneva office will also aid in editing scientific Esperantist +reviews; and the chief existing one, the _Internacia Scienca Revuo_, +will henceforth be published in Geneva instead of in Paris, as hitherto. + +The two principal objects of the Esperantist Scientific Association are: + +1. Scientists should always use Esperanto during their international +congresses. + +2. Scientific periodicals should accept articles written in Esperanto +(as they now do in the case of English, French, German, and Italian), +and should publish in Esperanto a brief summary of every article written +in a national language. + +A few weeks after the Geneva Congress there was a controversy on the +subject of Esperanto between two of the best known and most widely +read Swiss and French newspapers--the Paris _Figaro_ and the _Journal +de Geneve_. The respective champions were the Comte d'Haussonville, +of the Acadmie Franaise, and M. de Saussure, a member of a highly +distinguished Swiss scientific family; and the matter caused a good deal +of interest on the Continent. France was, in this case, reactionary and +_ancien rgime_: the smaller Republic backed Esperanto and progress. +M. de Saussure brought forward facts, and the count served up the old +arguments about Esperanto being unpatriotic and the prejudice it would +inflict upon literature. The whole thing was a good illustration of a +fact that is already becoming prominent in the history of the auxiliary +language movement--the scientists are much more favourable than the +literary men. As regards educational reform, the conservative attitude +of the classicists is well known, though there are many exceptions, +especially among real teachers. But it is somewhat remarkable that, when +the proposed reform deals with language, those whose business it is to +know about languages should not take the trouble to examine the scheme +properly, before giving an opinion one way or the other. + +As this question of the attitude of literary men has, and will have, +a vital bearing upon the prospects of international language, and +consequently upon its history, this is perhaps the place to remove a +misunderstanding. A distinguished literary man objected to the foregoing +passage as a stricture upon men of letters. His point was: "_Of course_ +literary men care less for Esperanto than scientific men do: it _must_ +be so, because they _need_ it less." Now this is quite true: there +is little doubt that to-day science is, perhaps inevitably, more +cosmopolitan than letters, whatever people may say about "the world-wide +republic of letters." But it does not meet the point. Esperantists do +not _complain_ because men of letters are not interested in Esperanto. +They have their own interests and occupations, and nobody would be so +absurd as to make it a grievance that they will not submit to have +thrust upon them a language for which they have no taste or use. What +Esperantists do very strongly object to is that some literary men lend +the weight of their name and position to irresponsible criticism. Let +them take or leave Esperanto as seems good to them. Their _responsible_ +opinions, _based upon due study of the question_, are always eagerly +welcomed. But do not let them misrepresent Esperanto to the public, +thereby unfairly prejudicing its judgment. Such action is unworthy of +serious men. When a man puts forward criticisms of Esperanto based +upon elementary errors of fact, or complains that Esperantists will +not listen to reason because they ignore proposals for change, which +have long ago been threshed out and found wanting, or are obviously +unpractical, he is merely showing that he has not studied the question. +A fair analogy would be the case of a chemist or engineer who had +recently begun to dabble in Greek in his spare moments, and who should +undertake to emend the text of Sophocles. His suggestions would show +that he knew no Greek, that he had never heard of Sir Richard Jebb, and +that he was ignorant of all the results of scientific textual criticism. +But here comes in the difference. Such a critic would be laughed out of +court, and told to mind his own business, or else learn Greek before he +undertook to emend it. But as international language is a novelty to +most people, it is thought that any one can make, mend, or criticise +it. It is not, like Greek, yet recognized as a serious subject, and +therefore irresponsible criticism is too apt to be taken at its face +value, merely on the _ipse dixit_ of the critic, especially if he +happens to be an influential man in some other line. Nobody bothers +about his qualifications in international language; nobody either knows +or cares whether he has any claim to be heard on the subject at all. + +The fact is that international language now has a considerable history +behind it. A large amount of experience has been amassed, and is now +available for any one who is willing and competent to go into the +question. But, in order to do fruitful work in this field, it is just +as necessary as in any other to be properly equipped, and to know where +others have left off, before you begin. + +At the first international congress at Boulogne the history of Esperanto +was well summed up in a thoughtful speech by Dr. Bein, of Poland, +himself a considerable Esperantist author, using the _nom de guerre_ +"Kabe." He pointed out that we are still in the first or propaganda +stage of international language, in which it is necessary to hold +congresses, and the language is treated as an end in itself. There +is good hope that the second stage may soon be reached, in which the +language may be sufficiently recognized to take its proper place as a +means. + +Meantime, the first stage of Esperanto has been marked by three phases +or periods--the Russian period, the French period, and the international +period. Each has left its mark upon the language. + +The Russian period is associated with the names of Kofman, Grabowski, +Silesnjov, Gernet, Zinovjev, and many other writers of considerable +literary power. Being the pioneers, they had to prove the capabilities +of the language to the world, and in doing so they took off some of the +rough of the world's indifference and scepticism. The language benefited +by the fact that the first authors were Slavs. The simplicity of the +Slav syntax, the logical arrangement of the sentences, the perfectly +free and natural order of the words, passed unconsciously from their +native language to the new one in the hands of these writers, and have +been imitated by their successors. + +The French period is associated chiefly with the name of M. de +Beaufront. In Russia, side by side with the good points named above, +certain less desirable Slavisms were creeping in; also there were +hitherto no scientific dictionaries or explanation of syntax. As Dr. +Bein says, de Beaufront may be called "the codifier of Esperanto." A +goodly band of French writers now took the language in hand, and by +their natural power of expression and exposition, which seems inborn in +a Frenchman, and by their national passion for lucidity, they have no +doubt strengthened the impulse of Esperanto towards clear-cut, vigorous +style. + +Possibly theorizing has been overdone in France; for, after all, the +strong point of Esperanto syntax is that there is none to speak of, +common sense being the guide. It is a pity to set up rules where none +are necessary, or to do anything that can produce an impression in +the minds of the uninitiated that learning Esperanto means anything +approaching the memory drudgery necessary in grasping the rules and +constructions of national languages. + +The third period began soon after the turn of the century, and is still +in full force. Take up any chance number of any Esperanto gazette out +of the numbers that are published all over the world; you will hardly +be able to draw any conclusion as to the nationality of the writer of +the article you light upon, save perhaps for an occasional turn of an +unpractised hand. Esperanto now has its style; it is--lucidity based +upon common sense and the rudiments of a minimized grammar. + +This chapter would not be complete without some account of the +_constitution_ of Esperanto, and the means which have been adopted to +safeguard the purity of the language. It will be well to quote in full +the Declaration adopted at Boulogne, in which its aim is set forth, and +which forms, as it were, its written constitution. For the convenience +of readers the Esperanto text and English translation are printed in +parallel columns. + + * * * * * + + DEKLARACIO DECLARATION + +Cxar pri la esenco de Esperantismo Because many have a very false +multaj havas tre malveran idea of the nature of Esperanto, +ideon, tial ni subskribintoj, therefore we, the undersigned, +reprezentantoj de la Esperantismo representing the cause of +en diversaj landoj de la mondo, Esperanto in different countries +kunvenintaj al la Internacia of the world, having met together +Kongreso Esperantista en at the International Esperanto +Boulogne-sur-Mer, trovis necesa, Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mer, +laux la propono de la auxtoro have thought it necessary, at the +de la lingvo Esperanto, doni la suggestion of the author of the +sekvantan klarigon: Esperanto language, to give the + following explanation: + +1. La Esperantismo estas penado 1. Esperanto in its essence +disvastigi en la tuta mondo is an attempt to diffuse over +la uzadon de lingvo neuxtrale the whole world a language +homa, kiu, "ne entrudante sin belonging to mankind without +en la internan vivon de la distinction, which, "not intruding +popoloj kaj neniom celante upon the internal life of the +elpusxi la ekzistantajn lingvojn peoples and in nowise aiming to +naciajn," donus al la homoj drive out the existing national +de malsamaj nacioj la eblon languages," should give to +komprenigxadi inter si, kiu men of different nations the +povus servi kiel paciga lingvo possibility of becoming mutually +de publikaj institucioj en tiuj comprehensible, which might serve +landoj kie diversaj nacioj batalas as a peace-making language for +inter si pri la lingvo, kaj en public institutions in those +kiu povus esti publikigataj tiuj lands where different nations are +verkoj kiuj havas egalan intereson involved in strife about their +por cxiuj popoloj. language, and in which might + be published those works which + possess an equal interest for all + peoples. + +Cxiu alia ideo aux espero kiun tiu Any other idea or hope which this +aux alia Esperantisto ligas kun la or that Esperantist associates +Esperantismo estos lia afero pure with Esperanto will be his purely +privata, por kiu la Esperantismo personal business, for which +ne respondas. Esperanto is not responsible. + +2. Cxar en la nuna tempo neniu 2. Because at the present time no +esploranto en la tuta mondo one who looks out over the whole +jam dubas pri tio, ke lingvo world any longer doubts that +internacia povas esti nur lingvo an international language can +arta, kaj cxar, el cxiuj multegaj only be an artificial one, and +provoj faritaj en la dauxro de because, of all the very numerous +la lastaj du centjaroj, cxiuj attempts made in the course of +prezentas nur teoriajn projektojn, the last two hundred years, +kaj lingvo efektive finita, all offer merely theoretical +cxiuflanke elprovita, perfekte solutions, and only one single +vivipova, kaj en cxiuj rilatoj language, Esperanto, has shown +pleje tauxga montrigxis nur unu itself to be in practice complete, +sola lingvo, Esperanto, tial fully tested on every side, +la amikoj de la ideo de lingvo perfectly capable of living use, +internacia, konsciante ke teoria and in every respect completely +disputado kondukos al nenio kaj adequate, therefore the friends +ke la celo povas esti atingita of the idea of international +nur per laborado praktika, jam de language, recognizing that +longe cxiuj grupigxis cxirkaux theoretical discussion will lead +la sola lingvo, Esperanto, kaj to nothing and that the end can +laboras por gxia disvastigado kaj only be attained by practical +ricxigado de gxia literaturo. and continuous effort, have long + grouped themselves around one + single language, Esperanto, and + are labouring to disseminate it + and to enrich its literature. + +3. Cxar la auxtoro de la lingvo 3. Because the author of the +Esperanto tuj en la komenco Esperanto language from the very +rifuzis, unu fojon por cxiam, beginning refused, once for all, +cxiujn personajn rajtojn kaj all personal rights and privileges +privilegiojn rilate tiun lingvon, connected with that language, +tial Esperanto estas "nenies therefore Esperanto is "the +proprajxo," nek en rilato property of no one," either from a +materiala, nek en rilato morala. material or moral point of view. + +Materiala mastro de tiu cxi lingvo Materially speaking, the whole +estas la tuta mondo, kaj cxiu world is master of this language, +deziranto povas eldonadi en aux and any one who wishes can +pri tiu cxi lingvo cxiajn verkojn publish in or about this language +kiajn li deziras, kaj uzadi la works of any kind he wishes, and +lingvon por cxiaj eblaj celoj go on using the language for +kiel spiritaj mastroj de tiu cxi any possible object; from an +lingvo estos cxiam rigardataj intellectual point of view those +tiuj personoj kiuj de la mondo persons will always be regarded as +Esperantista estos konfesataj kiel masters of this language who shall +la plej bonaj kaj la plej talentaj be recognized by the Esperantist +verkistoj de tiu cxi lingvo. world as the best and most gifted + writers in this language. + +4. Esperanto havas neniun personan 4. Esperanto has no personal +legxdonanton kaj dependas de neniu law-giver and depends upon +aparta homo. Cxiuj opinioj kaj no particular person. All +verkoj de la kreinto de Esperanto opinions and works of the creator +havas, simile al la opinioj kaj of Esperanto have, like the +verkoj de cxiu alia Esperantisto, opinions and works of any other +karakteron absolute privatan kaj Esperantist, an absolutely private +por neniu devigan. La sola, unu character, and are binding upon +fojon por cxiam deviga por cxiuj nobody. The sole foundation of +Esperantistoj, fundamento de la the Esperanto language, which is +lingvo Esperanto estas la verketo once for all binding upon all +_Fundamento de Esperanto_, en Esperantists, is the little work +kiu neniu havas la rajton fari _Fundamento de Esperanto_, in +sxangxon. Se iu deklinigxas de la which no one has the right to make +reguloj kaj modeloj donitaj en any change. If any one departs +la dirita verko, li neniam povas from the rules and models given +pravigi sin per la vortoj "tiel in the said work, he can never +deziras aux konsilas la auxtoro justify himself with the words +de Esperanto." Cxiun ideon, kiu "such is the wish or advice of +ne povas esti oportune esprimata the author of Esperanto." In the +per tiu materialo kiu trovigxas case of any idea which cannot be +en la _Fundamento de Esperanto_, conveniently expressed by means of +cxiu havas la rajton esprimi en that material which is contained +tia maniero kiun li trovas la in the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, +plej gxusta, tiel same kiel estas every Esperantist has the right to +farate en cxiu alia lingvo. Sed express it in such manner as he +pro plena unueco de la lingvo, considers most fitting, just as is +al cxiuj Esperantistoj estas done in the case of every other +rekomendate imitadi kiel eble plej language. But for the sake of +multe tiun stilon kiu trovigxas perfect unity in the language, it +en la verkoj de la kreinto de is recommended to all Esperantists +Esperanto, kiu la plej multe to constantly imitate as far as +laboris por kaj en Esperanto, kaj possible that style which is found +la plej bone konas gxian spiriton. in the works of the creator of + Esperanto, who laboured the most + abundantly for and in Esperanto, + and who is best acquainted with + the spirit of it. + +5. Esperantisto estas nomata 5. The name of Esperantist is +cxiu persono kiu scias kaj uzas given to every person who knows +la lingvon Esperanto, tute egale and uses the Esperanto language, +por kiaj celoj li gxin uzas. no matter for what ends he uses +Apartenado al ia aktiva societo it. Membership of some active +Esperantista por cxiu Esperantisto Esperanto society is to be +estas rekomendinda, sed ne deviga. recommended for every Esperantist, + but this is not compulsory. + + * * * * * + +By the wise provision of Article 4, that the entire grammar and +framework of Esperanto, as contained within one small book of a few +pages, is absolutely unchangeable, the future of the language is +secured. The _Fundamento_ also contains enough root words to express all +ordinary ideas. Henceforth the worst thing that can happen to Esperanto +by way of adulteration is that some authors may use too many foreign +words. The only practical check upon this, of course, is the penalty of +becoming incomprehensible. But as men are on the whole reasonable, and +as the only object of writing in Esperanto presumably is to appeal to +an Esperantist international public, this check should be sufficient to +prevent the use of any word that usage is not tending to consecrate. +A certain latitude of expansion must be allowed to every language, to +enable it to move with the times; but beyond this, surely few would +have any interest in foisting into their discourse words which their +hearers or readers would not be likely to understand, and those few +would probably belong to the class who do the same thing in using their +mother-tongue. No special legislation is needed to meet their case. + +For a few years (1901-1905) the publishing house of Hachette had the +monopoly of official Esperanto publications, and no work published +elsewhere could find place in the "Kolekto Esperanto aprobita de D-ro +Zamenhof." But at the first congress Zamenhof announced that he had +given up even this control, and Esperanto is now a free language. + +The official authority, which deals with all matters relating to the +language itself, is the _Lingvo Komitato_ (Language Committee). It was +instituted at the first congress, and consists of persons appointed for +their special competence in linguistic matters. The original members +numbered ninety-nine, and represented the following twenty-eight +countries: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chili, Denmark, +Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Hungary, +Iceland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Persia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, +Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. + +This committee decides upon its own organization and procedure. +In practice it selects from among the points submitted to it by +Esperantists those worthy of consideration, and propounds them to its +members by means of circulars. It then appoints a competent person or +small committee to report upon the answers received. Decisions are made +upon the result of the voting in the members' replies to the circulars, +as analyzed and tabulated in the report. The functions of the committee +do not include the making of any alteration whatever in the Esperanto +part of the _Fundamento de Esperanto_, which is equally sacrosanct for +it and for all Esperantists. But there is much to be done in correcting +certain faulty translations of the fundamental Esperanto roots into +national languages, in defining their exact meaning and giving their +authorized equivalent in fresh languages, into which they were not +originally translated. Also the constantly growing output of grammars +and instruction books of all kinds in every country, to say nothing of +dictionaries, which are very important, has to be carefully watched, in +order that errors may be pointed out and corrected before they have time +to take root. + +Thus the Lingva Komitato is in no sense an academy or legislative body, +having for object to change or improve the language; it is the duly +constituted and widely representative authority, which watches the +spread and development of the language, maintaining its purity, and +helping with judicious guidance. + +From this sketch it ought to be clear that Esperanto is no wild-cat +scheme of enthusiasts or faddists, but a wisely organized attempt to +wipe out the world's linguistic arrears. Its aim is to bring progress in +oral and written communication into line with the progress of material +means of communication and of science. + + + VIII + + PRESENT STATE OF ESPERANTO: (_a_) GENERAL; (_b_) IN ENGLAND + + (_a_) _General_ + +The first question usually asked is, "How many Esperantists are there?" +The answer is, "Nobody knows." The most diverse estimates have been +made, but none are based on any reliable method of computation. In the +_Histoire de la langue universelle_, which appeared in 1903 and is +written throughout in an impartial and scientific spirit, 50,000 was +tentatively given as a fairly safe estimate. That was before the days +of the international congresses, and since then the cause has been +advancing by leaps and bounds. Not a month passes without its crop of +new clubs and classes, and the pace is becoming fast and furious. + +A marked change has been noticeable of late in the press of the leading +countries. It is becoming a rare thing now to see Esperanto treated as +a form of madness, and the days of contemptuous silence are passing +away. Esperanto doings are now fairly, fully, and accurately reported. +The tone of criticism is sometimes favourable, sometimes patronizing, +sometimes hostile; but it is generally serious. It is coming to be +recognized that Esperanto is a force to be reckoned with; it cannot be +laughed off. One or two rivals, indeed, are getting a little noisy. +They are mostly one-man (not to say one-horse) shows, and they do not +like to see Esperanto going ahead like steam. High on the mountain-side +they sit in cold isolation, and gaze over the rich fertile plains of +Esperanto, rapidly becoming populous as the immigrants rush in and stake +out their claims in the fair "no-man's land."[1] And it makes them feel +bad, these others! "Jeshurun waxed fat," they cry; "pride goes before a +fall, remember Volapk!" The Esperantists remember Volapk, close their +ranks, and sweep on. + + [1]_Nenies proprajxo._ Esp. Deklaracio, Art. 3 (see p. 117 [Part II, + Chapter VIII]). + +Another good criterion besides the press is the sale of books. Large +editions are going off everywhere, especially, it would seem, in +America, where the folk have a habit, once they have struck a business +proposition, of running it for all it is worth. "Let her go! give +her hell!" is the word, and "the boys" are just now getting next to +Esperanto to beat the band. + +The British Esperanto Association's accounts show a very steady increase +in the sale of literature. Considering that it sells books at trade +prices, that hardly any of them are priced at more than a few pence, and +none above a shilling or two, the sums realized from sale of books in +some months are astonishing, and represent a large and increasing spread +of interest among the public. Owing to the low prices, the profit on +books is of course not great; but, such as it is, it all goes to help +the cause. The association is now registered as a non-profit-making +society under the law of 1867, with no share capital and no dividends. + +As regards official recognition, good progress is being made in England +(see below); but if the language is anywhere adopted universally in +government schools, it will certainly be first in France. (For an +account of the present state of this question, which is at present +before the French Permanent Educational Commission, see Part I., +chap. vi., p. 30). Dr. Zamenhof has been decorated by the French +Government, and Esperanto is already taught in many French schools. For +purposes of education France is divided into districts, called _ressorts +d'Acadmie_, within each of which there is a complete educational ladder +from the primary schools to the university which is the culmination +of each. The official head of an important district is Rector Boirac, +head of the Dijon University. He is one of the most distinguished of +the Esperantists, and is the leading spirit at the congresses and on +the Lingva Komitato. He has done much for Esperanto in the schools of +his district, and under the guidance of men of his calibre Esperanto is +making serious progress in France. (For lists of university professors +favourable to an international language, see p. 32 [Part I, Chapter +VI]). + +In Germany one of the foremost men of science of his time, Prof. +Ostwald, of Leipzig, is an ardent advocate of the international +language. He recently was lent for a time to Harvard University, U.S.A., +and while there gave a great impetus to the study of Esperanto. He +also spoke in its favour at Aberdeen last year, on the occasion of the +opening of the new University buildings. + +Apropos of the interchange between different countries of professors +and other teachers, which has to some extent been already tried between +America and Germany, it is curious to note the attitude of Prof. Hermann +Diels, Rector of the Berlin University. He is a great supporter of +the extension of this interchange, which also has the approbation of +the Kaiser, who attended formally the inaugural lecture of one of the +American professors, to mark his approbation. Prof. Diels commented on +the fact that diversity of language was a grave obstacle; but though +he seems before to have been a champion of popularized Latin, he now +declares himself strongly against any artificial language,[1] and +advocates the use of English, French, and German. This is a modified +form of the old Max Mller proposal, that all serious scientific work +should be published in one of six languages. It does not seem a very +convincing attitude to take up, because it ignores the facts: (1) that +the actual trend of the world is the other way--towards inclusion +of fresh national languages among the _Kultursprachen_, not towards +accentuation of the predominance of these three; (2) that the increase +of specialization and new studies at universities is leaving less and +less time for mastering several difficult languages merely as means to +other branches of study. Why should everybody have to learn English, +French, and German? + + [1]Herr Diels quaintly finds that Esperanto has only one gender--the + feminine! Surely an ultra-Shavian obsession of femininity. It is + perhaps some distinction to out-Shaw Bernard Shaw in any line. + +For the rest, Esperanto is now beginning to take hold in Germany. +The Germans have, as a general rule, open minds for this kind of +problem, and are trained to take objective views in linguistic matters +on the scientific merits of the case. The reason why they have been +somewhat backward hitherto in the Esperanto movement is no doubt their +disappointment at the failure of Volapk, which they had done much to +promote. But now that, in spite of this special drawback, the first +steps have been made, and clubs and papers are beginning to spring up +again, everything points to powerful co-operation from Germany in the +future. + +In Switzerland progress has been enormous since the Geneva Congress +of 1906. Many clubs and classes are already formed or in process of +formation, and university men are supporting the movement. In one +respect the Swiss are now in the van of the Esperantist world: they have +just started a newspaper, _Esperanto_, the prospectus of which declares +that it will no longer treat the language as an end in itself, or make +propaganda; it will run on the lines of an ordinary weekly, merely using +Esperanto as a means, inasmuch as it is the language of the paper. + +The well-known Swiss veteran philosopher Ernst Naville wrote to the +Geneva Congress that for thirty years he had regarded the introduction +of an international language as a necessity, owing to the advance of +civilization, and the day of realization of this object would be one of +the greatest dates of history. + +It is impossible to go through all the countries of Europe in detail. +It is probable that the greatest numbers of Esperantists are still to +be found among the Slav peoples. The language first took root in their +midst, and was spread far and wide by a distinguished group of Slav +writers. + +Outside Europe, Esperanto is making great strides in the British Empire, +Japan, and America. There are now Esperantist clubs in various parts of +India, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, in Malta, Singapore, etc. Dr. +Pollen, C.I.E., President of the British Esperanto Association, has +just been touring in India, in the interests of the language. Among +many satisfactory results is the guarantee of handsome sums towards +the guarantee fund of the coming Cambridge Congress by several native +rulers, among others the Mir of Khairpur, the Raja of Lunawada, the +Nawab of Radhanpur, and the Diwan of Palanpur. + +In New Zealand, an enterprising pioneer country in many departments, the +Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, is favourable. Not long ago he made a +speech advocating the introduction of Esperanto into the public schools +of the colony. + +In America big Esperantist societies and classes have sprung up with +amazing rapidity during the last year. Several universities now hold +Esperanto classes; the Boston Massachusetts Institute of Technology has +more than 100 students in its Esperanto class, and, among schools, the +famous Latin School of Roxbury has led the way with over fifty pupils +under Prof. Lowell. The press is devoting a large amount of attention +to Esperanto, and many journals of good standing are favourable. _The +North American Review_ has taken up the language. It printed articles in +December and January by Dr. Zamenhof and Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, +and followed them up by courses of lessons. It supplies Esperanto +literature to its readers at cost price, and reports that evidences of +interest "have been many and multiply daily." + +Among university supporters are Profs. Huntington and Morse of Harvard, +Prof. Viles, Ohio State University, Prof. Borgerhoff, Western Reserve +University, Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, etc. On the other hand, Prof. +Hugo Munsterberg of Harvard is attacking Esperanto. His is a good +example of the literary man's uninformed criticism of the universal +language project, because it is based upon an old criticism by a German +professor (Prof. Hamel) of the defunct Volapk. Why Esperanto should be +condemned for the sins of Volapk is not obvious. + +One other useful aspect of Esperanto remains to be mentioned--the +establishment of consulships to give linguistic and other assistance. +Many towns have already their Esperanto consuls, and in a few years +there ought to be a haven of refuge for Esperantists abroad nearly +everywhere. + +The following list of principal Esperanto organs will give some idea +of the diffusion of the language. The list makes no pretence of being +complete. + +Principal general reviews: + +_Internacia Scienca Revuo_. + +_La Revuo_ (which enjoys the constant collaboration of Dr. Zamenhof). + +_Tra la Mondo_. (This review has recently held, by the collaboration of +its readers, an international inquiry into education in all countries. +The report is appearing in the February number and following. This is a +good example of the sort of international work which can be done for and +by readers in every corner of the globe.) + +Other organs: + +_The British Esperantist_. + +_Lingvo Internacia_ (the _doyen_ of Esperanto journals). + +_L' Esprantiste_ (France). + +_Germana Esperantisto_. + +_Ehxo_ (Germany). + +_Svisa Espero_. + +_Esperanto_ (Switzerland). + +_Juna Esperantisto_ (Switzerland). + +_Esperanto_ (Hungary). + +_Helpa Lingvo_ (Denmark). + +_La Suno Hispana_ (Spain). + +_Idealo_ (Sicily). + +_La Algxera Stelo_ (Algiers: has recently ceased to appear). + +_La Belga Sonorilo_ (Belgium). + +_Ruslanda Esperantisto_ (Russia). + +_Pola Esperantisto_ (Poland). + +_Bulgara Esperantisto_ (Bulgaria). + +_Lorena Esperantisto_. + +_Esperantisten_ (Sweden). + +_Chasopis Cheskych Esperantista_ (Bohemia). + +_L'Amerika Esperantisto_ (central American organ, supported by groups in +New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Seattle, Los Angeles). + +_La Lumo_ (Montreal). + +_Antauxen Esperantistoj_ (Peru). + +_Brazila Revuo Esperantista_ (Brazil). + +_La Japana Esperantisto_ (Japan). + +_La Pioniro_ (India). + +_Espero Katolika_. + +_Foto Revuo_. + +_Socia Revuo_. + +_Unua Pasxo_. + +_Espero Pacifista_. + +_Eksport Jxurnalo_. + +_Esperanta Ligilo_ (for the blind--in Braille). + +_The New International Review_ (Oxford) recently presented a four-page +Esperanto supplement to its subscribers for some months. + + + (_b_) _Present State of Esperanto in England_ + +The most practical way of spreading Esperanto is to get it taught in the +schools, so it will be best to state first what has been done so far in +this matter. + +Esperanto has been officially accepted by the local educational +authorities in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and other provincial +towns; that is to say, it has been recognized as a subject to be taught +in evening classes, if there is sufficient demand. At present there +are classes under the London County Council at the following schools: +Queen's Road, Dalston (Commercial Centre); Blackheath Road (Commercial +Centre); Plough Road, Clapham Junction (Commercial Centre); Rutland +Street, Mile End (Commercial Centre); Myrdle Street, Commercial Road; +and Hugh Myddleton School, Clerkenwell. Other classes held in London are +at the Northern Polytechnic, Holloway Road; St. Bride's Institute, Bride +Lane; City of London College, White Street; Co-operative Institute, +Plumstead; Working Men's College, St. Pancras; Stepney Library, Mile End +Road; and a large class for teachers is held at the Cusack Institute, +Moorfields. + +At Keighley, Yorks, the Board of Education has recognized the language +as a grant-earning subject. Various local authorities give facilities, +some paying the teacher, others supplying a room. Among these are +Kingston-on-Thames (Technical Institute), Rochdale, Ipswich (Technical +School), Grimsby, etc. + +It does not appear that Esperanto is yet taught in any public elementary +school; educational officials, inspectors, etc., have yet to learn +about the language. Many private schools now teach it, and at least one +private girls' school of the best type teaches it as a regular subject, +alongside French and German. It has been impossible to get any return +or figures as to the extent to which it has penetrated into private +and proprietary schools. The Northern Institute of Languages, perhaps +the most important commercial school in the North of England, held an +Esperanto class with sixty-three students. + +Two large examining bodies--the London Chamber of Commerce and the +Examination Board of the National Union of Teachers--have included +Esperanto in their subjects for commercial certificates. At the London +Chamber of Commerce examination in May 1906 the candidates were as +follows: + + Entries. Passes. + + Teacher's diploma . . . 6 1 + Senior . . . . . 15 15 + Junior . . . . . 109 67 + --- --- + 130 83 + +There is now a Teachers' Section of the British Esperanto Association +with an Education Committee, which is carrying on active work in +promoting Esperanto in the schools. + +At an official reception of French teachers in London last year by +the Board of Education, Mr. Lough, speaking on behalf of the Board, +made a sympathetic reference to Esperanto. The incident is amusingly +told in Esperanto by M. Boirac, Rector of Dijon University and a noted +Esperantist, who was amongst the French professors. Not understanding +English, he was growing rather sleepy during a long speech, when the +word "Esperanto" gave him a sudden shock. He thought the English +official was poking fun at him, but was relieved to hear that the +allusion had been sympathetic. + +At this year's meeting of the Modern Language Society at Durham, the +Warden of Durham University, Dean Kitchin, in welcoming the society to +the town and university, gave considerable prominence in his speech to +Esperanto, remarking that, to judge by its rapid growth and the sanity +of its reformed grammar, one might easily believe that it will win +general use.[1] Such references in high places illustrate the tendency +to admit that there may be something in this international language +scheme. + + [1]He continued: "To me it seems that Esperanto in vocabulary and + grammar is a miracle of simplicity." + +There are now (May 1907) seventy local Esperanto societies in Great +Britain on the list of societies affiliated to the British Esperanto +Association, and often several new ones are formed in a month. The +first were Keighley and London, founded 1902. Seven more were formed in +1903; and since the beginning of 1906 no less than thirty-six. Besides +the members of these there are a great many learners in classes and +individual Esperantists who belong to no affiliated group. Every month +one reads lists of lectures given in the most diverse places, very often +with the note that a local club or class resulted, or that a large sale +of Esperanto literature took place. Sometimes the immediate number of +converts is surprising: e.g. on April 22, 1907, after a lecture on +Esperanto at the Technical College, Darlington, seventy-eight students +entered their names for a week's course of lessons to be held in the +college three times a day. + +There are now Esperanto consuls in the following towns: Bradford, +Chester, Edinburgh, Harrogate, Hull, Hunslet, Keighley, Leeds, +Liverpool, Nottingham, Oakworth, Plymouth, Rhos, Southampton, and St. +Helens. Birmingham has within the last few months taken up the cause +with its usual energy, and now has a large class. + +In England the universities have been slow to show interest in +Esperanto; but now that Cambridge has been selected as the seat of the +Congress in 1907, the university is granting every facility, as also +is the town council, in use of rooms and the like, and some professors +and other members of the university are cordially co-operating. Last +October Prof. Skeat, one of the fathers of English philology, took the +chair at a preliminary meeting, and made a speech very favourable to +Esperanto. He said, "I think Esperanto is a very good movement, and I +hope it will succeed." The subject of Esperanto is being well put before +the teachers of Cambridgeshire, and the railway companies all over the +country and abroad are granting special fares for the congress.[1] It +is probable that the overwhelming demonstration of the possibilities of +this international language will open the eyes of many who have hitherto +been indifferent, and that the movement will enter on a new phase of +expansion in England, and through the example of England, which is +closely watched abroad, in the world at large. + + [1]It is a striking fact that six weeks before the opening of the + congress 700 members have already secured their tickets. + + + IX + + LESSONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THE FOREGOING HISTORY + +The extent to which more or less artificial languages are already +used in various parts of the world for the transaction of interracial +business, and the persistent preoccupation of thinkers with the idea +for the last 200 years, culminating in the production of a great +number of schemes in our own times, show that there _is_ a demand for +an international language, more perfect than has yet been available +and universally valid. The list of languages proposed (see Part II., +chap. ii.) by no means represents all that has been written and thought +upon the subject. Many more have proposed solutions of the question, +beginning with such men as Becher (1661), Kirchner (1665), Porele +(1667), Upperdorf (1679), Mller (1681), Lobkowitz (1687), Besuier +(1684), Solbrig (1725), Taboltzafo (1772), and continuing down to the +present day. The striking success of Volapk and Esperanto in gaining, +within a few years of publication, many thousands of ardent supporters +has also been a revelation. It has proved most conclusively that there +is a demand. If so many people in all lands have been willing to give +up time and money to learning and promoting a language from which they +could not expect to reap anything like full benefit for many years, +what must be its value when ripened to yield full profits, i.e. when +universally adopted? + +There are two main obstacles to universal adoption. The first is common +to all projects of reform--the force of inertia. It is hard to win +practical support for a new thing, even when assent is freely given in +theory to its utility. The second is peculiar to Esperanto, and consists +in the discrediting of the cause of international language through the +failure of Volapk. Good examples of its operation are afforded by the +slowness of Germany to recognize Esperanto, and by the criticism of +Prof. Mnsterberg (formerly of Freiburg, Germany) in America, based +as it is on an old German criticism of Volapk, and transferred at +second-hand to Esperanto. + +Hence every effort should be made to induce critics of Esperanto to +examine the language before pronouncing judgment--to criticise the real +thing, instead of some bogy of their imagination. + +One bogy which has caused much misdirected criticism is raised by +misunderstanding of the word "universal" in the phrase _universal +language_. It is necessary to insist upon the fact that "universal" +means universally adopted and everywhere current _as an auxiliary_ to +the mother-tongue for purposes of international communication. It does +not mean a universal language for home consumption as a substitute for +national language. In Baconian language, this bogy may be called an +"idol of the market-place," since it rests upon confusion of terms. + +Pursuing the Baconian classification of error, we may call the literary +man's nightmare of the invasion of literature by the universal language +an "idol of the theatre." The lesson of experience is, that it is +well not to alienate the powerful literary interest justly concerned +in upholding the dignity and purity of national speech by making +extravagant claims on behalf of the auxiliary language. It is capable +of conveying _matter_ or _content_ in any department of human activity +with great nicety; but where it is a question of reproducing by +actual translation the _form_ or _manner_ of some masterpiece of national +literature, it will not, by nature of its very virtues, give a full idea +of the rich play of varied synonymic in the original. + +The great practical lesson of Volapk is, that alteration brings +dissension, and dissension brings death. A universal language must +be in essentials, like Esperanto, inviolable. If ever the time comes +for modification in any essential point, it will be after official +international recognition in the schools. Gradual reforms could then, +if necessary, be introduced by authority, as in the case of the recent +French "Tolrations," or the German reforms in orthography. + +So long as the world is divided among rival great powers, no national +language can be recognized as universal by them all. It is therefore +a choice between an artificial language or nothing. As regards the +structure of the artificial language itself, history shows clearly +that it must be _a posteriori_, not _a priori_. It must select its +constituent roots and its spoken sounds on the principle of maximum of +internationality, and its grammar must be a simplification of natural +existing grammar. On the other hand, a recent tendency to brand as +"arbitrary" and _a priori_ everything that makes for regularity, if it +is not directly borrowed, is to be resisted. It is possible to overdo +even the best of rules by slavish and unintelligent application. Thus it +is urged by extremists that some of the neatest labour-saving devices of +Esperanto are arbitrary, and therefore to be condemned. + + Take the Esperanto suffix _-in-_, which denotes the feminine. + " " " prefix _mal-_ " " " opposite. + " " " suffix _-ig-_ " " causative action. + +Given the roots _bov-_ (ox); _fort-_ (strong); _grand-_ (big): Esperanto +forms _bovino_ (cow); _malforta_ (weak); _grandigi_ (to augment); +_malgrandigi_ (to diminish). + +These words are arbitrary, because not borrowed from national language. +Let the public decide for itself whether it prefers a language which +insists (in order not to be "arbitrary") upon borrowing fresh roots +to express these ideas. Let any one who has learnt Latin, French, and +German try how long it takes him to think of the masculine of _vacca_, +_vache_, _Kuh_; the opposite of _fortis_, _fort_, _stark_; the Latin, +French, and German ways of expressing "to make big" and "to make small." +The issue is hardly doubtful. + +Again, the languages upon whose vocabulary and grammar the international +language is to be based must be Aryan (Indo-European). This is a +practical point. The non-European peoples will consent to learn +"simplified Aryan" just as they are adopting Aryan civilization; but the +converse is not true. The Europeans will go without an international +language rather than learn one based to some extent upon Japanese or +Mongolian. The only prescription for securing a large field is--greatest +ease for greatest number, with a handicap in favour of Europeans, to +induce them to enter. + + + + + PART III + + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + + + I + + ESPERANTO IS SCIENTIFICALLY CONSTRUCTED, + AND FULFILS THE NATURAL TENDENCY IN EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE + +All national languages are full of redundant and overlapping grammatical +devices for expressing what could be equally well expressed by a single +uniform device. They bristle with irregularities and exceptions. Their +forms and phrases are largely the result of chance and partial survival, +arbitrary usage, and false analogy. It is obvious that a perfectly +regular artificial language is far easier to learn. But the point to be +insisted on here is, that artificial simplification of language is no +fantastic craze, but merely a perfect realization of a natural tendency, +which the history of language shows to exist. + +At first sight this may seem to conflict with what was said in Part I., +chap. x. But there is no real inconsistency. As pointed out there, there +is no reason to think that Nature, left to herself, would ever produce a +universal language, or that a simpler language would win, in a struggle +with more complex ones, on account of its simplicity. But this does not +prevent there being a real natural tendency to simplification--though in +natural languages this tendency is constantly thwarted, and can never +produce its full effect. + +How, then, is this tendency to simplification shown in the history of +Aryan (Indo-European) languages? For it must be emphasized that for the +purposes of this discussion history of language means history of Aryan +language. + +The Aryan group of languages includes Sanskrit and its descendants in +the East, Greek, Latin, all modern Romance languages (French, Italian, +Spanish, etc.), all Germanic languages (English, German, Scandinavian, +etc.), all Slav languages (Russian, Polish, etc.)--in fact, all the +principal languages of Europe, except Hungarian, Basque, and Finnish. +The main tendency of this group of languages has been, technically +speaking, to become analytic instead of synthetic--that is, to abandon +complex systems of inflection by means of case and verbal endings, +and to substitute prepositions and auxiliaries. Thus, taking Latin as +the type of old synthetic Aryan language, its declension of nouns and +conjugation of verbs present an enormously greater complexity of forms +than are employed by English, the most advanced of the modern analytical +languages, to express the same grammatical relations. For example: + + Nom. mensa = a table. mensae = tables. + Acc. mensam = a table. mensas = tables. + Gen. mensae = of a table mensarum = of tables. + Dat. mensae = to or for a mensis = to or for tables. + table. + Abl. mensa = by, with, or mensis = by, with, or from + from a table. tables. + +By the time you have learnt these various Latin case endings (_-a_, +_-am_, _-ae_, _-ae_, _-a_; _-ae_, _-as_, _-arum_, _-is_, _-is_), you +have only learnt one out of many types of declension. Passing on to +the second Latin type or declension, e.g. _dominus_ = master, you +have to learn a whole fresh set of case endings (_-us_, _-um_, _-i_, +_-o_, _-o_; _-i_, _-os_, _-orum_, _-is_, _-is_) to express the same +grammatical relations; whereas in English you apply the same set of +prepositions to the word "master" without change, except for a uniform +_-s_ in the plural. As there are a great many types of Latin noun, the +simplification in English, effected by using invariable prepositions +without inflection, is very great. It is just the same with the verb. +Take the English regular verb "to love": the four forms _love_, _loves_, +_loving_, _loved_, about exhaust the number of forms to be learned +(omitting the second person singular, which is practically dead); the +rest is done by auxiliaries, which are the same for each verb. Latin, on +the other hand, possesses very numerous forms of the verb, and the whole +set of numerous forms varies for each type of verb. In the aggregate the +simplification in English is enormous. This process of simplification +is common to all the modern Aryan languages, but they have not all made +equal progress in carrying it out. + +Now, it is a remarkable fact, and a very suggestive one for those who +seek to trace the connexion between the course of a nation's language +and its history, that the degree of progress made by the languages of +Europe along their common line of evolution does on the whole, as a +matter of historical fact, correspond with the respective degree of +material, social, and economic advancement attained by the nations +that use them. Take this question of case endings. Russia has retained +a high degree of inflection in her language, having seven cases with +distinct endings. These seven cases are common to the Slav languages +in general; two of them (Sorbish and Slovenish) have, like Gothic and +Greek, a dual number, a feature which has long passed away from the +languages of Western Europe. Again, the Slav tongues decline many more +of the numerals than most Aryan languages. Germany, which, until the +recent formation of the German Empire, was undoubtedly a century slow by +West European time, still has four cases; or, in view of the moribund +dative, should we rather say three and a half? France and England manage +their affairs in a universal nominative[1] (if one can give any name +to a universal case), as far as nouns, adjectives, and articles are +concerned. Their pronouns offer the sole survival of declension by case +endings. Here France, the runner-up, is a trifle slow in the possession +of a real, live dative case of the pronoun (acc. _le_, _la_, _les_; +dat. _lui_, _leur_). England wins by a neck with one universal oblique +case (_him_, _her_, _them_). This insidious suggestion is not meant +to endanger the _entente cordiale_; even perfidious Albion would not +convict the French nation of arrested development on the side-issue of +pronominal atavism. Mark Twain says he paid double for a German dog, +because he bought it in the dative case; but no nation need be damned +for a dative. We have no use for the _coup de Jarnac_. + + [1]Though historically, of course, the Low Latin universal case, from + which many French, and therefore English, words are derived, was the + accusative. + +But consider the article. Here, if anywhere, is a test of the power +of a language to move with the times. For some reason or other (the +real underlying causes of these changes in language needs are obscure) +modern life has need of the article, though the highly civilized Romans +did very well without it. So strong is this need that, in the middle +ages, when Latin was used as an international language by the learned, +a definite article (_hic_ or to') was foisted into the language. How +is it with the modern world? The Slavs have remained in this matter at +the point of view of the ancient world. They are articleless. Germany +has a cumbrous three-gender, four-case article; France rejoices in a +two-gender, one-case article with a distinct form for the plural. The +ripe product of tendency, the infant heir of the eloquent ages, to whose +birth the law of Aryan evolution groaned and travailed until but now, +the most useful, if not the "mightiest," monosyllable "ever moulded +by the lips of man," the "the," one and indeclinable, was born in the +Anglo-Saxon mouth, and sublimed to its unique simplicity by Anglo-Saxon +progress. + +The general law of progress in language could be illustrated equally +well from the history of genders as exhibited in various languages. +We are here only dealing with Aryan languages, but, merely by way of +illustration, it may be mentioned that a primitive African language +offers seven "genders," or grammatical categories requiring the same +kind of concords as genders. In Europe we pass westward from the three +genders of Germany, curving through feminine and masculine France +(_place aux dames!_) to monogendric Britain. Only linguistic arbitrary +gender is here referred to; this has nothing to do with suffragettes or +"defeminization." + +Again, take agreement of adjectives. In the ancient world, whether +Greek, Latin, Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon, adjectives had to follow nouns +through all the mazes of case and number inflection, and had also to +agree in gender. In this matter German has gone ahead of French, in that +its adjectives do not submit to change of form in order to indicate +agreement, when they are used predicatively (e.g. "ein gut_er_ Mann"; +"der gut_e_ Mann"; but "der Mann ist gut"). But English has distanced +the field, and was alone in at the death of the old concords, which +moistened our childhood's dry Latin _with_ tears. + +Whatever test be applied, the common tendency towards simplification, +from synthesis to analysis, is there; and in its every manifestation +English has gone farthest among the great literary languages. It +is necessary to add this qualification--"among the great literary +languages"--because, in this process of simplification, English has a +very curious rival, and possibly a superior, in the _Taal_ of South +Africa. The curious thing is that a local dialect should have shown +itself so progressive, seeing that the distinctive note of most dialects +is conservatism, their chief characteristics being local survivals.[1] +It is probable that the advanced degree of simplification attained by +the Taal is the result of deliberate and conscious adaptation of their +language by the original settlers to the needs of the natives. Just +as Englishmen speak Pidgin-English to coolies in the East, so the old +trekkers must have removed irregularities and concords from their Dutch, +so that the Kaffirs could understand it. If this is so, it is another +illustration of the essential feature that an international language +must possess. Even the Boer farmers, under the stress of practical +necessity, grasped the need of simplification. + + [1]Of course a difference must be expected between a dialect spoken + by a miscellaneous set of settlers in a foreign land and one in use + as an indigenous growth from father to son. But the _habitants_, + as the French settlers in Quebec are called, who, like the Boers, are + mainly a pastoral and primitive people, have retained an antiquated + form of French, with no simplification. + +The natural tendency towards elimination of exceptions is also strongly +marked in the speech of the uneducated. Miss Loane, who has had +life-long experience of nursing work among the poorest classes in +England, tabulates (_The Queen's Poor_, p. 112) the points in which +at the present day the language of the poor differs from that of the +middle and upper classes. Under the heading of grammar she singles +out specially superabundance of negatives, and then proceeds: "Other +grammatical errors. These are nearly all on the lines of simplification. +It is correct to say 'myself, herself, yourself, ourselves.' Very well: +let us complete the list with 'hisself' and 'theirselves.' Most verbs +are regular: why not all? Let us say 'comed' and 'goed,' 'seed' and +'bringed' and 'teached.'" Miss Loane probably exaggerates with her +"nearly all." For instance, as regards the uneducated form of the past +tense of "to come," surely "come" is a commoner form than "comed." +Similarly the illiterate for "I did" is "I done," not "I doed," which +would be the regular simplification. But the natural tendency is +certainly there, and it is strong. + +Precisely the same tendency is observable in the present development +of literary languages. They have all inherited many irregular verbal +conjugations from the past as part of their national property, and +these, by the nature of the case, comprise most of the commonest +words in the language, because the most used is the most subject to +abbreviation and modification. But these irregular types of inflection +have long been dead, in the sense that they are fossilized survivals, +incapable of propagating their kind. When a new word is admitted into +the language, it is conjugated regularly. Thus, though we still say "I +go--I went; I run--I ran," because we cannot help ourselves, when we are +free to choose we say, "I cycle--I cycled; I wire--I wired"; just as the +French say "tlgraphier," and not "tlgraphir," -oir, or -re. + +Considering the strength of this stream of natural tendency, it seems a +most natural thing to start again, for international purposes, with a +form of simplified Aryan language, and, being free from the dead hand of +the past, to set up the simplest forms of conjugation, etc., and make +every word in the language conform to them. + +Indeed, this question of artificial simplification of language has of +late years emerged from the scholar's study and become a matter of +practical politics, even as regards the leading national languages. +Within the last few years there have been official edicts in France and +Germany, embodying reforms either in spelling or grammar, with the sole +object of simplifying. The latest attempt at linguistic jerrymandering +has been the somewhat autocratic document of President Roosevelt. He +has found that there are limits to what the American people will stand +even from him, and it seems likely to remain a dead letter. But there is +not the smallest doubt that the English language is heavily handicapped +by its eccentric vowel pronunciation and its spelling that has failed +to keep pace with the development of the language. The same is true, +though in a lesser degree, of the spelling and pronunciation of French. +Since the whole theory of spelling--and, until a few hundred years +ago, its practice too--consisted in nothing else but an attempt to +represent simply and accurately the spoken word, most unprejudiced +people would admit that simplification is in principle advisable. But +the practical difficulties in the way of simplification of a national +language are almost prohibitive. It is hard to see that there are any +such obstacles in the way of the adoption of a simple and perfectly +phonetic international artificial language. We dislike change because it +is change, and new things because they are new. We go on suffering from +a movable Easter, which most practically inconveniences great numbers of +people and interests, and seems to benefit no one at all, simply because +it is no one's business to change it. If once the public could be got +to examine seriously the case for an artificial international language, +they could hardly fail to recognize what an easy, simple, and _natural_ +thing it is, and how soon it would pay off all capital sunk in its +universal adoption, and be pure profit. + + + NOTE + +This seems the best place to deal with a criticism of Esperanto which +has an air of plausibility. It is urged that Esperanto does not carry +the process of simplification far enough, and that in two important +points it shows a retrograde tendency to revert to a more primitive +stage of language, already left behind by the most advanced natural +languages. These points are: + + (1) The possession of an accusative case. + (2) The agreement of adjectives. + +Now, it must be borne in mind that the business of a universal language +is, not to adhere pedantically to any philological theory, not to make +a fetish of principle, not to strive after any theoretical perfection +in the observance of certain laws of construction, but--simply to be +easy. The principle of simplification is an admirable one, because it +furthers this end, and for this reason only. The moment it ceases to +do so, it must give way before a higher canon, which demands that an +international language shall offer the greatest ease, combined with +efficiency, for the greatest number. The fact that a scientific study +of language reveals a strong natural tendency towards simplification, +and that this tendency has in certain languages assumed certain forms, +is not in itself a proof that an artificial language is bound to follow +the historical lines of evolution in every detail. It will follow them +just so far as, and no farther than, they conduce to its paramount +end--greatest ease for greatest number, plus maximum of efficiency. +In constructing an international language, the question then becomes, +in each case that comes up for decision: How far does the proposed +simplification conduce to ease without sacrificing efficiency? Does +the cost of retention (reckoned in terms of sacrifice of ease) of +the unsimplified form outweigh the advantages (reckoned in terms of +efficiency) it confers, and which would be lost if it was simplified out +of existence? Let us then examine briefly the two points criticised, +remembering that the main function of the argument from history of +language is, not to deduce therefrom hard-and-fast rules for the +construction of international language, but to remove the unreasoning +prejudice of numerous objectors, who cannot pardon the international +language for being "artificial," i.e. consciously simplified. + + (1) _The Accusative Case_ + +This is formed in Esperanto by adding the letter _-n_. This one form is +universal for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns singular and plural. Ex.: + + Nom. _bona patro_ (good father), plural, _bonaj patroj_. + Acc. _bonan patron_ " _bonajn patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress this _-n_. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of unsimplified form: Remembering to add this +_-n_. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: The flexibility of the language is +enormously increased; the words can be put in any order without +obscuring or changing the sense. Ex.: + _La patro amas sian filon_ = the father loves his son. + _Sian filon amas la patro_ (in English "his son loves the father" + has a different sense). + _Amas la patro sian filon_ (= the father _loves_ his son, but...). + _La patro sian filon amas_. + _Sian filon la patro amas_ (= it is his son that the father loves). + +In every case the Esperanto sentence is perfectly clear, the meaning +is the same, but great scope is afforded for emphasis and shades of +gradation. Further, every nation is enabled to arrange the words as +suits it best, without becoming less intelligible to other nations. +Readers of Greek and Latin know the enormous advantage of free word +order. For purposes of rendering the spirit and swing of national works +of literature in Esperanto, and for facilitating the writing of verse, +the accusative is a priceless boon. Is the price too high? + +N.B.--Those people who are most apt to omit the _-n_ of the accusative, +having no accusative in their own language, generally make their meaning +perfectly clear without it, because they are accustomed to indicate the +objective case by the order in which they place their words. They make +a mistake of Esperanto by omitting the _-n_, but they are understood, +which is the essential. + + (2) _The Agreement of Adjectives_ + +Adjectives in Esperanto agree with their substantives in number and +case. Ex.: _bona patro_, _bonan patron_, _bonaj patroj_, _bonajn +patrojn_. + +Suppose one were to suppress agreement of adjectives. + +(_a_) Cost of retention of agreement: Remembering to add _-j_ for the +plural and _-n_ for the accusative. + +(_b_) Advantages of retention: Greater clearness; conformity with the +usage of the majority of languages; euphony. + +Esperanto has wisely adopted full, vocalic, syllabic endings for words. +Contrast Esp. _bon-o_ with French _bon_, Eng. _good_, Germ. _gut_. By +this means Esperanto is not only rendered slower, more harmonious, and +easier of comprehension; it is also able to denote the parts of speech +clearly to eye and ear by their form. Thus final _-o_ bespeaks a noun; +_-a_, an adjective; _-e_, an adverb; _-i_, an infinitive, etc. + +Now, since all adjectives end in syllabic _-a_, it is much harder +to keep them uninflected than if they ended with a consonant like +the Eng. "good." To talk about _bona patroj_ would not only seem a +hideous barbarism to all Latin peoples, whose languages Esperanto most +resembles, but it would also offend the bulk of Northerners. After a +very little practice it is really easier to say _bonaj patroj_ than +_bona patroj_. The assimilation of termination tempts the ear and +tongue. + +The grammar is also simplified. For if adjectives agreeing with nouns +and pronouns expressed were invariable, it would probably be necessary +to introduce special rules to meet the case of adjectives standing as +nouns, or where the qualified word was suppressed. + +Again, is the price too high compared to the advantages? + + + II + + ESPERANTO FROM AN EDUCATIONAL POINT OF VIEW--IT WILL AID THE + LEARNING OF OTHER LANGUAGES AND STIMULATE INTELLIGENCE + +(1) Esperanto takes a natural place at the beginning of the sequence of +languages, upon which is founded the scheme of language-teaching in the +Reform Schools of Germany, and in some of the more progressive English +schools. + +The principle involved in this scheme is that of orderly progression +from the easier to the more difficult. Only one foreign language is +begun at a time. The easiest language in the school curriculum is +begun first. Enough hours per week are devoted to this language to +allow of decent progress being made. When the pupils have a fair grip +of the elements of one language, another is begun. The bulk of the +school language-teaching hours are now devoted to the new language, and +sufficient weekly hours are given to the language already learnt to +avoid backsliding at least. Thus in a German school of the new type the +linguistic hours are devoted in the lowest classes to the mother-tongue. +When the pupils have some idea what language means, and have acquired +some notion of grammar, they are given a school year or two of French. +After this Latin is begun in the upper part of the school, and Greek at +a corresponding interval after Latin. + +Now, it is one of the commonest complaints of teachers in our secondary +schools that they have to begin teaching Latin or French to boys who +have no knowledge whatever of grammar. Fancy the hopelessness of trying +to teach an English boy the construction of a Latin or French sentence +when he does not know what a relative or demonstrative pronoun means! +This is the fate of so many a master that quite a number of them resign +themselves to giving up a good part of their French or Latin hour to +endeavouring to imbue their flock with some notions of grammar in +general. They naturally try to appeal to their boys through the medium +of their own language. But those who have incautiously upset their class +from the frying-pan of _qui_, _quae_, _quod_, into the fire of English +demonstrative and relative pronouns get a foretaste of the fire that +dieth not. _Facilis descensus Averni._ Happy if they do not lose heart, +and step downward from the fire to ashes--reinforced with sackcloth. + +"I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman said was right." This +is the "abstract and brief chronicle" of their woes--sometimes, indeed, +the epitaph of their pedagogical career, if they are too sickened of +the Sisiphean task of trying to teach grammar on insufficient basis. +And this use, or abuse, of the hardworked word "that" is only an +extreme case which illustrates the difficulty of teaching grammar to +babes, through the medium of a language honeycombed with synonyms, +homonyms, exceptions, and other pitfalls (can you be honeycombed with a +pitfall?)--a language which seems to take a perverse delight in breaking +all its own rules and generally scoring off the beginner. And for the +dull beginner, what language does not seem to conform to this type? +Answer: Esperanto. + +In other words, it would seem that, for the grinding of grammar and the +advancement of sound learning in the initial stage, there is nothing +like an absolutely uniform and regular language,[1] a _type tongue_, +something that corresponds in the linguistic hierarchy to Euclid or +the first rules of arithmetic in the mathematical, something clear, +consistent, self-evident, and of universal application. + + [1]Cf. Sir Oliver Lodge: "It would certainly appear that for this + purpose [i.e. educative language-learning for children] the fully + inflected ancient languages are best and most satisfactory; if + they were still more complete and regular, like Esperanto, they + would be better still to begin with" (_School Teaching and School + Reform_, p. 21: chapter on Curricula and Methods). + +Take our sentence again: "I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman +said was right." If our beginner has imbibed his first notions of +grammar through the medium of a type language, in which a noun is +always a noun, and is stamped as such by its form (this, by the way, +is an enormous aid in making the thing clear to children); in which an +adjective is always an adjective, and is stamped as such by its form; +and so on through all the other parts of speech,--when the teacher +comes to analyse the sentence given, he will be able to explain it by +reference to the known forms of the regular key-language. He will point +out that of the "thats": the first is the Esperanto _ke_ (which is +final, because _ke_ never means anything else); the second is _tiu_ (at +once revealed by its form to be a demonstrative), the fourth _kiu_, and +so on. As for the third "that," which _is_ rather hard for a child to +grasp, he will be able to make it into a noun in form by merely adding +_-o_ to the Esperanto equivalent for any "that" required. He will not +be doing violence to the language; for Esperanto consists of roots, +which habitually do duty as noun, verb, adjective, etc., according +to the termination added. Those who know the value of the concrete +and tangible in dealing with children will grasp the significance of +the new possibilities that are thus for the first time opened up to +language-teachers. + +To sum up: Natural languages are all hard, and the beginner can never +go far enough to get a rule fixed soundly in his mind without meeting +exceptions which puzzle and confuse him. Esperanto is as clear, logical, +and consistent as arithmetic, and, like arithmetic, depends more upon +intelligence than upon memory work. If Esperanto were adopted as the +first foreign language to be taught in schools, and all grammatical +teaching were postponed until Esperanto had been begun, and then given +entirely through the medium of Esperanto until a sound notion of +grammatical rules and categories had been instilled, it would probably +be found that the subsequent task of learning natural languages would +be facilitated and abridged. From the very start it would be possible +to prevent certain common errors and confusions, that tend to become +engrained in juvenile minds by the fluctuating or contradictory usage of +their own language, to their great let and hindrance in the subsequent +stages of language-learning. The skeleton outline of grammatical +theory with concrete examples afforded by Esperanto would shield +against vitiating initial mistakes, in much the same way as the use of +a scientific phonetic alphabet, when a foreign language is presented +for the first time to the English beginner in written form, shields +him against carrying over his native mixed vowel system to languages +which use the same letters as English, but give quite a different value +to them. In both cases[1] the essentials of the new instrument of +learning are the same--that it be of universal application, that it be +sufficiently different from the mother-tongue or alphabet to prevent +confusion by association of ideas, that each of the new forms or letters +convey only one idea or sound respectively, and that this idea or sound +be always and only conveyed by that form or letter. + + [1]i.e. scientific regular type grammar and scientific regular + phonetic alphabet. + +(2) From a psychological point of view Esperanto would be a rewarding +subject of study for children. + +The above remarks on sequence of languages show that, by placing +Esperanto first in the language curriculum, justice is done to the +psychological maxim: from the easier to the harder, from the regular +to the exceptional. It may further be argued (_a_) that Esperanto is +educative in the real sense of the word, i.e. suitable for drawing +out and developing the reasoning powers; (_b_) that it would act as +a stimulus, and by its ease set a higher standard of attainment in +language-learning. + +(_a_) Amidst all the discussion of "educationists" about methods, +curricula, sequence of studies, and the rest, one fundamental fact +continues to face the teacher when he gets down to business; and +that is, that he has got to make the taught think for themselves. +In proportion as his teaching makes them contribute their share of +effort will it be fruitful. This is, of course, the merest truism, +sometimes dignified in the current pedagogical slang by the name of +"self-activity," or the like. But whatever new bottles the theorists, +and their extreme left wing the faddists, may choose to serve up our +old wine in, the fact is there: children have got to be made to use +their own brains. The eternal question that faces the teacher is, how to +provide problems that children really can work out by using their own +brains. The trouble about history, geography, English literature, and +such subjects is that the subject-matter of the problems they offer for +solution lies beyond the experience of the young, and to a large extent +beyond their reasoning powers. In teaching all such subjects there is +accordingly the perpetual danger that the real work done may degenerate +into mere memory work, or parrot-like cramming of notes or dates. + +The same difficulty is encountered in science teaching. Heuristic +methods have been devised to meet the difficulty. Though they are no +doubt psychologically sound, they tend to be very slow in results; hence +the common jibe that a boy may learn as much by them in five years as he +could learn out of a shilling text-book in a term. + +The old argument that "mental gymnastics" are best supplied by Latin +is sound to the extent that Latin really does furnish a perpetual +series of small problems that have to be solved by the aid of grammar +and dictionary, but which do involve real mental effort, since mere +mechanical looking out of words does not suffice for their elucidation. +But for various reasons, such as the remoteness of the ancient world +in time, place, modes of thought, etc., Latin tends to be too hard and +not interesting enough for the average boy. He gets discouraged, and +develops a habit of only working enough to keep out of trouble with the +school authorities, and is apt to leave school with an unintelligent +attitude towards intellectual things in general. This is the result of +early drudging at a subject in which progress is very slow, and which +by its nature is uncongenial. The great desideratum is a linguistic +subject which shall at once inculcate a feeling for language (German +_Sprachgefhl_), and yet be easy enough to admit of rapid progress. +Nothing keeps alive the quickening zest that makes learning fruitful +like the consciousness of making rapid progress. + +Hitherto arithmetic and Euclid have been the ideal subjects for +providing the kind of problem required--one that can be worked out +with certainty by the aid of rule and use of brain, without calling +for knowledge or experience that the child cannot have. The facts +are self-evident, and follow from principles, without involving any +extraneous acquaintance with life or literature, and no deadening +memory work is required. If only there were some analogous subject on +the literary side, to give a general grip of principles, uncomplicated +by any arbitrary element, what a boon it would be! and what a sound +preparation for real and more advanced linguistic study for those who +showed aptitude for this line! Arithmetic and Euclid both really depend +upon common sense; but partly owing to their abstract nature, and partly +because they are always classed as "mathematics," they seem to contain +something repellent to many literary or linguistic types of mind. + +With the invention of a perfectly regular and logically constructed +language, a concrete embodiment of the chief principles of language +structure, we have offered us for the first time the hitherto missing +linguistic equivalent of arithmetic or Euclid. In a regular language, +just because everything goes by rule, problems can be set and worked +out analogous to sums in arithmetic and riders in Euclid. Given the +necessary roots and rules, the learner can manufacture the necessary +vocabulary and produce the answer with the same logical inevitability; +and he has to use his brains to apply his rules, instead of merely +copying words out of a dictionary, or depending upon his memory for +them. + +In this way all that part of language-study which tends to be dead +weight in teaching the young is got rid of in one fell swoop, and +this though the language taught and learnt is a highly developed +instrument for reading, writing, speaking, and literary expression. +This dead weight includes most of the unintelligent memorizing, all +exceptions, all complicated systems of declension and conjugation, +all irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs, all syntactical +subtleties (cf. the sequence of tenses, oratio obliqua, the syntax of +subordinate clauses, in Latin; and the famous conditional sentences, +with the no less notorious _on_ and _me_ in Greek), all conflicting and +illogical uses of auxiliaries (cf. _etre_ and _avoir_ in French, and +_sein_ and _haben_ in German), besides a host of other old enemies. +Some of these things of course are not wholly memory work, especially +the syntax, which involves a real feeling for language. But these +would be much better postponed until one easy foreign language has +been learnt thoroughly. Every multilinguist knows that each foreign +language is easier to learn than the last. With a perfectly regular +artificial language you can make so much progress in a short time that +you can use it freely for practical purposes. Yet it does not come of +itself, like the mother-tongue. _This free manipulation of a consciously +acquired language is the very best training for forming a feeling for +language_--far better than weary stumbling over the baby stages of a hard +language. When you can read, write, and speak one very easy artificial +language, which you have had to learn as a foreign one, then is the time +when you can profitably tackle the difficulties of natural language, +appreciating the niceties of syntax, and realizing, by comparison with +your normal key-language, in what points natural languages are merely +arbitrary and have to be learnt by heart. Those who have early conquered +the grammar and syntax of any foreign language, but have had to put in +years of hard (largely memory) work before they could write or speak, +e.g., Latin Latin, French French, or German German, will realize the +saving effected, when they are told that Esperanto has no idiom, no +arbitrary usage. The combination of words is not governed, as in natural +languages, by tradition (which tradition has to be assimilated in the +sweat of the brow), but is free, the only limits being common sense, +common grammar, and lucidity. + +To those who do not know Esperanto it may seem a dark saying that +language riders can be worked out in the same way as geometrical +ones. To understand this some knowledge of the language is necessary +(for sample problems see Appendix A, p. 200). But for the sake of +making the argument intelligible it may here be stated that one of the +labour-saving, vocabulary-saving devices of Esperanto is the employment +of a number of suffixes with fixed meaning, that can be added to any +root. Thus: + + The suffix _-ej-_ denotes place. + " " _-il-_ " instrument. + " " _-ig-_ " causation. + Final _-o_ denotes a noun. + +Given this and the root _san-_ (cf. Lat. _sanus_), containing the +idea of health, form words for "to heal" (_san-ig-i_ = to cause to be +well); "medicine" (_san-ig-il-o_ = instrument of healing); "hospital" +(_san-ig-ej-o_ = place of healing), etc. + +This is merely an example. The combinations and permutations are +infinite; they give a healthy knowledge of word-building, and can be +used in putting whole pages of carefully prepared idiomatic English into +Esperanto. Practical experience shows that, given the necessary crude +roots, the necessary suffixes, and a one-page grammar of the Esperanto +language, an intelligent person can produce in Esperanto a translation +of a page of idiomatic English, not Ollendorfian phrases, _without having +learnt Esperanto_. + +(_b_) Experience also shows that the intelligent one thoroughly enjoys +himself while doing so; and having done so, experiences a thrill of +exhilaration almost amounting to awe at having made a better translation +into a language he has never learnt than he could make into a national +language that he has learnt for years, e.g. Latin, French, or German. + +And what is exhilaration in the dry tree may be sustained working +keenness in the green. The stimulus to the young mind of progress swift +and sure is immense. A child who has learnt to read, write, and speak +Esperanto in six months, as is very possible within the natural limits +of power of expression imposed by his age, not only has a sound working +knowledge of grammatical categories and forms, which will stand him +in good stead in subsequent language-learning; he has also a quite +different attitude of mind--_une tout autre mentalit_, to use recent +jargon--towards foreign languages. His only experience of learning one +has been that he did so with the object and result of being able to +read, write, and speak it within a reasonable time. "By so much the +greater and more resounding the slump into actuality," you will say, +"when he comes to grapple with his next." Perhaps. But even so, the +habit of acquiring fresh words and forms for immediate use must surely +tell--not to mention that he will incidentally have acquired a very +useful Romance vocabulary, and a wholly admirable French lucidity of +construction. + +(3) And this question of lucidity brings us to the third great +educational advantage of Esperanto. Its opponents--without having +ever learnt it to see--have urged that its preciseness will debauch +the literary sense. Surely the exact opposite is the fact. _Le style +c'est l'homme_, and the essence of true style is that a man should give +accurate expression to his thoughts. The French wit, satirizing vapid +fine writing, said that language was given to man to enable him to +conceal his thought. There is no more potent instrument for obscuring +or concealing thought than the ready-made phrase. Take up many a +piece of journalese or other slipshod writing, and note how often the +conventional phrase or word slips from under the pen, meaning nothing +in particular. The very conventionality disguises from writer and +reader the confusion or absolute lack of idea it serves to cloak. Both +are lulled by the familiar sound of the set phrase or word and glide +easily over them. On the other hand, in using a language in which you +construct a good deal of your vocabulary according to logical rule +_tout en marchant_, it is impossible to avoid thinking, at each moment, +exactly what you do mean. Where there is no idiom, no arbitrary usage, +no ready-made phrase, there is also far less danger of yielding to a +fatal facility. + +Take an instance or two. In the Prayer Book occurs the phrase "Fulfil, +O Lord, our desires and petitions." At Sunday lunch a mixed party of +people, after attending morning service, were asked how they would +render into Esperanto the word "desires." They nearly all plumped for +_dezirajxo_. Now, the Esperanto root for "desire" is _dezir-_. By adding +_-o_ it becomes a noun = the act of desiring, a desire. By adding the +suffix _-ajx_, and then _-o_, it becomes concrete = a desire- (i.e. +desired) thing, a desire. A reference to the dictionary showed that the +English word "desire" has both these meanings, but none of these people +had a sufficiently accurate idea of the use of language to realize this. +It was only when a gentleman passed his plate for a second helping of +beef, and was asked which he expected to be fulfilled--the beef, or his +aspiration for beef--that he, under the stimulus of hunger, adopted the +rendering _dezir-o_, thereby saving at once his bacon and his additional +beef. + +It is not of course necessary for people to define pedantically to +themselves the meaning of every word they use, but surely it must +conduce to clear thinking to use a language in which you are perpetually +called upon, if you are writing seriously, to make just the mental +effort necessary to think what you do mean. + +Again, consider the use of prepositions. This is, in nearly all national +languages, extremely fluctuating and arbitrary. Take a few English +phrases showing the use of the prepositions "at" and "with." "At seven +o'clock"; "at any price"; "at all times"; "at the worst"; "let it go +at that"; "I should say at a guess," etc. "Come with me"; "write with +a pen"; "he came with a rush"; "things are different with us"; "with a +twinkle in his eye"; "with God all things are possible," etc. Try to +turn these phrases into any language you think you know; the odds are +that you will find yourself "up against it pretty badly." The fact is, +that prepositions are very frequently used on no logical plan, not at +all according to any fixed or universal meaning; all that can be said +about them in a given phrase is that they are used there because they +are used. To remember their equivalents in other languages hard memory +work and much phrase-learning is necessary. In Esperanto all that is +necessary is: first, to become clear as to the exact meaning; secondly, +to pick the preposition that conveys it. There is no doubt, as the +Esperanto prepositions are fixed in sense, on the "one word one meaning" +plan. The point is, that there is no memory searching, often so utterly +vain, for there are few people indeed who can write a few pages of the +most familiar foreign languages without getting their prepositions all +wrong, and having "foreigner" stamped large all across their efforts. +In Esperanto, provided you have a clear mind and know your grammar, +_you are right_. No arbitrary usage defeats your efforts and makes +discouraging jargon of your literary attempts. + +This training in clear thought, the first requisite for all good +writing, is surely sound practical pedagogics. By the time you can give +up conscious word-building in Esperanto, and use words and phrases by +rote, you have done enough bracing thinking to teach you caution in the +use of the ready-made phrase and horror of the vague word. + +Fools make phrases, and wise men shun them. Here is a phrase-free +language: need we shun it? + + + III + + COMPARATIVE TABLES ILLUSTRATING LABOUR SAVED IN LEARNING ESPERANTO AS + CONTRASTED WITH OTHER LANGUAGES + + (_a_) WORD-BUILDING + +The following tables are meant to give some idea of the number and +variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto +root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes). By reading +the English, French, and German columns downwards, the reader will see +how many different roots and periphrases these languages employ in order +to express the same ideas. + +As the affixes have fixed meanings, they only have to be learnt once +for all, and many of them (e.g. _-ist_, _-in_, _re-_) are already +familiar. When once acquired, they can be used in unending permutation +and combination with different roots and each other. The tables below +are by no means exhaustive of what can be done with the roots _san-_ +and _lern-_. They are merely illustrative. By referring to the full +table of affixes in Part IV, Chapter IV, the reader can go on forming +new compounds _ad libitum_: e.g. san-o, san-a, san-e, san-i, saneco, +sanilo, sanulo, malsane, malsani, saneti, malsaneti, sanadi, eksani, +eksanigxi, saninda, sanindi, sanindulo, sanajxo, sanajxero, sanilo, +sanigilo, sanigilejo, sanigilujo, sanigilisto, malsanemeco, remalsano, +remalsanigo, sanila, malsanulino, sanistinedzo, sanilingo, sanigestro, +sanigestrino, sanigema, sanega, sanigega, gesanantoj, sanigxontoj, +sanigistido, sanigejano... and so on (kaj tiel plu). + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + san-a healthy +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a ill +ne (not) ne-san-a unwell +-ig (causative) san-ig-i to heal + san-ig-a salutary +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restorative +-igx (becoming) san-igx-i to be convalescent + re-san-igx-a getting well again +-ig mal-san-ig-a sickening (transitive) +-igx mal-san-igx-a sickening (intransitive) +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o doctor +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hospital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o invalid +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o hospital inmates +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o all the men and women patients +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o a lady doctor +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o a doctor's wife + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + san-a bien portant +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a malade +ne (not) ne-san-a (un peu) souffrant +-ig (causative) san-ig-i gurir + san-ig-a salutaire +re- (again) re-san-ig-a restaurant +-igx (becoming) san-igx-i etre convalescent + re-san-igx-a en train de se rtablir +-ig mal-san-ig-a coeurant (qui rend malade) +-igx mal-san-igx-a languissant +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o mdecin +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o hpital +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o un malade +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (in)curable +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o ensemble des malades +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o les malades hommes et femmes +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o un mdecin femme +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o une femme de mdecin + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + san-a gesund +mal- (opposite) mal-san-a krank +ne (not) ne-san-a unwohl +-ig (causative) san-ig-i heilen + san-ig-a heilsam +re- (again) re-san-ig-a wiederherstellend +-igx (becoming) san-igx-i sich erholen + re-san-igx-a genesend +-ig mal-san-ig-a ekelhaft (krank machend) +-igx mal-san-igx-a siechend +-ist (agent) san-ig-ist-o Arzt +-ej (place) san-ig-ej-o Krankenhaus +-ul (characteristic) mal-san-ul-o ein Kranker +-ebl (possibility) (mal)-san-ig-ebl-a (un)heilbar +-ar (collective) mal-san-ul-ar-o Gesamtheit der Kranken +ge- (both sexes) ge-mal-san-ul-ar-o die Kranken beider Geschlechter +-in (feminine) san-ig-ist-in-o Arztin +-edz (married) san-ig-ist-edz-in-o Frau des Arztes + + * * * * * + +AFFIX ESPERANTO ENGLISH + + lern-i to learn +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i to teach + lern-ig-a educative +-ej (place) lernej-o school +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o pupil +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj pupils of both sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o class +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o schoolboy +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o schoolgirl +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o headmaster +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o schoolmaster + lern-ej-ist-in-o schoolmistress +-ajxo (concrete) lern-ajx-o (learnt-stuff) subject + lern-ajx-ar-o curriculum +-em (inclination) lern-em-a studious +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a idle +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i to stimulate + lern-ig-o instruction + (act) + lern-ig-ajx-o instruction + (teaching given) + +AFFIX ESPERANTO FRENCH + + lern-i apprendre +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i enseigner + lern-ig-a ducateur +-ej (place) lernej-o cole +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o lve +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj lves des deux sexes +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o classe +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o colier +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o ecolire +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o proviseur +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o instituteur (professeur) + lern-ej-ist-in-o institutrice +-ajxo (concrete) lern-ajx-o (learnt-stuff) matire d'enseignement + lern-ajx-ar-o ensemble des matiress + d'enseignement +-em (inclination) lern-em-a appliqu +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a paresseux +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i mettre en train + lern-ig-o instruction + lern-ig-ajx-o enseignement + +AFFIX ESPERANTO GERMAN + + lern-i lernen +-ig (causative) lern-ig-i lehren + lern-ig-a erzieherisch +-ej (place) lernej-o Schule +-ant (pres. part.) lern-ant-o Schler +ge- (of both sexes) ge-lern-ant-oj Schler and Schlerinnen +-ar (collective) lern-ant-ar-o Klasse +-an (appertaining) lern-ej-an-o Schulknabe +-in (feminine) lern-ej-an-in-o Schulmdchen +-estr (chief) lern-ej-estr-o Direktor +-ist (agent) lern-ej-ist-o Lehrer + lern-ej-ist-in-o Lehrerin +-ajxo (concrete) lern-ajx-o (learnt-stuff) Lehrstoff + lern-ajx-ar-o (Studien)- Laufbahn + Schulprogramm +-em (inclination) lern-em-a fleissig +mal- (opposite) mal-lern-em-a faul +-ig (causative) lern-em-ig-i anregen + lern-ig-o das Unterrichten + lern-ig-ajx-o Unterricht + + + (_b_) PARTICIPLES AND AUXILIARIES + +The following table illustrates the perfect simplicity and terseness of +the Esperanto verb. + +Every tense, active and passive, is formed with never more than two +words. Every shade of meaning (continued, potential, etc., action) is +expressed by these two words, of which one is the single auxiliary +_esti_ (itself conjugated regularly). The double auxiliary--"to be" and +"to have"--which infests most modern languages, with all its train of +confusing and often illogical distinctions (cf. French _je suis all_, +but _j'ai couru_), disappears. Contrast the simplicity of _amota_ with +the cumbersome periphrasis _about to be loved_; or the perfect ease and +clearness of _vi estus amita_ with the treble-barrelled German _Sie +wrden geliebt worden sein_. + +This simplicity of the Esperanto verb is entirely due to its full +participial system. There are six participles, present, past, and future +active and passive, each complete in one word. The only natural Aryan +language (of those commonly studied) that compares with Esperanto in +this respect is Greek; and it is precisely the fulness of the Greek +participial system that lends to the language a great part of that +flexibility which all ages have agreed in admiring in it pre-eminently. +Take a page of Plato or any other Greek author, and count the number +of participles and note their use. They will be found more numerous +and more delicately effective than in other languages. Esperanto can +do all this; and it can do it without any of the complexity of form +and irregularity that makes the learning of Greek verbs such a hard +task. Bearing in mind the three characteristic vowels of the three +tenses--present _-a_, past _-i_, future _-o_ (common to finite tenses +and participles)--the proverbial schoolboy, and the dullest at that, +could hardly make the learning of the Esperanto participles last him +half an hour. + +It would be easy to go on filling page after page with the +simplifications effected by Esperanto, but these will not fail to strike +the learner after a very brief acquaintance with the language. But +attention ought to be drawn to one more particularly clever device--the +form of asking questions. An Esperanto statement is converted into a +question without any inversion of subject and verb or any change at +all, except the addition of the interrogative particle _cxu_. In this +Esperanto agrees with Japanese. But whereas Japanese adds its particle +_ka_ at the end of the sentence, the Esperanto _cxu_ stands first in its +clause. Thus when, speaking Esperanto, you wish to ask a question, you +begin by shouting out _cxu_, an admirably distinctive monosyllable which +cannot be confused with any other word in the language. By this means +you get your interlocutor prepared and attending, and you can then frame +your question at leisure. + +Contrast Esperanto and English in the ease with which they respectively +convert a statement into a question. + + English: You went--did you go? + + Esperanto: Vi iris--cxu vi iris? + +This particle may be considered the equivalent of the initial mark of +interrogation used in Spanish, and serves to remove all complications in +connexion with word order. + + * * * * * + +ESPERANTO ENGLISH + +amanta loving +aminta having loved +amonta about to love +amata being loved +amita (having been) loved +amota about to be loved +mi estas aminta I have loved +vi estis aminta you had loved +li estas amanta he is loving +sxi estis amata she was being loved +ni estos amintaj we shall have loved +vi estas amataj you are loved +ili estas amitaj they have been loved +mi estus aminta I should have loved +vi estus amita you would have been loved +li estas foririnta he has gone away +ili estus foririntaj they would have gone away + +ESPERANTO FRENCH + +amanta aimant +aminta ayant aim +amonta devant aimer +amata tant aim +amita (ayant t) aim +amota devant tre aim +mi estas aminta j'ai aim +vi estis aminta vous aviez aim +li estas amanta il est aimant +sxi estis amata elle tait en train d'tre aime +ni estos amintaj nous aurons aim +vi estas amataj vous tes aims +ili estas amitaj ils ont t aims +mi estus aminta j'aurais aim +vi estus amita vous auriez t aim +li estas foririnta il s'en est all +ili estus foririntaj il s'en seraient alls + +ESPERANTO GERMAN + +amanta liebend +aminta der geliebt hat +amonta der lieben wird +amata der geliebt wird +amita der geliebt worden ist +amota der geliebt werden soll +mi estas aminta ich habe geliebt +vi estis aminta Sie hatten geliebt +li estas amanta er ist liebend +sxi estis amata sie war im Zuge geliebt zu werden +ni estos amintaj wir werden geliebt haben +vi estas amataj Sie werden geliebt +ili estas amitaj sie sind geliebt worden +mi estus aminta ich wrde geliebt haben +vi estus amita Sie wrden geliebt worden sein +li estas foririnta er ist fortgegangen +ili estus foririntaj sie wrden fortgegangen sein + + * * * * * + +This chapter on labour-saving may fitly conclude with an estimate +of the amount of mere memorizing work to be done in Esperanto. +Since this is almost _nil_ for grammar, syntax, and idiom, and +since there are no irregularities or exceptions, the memory work +is, broadly speaking, reduced to learning the affixes, the table +of correlatives, and a certain number of new roots. This number is +astonishingly small. Here is an estimate made by Prof. Macloskie, +of Princeton, U.S.A.: + + Number of roots new to an English boy without Latin, about 600* + " " " " " with " " 300 + " " " a college teacher " 100 + + *i.e. about one-third of the whole number in the _Fundamento_. + + + IV + + HOW ESPERANTO CAN BE USED AS A CODE LANGUAGE TO + COMMUNICATE WITH PERSONS WHO HAVE NEVER LEARNT IT + +Technically speaking, Esperanto combines the characteristics of an +inflected language with those of an agglutinative one. This means that +the syllables used as inflexions (_-o_, _-a_, _-e_, _-as_, _-is_, _-os_, +_-ant-_, _-int-_, _-ont-_, etc.), being invariable and of universal +application, can also be regarded as separate words. And as separate +words they all figure in the dictionary, under their initial letters. +Thus anything written in Esperanto can be deciphered by the simple +process of looking out words and parts of words in the dictionary. For +examples, see pieces 1 and 2 in the specimens of Esperanto, pp. 167-8 +[Part IV, Chapter II], and read the Note at the beginning of Part IV. As +the Esperanto dictionary only consists of a few pages, it can be easily +carried in the pocket-book or waistcoat pocket. + +Thus, while to the educated person of Aryan speech Esperanto presents +the natural appearance of an ordinary inflected language, one who +belongs by speech to another lingual family, or any one who has never +heard of Esperanto, can regard every inflected word as a compound of +invariable elements. By turning over very few pages he can determine +the meaning and use of each element, and therefore, by putting them +together, he can arrive at the sense of the compound word, e.g. +_lav'ist'in'o_. Look out _lav-_, and you find "wash"; look out _-ist_, +and you find it expresses the person who does an action; look out _-in_, +and you find it expresses the feminine; look out _-o_, and you find it +denotes a noun. Put the whole together, and you get "female who does +washing, laundress." + +Suppose you are going on an ocean voyage, and you expect to be shut up +for weeks in a ship with persons of many nationalities. You take with +you keys to Esperanto, price one halfpenny each, in various languages. +You wish to tackle a Russian. Write your Esperanto sentence clearly +and put the paper in his hand. At the same time hand him a Russian key +to Esperanto, pointing to the following paragraph (in Russian) on the +outside: + +"Everything written in the international language can be translated by +the help of this vocabulary. If several words together express but a +single idea, they are written in one word, but separated by apostrophes; +e.g. _frat'in'o_, though a single idea, is yet composed of three words, +which must be looked for separately in the vocabulary." + +After he has got over his shock of surprise, your Russian, if a man of +ordinary education, will make out your sentence in a very short time by +using the key. + +As an example Dr. Zamenhof gives the following sentence: "Mi ne +sci'as kie mi las'is la baston'o'n: Cxu vi gxi'n ne vid'is?" With the +vocabulary this sentence will work out as follows: + + Mi mi = I I + ne ne = not not + sci'as sci = know + as = sign of present tense do know + kie kie = where where + mi mi = I I + las'is las = leave + is = sign of past tense have left + la la = the the + baston'o'n baston = stick + o = sign of a noun + n = sign of objective case stick + cxu cxu = whether, sign of question whether + vi vi = you you + gxi'n gxi = it + n = sign of objective case it + ne ne = not not + vid'is vid = leave + is = sign of past tense have seen + +It is obvious that no natural language can be used in the same way as a +code to be deciphered with a small key. + + German French + + Ich I je I + weiss white ne not + nicht not sais ? + wo where pas step + ich I o where + den ? j'ai ? + Stock stick laiss ? + gelassen dispassionate la the + habe: property: canne: reed: + haben to have ne not + Sie she, they, you, l'avez ? + ihn ? vous you + nicht not pas step + gesehen ? vu ? ? + +If your Russian wishes to reply, hand him a Russian-Esperanto +vocabulary, pointing to the following paragraph on the outside: + +"To express anything by means of this vocabulary, in the international +language, look for the words required in the vocabulary itself; and for +the terminations necessary to distinguish the grammatical forms, look in +the grammatical appendix, under the respective headings of the parts of +speech which you desire to express." + +The whole of the grammatical structure is explained in a few lines in +this appendix, so the grammar can be looked out as easily as the root +words. + + + + + PART IV + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY + + + NOTE + +The best way of learning Esperanto is to begin at once to read the +language. Do not trouble to learn the grammar and list of suffixes by +themselves first. All this can be picked up easily in the course of +reading. + +In the following specimens the first two pieces are marked for +beginners. Each part of a word marked off by hyphens is to be looked out +separately in the vocabulary. By the time the beginner has read these +two pieces carefully in this way he will know the grammar, and have a +fair idea of the structure of the language and the use of affixes. + +In order to save time in looking out words, and so quicken the process +of learning, the English translation of the third piece is given +in parallel columns. Therefore in this piece only the principal +words, which might be unfamiliar to English readers, are given in the +vocabulary. Word-formation and some points of grammar are explained in +the notes. + +To get a practical grasp of Esperanto, cover the left-hand (Esperanto) +column with a piece of paper after reading it, and re-translate the +English into Esperanto, using the notes. After half an hour per day of +such exercise for two or three weeks, an ordinary educated person will +know Esperanto pretty well. + +N.B.--It is very important to acquire a correct pronunciation at the +start. Study the pronunciation rules, and practise reading aloud before +beginning to translate. _Read slowly._ + + + I + + PRONUNCIATION + +_Vowels_ + +There are no long and short, open and closed, vowels: just five simple, +full-sounding vowels, always pronounced the same. English people must be +particularly careful to make them sufficiently full. + + _a_ as _a_ in Engl. "father." + _e_ " _ey_ " " "they." + _i_ " _ee_ " " "eel." + _o_ " _o_ " " "hole," inclining to _o_ in Engl. "more." + (English speakers find it hard to pronounce + a true _o_.) + _u_ " _oo_ " " "moon." + +In short, the vowels are as in Italian. + +_Diphthongs_ + + _aj_ as _eye_ in Engl. "eye." + _oj_ " _oy_ " " "boy." + _aux_ " _ow_ " " "cow." + (_eux_ " _e...w_ " " "g_e_t _w_et": this sound does not + often occur.) + +_Consonants_ + +These are pronounced as in English, except the following: + + _c_ as _ts_ in Engl. "bits." + _cx_ " _ch_ " " "church." + _g_ " _g_ " " "give." + _gx_ " _g_ " " "gentle." + _hx_ " _ch_ " Scotch "loch," or German "ich." + _j_ " _y_ " Engl. "yes." + _jx_ " _s_ " " "pleasure." + _sx_ " _sh_ " " "shilling." + _ux_ " _w_ " " "cow" (only occurs in the diphthongs + _aux_ and _eux_). + +_Accent_ + +Always upon the last syllable but one. + +_Example_ + +The first few lines of piece I in the following specimens may be thus +figured for English readers: + +Gayseenyroy--mee noon deros ahl vee kylkine vrtoyn Ayspayrhntay. +Mee kraydahs kay vee wdos, kay Ayspayrhnto ystahs tray fahtselah ki +baylsnah lengvo. + +N.B.--The precise sound of _e_ is between _a_ in "b_a_le" and _e_ in +"b_e_ll." + + + II + + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO + + 1. PAROL-AD-O + +Ge-sinjor-o-j--mi nun dir-os al vi kelk-a-j-n vort-o-j-n Esperant-e. Mi +kred-as ke vi auxd-os, ke Esperant-o est-as tre facil-a kaj bel-son-a +lingv-o. Ver-e, gxi est-as tiel facil-a, sonor-a kaj simpl-a, ke oni +tut-e ne hav-as mal-facil-ec-o-n por lern-i gxi-n. La lern-ant-o-j +pov-as ordinar-e kompren-i, leg-i, skrib-i kaj parol-i gxin en tre +mal-long-a temp-o. La fakt-o ke Esperant-o en-hav-as tre mal-mult-a-j-n, +vokal-a-j-n son-o-j-n, kaj ke la vokal-o-j est-as cxiu-j long-a-j kaj +plen-son-a-j, est-ig-as gxin mult-e pli facil-a ol la ali-a-j lingv-o-j, +cxiu por aux-d-i, cxiu por el-parol-i. + +Mi kred-as ke mal-long-a lern-ad-o est-os suficx-a por vi-n +kompren-ig-i, ke la hom-o-j de cxiu-j naci-o-j pov-as inter-parol-i +Esperant-e sen mal-facil-ec-o. + +Mi ne de-ten-os vi-n pli long-e. Fin-ant-e, mi las-os kun vi du +fraz-et-o-j-n: unu-e, por la ideal-ist-o-j, kiu-j cel-as unu frat-ec-o-n +inter la popol-o-j de cxiu land-o, la Esperant-a-n deviz-o-n--"Dum ni +spir-as ni esper-as": du-e, por la hom-o-j praktik-a-j la praktik-a-n +konsil-o-n--"Lern-u Esperant-o-n." + + + 2. LA MAR-BORD-IST-O-J: ALEGORI-ET-O + +Cxirkaux grand-a mez-ter-a mar-o viv-is mult-a-j popol-o-j. Ili hav-is +mult-a-n inter-a-n komerc-o-n. Cxar la mar-o est-is oft-e mal-trankvil-a +kaj ili hav-is nur mal-grand-a-j-n sxip-o-j-n, ili vetur-is laux-long-e +la mar-bord-o, neniam perd-ant-e la ter-o-n el la vid-o. + +Cert-a hom-o el-pens-is sxip-o-n, kiu ir-is per vapor-o. Li dir-is al la +mar-bord-ist-o-j: "Jen, ni met-u ni-a-n mon-o-n kun-e, kaj ni konstru-u +grand-a-j-n vapor-sxip-o-j-n. Tiel ni vetur-os rekt-e trans la mar-o unu +al ali-a-n; kaj ni far-os pli da komerc-o en mal-pli da temp-o." Sed la +mar-bord-ist-o-j pli am-is cxirkaux-ir-i en mal-grand-a-j sxip-o-j, kiel +ili kutim-is. La el-pens-int-o ne hav-is suficx-e da mon-o por konstru-i +grand-a-n vapor-sxip-o-n, kiu tre mult-e en-hav-os kaj tre rapid-e +vojagx-os; tial li dev-is vetur-ad-i en si-a mez-grand-a vapor-sxip-o, +kiu tamen almenaux rekt-e ir-is cxie-n. Sed la mar-bord-ist-o-j +dauxr-ig-is rem-i kaj vel-i cxirkaux-e. + + 3. NESAGXA GENTO: AN UNWISE[1] RACE: + ALEGORIO AN ALLEGORY + +Malproksime, en nekonata lando, Far[2] away, in an unknown[3] +vivis sovagxa gento. Ili logxis en land, there lived a savage race, +la mezo de vasta ebenajxo, izolata They dwelt in the midst of a +de la ekstera mondo. Unuflanken vast plain,[4] cut off from the +homo dek tagojn vojagxante venus outer[5] world. Towards one +al montegaro: aliflanke staris side[6] a man journeying[7] ten +granda lago kaj senlimaj marcxoj. days[8] would come to a big +Tiel oni vivadis trankvile laux mountain-range[9]; on the other +patra kutimo, tute senzorga pri side stood a great lake and +la ago kaj faro de aliaj homgentoj boundless[10] swamps. Thus[11] +transmontanaj. En somero estis they lived[12] quietly after +varmege, kaj cxiu vintro sxajnis the manner of their fathers, +pli malvarma ol la antauxa; sed caring nothing[13] for the way +la tero estis fruktodona, gxi of life[14] of other men beyond +donis al ili suficxe da greno the hills. In summer it was +por mangxi, kaj la riveroj kaj very hot,[15] and every winter +riveretoj plene provizis puran seemed colder than the last; +trinkajxon. but the earth was fertile, it + gave them enough corn[16] to + eat, and the streams and rivers + furnished abundance of pure water + to drink.[17] + + [1]Unwise. Wise = _sagxa_; _ne_ = not. [2]Far. Near = _proksim-e_ + (_e_ = adverbial ending). To be near = _proksimi_. _Mal-_ is a + prefix denoting the opposite. [3]Unknown. To know = _koni_. Pres. + part. pass. _-at-_ Negative = _ne_. (_bona_ = good; _malbona_ = + bad; _nebona_ = not good.) [4]Plain. Flat = _eben-a_. _ajx_ is + a suffix denoting something made from or possessing the quality + of. [5]Outer. Outside (preposition) = _ekster_. _a_ denotes an + adjective. [6]Towards one side. Side = _flank-o_. _e_ denotes an + adverb; _flanke_ = "sidely," i.e. at the side, _n_ denotes motion + towards. [7]Journeying. This participial phrase qualifies the verb, + _venus_, like an adverb. In Esperanto the participle therefore takes + an _e_ which denotes an adverb. [8]Ten days, i.e. for the duration + of ten days. Duration of time is put in the accusative case. [9]Big + mountain-range. Mountain = _mont-o_. _eg_ is a suffix denoting + bigness; _ar_ is a suffix denoting a collection. [10]Boundless. Limit + = _lim-o_. Without = _sen_. [11]Thus. See p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V] + for correlatives. [12]They lived. To live = _viv-i_. _ad_ is a suffix + denoting continued action. [13]Caring nothing. Care = _zorg-o_. + _Sen_ = without. _a_ denotes an adjective. [14]Way of life. Lit. the + acting and doing. [15]It was very hot. In such impersonal uses of + the adjective, the adverbial form is used. [16]Enough corn, _da_ is + used after words of quantity. _Suficxan grenon_ would also be right. + [17]Water to drink. Lit. drink-stuff, or drink-thing. + +Tiel ili vivadis ne malfelicxe, Thus they lived not unhappily, +kaj ilia vivo estis la vivo and their life was the life of +de la prapatroj, cxar ili ne their forefathers, for they knew +sciis kiel gxin plibonigi. not how to better[1] it. But +Sed mankis en ilia lando unu in their land one thing[2] was +ajxo, kaj pro tiu cxi manko lacking; and for[3] lack of this +ili multe suferis: en la tuta they suffered greatly: there +lando cxeestis nenia sxirmilo, was[4] no shelter[5] in all the +cxu kontraux la suno en somero, land, whether against the sun in +cxu por forteni la vintrajn summer, or to keep off[6] the +ventojn. Cxiuflanke la tero estis winter winds. On every side the +plata; kaj kvankam la greno ground was flat; and although corn +kaj cxiuspecaj legomoj kreskis and all kinds of[7] vegetables +bone, arboj estis nekonataj. Ecx grew well, trees were unknown. +la malproksima montaro staris Even the distant mountains stood +tutnuda; kaj kiam la ventoj all bare; and when the winds blew +blovis forte el gxiaj negxoj, la strong from amidst their[8] snows, +mizeruloj tremetis pro malvarmeco, the poor folk shivered for cold, +kaj ne povis ecx en siaj dometoj and could not get comfortable[9] +komfortigxi, cxar la penetranta even in their cottages, for the +enfluo de malvarma aero stele penetrating draught of the cold +eniris gxis la familian kamenon. air crept[10] right in to the + family fireside. + + [1]Better. Good = _bon-a_; better = _pli bona_; suf. _-ig_ is + causative. [2]One thing. The concrete suffix _-ajx_ by itself may be + used to express "thing." Of course it takes the substantival ending + _o_. [3]For lack. Esperanto is absolutely precise in the use of + prepositions according to sense. No idiom. In this it differs from + all other languages. Here "for" means "by reason of." [4]There was. + _Est-i_ = to be; _cxe_ = at; _cxeesti_ = to be present. [5]Shelter. + To shelter = _sxirm-i_; _il_ is a suffix expressing instrument. + [6]Keep off. To hold = _ten-i_; away = _for_. [7]All kinds of. + Kind = _spec-o_; all = _cxiu_. _a_ is adjectival ending. [8]Their + snows. Whose snows? The mountains'. Therefore _gxiaj_, referring + to _montaro_. If "their" referred to "winds," it would be _siaj_. + [9]Get comfortable. Comfort(able) = _komfort-o_; suf. _igx_ denotes + becoming. [10]Crept in. To steal = _sxtel-i_; _-e_ makes it an + adverb. + +Nu okazis ke certa knabo, pensema Now, it happened that a certain +preter siaj jaroj, komencis boy, thoughtful[1] beyond his +pripensi tiun cxi mizeran staton. years, began to think over this +Li vivis kun sia vidvina patrino, wretched state of things. He +kiu havis du infanetojn krom lived with his[2] widowed mother, +Namezo (tiel nomigxis la knabo). who had two little children +Ili estis tre malricxaj, kaj devis besides Namezo (this was the lad's +sencxese labori por nutri sin name[3]). They were very poor, +mem kaj la infanojn. La vidvino and were obliged to work hard +ne havis pli ol kvardek jarojn, without stopping to get food for +sed Namezo rimarkis ke vespere, themselves and the children. The +post la taga laboro, sxi sxajnis widow was not more than forty, but +tute lacega, kaj kelkajn jarojn Namezo noticed that of an evening, +post la morto de sia edzo sxi after the day's work, she seemed +ekmaljunigxis. Ofte la knabo diris quite tired out,[4] and a few +al sxi, ke sxi devus pli ripozi, years[5] after her husband's death +sed cxiumatene post la nokto sxi she grew old all at once.[6] Often +havis mienon tiel same lacegan the boy told her she ought to take +kiel vespere; kaj sxi plendis ke more rest, but every morning[7] +la trablovaj ventoj suferigis sin she had the same worn-out look as +nokte per reuxmatismaj doloroj, in the evening; and she complained +kaj somere sxi ne povis dormi pro that the winds blowing through of +varmeco. Tiam la knabo turnis a night plagued[8] her with[9] +la okulojn ekster sia hejmo kaj rheumatic pains, and in summer +rigardis cxirkauxen. Li vidis ke she could not sleep because of +cxiuflanke estis tiel same: la the heat. Then the boy turned his +geviroj frue maljunigxis kaj multe eyes outwards from his home and +suferis. Li pensis, "Baldaux estos looked around him. He saw that on +al mi ankaux simile; la juneco every side it was the same[10]: +estas mallonga kaj labora, kaj la men and women[11] grew old early +vivo estas longa kaj cxagrena." and suffered much. He thought, +Fine li malgajadis. "Soon it will be the same with me; + youth[12] is short and full of + work, and life is long and full of + trouble." At last he became gloomy + altogether.[13] + + [1]Thoughtful. To think = _pens-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [2]With his widowed mother, i.e. his own = _sia_. [3]This was + his name. To name = _nom-i_; with suf. _-igx_ = to get named, + to be called. [4]Tired out. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. _-eg_ denotes + intensity. [5]A few years. Accusative of time. [6]She grew old all + at once. Young = _jun-a_; old = _maljuna_; suf. _-igx_ denotes + becoming; prefix _ek-_ denotes beginning, or sudden action. [7]Every + morning = _cxiumatene_. "The whole morning" would be _la tutan + matenon_. [8]Plagued. To suffer = _sufer-i_; suf. _-ig_ is causative; + _suferigi_ = to cause to suffer. [9]With... pains. Think of the + sense. "With" = by means of. [10]It was the same. Impersonal: use + the adverbial form in _-e._ [11]Men and women. Pref. _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [12]Youth. Young = _juna_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. + [13]Became gloomy altogether. Gay = _gaj-a_; gloomy = _malgaja_; suf. + _-ad_ denotes continuance. + +Vintro forpasis, somero alvenis. Winter passed away, summer came +Unu nokton la knabo estis kusxanta on. One night the boy was lying +en sia lito: li estis laboreginta in his bed: he had been working +en la kampoj, kaj estis tre laca, hard[1] in the fields, and was +sed ju pli li penis ekdormi, very tired, but the more he +des pli li obstine vekigxadis. tried to go to sleep[2] the +La tutan fajran tagon la suno wider awake he grew. All through +estis malsupren brilinta sur la the long fiery day the sun had +tegmenton de la dometo, tiel ke la been beating down[3] on the roof +kusxejo nun similis fornon. Namezo of the cottage, so that the +pensis kaj turnigxis, returnigxis sleeping-place[4] was now like an +kaj repensis; la samaj pensoj, oven. Namezo thought and tossed, +cxiam ronde revenantaj, igxis tossed and thought again; the same +turmento. Fine li ekdormetis, sed thoughts, always coming round in +la konfuzigaj pensoj, cxiam la a circle, became[5] a torture. +pensoj, ruladis ecx en lia dormo At length he fell into a light +senkompate tra lia cerbo. sleep,[6] but the distracting[7] + thoughts, always the thoughts, + kept rolling[8] through his brain + pitilessly, even in his sleep. + +Subite ekfalis sur lin granda All at once a great peace fell +paco. Li sxajnis stari sur monta upon him. He seemed to be standing +pinto. Laceco kaj zorgo ne estis on a mountain-peak. Weariness[9] +plu. Cxirkauxe vasta soleco. Li and care were no more. Around +kaj la monto--krom tio ekzistis vast solitude. He and the +nenio, kaj li estis kontenta. mountain--there was nought else, + and he was glad. + +Al li, tiel lukse enspiranta la While he thus breathed in the +fresxan aeron, alvenis fluge fresh air with delight, a white +blanka birdo. Gxi aperis, li ne bird came flying.[10] It appeared, +sciis kiel, el la cxirkauxanta he knew not how, out of the +soleco, kaj metigxis apud li sur surrounding solitude,[11] and came +la montan pinton. Gxi komencis and perched[12] beside him on the +paroli, kaj en lia songxo tio cxi mountain-top. It began to speak, +neniel lin surprizis. and in his dream this[13] in no + way[14] astonished him. + + [1]He had been working hard. Pluperfect, lit. he was having worked. + Suf. _-eg_ denotes intensity. [2]To go to sleep. To sleep = _dorm-i_; + pref. _ek-_ denotes beginning. [3]Down. Above = _supr-e_; below = + _malsupre_; _n_ denotes motion. [4]Sleeping-place. To lie = _kusxi_; + suf. _-ej_ denotes place. [5]Became. Suf. _-igx_ denotes becoming; + here used as a separate verb. [6]Fell into a light sleep. To sleep + = _dorm-i_; suf. _-et_ denotes light sleep; pref. _ek-_ denotes + beginning. [7]Distracting. Confused = _konfuz-a_; suf. _-ig_ denotes + causation, confusion-causing. [8]Kept rolling. To roll = _rul-i_; + suf. _-ad_ denotes continuance. [9]Weariness. Tired = _lac-a_; suf. + _-ec_ denotes abstract. [10]Came flying. To fly = _flug-i_; root + _flug-_ with adverbial ending _-e_ = flyingly. [11]Solitude. Alone = + _sol-a_; suf. _-ec_ denotes abstract. [12]Came and perched. The idea + of motion is conveyed by the accusative (_-n_) _pinton_. [13]This. + Use neuter form in _-o_, because it stands alone. "This dream" = _tiu + cxi songxo_. [14]In no way. See table of correlatives, p. 193 [Part + IV, Chapter V]. + +"Homa knabo," diris la birdo, "Mortal[1] boy," said the bird, +faligante en lian manon semon dropping[2] a seed into his hand +el sia beko, "prenu tiun cxi from its beak, "take this seed: +semon: metu gxin en la teron: put it in the ground: care for +prizorgu gxin, flegu gxin, kaj it, tend it, and keep tending it. +flegadu gxin. Post tempo plenigota In the fulness of time there will +levigxos el tiu cxi semo kreskajxo rise[3] from this seed such[5] a +tia, kian la viaj gxis nun ne growth[4] as[5] your people[6] +vidis. La aliaj homoj nomas gxin never yet saw. Other peoples call +_arbon_. Gxi estos granda; kaj en it a _tree_. It will be big; and +la venontaj jaroj, se oni deve in future[7] years, if it is duly +gxin flegos, naskigxos el gxi tended, there will spring from it +arbaroj, kiuj estos sxirmilo por groves,[8] which will give shelter +la homaro, kaj por multaj aliaj to men and women, and will be +celoj utilos. Sed flegi gxin oni useful for many other ends. But +devos, cxar sen homa penado nenio tended it must be, for without +al homoj prosperas." man's striving nothing turns out + well for men." + +Namezo volis respondi, sed dum Namezo was about to reply, but +li levis la manon por rigardi la as he raised his hand to look at +semon, estis al li kvazaux li the seed, he seemed to turn[9] +turnigxis, la kapo malsupren: la head downwards: the mountain +monto malaperis, kaj li disappeared,[10] and he +falis... falis... falis.... fell... fell... fell.... + + [1]Mortal. Man = _hom-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adj. [2]Dropping. + To fall = _fal-i_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to fall. [3]Rise. To + raise = _lev-i_; suf. _-igx_ makes it intransitive. [4]A growth. + To grow = _kreski_; "grow-thing" -- _kresk-ajx-o_. [5]Such...as. + _Tia...kia_ (= Latin _talis...qualis)._ See table of correlatives, + p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. [6]Your people. You = _vi_; _-a_ makes + it an adj. [7]Future. Future participle active of _ven-i_ = about + to come. [8]Groves. Tree = _arb-o_; suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection + of trees. [9]To turn. _Turn-i_ is transitive; suf. _-igx_ makes it + intransitive. [10]Disappeared. To appear = _aper-i_; pref. _mal-_ + denotes opposite. + +Tiam li estis denove veka en la Then he was awake again in the +forna dometo, sed li ne povis sin oven-like[1] hut, but he could +malhelpi, rigardi sian manon, por not refrain[2] from[3] looking at +vidi cxu la semo enestis. Semo his hand, to see if the seed was +neestis: kaj la pensoj rekomencis in it. There was no seed; and the +ruladi tra lia cerbo--tamen ne plu thoughts began to roll through +la antauxaj turmentigaj pensoj, his brain again--yet no longer +sed novaj esperplenaj pensoj, cxar the old[4] worrying thoughts, +li kredis, pasie kredis, ke estas but new thoughts full of hope, +ja ia verajxo en lia songxo. for he believed, passionately + believed, that there was indeed + some truth[5] in his dream. + +Kaj nun la morgauxa tago And now the new day began to dawn. +eklumigxis. Li levigxis kaj iris He got up and went about his work, +al sia laboro, kaj tiun cxi tagon and this day and many succeeding +kaj multajn sekvantajn tagojn li days he went on working as usual, +laboradis kiel kutime, parolante speaking to no one about his dream +al neniu pri la sema songxo. of the seed. + +Sed kiam la tempo de rikolto But when harvest-time was over, +forpasis, li acxetis dudektagan he bought food[6] enough for +nutrajxon kaj donis al la patrino twenty days and gave his mother +sian restan sxparajxon el la the rest[7] of his harvest-tide +rikolta tempo (cxar vi scias, savings[8] (for you know that +ke en la sezono de rikolto bona in the harvest season a good +laboristo gajnas pli ol alitempe), workman[9] earns more than at +dirante ke li devos vojagxi, kaj other times), saying that he +forestos dudek tagojn. La patrino must[10] go on a journey, and +miregis, cxar neniam antauxe li would[10] be away for twenty days. +estis lasinta sxin ecx unu tagon; His mother wondered greatly, for +sed li estis bona filo, kaj sxi he had never left[11] her before +kontrauxstaris lin en nenio. even for a single day; but he was + a good son to her, and she did not + thwart him in anything. + + [1]Oven-like. Oven = _forn-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [2]Refrain. To help = _help-i_; to hinder = _malhelpi_; to hinder + himself = _malhelpi sin._ [3]Refrain from looking. In Esperanto use + the simplest construction possible, _as long as it is clear_. The + simple infinitive _rigardi_ is clear after _malhelpi sin._ [4]The + old thoughts. Before = _antaux_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective. + [5]Truth. Think of the sense. Here truth = "true-thing," so use + suf. _-ajx_. "Truth" = abstract virtue = _vereco_. [6]Food. To feed + = _nutr-i_; suf. _-ajx_ denotes stuff. [7]The rest of. The rest = + _rest-o_; ending _-a_ makes it an adjective = remaining. [8]Savings. + To save up = _sxpar-i_; _sxpar-ajx-o_ = save-thing (i.e. sav_ed_ + thing). [9]Workman. To work = _labor-i_; suf. _-ist_ denotes the + agent. [10]He _must_ go... and _would_ be away. Esperanto syntax + is perfectly simple. Just use the tense which the speaker would use, + here the future; or any tense, so long as the meaning is clear. + [11]He had left. Pluperfect = "he was having left," _esti_ with past + part. _active_. _Li estis lasita_ would mean "he had been left." + +Li forvojagxis do, kaj post kvin So he journeyed forth, and in five +tagoj li ekvidis malproksime sur days he began to see far off on +la horizonto blankan nubon, kiu the horizon a white cloud, which +dum la morgauxa tago montrigxis turned out[1] in the course of the +kiel monta pinto. Namezo salutis next day to be a mountain-peak. +gxin, kaj de tiu momento, sen ia Namezo saluted it, and from that +dubo, direktis sian iron tra la moment, without any doubt, bent +ebenajxo cxiam al gxi. his course[2] across the plain + constantly towards it. + +Kiam li alvenis piedon de When he came to the foot[3] of +la montoj, la deka tago jam the mountains, the tenth[4] day +finigxis. Efektive li estis grave was already drawing to an end. +trompigxinta pri la distanco. Indeed, Namezo had been greatly +Neniam antauxe li vidis monton, mistaken[5] in the distance. He +kaj tial, kiam li ekvidis la had never seen a mountain before, +pinton meze de la vojagxo, li and so, when he caught sight of +kredis ke li jxus alvenas, kaj the peak half-way, he thought +marsxis pli malrapide. Tri tagojn he was just getting there, and +li pensis cxiumatene, "Mi estos walked slower. For three days he +hodiaux vespere cxe la montpiedo; thought every morning, "I shall +morgaux mi suprenrampos gxis la be at the foot of the mountains +pinton." Sed nun li sciis, ke li this evening; to-morrow I'll +estas malfrua. Li formangxis jam climb[6] to the top." But now +la duonon de sia provizajxo, kaj he knew that he was late.[7] He +dum la lastaj mejloj li ekvidis had already eaten up half[8] of +ke lia pinto estas parto de vasta his provisions,[9] and for the +senlima montegaro, ke gxi ankoraux last few miles he was beginning +malproksimas kaj li tute ne tiel to see that his peak was part +facile supreniros. Li kalkulis ke of a boundless mountain-range, +almenaux oktaga nutrajxo estos that it was still far off and +necesa por reiri hejmen de la he would by no means get up so +piedo de la montaro, kaj tiom easily. He calculated that at +li tie enterigis por la returna least eight days' food would be +vojagxo. Sekve restis nur dutaga needed to get home from the foot +mangxajxo por la suprena kaj of the mountain-range, and he +malsuprena montiro. buried[10] that amount[11] there + for the return journey. Thus only + two days' provision was left for + the ascent and descent of the + mountain. + + [1]Turned out to be. To show = _montr-i_; with suf. _-igx, + montrigx-i_ = to show itself, to become shown. [2]His course. To go + = _ir-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = a going. [3]To the + foot. Motion; use the _-n_ case. [4]Tenth. Ten = _dek_; to form the + ordinal numbers add _-a_ to the cardinal. [5]Mistaken. To deceive + = _tromp-i_; suf. _-igx_ makes it intransitive. [6]Climb. _Supr-a, + -e, -en_ = upper, above, upwards. [7]Late. Early = _fru-a_; pref. + _mal_- denotes opposite. [8]Half. Two = _du_; suf. _-on_ denotes + fractions. cf. _kvarono_ = quarter. [9]Provisions. Provide-stuff + (i.e. provid_ed_ stuff). [10]Buried. Earth = _ter-o_; in = _en_; suf. + _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [11]That amount. _Tiom_. See the table + of correlatives, p. 193 [Part IV, Chapter V]. + +Tre frue do li ekiris la dekunuan Very early, then, on the +tagon, kaj penadis cxiutage eleventh[1] day he set out, and +supren. Vespere li vidis ke li toiled the whole day upwards. +ankoraux havas plenan tagvojagxon In the evening he saw that he +gxis la pinton, kaj tiel li devos still had a full day's journey +tre sxpareme uzi sian restan to the top, and so he must be +provizajxon. La dekdua tago estis very sparing[2] in the use of his +tre doloriga. La monto farigxis remaining stores. The twelfth day +kruta; li devis rapidi; kaj li was very painful.[3] The mountain +terure malsatis pro ekmankanta grew[4] steep; he had to press on; +mangxajxo. Malgraux cxio li and he was terribly hungry,[5] +alvenis montpinton je la noktigxo. as the food was beginning to +La subita ekscito, kune kun la give out. In spite of all, he +laceco kaj malsato, estis tro: en reached the top at nightfall.[6] +la momenta de sukceso li falis en The sudden excitement, with his +sveno sur la teron. weariness and hunger, was too + much: in the moment of success he + fell to the ground in a swoon. + +Jen, dum li kusxis senkonscie, And lo! as he lay unconscious, +aperis la duan fojon la sama there appeared to him for the +vidajxo. Birdo blanka alflugis, second time the same vision.[7] +metis en lian manon semon, kaj A white bird flew up, put a seed +diris la samajn vortojn. Denove into his hand, and said the same +li levis la manon, kaj denove li words. Again he raised his hand, +sxajnis renversigxi, kaj falis... and again he seemed to turn over, +falis... falis.... and fell... fell... fell.... + +Rekonsciigxinte, li trovis sin When he came to himself,[8] he +kusxanta trankvile apud la loko was lying quietly in the very +mem, kie li enterigis sian place where he had buried his +returnan provizajxon antaux la food for the home journey before +supreniro. Li kusxis sur dolcxa the ascent. He was lying on soft +herbo, kaj sentis sin korpe tute grass, and his body felt free from +mallacigata, kaj granda paco its tiredness,[9] and in his soul +regis en lia animo. Tuj kiam li reigned a great peace. As soon as +malfermis la okulojn, li rigardis he opened[10] his eyes, he looked +en sian manon, kaj tiun cxi fojon in his hand, and this time the +la semo enestis. seed was there. + + [1]Eleven = _dek-unu_; add _-a_ to make the ordinal. 20 = _dudek_. + [2]Sparing. To save = _sxpar-i_; suf. _-em_ denotes propensity. + [3]Painful. Pain = _dolor-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [4]Grew. To make = _far-i_; suf. _-igx_ + denotes becoming made, growing. [5]Hungry. Satisfied = _sat-a_; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite. To be hungry = _mal-sat-i_. + [6]Nightfall. Night = _nokt-o_; suf. _-igx_ denotes becoming. + [7]Vision. See(n)-thing; _vid-i_ = to see; with suffix _-ajx_. + [8]When he came to himself. Conscious = _konsci-a_; prefix _re-_ + denotes back again; suffix _-igx_ denotes becoming. [9]Free from + tiredness. Tired = _lac-a_; _mal-_ denotes opposite; _-ig_ denotes + causing to be. [10]Opened. To shut = _ferm-i_; to open = _malfermi_. + +Longa, labora kaj preskaux A long, laborious descent from +sennutra malsupreniro de la the mountain-top almost without +montpinto jam ne necesis, kaj la food was now no longer needful, +hejmvojagxo trans la ebenajxo and on the home journey across +prosperis, tiel ke Namezo staris the plain all went well, so that +baldaux ree en la patrina dometo. Namezo soon stood again in his +La vilagxanoj kunvenis amase kaj mother's[1] cottage. The villagers +multe demandis pri lia vojagxo, flocked in crowds[2] and asked +cxar neniu el ili estis iam tiel many questions about his journey, +malproksimen foririnta de la for none of them had ever been +hejmo. Namezo cxion rakontis, so far from home. Namezo told +kaj montris la semon kiun li them everything, and showed the +devos planti. La najbaroj komence seed which he was to plant. At +kredis, ke li volas mirigi ilin, first the neighbours thought he +kiel la vojagxistoj amas fari, kaj was trying to astonish[3] them, +ili ridis pri liaj rakontajxoj. as travellers are wont to do, +Sed, kiam ili vidis ke li estis and they laughed at his tales. +serioza, ili ekkolerigxis kaj But when they saw that he was in +volis forpreni lian semon kaj earnest, they got in a rage,[4] +detrui gxin. "'_Arbo_' estas and wanted to take away his seed +sensencajxo," ili diris; "ne and destroy it. "A '_tree_' is +povas ekzisti alia kreskajxo, foolishness,"[5] they said; "no +krom la rikoltoj kaj la legomoj other plant can exist, except the +kiujn ni kaj niaj patroj jam crops and vegetables that we and +cxiam kreskigis. Estas neeble our fathers have always grown. +ke io alia kresku kaj igxu pli It is impossible for anything +granda." Kaj unuj diris ke li else to grow and become[6] bigger +estas vana songxisto, kaj aliaj than they." And some said that he +ke li frenezas. Sed lia patrino was an idle dreamer, and others +kuragxigis lin. that he was mad. But his mother + encouraged him. + + [1]Mother's. Father = _patr-o_; suf. _-in_ denotes feminine; ending + _-a_ makes it an adjective. [2]In crowds. Crowd = _amas-o_; ending + _-e_ makes it an adverb. [3]Astonish. To wonder = _mir-i_; suf. _-ig_ + makes it transitive. [4]Got in a rage. Anger = _koler-o_; pref. _ek-_ + denotes beginning; suf. _-igx_ denotes becoming. [5]Foolishness. + Sense = _senc-o_; without = _sen_; suf. _-ajx_ = without-sense-stuff. + [6]Become. Suf. _-igx_ is here used alone as a verb = to become. + +Kaj Namezo timis por sia semo, kaj And Namezo feared for his seed, +pripensis kiel li povos savi gxin and thought how he could save it +de la najbaroj kiam gxi ekkreskos. from the neighbours when it began +Kaj li eliris el la vilagxo nokte, to grow up. And he went out of the +kaj plantis gxin malproksime de village by night, and planted it +cxiuj domoj, apud rivereto en far away from all the houses, by +mallevigxo de la tero, kie oni a little stream in a hollow[1] of +gxin ne vidos gxis gxi estos tre the ground, where it would not be +granda. Kaj komence li iris tien seen till it grew very big. And at +nur nokte; sed, cxar li ne parolis first he went there only by night; +plu pri sia semo, la vilagxanoj but, as he said no more about his +forgesis la aferon, tiel ke li seed, the villagers forgot the +povis eliri el la vilagxo vespere matter, so that he could go out of +post sia taglaboro kiam li volis, the village in the evenings after +kaj neniu zorgis pri tio, kien his day's work whenever he liked, +li iras. Sed li ne kuragxis gxin and nobody troubled about where +transplanti apud sian dometon, he was going.[2] But he did not +timante ke oni difektu gxin aux dare to transplant it to his own +sxerce aux malice, kaj sekve cottage, fearing that they would +restis por li la granda laborado damage it in jest or malice, and +iri, kiam li estis jam laca, so the hard work remained for him +malproksimen por flegi gxin. of going a long way to look after + it, when he was already tired. + + [1]A hollow. To raise = _lev-i_; suf _-igx_ makes it intransitive; + pref. _mal-_ denotes the opposite; ending _-o_ makes it a noun. + [2]Where he was going. "Where" here = "whither," therefore add _-n_, + which denotes motion. + +Jaroj forpasadis: Namezo Years passed away: Namezo grew +grandigxis, sed lia kreskajxo up,[1] but his plant would not +ne volis grandigxi. Multfoje grow up too. Many a time he +li malesperis, vidante ke gxi despaired,[2] seeing that it +kvazaux ne kreskadis plu, aux seemed as though it had given up +ke gxi en somero havis velkan growing, or that it had a faded +mienon. Multajn vintrojn gxi look in summer. Many winters it +preskaux mortis per frosto. Sed nearly died of the frosts. But he +li persistis, kaj cxiuokaze li persevered, and in every case[3] +provis ian novan flegon, cxar he tried some new treatment, +neniam antauxe en la tuta lando for never before in the whole +oni kreskigis tielan plantajxon. land had any one grown[4] such a +Iatempe li metis sterkon: tiam li plant. At one time he would put +subdrenis la teron, cxirkauxhakis on manure; then he tried draining +la brancxetojn, aux sxirmis la the ground, pruning the shoots, +burgxonojn kontraux la ventoj. or protecting the buds against +Ree, vidante ke malgraux cxio la the winds. Again, seeing that +arbeto ne prosperis, li pretigis in spite of all the little tree +novan terajxon kaj transplantis did not flourish, he prepared[5] +gxin, antauxe enpluginte alispecan a new soil-bed and transplanted +teron. Li eksperimentis per seka, it, having first ploughed in +poste per malseka, subtero: a different kind of earth. He +unuvorte, li sencxese penadis, experimented with dry, and then +diversigante konstante la with damp, sub-soil: in short, he +kondicxojn gxis li gxuste trafos. toiled ceaselessly, constantly +Fine, kiam li jam de longe estis varying[6] the conditions till he +plenagxa, lia deziro plenumigxis: should hit off the right thing. +tie, apud la rivereto staris At last, when he had long come to +granda belkreska _arbo_. be a grown man,[7] his desire was + fulfilled:[8] there beside the + stream stood a fine big _tree_. + + [1]Grew up. Big = _grand-a_; suf. _-igx_ denotes becoming. + [2]Despaired. To hope = _esper-i_; pref. _mal-_ denotes opposite. + [3]In every case. To happen = _okaz-i_; any or all = _cxiu_; + ending _-e_ makes it adverbial = "any-happening-ly," i.e. whatever + happened. [4]Grown. To grow (intrans.) = _kresk-i_; suf. _-ig_ makes + it transitive. [5]Prepared. Ready = _pret-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to make + ready. [6]Varying. Diverse = _divers-a_; suf. _-ig_ = to render + diverse. [7]A grown man. Age = _agx-o_; full = _plen-a_; ending _-a_ + denotes adj. [8]Was fulfilled. To fulfil = _plenum-i_; _-igx_ denotes + becoming. + +En somero, kiam la folioj estis In summer, when it was in full +plenaj, li kondukis tien kelkajn leaf, he took his friends there, +amikojn, kaj ili gxojis sidantaj and they rejoiced sitting in the +vespere sub la fresxa ombro. En cool shade at evening. In autumn +auxtuno ili kolektis la semujojn, they collected the pods,[1] took +portis ilin en la vilagxon, kaj them to the village, and tried to +penis decidigi la vilagxanojn get the villagers to plant the +planti la semaron apud siaj seed by their homes, to give them +dometoj, por havi sxirmilon. Sed shelter. But the villagers would +la vilagxanoj ne volis. not have them. + +Unu diris, "Arbo estas neebla."* One said, "A tree is + impossible."[2] + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Arbo And Namezo answered, "A tree +ekzistas. Venu kun mi, kaj mi exists. Come with me, and I will +vidigos vin." show[3] you." + +Sed li diris, "Arbo estas neebla." But he said, "A tree is + impossible." + + *For this and the following objections of the villagers, compare + Part I., chap. xv., pp. 54-6. + + [1]Pods. Seed = _sem-o_; suf. _-uj_ denotes that which contains. + [2]Impossible. Suf. _-ebl_ denotes possibility, and can, like all + suffixes, be used by itself. _Ne-ebl-a_ = not possible. [3]Show. + To see = _vid-i_; with suf. _-ig_ = to cause to see. + +Ree Namezo diris, "Se vi nur tiom Again Namezo said, "If you will +da peno faros, kiom necesas por only take as much trouble[1] as +eliri el la vilagxo, mi montros is necessary to go out of the +al vi arbon, sub kiu miaj amikoj village, I will show you a tree, +kaj mi sxirmigxas cxiuvespere. under which my friends and I take +Venu nur kaj provu se gxi placxos shelter every evening. Only just +ankaux al vi." come and try whether it pleases + you also." + +Sed li diris, "Mi ne volas eliri. But he said, "I will not go out. A +Arbo estas neebla." tree is impossible." + +Alia diris, "Mi vidis vian arbon, Another said, "I have seen your +kaj mi trovas gxin tute senutila." tree, and I consider it perfectly + useless." + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Kial?" And Namezo answered, "Why?" + +Kaj li diris, "Niaj patroj ne And he said, "Our fathers had no +havis arbon." trees." + +Namezo diris, "Niaj patroj suferis Namezo said, "Our fathers suffered +pro manko de sxirmado." from want of shelter." + +Kaj li diris, "Tial mi ankaux And he said, "Therefore I too will +suferos." suffer." + +Alia diris, "Ni havas ja suficxe Another said, "We have enough +da kreskajxoj. Niaj rikoltoj kaj plants. Our crops and vegetables +legomoj provizas nutrajxon, kaj la provide food, and our gay flowers +belaj floroj cxarmas la okulon. charm the eye. Another growing +Alia kreskajxo estus superflua." thing would be superfluous." + + [1]Trouble. To try = _pen-i_; ending _-o_ makes it a substantive = + trying, effort. + +Kaj Namezo respondis, "Bone. Niaj And Namezo answered, "Good. The +gxisnunaj kreskajxoj plenumas la plants we have already[1] fulfil +cxefajn bezonojn de la homaro. the chief needs of mankind. +Mangxo kaj certa ornamo estas Food and some ornament are +necesajxoj por la homa naturo, necessities[2] for human nature, +kaj por tiuj cxi uzoj ni havas and for these uses we have the +rikoltojn kaj florojn. Sed la vivo crops and flowers. But life would +estus pli plezura se ni estus pli be pleasanter if we were better +bone sxirmataj. Tiun cxi apartan sheltered. This special service[3] +servon prezentas la arboj, kaj ni is done by the trees, and we can +povos gxui gxin sen fordoni la enjoy it without foregoing the +profiton de floro kaj rikolto. Ne, advantage of flower and crop. +plue, niaj rikoltoj, sxirmataj Nay, more, our crops, sheltered +de la montaj ventoj, pli facile from the winds that blow from the +maturigxos: tiel ni havos pli da mountains, will ripen[4] more +tempo por la plezurigaj laboroj, easily: thus we shall have more +kaj la floroj estos ankoraux pli time for the work that brings +belaj." pleasure,[5] and the flowers will + be even more lovely." + +Kaj li diris, "Tagmeze, kiam la And he said, "At noon,[6] when the +suno brilas, mi kusxas inter sun shines warm, I lie amidst the +la altstaranta greno. Tiu cxi deep standing corn. This shelter +sxirmilo suficxas. Ni havas is enough. We have plants enough. +suficxe da kreskajxoj. Arbo A tree is not a plant; it is a +ne estas kreskajxo; gxi estas monster. Go to the devil!" +monstro. Iru diablon!" + +Kaj Namezo iris al la diablo, And Namezo went to the devil, +cxar li estis preta iri kien ajn, for he was ready to go anywhere, +plivole ol dauxrigi paroli kun la rather than continue to talk to +vilagxanoj. the villagers. + +Li diris, "Via diabla Mosxto, la He said, "Your devilish Majesty, +vilagxanoj nauxzadas min, kaj mi the villagers make me sick,[7] and +estas laca je mia vivo. Faru el mi I am tired of[8] my life. Do with +kion vi volas." me as you will." + + [1]The plants we have already. Lit. our till-now plants. + [2]necessities. Necessary = _neces-a_: with suf. _-ajx_ = necessary + things. [3]Service. To serve = _serv-i_; ending _-o_ makes it + a substantive. [4]Ripen. Ripe = _matur-a_; suf. _-igx_ denotes + becoming. [5]Work that brings pleasure. Pleasure = _plezur-o_; + suf. _-ig_ denotes causing to be. [6]Noon. Day = _tag-o_; middle = + _mez-o_; ending _-e_ is adverbial. [7]Make me sick. To make sick = + _nauxz-i_; _-ad_ denotes continuation. [8]Tired of. The preposition + _je_ is used when no other preposition exactly fits. + +Respondis la diablo, "Mi ne The devil made answer, "I +povas ion fari por vi, mizerulo! can do nothing for you, poor +La vilagxanoj estas venkintaj wretch![1] The villagers have +min; kaj mi retiras min de la beaten me; and I am retiring from +aferoj. Neniam, ecx en miaj plej business. Never, even in my most +eltrovemaj tagoj, mi elpensis ingenious[2] days, did I invent +tiel mortigan turmenton por such a deadly[3] torment for a +progresema homo, kiel sukcesi en progressive man, as to succeed in +la produkto de profitiga uzilo, producing a beneficial[4] device, +kaj tiam devi penadi, por igi and then have to keep striving to +siajn kunulojn alpreni gxin. get his fellows[5] to adopt it. +Reiru al la vilagxanoj kaj donu Go back again to the villagers, +al ili miajn respektplenajn and give them my respectful +komplimentojn." compliments." + +Pezakore, Namezo reiris hejmen, Heavy at heart, Namezo went home +kaj envoje li renkontis again, and on the way he fell +vilagxanaron portantan hakilojn. in with a band of villagers[6] +Li demandis kial ili portas carrying axes.[7] He asked why +hakilojn. they were carrying axes. + +"Por dehaki la arbon," respondis "To cut down the tree," replied +la grupestro; "ni timas ke gxi the leader of the band[8]; "we are +etendigxos sur la tutan landon. afraid that it will spread and +Se oni prenos la fruktetojn kaj fill the whole land. If the people +plantos ilin apud sia logxejo, la take the fruits and plant them at +arboj entrudos sin en la kampojn their own homes,[9] trees will +kaj en la florbedojn, kaj elpusxos encroach upon the fields and upon +la aliajn kreskajxojn." the flower-beds, and will drive + out the other plants." + + [1]Wretch. Misery = _miser-o_; suf. _-ul_ denotes having the quality + of. [2]Ingenious. To find = _trov-i_; out = _el_; suf. _-em_ denotes + propensity or aptitude. [3]Deadly. To die = _mort-i_; suf. _-ig_ + denotes to cause to die. [4]Beneficial. Profit-causing; suf. _-ig_. + [5]Fellows. With = _kun_; suf. _-ul_ denotes state or quality. [6]A + band of villagers. Suf. _-ar_ denotes a collection. [7]Axes. To hew + = _hak-i_; suf. _-il_ denotes instrument. [8]Leader of the band. + Band = _grup-o_; suf. _-estr_ enotes chief of. [9]Homes. To dwell = + _logx-i_; suf. _-ej_ denotes place. + +"Sed vi tute ne devos planti "But you must not plant the trees +la arbojn en la kampoj kaj in the fields and flower-beds," +florbedoj," diris Namezo. La arboj said Namezo. "Trees have a +havas utilon diferencan de la different use from other plants, +aliaj kreskajxoj kaj oni plantos and they will be planted in quite +ilin en aparta loko. Se okaze arbo separate places. If by chance a +altrudos sin inter la rikoltojn, tree pushes itself in amongst the +oni elradikos gxin tuj, antaux ol crops, it will be rooted out at +gxi grandigxos." once, before it gets big." + +"Ne, arbo estas dangxera," kriis "No, trees are dangerous," cried +la hakilistoj; kaj Namezo devis the men with the axes;[1] and +alvoki siajn amikojn por defendi Namezo had to call up his friends +la arbon. to defend the tree. + +Poste Namezo iris hejmen kaj After this Namezo went home and +enfermis sin en sia dometo. Lia shut himself up in his cottage. +patrino estis jam de longe morta, His mother was by this time +kaj la gefratoj jam edzigxis, kaj long dead, and his brother and +li vivadis sole. Sed li nun ne sister[2] were now married,[3] +povis ecx resti sola. Venis la and he lived all alone. But now +sagxuloj de la vilagxo, kaj ili he could not even remain alone. +kriadis tra la fenestro, "Arbo The wise men of the village came +estas bona ideo, sed vi kreskigis along, and they kept shouting +vian arbon malprave. Lasu nin do through the window, "Trees are a +flegi gxin laux nia bontrovo, good idea, but you have grown your +kaj ni baldaux plibonigos gxin, tree the wrong way. So let us look +tiel ke gxi estos vere alpreninda after it as we see fit, and we'll +arbo." soon improve[4] it, so that it + shall be a tree really fit for us + to take to."[5] + + [1]The men with the axes. To hew = _hak-i_; _-il_ denotes instrument; + _-ist_ denotes agent. [2]Brother and sister. Prefix _ge-_ denotes + both sexes. [3]Were married. Husband (wife) = _edz_ (_in_) _-o_; + suffix _-igx_ denotes becoming. [4]Improve. Good = _bon-a_; more + = _pli_; _-ig_ denotes causation. [5]Fit to take to. To take = + _pren-i_; to = _al_; _-ind_ denotes worthy. + +Kaj al ili Namezo respondis And to these Namezo answered +nenion. Li sciis ke li estis nothing. He knew that he had given +doninta grandan parton de sia a great part of his life to making +vivo por eksperimenti kaj estis experiment and had produced a +produktinta belkreskan arbon, dum well-grown tree, while the clever +la lertuloj nun estis vidantaj men were now seeing a tree for +arbon je la unua fojo, kaj tute the first time, and were wholly +malsciis la malfacilecojn kiujn ignorant of the difficulties that +oni devas venki, kaj ecx ne had to be overcome, and did not +komprenis la demandon kiun ili even understand the question they +entreprenis solvi. Sed li sciis were undertaking to solve. But +ankaux ke tiela konsidero estas he also knew that to clever men +por lertuloj malpli ol nenio. such a consideration is less than +Estis malutile argumenti kun nothing. It was no good to argue +ili, cxar ili ne sciis ke ili ne with them, for they did not know +scias, kaj tio cxi estas plej that they did not know, and this +malfacila lerni. Tial li lasis is the hardest thing to learn. So +ilin paroladi, kaj flegis sian he let them keep on talking, and +arbon kiel antauxe. "Cxar," tended his tree as before. "For," +li diris al si mem, "kiam la said he to himself, "when the tree +arbo estos disvastigxinta kaj has spread and multiplied after +multobligxinta lauxspece tra its kind throughout the land, from +la lando, per la grada sperto many men's gradual experience +de multaj homoj farigxos arba there will arise a science of +scienco, kaj tial ni fine ellernos trees, and thus we shall in the +la plej bonan flegmanieron." end find out the best way of +Ankaux li pensis, "la diablo estis tending them." Also he thought, +prava: la diablo estas lertulo." "The devil was right: the devil is + a clever man." + +Iom poste alvenis en la vilagxon Now, some time after there arrived +homoj el aliaj lokoj, kunportantaj in the village men from other +diversajn semojn. Cxiu el ili places, bringing with them various +lauxdis sian propran semon, seeds. Each of them praised his +dirante ke li estas kreskiginta own seed, telling how he had grown +belan arbon el tia semo, kaj a fine tree from such seed, and +postulante ke la vilagxanoj plantu urging the villagers to plant his +nur liajn semojn. Tiam iuj diris, seeds only. Then certain of them +"Ni metu cxiujn la diversajn said, "Let us put all the divers +semojn kunen, kaj ni kreskigu el seeds together, and let us grow +ili unu bonan arbon." Kaj tiuj from them one good tree." And +cxi petis Namezon ke li neniigu these begged Namezo to destroy[1] +sian arbon kaj pistu gxiajn semojn his own tree and pound its seeds +kaj almiksu ilin en la kunmetatan and stir them into the compound +semajxon, por ke unu bona arbo seedstuff, that one good tree +elkresku. might grow out of it. + +Tiel ili babiladis kaj bataladis Thus they babbled and kept +inter si; kaj ili cxirkaux iradis quarrelling among themselves; +en la vilagxo, montrante modelojn and they went round about in the +de siaj arboj kaj pruvante, cxiu village showing models of their +ke la sia estas la plej bona. Kaj trees and proving each that his +fine la vilagxanoj enuigxis kaj own was the best. And at last +denove volis dehaki cxiun kaj the villagers grew weary of it, +cxies arbon. and wanted again to hew down + every tree, no matter to whom it + belonged.[2] + + [1]Destroy. Nothing = _neni-o_; suf. _-ig_ denotes causation. [2]No + matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every one's. + +Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis But Namezo and his friends had +jam du aux tri grandajn arbojn, by this time two or three big +kaj gxis nun prosperis al ili trees, and up to this day they +defendi ilin kontraux la atakoj de have succeeded in defending them +la vilagxanoj. Kaj cxiam, kiam la against the villagers' attacks. +vetero estas varmega, ili sidas And always, when the weather is +sub la arboj vespere kaj gxuas very hot, they sit under their +la fresxecon. Tamen ili havas trees in the evening and enjoy the +nur duonan profiton el ili, cxar coolness. Yet have they only half +la vilagxanoj malpermesas planti profit by them, for the villagers +ian arbon en la vilagxo, kaj tial forbid them to plant any tree +la arbanoj devas cxiufoje marsxi in the village, and so the tree +malproksimen kaj aparte viziti people have to walk a long way +siajn arbojn, anstataux havi ilin each time and have to make special +apud siaj pordoj. visits to their trees, instead of + having them at their doors. + +Kaj la plej granda parto de la And the greater part of the +vilagxanoj, malgraux ke oni povas villagers, though the trees are +facile piediri al la arboj, diras within a walk, still say, "Trees +ankoraux, "Arbo estas neebla." are impossible." + +Kaj la diablo ridas. And the devil laughs. + + + III + + GRAMMAR + +1. There is one definite article, _la_, invariable. There is no +indefinite article. + +2. Nouns always end in _-o_. Ex. _patro_ = father. + +3. Adjectives always end in _-a_. Ex. _patra_ = paternal. + +4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except +only the personal pronouns) ends in _j_. Ex. _patroj_ = fathers; _bonaj +patroj_ = good fathers. + +5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in _-n_. Ex. _Mi amas +mian bonan patron_ = I love my good father. _Ni amas niajn bonajn +patrojn_ = we love our good fathers. + +6. Adverbs always end in _-e_. Ex. _bone_ = well; _patre_ = paternally. +(There are a few non-derived adverbs without the ending _-e_, as _jam, +ankaux, tiel, kiel_). + +7. The personal pronouns are: + + mi = I sxi = she ni = we + vi = you gxi = it vi = you + li = he oni = one ili = they + +Also a reflexive pronoun, _si_, which always refers to the subject of +its own clause. + +All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding _-n_. + +8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number. + +The present ends in _-as_. Ex. _mi amas_ = I love. + +The past ends in _-is_. Ex. _vi amis_ = you loved. + +The future ends in _-os_. Ex. _li amos_ = he will love. + +The conditional ends in _-us_. Ex. _ni amus_ = we should love. + +The imperative ends in _-u_. Ex. _amu_ = love! _ni amu_ = let us love. +This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. _Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu +la alian_ = God commands us to love one another. + +The infinitive ends in _-i_. Ex. _ami_ = to love. + +There are three active participles. + +The present participle active is formed by _-ant_. Ex. _amanta_ = +loving; _amanto_ = a lover. + +The past participle active is formed by _-int_. Ex. _aminta_ = having +loved; _la skribinto_ = the author (lit. the man who has written). + +The future participle active is formed by _-ont_. Ex. _amonta_ = being +about to love. + +There are three passive participles. + +The present participle passive is formed by _-at_. Ex. _amata_ = being +loved. + +The past participle passive is formed by _-it_. Ex. _amita_ = having +been loved. + +The future participle passive is formed by _-ot_. Ex. _amota_ = being +about to be loved. + +All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by the +verb _esti_ (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are employed only +when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. _mi estas aminta_ = I have +loved (lit. I am having loved); _vi estis aminta_ = you had loved (lit. +you were having loved); _ili estas amataj_ = they are loved; _sxi estas +amita_ = she has been loved; _ni estis amitaj_ = we had been loved; _ili +estos amintaj_ = they will have loved; _sxi estus aminta_ = she would +have loved; _mi estus amita_ = I should have been loved. + + + IV + + LIST OF AFFIXES + + I. _Prefixes_ + +_bo-_ denotes relation by marriage: _bopatro_ = father-in-law. + +_dis-_ denotes dissemination, division: _dismeti_ = to put apart, about, +in pieces. + +_ek-_ denotes sudden action or beginning: _ekdormi_ = to fall asleep; +_ekiri_ = to start. + +_ge-_ denotes both sexes: _gepatroj_ = parents; _geviroj_ = men and +women. + +_mal-_ denotes the opposite: _bona_ = good; _malbona_ = bad. + +_re-_ denotes back, again: _repagi_ = to repay; _rekomenci_ = to begin +again. + + + II. _Suffixes_ + +_-ad_ denotes continuation: _penadi_ = to keep striving, to make +continued effort. + +_-ajx_ denotes something concrete, made of the material, or possessing +the qualities of the root to which it is attached: _bovo_ = ox; +_bovajxo_ = beef; _okazi_ = to happen; _okazajxoj_ = happenings, events. +(For English speakers a good rule is to add "thing" or "stuff" to the +English word; _propra_ = one's own, _proprajxo_ = own-thing, property; +_vidindajxoj_ = see-worthy-things, notable sights. N.B.: _-ajx_ added +to transitive verbal stems generally has a passive sense: _tondi_ = +to clip, _tondajxo_ = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas _tondilo_ = +clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's explanation of -ajx, _La Revuo_, +Vol. I., No. 8 (April), pp. 374-5. + +_-an_ denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: _urbano_ = a +town-dweller; _Kristano_ = a Christian. + +_-ar_ denotes a collection: _vortaro_ = a dictionary; _arbaro_ = a +forest; _homaro_ = mankind. + +_-cxj_ denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: _pacxjo_ = daddy; +_Arcxjo_ = Archie. + +_-ebl_ denotes possibility: _kredebla_ = credible. + +_-ec_ denotes abstract quality: _boneco_ = goodness. + +_-eg_ denotes great size or intensity: _grandega_ = enormous; +_varmega_ = intensely hot. + +_-ej_ denotes place: _lernejo_ = a learn-place, a school. + +_-em_ denotes propensity to: _lernema_ = studious; _kredema_ = +credulous. + +_-er_ denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: _sablero_ = a grain +of sand; _fajrero_ = a spark. + +_-estr_ denotes a chief or leader: _lernejestro_ = a head master. + +_-et_ denotes diminution: _infaneto_ = a little child; _varmeta_ = +warmish. + +_-id_ denotes the young of, descendant of: _bovido_ = a calf. + +_-ig_ denotes causation: _bonigi_, _plibonigi_ = to make good, to +improve; _mortigi_ = to kill; _venigi_ = to cause to come, to send for. + +_-igx_ denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: _sanigxi_, +_resanigxi_ = to get well (again); _paligxi_ = to grow pale; +_trovigxi_ = to be found, occur. + +_-il_ denotes an instrument: _razilo_ = a razor. + +_-in_ denotes feminine: _patrino_ = mother; _bovino_ = cow. + +_-ind_ denotes worthiness: _lauxdinda_ = laudable, praiseworthy. + +_-ing_ denotes a holder: _kandelingo_ = a candlestick; _glavingo_ = +scabbard. + +_-ist_ denotes profession or occupation; _maristo_ = a sailor; +_bonfaristo_ = a benefactor. + +_-nj_ denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: _Manjo_ = Polly; +_patrinjo_ (or _panjo_) = mamma. + +_-uj_ denotes containing or producing: _inkujo_ = inkpot; _Anglujo_ = +England. + +_-ul_ denotes characteristic: _timulo_ = a coward: _avarulo_ = a miser. + +[The suffix _-acx_ (not in the _Fundamento_) is coming into use as a +pejorative (= Italian _-accio_): _ridi_ = to laugh; _ridacxi_ = to grin, +sneer.] + + + V + + TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS + + DEMONSTRA- RELATIVE NEGATIVE. UNIVERSAL. INDEFINITE. + TIVE. AND INTER- + ROGATIVE. + +PERSON* tiu kiu neniu cxiu iu + that who, no one every, all, some, + which every one some one + +THING* tio kio nenio cxio io + that what, nothing everything something + (thing) which + +QUALITY tia kia nenia cxia ia + that kind what kind no, each, every any, some + of a of a no kind of kind of kind of + +TIME tiam kiam neniam cxiam iam + then when never always ever, at + some time + +PLACE tie kie nenie cxie ie + there where nowhere everywhere somewhere + +MANNER tiel kiel neniel cxiel iel + thus, so how in no way in every way in some way, + somehow + +MOTIVE tial kial nenial cxial ial + therefore why for no for all for some + reason reasons reasons + +QUANTITY tiom kiom neniom cxiom iom + so/as much how much none the whole somewhat, + so/as many how many amount a certain + amount + +POSSESSION ties kies nenies cxies ies + of that whose, nobody's everybody's somebody's + of which + +In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," +add _cxi_. + +*N.B.--_Tiu_, _kiu_, etc., are used in agreement with a noun expressed, +even when it does not represent a person. + +Ex. _Tiu libro, kiun mi legis_ = that book which I read. _Tiuj cxi +floroj_ = these flowers. + +_Tio_, _kio_, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they stand +alone. + +Ex. _Tio estas vera_ = that is true; _kion vi diris?_ = what did you +say? _Tio cxi estas pli granda ol tio_ = this is bigger than that. + +N.B.--In memorizing the above, it is well to remember that _t_ = +demonstrative, _k_ = relative-interrogative, _cx_ = distributive, _i_ = +indefinite, _nen_ = negative. + + + VI + + VOCABULARY + + = A = + +-a = termination of adjectives. +acxet-i = to buy. +-ad = suffix denoting continued action. +aer-o = air. +ag-i = to act. +-ajx = suffix denoting concrete substance. +ajn = (what)ever; _kiu ajn_, whoever. +al = to. +ali-a = other. +almenaux = at least. +alt-a = high. +am-i = to love. +amas-o = crowd, mass. +ankaux = also. +ankoraux = still. +anstataux = instead of. +-ant = present participle active. +antaux = before (time and place). +apart-a = special. +apud = at. +-ar = suffix denoting a collection. +arb-o = tree. +-as = ending of present tense. +auxd-i = to hear. + + = B = + +baldaux = soon. +bed-o = flower bed. +bel-a = fine, beautiful. +bezon-o = need. +blank-a = white. +bon-a = good. +bord-o = edge, shore. +bril-i = to shine. +burgxon-o = bud. + + = C = + +cel-o = object, aim. +cerb-o = brain. +cert-a = certain. + + = Cx = + +cxagren-o = trouble. +cxar = for, because. +cxe = at. +cxes-i = to cease. +cxi = added to demonstrative _tiu_, expresses nearer connexion: + _tiu_ = that; _tiu cxi_ = this. +cxiam = always. +cxie = everywhere. +cxirkaux = around. +cxiu = all, each, every. +cxu = interrogative particle. + + = D = + +da = used after words of quantity: Ex. _multe da vino_, much wine. +dauxr-i = to last, continue. +de = of, from, by (with passive). +des = comparative particle; _ju...des_, the...the: + Ex. _ju pli des pli bone_, the more the better. +dev-i = to owe, to be obliged to. +deviz-o = device, motto. +difekt-i = to spoil. +dir-i = to say. +dom-o = house. +don-i = to give. +du = two. +dub-i = to doubt. +dum = whilst. + + = E = + +-e = ending of adverbs. +eben-a = flat, level. +-ebl = suffix denoting possibility. +-ec = suffix denoting abstract quality: _bon-ec-o_, goodness. +ecx = even. +edz-(in)-o = husband (wife). +-eg = suffix denoting great size. +-ej = suffix denoting place. +ek- = prefix denoting beginning. +ekster = outside. +el = out of. +-em = suffix denoting propensity. +en = in. +entrepren-i = to undertake. +enu-i = to weary, bore. +esper-i = to hope. +Esperant-o = Esperanto. +est-i = to be. +-et = suffix denoting little. +etend-i = to stretch. + + = F = + +facil-a = easy. +fajr-o = fire. +fakt-o = fact. +far-i = to do. +fenestr-o = window. +ferm-i = to shut. +fil-o = son. +fin-o = end. +flank-o = side. +fleg-i = tend. +flu-i = flow. +flug-i = to fly. +foj-o = time; _du fojoj_, twice. +foli-o = leaf. +for = away. +forn-o = oven. +frat-o = brother. +fraz-o = sentence. +frenez-o = madness. +fru-a = early. +frukt-o = fruit. + + = G = + +ge- = prefix denoting both sexes. +gent-o = race, tribe. +grand-a = big, great. + + = Gx = + +gxi = it. +gxis = until. +gxoj-o = joy. +gxu-i = to enjoy. + + = H = + +hav-i = to have. +hejm-o = home. +hodiaux = to-day. +hom-o = man (mortal; no distinction of sex). + + = I = + +-i = ending of infinitive. +ideal-o = ideal. +-ig = suffix denoting causation. +-igx = suffix denoting becoming. +-il = suffix denoting instrument. +ili = they. +-int = past participle active. +inter = between, among. +ir-i = to go. +-is = ending of past tense. +-ist = suffix denoting agent. +iu = some one. + + = J = + +-j = ending of plural. +jam = already. +jar-o = year. +jen = here is, here are (French _voici_). +ju = comparative particle. See _des_. +jun-a = young. + + = Jx = + +jxus = just now. + + = K = + +kaj = and. +kamen-o = fireplace. +kamp-o = field. +kap-o = head. +ke = that (conjunction). +kelk-a = some. +kiam = when. +kiel = how, as. +kiu = who, which. +knab-o = boy. +komerc-o = commerce. +kompat-o = sympathy, pity. +kompren-i = to understand. +kon-i = to know. +konsil-i = to counsel. +konstru-i = to build. +kontraux = against. +kred-i = to believe. +kresk-i = to grow. +krom = besides. +krut-a = steep. +kun = with. +kusx-i = to lie. +kutim-i = to be accustomed. +kvankam = although. +kvar = four. +kvazaux = as if. +kvin = five. + + = L = + +la = the. +lac-a = tired. +lag-o = lake. +land-o = land. +lang-o = tongue. +las-i = to let, leave. +laux = according to. +leg-i = to read. +legom-o = vegetable. +lern-i = to learn. +lert-a = clever. +lev-i = to raise. +li = he. +lim-o = limit. +lingv-o = language. +lit-o = bed. +long-a = long. +lum-o = light. + + = M = + +mal- = prefix denoting the opposite. +malgraux = in spite of. +mangx-i = to eat. +mank-i = to be wanting. +mar-o = sea. +marcx-o = swamp. +maten-o = morning. +mem = self. +met-i = to put. +mez-o = middle. +mi = I. +mien-o = look, air, gait. +mir-i = to wonder. +mon-o = money. +mond-o = world. +montr-i = to show. +morgaux = to-morrow. +Mosxt-o = term of respect: your Highness, Worship, Honour. +mult-a = much, many. + + = N = + +-n = ending of accusative: also denotes motion towards + and duration of time. +naci-o = nation. +nask-i = to beget. +ne = no, not. +negx-o = snow. +neniam = never. +neniu = no one. +ni = we. +nom-o = name. +nov-a = new. +nub-o = cloud. +nun = now. +nur = only. +nutr-i = to feed. + + = O = + +-o = ending of nouns. +oft-e = often. +ok = eight. +okaz-i = to happen. +okul-o = eye. +ol = than. +-on = suffix denoting fraction. +oni = one, people (indef pron.). +-ont = future participle active. +orel-o = ear. +-os = ending of future. + + = P = + +pac-o = peace. +parol-i = to speak. +pen-i = to try. +pens-i = to think. +per = by means of. +perd-i = to lose. +pez-a = heavy. +pied-o = foot. +pint-o = point, peak. +pist-i = to pound. +placx-i = to please. +plat-a = flat. +plej = most. +plen-a = full. +plend-i = to complain. +plenum-i = to fulfill. +pli = more. +plu = more, further, farther. +plug-i = to plough. +popol-o = people, race. +por = for. +pord-o = door. +post = after, behind (time and place). +pov-i = to be able. +pra = original, great-(grandfather). +prav-a = right. +pren-i = to take. +preskaux = almost. +pret-a = ready. +preter = beyond, by. +pri = about, concerning. +pro = on account of. + + = R = + +rakont-i = to narrate. +ramp-i = to crawl, climb. +rapid-a = quick. +rekt-a = straight. +rem-i = to row. +renkont-i = to meet. +renvers-i = to upset, overthrow. +rikolt-o = crop. + + = S = + +sat-a = satisfied, full, replete. +sci-i = to know. +sed = but. +sek-a = dry. +sekv-i = to follow. +sem-o = seed. +sen = without. +sent-i = to feel. +si = self, relexive pronoun. +sid-i = to sit. +sinjor-o = sir, Mr., gentleman. +skrib-i = to write. +sol-a = alone, only. +son-o = sound. +songx-o = dream. +sonor-a = sonorous. +spec-o = kind, sort. +spert-o = experience. +spir-i = to breathe. +star-i = to stand. +sterk-o = manure. +subit-a = sudden. +suficx-a = sufficient. +supr-a = upper, superior. +sven-i = to swoon. + + = Sx = + +sxajn-i = to seem. +sxerc-i = to joke. +sxip-o = ship. +sxirm-i = to shelter. +sxpar-i = to save up, economize. +sxtel-i = to steal. + + = T = + +tag-o = day. +tamen = yet, nevertheless. +tegment-o = roof. +temp-o = time. +ten-i = to hold, keep. +ter-o = earth. +tial = therefore. +tiel = thus, so. +tiom = so much, so many. +tiu = that. +tra = through. +traf-i = to hit the mark. +trans = across. +tre = very. +trem-i = to tremble. +tro = too much. +tromp-i = to deceive. +trov-i = to find. +trud-i = to shove, thrust. +tuj = immediately. +tut-a = all. + + = U = + +-u = ending of imperative subjunctive. +-uj = suffix denoting "holder". +-ul = suffix denoting characteristic. +unu = one. + + = V = + +vapor-o = steam. +vek-i = to wake (trans.). +vel-o = sail. +velk-a = faded. +ven-i = to come. +venk-i = to conquer. +vent-o = wind. +ver-a = true. +vesper-o = evening. +vetur-i = to travel by vehicle (train, carriage, boat, etc.). +vi = you. +vid-i = to see. +vidv-(in)-o = widow(er). +vir-(in)-o = man (woman). +viv-i = to live. +voj-o = way. +vojagx-o = voyage, journey. +vokal-o = vowel. +vol-i = to wish. +vom-i = to vomit, be sick. +vort-o = word. + + = Z = + +zorg-o = care. + + + + + APPENDIX A + + SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN REGULAR LANGUAGE + + +Word-building can be made quite an amusing game for children. For +instance, give them the suffixes _-ej_ (denoting place) and _-il_ +(denoting instrument), and set them to form words for "school," +"church," "factory," "knife," "warming-pan," etc. (_lernejo_, +_pregxejo_, _fabrikejo_, _trancxito_, _varmigilo_). + +But since the language is perfectly regular in form and construction, +and the learner can therefore argue from case to case, it is a useful +instrument for instilling clear ideas of grammatical categories. Thus +give the roots-- + + viv-i = to live san-a = healthy hom-o = man + long-a = long sagx-a = wise Di-o = God + don-i = to give + +and set such sentences as the following to be worked out-- + +"He lives long"; "A long life is a gift of God"; "It is wise to live +healthily"; "God is divine, man is human"; "Human life is short," etc. + +The same roots constantly recur with an _-o_, _-a_, or _-e_ tacked on; +and the practice in sorting out the endings, and attaching them like +labels to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, soon marks off the +corresponding ideas clearly in the learner's mind. + +Analogous to simple sums and conducive to clear thinking are such +sentences as the following, for rather more advanced pupils: + +Given-- + + raz-i = to shave serv-i = to serve san-a = healthy + akr-a = sharp mort-i = to die ven-i = to come + uz-i = to use hak-i = to hew kun = with + sent-i = to feel + +and the table of affixes (pp. 191-2 [Part IV, Chapter IV]). + +Translate--"Constant use had blunted his razor"; "He had his servant +shaved"; "He killed his companion with an axe"; "Let us send for the +doctor." + +More advanced exercise (on the same roots): + +Translate--"O Death, where is thy sting?" "Community of service brings +together men subject to death, and dulls the perception of their common +mortality. Willing service dissipates the weariness of the server; the +deadliness of disease is mitigated, and the place of sickness becomes a +place of health." + +By referring to the table of affixes, the use of which has of course +been explained, the learner can work out the answers as follows: + +Uz-ad-o estis mal-akr-ig-int-a lian raz-il-on. Li raz-ig-is sian +serv-ant-(_or_ ist)on. Li mort-ig-is sian kun-ul-on per hak-il-o. +Ni ven-ig-u la san-ig-ist-on. + +More advanced: + +Ho Morto, kie estas via akr-ec-o? Kun-servo (_or_ kuneco de servo) +kun-ig-as la mort-em-(ul)-ojn, kaj mal-akr-ig-as la sent-on de ilia +kun-a mort-em-ec-o. Serv-em-ec-o dis-ig-as la el-uz-it-ec-on de la +serv-ant-o; la mort-ig-ec-o de la mal-san-ec-o mal-akr-igx-as, kaj la +mal-san-ej-o igxas san-ej-o. + +No national language could be used in this way for building sentences +according to rules, and such exercises should give a practical grip +of clear use of language. The student is obliged to analyse the exact +meaning of every word of the English sentence, and this necessity +inculcates a nice discrimination in the use of words. At the same time +the necessary word-building depends upon clear-headed and logical +application of rule. There is no memory work, but the mind is kept on +the stretch, and the exercise is wholesome as combating confusion of +thought and slovenliness of expression. + + + + + APPENDIX B + + ESPERANTO HYMN BY DR. ZAMENHOF + + + LA ESPERO + + En la mondon venis nova sento, + Tra la mondo iras forta voko; + Per flugiloj de facila vento + Nun de loko flugu gxi al loko. + Ne al glavo sangon soifanta + Gxi la homan tiras familion: + Al la mond' eterne militanta + Gxi promesas sanktan harmonion. + Sub la sankta signo de l'espero + Kolektigxas pacaj batalantoj, + Kaj rapide kreskas la afero + Per laboro de la esperantoj. + Forte staras muroj de miljaroj + Inter la popoloj dividitaj; + Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj, + Per la sankta amo disbatitaj. + Sub neuxtrala lingva fundamento, + Komprenante unu la alian, + La popoloj faros en konsento + Unu grandan rondon familian. + Nia diligenta kolegaro + En laboro paca ne lacigxos, + Gxis la bela songxo de l'homaro + Por eterna ben' efektivigxos. + + + LITERAL TRANSLATION + + HOPE + + Into the world has come a new feeling, + Through the world goes a mighty call; + On light wind-wings + Now may it fly from place to place. + Not to the sword thirsting for blood + Does it draw the human family: + To the world eternally at war + It promises holy harmony. + Beneath the holy banner of hope + Throng the soldiers of peace, + And swiftly spreads the Cause + Through the labour of the hopeful. + Strong stand the walls of a thousand years + Between the sundered peoples; + But the stubborn bars shall leap apart, + Battered to pieces by holy love. + On the fair foundation of common speech, + Understanding one another, + The peoples in concord shall make up + One great family circle. + Our busy band of comrades + Shall never weary in the work of peace, + Till humanity's grand dream + Shall become the truth of eternal blessing. + + + + + APPENDIX C + + THE LETTER _C_ IN ESPERANTO + + +_c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." + +This has given rise to much criticism. The same sound is also expressed +by the letters _ts_. Why depart from the Esperanto principle, "one +sound, one letter," and have two symbols (_c_ and _ts_) for the same +sound? + +A standing difficulty of an international language is: What equivalent +shall be adopted for the _c_ of national languages? The difficulty +arises owing to the diversity of value and history of the _c_ in diverse +tongues. Philologists, who know the history of the Latin hard _c_ and +its various descendants in modern languages, will appreciate this. + +(1) Shall _c_ be adopted in the international language, or omitted? +If it is omitted, many useful words, which it is desirable to adopt +and which are ordinarily spelt with a _c_, will have to be arbitrarily +deformed, and this deformation may amount to actual obscuring of their +sense. E.g. _cento_ = hundred; _centro_ = centre; _cerbo_ = brain; +_certa_ = certain; _cirkonstanco_ = circumstance; _civila_ = civil, etc. +Such works would become almost unrecognizable for many in the forms +kento, sento, tsento, etc. + +(2) If, then, _c"_is retained, what value is to be given to it? The +hard and soft sounds of the English _c_ (as in English "cat," "civil") +are already represented by _k_ and _s_. Neither of these letters can +be dispensed with in the international language; and it is undesirable +to confuse orthographically or phonetically _c_-roots with _s_- or +_k_-roots. Therefore another value must be found for the symbol _c_. +The choice is practically narrowed down to the Italian soft _c_ = _ch_, +as in English "church," and the German[1] _c_ = _ts_ in English "bits." +Now _ch_ is a useful and distinctive sound, and has been adopted in +Esperanto with a symbol of its own: cx. Therefore _ts_ remains. + + [1]Also late Latin and early Norman French. + +(3) Why not then abolish _c_ and write _ts_ instead? For answer, see +No. (1) above. It is a worse evil to introduce such monstrosities as +_tsento_, _tsivila_, etc., than to allow two symbols for the same sound, +_ts_ and _c_. International language has to appeal to the eye as well as +to the ear. + +This matter of the _c_ is only one more instance of the wisdom of Dr. +Zamenhof in refusing to make a fetish of slavish adherence to rule. +Practical common-sense is a safer guide than theory in attaining the +desired goal--ease (of eye, ear, tongue, and pen) for greatest number. +In practice no confusion arises between _c_ and _ts_. + +======================================================================== + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the +characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and +six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", +"g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists +fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested +that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could +instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII +file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's +special letters. + +However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There is +no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no way +to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, and +sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of those other +five letters is really the second half of a diacritical pair, or just +an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of them. Consequently +other, unambiguous, methods have been used over the years. One is the +"x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", "gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and +"ux" to represent the special letters. There is no ambiguity because +the letter "x" is not an Esperanto letter, and each diacritical letter +has a unique transliteration. This is the method used in the ASCII +versions of this Project Gutenberg e-text. + +Also: The 7-bit ASCII version of this book uses the German "-e" +convention to represent characters with umlauts. The 8-bit ASCII +version uses the ISO-8859-1 character set to represent certain French, +German and Volapuek characters. The HTML Unicode and UTF8 text versions +display all the characters for all the languages properly... including +Esperanto! + +======================================================================== + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's International Language, by Walter J. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/16737-8.zip b/16737-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b64238 --- /dev/null +++ b/16737-8.zip diff --git a/16737-h.zip b/16737-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..499da42 --- /dev/null +++ b/16737-h.zip diff --git a/16737-h/16737-h.htm b/16737-h/16737-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4fef7e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/16737-h/16737-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13594 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> + +<html> + +<head> + <title>International Language</title> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ASCII"/> + <style type="text/css"> +/* added by PPV */ +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 4%; font-size: small; +font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: right;} + + + .majusklete { font-variant: small-caps } + div.partotitolo, div.aldonotitolo, div.chapitrotitolo { text-align: center } + div.partotitolo, div.aldonotitolo { margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-weight: bold } + div.chapitrotitolo { margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em } + div.partotitolo div.subtitolo { margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-weight: normal; font-style: italic } + div.chapitrotitolo div.subtitolo { margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-variant: small-caps } + div.aldonotitolo div.subtitolo { margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-weight: normal; font-variant: small-caps } + hr { margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em } + p.dekstre, div.dekstre { text-align: left; margin-left: 2em } + p.live, div.live { text-align: right; margin-right: 2em } + p.piednoto { font-size: small; margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em } + p.dekstrakomence { text-indent: 5% } + p.duobledekstrakomence { text-indent: 10% } + div.letero { text-align: left; margin: 2em 5% 2em 5% } + td.titoleto { font-size: small; font-weight: bold } + sup { font-size: small } + </style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Language, by Walter J. Clark + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: International Language + Past, Present and Future: With Specimens of Esperanto and Grammar + +Author: Walter J. Clark + +Release Date: September 24, 2005 [EBook #16737] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, William Patterson and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<!-- 001.png --> + +<!-- 002.png --> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: x-large"> + INTERNATIONAL<br/> + LANGUAGE +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: large"> + PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE +</p> + +<p align="center"> + WITH SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO<br/> + AND GRAMMAR +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: large"> + BY W. J. CLARK +</p> + +<p align="center"> + M.A. OXON., PH.D. LEIPZIG +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: small"> + LICENCIÉ-ÈS-LETTRES, BACHELIER-EN-DROIT<br/> + PARIS +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: large"> + LONDON<br/> + J. M. DENT & COMPANY +</p> + +<p align="center"> + 1907 +</p> + +<!-- 003.png --> + +<p align="center" style="margin-bottom: 4em"> + PRINTED BY<br/> + HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,<br/> + LONDON AND AYLESBURY. +</p> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: larger"> +<!-- 004.png --> + +<a name="pageiii"> </a><span class = "pagenum">iii</span> + + PREFACE +</p> + +<blockquote style="text-align: center"> + An artificial language may be more regular, more perfect, + and easier to learn than a natural one.—<span + class="majusklete">Max Müller</span>. +</blockquote> + +<p> + The world is spinning fast down the grooves of change. The old + disorder changeth. Haply it is yielding place to new. The tongue is a + little member. It should no longer be allowed to divide the nations. +</p> + +<p> + Two things stand out in the swift change. Science with all its works + is spreading to all lands. The East, led by Japan, is coming into + line with the West. +</p> + +<p> + Standardization of life may fittingly be accompanied by + standardization of language. The effect may be twofold—Practical + and Ideal. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <i>Practical</i>. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + The World has a thousand tongues,<br/> + Science but one:<br/> + They'll climb up a thousand rungs<br/> + When Babel's done. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + <i>Ideal</i>. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Mankind has a thousand tongues,<br/> + Friendship but one:<br/> + <i>Banzai!</i> then from heart and lungs<br/> + For the Rising Sun. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="right" style="font-size: larger"> + W.J.C. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + <span class="majusklete">Note</span>.—The following pages have + had the advantage of being read in MS. by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, + and I am indebted to him for many corrections and suggestions. +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-size: large; margin-top: 3em"> +<!-- 005.png --> + +<a name="pageiv"> </a><span class = "pagenum">iv</span> + + AN INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE +</p> + +<p> + <span class="majusklete">Note</span>.—To avoid repeating the + cumbrous phrase "international auxiliary language," the word + <i>auxiliary</i> is usually omitted. It must be clearly understood + that when "international" or "universal" language is spoken of, + <i>auxiliary</i> is also implied. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" width="75%" summary="Table of Contents"> + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"> +<p style="margin-top: 3em"><a href="#partI">PART I</a></p> +<p style="margin-bottom: 2em">General</p></td></tr> + + <tr><td align="left" valign="middle" style="font-size: small">CHAP.</td> +<td align="right" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="font-size: small">PAGE</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterI">I</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Introductory</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">1</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterII">II</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Question of Principle—Economic Advantage of an International Language</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">4</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterIII">III</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Question of Practice—An International Language is Possible</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">8</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterIV">IV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Question of Practice (<i>continued</i>)—An International Language is Easy</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">16</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterV">V</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Question of Practice (<i>continued</i>)—The Introduction of an International Language would not cause Dislocation</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">24</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterVI">VI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">International Action already taken for the Introduction of an Auxiliary Language</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">26</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterVII">VII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Can the International Language be Latin?</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">33</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterVIII">VIII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Can the International Language be Greek?</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">35</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterIX">IX</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Can the International Language be a Modern Language?</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">36</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterX">X</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Can the Evolution of an International Language be left to the Process of Natural Selection by Free Competition?</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">38</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXI">XI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top"> +<!-- 006.png --> + +<a name="pagev"> </a><span class = "pagenum">v</span> + +Objections to an International Language on Aesthetic Grounds</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">40</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXII">XII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Will an International Language discourage the Study of Modern Languages, and thus be Detrimental to Culture?—Parallel with the Question of Compulsory Greek</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">46</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXIII">XIII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Objection to an International Language on the Ground that it will soon split up into Dialects</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">49</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXIV">XIV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Objection that the Present International Language (Esperanto) is too Dogmatic, and refuses to profit by Criticism</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">51</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXV">XV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Summary of Objections to an International Language</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">53</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXVI">XVI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Wider Cosmopolitanism—The Coming of Asia</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">57</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXVII">XVII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Importance of an International Language for the Blind</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">61</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXVIII">XVIII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Ideal <i>v.</i> Practical</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">63</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXIX">XIX</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Literary <i>v.</i> Commercial</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">65</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXX">XX</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Is an International Language a Crank's Hobby?</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">70</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXXI">XXI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">What an International Language is not</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">73</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIchapterXXII">XXII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">What an International Language is</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">73</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em"><a href="#partII">PART II</a></p><p style="margin-bottom: 2em">Historical</p></td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterI">I</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Some Existing International Languages already in Partial Use</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">74</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterII">II</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Outline of History of the Idea of a Universal Language—List of Schemes proposed</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">76</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterIII">III</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">The Earliest British Attempt</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">87</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterIV">IV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">History of Volapük—a Warning</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">92</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterV">V</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">History of Idiom Neutral</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">98</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterVI">VI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top"> +<!-- 007.png --> + +<a name="pagevi"> </a><span class = "pagenum">vi</span> + +The Newest Languages: a Neo-Latin Group—Gropings towards a "Pan-European" Amalgamated Scheme</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">103</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterVII">VII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">History of Esperanto</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">105</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterVIII">VIII</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Present State of Esperanto: (<i>a</i>) General; (<i>b</i>) in England</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">121</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIchapterIX">IX</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Lessons to be drawn from the Foregoing History</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">131</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em"><a href="#partIII">PART III</a></p><p style="margin-bottom: 2em">The Claims of Esperanto to be taken seriously:<br/>Considerations based on the Structure of the Language itself</p></td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIIchapterI">I</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Esperanto is scientifically constructed, and fulfils the Natural Tendency in Evolution of Language</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">135</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIIchapterII">II</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Esperanto from an Educational Point of View—It will aid the learning of other Languages and stimulate Intelligence</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">145</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIIchapterIII">III</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Comparative Tables illustrating Labour saved in learning Esperanto as contrasted with other Languages: (<i>a</i>) Word-building; (<i>b</i>) Participles and Auxiliaries</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">155</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIIIchapterIV">IV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">How Esperanto can be used as a Code Language to communicate with Persons who have never learnt it</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">161</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em"><a href="#partIV">PART IV</a></p><p style="margin-bottom: 2em">Specimens of Esperanto, with Grammar and Vocabulary</p></td></tr> + + <tr><td> </td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Note</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">165</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterI">I</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Pronunciation</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">166</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterII">II</a>.</td> +<td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Specimens of Esperanto:</td></tr> + + <tr><td> </td> +<td align="left" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterIIspecimen1">1</a>. Parolado</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">167</td></tr> + + <tr><td> </td> +<td align="left" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterIIspecimen2">2</a>. La Marbordistoj</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">168</td></tr> + + <tr><td> </td> +<td align="left" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterIIspecimen3">3</a>. Nesaĝa Gento: Alegorio</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">168</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterIII">III</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top"> +<!-- 008.png --> + +<a name="pagevii"> </a><span class = "pagenum">vii</span> + +Grammar</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">189</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterIV">IV</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">List of Affixes</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">191</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterV">V</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Table of Correlative Words</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">193</td></tr> + + <tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#partIVchapterVI">VI</a>.</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Vocabulary</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">194</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 2em"><a href="#appendixA">APPENDIX A</a></p></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Sample Problems (see <a href="#partIIIchapterII">Part III., chap. ii.</a>) in Regular Language</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">200</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 2em"><a href="#appendixB">APPENDIX B</a></p></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Esperanto Hymn by Dr. Zamenhof</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">202</td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="3" align="center" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: bold"><p style="margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 2em"><a href="#appendixC">APPENDIX C</a></p></td></tr> + + <tr><td colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">The Letter <i>c</i> in Esperanto</td> +<td align="right" valign="top">204</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<!-- 009.png --> + +<!-- 010.png --> + +<div class="partotitolo" id="partI"> +<a name="page001"> </a><span class = "pagenum">1</span> + PART I + <div class="subtitolo"> + GENERAL + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterI"> + I + <div class="subtitolo"> + introductory + </div> +</div> + +<p> + In dealing with the problem of the introduction of an international + language, we are met on the threshold by two main questions: +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 1. The question of principle.<br/> +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 2. The question of practice. +</p> + +<p> + By the question of principle is meant, Is it desirable to have a + universal language? do we wish for one? in short, is there a demand? +</p> + +<p> + The question of practice includes the inquiries, Is such a language + possible? is it easy? would its introduction be fraught with + prohibitive difficulties? and the like. +</p> + +<p> + It is clear that, however possible or easy it may be to do a thing, + there is no case for doing it unless it is wanted; therefore the + question of principle must be taken first. In the case before us the + question of principle involves many considerations—aesthetic, + political, social, even religious. These will be glanced at in their + proper place; but for our present purpose they are all subordinate to + the one great paramount consideration—the economic one. In the + world of affairs experience shows that, given a demand of any kind + whatever, as between an economical method of supplying that demand + and a non-economical method, in the long run the economical method + will surely prevail. +</p> + +<!-- 011.png --> + +<p> +<a name="page002"> </a><span class = "pagenum">2</span> + If, then, it can be shown that there is a growing need for means of + international communication, and that a unilingual solution is more + economical than a multilingual one, there is good ground for thinking + that the unilingual method of transacting international affairs will + surely prevail. It then becomes a question of time and method: When + will men feel the pressure of the demand sufficiently strongly to set + about supplying it? and what means will they adopt? +</p> + +<p> + The time and the method are by no means indifferent. Though a demand + (for what is possible) is sure, in the long run, to get itself + supplied, a long period of wasteful and needless groping may be + avoided by a clear-sighted and timely realization of the demand, and + by consequent organized co-operation in supplying it. Intelligent + anticipation sometimes helps events to occur. It is the object + of this book to call attention to the present state of affairs, + and to emphasize the fact that the time is now ripe for dealing + with the question, and the present moment propitious for solving + the problem once for all in an orderly way. The merest glance at + the + <a href="#languagelist">list of projects for a universal language</a> + and their dates + will strengthen the conviction from an historical point of view + that the fulness of time is accomplished, while the history of + the rise and fall of <i>Volapük</i> and of the extraordinary + rise of <i>Esperanto</i>, in spite of its precursor's failure, are + exceedingly significant. +</p> + +<p> + One language has been born, come to maturity, and died of dissension, + and the world stood by indifferent. Another is now in the first + full flush of youth and strength. After twenty-nine years of daily + developing cosmopolitanism—years that have witnessed the rising + of a new star in the East and an uninterrupted growth of interchange + of ideas between the nations of the earth, whether in politics, + literature, or science, without a single check to the ever-rising + tide of internationalism—are we again to let the favourable + moment pass unused, just for want of making up our minds? At present + one language holds the field. It is well + +<!-- 012.png --> + +<a name="page003"> </a><span class = "pagenum">3</span> + organized; it has abundant enthusiastic partisans accustomed to + communicate and transact their common business in it, and only too + anxious to show the way to others. If it be not officially adopted + and put under the regulation of a duly constituted international + authority, it may wither away or split into factions as Volapük + did.<sup>1</sup> Or it may continue to grow and flourish, but others of its + numerous rivals may secure adherents and dispute its claim. This + would be even worse. It is far harder to rally a multitude of + conflicting rivals in the same camp, than it is to take over a + well-organized, homogeneous, and efficient volunteer force, legalize + its position, and raise it to the status of a regular army. In any + case, if no concerted action be taken, the question will remain + in a state of chaos, and the lack of official organization brings + a great risk of overlapping, dissension, and creation of rival + interests, and generally produces a state of affairs calculated to + postpone indefinitely the supply of the demand. Competition that + neither tends to keep down the price nor to improve the quality of + the thing produced is mere dissipation of energy. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Esperanto itself is admirably organized (see + <a href="#partIIchapterVII">Part II., chap. vii.</a>), and there are + no factions or symptoms of dissension. But Esperantists need official + support and recognition. +</p> + +<p> + In a word, the one thing needful at present is not a more highly + perfected language to adopt, but the adoption of the highly perfected + one we possess. By the admission of experts, no less than by the + practical experience of great numbers of persons in using it over a + number of years, it has been found adequate. Once found adequate, its + absolute utility merely depends upon universal adoption. +</p> + +<p> + With utility in direct proportion to numbers of adherents, every + recruit augments its value—a thought which may well encourage + waverers to make the slight effort necessary to at any rate learn to + read it. +</p> + +<!-- 013.png --> + +<a name="page004"> </a><span class = "pagenum">4</span> +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterII"> + II + <div class="subtitolo"> + the question of principle—economic advantage of an international language + </div> +</div> + +<p> + As stated above, the question of principle will be treated here from + a purely economical point of view, since practical value, measured + by saving of time, money, and effort, must be the ultimate criterion + by which the success or failure of so far-reaching a reform as the + introduction of an international, auxiliary language will be decided. + The bearing of such a reform upon education, culture, race supremacy, + etc., is not without importance; but the discussion of these points + must be postponed as subsidiary. +</p> + +<p> + Reduced to its simplest form, the economical argument is this: +</p> + +<p> + (1) The volume of international intercourse is great and increasing. +</p> + +<p> + (2) This intercourse is at present carried on in many different + languages of varying degrees of difficulty, but all relatively hard + of acquisition for those who do not know them as a mother-tongue. + This is uneconomical. +</p> + +<p> + (3) It is economically sounder to carry on international intercourse + in one easy language than in a large number of hard ones. +</p> + +<p> + (4) Therefore in principle an easy international language is + desirable. +</p> + +<p> + Let us glance at these four points a little more in detail. +</p> + +<p> + No. 1 surely needs no demonstration. Every year there is more + communication between men of different race and language. And it is + not business, in the narrow sense of the term, that is exclusively or + even chiefly affected by diversity of language. Besides the enormous + bulk of pleasure travel, international congresses are growing in + number and importance; municipal fraternization is the latest + fashion, and many a worthy alderman, + +<!-- 014.png --> + +<a name="page005"> </a><span class = "pagenum">5</span> + touring at the ratepayers' expense, must wish that he had some + German in Berlin, or a little Italian in Milan. Indeed, it is at + these points of international contact that language is a real bar, + actually preventing much intercourse that would otherwise have taken + place, rather than in business, which is organized in view of the + difficulty. Then there is the whole realm of scientific and learned + literature—work of which the accessibility to all concerned is + of the first importance, but is often hindered because a translation + into one language does not pay, or, if made, only reaches a limited + public. Such bars to freedom of interchange cannot be reckoned in + money; but modern economics recognizes the personal and social + factor, and any obstacle to research is certainly a public loss. +</p> + +<p> + But important as are these various spheres of action, an even wider + international contact of thought and feeling is springing up in our + days. Democracy, science, and universal education are producing + everywhere similarity of institutions, of industry, of the whole + organization of life. Similarity of life will breed community of + interests, and from this arises real converse—more give and take + in the things that matter, less purely superficial dealings of the + guide-book or conversation-manual type. +</p> + +<p> + (2) "Business," meaning commerce, in so far as it is international, + may at present be carried on mainly in half a dozen of the principal + languages of Western Europe. Even so, their multiplicity is + vexatious. But outside the world of business other languages are + entering the field, and striving for equal rights. The tendency + is all towards self-assertion on the part of the nationalities + that are beginning a new era of national life and importance. The + language difficulty in the Austrian Empire reflects the growing + self-consciousness of the Magyars. Everywhere where young peoples + are pushing their rights to take equal rank among the nations of the + world, the language question is put in the forefront. The politicians + of Ireland and Wales have realized the importance of language in + asserting nationality, but such engineered language-agitation offers + but + +<!-- 015.png --> + +<a name="page006"> </a><span class = "pagenum">6</span> + a feeble reflex of the vitality of the question in lands where the + native language is as much in use for all purposes as is English in + England. These lands will fight harder and harder against the claims + to supremacy of a handful of Western intruders. A famous foreign + philologist,<sup>1</sup> in a report on the subject presented to the Academy + of Vienna, notes the increasing tendency of Russian to take rank + among the recognized languages for purposes of polite learning. He is + well placed to observe. With Russia knocking at the door and Hungary + waiting to storm the breach, what tongue may not our descendants + of the next century have to learn, under pain of losing touch with + important currents of thought? It is high time something were done + to standardize means of transmission. Owing to political conditions, + there are linguistically disintegrating forces at work, which are at + variance with the integrating forces of natural tendency. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Prof. Shuchardt +</p> + +<p> + From an economical point of view, a considerable amount of time, + effort, and money must be unreproductively invested in overcoming + the "language difficulty." In money alone the amount must run into + thousands of pounds yearly. Among the unreproductive investments + are—the employment of foreign correspondence clerks, the time + and money spent upon the installation of educational plant for + their production, the time and money spent upon translations and + interpreters for the proceedings of international conferences and + negotiations, the time devoted by professors and other researchers + (often nonlinguists in virtue of their calling) to deciphering + special treatises and learned periodicals in languages not their + own.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>These are some of the actual visible losses owing to the + <i>presence</i> of the language difficulty. No one can estimate + the value of the losses entailed by the <i>absence</i> of free + intercourse due to removable linguistic barriers. Potential (but at + present non-realized) extension of goodwill, swifter progress, and + wider knowledge represent one side of their value; while consequent + non-realized increase in volume of actual business represents their + value in money. The negative statement of absence of results from + intercourse that never took place affords no measure of positive + results obtainable under a better system. +</p> + +<!-- 016.png --> + +<a name="page007"> </a><span class = "pagenum">7</span> + +<p> + The tendency of those engaged in advancing material progress, which + consists in the subjection of nature to man's ends, is to adapt more + and more quickly their methods to changing conditions. Has the world + yet faced in a business-like spirit the problem of wiping out wastage + on words? +</p> + +<p> + Big industrial concerns scrap machinery while it is yet perfectly + capable of running and turning out good work, in order to replace + it by newer machinery, capable of turning out more work in the same + time. Time is money. Can the busy world afford a language difficulty? +</p> + +<p> + (3) The proposition that it is economically sounder to carry on + international intercourse in one easy language than in a large number + of hard ones rests upon the principle that it does not pay to do a + thing a hard way, if the same results can be produced by an easy way. +</p> + +<p> + The whole industrial revolution brought about by the invention of + machinery depended upon this principle. Since an artificial language, + like machinery, is a means invented by man of furthering his ends, + there seems to be no abuse of analogy in comparing them. +</p> + +<p> + When it was found that machinery would turn out a hundred pieces of + cloth while the hand-loom turned out one, the hand-loom was doomed, + except in so far as it may serve other ends, antiquarian, aesthetic, + or artistic, which are not equally well served by machinery. + Similarly, to take another revolution which is going on in our own + day through a further application of machinery, when it is found that + corn can be reaped and threshed by machinery, that hay can be cut, + made, carried, and stacked by machinery, that man can travel the + high road by machinery, sooner or later machinery is bound to get + the bulk of the job, because it produces the same results at greater + speed and less cost. So, in the field of international intercourse, + if an easy artificial language can with equal efficiency and at less + cost produce the same results as a multiplicity of natural ones, in + many lines of human activity, and making all reserves in matters + antiquarian, aesthetic, and + +<!-- 017.png --> + +<a name="page008"> </a><span class = "pagenum">8</span> + artistic, sooner or later the multiplicity will have to go to + the scrap-heap<sup>1</sup> as cumbrous and out of date. It may be a hundred + years; it may be fifty; it may be even twenty. Almost certainly the + irresistible trend of economic pressure will work its will and insist + that what has to be done shall be done in the most economical way. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>But only, of course, in those lines in which an international + auxiliary language can produce equally good results. This excludes + home use, national literature, philology, scholarly study of national + languages, etc. +</p> + +<p> + So much, then, for the question of principle. In treating + it, certain large assumptions have been made; e.g. it is + said above, "if an easy artificial language can with equal + efficiency ... produce the same results," etc. + Here it is assumed that the artificial language is (1) easy, and + (2) that it is possible for it to produce the same results. Again, + however easy and possible, its introduction might cost more than it + saved. These are questions of fact, and are treated in the three + following chapters under the heading of "The Question of Practice." +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterIII"> + III + <div class="subtitolo"> + the question of practice—an international language is possible + </div> +</div> + +<p> + The man who says a thing is impossible without troubling to find out + whether it has been done is merely "talking through his hat," to use + an Americanism, and we need not waste much time on him. Any one, who + maintains that it is impossible to transact the ordinary business + of life and write lucid treatises on scientific and other subjects + in an artificial language, is simply in the position of the French + engineer, who gave a full scientific demonstration of the fact that + an engine could not possibly travel by steam. +</p> + +<p> + The plain fact is that not only one artificial language, but + +<!-- 018.png --> + +<a name="page009"> </a><span class = "pagenum">9</span> + several, already exist, which not only can express, but already have + expressed all the ideas current in social intercourse, business, and + serious exposition. It is only necessary to state the facts briefly. +</p> + +<p> + First—<i>Volapük.</i> +</p> + +<p> + Three congresses were held in all for the promotion of this language. + The third (Paris, 1889) was the most important. It was attended + by Volapükists from many different nations, who carried on + all their business in Volapük, and found no difficulty in + understanding one another. Besides this, there were a great many + newspapers published in Volapük, which treated of all kinds of + subjects. +</p> + +<p> + Secondly—<i>Idiom Neutral</i>, the lineal descendant of + Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + It is regulated by an international academy, which sends round + circulars and does all its business in Idiom Neutral. +</p> + +<p> + Thirdly—<i>Esperanto</i>. +</p> + +<p> + Since the publication of the language in 1887 it has had a gradually + increasing number of adherents, who have used it for all ordinary + purposes of communication. A great number of newspapers and + reviews of all kinds are now published regularly in Esperanto in + a great variety of countries. I take up a chance number of the + <i>Internacia Scienca Revuo</i>, which happens to be on my table, + and find the following subjects among the contents of the month: + "<i>Rôle</i> of living beings in the general physiology of the + earth," "The carnivorous animals of Sweden," "The part played by + heredity in the etiology of chronic nephritis," "The migration of + the lemings," "Notices of books," "Notes and correspondence," etc. + In fact, the Review has all the appearance of an ordinary scientific + periodical, and the articles are as clearly expressed and as easy to + read as those in any similar review in a national language. +</p> + +<p> + Even more convincing perhaps, for the uninitiated, is the evidence + afforded by the International Congresses of Esperantists. The first + was held at Boulogne in August 1905. It marked an epoch in the lives + of many of the participants, whose + +<!-- 019.png --> + +<a name="page010"> </a><span class = "pagenum">10</span> + doubts as to the practical nature of an artificial language there, + for good and all, yielded to the logic of facts; and it may well + be that it will some day be rather an outstanding landmark in the + history of civilization. A brief description will, therefore, not be + out of place. +</p> + +<p> + In the little seaport town on the north coast of France had come + together men and women of more than twenty different races. Some + were experts, some were beginners; but all save a very few must have + been alike in this, that they had learnt their Esperanto at home, + and, as far as oral use went, had only been able to speak it (if at + all) with members of their own national groups—that is, with + compatriots who had acquired the language under the same conditions + as to pronunciation, etc., as themselves. Experts and beginners, + those who from practical experience knew the great possibilities + of the new tongue as a written medium, no less than the neophytes + and tentative experimenters who had come to see whether the thing + was worth taking seriously, they were now to make the decisive + trial—in the one case to test the faith that was in them, in the + other to set all doubt at rest in one sense or the other for good and + all. +</p> + +<p> + The town theatre had been generously placed at the disposal of the + Congress, and the author of the language, Dr. Zamenhof, had left his + eye-patients at Warsaw and come to preside at the coming out of his + <i>kara lingvo</i>, now well on in her 'teens, and about to leave + the academic seclusion of scholastic use and emerge into the larger + sphere of social and practical activity. +</p> + +<p> + On Saturday evening, August 5, at eight o'clock, the Boulogne Theatre + was packed with a cosmopolitan audience. The unique assembly was + pervaded by an indefinable feeling of expectancy; as in the lull + before the thunderstorm, there was the hush of excitement, the tense + silence charged with the premonition of some vast force about to be + let loose on the world. After a few preliminaries, there was a really + dramatic moment when Dr. Zamenhof stood up for the first time to + address his world-audience in the world-tongue. Would they understand + him? + +<!-- 020.png --> + +<a name="page011"> </a><span class = "pagenum">11</span> + Was their hope about to be justified? or was it all a chimera, "such + stuff as dreams are made on"? +</p> + +<p> + "<i>Gesinjoroj</i>" (= Ladies and gentlemen)—the great + audience craned forward like one man, straining eyes and ears + towards the speaker,—"<i>Kun granda plezuro mi akceptis la + proponon</i>..." The crowd drank in the words with + an almost pathetic agony of anxiety. Gradually, as the clear-cut + sentences poured forth in a continuous stream of perfect lucidity, + and the audience realized that they were all listening to and all + understanding a really international speech in a really international + tongue—a tongue which secured to them, as here in Boulogne so + throughout the world, full comprehension and a sense of comradeship + and fellow-citizenship on equal terms with all users of it—the + anxiety gave way to a scene of wild enthusiasm. Men shook hands + with perfect strangers, and all cheered and cheered again. Zamenhof + finished with a solemn declamation of one of his hymns (given as an + appendix to this volume, with translation), embodying the lofty ideal + which has inspired him all through and sustained him through the many + difficulties he has had to face. When he came to the end, the fine + passage beginning with the words, "<i>Ni inter popoloj la murojn + detruos</i>" ("we shall throw down the walls between the peoples"), + and ending "<i>amo kaj vero ekregos sur tero</i>" ("love and truth + shall begin their reign on earth"), the whole concourse rose to their + feet with prolonged cries of "Vivu Zamenhof!" +</p> + +<p> + No doubt this enthusiasm may sound rather forced and unreal to those + who have not attended a congress, and the cheers may ring hollow + across intervening time and space. Neither would it be good for this + or any movement to rely upon facile enthusiasm, as easily damped as + aroused. There is something far more than this in the international + language movement. +</p> + +<p> + At the same time, it is impossible for any one who has not tried it + to realize the thrill—not a weak, sentimental thrill, but a + reasonable thrill, starting from objective fact and running down the + marrow of things—given by the first real contact with an + +<!-- 021.png --> + +<a name="page012"> </a><span class = "pagenum">12</span> + international language in an international setting. There really is a + feeling as of a new power born into the world. +</p> + +<p> + Those who were present at the Geneva Congress, 1906, will not soon + forget the singing of the song "La Espero" at the solemn closing + of the week's proceedings. The organ rolled out the melody, and + when the gathered thousands that thronged the floor of the hall and + packed the galleries tier on tier to the ceiling took up the opening + phrase— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap"> + En la mondon venis nova sento,<br/> + Tra la mondo iras forta voko,<sup>1</sup> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + they meant every word of it. It was a fitting summary of the + impressions left by the events of the week, and what the lips uttered + must have been in the hearts and minds of all. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Into the world has come a new feeling,<br/> + Through the world goes a mighty call. +</p> + +<p> + As an ounce of personal experience is worth a pound of second-hand + recital, a brief statement may here be given of the way in which the + present writer came to take up Esperanto, and of the experiences + which soon led him to the conviction of its absolute practicability + and utility. +</p> + +<p> + In October, 1905, having just returned from an absence of some years + in Canada and the Far East, he had his attention turned to Esperanto + for the first time by reading an account of the Congress of Boulogne. + He had no previous knowledge of, or leanings towards, a universal + language; and if he had thought about it at all, it was only to laugh + at the idea as a wild and visionary scheme. In short, his attitude + was quite normal. +</p> + +<p> + But here was a definite statement, professing to be one of positive + accomplished fact. One of two things: either the newspaper account + was not true; or else, the facts being as represented, here was a + new possibility to be reckoned with. The only course was to send for + the books and test the thing on its merits. Being somewhat used to + languages, he did not take long to see that this one was good enough + in itself. A letter, written in + +<!-- 022.png --> + +<a name="page013"> </a><span class = "pagenum">13</span> + Esperanto, after a few days' study of the grammar at odd times, with + a halfpenny Esperanto-English key enclosed, was fully understood + by the addressee, though he was ignorant up till then of the very + existence of Esperanto. This experience has often been since + repeated; indeed, the correspondent will often write back after a few + days in Esperanto. Such letters have always been found intelligible, + though in no case did the correspondent know Esperanto previously. + The experiment is instructive and amusing, and can be tried by any + one for an expenditure of twopence for keys and a few hours for + studying the sixteen rules and their application. To many minds these + are far simpler and more easy to grasp for practical use than the + rules for scoring at bridge. +</p> + +<p> + After a month or two's playing with the language in spare time, + the writer further tested it, by sending out a flight of postcards + to various selected Esperantists' addresses in different parts of + the Russian Empire. The addressees ranged from St. Petersburg and + Helsingfors through Poland to the Caucasus and to far Siberia. In + nearly every case answers were received, and in some instances the + initial interchange of postcards led to an extremely interesting + correspondence, throwing much light on the disturbed state of + things in the native town or province of the correspondent. From + a Tiflis doctor came a graphic account of the state of affairs in + the Caucasus; while a school inspector from the depths of Eastern + Siberia painted a vivid picture of the effect of political unrest + on the schools—lockouts and "malodorous chemical obstructions" + (<i>Anglice</i>—the schools were stunk out). Many writers + expressed themselves with great freedom, but feared their letters + would not pass the censor. Judging by the proportion of answers + received, the censorship was not at that time efficient. In no case + was there any difficulty in grasping the writer's meaning. All the + answers were in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + This was fairly convincing, but still having doubts on the question + of pronunciation, the writer resolved to attend the Esperanto + Congress to be held at Geneva in August 1906. To + +<!-- 023.png --> + +<a name="page014"> </a><span class = "pagenum">14</span> + this end he continued to read Esperanto at odd minutes and took in + an Esperanto gazette. About three weeks before the congress he got + a member of his family to read aloud to him every day as far as + possible a page or two of Esperanto, in order to attune his ear. + He never had an opportunity of speaking the language before the + congress, except once for a few minutes, when he travelled some + distance to attend a meeting of the nearest English group. +</p> + +<p> + Thus equipped, he went through the Congress of Geneva, and found + himself able to follow most of the proceedings, and to converse + freely, though slowly, with people of the most diverse nationality. + At an early sitting of the congress he found himself next to a + Russian from Kischineff, who had been through the first great + <i>pogrom</i>, and a most interesting conversation ensued. Another + day the neighbours were an Indian nawab and an abbé from + Madrid. Another time it was a Bulgarian. At the first official + banquet he sat next to a Finn, who rejoiced in the name of Attila, + and, but for the civilizing influence of a universal language, might + have been in the sunny south, like his namesake of the ancient world, + on a very different errand from his present peaceful one. Yet here he + was, rubbing elbows with Italians, as if there had never been such + things as Huns or a sack of Rome by northern barbarians. +</p> + +<p> + During the meal a Frenchman, finding himself near us English and + some Germans, proposed a toast to the "entente cordiale taking in + Germany," which was honoured with great enthusiasm. This is merely an + instance of the small ways in which such gatherings make for peace + and good will. +</p> + +<p> + With all these people it was perfectly easy to converse in the common + tongue, pronunciation and national idiom being no bar in practice. +</p> + +<p> + And this experience was general throughout the duration of the + congress. Day by day sittings were held for the transaction of all + kinds of business and the discussion of the most varied subjects. It + was impressive to see people from half the countries of the + +<!-- 024.png --> + +<a name="page015"> </a><span class = "pagenum">15</span> + world rise from different corners of the hall and contribute their + share to the discussion in the most matter-of-fact way. Day by + day the congressists met in social functions, debates, lectures, + and sectional groups (chemical, medical, legal, etc.) for the + regulation of matters touching their special interests. Everything + was done in Esperanto, and never was there the slightest hitch + or misunderstanding, or failure to give adequate expression to + opinions owing to defects of language. The language difficulty was + annihilated. +</p> + +<p> + Perhaps one of the most striking demonstrations of this return to + pre-Babel conditions was the performance of a three-part + comedy by a Frenchman, a Russian, and a Spaniard. Such a thing would + inevitably have been grotesque in any national language; but here + they met on common neutral ground. No one's accent was "foreign," + and none of the spectators possessed that mother-tongue + acquaintance with Esperanto that would lead them to feel slight + divergences shocking, or even noticeable without extreme attention + to the point. Other theatrical performances were given at Geneva, as + also at Boulogne, where a play of Molière was performed in + Esperanto by actors of eight nationalities with one rehearsal, and + with full success. +</p> + +<p> + In the face of these facts it is idle to oppose a universal + artificial language on the score of impossibility or inadequacy. The + theoretical pronunciation difficulty completely crumbled away before + the test of practice. +</p> + +<p> + The "war-at-any-price party," the + whole-hoggers <i>à tous crins</i> (the juxtaposition of + the two national idioms lends a certain realism, and heightens the + effect of each), are therefore driven back on their second line of + attack, if the Hibernianism may be excused. "Yes," they say, "your + language may be possible, but, after all, why not learn an existing + language, if you've got to learn one anyway?" +</p> + +<p> + Now, quite apart from the obvious fact that the nations will never + agree to give the preference to the language of one of them to the + prejudice of the others, this argument involves the + +<!-- 025.png --> + +<a name="page016"> </a><span class = "pagenum">16</span> + suggestion that an artificial language is no easier to learn than a + natural one. We thus come to the question of ease as a qualification. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterIV"> + IV + <div class="subtitolo"> + the question of practice + <span style="font-variant: normal">(<i>continued</i>)</span>—an + international language is easy<sup>1</sup> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Readers who do not care about the reasons for this, but desire concrete + proofs, <a href="#concreteproofs">may skip the next few pages</a>. +</p> + +<p> + People smile incredulously at the mention of an artificial language, + implying that no easy royal road can be found to language-learning + of any kind. But the odds are all the other way, and they are heavy + odds. +</p> + +<p> + The reason for this is quite simple, and may be briefly put as + follows: +</p> + +<p> + The object of language is to express thought and feeling. + Every natural language contains all kinds of complications and + irregularities, which are of no use whatever in attaining this + object, but merely exist because they happen to have grown. Their + sole <i>raison d'être</i> is historical. In fact, for a + language without a history they are <i>unnecessary</i><sup>1</sup>. Therefore + a universal language, whose only object is to supply to every one + the simplest possible means of expressing his thoughts and feelings + in a medium intelligible to every one else, simply leaves them out. + Now, it is precisely in these "unnecessary" complications that a + large proportion—certainly more than half—of the difficulty + of learning a foreign language consists. Therefore an artificial + language, by merely leaving them out, becomes certainly more than + twice as easy to learn as any natural language. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>i.e. they do not assist in attaining its object as a language. + One universal way of forming the plural, past tense, or comparative + expresses plurality, past time, or comparison just as well as fifteen + ways, and with a deal less trouble. +</p> + +<!-- 026.png --> + +<a name="page017"> </a><span class = "pagenum">17</span> +<p> + A little reflection will make this truth so absurdly obvious, that + the only wonder is, not that it is now beginning to be recognized, + but that any one could have ever derided it. +</p> + +<p> + That the "unnecessary" difficulties of a natural language are more + than one-half of the whole is certainly an under-estimate; for some + languages the proportion would be more like 3:4 or 5:6. Compared with + these, the artificial language would be three times to five times as + easy. +</p> + +<p> + Take an illustration. Compare the work to be done by the learner of + (<i>a</i>) Latin, (<i>b</i>) Esperanto, in expressing past, present, + and future action. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Latin: +</p> + +<p> + Present tense active is expressed by— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Comparison of Latin and Esperanto verbs."> + <tr><td>6</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center"> endings in the </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">1st</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center"> regular conjugation.</td></tr> + <tr><td>6</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">2nd</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td>6</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">3rd</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td></tr> + <tr><td>6</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">4th</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Total regular endings: 24. +</p> + +<p> + To these must be added a vast number of quite different and varying + forms for irregular verbs. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>b</i>) Esperanto: +</p> + +<p> + Present tense active is expressed by— +</p> + +<p align="center"> + 1 ending for every verb in the language. +</p> + +<p> + Total regular and irregular endings: 1. +</p> + +<p> + It is exactly the same for the past and future. +</p> + +<p> + Total endings for the 3 tenses active: +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Latin: 72 regular forms, plus a very large number of + irregular and defective verbs. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>b</i>) Esperanto: 3 forms. +</p> + +<p> + Turning to the passive voice, we get— +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Latin: A complete set of different endings, some of them + puzzling in form and liable to confusion with other parts of the + verb. +</p> + + +<!-- 027.png --> + +<a name="page018"> </a><span class = "pagenum">18</span> +<p> + (<i>b</i>) Esperanto: No new endings at all. Merely the three-form + regular active conjugation of the verb <i>esti</i> = to be, with a + passive participle. No confusion possible. +</p> + +<p> + It is just the same with compound tenses, subjunctives, participles, + etc. Making all due allowances, it is quite safe to say that the + Latin verb is fifty times as hard as the Esperanto verb. +</p> + +<p> + The proportion would be about the same in the case of substantives, + Latin having innumerable types. +</p> + +<p> + Comparing modern languages with Esperanto, the proportion in favour + of the latter would not be so high as fifty to one in the inflection + of verbs and nouns, though even here it would be very great, allowing + for subjunctives, auxiliaries, irregularities, etc. But taking the + whole languages, it might well rise to ten to one. +</p> + +<p> + For what are the chief difficulties in language-learning? +</p> + +<p> + They are mainly either difficulties of phonetics, or of structure and + vocabulary. +</p> + +<p> + Difficulties of phonetics are: +</p> + +<p> + (1) Multiplicity of sounds to be produced, including many sounds and + combinations that do not occur in the language of the learner. +</p> + +<p> + (2) Variation of accent, and of sounds expressed by the same letter. +</p> + +<p> + These difficulties are both eliminated in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + (1) Relatively few sounds are adopted into the language, and only + such as are common to nearly all languages. For instance, there are + only five full vowels and three<sup>1</sup> diphthongs, which can be explained + to every speaker in terms of his own language. All the modified + vowels, closed "u's" and "e's," half tones, longs and shorts, open + and closed vowels, etc., which form the chief bugbear in correct + pronunciation, and often render the foreigner unintelligible—all + these disappear. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Omitting the rare <i>eŭ</i>. <i>ej</i> and <i>uj</i> are + merely simple vowels plus consonantal <i>j</i> (= English <i>y</i>). +</p> + +<p> + (2) There is no variation of accent or of sound expressed by + +<!-- 028.png --> + +<a name="page019"> </a><span class = "pagenum">19</span> + the same letter. The principle "one letter, one sound"<sup>1</sup> is adhered to + absolutely. Thus, having learned one simple rule for accent (always + on the last syllable but one), and the uniform sound corresponding to + each letter, no mistake is possible. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>The converse—"one sound, one letter"—is also true, + except that the same sound is expressed by <i>c</i> and <i>ts</i>. + (See <a href="#appendixC">Appendix C</a>.) +</p> + +<p> + Contrast this with English. Miss Soames gives twenty-one ways of + writing the same sound. Here they are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Twenty one ways to write a single sound in English."> + <tr> + <td width="26%" align="left"><i>a</i>t<i>e</i><br/>b<i>a</i>ss<br/>p<i>ai</i>n<br/>p<i>ay</i><br/>d<i>ah</i>lia<br/>v<i>ei</i>n<br/>th<i>ey</i></td> + <td width="8%"> </td> + <td width="26%" align="left">gr<i>ea</i>t<br/><i>eh</i>!<br/>g<i>ao</i>l<br/>g<i>au</i>g<i>e</i><br/>champ<i>ag</i>n<i>e</i><br/>camp<i>aig</i>n<br/>str<i>aigh</i>t</td> + <td width="8%"> </td> + <td width="26%" align="left">f<i>eig</i>n<br/>w<i>eigh</i><br/><i>aye</i><br/>ob<i>eye</i>d<br/>w<i>eighe</i>d<br/>tr<i>ait</i><br/>h<i>alf</i>penny<sup>1</sup></td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Prof. Skeat adds a twenty-second: Lord Reay! +</p> + +<p> + (Compare eye, lie, high, etc.) +</p> + +<p> + In Esperanto this sound is expressed only and always by "e." In + fact, the language is absolutely and entirely phonetic, as all real + language was once. +</p> + +<p> + As regards difficulties of vocabulary, the same may be said as in + the case of the sounds. Esperanto only adopts the minimum of roots + essential, and these are simple, non-ambiguous, and as international + as possible. Owing to the device of word-building by means of a + few suffixes and prefixes with fixed meaning, the number of roots + necessary is very greatly less than in any natural language.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Most of these roots are already known to educated people. For the + young the learning of a certain number of words presents practically + no difficulty; it is in the practical application of words learnt + that they break down, and this failure is almost entirely due to + "unnecessary" difficulties. +</p> + +<p> + As for difficulties of structure, some of the chief ones are as + follows: +</p> + +<p> + <i>Multiplicity and complexity of inflections.</i> This does not + exist in Esperanto. +</p> + +<!-- 029.png --> + +<a name="page020"> </a><span class = "pagenum">20</span> +<p> + <i>Irregularities and exceptions of all kinds.</i> None in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Complications of orthography.</i> None in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Different senses of same word, and different words used in same + sense.</i> Esperanto—"one word, one meaning." +</p> + +<p> + <i>Arbitrary and fluctuating idioms.</i> Esperanto—none. Common + sense and common grammar the only limitation to combination of words. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Complexities of syntax.</i> (Think of the use of the subjunctive + and infinitive in all languages: <i>ου</i> and + <i>μη</i> in Greek; indirect speech in Latin; negatives, + comparisons, etc., etc., in all languages.) Esperanto—none. + Common sense the only guide, and no ambiguity in practice. The + perfect limpidity of Esperanto, with no syntactical rules, is a most + instructive proof of the conventionality and arbitrariness of the + niceties of syntax in national languages. After all, the subjunctive + was made for man and not man for the subjunctive. +</p> + +<p id="concreteproofs"> + But readers will say: "It is all very well to show by a comparison of + forms that Esperanto <i>ought</i> to be much easier than a natural + language. But we want facts." +</p> + +<p> + Here are some. +</p> + +<p> + In the last chapter it was mentioned that the present writer first + took up Esperanto in October 1905, worked at it at odd times, never + spoke it or heard it spoken save once, and was able to follow the + proceedings of the Congress of Geneva in August 1906, and talk to all + foreigners. From a long experience of smattering in many languages + and learning a few thoroughly, he is absolutely convinced that this + would have been impossible to him in any national language. +</p> + +<p> + A lady who began Esperanto three weeks before the congress, and + studied it in a grammar by herself one hour each day, was able to + talk in it with all peoples on very simple subjects, and to follow a + considerable amount of the lectures, etc. +</p> + +<p> + Amongst the British folk who attended the congress were many clerks + and commercial people, who had merely learnt Esperanto by attending a + class or a local group meeting once a week, often + +<!-- 030.png --> + +<a name="page021"> </a><span class = "pagenum">21</span> + for not many months. They had never been out of England before, nor + learnt any other foreign language. They would have been utterly + at sea if they had attempted to do what they did on a similar + acquaintance with any foreign tongue. But during the two days spent + <i>en route</i> in Paris, where the British party was fêted + and shown round by the French Esperantists, on the journey to + Geneva, which English and French made together, on lake steamboats, + at picnics and dinners, etc., etc., here they were, rattling away + with great ease and mutual entertainment. Many of these came from + the North of England, and it was a real eye-opener, over + which easy-going South-Englanders would do well to + ponder, to see what results could be produced by a little energy + and application, building on no previous linguistic training. + The Northern accent was evidently a help in pronouncing the + full-sounding vowels of Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + One Englishman, who was talking away gaily with the French + <i>samideanoj</i>,<sup>1</sup> was an Esperantist of one year's + standing. He had happened to be at Boulogne in pursuit of a little + combined French and seasiding at the time of the first congress + held there, 1905. One day he got his tongue badly tied up in a + cafe, and was helped out of his linguistic difficulties with the + waiter by certain compatriots, who wore green stars in their + buttonholes,<sup>2</sup> and sat at another table conversing in an + unknown lingo with a crowd of foreigners. He made inquiries, and + found it was Esperanto they were talking. He was so much struck by + their facility, and the practical way in which they had set his + business to rights in a minute (the waiter was an Esperantist trained + <i>ad hoc</i>!), that he decided to give up French and go in for + Esperanto. This man was a real learner of French, who had spent a + long time on it, and realized with disgust his impotence to wield it + practically. To judge by his conversation next year at Geneva, he had + no such difficulty with Esperanto. He was quite jubilant over the + change. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Terse Esperanto word. = partisans of the same idea (i. e. + Esperanto). +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>2</sup>The Esperanto badge. +</p> + +<!-- 031.png --> + +<a name="page022"> </a><span class = "pagenum">22</span> +<p> + Such examples could be multiplied <i>ad infinitum</i>. No one who + attended a congress could fail to be convinced. +</p> + +<p> + Scientific comparison of the respective difficulty of Esperanto and + other languages, based on properly collected and tabulated results, + does not seem to be yet obtainable. It is difficult to get high-class + schools, where language-teaching is a regular and important part of + the curriculum, to give an artificial language a fair trial. Properly + organized and carried-out tests are greatly to be desired. If and + when they are made, it will probably be found that Esperanto is not + only very easy of acquisition itself, but that it has a beneficial + effect upon other language-learning.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>See <a href="#partIIIchapterII">Part III., chap. ii</a>. +</p> + +<p> + Meantime, the present writer has carried out one small experiment + in a good secondary school for girls, where French and German + are regularly spoken and taught for many hours in the week. The + head-mistress introduced Esperanto as a regular school subject at + the beginning of the Easter term, January 1907. At the end of term a + test paper was set, consisting of English sentences to be rendered + into French and Esperanto without any dictionary or other aid, and + one short passage of English prose to be rendered into both languages + with any aid from books that the pupils wished. The object was to + determine how far a few hours' teaching of Esperanto would produce + results comparable with those obtained in a language learnt for + years. +</p> + +<p> + The examinees ranged from fourteen to sixteen years. They had been + learning French from two to seven years, and had a daily French + lesson, besides speaking French on alternate days in the school. They + had learnt Esperanto for ten weeks, from one to one and a half hours + per week. <i>Taking the papers all through, the Esperanto results + were nearly as good as the French.</i> +</p> + +<p> + One last experiment may be mentioned. It was made under scientific + conditions on September 23, 1905. The subject was an adult, who + had learnt French and German for years at school, and had since + taught French to young boys, but was not a linguist by training or + education, having read mathematics at the university. +</p> + +<!-- 032.png --> + +<a name="page023"> </a><span class = "pagenum">23</span> +<p> + He had had no lessons in Esperanto, and had never studied the + language, his sole knowledge of it being derived from general + conversation with an enthusiast, who had just returned from the + Geneva Congress. He was disposed to laugh at Esperanto, but was + persuaded to test its possibilities as a language that can be written + intelligibly by an educated person merely from dictionary by a few + rules. +</p> + +<p> + He was given a page of carefully prepared English to translate into + Esperanto. The following written aids were given: +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 1. Twenty-five crude roots (e.g. <i>lern-</i> = to learn.) +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 2. One suffix, with explanation of its use. +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 3. A one-page complete grammar of the Esperanto language. +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 4. An Esperanto-English and an English-Esperanto dictionary. +</p> + +<p> + He produced a good page of perfectly intelligible Esperanto, quite + free from serious grammatical mistake. He admitted that he could not + translate the passage so well into French or German. +</p> + +<p> + Such experiments go a good way towards proving the case for an + artificial language. More are urgently needed, especially of the last + two types. They serve to convince all those who come within range of + the experiment that an artificial language is a serious project, and + may confer great benefits at small cost. Any one can make them with a + little trouble, if he can secure a victim. A particularly interesting + one is to send a letter in Esperanto to some English or foreign + correspondent, enclosing a penny key. The letter will certainly be + understood, and very likely the answer will be in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + Doubters as to the ease and efficacy of a universal language are not + asked to believe without trial. They are merely asked not to condemn + or be unfavourable until they have a right to an opinion on the + subject. And they are asked to <i>form</i> an opinion by personally + testing, or at any rate by weighing actual facts. "A fair field and + no favour." +</p> + +<p> + The very best way of testing the thing is to study the language for a + few hours and attend a congress. The next congress is to be held in + Cambridge, England, in August 1907. +</p> + + +<!-- 033.png --> + +<a name="page024"> </a><span class = "pagenum">24</span> +<p> + Nothing is more unscientific or unintelligent than to scoff at a + thing, while refusing to examine whether there is anything in it. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterV"> + V + <div class="subtitolo"> + the question of + practice + <span style="font-variant: normal">(<i>continued</i>)</span>—the + introduction of<br/>an international language would not cause + dislocation + </div> +</div> + +<p> + In Chapters II., III., and IV. it was sought to prove that a + universal language is desirable in principle, that it already exists + and is efficient, and that it is very easy. If these propositions are + true, the only valid argument against introducing it at once would + be a demonstration that its introduction is either impracticable or + else attended with such disadvantages as to outweigh the beneficial + results. +</p> + +<p> + Now, it is quite true that certain schemes tending towards + international uniformity of practice and, therefore, ultimately + productive of saving of labour are nevertheless such that their + realization would cause an almost prohibitive dislocation of present + organization. A conspicuous example is the proposed adoption of the + decimal system in coinage and weights and measures. So great is the + loss of time and trouble (and therefore of money) entailed by using + an antiquated and cumbrous-system instead of a simple and modern one + that does the work as well, that the big firm Kynochs some months ago + introduced the decimal system, in spite of the enormous difficulty + of having to keep a double method going. But hitherto, at any rate, + the great disturbance to business that the change would cause has + prevented it from being generally made. Both this matter and the + curiously out-of-date<sup>1</sup> system of spelling modern English present a + fairly + +<!-- 034.png --> + +<a name="page025"> </a><span class = "pagenum">25</span> + close analogy to the multilingual system of international + intercourse, as regards unprofitable expenditure of time and trouble. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Out of date, because it has failed to keep pace with the change of + pronunciation. Spelling, i.e. use of writing, was merely a device for + representing to the eye the spoken sounds, so that failure to do this + means getting out of date. +</p> + +<p> + But where the analogy breaks down altogether is in the matter of + obstacles to reform. +</p> + +<p> + Supposing that all the ministries of education in the world issued + orders, that as from January 1, 1909, an auxiliary language should + be taught in every government school; supposing that merchants took + to doing foreign business wholesale in an auxiliary language, or + that men of science took to issuing all their books and treatises + in it; whose business would be dislocated? What literature or books + would become obsolete? Who, except foreign correspondence clerks and + interpreters, would be a penny the worse? Surely a useful reform + need not be delayed or refused in the interests of interpreters and + correspondence clerks. Even these would only be eliminated gradually + as the reform spread. There would be absolutely no general confusion + analogous to that following on a sudden change to phonetic spelling + or the metric system, because nothing would be displaced. +</p> + +<p> + Look at the precedents—the adoption of an international + maritime code, and of an international system of cataloguing which + puts bibliography on an equal footing all over the world by means of + a common system of classification. Did any confusion or dislocation + follow on these reforms? Quite the contrary. It was enough for + England and France to agree on the use of the maritime code, and + the rest of the nations had to come into line. It would be the same + with the official recognition by a group of powerful nations of an + auxiliary language. As soon as the world recognizes that it is a + labour-saving device on a large scale, and a matter of public + convenience on the same plane as codes, telegraphy, or shorthand, + it will no doubt be introduced. But why wait until there are rival + schemes with large followings and vested interests—in short, + until the same obstacles arise to the choice of an international, + artificial, and neutral language, as now prevent the elevation + of any national language into a universal medium? The plea of + impracticability on the score of dislocation + +<!-- 035.png --> + +<a name="page026"> </a><span class = "pagenum">26</span> + might then be valid. At present it is not. To have an easy language + that will carry you anywhere and enable you to read anything, it + is sufficient to wish for it. Only, as we Britons are being taught + to "think imperially," so must the nations learn in this matter to + <i>wish internationally</i>. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterVI"> + VI + <div class="subtitolo"> + international action already taken for the introduction of an + auxiliary language + </div> +</div> + +<p> + The main work of educating the public to "wish internationally," + the necessary precedent to official action, has naturally in the + past been done by the adherents of the various language-schemes + themselves. An outline of the most important of these movements is + given in the second part of this book. +</p> + +<p> + But apart from these there is now an international organization that + is working for the adoption of an international auxiliary language, + and a brief account of it may be given here. +</p> + +<p> + During the Paris Exhibition of 1900 a number of international + congresses and learned societies, which were holding meetings there, + appointed delegates for the consideration of the international + language question. These delegates met on January 17, 1901, and + founded a "Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary + Language." They drew up the following declaration, which has been + approved by all subsequently elected delegates: +</p> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<div class="majusklete" style="text-align: center"> + Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language +</div> + +<p style="font-style: italic; text-align: center">Declaration</p> + +<p> + The undersigned, deputed by various Congresses and Societies to study + the question of an international auxiliary language, have agreed on + the following points: +</p> + +<!-- 036.png --> + +<a name="page027"> </a><span class = "pagenum">27</span> +<p> + (1) There is a necessity to choose and to spread the use of an + international language, designed not to replace national idioms in + the individual life of each people, but to serve in the written and + oral relations between persons whose mother-tongues are different. +</p> + +<p> + (2) In order to fulfil its purpose usefully, an international + language must satisfy the following conditions: +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 1st Condition: It must fulfil the needs of the ordinary intercourse + of social life, of commercial communications, and of scientific and + philosophic relations; +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 2nd Condition: It must be easily acquired by every person of + average elementary education, and especially by persons of European + civilization; +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + 3rd Condition: It must not be one of the national languages. +</p> + +<p> + (3) It is desirable to organize a general + <span class="majusklete">Delegation</span> + representing all who realize the necessity, as well as the + possibility, of an international auxiliary language, and who are + interested in its employment. This Delegation will appoint a + Committee of members who can meet during a certain period of time. + The purpose of this Committee is defined in the following articles. +</p> + +<p> + (4) The choice of the auxiliary language belongs in the first + instance to the <i>International Association of Academies</i>, or, in + case of failure, to the Committee mentioned in Art. 3. +</p> + +<p> + (5) Consequently the first duty of the Committee will be to present + to the <i>International Association of Academies</i>, in the required + forms, the desires expressed by the constituent Societies and + Congresses, and to invite it respectfully to realize the project of + an auxiliary language. +</p> + +<p> + (6) It will be the duty of the Committee to create a Society for + propaganda, to spread the use of the auxiliary language which is + chosen. +</p> + +<p> + (7) The undersigned, being delegated by various Congresses and + Societies, decide to approach all learned bodies, and all societies + of business men and tourists, in order to obtain their adhesion to + the present project. +</p> + +<!-- 037.png --> + +<a name="page028"> </a><span class = "pagenum">28</span> +<p> + (8) Representatives of regularly constituted Societies which have + agreed to the present <i>Declaration</i> will be admitted as members + of the <span class="majusklete">Delegation</span>. +</p> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<p> + This declaration is the official programme of the Delegation. The + most important point of principle to note is Art. 2, 3rd Con.: "It + must not be one of the national languages." +</p> + +<p> + As regards the methods of action prescribed, no attempt is to be + made to bring direct pressure to bear upon any government. It was + rightly felt that the adoption of a universal language is a matter + for private initiative. No government can properly take up the + question, no Ministry of Education can officially introduce an + auxiliary language into the schools under its control, until the + principle has met with a certain amount of general recognition. + The result of a direct appeal to any government or governments + could only have been, in the most favourable case, the appointment + by the government appealed to of a commission to investigate and + report on the question. Such a commission would examine experts and + witnesses from representative bodies, such as academies, institutes, + philological and other learned societies. The best course of action, + therefore, for the promoters of an international language is to apply + direct to such bodies, to bring the question before them and try to + gain their support. This is what the Delegation has done. +</p> + +<p> + Now, there already exists an international organization whose object + is to represent and focus the opinion of learned societies in all + countries. This is the International Association of Academies, + formed in 1900 for the express purpose, according to its statutes, + of promoting "scientific enterprises of international interest." The + delegates feel that the adoption of an international language comes + in the fullest sense within the letter and spirit of this statute. It + is, therefore, to this Association that the choice of language is, in + the first place, left. (Art. 4.) +</p> + +<p> + The Association meets triennially. At its first meeting (Paris 1901) + the question of international language was brought before + +<!-- 038.png --> + +<a name="page029"> </a><span class = "pagenum">29</span> + it by General Sébert, of the French Institute, but too late + to be included among the agenda of that meeting. The occasion was + important as eliciting an expression of opinion on the part of the + signatories to General Sébert's address. These included + twenty-five members of the French Institute, one of the most + distinguished scientific bodies in the world. +</p> + +<p> + At the second meeting of the Association (London 1904) the Delegation + did not officially present the question for discussion, but the + following paragraph appears in the report of the proceedings of the + Royal Society, which was the host (<i>London Royal Society</i>, 1904, + C. Section of Letters, Thursday, May 26, 1904, p. 33): +</p> + +<p> + "In the course of the sitting, the chairman (Lord Reay, President of + the British Academy) submitted to the meeting whether the question + of the 'International Auxiliary Language' should be considered, + though not included in the agenda. From many quarters applications + had been made that the subject might be discussed in some form or + other. Prof. Goldziher and M. Perrot spoke against the suggested + discussion, the former maintaining that the matter was a general + question of international communication, and did not specifically + affect scientific interests; the latter announced that he had been + commissioned by the <i>Académie des Inscriptions</i> to oppose + the consideration of this subject. The matter then dropped." +</p> + +<p> + The third meeting of the Association of Academies was held at Vienna + at the end of May 1907, under the auspices of the Vienna Academy + of Science. The question was officially laid before it by the + Delegation. The Association declared, for formal reasons, that the + question did not fall within its competence.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>In the voting as to the inclusion of the question in the agenda, + eight votes were cast in favour of international language, and twelve + against. This considerable minority shows very encouraging progress + in such a body, considering the newness of the scheme. +</p> + +<p> + Up till now only two national academies have shown themselves + favourable to the scheme, those of Vienna and Copenhagen. +</p> + +<!-- 039.png --> + +<a name="page030"> </a><span class = "pagenum">30</span> +<p> + The Vienna Academy commissioned one of its most eminent members, + Prof. Schuchardt, to watch the movement on its behalf, and to keep + it informed on the subject. In 1904 he presented a report favourable + to an international language. He and Prof. Jespersen are amongst the + most famous philologists who support the movement. +</p> + +<p> + It is not therefore anticipated that the Association of Academies + will take up the question; and the Delegation, thinking it desirable + not to wait indefinitely till it is converted, has proceeded to the + election of a committee, as provided in Art. 4 of the Declaration. + It consists of twelve members, with powers to add to their number. + It will meet in Paris, October 5, 1907. It is anticipated that the + language chosen will be Esperanto. None of the members of this + international committee are English, all the English savants invited + having declined. +</p> + +<p> + What may be the practical effect of the choice made by this Committee + remains to be seen. In France there is a permanent Parliamentary + Commission for the consideration of questions affecting public + education. This Commission has for some time had before it a proposal + for the introduction of Esperanto into the State schools of France, + signed by twelve members of Parliament and referred by the House to + the Commission. This year the proposal has been presented again in a + different form. The text of the scheme, which is much more practical + than the former one, is as follows: +</p> + +<p> + "The study of the international language Esperanto will be included + in the curricula of those government schools in which modern + languages are already taught. +</p> + +<p> + "This study will be optional, and candidates who offer for the + various examinations English, German, Italian, Spanish, or Arabic, + will be allowed to offer Esperanto as an additional subject. +</p> + +<p> + "They will be entitled to the advantages enjoyed by candidates who + offer an additional language." +</p> + +<p> + At present it is a very usual thing to offer an additional language, + and if this project passes, Esperanto will be on + +<!-- 040.png --> + +<a name="page031"> </a><span class = "pagenum">31</span> + exactly the same footing as other languages for this purpose. + The project of recognizing Esperanto as a principal language for + examination was entirely impracticable. It is far too easy, and would + merely have become a "soft option" and a refuge for the destitute. +</p> + +<p> + It is said that a majority of the Commission are in favour of + introducing an auxiliary language into the schools, when one has been + chosen by the Delegation or by the Association of Academies. It is + therefore possible that in a year or two Esperanto may be officially + recognized in France; and if this is so, other nations will have to + examine the matter seriously. +</p> + +<p> + Considering that the French are notoriously bad linguists and, above + all other peoples, devoted to the cult of their own language and + literature, it is somewhat remarkable that the cause of an artificial + language should have made more progress among them than elsewhere. It + might have been anticipated that the obstructionist outcry, raised + so freely in all countries by those who imagine that an insidious + attack is being made on taste, culture, and national language and + literature, would have been particularly loud in France. On the + contrary, it is precisely in that country that the movement has made + most popular progress, and that it numbers the most scientists, + scholars, and distinguished men among its adherents. Is it that + history will one day have to record another case of France leading + Europe in the van of progress? +</p> + +<p> + Encouraged by the number of distinguished signatures obtained in + France to their petition in 1901, the Delegation drew up a formula of + assent to their Declaration, which they circulate amongst (1) members + of academies, (2) members of universities, in all countries. They + also keep a list of societies of all kinds who have declared their + adherence to the scheme. The latest lists (February and March 1907) + show 1,060 signatures of academicians and university members, and 273 + societies. In both cases the most influential backing is in France. + Thus among the signatures figure in Paris alone: +</p> + +<!-- 041.png --> + +<a name="page032"> </a><span class = "pagenum">32</span> +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Statistics concerning signatories to the Delegation's Declaration."> + <tr><td align="right">10</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">professors</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">of</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">the</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">College de France;</td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">8</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">Faculty of Medicine;</td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">13</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">Faculty of Science;</td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">11</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">Faculty of Letters;</td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">12</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">École Normale;</td></tr> + <tr><td align="right">37</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">members</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">of</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">the</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left">Academy of Science;</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + besides a host of other members of various learned bodies. Many of + these are members of that august body the Institut de France, and one + is a member of the Académie française—M. Lavisse. +</p> + +<p> + It is the same in the other French Universities: Lyons University, 53 + professors; Dijon, 34; Caen, 18; Besançon, 15; Grenoble, 26; + Marseilles, 56, and so on. +</p> + +<p> + Universities in other lands make a fair showing. America contributes + supporters from John Hopkins University, 20 professors; Boston + Academy of Arts and Sciences, 13 members; Harvard, 7 professors; + Columbia University, 23 professors; Washington Academy of Science, 19 + members; Columbus University, Ohio, 21 professors, etc. Dublin and + Edinburgh both contribute a few. England is represented by one entry: + "Cambridge, 2 professors." Perhaps the Cambridge Congress will change + this somewhat. It will be strange if any one can actually witness a + congress without having his imagination to some extent stirred by the + possibilities. +</p> + +<p> + A noticeable feature of the action of the Delegation throughout + has been the scientific spirit in which it has gone to work, and + its absolute impartiality as to the language to be adopted. It + has everywhere, in its propaganda and circulars, spoken of "an + international auxiliary language," and has been careful not to + prejudge in any way the question as to which shall be adopted. +</p> + +<p> + It may be news to many that there are several rival languages in + the field. Even the enthusiastic partisans of Esperanto are often + completely ignorant of the existence of competitors. It was partly + with the object of furnishing full information to the + +<!-- 042.png --> + +<a name="page033"> </a><span class = "pagenum">33</span> + Delegates who are to make the choice, that MM. Couturat and Leau + composed their admirable <i>Histoire de la langue universelle</i>. It + contains a brief but scientific account of each language mentioned, + the leading principles of its construction, and an excellent + critique. The main principles are disengaged by the authors with + a masterly clearness and precision of analysis from the mass of + material before them. Though they are careful to express no personal + preference, and let fall nothing which might unfairly prejudice the + delegates in favour of any scheme, it is not difficult to judge, by + a comparison of the scientific critiques, which of the competing + schemes analysed most fully carries out the principles which + experience now shows to be essential to success for any artificial + language. +</p> + +<p> + The impression left is, that whether judged by the test of conformity + to necessary principles, or by the old maxim "possession is nine + points of the law," Esperanto has no serious rival. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterVII"> + VII + <div class="subtitolo"> + can the international language be latin? + </div> +</div> + +<p> + There are some who fully admit the desirability of an international + language, but say that we have no need to invent one, as we have + Latin. This tends to be the argument of literary persons.<sup>1</sup> They back + it up by pointing out that Latin has already done duty in the Middle + Ages as a common medium, and therefore, they say, what it has once + done with success it can do again. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>It has even cropped up again in the able articles in <i>The + Times</i> on the reformed pronunciation of Latin (April 1907). +</p> + +<p> + It is hard to argue with such persons, because they have not grasped + the fact that the nature of international communication has undergone + a complete change, and that therefore there is no + +<!-- 043.png --> + +<a name="page034"> </a><span class = "pagenum">34</span> + presumption that the same medium will suffice for carrying it on. In + the Middle Ages the cosmopolitan public was almost entirely a learned + one. The only people who wanted to communicate with foreigners + (except for a certain amount of commerce) were scholars, and the only + things they wanted to communicate about were learned subjects, mostly + of a philosophical or literary nature, which Latin was adapted to + express. The educated public was extremely small, and foreign travel + altogether beyond the reach of all but the very few. The overwhelming + mass of the people were illiterate, and fast tied to their native + spot by lack of pence, lack of communications, and the general + conditions of life. +</p> + +<p> + Now that everybody can read and write and get about, and all the + conditions of life have changed, the cosmopolitan public, so far from + being confined to a handful of scholars and merchants, extends down + to and is largely made up of that terrible modern production, "the + man in the street." It is quite ridiculous to pretend that because + an Erasmus or a Casaubon could carry on literary controversies, + with amazing fluency and hard-hitting, in Ciceronian Latin, + therefore "the bald-headed man at the back of the omnibus" can + give up the time necessary to obtaining a control of Latin sufficient + for the conduct of his affairs, or for hobnobbing with his kind + abroad. +</p> + +<p> + It is waste of time to argue with those who do not realize that the + absolute essentials of any auxiliary language in these days are + ease of acquirement and accessibility to all. There are actually + some newspapers published in Latin and dealing with modern topics. + As an amusement for the learned they are all very well; but the + portentous periphrases to which they are reduced in describing + tramway accidents or motor-cars, the rank obscurity of the terms in + which advertisements of the most ordinary goods are veiled, ought to + be enough to drive their illusions out of the heads of the modern + champions of Latin for practical purposes. Let these persons take in + the Roman <i>Vox Urbis</i> for a month or two, or get hold of a copy + of the London <i>Alaudae</i>, and see how they feel then. +</p> + +<!-- 044.png --> + +<a name="page035"> </a><span class = "pagenum">35</span> +<p> + A dim perception of the requirements of the modern world has inspired + the various schemes for a barbarized and simplified Latin. It is + almost incredible that the authors of such schemes cannot see that + debased Latin suffers from all the defects alleged against an + artificial language, plus quite prohibitory ones of its own, without + attaining the corresponding advantages. It is just as artificial as + an entirely new language, without being nearly so easy (especially + to speak) or adaptable to modern life. It sins against the cardinal + principle that an auxiliary language shall inflict no damage upon + any natural one. In short, it disgusts both parties (scholars and + tradesmen), and satisfies the requirements of neither. Those who + want an easy language, within the reach of the intelligent person + with only an elementary school groundwork of education, don't get + it; and the scholarly party, who treat any artificial language as a + cheap commercial scheme, have their teeth set on edge by unparalleled + barbarisms, which must militate most seriously against the correct + use of classical Latin. +</p> + +<p> + Such schemes are dead of their own dogginess. +</p> + +<p> + Latin, pure or mongrel, won't do. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterVIII"> + VIII + <div class="subtitolo"> + can the international language be greek? + </div> +</div> + +<p> + This chapter might be as short and dogmatic as Mark Twain's + celebrated chapter upon snakes in Ireland. It would be enough to + merely answer "No," but that the indefatigable Mr. Henderson, after + running through three artificial languages of his own, has come + to the conclusion that Greek is the thing. Certainly, as regards + flexibility and power of word-formation, Greek would be better + than Latin on its own merits. But it is too hard, and the scheme has + nothing practical about it. +</p> + +<!-- 045.png --> + +<a name="page036"> </a><span class = "pagenum">36</span> +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterIX"> + IX + <div class="subtitolo"> + can the international language be a modern language? + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Jingoes are not wanting who say that it is unpatriotic of any + Englishman to be a party to the introduction of a neutral language, + because English is manifestly destined to be the language of the + world. +</p> + +<p> + Reader, did you ever indulge in the mild witticism of asking a + foreigner where the English are mentioned in the Bible? The answer, + of course, is, <i>The meek shall inherit the earth</i>. But if the + foreigner is bigger than you, don't tell him until you have got to a + safe distance. +</p> + +<p> + It is this attitude of self-assertion, coupled with the tacit + assumption that the others don't count much, that makes the English + so detested on the Continent. It is well reflected in the claim to + have their own language adopted as a common means of communication + between all other peoples. +</p> + +<p> + This claim is not put forward in any spirit of deliberate insolence, + or with the intention of ignoring other people's feelings; though + the very unconsciousness of any arrogance in such an attitude really + renders it more galling, on account of the tacit conclusion involved + therein. It is merely the outcome of ignorance and of that want + of tact which consists of inability to put oneself at the point + of view of others. The interests of English-speaking peoples are + enormous, far greater than those of any other group of nations united + by a common bond of speech. But it is a form of narrow provincial + ignorance to refuse on that account to recognize that, compared to + the whole bulk of civilized people, the English speakers are in a + small minority, and that the majority includes many high-spirited + peoples with a strongly developed sense of nationality, and destined + to play a very important part in the history of the world. Any sort + of movement to have English or any other national language adopted + officially as a universal auxiliary language would at once entail a + +<!-- 046.png --> + +<a name="page037"> </a><span class = "pagenum">37</span> + boycott of the favoured language on the part of a ring of other + powerful nations, who could not afford to give a rival the benefit + of this augmented prestige. And it is precisely upon universality of + adoption that the great use of an international language will depend. +</p> + +<p> + To sum up: the ignorance of contemporary history and fact displayed + in the suggestion of giving the preference to any national language + is only equalled by its futility, for it <i>is</i> futile, to + put forward a scheme that has no chance of even being discussed + internationally as a matter of practical politics. +</p> + +<p> + A proof is that precisely the same objection to an auxiliary language + is raised in France—namely, that it is unpatriotic, because it + would displace French from that proud position. +</p> + +<p> + The above remarks will be wholly misunderstood if they are taken + to imply any spirit of Little Englandism on the part of the + writer. On the contrary, he is ardently convinced of the mighty + <i>rôle</i> that will be played among the nations by the + British Empire, and has had much good reason in going to and fro in + the world to ponder on its unique achievement in the past. When fully + organized on some terms of partnership as demanded by the growth of + the Colonies, it will go even farther in the future. But all this has + nothing to do with an international language. Howsoever mighty, the + British Empire will not swallow up the earth—at any rate, not in + our time. And till it does, it is not practical politics to expect + other peoples to recognize English as the international language as + between themselves. +</p> + +<p> + There are, in fact, two quite separate questions: +</p> + +<p> + (1) Supposing it is possible for any national language to become the + international one, which has the best claims? +</p> + +<p> + (2) Is it possible for any national language to be adopted as the + international one? +</p> + +<p> + To question (1) the answer undoubtedly is "English." It is already + the language of the sea, and to a large extent the medium for + transacting business between Europeans and Asiatic races, or + +<!-- 047.png --> + +<a name="page038"> </a><span class = "pagenum">38</span> + between the Asiatic races themselves.<sup>1</sup> Moreover, except + for its pronunciation and spelling, it has intrinsically the best + claim, as being the furthest advanced along the common line of + development of Aryan language.<sup>2</sup> But the discussion of this + question has no more than an academic interest, because the answer to + question (2) is, for political reasons, in the negative. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Another argument is that based on the comparative numbers + of people who speak the principal European languages as their + mother-tongue. No accurate statistics exist, but an interesting + estimate is quoted by Couturat and Leau (<i>Hist. de la langue + universelle</i>), which puts English first with about 120,000,000, + followed at a distance of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 by Russian. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>2</sup>This is explained in <a href="#page135">Part III., chap. i.</a>, + <i>q.v.</i> +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterX"> + X + <div class="subtitolo"> + can the evolution of an international language be left to the process of natural selection by free competition? + </div> +</div> + +<p> + "You base your argument for an international language mainly on the + operation of economical laws. Be consistent, then; leave the matter + to Nature. By unlimited competition the best language is bound to be + evolved and come to the top in the struggle for life. Let the fittest + survive, and don't bother about Esperanto." +</p> + +<p> + On a first hearing this sounds fairly plausible, yet it is + honeycombed with error. +</p> + +<p> + In the first place, it proves too much. The same argument could be + adduced for the abandonment of effort of all kind whatever to improve + upon Nature and her processes. "You can walk and run and swim. Don't + bother to invent boats and bicycles, trains and aeroplanes, that will + bring you more into touch with other peoples. Let Nature evolve the + best form of international locomotion." +</p> + +<p> + Again, Nature does not tend towards uniformity. She produces an + infinity of variety in the individual, and out of this variety she + selects and evolves certain prevailing types. But these types + +<!-- 048.png --> + +<a name="page039"> </a><span class = "pagenum">39</span> + differ widely within the limits of the world under varying conditions + of environment. What we are seeking to establish is world-wide + uniformity, in spite of difference of environment. +</p> + +<p> + Again, the argument confuses a sub-characteristic with + an organism. A language is not an organism, but one of the + characteristics of man. After the lapse of countless ages there are + grey horses and black, bay and chestnut, presumably because greyness + and blackness and the rest are incidental characteristics of a horse. + No one of them gives him a greater advantage than the others in his + struggle for life, or helps him particularly to perform the functions + of <!-- bona vorto: --> horsiness. +</p> + +<p> + Just in the same way a man may be equally well equipped with all + the qualities that make for success, whether he speaks English + or French, Russian or Japanese. It cannot be shown that language + materially helps one people as against another, or even that the + best race evolves the best language.<sup>1</sup> Take the last mentioned. If + there is one people on the face of the globe who rejoice in an + impossible language, it is the Japanese. In the early days of foreign + intercourse a good Jesuit father reported that the Japanese were + courteous and polite to strangers, but their language was plainly + the invention of the devil. To a modern mind the language may have + outlived its putative father, but its reputation has not improved, + so far as ease is concerned. Yet who will say that it has impaired + national efficiency? +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Greece went down before Rome. Which was the better race, meaning by + "better" the more capable of imposing its language and manners on the + world? Yet who doubts that Greek was the better language? +</p> + +<p> + The fact is, that for purposes of transaction of ordinary affairs + by those who speak it as a mother tongue, one language is about as + good as another. Whether it survives or spreads depends, not upon its + intrinsic qualities as a language, but upon the success of the race + that speaks it.<sup>1</sup> There is, therefore, no + +<!-- 049.png --> + +<a name="page040"> </a><span class = "pagenum">40</span> + presumption that the best or the most suitable or the easiest + language will spread over the world by its own merits, or even that + any easy or regular language will be evolved. Printing and education + have altogether arrested the natural process of evolution of language + on the lips of men. This is one justification for the application of + new artificial reforms to language and spelling, which tend no longer + to move naturally with the times as heretofore. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>A curious phenomenon of our day suggests a possible partial + exception. In Switzerland French is steadily encroaching and bearing + back German. Is this owing to the intrinsic qualities of French + language and civilization? Materially, the Germans have the greater + expansive power. +</p> + +<p> + As regards free competition between rival artificial languages, the + same considerations hold good. The worse might prevail just as easily + as the better, because the determining factor is not the nature of + the language, but the influence and general capacity of the rival + backers. Of course a very bad or hard artificial language would not + prevail against an easy one. But beyond a certain point of ease a + universal language cannot go (ease meaning the ease of all), and that + limit has probably been about reached now. Between future schemes + there will be such a mere fractional difference in respect of ease, + that competition becomes altogether beside the point. The thing is to + take an easy one and stick to it. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXI"> + XI + <div class="subtitolo"> + objections to an international language on aesthetic grounds + </div> +</div> + +<p> + One of the commonest arguments that advocates of a universal language + have to face runs something like this: +</p> + +<p> + "Yes, there really does seem to be something in what you + say—your language may save time and money and grease the wheels + of business; but, after all, we are not all business men, nor are + we all out after dollars. Just think what a dull, drab uniformity + your scheme would lay over the lands like a pall. By the artificial + removal of natural barriers you are aiding and abetting the + vulgarization of the world. You are doing what + +<!-- 050.png --> + +<a name="page041"> </a><span class = "pagenum">41</span> + in you lies to eliminate the racy, the local, the picturesque. + The tongues of men are as stately trees, set deep in the black, + mouldering soil of the past, and rich with its secular decay. + The leaves are the words of the people, old yet ever new, and + the flowers are the nation's poems, drawing their life from the + thousand tiny roots that twist and twine unseen about the lives and + struggles of bygone men. You are calling to us to come forth from + the cool seclusion of these trees' shade, to leave their delights + and toil in the glare of the world at raising a mushroom growth + on a dull, featureless plain that reaches <!-- bona vorto: --> + everywhither. Modern Macbeths, sophisticated by your modernity and + adding perverted instinct to crime, you are murdering not sleep, + but dreams—dreams that haunt about the mouldering lodges of + the past, and soften the contact with reality by lending their own + colouring atmosphere. You are hammering the last nail into the coffin + of the old leisurely past, the past that raised the cathedrals, to + which taste and feeling were of supreme moment, and when man put + something of himself into his every work." +</p> + +<p> + The man must be indeed dull of soul who cannot join in a dirge for + the beauty of the vanishing past. Turn where we may now, we find the + same railways, the same trams, music-halls, coats and trousers. + The mad rush of modernity with its levelling tendency really is + killing off what is quaint, out of the way, and racy of the soil. + But why visit the sins of modernity upon an international language? + The last sentence of the indictment itself suggests the line of + defence. "You are hammering the last nail into the coffin of the old, + leisurely past...." +</p> + +<p> + Quite so, you <i>are</i>. +</p> + +<p> + The universal ability to use an auxiliary language on occasion rounds + off and completes the levelling process. But the old leisurely past + will not be any the less dead, or any the less effectually buried, if + one nail is not driven home in the coffin. The slayer is modernity at + large, made up of science, steam, democracy, universal education, and + many other things—but especially universal education. And the + verdict can be, at the most, + +<!-- 051.png --> + +<a name="page042"> </a><span class = "pagenum">42</span> + justifiable, or at any rate inevitable, <!-- bona vorto: --> + pasticide. You cannot eat your cake and have it; you cannot kill off + all the bad things and keep all the good ones. With sterilization + goes purification, pasticide may be accompanied by pasteurization. At + any rate, "the old order changeth," and you've got to let it change. +</p> + +<p> + The whole history of the "progress" of the world, meaning often + material progress, is eloquent of the lesson that it is vain to set + artificial limits to advancing invention. The substitution of cheap + mechanical processes of manufacture for hand-work involved untold + misery to many, and incidentally led to the partial disappearance + of a type of character which the world could ill afford to lose, + and which we would give much to be able to bring back. The old + semi-artist-craftsman, with hand and eye really trained up to + something like their highest level of capacity, with knowledge not + wide, but deep, and all gained from experience, and not from books or + technical education—this type of character is a loss. Many, with + the gravest reason, are dissatisfied with the type which has already + largely replaced it, and which will replace it for good or evil, but + ever more swiftly and surely. But no well-judging person proposes on + that account to forgo the material advantages conferred upon mankind + by the invention of machinery. If the world rejects, on sentimental + grounds, the labour-saving invention of international language, it + will be flying in the face of economic history, and it will not + appreciably retard the disappearance of the picturesque. +</p> + +<p> + There is another type of argument which may also be classed as + aesthetic, but which differs somewhat from the one just discussed. It + emanates chiefly from literary men and scholars, and may be presented + as follows: +</p> + +<p> + "Language is precious, and worthy of study, inasmuch as it enshrines + the imperishable monuments of the thought and genius of the race on + whose lips it was born. The study of the words and forms in which a + nation clothed its thoughts throws many a ray of light on phases of + the evolution of the race itself, which + +<!-- 052.png --> + +<a name="page043"> </a><span class = "pagenum">43</span> + would otherwise have remained dark. The history of a language and + literature is in some measure an epitome of the history of a people. + We miss all these points of interest in your artificial language, and + we shall, therefore, refuse to study it, and hereby commit it to the + devil." +</p> + +<p> + This is a particularly humiliating type of answer to receive, because + it implies that one is an ass. In truth the man who should invent + an artificial language and invite the world to study it for itself + would be a fool, and a very swell-headed fool at that. It seems in + vain to point this out to persons who use the above argument; or to + explain to them that they would be aided in their study of languages + that do repay study by the introduction of an easy international + language, because many commentaries, etc., would become accessible + to them, which are not so now, or only at the expense of deciphering + some difficult language in which the commentary is written, the + commentary itself being in no sense literature, and its form a matter + of complete indifference. +</p> + +<p> + Back comes the old answer in one form or another, every variation + tainted with the heresy that the language is to be studied as a + language for itself. +</p> + +<p> + Perhaps the least tedious way of giving an idea of this kind of + opposition, and the way in which it may be met, is to give some + extracts from a scholar's letter, and the writer's answer. The letter + is fairly typical. +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="majusklete">"My dear ——,</p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "Many thanks for your long letter on Esperanto.... According + to the books, Esperanto can be learnt quickly by any one. This + means that they will forget it quite as rapidly; for what is + easily acquired is soon forgotten.... In my humble opinion, an + Englishman who knows French and German would do much better to + devote any extra time at his disposal to the study of his own + language, which, I repeat, is one of the most delicate mediums of + communication now in existence. It has taken + +<!-- 053.png --> + +<a name="page044"> </a><span class = "pagenum">44</span> + centuries to construct, while Esperanto was apparently created in + a few hours. One is God's handiwork, and the other a man's toy. + Personally, any living language interests me more than Esperanto. + I am sorry I am such a heretic, but I fear my love for the English + language carries me away.... + </p> + + <div class="live">"Yours ever,</div> + + <div style="text-align: right">"——."</div> + +</div> + +<p> + The points that rankle are artificiality and lack of a history. +</p> + +<p align="center"><i>Reply</i></p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="majusklete">"My dear ——,</p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "I really can't put it any more plainly, so I must just repeat + it: we are not trying to introduce a language that has any + interest for anybody in itself. An international language is a + labour-saving device. The question is, Is it an efficient + one? If so, it must surely be adopted. The world wants to be saved + labour. It never pays permanently to do things a longer way, if + the shorter one produces equally good results. No one has yet + proved, or, in my opinion, advanced any decent argument tending + to show, that the results produced by a universal language will + not be just as good <i>for many purposes</i><sup>1</sup> as those produced + by national languages. That the results are more economically + produced surely does not admit of doubt. + </p> + + <p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>And those very important ones, relatively to man's whole field of + activity. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + 'Personally, any living language interests me more than + Esperanto.' Of course it does. So it does me, and most sensible + people. But what the <!-- bona vorto: --> digamma does it matter + to Esperanto whether we are interested in it or not? It is not + there to interest us. The question is, Does it, or not, save us or + others unprofitable labour on a large scale? Neither you nor most + sane persons are probably particularly interested in shorthand or + Morse codes or any signalling systems. Yet they bear up. + </p> + +<!-- 054.png --> + +<a name="page045"> </a><span class = "pagenum">45</span> + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "Do try to see that we think there is a certain felt want, amongst + countless numbers of persons, which is much more efficiently and + economically met by a neutral, easy, international language, + than by any national one. That is the position you have got to + controvert, if you are seriously to weaken the argument in favour of + an international language. If you say that it is not a want felt by + many people, I can only say, at the risk of being dogmatic, that you + are wrong. I happen to know that it is.<sup>1</sup> The question then is, Is + there an easy way of meeting that want? And the equally certain and + well-grounded answer is, There is.... + </p> + + <p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>I have before me a list of 119 societies, representing many + different lines of work and play and many nations, who had already + in 1903 given in their adhesion to a scheme for an international + language. Technical terms alone (in all departments of study) want + standardizing, and an international language affords the best + means. The number of societies is now (1907) over 270. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "As to your argument that what is easy is more easily + forgotten—it is true. But I think you must see that, neither + in practice nor in principle, does it or should it make for + choosing the harder way of arriving at a given result. Chance the + forgetting, if necessary re-learning as required, and use the time + and effort saved for some more remunerative purpose. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "'One is God's handiwork, the other a man's toy.' I should have + said the first was man's lip-work, but I see what you mean. It is + God working through his creature's natural development. The same + is equally true of all man's 'toys.' Man moulded his language + in pursuance of his ends under God. Under the same guidance + he moulded the steam engine, the typewriter, shorthand, the + semaphore, and all kinds of signals. What are the philosophical + <i>differentia</i> that make Esperanto a toy, and natural + language God's handiwork? Apparently the fact that Esperanto is + 'artificial,' i.e. consciously produced by art. If this is the + criterion, beware lest you damn man's works wholesale. If this is + not the criterion, what is? + </p> + +<!-- 055.png --> + +<a name="page046"> </a><span class = "pagenum">46</span> + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "'An Englishman who knows French and German would do much better + to devote any extra time at his disposal to the study of his own + language.' Yes—if his object is to qualify as an artist + in language. No—if his object is to save time and trouble + in communicating with foreigners. You must compare like with + like. It is unscientific and a confusion of thought to change the + subject-matter of a man's employment of his time on grounds other + than those fairly intercomparable. You have dictated as to how a + man should employ his time by changing his object in employing his + time. This makes the whole discussion irrelevant, in so far as it + deals with the comparative advantage of studying one language or + the other. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "Time's up! I have missed my after-lunch walk, and I expect only + hardened your heart. + </p> + + <div class="live">"Yours,</div> + + <div style="text-align: right">"——."</div> + +</div> + +<p> + And I had! +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXII"> + XII + <div class="subtitolo"> + will an international language discourage the study of modern languages, + and thus be detrimental to culture?—parallel with the question of + compulsory greek + </div> +</div> + +<p> + There is a broad, twofold distinction in the aims with which the + study of foreign languages is organized and undertaken. +</p> + +<p> + It serves: first, purely utilitarian ends, and is a means; secondly, + the purposes of culture, and is an end in itself. +</p> + +<p> + An international auxiliary language aims at supplanting the first + type of study completely, and, as it claims, with profit to the + students. The second type it hopes to leave wholly intact, and + disclaims any attempt to interfere with it in any way. How far is + this possible? +</p> + +<p> + The answer depends mainly upon the efficiency of the alternative + +<!-- 056.png --> + +<a name="page047"> </a><span class = "pagenum">47</span> + offered by the new-comer in each case as a possible + substitute. +</p> + +<p> + Firstly, if it is true that a great portion of the human race, + especially in the big polyglot empires and the smaller states of + Europe, are groaning under the incubus of the language difficulty, + and have to spend years on the study of mere words before they can + fit themselves for an active career, then the abolition of this heavy + handicap on due preparation for each man's proper business in life + will liberate much time for more profitable studies. It is certain + that the majority of mankind are non-linguistic by nature and + inclination rather than linguistic—i.e. that the best chance + of developing their natural capacities to the utmost and making them + useful and agreeable members of society does not lie in making all + alike swallow an overdose of foreign languages during the acquisitive + years of youth. By doing so, vast waste is caused, taking the world + round. As to the attainment of the object of this first type of + language study, not only is it as efficiently secured by a single + universal language, but far more so. <i>Ex hypothesi</i> the object + is utilitarian; the language is a means. Well, a universal language + is a better means than a national one—first, because, being + universal, it is a means to more; secondly, because, being easy and + one, it is a means that more people can grasp and employ. In fact, + it is in this field an efficient substitute; it saves much, without + losing anything. +</p> + +<p> + For the second type of language-study, on the other hand, where + the end is culture and the language is studied for itself and in no + wise as an indifferent means, a universal artificial language offers + no substitute at all. This end is not on its programme. Why, then, + should any language-study that is organized in view of culture + be given up on its account? +</p> + +<p> + It may, of course, be said that the time given to it by those who + pursue culture in language will be taken from the time devoted to + more worthy linguistic study, and will therefore prejudice the + learning of other languages. This is a point of technical pedagogics + or psychology. There is very good reason, + +<!-- 057.png --> + +<a name="page048"> </a><span class = "pagenum">48</span> + from the standpoint of these sciences, to believe that a study of + a simple <i>type-tongue</i> would, on the contrary, pay for itself + in increased facility in learning other languages. But this is more + fully discussed in the chapter for teachers + (<a href="#partIIIchapterII">Part III., chap. ii.</a>). +</p> + +<p> + The question, however, is not in reality quite so simple as this. + There is no water-tight partition between utilitarian and cultural + language-study. They act and react upon each other. There really + is some ground for anxiety, lest the provision of facilities for + learning an easy artificial language at your door may prevent people + from going out of their way to learn national ones, which would have + awakened scholarly instincts in them. The cause of culture would thus + sustain some real hurt. +</p> + +<p> + The question is another phase—a wider and lower-grade + phase—of the great compulsory Greek question at Oxford and + Cambridge. It affects the masses, whereas the Greek controversy + affects the few at the top; but otherwise the issue at stake is + essentially the same. +</p> + +<p> + In both cases the bedrock of the problem is this, Can we afford to + put the many through a grind, which is on the whole unprofitable to + them and does not attain its object of conferring culture, in order + to uphold the traditional system in the interests of the few? In + neither case do the reformers desire to suppress the study of the + old culture-giving language; rather it is hoped that the interests + of scholarly and liberal learning will benefit by being freed from + the dead weight of grammar grinders, whose mechanical performance + and monkey antics are merely a dodge to catch a copper from the + examiners. +</p> + +<p> + When Greek is no longer bolstered up by the protection of compulsion, + some of the present bounty-fed (i.e. compulsion-fed) facilities for + its study will no doubt disappear from the schools which are at + present forced to provide them. With them will be lost some recruits + who would have been led by the facilities to study Greek, and would + have studied it to their profit. On the other hand, the university + will be open to numbers of students who are at present shut out by + the Greek tariff. Another barrier + +<!-- 058.png --> + +<a name="page049"> </a><span class = "pagenum">49</span> + against modernity will go down, and democracy make another step out + of the proverbial gutter towards the university. +</p> + +<p> + Similarly, the possession of a universally understood medium of + communication will in some cases deter people from making the effort + to study real language, with all the treasures of original literature + to which it is the key. +</p> + +<center> + "Tis true, 'tis pity; and pity 'tis, 'tis true. +</center> + +<p> + But—and this is the great point—it will open the + cosmopolitan outlook to countless thousands who could never hope to + grapple successfully with even one national language. This cannot be + a small gain. +</p> + +<p> + It all comes back to this—you cannot eat your cake and have it + too. <i>Il faut souffrir pour être belle.</i> The international + language has the defects of its qualities. But then its qualities are + great, and the world is their sphere of utility. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXIII"> + XIII + <div class="subtitolo"> + objection to an international language on the ground that it will soon + split up into dialects + </div> +</div> + +<p> + This is a particularly unfortunate objection, because it displays a + radical ignorance of the history of language, and of the conditions + under which it develops. +</p> + +<p> + In the first place, the whole tendency of language in the modern + world is towards disappearance of local dialects, and their + absorption into a uniform literary language. The dialects of England + are almost dead before the onset of universal education, and the + great work of Dr. Wright was only just in time to rescue them from + oblivion. Even one generation hence it will be impossible to collect + much of the local speech recorded in his dictionary. It is the same + in Germany and everywhere, though, of course, all countries are + not equally advanced in this respect. A standard form of words and + grammar is fixed by print for the + +<!-- 059.png --> + +<a name="page050"> </a><span class = "pagenum">50</span> + literary language, and when every one can read and write, it is all + up with national evolution of language, such as has produced all + national languages. A gradual change of the phonetic value given + to the written symbols there may be. This has been pre-eminently + the case in England, though even this will now be arrested by + universal education. But a change of forms or of grammar can only be + indefinitely slight and gradual. When it takes place, it reflects a + common advance of the literary language, and not local or dialectical + variation (though the common advance may have originally spread from + one locality). +</p> + +<p> + In the second place, dialects are variations that spring up under the + stress of local circumstance in the familiar every-day unconscious + use of a common mother tongue among people of the same race and + inhabiting the same district. Now, these are the very circumstances + in which an auxiliary international language never can, and never + will, be used. The only exception is the case of people meeting + together for the conscious practice of the language or using it in + jest. +</p> + +<p> + There are no occasions when an international language would be + naturally used when any variation from standard usage would not be a + distinct disadvantage as tending to unintelligibility. In short, a + neutral language consciously learned as a means of communication with + strangers is not on an equal footing with, or exposed to the same + influences as, a mother tongue used by people every day under like + conditions. +</p> + +<p> + A cardinal point of difference is well illustrated by Esperanto. + The whole foundation of the language, vocabulary, grammar, and + everything else, is contained in one small book of a few pages, + called <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>. No change can be made in this + except by a competent elected international authority. Of course, no + text-books or grammars will be authorized for the use of any nation + that are not in accordance with the <i>Fundamento</i>. People will + make mistakes, of course, just as they make mistakes in any foreign + language, and they can help themselves out with any words from other + languages, just as they do now when their + +<!-- 060.png --> + +<a name="page051"> </a><span class = "pagenum">51</span> + French or German fails them. But the standard is always there, simple + and short, to correct any aberration, and there is no room for any + alterations in form or structure to creep in. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXIV"> + XIV + <div class="subtitolo"> + objection that the present international language (esperanto) is + too dogmatic, and refuses to profit by criticism + </div> +</div> + +<p> + It is true that Esperantists refuse to make any change in their + language at present, and this is found irritating by some able + critics, who wrongly imagine that this attitude amounts to a claim of + perfection for Esperanto. The matter may be easily put right. +</p> + +<p> + The inadmissibility of change (even for the better) is purely + a matter of policy and dictated by practical considerations. + Esperantists make no claim to infallibility; they want to see their + language universally adopted, and they want to see it as perfect as + possible. Actual and bitter experience shows that the international + language which admits change is lost. Universal acceptance and + present change are incompatible. Esperantists, therefore, bow to the + inevitable and deliberately choose to concentrate for the present + on acceptance. General acceptance, indeed, while it imposes upon + the present body of Esperantists self-restraint in abstaining from + change, is in reality the essential condition of profitable future + amendment. When an international language has attained the degree of + dissemination already enjoyed by Esperanto, the only safe kind of + change that can be made is <i>a posteriori</i>, not <i>a priori</i>. + When Esperanto has been officially adopted and comes into wide use, + actual experience and consensus of usage amongst its leading writers + will indicate the modifications that are ripe for official adoption. + The competent international official authority will then from time to + time duly register such changes, and they will become officially part + of the language. +</p> + +<!-- 061.png --> + +<a name="page052"> </a><span class = "pagenum">52</span> +<p> + Till then, any change can only cause confusion and alienate support. + No one is going to spend time learning a language which is one thing + to-day and another thing to-morrow. When the time comes + for change, the authority will only proceed cautiously one step at a + time, and its decrees will only set the seal upon that which actual + use has hit off. +</p> + +<p> + This, then, is the explanation of the famous adjective + "netuŝebla," applied by Dr. Zamenhof to his language, and so + much resented in certain quarters. Surely not only is this degree + of dogmatism amply justified by practical considerations, but it + would amount to positive imprudence on the part of Esperantists to + act otherwise. If the inventor of the language can show sufficient + self-restraint, after long years spent in touching and + retouching his language, to hold his hand at a given point (and he + has declared that self-restraint is necessary), surely others + need not be hurt at their suggestions not being adopted, even though + they may in some cases be real improvements. +</p> + +<p> + The following extracts, translated from the Preface to <i>Fundamento + de Esperanto</i> (the written basic law of Esperanto), should set + the question in the right light. It will be seen that Dr. Zamenhof + expressly contemplates the "gradual perfection" (<i>perfektigado</i>) + of his language, and by no means lays claim to finality or + infallibility. +</p> + +<p> + "Having the character of <i>fundament</i>, the three works + reprinted in this volume must be above all inviolable + (<i>netuŝeblaj</i>).... The fundament must remain inviolable + <i>even with its errors....</i> Having once lost its strict + inviolability, the work would lose its exceptional and necessary + character of dogmatic fundamentality; and the user, finding one + translation in one edition, and another in another, would have no + security that I should not make another change to-morrow, and + his confidence and support would be lost. +</p> + +<p> + "To any one who shows me an expression that is not good in the + Fundamental book, I shall calmly reply: Yes, it is an error; but it + must remain inviolable, for it belongs to the fundamental + +<!-- 062.png --> + +<a name="page053"> </a><span class = "pagenum">53</span> + document, in which no one has the right to make any change.... I + showed, <i>in principle</i>, how the strict inviolability of the + <i>Fundamento</i> will always preserve the unity of our language, + without however preventing the language not only from becoming + richer, but even from constantly becoming more perfect. But <i>in + practice</i> we (for causes already many times explained) must + naturally be very cautious in the process of 'perfecting' the + language: (<i>a</i>) we must not do this light-heartedly, + but only in case of absolute necessity; (<i>b</i>) it can only be + done (after mature judgment) by some central institution, having + indisputable authority for the whole Esperanto world, and not by any + private persons.... +</p> + +<p> + "Until the time when a central authoritative institution shall decide + to <i>augment</i> (never to <i>change</i>) the existing fundament by + rendering official new words or rules, everything good, which is not + to be found in the <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, is to be regarded + not as compulsory, but only as recommended." +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXV"> + XV + <div class="subtitolo"> + summary of objections to an international language + </div> +</div> + +<p> + An attempt has been made in the preceding chapters to deal with + the more important and obvious arguments put forward by those who + will hear nothing of an international language. The objections are, + however, so numerous, cover such a wide field, and in some cases are + so mutually destructive, that it may be instructive to present them + in an orderly classification. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + For there we have them all "at one fell swoop," + </td> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Instead of being scattered through the pages; + </td> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + They stand forth marshalled in a handsome troop, + </td> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + To meet the ingenuous youth of future ages. + </td> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="center"> + + </td> + <td align="right" class="majusklete"> + Byron. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Let us hope that they will die of exposure, like the famous appendix + pilloried by Byron, and that the ingenuous one will be able to regard + them as literary curiosities. +</p> + + +<!-- 063.png --> + +<a name="page054"> </a><span class = "pagenum">54</span> +<p> + If the business of an argument is to be unanswerable, the place of + honour certainly belongs to the religious argument. Any one who + really believes that an international language is an impious attempt + to reverse the judgment of Babel will continue firm in his faith, + though one speak with the tongues of men and of angels. +</p> + +<p> + Here, then, are the objections, classified according to content. +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Objections to an International Language +</p> + +<p> + I. <i>Religious</i>. +</p> + +<p> + It is doomed to confusion, because it reverses the judgment of Babel. +</p> + +<p> + II. <i>Aesthetic and sentimental</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (1) It is a cheap commercial scheme, unworthy of the attention of + scholars. +</p> + +<p> + (2) It vulgarizes the world and tends to dull uniformity. +</p> + +<p> + (3) It weakens patriotism by diluting national spirit with + cosmopolitanism. +</p> + +<p> + (4) It has no history, no link with the past. +</p> + +<p> + (5) It is artificial, which is a sin in itself. +</p> + +<p> + III. <i>Political</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (1) It is against English [Frenchmen read "French"] interests, as + diverting prestige from the national tongue. +</p> + +<p> + (2) It is socialistic and even anarchical in tendency, and will + facilitate the operations of the international disturbers of society. +</p> + +<p> + IV. <i>Literary and linguistic</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (1) Lacking history and associations, it is unpoetical and unsuited + to render the finer shades of thought and feeling. It will, + therefore, degrade and distort the monuments of national literatures + which may be translated into it. +</p> + +<p> + (2) It may even discourage authors, ambitious of a wide public, from + writing in their own tongue. Original works in the artificial + + +<!-- 064.png --> + +<a name="page055"> </a><span class = "pagenum">55</span> + language can never have the fine savour of a master's use of his + mother tongue. +</p> + +<p> + (3) Its precisely formal and logical vocabulary and construction + debauches the literary sense for the niceties of expression. + Therefore, even if not used as a substitute for the mother tongue, + its concurrent use, which will be thrust on everybody, will weaken + the best work in native idioms. +</p> + +<p> + (4) It will split up into dialects. +</p> + +<p> + (5) Pronunciation will vary so as to be unintelligible. +</p> + +<p> + (6) It is too dogmatic, and refuses to profit by criticism. +</p> + +<p> + V. <i>Educational and cultural</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (1) It will prejudice the study of modern languages. +</p> + +<p> + (2) It will provide a "soft option" for examinees. +</p> + +<p> + VI. <i>Personal and particular</i>. +</p> + +<p> + It is prejudicial to the vested interests of modern language + teachers, foreign correspondence clerks, interpreters, multilingual + waiters and hotel porters. +</p> + +<p> + VII. <i>Technical</i>. +</p> + +<p> + This heading includes the criticisms in detail of various + schemes—e.g. it is urged against Esperanto that its accent + is monotonous; that its accusative case is unnecessary; that its + principle of word-formation from roots is not strictly logical; + that its vocabulary is too Romance; that its vocabulary is not + Romance enough; and so forth. +</p> + +<p> + VIII. <i>Popular</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (1) It is a wild idea put forth by a set of cranks, who would be + better occupied in something else. +</p> + +<p> + (2) It is impossible. +</p> + +<p> + (3) It is too hard: life isn't long enough. +</p> + +<p> + (4) It is not hard enough: lessons will be too quickly done, and will + not sink into the mind. +</p> + +<p> + (5) It will oust all other languages, and thus destroy each nation's + birthright and heritage. +</p> + +<!-- 065.png --> + +<a name="page056"> </a><span class = "pagenum">56</span> +<p> + (6) It will not come in in our time, so the question is of no + interest except to our grandchildren. +</p> + +<p> + (7) It is doomed to failure—look at Volapük! +</p> + +<p> + (8) There are quite enough languages already. +</p> + +<p> + (9) You have to learn three or four languages in order to understand + Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + (10) You cannot know it without learning it. +</p> + +<p> + (11) You have to wear a green star. +</p> + +<p> + Pains have been taken to make this list exhaustive. If any reader can + think of another objection, he is requested to communicate with the + author. +</p> + +<p> + Most of the serious arguments have been already dealt with, so that + not many words need be said here. As regards No. VII. (Technical), + this is not the place to deal with actual criticisms of the language + (Esperanto) that holds the field. The reader will not be in a + position to judge of them till he has learnt it. Suffice it to say + that they can all be met, and some of the points criticised as vices + are, in reality, virtues in an artificial language. +</p> + +<p> + As for Nos. II. and IV. (Sentimental and Literary), most of these + objections are due to the old heresy of the literary man, that an + artificial language claims to compete with natural languages <i>as + a language</i>. Once realize that it is primarily a labour-saving + device, and therefore to be judged like any other modern invention + such as telegraphy or shorthand, and most of these objections fall to + the ground. +</p> + +<p> + A good many of the objections cannot be taken seriously (though they + have all been seriously made), or refute themselves or each other. + No. VIII. (10) sounds like a fake, but this was the criticism of a + scholar and linguist who had been persuaded to look at Esperanto. He + complained that though he, knowing Latin, French, Italian, German, + and English, could read it without ever having learnt it, ordinary + Englishmen could not. It is usual to judge an invention by efficiency + compared to cost, but if an appliance is to be condemned because + it needs some trouble to master it, then not many inventions will + survive. +</p> + +<!-- 066.png --> + +<a name="page057"> </a><span class = "pagenum">57</span> +<p> + No. VIII. (9) is of course a mistake. It is like saying that you must + practice looping the loop or circus-riding in order to keep your + balance on a bicycle. The greater, of course, includes the less; but + it is better in both cases to begin with the less. It is much more + reasonable to reverse the argument and say: If you begin by learning + Esperanto, you will possess a valuable aid towards learning three or + four national languages. +</p> + +<p> + No. VIII. (5) is absurd. It is the hardest thing in the world to + extirpate a national language; and all the forces of organized + repression (e.g. in unhappy Poland) are finding the task too much + for them. What inducement have the common people, who form the + bulk of the population in every land, to substitute in their home + intercourse for their own language one that they have to learn, if at + all, artificially at school? Only those who have much international + intercourse will ever become really at home in international + language—i.e. sufficiently at home to make it possible to use + it indifferently as a substitute for their mother-tongue; + and people who engage in prolonged and continuous international + intercourse, though numerous, will always be in a minority. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXVI"> + XVI + <div class="subtitolo"> + the wider cosmopolitanism—the coming of asia + </div> +</div> + +<p> + In the civilized West, where pleasure, business, and science are + daily forging new ties of common interests between the nations, + those engaged in such pursuits have clearly much to gain from the + simplification of their pursuits by a common language. But let + us look ahead a little further still. It may well be that the + outstanding feature of the twentieth century in history will be the + coming into line of the peoples of Asia with their pioneer brethren + of the West. Look where you will, everywhere the symptoms are + plain for those who can read them. Japan has led the way. China is + following, and will not be far behind; eventually, as the Japanese + themselves foresee, she will probably outstrip Japan, if + +<!-- 067.png --> + +<a name="page058"> </a><span class = "pagenum">58</span> + not the world. There seems to be no ground, ethnological or + otherwise, for thinking that the lagging behind of Asia in modern + civilization corresponds to a real inferiority of powers, mental or + physical, in the individual Asiatic. Experience shows that under + suitable conditions the Asiatic can efficiently handle all the white + man's tools and weapons; the complete coming up to date is largely + a matter of organization, education, and the possession of a few + really able men at the head of affairs. Given these, progress may be + astonishingly quick. Europeans do not yet seem to have grasped at all + adequately the real significance of the last fifty years of Japanese + history. Do they really think that the Chinaman is inferior to the + Japanese? If so, let them ask any residents in the Far East. Can it + be maintained that a generation ago the peasant of Eastern Europe + was ahead of the country Chinaman? But the last few years have shown + how swiftly modern civilization spreads, both in Europe and America, + from the comparatively small group of nations which in the main + have worked it out to the others, till lately considered backward + and semi-barbarous. And this is the case not merely with the + material products of civilization, the railway and the telegraph, + but also as regards its divers manifestations in all that concerns + the life of the people—constitutional government with growth + of representative, elected authorities and democracy; universal + education with universal power of reading and consequent birth of + a cheap press; rise of industry and consequent growth of towns; + universal military service <!-- nur por viroj! --> and discipline, + now in force in most lands; rise of a moneyed and leisured class and + consequent growth of sport, and of all kinds of clubs and societies + for promoting various interests, social, sporting, political, + religious, educational, philanthropic, and so forth. In fact, the + more the material side of life is "modernized," the more closely + do the citizens of all lands approximate to one another in their + interests and activities, which ultimately rest upon and grow out of + their material conditions. Meantime wealth and consequently foreign + travel everywhere increase, fresh facilities of communication are + constantly provided, + +<!-- 068.png --> + +<a name="page059"> </a><span class = "pagenum">59</span> + men from different countries are more and more thrown + together, and all this makes for the further strengthening of mutual + interests and the growth of fresh ones in common. +</p> + +<p> + Now if (1) under the stress of "modernization" life is already + becoming so similar in the lands of the West, and if (2) the Asiatic + is not fundamentally inferior in mental and physical endowments, + then it follows as a certainty that the Asiatic world will, under + the same stress, enter the comity of nations, and approximate to + the world-type of interest and activity. It is only a question of + time. In economic history nothing is more certain than that science, + organization, cheapness, and efficiency must ultimately prevail over + sporadic, unorganized local effort based on tradition and not on + scientific exploitation of natural advantages. Thus the East will + adopt the material civilization of the West; and through the same + organization of industrial and commercial life and generally similar + economic conditions, the same type of moneyed class will grow up, + with the same range of interests on the intellectual and social side, + diverse indeed, but in their very diversity conforming more and more + to the world-type. +</p> + +<p> + Concurrently with this new tendency to uniformity proceeds the + weakening of the two most powerful disintegrating influences of + primitive humanity—religion and tradition. In the earlier + stages of society these are the two most powerful agents for binding + together into groups men already associated by the ties of locality + and common ancestry, and fettering them in the cast-iron bonds of + custom and ceremonial observance. While the members of each group + are thus held together by the ideas which appeal most profoundly to + unsophisticated mankind, the various groups are automatically and by + the same process held apart by the full force of those ideas. Thus + are produced castes, with their deadening opposition to all progress; + and thus arise crusades, wars of religion and persecutions. Religion + and tradition are then at once the mightiest integrants within + each single community, and the mightiest disintegrants as between + different communities. +</p> + +<p> + But this narrow and dissevering spirit of caste dies back before + +<!-- 069.png --> + +<a name="page060"> </a><span class = "pagenum">60</span> + the spread of knowledge. The tendency to regard a man as unclean + or a barbarian, simply because he does not believe or behave as + one's own people, is merely a product of isolation and ignorance, + and disappears with education and the general opening up of + a country. The inquisitor can no longer boast of "strained + relations"—strained physically on the rack, owing to differences + of religious opinion. The state of things which made it possible for + sepoys to revolt because rifle bullets were greased with the fat of + a sacred animal, or for yellow men to tear up railway tracks because + the magic desecrated the tombs of their ancestors, is rapidly passing + away, as Orientals realize the profits to be made from scientific + methods. +</p> + +<p> + Thus the levelling influence is at work, and the checks upon it are + diminishing. The end can be but one. There will be a greater and + greater similarity of life and occupation the world over, and more + and more actual and potential international intercourse. +</p> + +<p> + Now, the further we move in this direction, the greater will be the + impatience of vexatious restraints upon the freedom of intercourse; + and of these restraints the difference of language is one of the most + vexatious, because it is one of the easiest to remove. If we devote + millions of pounds to annihilating the barriers of space, can we not + devote a few months to the comparatively modest effort necessary to + annihilate the barriers of language? +</p> + +<p> + A real cosmopolitanism, in the etymological sense of the word, + <i>world</i> (and not merely European) citizenship, will shift the + <i>onus probandi</i> from the supporters of an international language + to its opponents. It will say to them, "It is admitted that you have + much intercourse with other peoples; it is admitted that diversity + of language is an obstacle in this intercourse; this obstacle is + increasing rather than diminishing as fresh subjects raise their + claims upon the few years of education, and the old leisurely type + of linguistic education fails more and more to train the bulk of the + people for life's business, and as the ranks of the civilized are + swelled by fresh peoples for whom it is harder and harder to learn + +<!-- 070.png --> + +<a name="page061"> </a><span class = "pagenum">61</span> + even one Indo-Germanic tongue, let alone several; it is + proved that this obstacle can be removed at the cost of a few + months' study: this study is not only the most directly remunerative + study in the world, comparing results with cost, but it is an + admirable mental discipline and a direct help towards further real + linguistic culture-giving studies for those who are fit to + undertake them. Show cause, then, why you prefer to suffer under an + unnecessary obstacle, rather than avail yourselves of this means of + removing it." It is easier for the Indo-Germanic peoples to + learn each other's languages—e.g. for an Englishman to learn + Swedish or Russian—than it is for a speaker of one of any of + the other families of languages to learn any Indo-Germanic + tongue; so that some idea may be formed of the magnitude of the + task imposed upon the newer converts to Western civilization by the + Indo-Germanic world, in making them learn one or more of its + national languages. At the same time, it is but just that the peoples + who have paid the piper of progress should call the common lingual + tune. Therefore, what more fitting than that they should provide + an essence of their allied languages, reduced to its simplest and + clearest form? This they would offer to the rest of the world to be + taken over as part of the general progress in civilization which it + has to adopt; and this it is which is provided in the international + language, Esperanto. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXVII"> + XVII + <div class="subtitolo"> + importance of an international language for the blind + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Now that higher education for the blind is being extended in every + country, owing to the more humanitarian feeling of the present age + that these afflicted members of the community ought to be given a + fair chance, the problem of supplying them with books is beginning to + be felt. The process of producing books for the blind on the Braille + system is, of course, far more costly than ordinary printing, and at + the same time the editions must + +<!-- 071.png --> + +<a name="page062"> </a><span class = "pagenum">62</span> + be necessarily more or less limited. Many an educated blind person + is therefore cruelly circumscribed in the range of literature open + to him by the mere physical obstacle of the lack of books. This + difficulty is accentuated by the fact that three kinds of Braille + type are in use—French, English, and American. +</p> + +<p> + Now, suppose it is desired to make the works of some good author + accessible to the blind—we will say the works of Milton. A + separate edition has to be done into Braille for the English, another + separate translation for the French, and so on for the blind of + each country. In many cases where translations of a work do not + already exist, as in the case of a modern author, the mere cost of + translation into some one language may not pay, much less then the + preparation of a special Braille edition for the limited blind public + of that country. But if one Braille edition is prepared for the blind + of the world in the universal auxiliary language, a far greater range + of literature is at once brought within their grasp. +</p> + +<p> + Already there is abundant evidence of the keen appreciation of + Esperanto on the part of the blind, and one striking proof is the + fact that the distinguished French scientist and doctor, Dr. Javal, + who himself became blind during the latter part of his life, was, + until his death in March 1907, one of the foremost partisans and + benefactors of Esperanto. By his liberality much has been rendered + possible that could not otherwise have been accomplished. There + are many other devoted workers in the same field, among them Prof. + Cart and Mme. Fauvart-Bastoul in France, and Mr. Rhodes, of + Keighley, and Mr. Adams, of Hastings, in England. A special fund is + being raised to enable blind Esperantists from various countries to + attend the Congress at Cambridge in August 1907, and the cause is one + well worthy of assistance by all who are interested in the welfare + of the blind. The day when a universal language is practically + recognised will be one of the greatest in their annals. +</p> + +<p> + A perfectly phonetic language, as is Esperanto, is peculiarly suited + to the needs of the blind. Its long, full vowels, slow, + +<!-- 072.png --> + +<a name="page063"> </a><span class = "pagenum">63</span> + harmonious intonation, few and simple sounds, and regular + construction make it very easy to learn through the ear, and to + reproduce on any phonetic system of notation; and as a matter of + fact, blind people are found to enjoy it much. For a blind man to + come to an international congress and be able to compare notes with + his fellow-blind from all over the world must be a lifting of + the veil between him and the outer world, coming next to receiving + his sight. To witness this spectacle alone might almost convince a + waverer as to the utility of the common language. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXVIII"> + XVIII + <div class="subtitolo"> + ideal + <span style="font-variant: normal"><i>v</i></span>. + practical + </div> +</div> + +<p> + From the early days of the Esperanto movement there has flowed within + it a sort of double current. There is the warm and genial Gulf Stream + of Idealism, that raises the temperature on every shore to which it + sets, and calls forth a luxuriant growth of friendly sentiment. This + tends to the enriching of life. There is also the cooler current of + practicality, with a steady drive towards material profit. At present + the tide is flowing free, and, taken at the flood, may lead on to + fortune; the two currents pursue their way harmoniously within it, + without clashing, and sometimes mingling their waters to their mutual + benefit. +</p> + +<p> + But as the movement is sometimes dismissed contemptuously as a + pacifist fad or an unattainable ideal of universal brotherhood, it + is as well to set the matter in its true light. It is true that + the inventor of Esperanto, Dr. Zamenhof, of Warsaw, is an idealist + in the best sense of the word, and that his language was directly + inspired by his ardent wish to remove one cause of misunderstanding + in his distracted country. He has persistently refused to make any + profit out of it, and declined to accept a sum which some enthusiasts + collected as a testimonial to his disinterested work. +</p> + +<!-- 073.png --> + +<a name="page064"> </a><span class = "pagenum">64</span> +<p> + It is equally true that Esperanto seems to possess a rather strange + power of evoking enthusiasm. Meetings of Esperantists are invariably + characterized by great cordiality and good-fellowship, and at the + international congresses so far these feelings have at times risen + to fever heat. It is easy to make fun of this by saying that the + conjunction of Sirius, the fever-shedding constellation of the + ancients, with the <!-- chu?: --> green star<sup>1</sup> in the dog days of + August, when the congresses are held, induces hot fits. Those who + have drunk enthusiastic toasts in common, and have rubbed shoulders + and compared notes with various foreigners, and gone home having made + perhaps lifelong interesting friendships which bring them in touch + with other lands, will not undervalue the brotherhood aspect of the + common language. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Badge of the Esperantists. +</p> + +<p> + On the other hand, the united Esperantists at their first + international meeting expressly and formally dissociated their + project from any connection with political, sentimental, or + peace-making schemes. They did this by drawing up and + promulgating a "Deklaracio," adopted by the Esperantist world, + wherein it is declared that Esperanto is a language, and a language + only.<sup>1</sup> It is not a league or a society or agency for + promoting any object whatsoever other than its own dissemination as + a means of communication. Like other tongues, Esperanto may be used + for any purpose whatsoever, and it is declared that a man is equally + an Esperantist whether he uses the language to save life or to kill, + to further his own selfish ends or to labour in any altruistic + cause.<sup>2</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>See the <a href="#deklaracio">text of this Declaration</a>. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>2</sup>The non-sectarian nature of Esperanto is shown by the + fact that the first two services in the language were held on the + same day in Geneva according to the Roman Catholic and Protestant + rites. The latter was conducted by an English clergyman, whose + striking sermon on unity, in spite of diversity, evidently impressed + his international congregation. The Vatican has officially expressed + its favour towards Esperanto, and the Archbishop of Canterbury has + sanctioned an Esperanto form of the Anglican service, which will + be used in London and Cambridge this summer. Cordial goodwill was + expressed towards the Vatican, on receipt of its message at Geneva, + by speakers who avowed themselves agnostics, but welcomed any advance + towards abolition of barriers. +</p> + +<!-- 074.png --> + +<a name="page065"> </a><span class = "pagenum">65</span> +<p> + The practical nature of the scheme which Esperantists are labouring + to induce the world to adopt is thus sufficiently clearly defined. + Dr. Zamenhof himself, speaking at the Geneva Congress with all the + vivid poignancy attaching to the words of a man fresh from the + butcheries at that moment rife in the Russian Empire,<sup>1</sup> declared + that neither he nor other Esperantists were <i>naifs</i> enough to + believe that the adoption of their language would put an end to + such scenes. But he had <i>seen</i> men at each other's throats, + beating each other's brains out with bludgeons—men who had no + personal enmity and had never seen each other before, but were let + loose on each other by pure race prejudice. He <i>did</i> claim that + mutual incomprehensibility amongst men who thus dwell side by side + and should be taking part in a common civic life was one powerful + influence in keeping up cliques and divisions, and artificially + holding asunder those whom common interests should be joining + together. It is hard to refuse credence to this power of language, + thus moderately stated. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>There were bad massacres about that time in Warsaw, where Dr. + Zamenhof lives. During the Congress news came of the assassination of + one of the chief civic officials of Warsaw. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXIX"> + XIX + <div class="subtitolo"> + literary + <span style="font-variant: normal"><i>v</i></span>. + commercial + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Another vexed question is whether it is advisable to run an + international language on a literary or a commercial ticket. + On this rock Volapük split— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td width="40%" align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + A brave vessel, + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + That had no doubt some noble creature in her, + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + Dashed all to pieces;<sup>1</sup> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + and there was no Prospero to conjure away the tempest and + +<!-- 075.png --> + +<a name="page066"> </a><span class = "pagenum">66</span> + send everybody safe home to port to speak Volapük happily ever + afterwards. The moral is, that it is no good to make exaggerated + claims for a universal language. To attempt to set it on a fully + equal footing with national languages as a literary medium is to + court disaster. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Shakespeare, <i>The Tempest</i>. +</p> + +<p> + The truth seems to be about this. As a potential means of + international communication, Esperanto is unsurpassed, and a long way + ahead of any national language. As a literary language, it is far + better than Chinook or Pidgin, far worse than English or Greek. +</p> + +<p> + A language, no more than a man, can serve two masters. By attempting + to combine within itself this double function an international + language would cease to attain either object. The reason is simple. +</p> + +<p> + Its legitimate and proper sphere demands of it as the first essential + that it should be easy and universally accessible. This means that + the words are to be few, and must have but one clearly marked sense + each. There are to be no idioms or set phrases, no words that depend + upon their context or upon allusion for their full sense. +</p> + +<p> + On the other hand, among the essentials of a literary language are + the exact opposites of all these characteristics. The vocabulary + must be full and plenteous, and there should be a rich variety of + synonyms; there should be delicate half-tones and <i>nuances</i>; + the words should be not mere counters or symbols of fixed value, + determinable in each case by a rapid use of the dictionary alone, but + must have an atmosphere, a something dependent upon history, usage, + and allusion, by virtue of which the whole phrase, in the finer + styles of writing, amounts to more than the sum of the individual + meanings of the words which it contains, becoming a separate entity + with an individual flavour of its own. To attempt to create this + atmosphere in an artificial language is not only futile, but would + introduce just the difficulties, redundancies, and complications + which it is its chief object to avoid. Take a single instance, + Macbeth's— +</p> + +<!-- 076.png --> + +<a name="page067"> </a><span class = "pagenum">67</span> +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td width="25%" align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + Nay, this my hand would rather + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + The multitudinous seas incarnadine, + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + Making the green one red. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Here the effect is produced by the contrast between the stately march + of the long Latin words of thundrous sound, and the short, sharp + English. A labour-saving language has no business with such words + as "incarnadine" or "multitudinous." In translating such a passage + it will reproduce the sense faithfully and clearly, if necessary by + the combination of simple roots; but the bouquet of the original + will vanish in the process. This is inevitable, and it is even so + far an advantage that it removes all ground from the argument that + a universal language will kill scholarly language-learning. It + will be just as necessary as ever to read works of fine literature + in the original, in order to enjoy their full savour; and the + translation into the common tongue will not prejudice such reading of + originals more than, or indeed so much as, translations into various + mother-tongues. +</p> + +<p> + Again, take the whole question of the imitative use of language. In + national literatures many a passage, poetry or prose, is heightened + in effect by assonance, alliteration, a certain movement or rhythm of + phrase. Subtle suggestion slides in sound through the ear and falls + with mellowing cadence into the heart. Soothed senses murmur their + own music to the mind; the lullaby lilt of the lay swells full the + linked sweetness of the song. +</p> + +<p> + The How plays fostering round the What. Down the liquid stream of + lingual melody the dirge drifts dying—dying it echoes back into + a ghostly after-life, as the yet throbbing sense wakes the drowsed + mind once more. The Swan-song floats double—song and shadow; and + in the blend—half sensuous, half of thought—man's nature + tastes fruition. +</p> + +<p> + Now, this verbal artistry, whereby the words set themselves in tune + to the thoughts, postulates a varied vocabulary, a rich storehouse + wherein a man may linger and choose among the gems + +<!-- 077.png --> + +<a name="page068"> </a><span class = "pagenum">68</span> + of sound and sense till he find the fitting stone and fashion it to + one of those— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" summary="Poetry formatting"> + <tr> + <td width="50%" align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + jewels five-words long, + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + That on the stretched forefinger of all Time + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" valign="middle"> + Sparkle for ever. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + But the word-store of an international tongue must not be a golden + treasury of art, a repository of "bigotry and virtue." On its orderly + rows of shelves must be immediately accessible the right word for the + right place: no superfluity, no disorder, no circumambient margin for + effect. Homocea-like, it "touches the spot," and having deadened the + ache of incomprehensibility, has done its task. "No flowers." +</p> + +<p> + Naturally some peoples will feel themselves more cramped in a new + artificial language than others. French, incomparably neat and clear + within its limits, but possessing the narrowest "margin for effect," + is less alien in its genius from Esperanto than is English, with its + twofold harmony, its potentiality (too rarely exploited) of Romance + clarity, and its double portion of Germanic vigour and feeling. Yet + all languages must probably witness the obliteration of some finer + native shades in the international tongue. +</p> + +<p> + But we must not go to the opposite extreme, and deny to the + universal language all power of rendering serious thought. Just + how far it can go, and where its inherent limitations begin, is + a matter of individual taste and judgment. There are Esperanto + translations—and good ones—of <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>The + Tempest</i>, <i>Julius Caesar</i>, the <i>Aeneid</i> of Virgil, + parts of Molière and Homer, besides a goodly variety of other + literature. These translations do succeed in giving a very fair idea + of the originals, as any one can test for himself with a little + trouble, but, as pointed out, they must come something short in + beauty and variety of expression. +</p> + +<p> + There is even a certain style in Esperanto itself in the hands + of a good writer, of which the dominant notes are simplicity and + directness—two qualities not at all to be despised. Further, + +<!-- 078.png --> + +<a name="page069"> </a><span class = "pagenum">69</span> + the unlimited power of word-building and of forming terse compounds + gives the language an individuality of its own. It contains many + expressive self-explanatory words whose meaning can only be conveyed + by a periphrasis in most languages,<sup>1</sup> and this causes it to take on + the manner and feel of a <i>living</i> tongue, and makes it something + far more than a mere copy or barren extract of storied speech. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>e.g. <i>samideano</i> = partisan of the same cause or idea. + <i>vivipova lingvo</i> = language capable of independent + vigorous existence. +</p> + +<p> + Technically, the fulness of its participial system, rivalled by Greek + alone, and the absence of all defective verbs, lend to it a very + great flexibility; and containing, as it does, a variety of specially + neat devices borrowed from various tongues, it is in a sense neater + than any of them. +</p> + +<p> + One great test of its capacity for literary expression remains to + be made. This is an adequate translation of the Bible. A religious + society, famed for the variety of its translations of the Scriptures + into every conceivable language, when approached on the subject, + replied that Esperanto was not a language. But Esperantists will not + "let it go at that." Besides Dr. Zamenhof's own <i>Predikanto</i> + (Ecclesiastes), an experiment has been made by two Germans, who + published a translation of St. Matthew's Gospel. It is not a success, + and further experiments have just been made by Prof. Macloskie, of + Princeton, U.S.A., and by E. Metcalfe, M.A. (Oxon), I cannot say with + what result, not having seen copies.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Cf. also now the "Ordo de Diservo" (special Anglican Church + service), selected and translated from Prayer Book and Bible for + use in England by the Rev. J. C. Rust (obtainable from the British + Esperanto Association, 13, Arundel Street, Strand, price <i>7d.</i>). +</p> + +<p> + From one point of view, the directness and simplicity of the Bible + would seem to lend themselves to an Esperanto dress; but there are + certain great difficulties, such as technical expressions, archaic + diction, and phrases hallowed by association. A meeting of those + interested in this great work will take place + +<!-- 079.png --> + +<a name="page070"> </a><span class = "pagenum">70</span> + at Cambridge during the Congress (August 1907). Experimenters in this + field will there be brought together from all countries, the subject + will be thoroughly discussed, and substantial progress may be hoped + for. +</p> + +<p> + In the field of rendering scientific literature and current workaday + prose, whose matter is of more moment than its form, Esperanto has + already won its spurs. Its perfect lucidity makes it particularly + suitable for this form of writing. +</p> + +<p> + The conclusion then is, that Esperanto is neither wholly commercial + nor yet literary in the full sense in which a grown language is + literary; but it does do what it professes to do, and it is all the + better for not professing the impossible. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXX"> + XX + <div class="subtitolo"> + is an international language a crank's hobby? + </div> +</div> + +<p> + The apostle of a universal language is made to feel pretty plainly + that he is regarded as a crank. He may console himself with the usual + defence that a crank is that which makes revolutions; but for all + that, it is chilling to be met with a certain smile. +</p> + +<p> + Let us analyse that smile. It varies in intensity, ranging from the + scathing sneer damnatory to the gentle dimple deprecatory. But in any + case it belongs to the category of the smile that won't come off. + I know that grin—it comes from Cheshire. <!-- gotta love this + guy's style! --> +</p> + +<p> + What, then, do we mean when we smile at a crank? Firstly and + generally that we think his ideal impracticable. But it has been + shown that an international language is not impracticable. This alone + ought to go far towards removing it from the list of cranks' hobbies. +</p> + +<p> + Secondly, we often mean that the ideal in question is opposed + to common sense—e.g. when we smile at a man who lives on + protein biscuits or walks about without a hat. We do not impugn the + feasibility of his diet or apparel, but we think he + +<!-- 080.png --> + +<a name="page071"> </a><span class = "pagenum">71</span> + is going out of his way to be peculiar without reaping adequate + advantage by his departure from customary usage. +</p> + +<p> + The test of "crankiness," then, lies in the adequacy of the advantage + reaped. A man who learns and uses Esperanto may at present depart as + widely from ordinary usage as a patron of Eustace Miles's restaurant + or a member of the hatless brigade; but is it true that the advantage + thereby accruing is equally disputable or matter of opinion? Is it + not, on the contrary, fairly certain that the use of an auxiliary + language, if universal, would open up for many regions from which + exclusion is now felt as a hindrance? +</p> + +<p> + Take the case of a doctor, scientist, scholar, researcher in any + branch of knowledge, who desires to keep abreast of the advance of + knowledge in his particular line. He may have to wait for years + before a translation of some work he wishes to read is published in + a tongue he knows, and in any case all the periodical literature of + every nation, except the one or two whose languages he may learn, + will be closed to him. The output of learned work is increasing + very fast in all civilized countries, and therefore results are + recorded in an increasing number of languages in monographs, reports, + transactions, and the specialist press. A move is being made in the + right direction by the proposal to print the publications of the + Brussels International Bibliographical Institute in Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + Take a few examples of the hampering effect upon scholarly work + of the language difficulty as it already exists. The diffusion of + learning will, ironically enough, increase the difficulty.<sup>1</sup> The + late Prof. Todhunter, of Cambridge, was driven to learning Russian + for mathematical purposes. He managed to learn enough to enable + him to read mathematical treatises; but how many mathematicians or + scientists (or classical scholars, for that matter) could do as much? + And of how much profit was the learning of Russian, <i>quâ</i> + Russian, to Prof. Todhunter? It only took up time which could have + been better spent, as there cannot be anything very uplifting or + cultivating in the language of mathematical Russian. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>By multiplying the languages used. +</p> + +<!-- 081.png --> + +<a name="page072"> </a><span class = "pagenum">72</span> +<p> + Prof. Max Müller proposed that all serious scientific + work should be published in one of the six languages + following—English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin. + But why should other nations have to produce in these languages? + and why should serious students have to be prepared to read six + languages? +</p> + +<p> + All this was many years ago. The balance of culture has since then + been gradually but steadily shifting in favour of other peoples. + The present writer had occasion to make a special study of Byron's + influence on the Continent. It turned out that one of the biggest and + most important works upon the subject was written in Polish. It has + therefore remained inaccessible. This is only an illustration of a + difficulty that faces many workers. +</p> + +<p> + Thirdly, there is a good large portion of the British public that + regards as a crank anything not British or that does not benefit + themselves personally. It really <i>is</i> hard for an Englishman, + Frenchman, or German, brought up among a homogeneous people of old + civilization, to realize the extent of the incubus under which the + smaller nations of Europe and the polyglot empires further east are + groaning. Imagine yourself an educated Swiss, Dutchman, or a member + of any of the thirty or forty nationalities that make up the Austrian + or Russian Empires. How would you like to have to learn three or + four foreign languages for practical purposes before you could hope + to take much of a position in life? Can any one assert that the kind + of grind required, with its heavy taxation of the memory, is in most + cases really educative or confers culture? +</p> + +<p> + Think it out. What do you really mean when you jeer at an + Esperantist? +</p> + +<!-- 082.png --> + +<a name="page073"> </a><span class = "pagenum">73</span> +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXXI"> + XXI + <div class="subtitolo"> + what an international language is not + </div> +</div> + +<p> + An international language is not an attempt to replace or damage in + any way any existing language or literature. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIchapterXXII"> + XXII + <div class="subtitolo"> + what an international language is + </div> +</div> + +<p> + An international language is an attempt to save the greatest amount + of labour and open the widest fields of thought and action to the + greatest number. +</p> + +<!-- 083.png --> + +<a name="page074"> </a><span class = "pagenum">74</span> +<div class="partotitolo" id="partII"> + PART II + <div class="subtitolo"> + HISTORICAL + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterI"> + I + <div class="subtitolo"> + some existing international languages already in partial use + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Though the idea of an artificially constructed language to meet the + needs of speakers of various tongues seems for some reason to contain + something absurd or repellent to the mind of Western Europeans, there + have, as a matter of fact, been various attempts made at different + times and places to overcome the obvious difficulty in the obvious + way; and all have met with a large measure of success. +</p> + +<p> + The usual method of procedure has been quite rough and ready. + Words or forms have been taken from a variety of languages, and + simply mixed up together, without any scientific attempt at + co-ordination or simplification. The resulting international + languages have varied in their degree of artificiality, and in the + proportions in which they were consciously or semi-consciously + compiled, or else adopted their elements ready-made, without + conscious adaptation, from existing tongues. But their production, + widespread and continuous use, and great practical utility, showed + that they arose in response to a felt want. The wonder is that the + world should have grown so old without supplying this want in a more + systematic way. +</p> + +<p> + Every one has heard of the <i>lingua franca</i> of the Levant. In + +<!-- 084.png --> + +<a name="page075"> </a><span class = "pagenum">75</span> + India the master-language that carries a man through among + a hundred different tribes is Hindustanee, or Urdu. At the outset + it represented a new need of an imperial race. It had its origin + during the latter half of the sixteenth century under Akbar, and + was born of the sudden extension of conquest and affairs brought + about by the great ruler. Round him gathered a cosmopolitan crowd of + courtiers, soldiers, vassal princes, and followers of all kinds, and + wider dealings than the ordinary local petty affairs received a great + stimulus. Urdu is a good example of a mix-up language, with a + pure Aryan framework developed out of a dialect of the old Hindi. In + fact, it is to India very much what Esperanto might be to Europe, + only it is more empirical, and not so consciously and scientifically + worked out. +</p> + +<p> + Somewhat analogous to Urdu, in that it is a literary language + used by the educated classes for intercommunication throughout a + polygot empire, is the Mandarin Chinese. If China is not "polygot" + in the strict technical sense of the term, she is so in fact, + since the dialects used in different provinces are mutually + incomprehensible for the speakers of them. Mandarin is the official + master-language. +</p> + +<p> + Rather of the nature of <i>patois</i> are Pidgin-English, Chinook, + and Benguela, the language used throughout the tribes of the Congo. + Yet business of great importance and involving large sums of money + is, or has been, transacted in them, and they are used over a wide + area. +</p> + +<p> + Pidgin consists of a medley of words, largely English, but with a + considerable admixture from other tongues, combined in the framework + of Chinese construction. It is current in ports all over the East, + and is by no means confined to China. The principle is that roots, + chiefly monosyllabic, are used in their crude form without inflection + or agglutination, the mere juxtaposition (without any change of form) + showing whether they are verbs, adjectives, etc. This is the Chinese + contribution to the language. +</p> + +<p> + Chinook is the key-language to dealings with the huge number + +<!-- 085.png --> + +<a name="page076"> </a><span class = "pagenum">76</span> + of different tribes of American Indians. It contains a large + admixture of French words, and was to a great extent artificially put + together by the Hudson Bay Company's officials, for the purposes of + their business. +</p> + +<p> + Quite apart from these various more or less consciously constructed + mixed languages, there is a much larger artificial element in many + national languages than is commonly realized. Take modern Hungarian, + Greek, or even Italian. Literary Italian, as we know it, is largely + an artificial construction for literary purposes, made by Dante and + others, on the basis of a vigorous and naturally supple dialect. With + modern Greek this is even more strikingly the case. As a national + language it is almost purely the work of a few scholars, who in + modern times arbitrarily and artificially revived and modified the + ancient Greek. +</p> + +<p> + There seems, then, to be absolutely no foundation in experience for + opposing a universal language on the score of artificiality. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterII"> + II + <div class="subtitolo"> + outline of the history of the idea of a universal language + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center" style="font-style: italic"> + List of Schemes proposed +</p> + +<p> + The story of Babel in the Old Testament reflects the popular feeling + that confusion of tongues is a hindrance and a curse. Similarly in + the New Testament the Pentecostal gift of tongues is a direct gift + of God. But apparently it was not till about 300 years ago that + philosophers began to think seriously about a world-language. +</p> + +<p> + The earliest attempts were based upon the mediaeval idea that man + might attain to a perfect knowledge of the universe. The whole sum of + things might, it was thought, be brought by division and subdivision + within an orderly scheme of classification. To + +<!-- 086.png --> + +<a name="page077"> </a><span class = "pagenum">77</span> + any conceivable idea or thing capable of being represented by human + speech might therefore be attached a corresponding word, like a + label, on a perfectly regular and logical system. Words would thus + be self-explanatory to any person who had grasped the system, + and would serve as an index or key to the things they represented. + Language thus became a branch of philosophy as the men of the time + conceived it, or at all events a useful handmaid. Thus arose the idea + of a "philosophical language." +</p> + +<p> + A very simple illustration will serve to show what is meant. Go into + a big library and look up any work in the catalogue. You will find a + reference number—say, 04582.g. 35,c. If you learnt the system of + classification of that library, the reference number would explain to + you where to find that particular book out of any number of millions. + The fact of the number beginning with a "0" would at once place the + book in a certain main division, and so on with the other numbers, + till "g" in that series gave you a fairly small subdivision. Within + that, "35" gives you the number of the case, and "c" the shelf within + the case. The book is soon run to earth. +</p> + +<p> + Just so a word in a philosophical language. Suppose the word + is <i>brabo</i>. The final <i>o</i> shows it to be a noun. The + monosyllabic root shows it to be concrete. The initial <i>b</i> + shows it to be in the animal category. The subsequent letters give + subdivisions of the animal kingdom, till the word is narrowed down + by its form to membership of one small class of animals. The other + members of the class will be denoted by an ordered sequence of words + in which only the letter denoting the individual is changed. Thus, + if <i>brabo</i> means "dog," <i>braco</i> may be "cat," and so on: + <i>brado</i>, <i>brafo</i>, <i>brago</i>... etc., according to + the classification set up. +</p> + +<p> + Words, then, are reduced to mere formulae; and grammar, inflections, + etc., are similarly laid out on purely logical, systematic lines, + without taking any account of existing languages and their structure. + To languages of this type the historians of the universal language + have given the name of <i>a priori</i> languages. +</p> + +<!-- 087.png --> + +<a name="page078"> </a><span class = "pagenum">78</span> +<p> + Directly opposed to these is the other group of artificial languages, + called <i>a posteriori</i>. These are wholly based on the principle + of borrowing from existing language: their artificiality consists + in choice of words and in regularization and simplification of + vocabulary and grammar. They avoid, as far as possible, any elements + of arbitrary invention, and confine themselves to adapting and making + easier what usage has already sanctioned. +</p> + +<p> + Between the two main types come the <i>mixed languages</i>, partaking + of the nature of each. +</p> + +<p id="languagelist"> + The following list is taken from the <i>Histoire de la langue + universelle</i>, by MM. Couturat and Leau: +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em"> + I. A Priori Languages +</p> + +<p> + 1. The philosopher Descartes, in a letter of 1629, forecasts a system + (realized in our days by Zamenhof) of a regular universal grammar: + words to be formed with fixed roots and affixes, and to be in every + case immediately decipherable from the dictionary alone. He rejects + this scheme as fit "for vulgar minds," and proceeds to sketch the + outline of all subsequent "philosophic" languages. Thus the great + thinker anticipates both types of universal language. +</p> + +<p> + 2. Sir Thomas Urquhart, 1653—<i>Logopandekteision</i> (see + <a href="#partIIchapterIII">next chapter</a>). +</p> + +<p> + 3. Dalgarno, 1661—<i>Ars Signorum</i>. + <br/> + Dalgarno was a Scotchman born at Aberdeen in 1626. His language is + founded on the classification of ideas. Of these there are seventeen + main classes, represented by seventeen letters. Each letter is the + initial of all the words in its class. +</p> + +<p> + 4. Wilkins, 1668—<i>An Essay towards a Real Character and a + Philosophical Language</i>. + <br/> + Wilkins was Bishop of Chester, and first secretary and one of the + founders of the Royal Society. Present members please note. His + system is a development of Dalgarno's. +</p> + +<!-- 088.png --> + +<a name="page079"> </a><span class = "pagenum">79</span> +<p> + 5. Leibnitz, 1646–1716. + <br/> + Leibnitz thought over this matter all his life, and there are various + passages on it scattered through his works, though no one treatise + is devoted to it. He held that the systems of his predecessors were + not philosophical enough. He dreamed of a logic of thought applicable + to all ideas. All complex ideas are compounds of simple ideas, as + non-primary numbers are of primary numbers. Numbers can be compounded + <i>ad infinitum.</i> So if numbers are translated into pronouncible + words, these words can be combined so as to represent every possible + idea. +</p> + +<p> + 6. Delormel, 1795 (An III)—<i>Projet d'une langue + universelle</i>. + <br/> + Delormel was inspired by the humanitarian ideas of the French + Revolution. He wished to bring mankind together in fraternity. His + system rests on a logical classification of ideas on a decimal basis. +</p> + +<p> + 7. Jean François Sudre, 1817—<i>Langue musicale universelle</i>. + <br/> + Sudre was a schoolmaster, born in 1787. His language is founded on + the seven notes of the scale, and he calls it Solresol. +</p> + +<p> + 8. Grosselin, 1836—<i>Systeme de langue universelle</i>. + <br/> + A language composed of 1500 words, called "roots," with 100 suffixes, + or modifying terminations. +</p> + +<p> + 9. Vidal, 1844—<i>Langue universelle et analytique</i>. + <br/> + A curious combination of letters and numbers. +</p> + +<p> + 10. Letellier, 1852–1855—<i>Cours complet de langue + universelle</i>, and many subsequent publications. + <br/> + Letellier was a former schoolmaster and school inspector. His system + is founded on the "theory of language," which is that the word ought + to represent by its component letters an analysis of the idea it + conveys. +</p> + +<p> + 11. Abbé Bonifacio Sotos Ochando, 1852, Madrid. + <br/> + The abbé had been a deputy to the Spanish Cortes, Spanish + +<!-- 089.png --> + +<a name="page080"> </a><span class = "pagenum">80</span> + master to Louis Philippe's children, a university professor, and + director of a polytechnic college in Madrid, etc. His language is a + logical one, intended for international scientific use, and chiefly + for writing. He does not think a spoken language for all purposes + possible. +</p> + +<p> + 12. <i>Societé Internationale de linguistique</i>. First + report dated 1856. + <br/> + The object of the society was to carry out a radical reform + of French orthography, and to prepare the way for a universal + language—"the need of which is beginning to be generally felt." + In the report the idea of adopting one of the most widely spoken + national languages is considered and rejected. The previous projects + are reviewed, and that of Sotos Ochando is recommended as the best. + The <i>a posteriori</i> principle is rejected and the <i>a priori</i> + deliberately adopted. This is excusable, owing to the fact that most + projects hitherto had been <i>a priori</i>. The philosopher Charles + Renouvier gave proof of remarkable prescience by condemning the <i>a + priori</i> theory in an article in <i>La Revue</i>, 1855, in which he + forecasts the <i>a posteriori</i> plan. +</p> + +<p> + 13. Dyer, 1875—<i>Lingwalumina; or, the Language of Light</i>. +</p> + +<p> + 14. Reinaux, 1877. +</p> + +<p> + 15. Maldent, 1877—<i>La langue naturelle</i>. + <br/> + The author was a civil engineer. +</p> + +<p> + 16. Nicolas, 1900—<i>Spokil</i>. + <br/> + The author is a ship's doctor and former partisan of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + 17. Hilbe, 1901—<i>Die Zablensprache</i>, + <br/> + Based on numbers which are translated by vowels. +</p> + +<p> + 18. Dietrich, 1902—<i>Völkerverkehrssprache</i>. +</p> + +<p> + 19. Mannus Talundberg, 1904—<i>Perio, eine auf Logik und + Gedachtnisskunst aufgebaute Weltsprache</i>. +</p> + +<!-- 090.png --> + +<a name="page081"> </a><span class = "pagenum">81</span> +<p align="center" class="majusklete" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em"> + II. Mixed Languages +</p> + +<p> + These are chiefly Volapük and its derivates. +</p> + +<p> + 1. August Theodor von Grimm, state councillor of the Russian Empire, + worked out a "programme for the formation of a universal language," + which contains some <i>a priori</i> elements, as well as nearly + all the principles which subsequent authors of <i>a posteriori</i> + languages have realized. +</p> + +<p> + This Grimm is not to be confused with the famous philologist Jacob + von Grimm, though he wrote about the same time. +</p> + +<p> + 2. Schleyer, 1879—<i>Volapük</i>. (See <a href="#partIIchapterIV">below</a>.) +</p> + +<p> + 3. Verheggen, 1886—<i>Nal Bino</i>. +</p> + +<p> + 4. Menet, 1886—<i>Langue universelle</i>. + <br/> + An imitation of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + 5. Bauer, 1886—<i>Spelin</i>. + <br/> + A development of Volapük with more words taken from neutral + languages. +</p> + +<p> + 6. St. de Max, 1887—<i>Bopal</i>. + <br/> + An imitation of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + 7. Dormoy, 1887—<i>Balta</i>. + <br/> + A simplification of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + 8. Fieweger, 1893—<i>Dil</i>. + <br/> + An exaggeration of Volapük for good and ill. +</p> + +<p> + 9. Guardiola, 1893—<i>Orba.</i> + <br/> + A fantastic language. +</p> + +<p> + 10. W. von Arnim, 1896—<i>Veltparl</i>. + <br/> + A derivative of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + 11. Marchand, 1898—<i>Dilpok</i>. + <br/> + Simplified Volapük. +</p> + +<!-- 091.png --> + +<a name="page082"> </a><span class = "pagenum">82</span> +<p> + 12. Bollack, 1899—<i>La langue bleue</i>. + <br/> + Aims merely at commercial and common use. Ingenious, but too + difficult for the memory. +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em"> + III. A Posteriori Languages +</p> + +<p> + 1. Faiguet, 1765—<i>Langue nouvelle</i>. + <br/> + Faiguet was treasurer of France. He published his project, which is + a scheme for simplifying grammar, in the famous eighteenth-century + encyclopaedia of Diderot and d'Alembert. +</p> + +<p> + 2. Schipfer, 1839—<i>Communicationssprache</i>. + <br/> + This scheme has an historical interest for two reasons. First, the + fact that it is founded on French reflects the feeling of the time + that French was, as he says, "already to a certain extent a universal + language." The point of interest is to compare the date when the + projects began to be founded on English. In 1879 Volapük took + English for the base. Secondly, Schipfer's scheme reflects the new + consciousness of wider possibilities that were coming into the world + with the development of means of communication by rail and steamboat. + The author recommends the utility of his project by referring to "the + new way of travelling." +</p> + +<p> + 3. De Rudelle, 1858—<i>Pantos-Dimon-Glossa.</i> + <br/> + De Rudelle was a modern-language master in France and afterwards + at the London Polytechnic. His language is based on ten natural + languages, especially Greek, Latin, and the modern derivatives of + Latin, with grammatical hints from English, German, and Russian. It + is remarkable for having been the first to embody several principles + of the first importance, which have since been more fully carried + out in other schemes, and are now seen to be indispensable. Among + these are: (1) distinction of the parts of speech by a fixed form for + each; (2) suppression of separate verbal forms for each person; (3) + formation of derivatives by means of suffixes with fixed meanings. +</p> + +<!-- 092.png --> + +<a name="page083"> </a><span class = "pagenum">83</span> +<p> + 4. Pirro, 1868—<i>Universalsprache</i>. + <br/> + Based upon five languages—French, German, English, Italian, and + Spanish—and containing a large proportion of words from the + Latin. +</p> + +<p> + 5. Ferrari, 1877—<i>Monoglottica</i> (?). <!-- yes, the question + mark is in the book! --> +</p> + +<p> + 6. Volk and Fuchs, 1883—<i>Weltsprache</i>. + <br/> + Founded on Latin. +</p> + +<p> + 7. Cesare Meriggi, 1884—<i>Blaia Zimondal</i>. +</p> + +<p> + 8. Courtonne, 1885—<i>Langue Internationale + néo-Latine</i>. + <br/> + Based on the modern Romance languages, and therefore not sufficiently + international. A peculiarity is that all roots are monosyllabic. The + history of this attempt illustrates the weight of inertia against + which any such project has to struggle. It was presented to the + Scientific Society of Nice, which drew up a report and sent it to all + the learned societies of Romance-speaking countries. Answers were + received from three towns—Pau, Sens, and Nimes. It was then + proposed to convene an international neo-Latin congress; but it is + not surprising to hear that nothing came of it. +</p> + +<p> + 9. Steiner, 1885—<i>Pasilingua</i>. + <br/> + A counterblast to Volapük. The author aims at copying the + methods of naturally formed international languages like the + <i>lingua franca</i> or Pidgin-English. Based on English, French, and + German; but the English vocabulary forms the groundwork. +</p> + +<p> + 10. Eichhorn, 1887—<i>Weltsprache</i>. + <br/> + Based on Latin. A leading principle is that each part of speech + ought to be recognizable by its form. Thus nouns have two syllables; + adjectives, three; pronouns, one; verbal roots, one syllable + beginning and ending with a consonant; and so on. +</p> + +<p> + 11. Zamenhof, 1887—<i>Esperanto</i>. (See <a href="#partIIchapterVII">below</a>.) +</p> + +<!-- 093.png --> + +<a name="page084"> </a><span class = "pagenum">84</span> +<p> + 12. Bernhard, 1888—<i>Lingua franca nuova</i>. + <br/> + A kind of bastard Italian. +</p> + +<p> + 13. Lauda, 1888—<i>Kosmos</i>. + <br/> + Draws all its vocabulary from Latin. +</p> + +<p> + 14. Henderson, 1888—<i>Lingua</i>. + <br/> + Latin vocabulary with modern grammar. +</p> + +<p> + 15. Henderson, 1902—<i>Latinesce</i>. + <br/> + A simpler and more practical adaptation of Latin by the same + author—<i>e.g.</i> the present infinitive form does duty for + several finite tenses, and words are used in their modern senses. +</p> + +<p> + 16. Hoinix (pseudonym for the same indefatigable Mr. Henderson), + 1889—<i>Anglo-franca</i>. + <br/> + A mixture of French and English. Both this and the barbarized + Latin schemes are fairly easy and certainly simpler than the real + languages, but they are shocking to the ear, and produce the effect + of mutilation of language. +</p> + +<p> + 17. Stempel, 1889—<i>Myrana</i>. + <br/> + Based on Latin with admixture of other languages. +</p> + +<p> + 18. Stempel, 1894—<i>Communia</i>. + <br/> + A simplification of No. 17, with a new name. +</p> + +<p> + 19. Rosa, 1890—<i>Nov Latin</i>. + <br/> + A set of rules for using the Latin dictionary in a certain way as a + key to produce something that can be similarly deciphered. +</p> + +<p> + 20. Julius Lott, 1890—<i>Mundolingue</i>. + <br/> + Founded on Latin. Lott started an international society for + a universal language, proposing to build up his language by + collaboration of savants thus brought together. +</p> + +<p> + 21. Marini, 1891—<i>Méthode rapide, facile et certaine + pour construire un idiome universel</i>. +</p> + +<!-- 094.png --> + +<a name="page085"> </a><span class = "pagenum">85</span> +<p> + 22. Liptay, 1892—<i>Langue catholique</i>. + <br/> + Based on the theory than an international language already exists (in + the words common to many languages), and has only to be discovered. +</p> + +<p> + 23. Mill, 1893—<i>Anti-Volapük</i>. + <br/> + A simple universal grammar to be applied to the vocabulary of each + national language. +</p> + +<p> + 24. Braakman, 1894—<i>Der Wereldtaal "El Mundolinco," Gramatico + del Mundolinco pro li de Hollando Factore</i> (Noordwijk). +</p> + +<p> + 25. Albert Hoessrich (date?)—<i>Talnovos, Monatsschrift für + die Einführung und Verbreitung der allgemeinen Verkehrssprache</i> + "<i>Tal</i>" (Sonneberg, Thuringen). <!-- yes, the date question is + in the book! --> +</p> + +<p> + 26. Heintzeler, 1895—<i>Universala</i>. + <br/> + Heintzeler compares the twelve chief artificial languages already + proposed, and shows that they have much in common. He suggests a + commission to work out a system on an eclectic basis. +</p> + +<p> + 27. Beermann, 1895—<i>Novilatin</i>. + <br/> + Latin brought up to date by comparison with six chief modern + languages. +</p> + +<p> + 28. <i>Le Linguist</i>, 1896–7. + <br/> + A monthly review conducted by a band of philologists. It contains + many discussions of the principles which should underly an + international language, and suggestions, but no complete scheme. +</p> + +<p> + 29. Puchner, 1897—<i>Nuove Roman</i>. + <br/> + Based largely on Spanish, which the author considers the best of the + Romance tongues. +</p> + +<p> + 30. Nilson—<i>La vest-europish central-dialekt</i> (1890); + <i>Lasonebr, un transitional lingvo</i> (1897); <i>Il dialekt + Centralia, un compromiss + +<!-- 095.png --> + +<a name="page086"> </a><span class = "pagenum">86</span> + entr il lingu universal de Akademi international e la + vest-europish central-dialekt</i> (1899). +</p> + +<p> + 31. Kürschner, 1900—<i>Lingua Komun</i>. + <br/> + The author was an Esperantist, but found Esperanto not scientific + enough. It is almost incredible that a man who knew Esperanto should + invent a language with several conjugations of the verb, but this is + what Kürschner has done. +</p> + +<p> + 32. International Academy of Universal Language, 1902—<i>Idiom + Neutral</i>. (See <a href="#partIIchapterV">below</a>.) +</p> + +<p> + 33. Elias Molee, 1902—<i>Tutonish; or, Anglo-German Union + Tongue</i>. <i>Tutonish; a Teutonic International Language</i> (1904). +</p> + +<p> + 34. Molenaar—<i>Panroman, skiz de un ling internazional</i> + (in <i>Die Religion der Menschheit</i>, March 1903); <i>Esperanto + oder Panroman? Das Weltsprache-problem und seine einfachste + Lösung</i> (1906); <i>Universal Ling-Panroman</i> (in + <i>Menschheitsziele</i>, 1906); <i>Gramatik de Universal</i> + (Leipzig, Puttmann, 1906). +</p> + +<p> + 35. Peano—<i>De Latino sine flexione</i> (in <i>Revue de + Mathématique</i>, vol. viii., Turin, 1903); <i>Il Latino + quale lingua ausiliare internazionale</i> (in <i>Atti della R. + Accademia delle Scienze di Torino</i> 1904); <i>Vocabulario de + Latino Internationale comparato cum Anglo, Franco, Germano, Hispano, + Italo, Russo, Graeco, et Sanscrito</i> (Turin, 1904). See also the + <i>Formulario mathematico</i>, vol. v. (Turin, 1906). +</p> + +<p> + 36. Hummler, 1904—<i>Mundelingua</i> (Saulgau). +</p> + +<p> + 37. Victor Hely, 1905—<i>Esquisse d'une grammaire de la + langue Internationale, </i>1<i>st part: Les mots et la syntaxe</i> + (Langres). +</p> + +<p> + 38. Max Wald, 1906—<i>Pankel (Weltsprache), die leichteste und + kürzeste Sprache für den internationalen Verkehr. Grammatik + und Wörterbuch mit Aufgabe der Wortquelle</i> (Gross-Beeren). +</p> + +<!-- 096.png --> + +<a name="page087"> </a><span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<p> + 39. Greenwood, 1906—<i>Ekselsiore, the New Universal Language + for All Nations: a Simplified, Improved Esperanto</i> (London, + Miller & Gill); <i>Ulla, t ulo lingua ä otrs</i> + (The Ulla Society, Bridlington, 1906). +</p> + +<p> + 40. Trischen, 1907—<i>Mondlingvo, provisorische Aufstellung + einer internationalen Verkehrssprache</i> (Pierson, Dresden). +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterIII"> + III + <div class="subtitolo"> + the earliest british attempt + </div> +</div> + +<p> + A perusal of the foregoing list shows that in the early days of + the search for an international language the British were well to + the fore. Of the British pioneers in this field the first two were + Scots—a fact which accords well with the traditional enterprise + north of the Tweed, and readiness to look abroad, beyond their own + noses, or, in this case, beyond their own tongues. It is likewise + remarkable that the British have almost dropped out of the running + in recent times, as far as origination is concerned. Is this fact + also typical, a small symptom of Jeshurun's general fatness? Does it + reflect a lesser degree of nimbleness in moving with the spirit of + the times? +</p> + +<p> + Anyhow, in this case the Briton's content with what he has got at + home is well grounded. He certainly possesses a first-class language. + As a curious example of the quaint use of it by a scholar and clever + man in the middle of the seventeenth century, the following account + of Sir Thomas Urquhart's book may be of some interest. +</p> + +<p> + Sir Thomas is well known as the translator of Rabelais; and evidently + something of the curious erudition, polyglotism, and quaintness of + conceit of his author stuck to the translator. This book is the + rarest of his tracts, all of which are uncommon, and has been hardly + more than mentioned by name by the previous writers on the subject. +</p> + +<p> + The title-page runs: +</p> + +<!-- 097.png --> + +<a name="page088"> </a><span class = "pagenum">88</span> + +<div> + <p align="center" style="font-size: large"> + LOGOPANDEKTEISION + </p> + <p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Or, An Introduction to the Universal Language, + <br/> + digested into these Six Several Books + </p> + <center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Formatting of LOGOPANDEKTEISION title page."> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"> + Neaudethaumata<br/> + Chrestasebeia<br/> + Cleronomaporia + </td> + <td width="10%"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"> + Chryseomystes<br/> + Neleodicastes<br/> + Philoponauxesis + </td> + </tr> + </table> + </center> + <p align="center"> + By <span class="majusklete">Sir Thomas Urquhart</span>, of Cromartie, Knight, + </p> + <p align="center"> + Now lately contrived and published both for his own Utilitie,<br/> + and that of all Pregnant and Ingenious Spirits. + </p> + <p align="center" class="majusklete"> + London + </p> + <center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Formatting of LOGOPANDEKTEISION title page."> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> + Printed and are to be sold by <span class="majusklete">Giles Calvert</span><br/> + at the Black Spread-Eagle at the West-end<br/> + of Paul's, and by <span class="majusklete">Richard Tomlins</span> at<br/> + the Sun and Bible near Pye Corner. 1653. + </td> + </tr> + </table> + </center> +</div> + +<p> + In a note at the end of the book he apologizes for haste, saying that + the copy was "given out to two several printers, one alone not being + fully able to hold his quill a-going." +</p> + +<p> + The book opens with: +</p> + +<p align="center"> + "The Epistle Dedicatory to Nobody." +</p> + +<p> + The first paragraph runs: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="majusklete dekstrakomence">"Most Honourable,</p> + + <p class="duobledekstrakomence"> + "My non-supponent Lord, and Soveraign Master of contradictions + in adjected terms, that unto you I have presumed to tender + the dedicacie of this introduction, will not seem strange to + those, that know how your concurrence did further me to the + accomplishment of that new Language, into the frontispiece whereof + it is permitted." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + After some preliminary remarks, he says: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "Now to the end the Reader may be more enamoured of the Language, + wherein I am to publish a grammar and lexicon, + +<!-- 098.png --> + +<a name="page089"> </a><span class = "pagenum">89</span> + I will here set down some few qualities and advantages peculiar to + itself, and which no Language else (although all other concurred + with it) is able to reach unto." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + There follow sixty-six "qualities and advantages," which contain + the only definite information about the language, for the promised + grammar and lexicon never appeared. A few may be quoted as typical of + the inducements held out to "pregnant and ingenious spirits," to the + end they "may be more enamoured of the Language." The good Sir Thomas + was plainly an optimist. +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Sixthly, in the cases of all the + declinable parts of speech, it surpasseth all other languages + whatsoever: for whilst others have but five or six at most, it hath + ten, besides the nominative. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Eighthly, every word capable of number is + better provided therewith in this language, then [<i>sic</i>] by any + other: for instead of two or three numbers which others have, this + affordeth you four; to wit, the singular, dual, plural, and redual. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Tenthly, in this tongue there are eleven + genders; wherein likewise it exceedeth all other languages. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Eleventhly, Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, + and Hybrids have all of them ten tenses, besides the present: which + number no language else is able to attain to. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Thirteenthly, in lieu of six moods, + which other languages have at most, this one enjoyeth seven in its + conjugable words." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + Sir Thomas evidently believed in giving his clients plenty for + their money. He is lavish of "Verbs, Mongrels, Participles, and + Hybrids," truly a tempting menagerie. He promises, however, a + time-reduction on learning a quantity: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Seven and fiftiethly, the greatest + wonder of all is that of all the languages in the world it is + easiest to learn; a boy of ten years old being able to attain to the + knowledge thereof in three months' space; because there are in it + many facilitations for the memory, which no other language hath but + itself." + </p> + +</div> + +<!-- 099.png --> + +<a name="page090"> </a><span class = "pagenum">90</span> +<p> + Seventeenth-century boys of tender years must have had a good + stomach for "Mongrels and Hybrids," and such-like dainties + of the grammatical <i>menu</i>; but even if they could swallow a + mongrel, it is hard to believe that they would not have strained at + ten cases in three months. It might be called "casual labour," but it + would certainly have been "three months' hard." +</p> + +<p> + After these examples of grammatical generosity, it is not surprising + to read: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Fifteenthly, in this language the Verbs + and Participles have four voices, although it was never heard that + ever any other language had above three." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + Note that the former colleagues of the "Verbs and Participles," + the "Mongrels and Hybrids," are here dropped out of the category. + Perhaps it is as well, seeing the number of voices attributed to + each. A four-voiced mongrel would have gone one better than + the triple-headed hell-hound Cerberus, and created quite + a special Hades of its own for schoolboys, to say nothing of light + sleepers. +</p> + +<p> + Under "five and twentiethly" we learn that "there is no Hexameter, + Elegiack, Saphick, Asclepiad, lambick, or any other kind of Latin or + Greek verse, but I will afford you another in this language of the + same sort"; which leads up to: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Six and twentiethly, as it trotteth + easily with metrical feet, so at the end of the career of each + line, hath it dexterity, after the manner of our English and other + vernaculary tongues, to stop with the closure of a rhyme; in the + framing whereof, the well-versed in that language shall have + so little labour, that for every word therein he shall be able to + furnish at least five hundred several monosyllables of the same + termination with it." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + A remarkable opportunity for every man to become his own poet! +</p> + +<!-- 100.png --> + +<a name="page091"> </a><span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Four and thirtiethly, in this language + also words expressive of herbs represent unto us with what degree of + cold, moisture, heat, or dryness they are qualified, together with + some other property distinguishing them from other herbs." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + In this crops out the idea that haunted the minds of mediaeval + speculators on the subject: that language could play a more important + part than it had hitherto done; that a word, while conveying an + idea, could at the same time in some way describe or symbolize the + attributes of the thing named. Imagine the charge of thought that + could be rammed into a phrase in such a language. Imagine too, you + who remember the cold shudder of your childhood, when you heard the + elders discussing a prospective dose—intensified by all the + horrors of imagination when the discussion was veiled in the "decent + obscurity" of French—imagine the grim realism of a language + containing "<i>words expressive of herbs</i>",—and expressive to + that extent! +</p> + +<p> + There seems, indeed, to have been something rather cold-blooded + about this language: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Eight and thirtiethly, in the contexture + of nouns, pronouns, and preposital articles united together, it + administreth many wonderful varieties of Laconick expressions, as in + the Grammar thereof shall more at large be made known unto you." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + But, after all, it had a human side: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Three and fourtiethly, as its + interjections are more numerous, so are they more emphatical in their + respective expression of passions, than that part of speech is in any + other language whatsoever. + </p> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Eight and fourtiethly, of all languages + this is the most compendious in complement, and consequently fittest + for Courtiers and Ladies." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + Sir Thomas seems to have been a bit of a man of the world too. +</p> + +<!-- 101.png --> + +<a name="page092"> </a><span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "... Fiftiethly, no language in matter of + Prayer and Ejaculations to Almighty God is able, for conciseness of + expression to compare with it; and therefore, of all other, the most + fit for the use of Churchmen and spirits inclined to devotion." + </p> + +</div> + +<p> + This "therefore," with its direct deduction from "conciseness of + expression," recalls the lady patroness who chose her incumbents for + being fast over prayers. She said she could always pick out a parson + who read service daily by his time for the Sunday service. +</p> + +<p> + Sir Thomas is perhaps over-sanguine to a modern taste when he + concludes: +</p> + +<div class="letero"> + + <p class="dekstrakomence"> + "Besides the sixty and six advantages above all other languages, + I might have couched thrice as many more of no less consideration + than the aforesaid, but that these same will suffice to sharpen + the longing of the generous Reader after the intrinsecal and most + researched secrets of the new Grammar and Lexicon which I am to + evulge." + </p> + +</div> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterIV"> + IV + <div class="subtitolo"> + history of volapük—a warning + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Volapük is the invention of a "white night." Those who know + their <i>Alice in Wonderland</i> will perhaps involuntarily + conjure up the picture of the kindly and fantastic White Knight, + riding about on a horse covered with mousetraps and other strange + caparisons, which he introduced to all and sundry with the unfailing + remark, "It's my own invention." Scoffers will not be slow to + find in Volapük and the White Knight's inventions a common + characteristic—their fantasticness. Perhaps there really is + some analogy in the fact that both inventors had to mount their + hobby-horses and ride errant through sundry lands, thrusting their + creations on an unwilling world. But the particular kind of white + night of which Volapük was born is the + +<!-- 102.png --> + +<a name="page093"> </a><span class = "pagenum">93</span> + <i>nuit blanche</i>, literally = "white night," but idiomatically = + "night of insomnia." +</p> + +<p> + On the night of March 31, 1879, the good Roman Catholic Bishop + Schleyer, curé of Litzelstetten, near Constance, could not get + to sleep. From his over-active brain, charged with a knowledge of + more than fifty languages, sprang the world-speech, as Athene sprang + fully armed from the brain of Zeus. At any rate, this is the legend + of the origin of Volapük. +</p> + +<p> + As for the name, an Englishman will hardly appreciate the fact that + the word "Volapük" is derived from the two English words "world" + and "speech." This transformation of "world" into <i>vol</i> and + "speech" into <i>pük</i> is a good illustration of the manner + in which Volapük is based on English, and suggests at once a + criticism of that all-important point in an artificial language, the + vocabulary. It is too arbitrary. +</p> + +<p> + Published in 1880, Volapük spread first in South Germany, + and then in France, where its chief apostle was M. Kerckhoffs, + modern-language master in the principal school of commerce in Paris. + He founded a society for its propagation, which soon numbered among + its members several well-known men of science and letters. The great + Magasins du Printemps—a sort of French Whiteley's, and familiar + to all who have shopped in Paris—started a class, attended by + over a hundred of its employees; and altogether fourteen different + classes were opened in Paris, and the pupils were of a good stamp. +</p> + +<p> + Progress was extraordinarily rapid in other European countries, and + by 1889, only nine years after the publication of Volapük, there + were 283 Volapük societies, distributed throughout Europe, + America, and the British Colonies. Instruction books were published + in twenty-five languages, including Volapük itself; numerous + newspapers, in and about Volapük, sprang up all over the world; + the number of Volapükists was estimated at a million. This + extraordinarily rapid success is very striking, and seems to afford + proof that there is a widely felt want for an international language. + Three Volapük congresses were held, + +<!-- 103.png --> + +<a name="page094"> </a><span class = "pagenum">94</span> + of which the third, held in Paris in 1889, with proceedings entirely + in Volapük, was the most important. +</p> + +<p> + The rapid decline of Volapük is even more instructive than its + sensational rise. The congress of Paris marked its zenith: hopes ran + high, and success seemed assured. Within two years it was practically + dead. No more congresses were held, the partisans dwindled away, the + local clubs dissolved, the newspapers failed, and the whole movement + came to an end. There only remained a new academy founded by Bishop + Schleyer, and here and there a group of the faithful.<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>A Volapük journal still appears in Graz, + Stiria—<i>Volapükabled lezenodik</i>. The editor has + just (March 1907) retired, and the veteran Bishop Schleyer, now + seventy-five years old, is taking up the editorship again. +</p> + +<p> + The chief reason of this failure was internal dissension. First + arose the question of principle: Should Volapük aim at being + a literary language, capable of expressing all the finer shades of + thought and feeling? or should it confine itself to being a practical + means of business communication? +</p> + +<p> + Bishop Schleyer claimed for his invention an equal rank among the + literary languages of the world. The practical party, headed by M. + Kerckhoffs, wished to keep it utilitarian and practical. With the + object of increasing its utility, they proposed certain changes in + the language; and thus there arose, in the second place, differences + of opinion as to fundamental points of structure, such as the + nature and origin of the roots to be adopted. Vital questions were + thus reopened, and the whole language was thrown back into the + melting-pot. +</p> + +<p> + The first congress was held at Friedrichshafen in August 1884, and + was attended almost exclusively by Germans. The second congress, + Munich, August 1887, brought together over 200 Volapükists from + different countries. A professor of geology from Halle University was + elected president, and an International Academy of Volapük was + founded. +</p> + +<p> + Then the trouble began. M. Kerckhoffs was unanimously elected + director of the academy, and Bishop Schleyer was made + +<!-- 104.png --> + +<a name="page095"> </a><span class = "pagenum">95</span> + grand-master (<i>cifal</i>) for life. Questions arose as to the + duties of the academy and the respective powers of the inventor + of the language and the academicians. M. Kerckhoffs was all along + the guiding spirit on the side of the academy. He was in the main + supported by the Volapük world, though there seems to have been + some tendency, at any rate at first, on the part of the Germans to + back the bishop. It is impossible to go into details of the points at + issue. Suffice it to say, that eventually the director of the academy + carried a resolution giving the inventor three votes to every one of + ordinary members in all academy divisions, but refusing him the right + of veto, which he claimed. The bishop replied by a threat to depose + M. Kerckhoffs from the directorship, which of course he could not + make good. The constitution of the academy was only binding inasmuch + as it had been drawn up and adopted by the constituent members, and + it gave no such powers to the inventor. +</p> + +<p> + So here was a very pretty quarrel as to the ownership of + Volapük. The bishop said it belonged to him, as he had invented + it: he was its father. The academy said it belonged to the public, + who had a right to amend it in the common interest. This child, which + had newly opened its eyes and smiled upon the world, and upon which + the world was then smiling back—was it a son domiciled in its + father's house and fully <i>in patria potestate</i>? or a ward in + the guardianship of its chief promoters? or an orphan foundling, to + be boarded out on the scattered-home system at the public expense, + and to be brought up to be useful to the community at large? A + vexed question of paternity; and the worst of it was, there was no + international court competent to try the case. +</p> + +<p> + Meantime the congress of 1889 at Paris came on. Volapük was + booming everywhere. Left to itself, it flourished like a green + bay-tree. This meeting was to set an official seal upon its success; + and governments, convinced by this thing done openly in the <i>ville + lumière</i>, would accept the <i>fait accompli</i> and + introduce it into their schools. +</p> + +<!-- 105.png --> + +<a name="page096"> </a><span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<p> + Thirteen countries sent representatives, including Turkey and China. + The great Kerckhoffs was elected president. The proceedings were + in Volapük. The foundling's future was canvassed in terms of + himself by a cosmopolitan board of guardians, who did not yet know + what he was. Rather a Gilbertian situation. Trying a higher flight, + we may say, in Platonic phrase, that Volapük seemed to be about + midway between being and not-being. It is a far cry from Gilbert + <i>viâ</i> Plato to Mr. Kipling, but perhaps Volapük, at + this juncture, may be most aptly described as a "sort of a giddy + harumphrodite," if not "a devil an' a ostrich an' a orphan-child in + one." +</p> + +<p> + Business done: The congress discusses. +</p> + +<p> + The congress passed a resolution that there should be drawn up + "a simple normal grammar, from which all useless rules should be + excluded," and proceeded to adopt a final constitution for the + Volapük Academy. +</p> + +<p> + Article 15 says: "The decisions of the academy must be at once + submitted to the inventor. If the inventor has not within thirty + days protested against the decisions, they are valid. Decisions not + approved by the inventor are referred back to the academy, and are + valid if carried by a two-thirds majority." +</p> + +<p> + The bishop held out for his right of absolute veto, as his episcopal + fellows and their colleagues are doing "in another place" in England. + The conflict presents some analogy with other graver constitutional + matters, involving discussion of the respective merits of absolute + and suspensive veto, and may therefore have some interest at present, + apart from its great importance in any scheme for an international + language. +</p> + +<p> + The upshot was that dissensions broke out within the academy. The + director, unable to carry a complete scheme of reformed grammar, + resigned (1891), and the academy, whose business it was to arrange + the next congress and keep the movement going, never convened a + fourth congress. Several academicians set to work on new artificial + languages of their own; and what was left of + +<!-- 106.png --> + +<a name="page097"> </a><span class = "pagenum">97</span> + the Academy of Volapük, under a new director, M. Rosenberger, a + St. Petersburg railway engineer, elected 1893, subsequently turned + its attention to working out a new language, to which was given the + name Idiom Neutral (see <a href="#partIIchapterV">next chapter</a>). +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p> + It is interesting to note that, when Volapük was nearing its + high-water mark, the American Philosophical Society appointed a + committee (October 1887) to inquire into its scientific value. +</p> + +<p> + This committee reported in November 1887. The report states that + the creation of an international language is in conformity with + the general tendency of modern civilization, and is not merely + desirable, but "<i>will certainly be realized</i>." It goes on to + reject Volapük as the solution of the problem, as being on the + whole retrogade in tendency. It is too arbitrary in construction, and + not international enough in vocabulary; nor does it correspond to + the general trend of development of language, which is away from a + synthetic grammar (inflection by means of terminations, as in Latin + and Greek) and towards an analytic one (inflection by termination + replaced by prepositions and auxiliaries). +</p> + +<p> + But the committee was so fully convinced of the importance of an + international language, that it proposed to the Philosophical Society + that it should invite all the learned societies of the world to + co-operate in the production of a universal language. A resolution + embodying this recommendation was adopted by the society, and the + invitations were sent out. About twenty societies accepted—among + them the University of Edinburgh. The Scots again! +</p> + +<p> + The London Philological Society commissioned Mr. Ellis to investigate + the subject, and upon his report declined to co-operate. Mr. Ellis + was a believer in Volapük, and furthermore did not agree with + the American Philosophical Society's conclusion that an international + language ought to be founded on an Indo-Germanic (Aryan) basis. In + this Mr. Ellis was almost certainly wrong, as subsequent experience + is tending to show. The Japanese, among others, are taking up + Esperanto with enthusiasm, + +<!-- 107.png --> + +<a name="page098"> </a><span class = "pagenum">98</span> + find it easy, and make no difficulty about its Aryan basis. But, + apart from linguistic considerations, Mr. Ellis's practical reasoning + was certainly sound. It was to this effect: The main thing is + to adopt a language that is already in wide use and shown to be + adequate. Alterations bring dissension; by sticking to what we have + already got, imperfections and all, strife is avoided, and the thing + is at once reduced to practice. +</p> + +<p> + This was a wise counsel, and applies to-day with double force to the + present holder of the field, Esperanto, which is besides, in the + opinion of experts, a better language than Volapük, and far + easier to acquire. +</p> + +<p> + However, on the question of technical merits, the American + Philosophical Society was probably right, as against the London + Philological Society represented by Mr. Ellis. And the proof is that + Volapük died—primarily, indeed, of dissensions among its + partisans, but of dissensions superinduced on inherent defects of + principle. That this is true may be seen from the subsequent history + of the Volapük movement. This is briefly narrated in the next + chapter, under the name of Idiom Neutral. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterV"> + V + <div class="subtitolo"> + history of idiom neutral + </div> +</div> + +<p> + We saw above that M. Kerckhoffs was succeeded in the directorship of + the Volapük Academy, 1893, by M. Rosenberger, of St. Petersburg. + During his term of office the academy continued its work of amending + and improving the language. The method of procedure was as follows: + The director elaborated proposals, which he embodied in circulars and + sent round from time to time to his fellow-academicians. They voted + "Yes" or "No," so that the language, when finished, was approved by + them all, and was the joint product of the academy; but it was, in + its new form, to a great extent, the work of the director. At the end + of his term + +<!-- 108.png --> + +<a name="page099"> </a><span class = "pagenum">99</span> + of office it was practically complete. It had undergone a complete + transformation, and was now called Idiom Neutral. +</p> + +<p> + In 1898 M. Rosenberger was succeeded by Rev. A.F. Holmes, of Macedon, + New York State. The members of the academy vary from time to time, + and include (or have included since 1898) natives of America, + Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and + Russia. +</p> + +<p> + Dictionaries of Idiom Neutral have been published in English (in + America), German, and Dutch; but the language hardly seems to + be in use except among the members of the academy. These do not + meet, but carry on their business by means of circulars, drawn + up, of course, in Neutral. There are at present only four groups + of Neutralists—those of St. Petersburg, Nuremberg, Brussels, + and San Antonio, Texas. The famous linguistic club of Nuremberg is + remarkable for having gone through the evolution from Volapük to + Idiom Neutral <i>viâ</i> Esperanto! Besides these four groups, + there are isolated Neutralists in certain towns in Great Britain. The + academy seems still to have some points to settle, and the work of + propaganda has hardly yet begun. +</p> + +<p> + A paper published in Brussels, under the name of <i>Idei + International</i>, seems to represent the ideas of scattered + Neutralists, and of some partisans of other schemes based on + Romance vocabulary. These languages resemble each other greatly, + and some sanguine spirits dream that they may be fused together + into the ultimate international language. A few even hope for an + amalgamation with Esperanto, through the medium of a reformed type + of Esperanto, which approximates more nearly to these newer schemes, + its vocabulary being, like theirs, almost entirely Romance. A series + of modifications was published tentatively by Dr. Zamenhof himself in + 1894, but was suppressed from practical considerations, having regard + to the fate that overtook Volapük, when once it fell into the + hands of reformers. The so-called reforms never represented the + real ideas of Zamenhof, and were rather in the nature of reluctant + concessions to the weaker brethren. They were never introduced. +</p> + +<!-- 109.png --> + +<a name="page100"> </a><span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<p> + The reader may be interested to compare for himself specimens of + Volapük, Idiom Neutral (its lineal descendant), and Esperanto. + This Esperanto is the only one in use, most Esperantists having never + even heard of the reform project, which was at once dropped, before + the language had entered upon its present cosmopolitan extension. The + following versions of the Lord's Prayer are taken from MM. Couturat + and Leau's <i>History</i>, as are the facts in the above narratives, + with the exception of the latest details: +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Volapük +</p> + +<p> + O Fat obas, kel binol in süls, paisaludomöz nem ola! + Kömomöd monargän ola! Jenomöz vil olik, äs + in sül, i su tal! Bodi obsik vädeliki givolös + obes adelo! E pardolös obes debis obsik, äs id obs + aipardobs debeles obas. E no obis nindukolös in tentadi; sod + aidalivolös obis de bad. Jenosöd! +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Idiom Neutral<sup>1</sup> +</p> + +<p> + Nostr patr kel es in sieli! Ke votr nom es sanktifiked; ke votr + regnia veni; ke votr volu es fasied, kuale in siel, tale et su ter. + Dona sidiurne a noi nostr pan omnidiurnik; e pardona (a) noi nostr + debiti, kuale et noi pardon a nostr debtatori; e no induka noi in + tentasion, ma librifika noi da it mal. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>There are two forms of Idiom Neutral,—one called "pure," + authorized by the academy; the other used in the paper <i>Idei + International</i>. +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Esperanto +</p> + +<p> + Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo, sankta estu via nomo; venu + regeco via; estu volo via, kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ + sur la tero. Panon nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ; kaj + pardonu al ni ŝuldojn niajn, kiel ni ankaŭ pardonas al niaj + ŝuldantoj; kaj ne konduku nin en tenton, sed liberigu nin de la + malbono. +</p> + +<!-- 110.png --> + +<a name="page101"> </a><span class = "pagenum">101</span> + +<p> + Comparing Volapük with Idiom Neutral, even this brief specimen + is enough to show the main line of improvement. The framers of the + latter had realized the fact that the vocabulary is the first and + paramount consideration for an artificial language. It is hopeless to + expect people to learn strings of words of arbitrary formation and + like nothing they ever saw. Accordingly Idiom Neutral borrows its + vocabulary from natural speech, and thereby abandons a regularity + which may be theoretically more perfect, but which by arbitrary + disfigurement of familiar words overreaches itself, and does more + harm than good. +</p> + +<p> + It is very instructive to note that a body of international language + specialists were brought little by little to adopt an almost + exclusively Romance vocabulary, and this in spite of the fact that + they started from Volapük, whose vocabulary is constructed on + quite other lines. In other points their language suffers from being + too exclusively inspired by Volapükist principles, so that their + recognition of the necessity of an <i>a posteriori</i> vocabulary is + the more convincing. +</p> + +<p> + Given, then, that vocabulary is to be borrowed and not created anew, + it is obvious that the principle of borrowing must be <i>maximum of + internationality of roots</i>—i.e. those words will be adopted + by preference which are already common to the greatest number of + chief languages. Now, by far the greater number of such international + words (which are far more numerous than was thought before a special + study was made of the subject) are Romance, being of Latin origin. + This is the justification of the prevalence of the Romance element + in any modern artificial language. It has been frequently made a + reproach against Esperanto that it is a Romance language; but the + unanimous verdict of the competent linguists who composed the academy + for the emendation of Volapük may be taken as final. They + threshed the question out once for all, and their conclusion derives + added force from the fact that it is the result of conversion. +</p> + +<p> + But it may be doubted whether they have not gone rather far in this + direction and overshot the mark. +</p> + +<!-- 111.png --> + +<a name="page102"> </a><span class = "pagenum">102</span> + +<p> + Comparing Idiom Neutral with Esperanto, it will be found that the + latter admits a larger proportion of non-Romance words. While fully + recognizing and doing justice to the accepted principle of selection, + maximum of internationality, Esperanto sometimes gives the preference + to a non-Romance word in order to avoid ambiguity and secure a + perfectly distinct root from which to form derivatives incapable of + confusion with others.<sup>1</sup> There is always a good reason for the choice; + but it is easier to appreciate this after learning the language. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>It is obvious, too, that English, Germans, and Slavs will be more + attracted to a language which borrows some of its features from their + own tongues, than to an entirely Romance language. This relatively + wider international appeal is another advantage of Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + But a mere comparison of the brief texts given above will bring + out another point in favour of Esperanto—its full vocalic + endings. On the other hand, many words in Idiom Neutral present + a mutilated appearance to the eye, and, what is a much greater + sin in an international language, offer grave difficulties of + pronunciation to speakers of many nations. Words ending with a double + consonant are very frequent, e.g. <i>nostr patr</i>; and these + will be unpronounceable for many nations, e.g. for an Italian or a + Japanese. Euphony is one of the strongest of the many strong points + of Esperanto. In it the principle of maximum of internationality + has been applied to <i>sounds</i> as well as <i>forms</i>, and + there are very few sounds that will be a stumbling-block to + any considerable number of speakers. Some of its modern rivals seem + to forget that a language is to be spoken as well as written. When + a language is unfamiliar to the listener, he is greatly aided in + understanding it if the vowel-sounds are long and full and + the pronunciation slow, almost drawling. Esperanto fulfils these + requisites in a marked degree. It is far easier to dwell upon + two-syllabled words with full vocalic endings like <i>patro + nia</i> than upon awkward words like <i>nostr patr</i>. +</p> + +<p> + Yet another advantage of Esperanto is illustrated in the same texts. + Owing to its system of inflexion and the possession of an + +<!-- 112.png --> + +<a name="page103"> </a><span class = "pagenum">103</span> + + objective case, it is extremely flexible, and can put the words + in almost any order, without obscuring the sense. Thus, in the + translation of the <i>Pater Noster</i>, the Esperanto text follows + the Latin <i>word for word and in the same order</i>. It is obvious + that this flexibility confers great advantages for purposes of + faithful and spirited translation. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterVI"> + VI + <div class="subtitolo"> + the newest languages: a neo-latin group—gropings towards a "pan-european" amalgamated scheme + </div> +</div> + +<p> + A perusal of the <a href="#partIIchapterII">list of schemes proposed</a> + shows that the last few years have produced quite a crop of + artificial languages. Now that the main principles necessary to + success are coming to be recognized, the points of difference + between the rival schemes are narrowing down, and, as mentioned in + the last chapter, there is a family likeness between many of the + newer projects. The chief of these are: Idiom Neutral; Pan-Roman or + Universal, by Dr. Molenaar; Latino sine flexione, by Prof. Peano; + Mundolingue; Nuove-Roman; and Lingua Komun. +</p> + +<p> + These have been grouped together by certain adversaries as + "Neo-Roman"; but their partisans seem to prefer the collective term + "Neo-Latin." There are more or less vague hopes that out of them may + be evolved a final form of international language, for which the + names <i>Pan-European</i> and <i>Union-Ling</i> have been suggested. + Dr. Molenaar has declared his willingness to keep to his original + title, Pan-Roman, for his own language, if the composite one should + prefer to be called <i>Universal</i>. Prof. Peano says, in the course + of an article (written in his own language, of course), "any fresh + solution in the future can only differ from Idiom Neutral, as two + medical or mathematical treatises dealing with the same subject." +</p> + +<p> + The only definite scheme for common action put forth up to + +<!-- 113.png --> + +<a name="page104"> </a><span class = "pagenum">104</span> + + now seems to be that proposed by Dr. Molenaar. In January 1907 he + sent round a circular written in French, in which he makes the + following propositions: +</p> + +<p> + All authors and notable partisans of Neo-Latin universal + languages shall meet in a special academy, which will elaborate a + compromise-language. +</p> + +<p> + As regards the programme, the three fundamental principles shall be: +</p> + +<center> + <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Three fundamental principles of Neo-Latin."> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + 1. Internationality and comprehensibility.<br/> + 2. Simplicity and regularity.<br/> + 3. Homogeneity and euphony. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Of these principles, No. 1 is to take precedence of No. 2, and No. 2 + of No. 3. +</p> + +<p> + The order of discussion is to be: +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + I. Grammar +</p> + +<center> + <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Grammatical outline of Neo-Latin."> + <tr> + <td align="right" valign="top"> + (<i>a</i>)<br/> + (<i>b</i>)<br/> + (<i>c</i>)<br/> + (<i>d</i>)<br/> + (<i>e</i>)<br/> + (<i>f</i>) + </td> + <td width="8"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Alphabet.<br/> + Articles (necessary or not?).<br/> + Declension.<br/> + Plural (<i>-s</i> or <i>-i</i>?).<br/> + Adjective (invariable or not?).<br/> + Adverb, etc. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + II. Vocabulary +</p> + +<p> + The number of collaborators is to be limited to about twenty, and the + chairman is to be a non-partisan. +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p> + Such, in outline, is the proposal of Dr. Molenaar. An obvious + criticism is that it falls back into the old mistake of putting + grammar before vocabulary. +</p> + +<p> + From a practical point of view such a composite scheme is not + likely to meet with acceptance. It will be very hard for authors of + languages to be impartial and sacrifice their favourite devices + +<!-- 114.png --> + +<a name="page105"> </a><span class = "pagenum">105</span> + + to the common opinion. M. Bollack, author of the <i>Langue bleue</i>, + has already refused the chairmanship. He does not see the use of + founding a fresh academy, and thinks Dr. Molenaar would do better to + join forces with the Neutralists. +</p> + +<p> + There exists indeed already an "Akademi International de Lingu + Universal," which has produced Idiom Neutral, and of which Mr. Holmes + is still director, now in his second term + (see <a href="#partIIchapterV">preceding chapter</a>). + This academy is said to be too one-sided in its composition, and not + scientific. But it is hard to see how it will abdicate in favour of a + new one. +</p> + +<p> + Meantime, the victorious Esperantists, at present in possession + of the field, poke fun at these new-fangled schemes. A parody in + Esperanto verse, entitled <i>Lingvo de Molenaar</i>, and sung to the + tune of the American song <i>Riding down from Bangor</i>, narrates + the fickleness of Pan-Roman and how it changed into Universal. It + is said that a group of Continental Esperantists, at a convivial + sitting, burnt the apostate Idiom Neutral in effigy by making a + bonfire of Neutral literature. On the other side amenities are not + wanting. It is now the fashion to sling mud at a rival language by + calling it "arbitrary" and "fantastic"; and these epithets are freely + applied to Esperanto. Strong in their cause, the Esperantists are + peacefully preparing the Congress of Cambridge. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterVII"> + VII + <div class="subtitolo"> + history of esperanto + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Happy is the nation that has no history,—still happier the + international language; for a policy of "pacific penetration" offers + few picturesque incidents to furnish forth a readable narrative. + In the case of Esperanto there have been no splits or factions; + no narrow ring of oligarchs has cornered the language for its own + purposes, or insisted upon its aristocratic and non-popular side in + the supposed interests of culture or literary taste; consequently + +<!-- 115.png --> + +<a name="page106"> </a><span class = "pagenum">106</span> + + there has been no secession of the <i>plebs</i>. In the early days + of Esperanto there was indeed an attempt to found an Esperanto + league; but when it was seen that the league did little beyond + suggest alterations, it was wisely dissolved in 1894. Since then + Esperanto has been run purely on its merits as a language, and has + expressly dissociated itself from any political, pacifist, or other + propaganda. Its story is one of quiet progress—at first very + slow, but within the last five years wonderfully rapid, and still + accelerating. The most sensational episode in this peaceful advance + was the prohibition of the principal Esperantist organ by the Russian + censorship, so that there is little to do, save record one or two + leading facts and dates. +</p> + +<p> + The inventor of Esperanto is a Polish doctor, Ludwig Lazarus + Zamenhof, now living in Warsaw. He was born in 1859 at Bielostock, + a town which has lately become notorious as the scene of one of + the terrible Russian <i>pogroms</i>, or interracial butcheries. + This tragedy was only the culmination of a chronic state of + misunderstanding, which long ago so impressed the young Zamenhof + that, when still quite a boy, he resolved to labour for the + removal of one cause of it by facilitating mutual intercourse. He + has practically devoted his life first to the elaboration of his + language, and of later years to the vast amount of business that its + extension involves. And it has been a labour of love. Zamenhof is + an idealist. His action, in all that concerns Esperanto, has been + characterized throughout by a generosity and self-effacement that + well correspond to the humanitarian nature of the inspiration that + produced it. He has renounced all personal rights in and control + of the Esperanto language, and kept studiously in the background + till the first International Congress two years ago forced him into + the open, when he emerged from his retirement to take his rightful + place before the eyes of the peoples whom his invention had brought + together. +</p> + +<p> + But he is not merely an idealist: he is a practical idealist. This is + shown by his self-restraint and practical wisdom in guiding events. + One of the symptoms of "catching Esperanto" is a + +<!-- 116.png --> + +<a name="page107"> </a><span class = "pagenum">107</span> + + desire to introduce improvements. This morbid propensity to jejune + amateur tinkering, a kind of measles of the mind (<i>morbus + linguificus</i><sup>1</sup>) attacks the immature in years or judgment. A riper + acquaintance with the history and practical aims of international + language purges it from the system. We have all been through it. + For the inventor of Esperanto, accustomed for so many years to + retouch, modify, and revise, it must require no ordinary degree + of self-control to keep his hands off, and leave the fate of his + offspring to others. It grew with his growth, developing with his + experience, and he best knows where the shoe pinches and what might + yet be done. But he has the fate of Volapük before his eyes. He + knows that, having wrought speech for the people, he must leave it to + the people, if he wishes them to use and keep using it. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>An expressive (homoeopathic) name for this malady may be coined + in Esperanto: <i>malsano lingvotrudema</i> = officious or intrusive + disease, consisting in an itch for coining language. +</p> + +<p> + Contrast the uncompromising attitude of the inventor of Volapük, + Bishop Schleyer. It will be remembered how he let Volapük run + upon the rocks rather than relinquish the helm. He has been nicknamed + "the Volapükist Pope"—and indeed he made the great and + fatal bull of believing in his own infallibility. Zamenhof has never + pretended to this. When he first published his language, he made + no claim to finality on its behalf. He called for criticisms, and + contemplated completing and modifying his scheme in accordance with + them. He even offered to make over this task to a duly constituted + academy, if people would come forward and throw themselves into the + work. Again, some years later, in a pamphlet, <i>Choix d'une langue + Internationale</i>, he proposed a scheme for obtaining a competent + impartial verdict, and declared his willingness to submit to it. + At one time he thought of something in the nature of a plebiscite. + Later, his renunciation of the last vestige of control, in giving up + the <i>aprobo</i>, or official sanction of books; his attitude at + the international congresses; his refusal to accept the presidency; + his reluctance + +<!-- 117.png --> + +<a name="page108"> </a><span class = "pagenum">108</span> + + to name or influence the selection of the members of the body charged + with the control of the language; his declaration that his own works + have no legislative power, but are merely those of an Esperantist; + finally, his sane conception of the scope and method of future + development of the language to meet new needs, and of the limits + within which it is possible—all this bespeaks the man who has + a clear idea of what he is aiming at, and a shrewd grasp of the + conditions necessary to ensure success. +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p> + The word Esperanto is the present participle of the verb + <i>esperi</i>—"to hope," used substantially. It was under the + pseudonym of Dr. Esperanto that Zamenhof published his scheme in 1887 + at Warsaw, and the name has stuck to the language. Before publication + it had been cast and recast many times in the mind of its author, + and it is curious to note that in the course of its evolution he had + himself been through the principal stages exhibited in the history + of artificial language projects for the last three hundred years. + That is to say, he began with the idea of an <i>a priori</i> language + with made-up words and arbitrary grammar, and gradually advanced to + the conception of an <i>a posteriori</i> language, borrowing its + vocabulary from the roots common to several existing languages and + presenting in its grammar a simplification of Indo-European grammar. +</p> + +<p> + He began to learn English at a comparatively advanced stage of + his education, and the simplicity of its grammar and syntax was a + revelation to him. It had a powerful influence in helping him to + frame his grammar, which underwent a new transformation. Specimens of + the language as Zamenhof used to speak it with his school and student + friends show a wide divergence from its present form. He seems to + have had cruel disappointments, and was disillusioned by the falling + away of youthful comrades who had promised to fight the battles of + the language they practised with enthusiasm at school. During long + years of depression work at the language seems to have been almost + his one resource. Its absolute simplicity is deceptive as to the + immense labour it + +<!-- 118.png --> + +<a name="page109"> </a><span class = "pagenum">109</span> + + must have cost a single man to work it out. This is only fully to + be appreciated by one who has some knowledge of former attempts. + Zamenhof himself admits that, if he had known earlier of the + existence of Volapük, he would never have had the courage to + continue his task, though he was conscious of the superiority of his + own solution. When, after long hesitation, he made up his mind to try + his luck and give his language to the world, Volapük was strong, + but already involved in internal strife. +</p> + +<p> + Zamenhof's book appeared first in Russian, and the same year (1887) + French and German editions appeared at Warsaw. The first instruction + book in English appeared in the following year. The only name on the + title-page is "St. J.," and it passed quite unnoticed. +</p> + +<p> + Progress was at first very slow. The first Esperanto society + was founded in St. Petersburg, 1892, under the name of <i>La + Espero</i>. As early as 1889 the pioneer Esperanto newspaper, <i>La + Esperantisto</i><sup>1</sup> conducted chiefly by Russians and circulated mainly + in Russia, began to appear in Nuremberg, where there was already a + distinguished Volapük club, afterwards converted to Esperanto. + Since then Nuremberg has continued to be a centre of light in the + movement for an international language. The other pioneer newspapers + were <i>L'Espirantiste</i>, founded in 1898 at Epernay by the Marquis + de Beaufront, and <i>La Lumo</i> of Montreal. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Afterwards prohibited in Russia, owing to the collaboration of + Count Tolstoi, and transferred to Upsala under the name <i>Lingvo + Internacia</i>. Since 1902 it has been published in Paris. +</p> + +<p> + In Germany in the early days of Esperanto the great apostles were + Einstein and Trompeter, and it was owing to the liberality of the + latter that the Nuremberg venture was rendered possible. +</p> + +<p> + Somewhat later began in France the activity of the greatest and + most fervent of all the apostles of Esperanto, the Marquis de + Beaufront. By an extraordinary coincidence he had ready for the + press a grammar and complete dictionary of a language of his own, + named <i>Adjuvanto</i>. When he became acquainted with Esperanto, he + recognized that it was in certain points superior to his own + +<!-- 119.png --> + +<a name="page110"> </a><span class = "pagenum">110</span> + + language, though the two were remarkably similar. He suppressed his + own scheme altogether, and threw himself heart and soul into the + work of spreading Esperanto. In a series of grammars, commentaries, + and dictionaries he expounded the language and made it accessible + to numbers who, without his energy and zeal, would never have been + interested in it. Among other well-known French leaders are General + Sebert, of the French Institute, M. Boirac, Rector of the Dijon + University, and M. Gaston Moch, editor of the <i>Indépendance + Belge</i>. +</p> + +<p> + In England the pioneer was Mr. Joseph Rhodes, who, with Mr. Ellis, + founded the first English group at Keighley in November 1902.<sup>1</sup> Just + a year later appeared the first English Esperanto journal, <i>The + Esperantist</i>, edited by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, London. Since + 1905 it has been incorporated with <i>The British Esperantist</i>, + the official organ of the British Esperanto Association. The + association was founded in October 1904. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>The foundation of the London Esperanto Club took place at + practically the same time, and the club became the headquarters of + the movement in Great Britain. +</p> + +<p> + The first international congress was held at Boulogne in August + 1905. It was organized almost entirely by the president of the + local group, M. Michaux, a leading barrister and brilliant lecturer + and propagandist. It was an immense success, and inaugurated + a series of annual congresses, which are doing great work in + disseminating the idea of international language. The second + was held in Geneva, August 1906; and the third will be held at + Cambridge, August 10–17, 1907. It is unnecessary to describe + the congresses here, as an account has been given in an + <a href="#partIchapterIII">early chapter</a>. +</p> + +<p> + Within the last three or four years Esperanto has spread all over + the world, and fresh societies and newspapers are springing up on + every side. Since the convincing demonstration afforded by the Geneva + Congress, Switzerland is beginning to take the movement seriously. + Many classes and lectures have been held, and the university is also + now lending its aid. In the present + +<!-- 120.png --> + +<a name="page111"> </a><span class = "pagenum">111</span> + + year (1907) an International Esperantist Scientific Office has been + founded in Geneva, with M. René de Saussure as director, + and amongst the members of the auxiliary committee are seventeen + professors and eight privat-docents (lecturers) of the Geneva + University. +</p> + +<p> + Its object is to secure the recognition of Esperanto for scientific + purposes, and to practically facilitate its use. To this end the + office carries on the work of collecting technical vocabularies of + Esperanto, with the aid of all scientists whose assistance it may + receive. This is perhaps the most practical step yet taken towards + the standardization of technical terms, which is so badly needed + in all branches of science. A universal language offers the best + solution of the vexed question, because it starts with a clean + sheet. Once a term has been admitted, by the competent committee + for a particular branch of science, into the technical Esperanto + vocabulary of that science, it becomes universal, because it has + no pre-existent rivals; and its universal recognition in the + auxiliary language will react upon writers' usage in their own + language. +</p> + +<p> + The Geneva office will also aid in editing scientific Esperantist + reviews; and the chief existing one, the <i>Internacia Scienca + Revuo</i>, will henceforth be published in Geneva instead of in + Paris, as hitherto. +</p> + +<p> + The two principal objects of the Esperantist Scientific Association + are: +</p> + +<p> + 1. Scientists should always use Esperanto during their international + congresses. +</p> + +<p> + 2. Scientific periodicals should accept articles written in Esperanto + (as they now do in the case of English, French, German, and Italian), + and should publish in Esperanto a brief summary of every article + written in a national language. +</p> + +<p> + A few weeks after the Geneva Congress there was a controversy on the + subject of Esperanto between two of the best known and most widely + read Swiss and French newspapers—the Paris <i>Figaro</i> and + the <i>Journal de Geneve</i>. The respective champions were + +<!-- 121.png --> + +<a name="page112"> </a><span class = "pagenum">112</span> + + the Comte d'Haussonville, of the Académie Française, + and M. de Saussure, a member of a highly distinguished Swiss + scientific family; and the matter caused a good deal of interest on + the Continent. France was, in this case, reactionary and <i>ancien + régime</i>: the smaller Republic backed Esperanto and + progress. M. de Saussure brought forward facts, and the count served + up the old arguments about Esperanto being unpatriotic and the + prejudice it would inflict upon literature. The whole thing was a + good illustration of a fact that is already becoming prominent in the + history of the auxiliary language movement—the scientists are + much more favourable than the literary men. As regards educational + reform, the conservative attitude of the classicists is well known, + though there are many exceptions, especially among real teachers. But + it is somewhat remarkable that, when the proposed reform deals with + language, those whose business it is to know about languages should + not take the trouble to examine the scheme properly, before giving an + opinion one way or the other. +</p> + +<p> + As this question of the attitude of literary men has, and will have, + a vital bearing upon the prospects of international language, and + consequently upon its history, this is perhaps the place to remove + a misunderstanding. A distinguished literary man objected to the + foregoing passage as a stricture upon men of letters. His point + was: "<i>Of course</i> literary men care less for Esperanto than + scientific men do: it <i>must</i> be so, because they <i>need</i> + it less." Now this is quite true: there is little doubt that to-day + science is, perhaps inevitably, more cosmopolitan than letters, + whatever people may say about "the world-wide republic of letters." + But it does not meet the point. Esperantists do not <i>complain</i> + because men of letters are not interested in Esperanto. They have + their own interests and occupations, and nobody would be so absurd + as to make it a grievance that they will not submit to have thrust + upon them a language for which they have no taste or use. What + Esperantists do very strongly object to is that some literary men + lend the weight of their name and position to + +<!-- 122.png --> + +<a name="page113"> </a><span class = "pagenum">113</span> + + irresponsible criticism. Let them take or leave Esperanto as seems + good to them. Their <i>responsible</i> opinions, <i>based upon due + study of the question</i>, are always eagerly welcomed. But do not + let them misrepresent Esperanto to the public, thereby unfairly + prejudicing its judgment. Such action is unworthy of serious men. + When a man puts forward criticisms of Esperanto based upon elementary + errors of fact, or complains that Esperantists will not listen to + reason because they ignore proposals for change, which have long ago + been threshed out and found wanting, or are obviously unpractical, + he is merely showing that he has not studied the question. A fair + analogy would be the case of a chemist or engineer who had recently + begun to dabble in Greek in his spare moments, and who should + undertake to emend the text of Sophocles. His suggestions would show + that he knew no Greek, that he had never heard of Sir Richard Jebb, + and that he was ignorant of all the results of scientific textual + criticism. But here comes in the difference. Such a critic would be + laughed out of court, and told to mind his own business, or else + learn Greek before he undertook to emend it. But as international + language is a novelty to most people, it is thought that any one can + make, mend, or criticise it. It is not, like Greek, yet recognized + as a serious subject, and therefore irresponsible criticism is too + apt to be taken at its face value, merely on the <i>ipse dixit</i> of + the critic, especially if he happens to be an influential man in some + other line. Nobody bothers about his qualifications in international + language; nobody either knows or cares whether he has any claim to be + heard on the subject at all. +</p> + +<p> + The fact is that international language now has a considerable + history behind it. A large amount of experience has been amassed, and + is now available for any one who is willing and competent to go into + the question. But, in order to do fruitful work in this field, it is + just as necessary as in any other to be properly equipped, and to + know where others have left off, before you begin. +</p> + +<!-- 123.png --> + +<a name="page114"> </a><span class = "pagenum">114</span> + +<p> + At the first international congress at Boulogne the history of + Esperanto was well summed up in a thoughtful speech by Dr. Bein, + of Poland, himself a considerable Esperantist author, using the + <i>nom de guerre</i> "Kabe." He pointed out that we are still in the + first or propaganda stage of international language, in which it + is necessary to hold congresses, and the language is treated as an + end in itself. There is good hope that the second stage may soon be + reached, in which the language may be sufficiently recognized to take + its proper place as a means. +</p> + +<p> + Meantime, the first stage of Esperanto has been marked by three + phases or periods—the Russian period, the French period, and the + international period. Each has left its mark upon the language. +</p> + +<p> + The Russian period is associated with the names of Kofman, + Grabowski, Silesnjov, Gernet, Zinovjev, and many other writers + of considerable literary power. Being the pioneers, they had to + prove the capabilities of the language to the world, and in doing + so they took off some of the rough of the world's indifference + and scepticism. The language benefited by the fact that the first + authors were Slavs. The simplicity of the Slav syntax, the logical + arrangement of the sentences, the perfectly free and natural order of + the words, passed unconsciously from their native language to the new + one in the hands of these writers, and have been imitated by their + successors. +</p> + +<p> + The French period is associated chiefly with the name of M. de + Beaufront. In Russia, side by side with the good points named above, + certain less desirable Slavisms were creeping in; also there were + hitherto no scientific dictionaries or explanation of syntax. As Dr. + Bein says, de Beaufront may be called "the codifier of Esperanto." A + goodly band of French writers now took the language in hand, and by + their natural power of expression and exposition, which seems inborn + in a Frenchman, and by their national passion for lucidity, they have + no doubt strengthened the impulse of Esperanto towards clear-cut, + vigorous style. +</p> + +<!-- 124.png --> + +<a name="page115"> </a><span class = "pagenum">115</span> + +<p> + Possibly theorizing has been overdone in France; for, after all, the + strong point of Esperanto syntax is that there is none to speak of, + common sense being the guide. It is a pity to set up rules where none + are necessary, or to do anything that can produce an impression in + the minds of the uninitiated that learning Esperanto means anything + approaching the memory drudgery necessary in grasping the rules and + constructions of national languages. +</p> + +<p> + The third period began soon after the turn of the century, and is + still in full force. Take up any chance number of any Esperanto + gazette out of the numbers that are published all over the world; + you will hardly be able to draw any conclusion as to the nationality + of the writer of the article you light upon, save perhaps for an + occasional turn of an unpractised hand. Esperanto now has its style; + it is—lucidity based upon common sense and the rudiments of a + minimized grammar. +</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p> + This chapter would not be complete without some account of the + <i>constitution</i> of Esperanto, and the means which have been + adopted to safeguard the purity of the language. It will be well + to quote in full the Declaration adopted at Boulogne, in which + its aim is set forth, and which forms, as it were, its written + constitution. For the convenience of readers the Esperanto text and + English translation are printed in parallel columns. +</p> + +<!-- 125.png --> + +<!-- 126.png --> + +<!-- 127.png --> + +<!-- 128.png --> + +<table width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="32" id="deklaracio" summary="Deklaracio"> + + <tr> + <td align="center" valign="middle" class="majusklete" width="50%"> + Deklaracio + </td> + <td align="center" valign="middle" class="majusklete" width="50%"> + Declaration + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Ĉar pri la esenco de Esperantismo multaj havas tre + malveran ideon, tial ni subskribintoj, reprezentantoj + de la Esperantismo en diversaj landoj de la mondo, + kunvenintaj al la Internacia Kongreso Esperantista en + Boulogne-sur-Mer, trovis necesa, laŭ la + propono de la + <a name="page116"> </a><span class = "pagenum">116</span> + aŭtoro de la lingvo Esperanto, doni la sekvantan klarigon: + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Because many have a very false idea of the nature of Esperanto, + therefore we, the undersigned, representing the cause of + Esperanto in different countries of the world, having + met together at the International Esperanto Congress in + Boulogne-sur-Mer, have thought + <!-- page116 --> + it necessary, at the suggestion of the author of the Esperanto + language, to give the following explanation: + </td> + </tr> + <tr id="deklaracio1"> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 1. La Esperantismo estas penado disvastigi en la tuta mondo + la uzadon de lingvo neŭtrale homa, kiu, "ne entrudante + sin en la internan vivon de la popoloj kaj neniom celante + elpuŝi la ekzistantajn lingvojn naciajn," donus al la + homoj de malsamaj nacioj la eblon kompreniĝadi inter si, + kiu povus servi kiel paciga lingvo de publikaj institucioj en + tiuj landoj kie diversaj nacioj batalas inter si pri la lingvo, + kaj en kiu povus esti publikigataj tiuj verkoj kiuj havas + egalan intereson por ĉiuj popoloj. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 1. Esperanto in its essence is an attempt to diffuse over + the whole world a language belonging to mankind without + distinction, which, "not intruding upon the internal life of + the peoples and in nowise aiming to drive out the existing + national languages," should give to men of different nations + the possibility of becoming mutually comprehensible, which + might serve as a peace-making language for public institutions + in those lands where different nations are involved in strife + about their language, and in which might be published those + works which possess an equal interest for all peoples. + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Ĉiu alia ideo aŭ espero kiun tiu aŭ alia + Esperantisto ligas kun la Esperantismo estos lia afero pure + privata, por kiu la Esperantismo ne respondas. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Any other idea or hope which this or that Esperantist + associates with Esperanto will be his purely personal business, + for which Esperanto is not responsible. + </td> + </tr> + <tr id="deklaracio2"> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 2. Ĉar en la nuna tempo neniu esploranto en la tuta mondo + jam dubas pri tio, ke lingvo internacia povas esti nur lingvo + arta, kaj ĉar, el ĉiuj multegaj + <a name="page117"> </a><span class = "pagenum">117</span> + provoj faritaj en la daŭro de la lastaj du centjaroj, + ĉiuj prezentas nur teoriajn projektojn, kaj lingvo + efektive finita, ĉiuflanke elprovita, perfekte vivipova, + kaj en ĉiuj rilatoj pleje taŭga montriĝis nur + unu sola lingvo, Esperanto, tial la amikoj de la ideo de lingvo + internacia, konsciante ke teoria disputado kondukos al nenio + kaj ke la celo povas esti atingita nur per laborado praktika, + jam de longe ĉiuj grupiĝis ĉirkaŭ la sola + lingvo, Esperanto, kaj laboras por ĝia disvastigado kaj + riĉigado de ĝia literaturo. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 2. Because at the present time no one who looks out over the + whole world any longer doubts that an international language + can only be an artificial + <!-- page117 --> + one, and because, of all the very numerous attempts made in + the course of the last two hundred years, all offer merely + theoretical solutions, and only one single language, Esperanto, + has shown itself to be in practice complete, fully tested on + every side, perfectly capable of living use, and in every + respect completely adequate, therefore the friends of the + idea of international language, recognizing that theoretical + discussion will lead to nothing and that the end can only be + attained by practical and continuous effort, have long grouped + themselves around one single language, Esperanto, and are + labouring to disseminate it and to enrich its literature. + </td> + </tr> + <tr id="deklaracio3"> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 3. Ĉar la aŭtoro de la lingvo Esperanto tuj en la + komenco rifuzis, unu fojon por ĉiam, ĉiujn personajn + rajtojn kaj privilegiojn rilate tiun lingvon, tial Esperanto + estas "nenies propraĵo," nek en rilato materiala, nek en + rilato morala. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 3. Because the author of the Esperanto language from the very + beginning refused, once for all, all personal rights and + privileges connected with that language, therefore Esperanto is + "the property of no one," either from a material or moral point + of view. + </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Materiala mastro de tiu ĉi lingvo estas la tuta mondo, kaj + ĉiu deziranto povas eldonadi en aŭ pri tiu ĉi + lingvo ĉiajn verkojn kiajn li deziras, kaj + <a name="page118"> </a><span class = "pagenum">118</span> + uzadi la lingvon por ĉiaj eblaj celoj kiel spiritaj + mastroj de tiu ĉi lingvo estos ĉiam rigardataj tiuj + personoj kiuj de la mondo Esperantista estos konfesataj kiel + la plej bonaj kaj la plej talentaj verkistoj de tiu ĉi + lingvo. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + Materially speaking, the whole world is master of this + language, and any one who wishes can publish in or about this + language works of any kind he wishes, + <!-- page118 --> + and go on using the language for any possible object; from + an intellectual point of view those persons will always be + regarded as masters of this language who shall be recognized by + the Esperantist world as the best and most gifted writers in + this language. + </td> + </tr> + <tr id="deklaracio4"> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 4. Esperanto havas neniun personan leĝdonanton kaj + dependas de neniu aparta homo. Ĉiuj opinioj kaj verkoj de + la kreinto de Esperanto havas, simile al la opinioj kaj verkoj + de ĉiu alia Esperantisto, karakteron absolute privatan + kaj por neniu devigan. La sola, unu fojon por ĉiam deviga + por ĉiuj Esperantistoj, fundamento de la lingvo Esperanto + estas la verketo <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, en kiu neniu + havas la rajton fari ŝanĝon. Se iu dekliniĝas de + la reguloj kaj modeloj donitaj en la dirita verko, li neniam + povas pravigi sin per la vortoj "tiel deziras aŭ konsilas + la aŭtoro de Esperanto." Ĉiun ideon, kiu ne povas + esti oportune esprimata per tiu materialo kiu troviĝas en + la <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, ĉiu havas la rajton + esprimi en tia maniero kiun li trovas la + <a name="page119"> </a><span class = "pagenum">119</span> + plej ĝusta, tiel same kiel estas farate en ĉiu + alia lingvo. Sed pro plena unueco de la lingvo, al ĉiuj + Esperantistoj estas rekomendate imitadi kiel eble plej multe + tiun stilon kiu troviĝas en la verkoj de la kreinto de + Esperanto, kiu la plej multe laboris por kaj en Esperanto, kaj + la plej bone konas ĝian spiriton. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 4. Esperanto has no personal law-giver and depends upon no + particular person. All opinions and works of the creator of + Esperanto have, like the opinions and works of any other + Esperantist, an absolutely private character, and are binding + upon nobody. The sole foundation of the Esperanto language, + which is once for all binding upon all Esperantists, is the + little work <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, in which no one + has the right to make any change. If any one departs from the + rules and models given in the said work, he can never justify + himself with the words "such is the wish or advice of the + author of Esperanto." In the case of any idea which cannot + be conveniently expressed by means of that material which + is contained in the <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, every + Esperantist + <!-- page119 --> + has the right to express it in such manner as he considers + most fitting, just as is done in the case of every other + language. But for the sake of perfect unity in the language, + it is recommended to all Esperantists to constantly imitate as + far as possible that style which is found in the works of the + creator of Esperanto, who laboured the most abundantly for and + in Esperanto, and who is best acquainted with the spirit of it. + </td> + </tr> + <tr id="deklaracio5"> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 5. Esperantisto estas nomata ĉiu persono kiu scias kaj + uzas la lingvon Esperanto, tute egale por kiaj celoj li + ĝin uzas. Apartenado al ia aktiva societo Esperantista por + ĉiu Esperantisto estas rekomendinda, sed ne deviga. + </td> + <td align="left" valign="top"> + 5. The name of Esperantist is given to every person who knows + and uses the Esperanto language, no matter for what ends he + uses it. Membership of some active Esperanto society is to be + recommended for every Esperantist, but this is not compulsory. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p> + By the wise provision of Article 4, that the entire grammar and + framework of Esperanto, as contained within one small book of a + few pages, is absolutely unchangeable, the future of the language + is secured. The <i>Fundamento</i> also contains enough root words + to express all ordinary ideas. Henceforth the worst thing that can + happen to Esperanto by way of adulteration is that some authors may + use too many foreign words. The only practical check upon this, of + course, is the penalty of becoming incomprehensible. But as men + are on the whole reasonable, and as the only object of writing in + Esperanto presumably is to appeal to an Esperantist international + public, this check should be sufficient to prevent the + +<!-- 129.png --> + +<a name="page120"> </a><span class = "pagenum">120</span> + + use of any word that usage is not tending to consecrate. A certain + latitude of expansion must be allowed to every language, to enable it + to move with the times; but beyond this, surely few would have any + interest in foisting into their discourse words which their hearers + or readers would not be likely to understand, and those few would + probably belong to the class who do the same thing in using their + mother-tongue. No special legislation is needed to meet their case. +</p> + +<p> + For a few years (1901–1905) the publishing house of Hachette + had the monopoly of official Esperanto publications, and no work + published elsewhere could find place in the "Kolekto Esperanto + aprobita de D-ro Zamenhof." But at the first congress Zamenhof + announced that he had given up even this control, and Esperanto is + now a free language. +</p> + +<p> + The official authority, which deals with all matters relating to the + language itself, is the <i>Lingvo Komitato</i> (Language Committee). + It was instituted at the first congress, and consists of persons + appointed for their special competence in linguistic matters. The + original members numbered ninety-nine, and represented the + following twenty-eight countries: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, + Bulgaria, Canada, Chili, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great + Britain, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, + Norway, Persia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, + Switzerland, and the United States. +</p> + +<p> + This committee decides upon its own organization and procedure. + In practice it selects from among the points submitted to it by + Esperantists those worthy of consideration, and propounds them to its + members by means of circulars. It then appoints a competent person or + small committee to report upon the answers received. Decisions are + made upon the result of the voting in the members' replies to the + circulars, as analyzed and tabulated in the report. The functions of + the committee do not include the making of any alteration whatever in + the Esperanto part of the <i>Fundamento de Esperanto</i>, which is + equally sacrosanct for it and for all Esperantists. But there is much + to be done in correcting + +<!-- 130.png --> + +<a name="page121"> </a><span class = "pagenum">121</span> + + certain faulty translations of the fundamental Esperanto roots + into national languages, in defining their exact meaning and giving + their authorized equivalent in fresh languages, into which they + were not originally translated. Also the constantly growing output + of grammars and instruction books of all kinds in every country, + to say nothing of dictionaries, which are very important, has to + be carefully watched, in order that errors may be pointed out and + corrected before they have time to take root. +</p> + +<p> + Thus the Lingva Komitato is in no sense an academy or legislative + body, having for object to change or improve the language; it is the + duly constituted and widely representative authority, which watches + the spread and development of the language, maintaining its purity, + and helping with judicious guidance. +</p> + +<p> + From this sketch it ought to be clear that Esperanto is no wild-cat + scheme of enthusiasts or faddists, but a wisely organized attempt to + wipe out the world's linguistic arrears. Its aim is to bring progress + in oral and written communication into line with the progress of + material means of communication and of science. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterVIII"> + VIII + <div class="subtitolo"> + present state of esperanto: + <span style="font-variant: normal">(<i>a</i>)</span> + general; + <span style="font-variant: normal">(<i>b</i>)</span> + in england + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center"> + (<i>a</i>) <i>General</i> +</p> + +<p> + The first question usually asked is, "How many Esperantists are + there?" The answer is, "Nobody knows." The most diverse estimates + have been made, but none are based on any reliable method of + computation. In the <i>Histoire de la langue universelle</i>, which + appeared in 1903 and is written throughout in an impartial and + scientific spirit, 50,000 was tentatively given as a fairly safe + estimate. That was before the days of the international congresses, + and since then the cause has been advancing by leaps and bounds. Not + a month passes without its crop of new clubs and classes, and the + pace is becoming fast and furious. +</p> + +<!-- 131.png --> + +<a name="page122"> </a><span class = "pagenum">122</span> + +<p> + A marked change has been noticeable of late in the press of the + leading countries. It is becoming a rare thing now to see Esperanto + treated as a form of madness, and the days of contemptuous silence + are passing away. Esperanto doings are now fairly, fully, and + accurately reported. The tone of criticism is sometimes favourable, + sometimes patronizing, sometimes hostile; but it is generally + serious. It is coming to be recognized that Esperanto is a force + to be reckoned with; it cannot be laughed off. One or two rivals, + indeed, are getting a little noisy. They are mostly one-man (not + to say one-horse) shows, and they do not like to see Esperanto + going ahead like steam. High on the mountain-side they sit in cold + isolation, and gaze over the rich fertile plains of Esperanto, + rapidly becoming populous as the immigrants rush in and stake out + their claims in the fair "no-man's land."<sup>1</sup> And it makes them + feel bad, these others! "Jeshurun waxed fat," they cry; "pride goes + before a fall, remember Volapük!" The Esperantists remember + Volapük, close their ranks, and sweep on. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>"<i>Nenies propraĵo.</i>" Esp. <a href="#deklaracio3">Deklaracio, Art. 3</a>. +</p> + +<p> + Another good criterion besides the press is the sale of books. + Large editions are going off everywhere, especially, it would seem, + in America, where the folk have a habit, once they have struck a + business proposition, of running it for all it is worth. "Let her go! + give her hell!" is the word, and "the boys" are just now getting next + to Esperanto to beat the band. +</p> + +<p> + The British Esperanto Association's accounts show a very steady + increase in the sale of literature. Considering that it sells books + at trade prices, that hardly any of them are priced at more than a + few pence, and none above a shilling or two, the sums realized from + sale of books in some months are astonishing, and represent a large + and increasing spread of interest among the public. Owing to the low + prices, the profit on books is of course not great; but, such as it + is, it all goes to help the cause. The association is now registered + as a non-profit-making society under the law of 1867, + with no share capital and no dividends. +</p> + +<p> + As regards official recognition, good progress is being made in + +<!-- 132.png --> + +<a name="page123"> </a><span class = "pagenum">123</span> + + England (see below); but if the language is anywhere adopted + universally in government schools, it will certainly be first in + France. (For an account of the present state of this question, which + is at present before the French Permanent Educational Commission, see + <a href="#page030">Part I., chap. vi.</a>). + Dr. Zamenhof has been decorated by the French Government, and + Esperanto is already taught in many French schools. For purposes + of education France is divided into districts, called <i>ressorts + d'Académie</i>, within each of which there is a complete + educational ladder from the primary schools to the university which + is the culmination of each. The official head of an important + district is Rector Boirac, head of the Dijon University. He is one of + the most distinguished of the Esperantists, and is the leading spirit + at the congresses and on the Lingva Komitato. He has done much for + Esperanto in the schools of his district, and under the guidance of + men of his calibre Esperanto is making serious progress in France. + (For lists of university professors favourable to an international + language, see <a href="#page032">Part I., chap. vi.</a>). +</p> + +<p> + In Germany one of the foremost men of science of his time, Prof. + Ostwald, of Leipzig, is an ardent advocate of the international + language. He recently was lent for a time to Harvard University, + U.S.A., and while there gave a great impetus to the study of + Esperanto. He also spoke in its favour at Aberdeen last year, on the + occasion of the opening of the new University buildings. +</p> + +<p> + Apropos of the interchange between different countries of professors + and other teachers, which has to some extent been already tried + between America and Germany, it is curious to note the attitude + of Prof. Hermann Diels, Rector of the Berlin University. He is a + great supporter of the extension of this interchange, which also has + the approbation of the Kaiser, who attended formally the inaugural + lecture of one of the American professors, to mark his approbation. + Prof. Diels commented on the fact that diversity of language was a + grave obstacle; but though he seems before to have been a champion of + popularized + +<!-- 133.png --> + +<a name="page124"> </a><span class = "pagenum">124</span> + + Latin, he now declares himself strongly against any artificial + language,<sup>1</sup> and advocates the use of English, French, and German. + This is a modified form of the old Max Müller proposal, that all + serious scientific work should be published in one of six languages. + It does not seem a very convincing attitude to take up, because + it ignores the facts: (1) that the actual trend of the world is + the other way—towards inclusion of fresh national languages + among the <i>Kultursprachen</i>, not towards accentuation of the + predominance of these three; (2) that the increase of specialization + and new studies at universities is leaving less and less time for + mastering several difficult languages merely as means to other + branches of study. Why should everybody have to learn English, + French, and German? +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Herr Diels quaintly finds that Esperanto has only one + gender—the feminine! Surely an ultra-Shavian obsession of + femininity. It is perhaps some distinction to out-Shaw Bernard Shaw + in any line. +</p> + +<p> + For the rest, Esperanto is now beginning to take hold in Germany. + The Germans have, as a general rule, open minds for this kind of + problem, and are trained to take objective views in linguistic + matters on the scientific merits of the case. The reason why they + have been somewhat backward hitherto in the Esperanto movement is + no doubt their disappointment at the failure of Volapük, which + they had done much to promote. But now that, in spite of this special + drawback, the first steps have been made, and clubs and papers + are beginning to spring up again, everything points to powerful + co-operation from Germany in the future. +</p> + +<p> + In Switzerland progress has been enormous since the Geneva Congress + of 1906. Many clubs and classes are already formed or in process of + formation, and university men are supporting the movement. In one + respect the Swiss are now in the van of the Esperantist world: they + have just started a newspaper, <i>Esperanto</i>, the prospectus of + which declares that it will no longer treat the language as an end in + itself, or make propaganda; it will run on the lines of an ordinary + weekly, merely using + +<!-- 134.png --> + +<a name="page125"> </a><span class = "pagenum">125</span> + + Esperanto as a means, inasmuch as it is the language of the paper. +</p> + +<p> + The well-known Swiss veteran philosopher Ernst Naville wrote to + the Geneva Congress that for thirty years he had regarded the + introduction of an international language as a necessity, owing to + the advance of civilization, and the day of realization of this + object would be one of the greatest dates of history. +</p> + +<p> + It is impossible to go through all the countries of Europe in detail. + It is probable that the greatest numbers of Esperantists are still + to be found among the Slav peoples. The language first took root in + their midst, and was spread far and wide by a distinguished group of + Slav writers. +</p> + +<p> + Outside Europe, Esperanto is making great strides in the British + Empire, Japan, and America. There are now Esperantist clubs in + various parts of India, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, in Malta, + Singapore, etc. Dr. Pollen, C.I.E., President of the British + Esperanto Association, has just been touring in India, in the + interests of the language. Among many satisfactory results is the + guarantee of handsome sums towards the guarantee fund of the coming + Cambridge Congress by several native rulers, among others the Mir of + Khairpur, the Raja of Lunawada, the Nawab of Radhanpur, and the Diwan + of Palanpur. +</p> + +<p> + In New Zealand, an enterprising pioneer country in many departments, + the Prime Minister, Sir Joseph Ward, is favourable. Not long ago + he made a speech advocating the introduction of Esperanto into the + public schools of the colony. +</p> + +<p> + In America big Esperantist societies and classes have sprung up + with amazing rapidity during the last year. Several universities + now hold Esperanto classes; the Boston Massachusetts Institute of + Technology has more than 100 students in its Esperanto class, and, + among schools, the famous Latin School of Roxbury has led the way + with over fifty pupils under Prof. Lowell. The press is devoting a + large amount of attention to Esperanto, and many journals of good + standing are favourable. <i>The North American Review</i> has taken + up the language. It printed articles + +<!-- 135.png --> + +<a name="page126"> </a><span class = "pagenum">126</span> + + in December and January by Dr. Zamenhof and Prof. Macloskie of + Princeton, and followed them up by courses of lessons. It supplies + Esperanto literature to its readers at cost price, and reports that + evidences of interest "have been many and multiply daily." +</p> + +<p> + Among university supporters are Profs. Huntington and Morse of + Harvard, Prof. Viles, Ohio State University, Prof. Borgerhoff, + Western Reserve University, Prof. Macloskie of Princeton, etc. On + the other hand, Prof. Hugo Munsterberg of Harvard is attacking + Esperanto. His is a good example of the literary man's uninformed + criticism of the universal language project, because it is based upon + an old criticism by a German professor (Prof. Hamel) of the defunct + Volapük. Why Esperanto should be condemned for the sins of + Volapük is not obvious. +</p> + +<p> + One other useful aspect of Esperanto remains to be mentioned—the + establishment of consulships to give linguistic and other assistance. + Many towns have already their Esperanto consuls, and in a few years + there ought to be a haven of refuge for Esperantists abroad nearly + everywhere. +</p> + +<p> + The following list of principal Esperanto organs will give some idea + of the diffusion of the language. The list makes no pretence of being + complete. +</p> + +<p> + Principal general reviews: +</p> + +<p> + <i>Internacia Scienca Revuo</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Revuo</i> (which enjoys the constant collaboration of Dr. + Zamenhof). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Tra la Mondo</i>. (This review has recently held, by the + collaboration of its readers, an international inquiry into education + in all countries. The report is appearing in the February number and + following. This is a good example of the sort of international work + which can be done for and by readers in every corner of the globe.) +</p> + +<p> + Other organs: +</p> + +<p> + <i>The British Esperantist</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Lingvo Internacia</i> (the <i>doyen</i> of Esperanto journals). +</p> + +<!-- 136.png --> + +<a name="page127"> </a><span class = "pagenum">127</span> + +<p> + <i>L' Espérantiste</i> (France). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Germana Esperantisto</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Eĥo</i> (Germany). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Svisa Espero</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Esperanto</i> (Switzerland). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Juna Esperantisto</i> (Switzerland). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Esperanto</i> (Hungary). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Helpa Lingvo</i> (Denmark). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Suno Hispana</i> (Spain). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Idealo</i> (Sicily). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Alĝera Stelo</i> (Algiers: has recently ceased to appear). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Belga Sonorilo</i> (Belgium). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Ruslanda Esperantisto</i> (Russia). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Pola Esperantisto</i> (Poland). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Bulgara Esperantisto</i> (Bulgaria). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Lorena Esperantisto</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Esperantisten</i> (Sweden). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Časopis Českych Esperantista</i> (Bohemia). +</p> + +<p> + <i>L'Amerika Esperantisto</i> (central American organ, supported + by groups in New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Seattle, Los + Angeles). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Lumo</i> (Montreal). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Antaŭen Esperantistoj</i> (Peru). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Brazila Revuo Esperantista</i> (Brazil). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Japana Esperantisto</i> (Japan). +</p> + +<p> + <i>La Pioniro</i> (India). +</p> + +<p> + <i>Espero Katolika</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Foto Revuo</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Socia Revuo</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Unua Paŝo</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Espero Pacifista</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Eksport Ĵurnalo</i>. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Esperanta Ligilo</i> (for the blind—in Braille). +</p> + +<p> + <i>The New International Review</i> (Oxford) recently presented a + four-page Esperanto supplement to its subscribers for some months. +</p> + +<!-- 137.png --> + +<a name="page128"> </a><span class = "pagenum">128</span> + +<p align="center"> + (<i>b</i>) <i>Present State of Esperanto in England</i> +</p> + +<p> + The most practical way of spreading Esperanto is to get it taught in + the schools, so it will be best to state first what has been done so + far in this matter. +</p> + +<p> + Esperanto has been officially accepted by the local educational + authorities in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and other provincial + towns; that is to say, it has been recognized as a subject to be + taught in evening classes, if there is sufficient demand. At present + there are classes under the London County Council at the following + schools: Queen's Road, Dalston (Commercial Centre); Blackheath Road + (Commercial Centre); Plough Road, Clapham Junction (Commercial + Centre); Rutland Street, Mile End (Commercial Centre); Myrdle Street, + Commercial Road; and Hugh Myddleton School, Clerkenwell. Other + classes held in London are at the Northern Polytechnic, Holloway + Road; St. Bride's Institute, Bride Lane; City of London College, + White Street; Co-operative Institute, Plumstead; Working Men's + College, St. Pancras; Stepney Library, Mile End Road; and a large + class for teachers is held at the Cusack Institute, Moorfields. +</p> + +<p> + At Keighley, Yorks, the Board of Education has recognized the + language as a grant-earning subject. Various local authorities give + facilities, some paying the teacher, others supplying a room. Among + these are Kingston-on-Thames (Technical Institute), Rochdale, Ipswich + (Technical School), Grimsby, etc. +</p> + +<p> + It does not appear that Esperanto is yet taught in any public + elementary school; educational officials, inspectors, etc., have + yet to learn about the language. Many private schools now teach it, + and at least one private girls' school of the best type teaches + it as a regular subject, alongside French and German. It has been + impossible to get any return or figures as to the extent to which it + has penetrated into private and proprietary schools. The Northern + Institute of Languages, perhaps the most important commercial school + in the North of England, held an Esperanto class with sixty-three + students. +</p> + +<!-- 138.png --> + +<a name="page129"> </a><span class = "pagenum">129</span> + +<p> + Two large examining bodies—the London Chamber of Commerce and + the Examination Board of the National Union of Teachers—have + included Esperanto in their subjects for commercial certificates. At + the London Chamber of Commerce examination in May 1906 the candidates + were as follows: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Candidates at the London Chamber of Commerce examination in May 1906."> + <tr> + <td> + + </td> + <td width="10%"> + + </td> + <td align="center" valign="middle"> + Entries. + </td> + <td width="10%"> + + </td> + <td align="center" valign="middle"> + Passes. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + Teacher's diploma + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">6</p> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">1</p> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + Senior + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">15</p> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">15</p> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + Junior + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">109</p> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">67</p> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <hr style="margin: 0 1em 0 0"/> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <hr style="margin: 0 1em 0 0"/> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">130</p> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + <td align="right" valign="middle"> + <p style="margin-right: 1em">83</p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + There is now a Teachers' Section of the British Esperanto Association + with an Education Committee, which is carrying on active work in + promoting Esperanto in the schools. +</p> + +<p> + At an official reception of French teachers in London last year + by the Board of Education, Mr. Lough, speaking on behalf of the + Board, made a sympathetic reference to Esperanto. The incident is + amusingly told in Esperanto by M. Boirac, Rector of Dijon University + and a noted Esperantist, who was amongst the French professors. Not + understanding English, he was growing rather sleepy during a long + speech, when the word "Esperanto" gave him a sudden shock. He thought + the English official was poking fun at him, but was relieved to hear + that the allusion had been sympathetic. +</p> + +<p> + At this year's meeting of the Modern Language Society at Durham, the + Warden of Durham University, Dean Kitchin, in welcoming the society + to the town and university, gave considerable prominence in his + speech to Esperanto, remarking that, to judge by its rapid growth and + the sanity of its reformed grammar, one might easily believe that it + will win general use.<sup>1</sup> Such references in high places illustrate + the tendency to admit + +<!-- 139.png --> + +<a name="page130"> </a><span class = "pagenum">130</span> + + that there may be something in this international language scheme. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>He continued: "To me it seems that Esperanto in vocabulary and + grammar is a miracle of simplicity." +</p> + +<p> + There are now (May 1907) seventy local Esperanto societies in Great + Britain on the list of societies affiliated to the British Esperanto + Association, and often several new ones are formed in a month. The + first were Keighley and London, founded 1902. Seven more were formed + in 1903; and since the beginning of 1906 no less than thirty-six. + Besides the members of these there are a great many learners in + classes and individual Esperantists who belong to no affiliated + group. Every month one reads lists of lectures given in the most + diverse places, very often with the note that a local club or class + resulted, or that a large sale of Esperanto literature took place. + Sometimes the immediate number of converts is surprising: e.g. + on April 22, 1907, after a lecture on Esperanto at the Technical + College, Darlington, seventy-eight students entered their names for a + week's course of lessons to be held in the college three times a day. +</p> + +<p> + There are now Esperanto consuls in the following towns: Bradford, + Chester, Edinburgh, Harrogate, Hull, Hunslet, Keighley, Leeds, + Liverpool, Nottingham, Oakworth, Plymouth, Rhos, Southampton, and St. + Helens. Birmingham has within the last few months taken up the cause + with its usual energy, and now has a large class. +</p> + +<p> + In England the universities have been slow to show interest in + Esperanto; but now that Cambridge has been selected as the seat of + the Congress in 1907, the university is granting every facility, + as also is the town council, in use of rooms and the like, and + some professors and other members of the university are cordially + co-operating. Last October Prof. Skeat, one of the fathers + of English philology, took the chair at a preliminary meeting, + and made a speech very favourable to Esperanto. He said, "I think + Esperanto is a very good movement, and I hope it will succeed." + The subject of Esperanto is being well put before the teachers of + Cambridgeshire, and the railway companies all over the country and + abroad are granting special + +<!-- 140.png --> + +<a name="page131"> </a><span class = "pagenum">131</span> + + fares for the congress.<sup>1</sup> It is probable that the overwhelming + demonstration of the possibilities of this international language + will open the eyes of many who have hitherto been indifferent, and + that the movement will enter on a new phase of expansion in England, + and through the example of England, which is closely watched abroad, + in the world at large. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>It is a striking fact that six weeks before the opening of the + congress 700 members have already secured their tickets. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIchapterIX"> + IX + <div class="subtitolo"> + lessons to be drawn from the foregoing history + </div> +</div> + +<p> + The extent to which more or less artificial languages are already + used in various parts of the world for the transaction of interracial + business, and the persistent preoccupation of thinkers with the + idea for the last 200 years, culminating in the production of a + great number of schemes in our own times, show that there <i>is</i> + a demand for an international language, more perfect than has yet + been available and universally valid. The list of languages proposed + (see Part II., chap. ii.) by no means represents all that has been + written and thought upon the subject. Many more have proposed + solutions of the question, beginning with such men as Becher (1661), + Kirchner (1665), Porele (1667), Upperdorf (1679), Müller + (1681), Lobkowitz (1687), Besuier (1684), Solbrig (1725), Taboltzafo + (1772), and continuing down to the present day. The striking success + of Volapük and Esperanto in gaining, within a few years of + publication, many thousands of ardent supporters has also been a + revelation. It has proved most conclusively that there is a demand. + If so many people in all lands have been willing to give up time and + money to learning and promoting a language from which they could + not expect to reap anything like full benefit for many years, what + must be its value when ripened to yield full profits, i.e. when + universally adopted? +</p> + + +<!-- 141.png --> + +<a name="page132"> </a><span class = "pagenum">132</span> + +<p> + There are two main obstacles to universal adoption. The first is + common to all projects of reform—the force of inertia. It is + hard to win practical support for a new thing, even when assent + is freely given in theory to its utility. The second is peculiar + to Esperanto, and consists in the discrediting of the cause of + international language through the failure of Volapük. Good + examples of its operation are afforded by the slowness of Germany to + recognize Esperanto, and by the criticism of Prof. Münsterberg + (formerly of Freiburg, Germany) in America, based as it is on an old + German criticism of Volapük, and transferred at second-hand to + Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + Hence every effort should be made to induce critics of Esperanto to + examine the language before pronouncing judgment—to criticise + the real thing, instead of some bogy of their imagination. +</p> + +<p> + One bogy which has caused much misdirected criticism is raised by + misunderstanding of the word "universal" in the phrase <i>universal + language</i>. It is necessary to insist upon the fact that + "universal" means universally adopted and everywhere current <i>as + an auxiliary</i> to the mother-tongue for purposes of international + communication. It does not mean a universal language for home + consumption as a substitute for national language. In Baconian + language, this bogy may be called an "idol of the market-place," + since it rests upon confusion of terms. +</p> + +<p> + Pursuing the Baconian classification of error, we may call the + literary man's nightmare of the invasion of literature by the + universal language an "idol of the theatre." The lesson of experience + is, that it is well not to alienate the powerful literary interest + justly concerned in upholding the dignity and purity of national + speech by making extravagant claims on behalf of the auxiliary + language. It is capable of conveying <i>matter</i> or <i>content</i> + in any department of human activity with great nicety; but where it + is a question of reproducing by actual translation the <i>form</i> + or <i>manner</i> of some masterpiece of national literature, it will + not, by nature of its very + +<!-- 142.png --> + +<a name="page133"> </a><span class = "pagenum">133</span> + + virtues, give a full idea of the rich play of varied synonymic in the + original. +</p> + +<p> + The great practical lesson of Volapük is, that alteration brings + dissension, and dissension brings death. A universal language must + be in essentials, like Esperanto, inviolable. If ever the time comes + for modification in any essential point, it will be after official + international recognition in the schools. Gradual reforms could + then, if necessary, be introduced by authority, as in the case of + the recent French "Tolérations," or the German reforms in + orthography. +</p> + +<p> + So long as the world is divided among rival great powers, no national + language can be recognized as universal by them all. It is therefore + a choice between an artificial language or nothing. As regards + the structure of the artificial language itself, history shows + clearly that it must be <i>a posteriori</i>, not <i>a priori</i>. + It must select its constituent roots and its spoken sounds on the + principle of maximum of internationality, and its grammar must be + a simplification of natural existing grammar. On the other hand, + a recent tendency to brand as "arbitrary" and <i>a priori</i> + everything that makes for regularity, if it is not directly borrowed, + is to be resisted. It is possible to overdo even the best of rules by + slavish and unintelligent application. Thus it is urged by extremists + that some of the neatest labour-saving devices of Esperanto are + arbitrary, and therefore to be condemned. +</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="A thought experiment involving Esperanto affixes."> + + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">Take</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"> the </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Esperanto </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">suffix <i>-in-</i>, </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">which </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">denotes </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">the </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">feminine.</td></tr> + + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">prefix <i>mal-</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">opposite.</td></tr> + + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">suffix <i>-ig-</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">causative action.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> + Given the roots <i>bov-</i> (ox); <i>fort-</i> (strong); + <i>grand-</i> (big): Esperanto forms <i>bovino</i> (cow); + <i>malforta</i> (weak); <i>grandigi</i> (to augment); + <i>malgrandigi</i> (to diminish). +</p> + +<p> + These words are arbitrary, because not borrowed from national + language. Let the public decide for itself whether it prefers + a language which insists (in order not to be "arbitrary") upon + borrowing fresh roots to express these ideas. Let any one who has + learnt Latin, French, and German try how long it takes him + +<!-- 143.png --> + +<a name="page134"> </a><span class = "pagenum">134</span> + + to think of the masculine of <i>vacca</i>, <i>vache</i>, <i>Kuh</i>; + the opposite of <i>fortis</i>, <i>fort</i>, <i>stark</i>; the Latin, + French, and German ways of expressing "to make big" and "to make + small." The issue is hardly doubtful. +</p> + +<p> + Again, the languages upon whose vocabulary and grammar the + international language is to be based must be Aryan (Indo-European). + This is a practical point. The non-European peoples will consent + to learn "simplified Aryan" just as they are adopting Aryan + civilization; but the converse is not true. The Europeans will go + without an international language rather than learn one based to some + extent upon Japanese or Mongolian. The only prescription for securing + a large field is—greatest ease for greatest number, with a + handicap in favour of Europeans, to induce them to enter. +</p> + +<!-- 144.png --> + +<a name="page135"> </a><span class = "pagenum">135</span> + +<div class="partotitolo" id="partIII"> + PART III + <div class="subtitolo"> + THE CLAIMS OF ESPERANTO TO BE TAKEN SERIOUSLY: + <br/> + CONSIDERATIONS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE ITSELF + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIIchapterI"> + I + <div class="subtitolo"> + esperanto is scientifically constructed, + <br/> + and fulfils the natural tendency in evolution of language + </div> +</div> + +<p> + All national languages are full of redundant and overlapping + grammatical devices for expressing what could be equally + well expressed by a single uniform device. They bristle with + irregularities and exceptions. Their forms and phrases are largely + the result of chance and partial survival, arbitrary usage, and false + analogy. It is obvious that a perfectly regular artificial language + is far easier to learn. But the point to be insisted on here is, that + artificial simplification of language is no fantastic craze, but + merely a perfect realization of a natural tendency, which the history + of language shows to exist. +</p> + +<p> + At first sight this may seem to conflict with what was said in + <a href="#partIchapterX">Part I., chap. x</a>. But there is no real + inconsistency. As pointed out there, there is no reason to think that + Nature, left to herself, would ever produce a universal language, or + that a simpler language would win, in a struggle with more complex + ones, on account of its simplicity. But this does not prevent there + being a real natural tendency to simplification—though in + natural languages this tendency is constantly thwarted, and can never + produce its full effect. +</p> + +<p> + How, then, is this tendency to simplification shown in the + +<!-- 145.png --> + +<a name="page136"> </a><span class = "pagenum">136</span> + + history of Aryan (Indo-European) languages? For it must be emphasized + that for the purposes of this discussion history of language means + history of Aryan language. +</p> + +<p> + The Aryan group of languages includes Sanskrit and its descendants + in the East, Greek, Latin, all modern Romance languages (French, + Italian, Spanish, etc.), all Germanic languages (English, German, + Scandinavian, etc.), all Slav languages (Russian, Polish, + etc.)—in fact, all the principal languages of Europe, except + Hungarian, Basque, and Finnish. The main tendency of this group of + languages has been, technically speaking, to become analytic instead + of synthetic—that is, to abandon complex systems of inflection + by means of case and verbal endings, and to substitute prepositions + and auxiliaries. Thus, taking Latin as the type of old synthetic + Aryan language, its declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs + present an enormously greater complexity of forms than are employed + by English, the most advanced of the modern analytical languages, to + express the same grammatical relations. For example: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Declension in Lation."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Nom.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensă</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">a table.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensae</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">tables.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Acc.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensam</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">a table.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensas</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">tables.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Gen.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensae</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">of a table.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensarum</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">of tables.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Dat.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensae</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">to or for a table.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensis</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">to or for tables.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Abl.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensā</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">by, with, or from a table.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" width="24"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mensis</i> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">= </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">by, with, or from tables.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + By the time you have learnt these various Latin case endings + (<i>-ă</i>, <i>-am</i>, <i>-ae</i>, <i>-ae</i>, <i>-ā</i>; + <i>-ae</i>, <i>-as</i>, <i>-arum</i>, <i>-is</i>, <i>-is</i>), you + have only learnt one out of many types of declension. Passing on to + the second Latin type or declension, e.g. <i>dominus</i> = master, + you have to learn a whole fresh set of case endings (<i>-us</i>, + <i>-um</i>, <i>-i</i>, <i>-o</i>, <i>-o</i>; <i>-i</i>, <i>-os</i>, + <i>-orum</i>, <i>-is</i>, <i>-is</i>) to express the same grammatical + relations; whereas in English you apply the same set of prepositions + to the word "master" without change, except for a uniform <i>-s</i> + in the plural. As there are a great many types of Latin noun, + +<!-- 146.png --> + +<a name="page137"> </a><span class = "pagenum">137</span> + + the simplification in English, effected by using invariable + prepositions without inflection, is very great. It is just the same + with the verb. Take the English regular verb "to love": the four + forms <i>love</i>, <i>loves</i>, <i>loving</i>, <i>loved</i>, about + exhaust the number of forms to be learned (omitting the second + person singular, which is practically dead); the rest is done by + auxiliaries, which are the same for each verb. Latin, on the other + hand, possesses very numerous forms of the verb, and the whole set + of numerous forms varies for each type of verb. In the aggregate the + simplification in English is enormous. This process of simplification + is common to all the modern Aryan languages, but they have not all + made equal progress in carrying it out. +</p> + +<p> + Now, it is a remarkable fact, and a very suggestive one for those + who seek to trace the connexion between the course of a nation's + language and its history, that the degree of progress made by the + languages of Europe along their common line of evolution does on the + whole, as a matter of historical fact, correspond with the respective + degree of material, social, and economic advancement attained by the + nations that use them. Take this question of case endings. Russia has + retained a high degree of inflection in her language, having seven + cases with distinct endings. These seven cases are common to the Slav + languages in general; two of them (Sorbish and Slovenish) have, like + Gothic and Greek, a dual number, a feature which has long passed away + from the languages of Western Europe. Again, the Slav tongues decline + many more of the numerals than most Aryan languages. Germany, which, + until the recent formation of the German Empire, was undoubtedly a + century slow by West European time, still has four cases; or, in + view of the moribund dative, should we rather say three and a half? + France and England manage their affairs in a universal nominative<sup>1</sup> + (if one can give any name to a universal case), as far as nouns, + adjectives, + +<!-- 147.png --> + +<a name="page138"> </a><span class = "pagenum">138</span> + + and articles are concerned. Their pronouns offer the sole survival + of declension by case endings. Here France, the runner-up, is + a trifle slow in the possession of a real, live dative case of the + pronoun (acc. <i>le</i>, <i>la</i>, <i>les</i>; dat. <i>lui</i>, + <i>leur</i>). England wins by a neck with one universal oblique case + (<i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>them</i>). This insidious suggestion is + not meant to endanger the <i>entente cordiale</i>; even perfidious + Albion would not convict the French nation of arrested development on + the side-issue of pronominal atavism. Mark Twain says he paid + double for a German dog, because he bought it in the dative case; but + no nation need be damned for a dative. We have no use for the <i>coup + de Jarnac</i>. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Though historically, of course, the Low Latin universal case, from + which many French, and therefore English, words are derived, was the + accusative. +</p> + +<p> + But consider the article. Here, if anywhere, is a test of the + power of a language to move with the times. For some reason or + other (the real underlying causes of these changes in language + needs are obscure) modern life has need of the article, though + the highly civilized Romans did very well without it. So strong + is this need that, in the middle ages, when Latin was used as + an international language by the learned, a definite article + (<i>hic</i> or τό) was foisted into the language. How is + it with the modern world? The Slavs have remained in this matter + at the point of view of the ancient world. They are articleless. + Germany has a cumbrous three-gender, four-case article; + France rejoices in a two-gender, one-case article with + a distinct form for the plural. The ripe product of tendency, the + infant heir of the eloquent ages, to whose birth the law of Aryan + evolution groaned and travailed until but now, the most useful, if + not the "mightiest," monosyllable "ever moulded by the lips of man," + the "the," one and indeclinable, was born in the Anglo-Saxon + mouth, and sublimed to its unique simplicity by Anglo-Saxon + progress. +</p> + +<p> + The general law of progress in language could be illustrated equally + well from the history of genders as exhibited in various languages. + We are here only dealing with Aryan languages, but, merely by way of + illustration, it may be mentioned that a primitive African language + offers seven "genders," or grammatical categories requiring the same + kind of concords as genders. In + +<!-- 148.png --> + +<a name="page139"> </a><span class = "pagenum">139</span> + + Europe we pass westward from the three genders of Germany, curving + through feminine and masculine France (<i>place aux dames!</i>) + to monogendric Britain. Only linguistic arbitrary gender is + here referred to; this has nothing to do with suffragettes or + "defeminization." +</p> + +<p> + Again, take agreement of adjectives. In the ancient world, whether + Greek, Latin, Gothic, or Anglo-Saxon, adjectives had to follow + nouns through all the mazes of case and number inflection, and had + also to agree in gender. In this matter German has gone ahead of + French, in that its adjectives do not submit to change of form in + order to indicate agreement, when they are used predicatively (e.g. + "ein gut<i>er</i> Mann"; "der gut<i>e</i> Mann"; but "der Mann ist + gut"). But English has distanced the field, and was alone in at the + death of the old concords, which moistened our childhood's dry Latin + <i>with</i> tears. +</p> + +<p> + Whatever test be applied, the common tendency towards simplification, + from synthesis to analysis, is there; and in its every manifestation + English has gone farthest among the great literary languages. It is + necessary to add this qualification—"among the great literary + languages"—because, in this process of simplification, English + has a very curious rival, and possibly a superior, in the <i>Taal</i> + of South Africa. The curious thing is that a local dialect should + have shown itself so progressive, seeing that the distinctive note + of most dialects is conservatism, their chief characteristics being + local survivals.<sup>1</sup> It is probable that the advanced degree of + simplification attained by the Taal is the result of deliberate and + conscious adaptation of their language by the original settlers to + the needs of the natives. Just as Englishmen speak Pidgin-English + to coolies in the East, so the old trekkers must have removed + irregularities and concords from their + +<!-- 149.png --> + +<a name="page140"> </a><span class = "pagenum">140</span> + + Dutch, so that the Kaffirs could understand it. If this is so, it is + another illustration of the essential feature that an international + language must possess. Even the Boer farmers, under the stress of + practical necessity, grasped the need of simplification. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Of course a difference must be expected between a dialect spoken + by a miscellaneous set of settlers in a foreign land and one in use + as an indigenous growth from father to son. But the <i>habitants</i>, + as the French settlers in Quebec are called, who, like the Boers, are + mainly a pastoral and primitive people, have retained an antiquated + form of French, with no simplification. +</p> + +<p> + The natural tendency towards elimination of exceptions is also + strongly marked in the speech of the uneducated. Miss Loane, who has + had life-long experience of nursing work among the poorest classes in + England, tabulates (<i>The Queen's Poor</i>, p. 112) the points in + which at the present day the language of the poor differs from that + of the middle and upper classes. Under the heading of grammar she + singles out specially superabundance of negatives, and then proceeds: + "Other grammatical errors. These are nearly all on the lines of + simplification. It is correct to say 'myself, herself, yourself, + ourselves.' Very well: let us complete the list with 'hisself' and + 'theirselves.' Most verbs are regular: why not all? Let us say + 'comed' and 'goed,' 'seed' and 'bringed' and 'teached.'" Miss Loane + probably exaggerates with her "nearly all." For instance, as regards + the uneducated form of the past tense of "to come," surely "come" is + a commoner form than "comed." Similarly the illiterate for "I did" is + "I done," not "I doed," which would be the regular simplification. + But the natural tendency is certainly there, and it is strong. +</p> + +<p> + Precisely the same tendency is observable in the present development + of literary languages. They have all inherited many irregular verbal + conjugations from the past as part of their national property, and + these, by the nature of the case, comprise most of the commonest + words in the language, because the most used is the most subject + to abbreviation and modification. But these irregular types of + inflection have long been dead, in the sense that they are fossilized + survivals, incapable of propagating their kind. When a new word + is admitted into the language, it is conjugated regularly. Thus, + though we still say "I go—I went; I run—I ran," because + we cannot help ourselves, when we are free to choose we say, "I + cycle—I cycled; I wire—I wired"; just as the French say + "télégraphier," and not "télégraphir," + -oir, or -re. +</p> + +<!-- 150.png --> + +<a name="page141"> </a><span class = "pagenum">141</span> + +<p> + Considering the strength of this stream of natural tendency, it seems + a most natural thing to start again, for international purposes, with + a form of simplified Aryan language, and, being free from the dead + hand of the past, to set up the simplest forms of conjugation, etc., + and make every word in the language conform to them. +</p> + +<p> + Indeed, this question of artificial simplification of language has of + late years emerged from the scholar's study and become a matter of + practical politics, even as regards the leading national languages. + Within the last few years there have been official edicts in France + and Germany, embodying reforms either in spelling or grammar, with + the sole object of simplifying. The latest attempt at linguistic + jerrymandering has been the somewhat autocratic document of President + Roosevelt. He has found that there are limits to what the American + people will stand even from him, and it seems likely to remain a + dead letter. But there is not the smallest doubt that the English + language is heavily handicapped by its eccentric vowel pronunciation + and its spelling that has failed to keep pace with the development + of the language. The same is true, though in a lesser degree, of + the spelling and pronunciation of French. Since the whole theory + of spelling—and, until a few hundred years ago, its practice + too—consisted in nothing else but an attempt to represent + simply and accurately the spoken word, most unprejudiced people + would admit that simplification is in principle advisable. But the + practical difficulties in the way of simplification of a national + language are almost prohibitive. It is hard to see that there are any + such obstacles in the way of the adoption of a simple and perfectly + phonetic international artificial language. We dislike change because + it is change, and new things because they are new. We go on suffering + from a movable Easter, which most practically inconveniences great + numbers of people and interests, and seems to benefit no one at all, + simply because it is no one's business to change it. If once the + public could be got to examine seriously the case for an artificial + international language, they could hardly + +<!-- 151.png --> + +<a name="page142"> </a><span class = "pagenum">142</span> + + fail to recognize what an easy, simple, and <i>natural</i> thing it + is, and how soon it would pay off all capital sunk in its universal + adoption, and be pure profit. +</p> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete"> + Note +</p> + +<p> + This seems the best place to deal with a criticism of Esperanto which + has an air of plausibility. It is urged that Esperanto does not carry + the process of simplification far enough, and that in two important + points it shows a retrograde tendency to revert to a more primitive + stage of language, already left behind by the most advanced natural + languages. These points are: +</p> + +<center> + <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" summary="Two points sometimes held against Esperanto."> + <tr> + <td align="left" valign="middle"> + (1) The possession of an accusative case.<br/> + (2) The agreement of adjectives. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Now, it must be borne in mind that the business of a universal + language is, not to adhere pedantically to any philological + theory, not to make a fetish of principle, not to strive after + any theoretical perfection in the observance of certain laws + of construction, but—simply to be easy. The principle of + simplification is an admirable one, because it furthers this end, + and for this reason only. The moment it ceases to do so, it must + give way before a higher canon, which demands that an international + language shall offer the greatest ease, combined with efficiency, for + the greatest number. The fact that a scientific study of language + reveals a strong natural tendency towards simplification, and that + this tendency has in certain languages assumed certain forms, is + not in itself a proof that an artificial language is bound to + follow the historical lines of evolution in every detail. It will + follow them just so far as, and no farther than, they conduce to + its paramount end—greatest ease for greatest number, plus + maximum of efficiency. In constructing an international language, + the question then becomes, in each case that comes up for decision: + How far does the proposed simplification conduce to ease without + sacrificing efficiency? Does the cost of retention (reckoned in terms + of sacrifice of ease) of the unsimplified form + +<!-- 152.png --> + +<a name="page143"> </a><span class = "pagenum">143</span> + + outweigh the advantages (reckoned in terms of efficiency) it confers, + and which would be lost if it was simplified out of existence? Let + us then examine briefly the two points criticised, remembering that + the main function of the argument from history of language is, not + to deduce therefrom hard-and-fast rules for the construction of + international language, but to remove the unreasoning prejudice of + numerous objectors, who cannot pardon the international language for + being "artificial," i.e. consciously simplified. +</p> + +<p align="center"> + (1) <i>The Accusative Case</i> +</p> + +<p> + This is formed in Esperanto by adding the letter <i>-n</i>. This one + form is universal for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns singular and + plural. Ex.: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="The accusative case."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Nom. </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>bona patro</i> (good father),</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"> plural, </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>bonaj patroj</i>.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Acc. </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>bonan patron</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>bonajn patrojn</i>.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Suppose one were to suppress this <i>-n</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Cost of retention of unsimplified form: Remembering to add + this <i>-n</i>. +</p> + +<p style="margin-bottom: 0"> + (<i>b</i>) Advantages of retention: The flexibility of the language + is enormously increased; the words can be put in any order without + obscuring or changing the sense. Ex.: +</p> +<p class="dekstre" style="margin-top: 0"> + <i>La patro amas sian filon</i> = the father loves his son.<br/> + <i>Sian filon amas la patro</i> (in English "his son loves the father" has a different sense).<br/> + <i>Amas la patro sian filon</i> (= the father <i>loves</i> his son, but...).<br/> + <i>La patro sian filon amas</i>.<br/> + <i>Sian filon la patro amas</i> (= it is his son that the father loves). +</p> + +<p> + In every case the Esperanto sentence is perfectly clear, the meaning + is the same, but great scope is afforded for emphasis and shades of + gradation. Further, every nation is enabled to arrange the words as + suits it best, without becoming less intelligible to other nations. + Readers of Greek and Latin know the enormous advantage of free word + order. For purposes of + +<!-- 153.png --> + +<a name="page144"> </a><span class = "pagenum">144</span> + + rendering the spirit and swing of national works of literature in + Esperanto, and for facilitating the writing of verse, the accusative + is a priceless boon. Is the price too high? +</p> + +<p> + N.B.—Those people who are most apt to omit the <i>-n</i> of the + accusative, having no accusative in their own language, generally + make their meaning perfectly clear without it, because they are + accustomed to indicate the objective case by the order in which they + place their words. They make a mistake of Esperanto by omitting the + <i>-n</i>, but they are understood, which is the essential. +</p> + +<p align="center"> + (2) <i>The Agreement of Adjectives</i> +</p> + +<p> + Adjectives in Esperanto agree with their substantives in number + and case. Ex.: <i>bona patro</i>, <i>bonan patron</i>, <i>bonaj + patroj</i>, <i>bonajn patrojn</i>. +</p> + +<p> + Suppose one were to suppress agreement of adjectives. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Cost of retention of agreement: Remembering to add + <i>-j</i> for the plural and <i>-n</i> for the accusative. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>b</i>) Advantages of retention: Greater clearness; conformity + with the usage of the majority of languages; euphony. +</p> + +<p> + Esperanto has wisely adopted full, vocalic, syllabic endings for + words. Contrast Esp. <i>bon‑o</i> with French <i>bon</i>, Eng. + <i>good</i>, Germ. <i>gut</i>. By this means Esperanto is not only + rendered slower, more harmonious, and easier of comprehension; it + is also able to denote the parts of speech clearly to eye and ear + by their form. Thus final <i>-o</i> bespeaks a noun; <i>-a</i>, an + adjective; <i>-e</i>, an adverb; <i>-i</i>, an infinitive, etc. +</p> + +<p> + Now, since all adjectives end in syllabic <i>-a</i>, it is much + harder to keep them uninflected than if they ended with a consonant + like the Eng. "good." To talk about <i>bona patroj</i> would not + only seem a hideous barbarism to all Latin peoples, whose languages + Esperanto most resembles, but it would also offend the bulk of + Northerners. After a very little practice it is really easier to say + <i>bonaj patroj</i> than <i>bona patroj</i>. The assimilation of + termination tempts the ear and tongue. +</p> + +<!-- 154.png --> + +<a name="page145"> </a><span class = "pagenum">145</span> + +<p> + The grammar is also simplified. For if adjectives agreeing with + nouns and pronouns expressed were invariable, it would probably be + necessary to introduce special rules to meet the case of adjectives + standing as nouns, or where the qualified word was suppressed. +</p> + +<p> + Again, is the price too high compared to the advantages? +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIIchapterII"> + II + <div class="subtitolo"> + esperanto from an educational point of view—it will aid the + learning of other languages and stimulate intelligence + </div> +</div> + +<p> + (1) Esperanto takes a natural place at the beginning of the sequence + of languages, upon which is founded the scheme of language-teaching + in the Reform Schools of Germany, and in some of the more progressive + English schools. +</p> + +<p> + The principle involved in this scheme is that of orderly progression + from the easier to the more difficult. Only one foreign language is + begun at a time. The easiest language in the school curriculum is + begun first. Enough hours per week are devoted to this language to + allow of decent progress being made. When the pupils have a fair grip + of the elements of one language, another is begun. The bulk of the + school language-teaching hours are now devoted to the new language, + and sufficient weekly hours are given to the language already learnt + to avoid backsliding at least. Thus in a German school of the new + type the linguistic hours are devoted in the lowest classes to the + mother-tongue. When the pupils have some idea what language means, + and have acquired some notion of grammar, they are given a school + year or two of French. After this Latin is begun in the upper part of + the school, and Greek at a corresponding interval after Latin. +</p> + +<p> + Now, it is one of the commonest complaints of teachers in our + secondary schools that they have to begin teaching Latin or + +<!-- 155.png --> + +<a name="page146"> </a><span class = "pagenum">146</span> + + French to boys who have no knowledge whatever of grammar. Fancy the + hopelessness of trying to teach an English boy the construction of + a Latin or French sentence when he does not know what a relative or + demonstrative pronoun means! This is the fate of so many a master + that quite a number of them resign themselves to giving up a good + part of their French or Latin hour to endeavouring to imbue their + flock with some notions of grammar in general. They naturally try to + appeal to their boys through the medium of their own language. But + those who have incautiously upset their class from the frying-pan + of <i>qui</i>, <i>quae</i>, <i>quod</i>, into the fire of English + demonstrative and relative pronouns get a foretaste of the fire that + dieth not. <i>Facilis descensus Averni.</i> Happy if they do not lose + heart, and step downward from the fire to ashes—reinforced with + sackcloth. +</p> + +<p> + "I contend that that 'that' that that gentleman said was right." This + is the "abstract and brief chronicle" of their woes—sometimes, + indeed, the epitaph of their pedagogical career, if they are too + sickened of the Sisiphean task of trying to teach grammar on + insufficient basis. And this use, or abuse, of the hardworked word + "that" is only an extreme case which illustrates the difficulty + of teaching grammar to babes, through the medium of a language + honeycombed with synonyms, homonyms, exceptions, and other pitfalls + (can you be honeycombed with a pitfall?)—a language which + seems to take a perverse delight in breaking all its own rules and + generally scoring off the beginner. And for the dull beginner, what + language does not seem to conform to this type? Answer: Esperanto. +</p> + +<p> + In other words, it would seem that, for the grinding of grammar and + the advancement of sound learning in the initial stage, there is + nothing like an absolutely uniform and regular language,<sup>1</sup> a + +<!-- 156.png --> + +<a name="page147"> </a><span class = "pagenum">147</span> + + <i>type tongue</i>, something that corresponds in the linguistic + hierarchy to Euclid or the first rules of arithmetic in the + mathematical, something clear, consistent, self-evident, and of + universal application. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Cf. Sir Oliver Lodge: "It would certainly appear that for this + purpose [i.e. educative language-learning for children] the fully + inflected ancient languages are best and most satisfactory; if + they were still more complete and regular, like Esperanto, they + would be better still to begin with" (<i>School Teaching and School + Reform</i>, p. 21: chapter on Curricula and Methods). +</p> + +<p> + Take our sentence again: "I contend that that 'that' that that + gentleman said was right." If our beginner has imbibed his first + notions of grammar through the medium of a type language, in + which a noun is always a noun, and is stamped as such by its form + (this, by the way, is an enormous aid in making the thing clear to + children); in which an adjective is always an adjective, and is + stamped as such by its form; and so on through all the other parts of + speech,—when the teacher comes to analyse the sentence given, + he will be able to explain it by reference to the known forms of the + regular key-language. He will point out that of the "thats": the + first is the Esperanto <i>ke</i> (which is final, because <i>ke</i> + never means anything else); the second is <i>tiu</i> (at once + revealed by its form to be a demonstrative), the fourth <i>kiu</i>, + and so on. As for the third "that," which <i>is</i> rather hard + for a child to grasp, he will be able to make it into a noun in + form by merely adding <i>-o</i> to the Esperanto equivalent for any + "that" required. He will not be doing violence to the language; for + Esperanto consists of roots, which habitually do duty as noun, verb, + adjective, etc., according to the termination added. Those who know + the value of the concrete and tangible in dealing with children will + grasp the significance of the new possibilities that are thus for the + first time opened up to language-teachers. +</p> + +<p> + To sum up: Natural languages are all hard, and the beginner can + never go far enough to get a rule fixed soundly in his mind without + meeting exceptions which puzzle and confuse him. Esperanto is as + clear, logical, and consistent as arithmetic, and, like arithmetic, + depends more upon intelligence than upon memory work. If Esperanto + were adopted as the first foreign language to be taught in schools, + and all grammatical teaching were postponed until Esperanto had been + begun, and then given entirely through the medium of Esperanto until + a sound notion of + +<!-- 157.png --> + +<a name="page148"> </a><span class = "pagenum">148</span> + + grammatical rules and categories had been instilled, it would + probably be found that the subsequent task of learning natural + languages would be facilitated and abridged. From the very start it + would be possible to prevent certain common errors and confusions, + that tend to become engrained in juvenile minds by the fluctuating + or contradictory usage of their own language, to their great let and + hindrance in the subsequent stages of language-learning. The skeleton + outline of grammatical theory with concrete examples afforded by + Esperanto would shield against vitiating initial mistakes, in + much the same way as the use of a scientific phonetic alphabet, + when a foreign language is presented for the first time to the + English beginner in written form, shields him against carrying + over his native mixed vowel system to languages which use the same + letters as English, but give quite a different value to them. In + both cases<sup>1</sup> the essentials of the new instrument of learning + are the same—that it be of universal application, that it be + sufficiently different from the mother-tongue or alphabet to prevent + confusion by association of ideas, that each of the new forms or + letters convey only one idea or sound respectively, and that this + idea or sound be always and only conveyed by that form or letter. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>i.e. scientific regular type grammar and scientific regular + phonetic alphabet. +</p> + +<p> + (2) From a psychological point of view Esperanto would be a rewarding + subject of study for children. +</p> + +<p> + The above remarks on sequence of languages show that, by placing + Esperanto first in the language curriculum, justice is done to + the psychological maxim: from the easier to the harder, from the + regular to the exceptional. It may further be argued (<i>a</i>) that + Esperanto is educative in the real sense of the word, i.e. suitable + for drawing out and developing the reasoning powers; (<i>b</i>) that + it would act as a stimulus, and by its ease set a higher standard of + attainment in language-learning. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>a</i>) Amidst all the discussion of "educationists" about + methods, curricula, sequence of studies, and the rest, one + +<!-- 158.png --> + +<a name="page149"> </a><span class = "pagenum">149</span> + + fundamental fact continues to face the teacher when he gets down to + business; and that is, that he has got to make the taught think for + themselves. In proportion as his teaching makes them contribute their + share of effort will it be fruitful. This is, of course, the merest + truism, sometimes dignified in the current pedagogical slang by the + name of "self-activity," or the like. But whatever new bottles the + theorists, and their extreme left wing the faddists, may choose to + serve up our old wine in, the fact is there: children have got to be + made to use their own brains. The eternal question that faces the + teacher is, how to provide problems that children really can work + out by using their own brains. The trouble about history, geography, + English literature, and such subjects is that the subject-matter of + the problems they offer for solution lies beyond the experience of + the young, and to a large extent beyond their reasoning powers. In + teaching all such subjects there is accordingly the perpetual danger + that the real work done may degenerate into mere memory work, or + parrot-like cramming of notes or dates. +</p> + +<p> + The same difficulty is encountered in science teaching. Heuristic + methods have been devised to meet the difficulty. Though they are no + doubt psychologically sound, they tend to be very slow in results; + hence the common jibe that a boy may learn as much by them in five + years as he could learn out of a shilling text-book in a term. +</p> + +<p> + The old argument that "mental gymnastics" are best supplied by Latin + is sound to the extent that Latin really does furnish a perpetual + series of small problems that have to be solved by the aid of grammar + and dictionary, but which do involve real mental effort, since + mere mechanical looking out of words does not suffice for their + elucidation. But for various reasons, such as the remoteness of the + ancient world in time, place, modes of thought, etc., Latin tends to + be too hard and not interesting enough for the average boy. He gets + discouraged, and develops a habit of only working enough to keep out + of trouble with the school authorities, and is apt to leave school + with an unintelligent attitude towards + +<!-- 159.png --> + +<a name="page150"> </a><span class = "pagenum">150</span> + + intellectual things in general. This is the result of early drudging + at a subject in which progress is very slow, and which by its nature + is uncongenial. The great desideratum is a linguistic subject + which shall at once inculcate a feeling for language (German + <i>Sprachgefühl</i>), and yet be easy enough to admit of rapid + progress. Nothing keeps alive the quickening zest that makes learning + fruitful like the consciousness of making rapid progress. +</p> + +<p> + Hitherto arithmetic and Euclid have been the ideal subjects for + providing the kind of problem required—one that can be worked + out with certainty by the aid of rule and use of brain, without + calling for knowledge or experience that the child cannot have. + The facts are self-evident, and follow from principles, without + involving any extraneous acquaintance with life or literature, and no + deadening memory work is required. If only there were some analogous + subject on the literary side, to give a general grip of principles, + uncomplicated by any arbitrary element, what a boon it would be! + and what a sound preparation for real and more advanced linguistic + study for those who showed aptitude for this line! Arithmetic and + Euclid both really depend upon common sense; but partly owing to + their abstract nature, and partly because they are always classed + as "mathematics," they seem to contain something repellent to many + literary or linguistic types of mind. +</p> + +<p> + With the invention of a perfectly regular and logically constructed + language, a concrete embodiment of the chief principles of language + structure, we have offered us for the first time the hitherto missing + linguistic equivalent of arithmetic or Euclid. In a regular language, + just because everything goes by rule, problems can be set and worked + out analogous to sums in arithmetic and riders in Euclid. Given + the necessary roots and rules, the learner can manufacture the + necessary vocabulary and produce the answer with the same logical + inevitability; and he has to use his brains to apply his rules, + instead of merely copying words out of a dictionary, or depending + upon his memory for them. +</p> + +<!-- 160.png --> + +<a name="page151"> </a><span class = "pagenum">151</span> + +<p> + In this way all that part of language-study which tends to be dead + weight in teaching the young is got rid of in one fell swoop, and + this though the language taught and learnt is a highly developed + instrument for reading, writing, speaking, and literary expression. + This dead weight includes most of the unintelligent memorizing, all + exceptions, all complicated systems of declension and conjugation, + all irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs, all syntactical + subtleties (cf. the sequence of tenses, oratio obliqua, the syntax of + subordinate clauses, in Latin; and the famous conditional sentences, + with the no less notorious <i>ου</i> and <i>μη</i> + in Greek), all conflicting and illogical uses of auxiliaries (cf. + <i>être</i> and <i>avoir</i> in French, and <i>sein</i> and + <i>haben</i> in German), besides a host of other old enemies. Some + of these things of course are not wholly memory work, especially + the syntax, which involves a real feeling for language. But these + would be much better postponed until one easy foreign language has + been learnt thoroughly. Every multilinguist knows that each foreign + language is easier to learn than the last. With a perfectly regular + artificial language you can make so much progress in a short time + that you can use it freely for practical purposes. Yet it does not + come of itself, like the mother-tongue. <i>This free manipulation of + a consciously acquired language is the very best training for forming + a feeling for language</i>—far better than weary stumbling over + the baby stages of a hard language. When you can read, write, and + speak one very easy artificial language, which you have had to learn + as a foreign one, then is the time when you can profitably tackle + the difficulties of natural language, appreciating the niceties of + syntax, and realizing, by comparison with your normal key-language, + in what points natural languages are merely arbitrary and have to + be learnt by heart. Those who have early conquered the grammar and + syntax of any foreign language, but have had to put in years of + hard (largely memory) work before they could write or speak, e.g., + Latin Latin, French French, or German German, will realize the + saving effected, when they are told that Esperanto has no idiom, no + arbitrary usage. The combination of + +<!-- 161.png --> + +<a name="page152"> </a><span class = "pagenum">152</span> + + words is not governed, as in natural languages, by tradition (which + tradition has to be assimilated in the sweat of the brow), but + is free, the only limits being common sense, common grammar, and + lucidity. +</p> + +<p> + To those who do not know Esperanto it may seem a dark saying that + language riders can be worked out in the same way as geometrical + ones. To understand this some knowledge of the language is necessary + (for sample problems see <a href="#appendixA">Appendix A</a>). + But for the sake of + making the argument intelligible it may here be stated that one of + the labour-saving, vocabulary-saving devices of Esperanto is the + employment of a number of suffixes with fixed meaning, that can be + added to any root. Thus: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Suffixes, one of Esperanto's labour-saving, vocabulary-saving devices."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">The</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"> suffix </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"><i>-ej-</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"> denotes </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">place.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"><i>-il-</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">instrument.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"><i>-ig-</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">causation.</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle" colspan="5">Final <i>-o</i> denotes a noun.</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + Given this and the root <i>san-</i> (cf. Lat. <i>sanus</i>), + containing the idea of health, form words for "to heal" + (<i>san‑ig‑i</i> = to cause to be well); "medicine" + (<i>san‑ig‑il‑o</i> = instrument of healing); "hospital" + (<i>san‑ig‑ej‑o</i> = place of healing), etc. +</p> + +<p> + This is merely an example. The combinations and permutations are + infinite; they give a healthy knowledge of word-building, and can be + used in putting whole pages of carefully prepared idiomatic English + into Esperanto. Practical experience shows that, given the necessary + crude roots, the necessary suffixes, and a one-page grammar of the + Esperanto language, an intelligent person can produce in Esperanto a + translation of a page of idiomatic English, not Ollendorfian phrases, + <i>without having learnt Esperanto</i>. +</p> + +<p> + (<i>b</i>) Experience also shows that the intelligent one thoroughly + enjoys himself while doing so; and having done so, experiences a + thrill of exhilaration almost amounting to awe at having made a + better translation into a language he has never learnt than he could + make into a national language that he has learnt for years, e.g. + Latin, French, or German. +</p> + +<!-- 162.png --> + +<a name="page153"> </a><span class = "pagenum">153</span> + +<p> + And what is exhilaration in the dry tree may be sustained working + keenness in the green. The stimulus to the young mind of progress + swift and sure is immense. A child who has learnt to read, write, + and speak Esperanto in six months, as is very possible within the + natural limits of power of expression imposed by his age, not only + has a sound working knowledge of grammatical categories and forms, + which will stand him in good stead in subsequent language-learning; + he has also a quite different attitude of mind—<i>une tout autre + mentalité</i>, to use recent jargon—towards foreign + languages. His only experience of learning one has been that he did + so with the object and result of being able to read, write, and + speak it within a reasonable time. "By so much the greater and more + resounding the slump into actuality," you will say, "when he comes to + grapple with his next." Perhaps. But even so, the habit of acquiring + fresh words and forms for immediate use must surely tell—not to + mention that he will incidentally have acquired a very useful Romance + vocabulary, and a wholly admirable French lucidity of construction. +</p> + +<p> + (3) And this question of lucidity brings us to the third great + educational advantage of Esperanto. Its opponents—without having + ever learnt it to see—have urged that its preciseness will + debauch the literary sense. Surely the exact opposite is the fact. + <i>Le style c'est l'homme</i>, and the essence of true style is that + a man should give accurate expression to his thoughts. The French + wit, satirizing vapid fine writing, said that language was given to + man to enable him to conceal his thought. There is no more potent + instrument for obscuring or concealing thought than the ready-made + phrase. Take up many a piece of journalese or other slipshod writing, + and note how often the conventional phrase or word slips from under + the pen, meaning nothing in particular. The very conventionality + disguises from writer and reader the confusion or absolute lack of + idea it serves to cloak. Both are lulled by the familiar sound of + the set phrase or word and glide easily over them. On the other + hand, in using a language in which you construct a good deal of your + vocabulary + +<!-- 163.png --> + +<a name="page154"> </a><span class = "pagenum">154</span> + + according to logical rule <i>tout en marchant</i>, it is impossible + to avoid thinking, at each moment, exactly what you do mean. Where + there is no idiom, no arbitrary usage, no ready-made phrase, there is + also far less danger of yielding to a fatal facility. +</p> + +<p> + Take an instance or two. In the Prayer Book occurs the phrase + "Fulfil, O Lord, our desires and petitions." At Sunday lunch a mixed + party of people, after attending morning service, were asked how + they would render into Esperanto the word "desires." They nearly + all plumped for <i>deziraĵo</i>. Now, the Esperanto root for + "desire" is <i>dezir-</i>. By adding <i>-o</i> it becomes a noun = + the act of desiring, a desire. By adding the suffix <i>-aĵ</i>, + and then <i>-o</i>, it becomes concrete = a desire- (i.e. desired) + thing, a desire. A reference to the dictionary showed that the + English word "desire" has both these meanings, but none of these + people had a sufficiently accurate idea of the use of language to + realize this. It was only when a gentleman passed his plate for + a second helping of beef, and was asked which he expected to be + fulfilled—the beef, or his aspiration for beef—that he, + under the stimulus of hunger, adopted the rendering <i>dezir‑o</i>, + thereby saving at once his bacon and his additional beef. +</p> + +<p> + It is not of course necessary for people to define pedantically + to themselves the meaning of every word they use, but surely it + must conduce to clear thinking to use a language in which you are + perpetually called upon, if you are writing seriously, to make just + the mental effort necessary to think what you do mean. +</p> + +<p> + Again, consider the use of prepositions. This is, in nearly all + national languages, extremely fluctuating and arbitrary. Take a few + English phrases showing the use of the prepositions "at" and "with." + "At seven o'clock"; "at any price"; "at all times"; "at the worst"; + "let it go at that"; "I should say at a guess," etc. "Come with me"; + "write with a pen"; "he came with a rush"; "things are different + with us"; "with a twinkle in his eye"; "with God all things are + possible," etc. Try to turn these phrases into any language you think + you know; the odds are that you will find yourself "up against it + pretty badly." The fact is, that + +<!-- 164.png --> + +<a name="page155"> </a><span class = "pagenum">155</span> + + prepositions are very frequently used on no logical plan, not at all + according to any fixed or universal meaning; all that can be said + about them in a given phrase is that they are used there because + they are used. To remember their equivalents in other languages hard + memory work and much phrase-learning is necessary. In Esperanto all + that is necessary is: first, to become clear as to the exact meaning; + secondly, to pick the preposition that conveys it. There is no doubt, + as the Esperanto prepositions are fixed in sense, on the "one word + one meaning" plan. The point is, that there is no memory searching, + often so utterly vain, for there are few people indeed who can write + a few pages of the most familiar foreign languages without getting + their prepositions all wrong, and having "foreigner" stamped large + all across their efforts. In Esperanto, provided you have a clear + mind and know your grammar, <i>you are right</i>. No arbitrary usage + defeats your efforts and makes discouraging jargon of your literary + attempts. +</p> + +<p> + This training in clear thought, the first requisite for all good + writing, is surely sound practical pedagogics. By the time you can + give up conscious word-building in Esperanto, and use words and + phrases by rote, you have done enough bracing thinking to teach you + caution in the use of the ready-made phrase and horror of the vague + word. +</p> + +<p> + Fools make phrases, and wise men shun them. Here is a phrase-free + language: need we shun it? +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIIchapterIII"> + III + <div class="subtitolo"> + comparative tables illustrating labour saved in learning esperanto as + contrasted with other languages + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center"> + (<i>a</i>) <span class="majusklete">Word-building</span> +</p> + +<!-- 165.png --> + +<a name="page156"> </a><span class = "pagenum">156</span> + +<!-- 166.png --> + +<a name="page157"> </a><span class = "pagenum">157</span> + +<!-- 167.png --> + +<a name="page158"> </a><span class = "pagenum">158</span> + +<p> + The following tables are meant to give some idea of the number + and variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single + Esperanto root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes). + By reading the English, French, and German columns downwards, the + reader will see how many different roots and periphrases these + languages employ in order to express the same ideas. +</p> + +<p> + As the affixes have fixed meanings, they only have to be learnt + once for all, and many of them (e.g. <i>-ist</i>, <i>-in</i>, + <i>re-</i>) are already familiar. When once acquired, they can be + used in unending permutation and combination with different roots + and each other. The tables below are by no means exhaustive of + what can be done with the roots <i>san-</i> and <i>lern-</i>. They + are merely illustrative. By referring to the full + <a href="#partIVchapterIV">table of affixes</a> + the reader can + go on forming new compounds <i>ad libitum</i>: e.g. san‑o, + san‑a, san‑e, san‑i, saneco, sanilo, sanulo, + malsane, malsani, saneti, malsaneti, sanadi, eksani, eksaniĝi, + saninda, sanindi, sanindulo, sanaĵo, sanaĵero, sanilo, + sanigilo, sanigilejo, sanigilujo, sanigilisto, malsanemeco, + remalsano, remalsanigo, sanila, malsanulino, sanistinedzo, sanilingo, + sanigestro, sanigestrino, sanigema, sanega, sanigega, gesanantoj, + saniĝontoj, sanigistido, sanigejano... and so + on (kaj tiel plu). +</p> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="To give some idea of the number and variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes)."> + <tr><td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">Affix</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">Esperanto</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">English</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">French</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">German</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">healthy</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">bien portant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">gesund</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal- (opposite)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑san‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ill</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">malade</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">krank</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ne (not)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ne‑san‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">unwell</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(un peu) souffrant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">unwohl</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ig (causative)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑i</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">to heal</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">guérir</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">heilen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">salutary</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">salutaire</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">heilsam</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">re- (again)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">re‑san‑ig‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">restorative</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">restaurant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">wiederherstellend</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-iĝ (becoming)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑iĝ-i</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">to be convalescent</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">être convalescent</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sich erholen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">re‑san‑iĝ-a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">getting well again</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">en train de se rétablir</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">genesend</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ig</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑san‑ig‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sickening (transitive)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">écoeurant (qui rend malade)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ekelhaft (krank machend)</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-iĝ</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑san‑iĝ-a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sickening (intransitive)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">languissant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">siechend</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ist (agent)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑ist‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">doctor</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">médecin</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Arzt</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ej (place)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑ej‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">hospital</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">hôpital</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Krankenhaus</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ul (characteristic)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑san‑ul‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">invalid</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">un malade</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ein Kranker</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ebl (possibility)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(mal)-san‑ig‑ebl‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(in)curable</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(in)curable</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(un)heilbar</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ar (collective)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑san‑ul‑ar‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">hospital inmates</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ensemble des malades</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Gesamtheit der Kranken</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ge- (both sexes)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ge‑mal‑san‑ul‑ar‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">all the men and women patients</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">les malades hommes et femmes</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">die Kranken beider Geschlechter</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-in (feminine)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑ist‑in‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">a lady doctor</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">un médecin femme</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Arztin</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-edz (married)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">san‑ig‑ist‑edz‑in‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">a doctor's wife</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">une femme de médecin</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Frau des Arztes</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="To give some idea of the number and variety of different ideas that can be expressed by a single Esperanto root, with the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes)."> + <tr><td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">Affix</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">Esperanto</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">English</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">French</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">German</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑i</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">to learn</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">apprendre</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lernen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ig (causative)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ig‑i</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">to teach</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">enseigner</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lehren</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ig‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">educative</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">éducateur</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">erzieherisch</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ej (place)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lernej‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">school</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">école</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Schule</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ant (pres. part.)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ant‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">pupil</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">élève</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Schüler</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ge- (of both sexes)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ge‑lern‑ant‑oj</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">pupils of both sexes</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">élèves des deux sexes</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Schüler and Schülerinnen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ar (collective)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ant‑ar‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">class</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">classe</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Klasse</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-an (appertaining)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ej‑an‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">schoolboy</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">écolier</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Schulknabe</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-in (feminine)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ej‑an‑in‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">schoolgirl</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ecolière</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Schulmädchen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-estr (chief)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ej‑estr‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">headmaster</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">proviseur</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Direktor</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ist (agent)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ej‑ist‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">schoolmaster</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">instituteur (professeur)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Lehrer</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ej‑ist‑in‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">schoolmistress</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">institutrice</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Lehrerin</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-aĵo (concrete)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑aĵ-o (learnt‑stuff)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">subject</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">matière d'enseignement</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Lehrstoff</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑aĵ-ar‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">curriculum</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ensemble des matières d'enseignement</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(Studien)- Laufbahn Schulprogramm</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-em (inclination)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑em‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">studious</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">appliqué</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">fleissig</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal- (opposite)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mal‑lern‑em‑a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">idle</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">paresseux</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">faul</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">-ig (causative)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑em‑ig‑i</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">to stimulate</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mettre en train</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">anregen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ig‑o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">instruction (act)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">instruction</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">das Unterrichten</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">lern‑ig‑aĵ-o</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">instruction (teaching given)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">enseignement</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Unterricht</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<p align="center"> + (<i>b</i>) <span class="majusklete">Participles and Auxiliaries</span> +</p> + +<p> + The following table + illustrates the perfect simplicity and terseness of the Esperanto + verb. +</p> + +<p> + Every tense, active and passive, is formed with never more than + two words. Every shade of meaning (continued, potential, etc., + action) is expressed by these two words, of which one is the single + auxiliary <i>esti</i> (itself conjugated regularly). The double + auxiliary—"to be" and "to have"—which infests most modern + languages, with all its train of confusing and often illogical + distinctions (cf. French <i>je suis allé</i>, but <i>j'ai + couru</i>), disappears. Contrast the simplicity of <i>amota</i> + with the cumbersome periphrasis <i>about to be loved</i>; or the + perfect ease and clearness of <i>vi estus amita</i> with the + treble-barrelled German <i>Sie würden geliebt worden + sein</i>. +</p> + +<p> + This simplicity of the Esperanto verb is entirely due to its full + participial system. There are six participles, present, past, and + future active and passive, each complete in one word. The + +<!-- 168.png --> + +<a name="page159"> </a><span class = "pagenum">159</span> + + only natural Aryan language (of those commonly studied) that compares + with Esperanto in this respect is Greek; and it is precisely the + fulness of the Greek participial system that lends to the language + a great part of that flexibility which all ages have agreed in + admiring in it pre-eminently. Take a page of Plato or any other + Greek author, and count the number of participles and note their + use. They will be found more numerous and more delicately effective + than in other languages. Esperanto can do all this; and it can do + it without any of the complexity of form and irregularity that + makes the learning of Greek verbs such a hard task. Bearing in mind + the three characteristic vowels of the three tenses—present + <i>-a</i>, past <i>-i</i>, future <i>-o</i> (common to finite tenses + and participles)—the proverbial schoolboy, and the dullest at + that, could hardly make the learning of the Esperanto participles + last him half an hour. +</p> + +<p> + It would be easy to go on filling page after page with the + simplifications effected by Esperanto, but these will not fail to + strike the learner after a very brief acquaintance with the language. + But attention ought to be drawn to one more particularly clever + device—the form of asking questions. An Esperanto statement + is converted into a question without any inversion of subject and + verb or any change at all, except the addition of the interrogative + particle <i>ĉu</i>. In this Esperanto agrees with Japanese. + But whereas Japanese adds its particle <i>ka</i> at the end of the + sentence, the Esperanto <i>ĉu</i> stands first in its clause. + Thus when, speaking Esperanto, you wish to ask a question, you begin + by shouting out <i>ĉu</i>, an admirably distinctive monosyllable + which cannot be confused with any other word in the language. By this + means you get your interlocutor prepared and attending, and you can + then frame your question at leisure. +</p> + +<p> + Contrast Esperanto and English in the ease with which they + respectively convert a statement into a question. +</p> + +<p class="dekstre"> + English : You went—did you go?<br/> + Esperanto : Vi iris—ĉu vi iris? +</p> + +<!-- 169.png --> + +<a name="page160"> </a><span class = "pagenum">160</span> + +<!-- 170.png --> + +<a name="page161"> </a><span class = "pagenum">161</span> + +<p> + This particle may be considered the equivalent of the initial mark of + interrogation used in Spanish, and serves to remove all complications + in connexion with word order. +</p> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="Verb conjugation in Esperanto"> + <tr><td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">Esperanto</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">English</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">French</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle" class="titoleto">German</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">amanta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">loving</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">aimant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">liebend</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">aminta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">having loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ayant aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">der geliebt hat</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">amonta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">about to love</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">devant aimer</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">der lieben wird</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">amata</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">being loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">étant aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">der geliebt wird</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">amita</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(having been) loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">(ayant été) aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">der geliebt worden ist</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">amota</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">about to be loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">devant être aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">der geliebt werden soll</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mi estas aminta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">I have loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">j'ai aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ich habe geliebt</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vi estis aminta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">you had loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vous aviez aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Sie hatten geliebt</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">li estas amanta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">he is loving</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">il est aimant</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">er ist liebend</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ŝi estis amata</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">she was being loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">elle était en train d'être aimée</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sie war im Zuge geliebt zu werden</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ni estos amintaj</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">we shall have loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">nous aurons aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">wir werden geliebt haben</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vi estas amataj</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">you are loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vous êtes aimés</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Sie werden geliebt</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ili estas amitaj</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">they have been loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ils ont été aimés</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sie sind geliebt worden</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">mi estus aminta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">I should have loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">j'aurais aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ich würde geliebt haben</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vi estus amita</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">you would have been loved</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">vous auriez été aimé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">Sie würden geliebt worden sein</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">li estas foririnta</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">he has gone away</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">il s'en est allé</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">er ist fortgegangen</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">ili estus foririntaj</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">they would have gone away</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">il s'en seraient allés</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">sie würden fortgegangen sein</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<hr width="62%" align="center"/> + +<p> + This chapter on labour-saving may fitly conclude with an estimate + of the amount of mere memorizing work to be done in Esperanto. + Since this is almost <i>nil</i> for grammar, syntax, and idiom, and + since there are no irregularities or exceptions, the memory work + is, broadly speaking, reduced to learning the affixes, the table + of correlatives, and a certain number of new roots. This number is + astonishingly small. Here is an estimate made by Prof. Macloskie, of + Princeton, U.S.A.: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Little memorization needed for Esperanto!"> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Number</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> of roots </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">new to</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle"> an English </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">boy</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> without </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">Latin, </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">about </td> +<td align="left" valign="middle">600*</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">with</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle">300</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle" colspan="4">a college teacher</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="middle">"</td> +<td align="left" valign="middle">100</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p class="piednoto"> + *i.e. about one-third of the whole number in the <i>Fundamento</i>. +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIIIchapterIV"> + IV + <div class="subtitolo"> + how esperanto can be used as a code language to communicate with persons who have never learnt it + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Technically speaking, Esperanto combines the characteristics of + an inflected language with those of an agglutinative one. This + means that the syllables used as inflexions (<i>-o</i>, <i>-a</i>, + <i>-e</i>, <i>-as</i>, <i>-is</i>, <i>-os</i>, <i>-ant-</i>, + <i>-int-</i>, <i>-ont-</i>, etc.), being invariable and of universal + application, can also be regarded as separate words. And as separate + words they all figure in the dictionary, under their initial letters. + Thus anything written in Esperanto can be deciphered by the simple + process of looking out words and parts of words in the dictionary. + For examples, see pieces 1 and 2 in the + <a href="#partIVchapterII">specimens of Esperanto</a>, + and read the Note at the beginning of + <a href="#partIV">Part IV</a>. + As the Esperanto dictionary only consists + +<!-- 171.png --> + +<a name="page162"> </a><span class = "pagenum">162</span> + + of a few pages, it can be easily carried in the pocket-book or + waistcoat pocket. +</p> + +<p> + Thus, while to the educated person of Aryan speech Esperanto presents + the natural appearance of an ordinary inflected language, one who + belongs by speech to another lingual family, or any one who has never + heard of Esperanto, can regard every inflected word as a compound of + invariable elements. By turning over very few pages he can determine + the meaning and use of each element, and therefore, by putting them + together, he can arrive at the sense of the compound word, e.g. + <i>lav'ist'in'o</i>. Look out <i>lav-</i>, and you find "wash"; look + out <i>-ist</i>, and you find it expresses the person who does an + action; look out <i>-in</i>, and you find it expresses the feminine; + look out <i>-o</i>, and you find it denotes a noun. Put the whole + together, and you get "female who does washing, laundress." +</p> + +<p> + Suppose you are going on an ocean voyage, and you expect to be + shut up for weeks in a ship with persons of many nationalities. + You take with you keys to Esperanto, price one halfpenny each, in + various languages. You wish to tackle a Russian. Write your Esperanto + sentence clearly and put the paper in his hand. At the same time hand + him a Russian key to Esperanto, pointing to the following paragraph + (in Russian) on the outside: +</p> + +<p> + "Everything written in the international language can be translated + by the help of this vocabulary. If several words together express + but a single idea, they are written in one word, but separated by + apostrophes; e.g. <i>frat'in'o</i>, though a single idea, is yet + composed of three words, which must be looked for separately in the + vocabulary." +</p> + +<p> + After he has got over his shock of surprise, your Russian, if a man + of ordinary education, will make out your sentence in a very short + time by using the key. +</p> + +<p> + As an example Dr. Zamenhof gives the following sentence: "Mi + ne sci'as kie mi las'is la baston'o'n: Ĉu vi ĝi'n ne + vid'is?"<br/> + With the vocabulary this sentence will work out as follows: +</p> + +<!-- 172.png --> + +<a name="page163"> </a><span class = "pagenum">163</span> + +<!-- My alignment for multirows: flows from top (input), + through middle, through bottom (output). --> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="I've lost my stick, in Esperanto."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>Mi</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>mi</i> = I</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">I</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ne</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ne</i> = not</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">not</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="2"><i>sci'as</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>sci</i> = know</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="2">do know</td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>as</i> = sign of present tense</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>kie</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>kie</i> = where</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">where</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>mi</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>mi</i> = I</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">I</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="2"><i>las'is</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>las</i> = leave</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="2">have left</td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>is</i> = sign of past tense</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>la</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>la</i> = the</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">the</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="3"><i>baston'o'n</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>baston</i> = stick</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="3">stick</td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>o</i> = sign of a noun</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>n</i> = sign of objective case</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ĉu</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ĉu</i> = whether, sign of question</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">whether</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>vi</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>vi</i> = you</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">you</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="2"><i>ĝi'n</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ĝi</i> = it</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="2">it</td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>n</i> = sign of objective case</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ne</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>ne</i> = not</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">not</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top" rowspan="2"><i>vid'is</i></td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>vid</i> = leave</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="bottom" rowspan="2">have seen</td></tr> + <tr><td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"><i>is</i> = sign of past tense</td> +<td width="5%"> </td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + It is obvious that no natural language can be used in the same way as + a code to be deciphered with a small key. +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="I've lost my stick, in German."> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top" colspan="2" class="titoleto">German</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td align="center" valign="top" colspan="2" class="titoleto">French</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>Ich</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">I</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>je</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">I</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>weiss</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">white</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>ne</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">not</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>nicht</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">not</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>sais</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>wo</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">where</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>pas</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">step</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>ich</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">I</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>où</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">where</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>den</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>j'ai</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>Stock</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">stick</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>laissé</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>gelassen</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">dispassionate</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>la</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">the</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>habe</i>:</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">property:</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>canne</i>:</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">reed:</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>haben</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">to have</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>ne</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">not</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>Sie</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">she, they, you,</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>l'avez</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>ihn</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>vous</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">you</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>nicht</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">not</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>pas</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">step</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>gesehen</i></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td> +<td width="5%"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>vu</i>?</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle">?</td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- 173.png --> + +<a name="page164"> </a><span class = "pagenum">164</span> + +<p> + If your Russian wishes to reply, hand him a Russian-Esperanto + vocabulary, pointing to the following paragraph on the outside: +</p> + +<p> + "To express anything by means of this vocabulary, in the + international language, look for the words required in the vocabulary + itself; and for the terminations necessary to distinguish the + grammatical forms, look in the grammatical appendix, under the + respective headings of the parts of speech which you desire to + express." +</p> + +<p> + The whole of the grammatical structure is explained in a few lines in + this appendix, so the grammar can be looked out as easily as the root + words. +</p> + +<!-- 174.png --> + +<a name="page165"> </a><span class = "pagenum">165</span> + +<div class="partotitolo" id="partIV"> + PART IV + <div class="subtitolo"> + SPECIMENS OF ESPERANTO, WITH GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete">Note</p> + +<p> + The best way of learning Esperanto is to begin at once to read the + language. Do not trouble to learn the grammar and list of suffixes by + themselves first. All this can be picked up easily in the course of + reading. +</p> + +<p> + In the following specimens the first two pieces are marked for + beginners. Each part of a word marked off by hyphens is to be looked + out separately in the vocabulary. By the time the beginner has read + these two pieces carefully in this way he will know the grammar, and + have a fair idea of the structure of the language and the use of + affixes. +</p> + +<p> + In order to save time in looking out words, and so quicken the + process of learning, the English translation of the third piece is + given in parallel columns. Therefore in this piece only the principal + words, which might be unfamiliar to English readers, are given in the + vocabulary. Word-formation and some points of grammar are explained + in the notes. +</p> + +<p> + To get a practical grasp of Esperanto, cover the left-hand + (Esperanto) column with a piece of paper after reading it, and + re-translate the English into Esperanto, using the notes. After half + an hour per day of such exercise for two or three weeks, an ordinary + educated person will know Esperanto pretty well. +</p> + +<p> + N.B.—It is very important to acquire a correct pronunciation at + the start. Study the pronunciation rules, and practise reading aloud + before beginning to translate. <i>Read slowly.</i> +</p> + +<!-- 175.png --> + +<a name="page166"> </a><span class = "pagenum">166</span> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterI"> + I + <div class="subtitolo"> + pronunciation + </div> +</div> + +<p> + <i>Vowels</i> +</p> + +<p> + There are no long and short, open and closed, vowels: just five + simple, full-sounding vowels, always pronounced the same. English + people must be particularly careful to make them sufficiently full. +</p> + +<div class="dekstre"> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="Pronunciation of Vowels."> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>a</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">as</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>a</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">in</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">Engl.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"father."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>e</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ey</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> "they."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>i</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ee</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> "eel."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>o</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>o</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> "hole," inclining to <i>o</i> in Engl. "more." (English speakers find it hard to pronounce a true <i>o</i>.)</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>u</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>oo</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top"> "moon."</td></tr> + </table> +</div> + +<p> + In short, the vowels are as in Italian. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Diphthongs</i> +</p> + +<div class="dekstre"> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="Pronunciation of Diphthongs."> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>aj</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">as</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>eye</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">in</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">Engl.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"eye."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>oj</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>oy</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"boy."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top"><i>aŭ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ow</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"cow."</td></tr> + <tr><td align="center" valign="top">(<i>eŭ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>e...w</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"g<i>e</i>t <i>w</i>et": this sound does not often occur.)</td></tr> + </table> +</div> + +<p> + <i>Consonants</i> +</p> + +<p> + These are pronounced as in English, except the following: +</p> + +<div class="dekstre"> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="Pronunciation of consonants (those that differ from English)."> + <tr><td><i>c</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">as</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ts</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">in</td> +<td align="left" valign="top">Engl.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"bits."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ĉ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ch</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"church."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>g</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>g</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"give."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ĝ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>g</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"gentle."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ĥ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>ch</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Scotch "loch," or German "ich."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>j</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>y</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" colspan="2" align="left" valign="top">Engl. "yes."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ĵ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>s</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"pleasure."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ŝ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>sh</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"shilling."</td></tr> + <tr><td><i>ŭ</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top"><i>w</i></td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td align="center" valign="top">"</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="top">"cow" (only occurs in the diphthongs <i>aŭ</i> and <i>eŭ</i>).</td></tr> + </table> +</div> + +<!-- 176.png --> + +<a name="page167"> </a><span class = "pagenum">167</span> + +<p> + <i>Accent</i> +</p> + +<p> + Always upon the last syllable but one. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Example</i> +</p> + +<p> + The first few lines of piece I in the following specimens may be thus + figured for English readers: +</p> + +<p> + Gayseenyóroy—mee noon déeros ahl vee + káylkine vórtoyn Ayspayráhntay. Mee kraydahs + kay vee ówdos, kay Ayspayráhnto áystahs tray + fahtseelah ki baylsónah léengvo. +</p> + +<p> + N.B.—The precise sound of <i>e</i> is between <i>a</i> in + "b<i>a</i>le" and <i>e</i> in "b<i>e</i>ll." +</p> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterII"> + II + <div class="subtitolo"> + specimens of esperanto + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete" id="partIVchapterIIspecimen1"> + 1. Parol‑ad‑o +</p> + +<p> + Ge‑sinjor‑o‑j—mi nun dir‑os al + vi kelk‑a‑j‑n vort‑o‑j‑n + Esperant‑e. Mi kred‑as ke vi aŭd‑os, + ke Esperant‑o est‑as tre facil‑a + kaj bel‑son‑a lingv‑o. Ver‑e, + ĝi est‑as tiel facil‑a, sonor‑a + kaj simpl‑a, ke oni tut‑e ne hav‑as + mal‑facil‑ec‑o‑n por lern‑i + ĝi‑n. La lern‑ant‑o‑j pov‑as + ordinar‑e kompren‑i, leg‑i, skrib‑i kaj + parol‑i ĝin en tre mal‑long‑a temp‑o. + La fakt‑o ke Esperant‑o en‑hav‑as tre + mal‑mult‑a‑j‑n, vokal‑a‑j‑n + son‑o‑j‑n, kaj ke la vokal‑o‑j + est‑as ĉiu‑j long‑a‑j kaj + plen‑son‑a‑j, est‑ig‑as ĝin + mult‑e pli facil‑a ol la ali‑a‑j + lingv‑o‑j, ĉiu por aŭ-d‑i, ĉiu por + el‑parol‑i. +</p> + +<p> + Mi kred‑as ke mal‑long‑a lern‑ad‑o + est‑os sufiĉ-a por vi‑n kompren‑ig‑i, + ke la hom‑o‑j de ĉiu‑j naci‑o‑j + pov‑as inter‑parol‑i Esperant‑e sen + mal‑facil‑ec‑o. +</p> + +<p> + Mi ne de‑ten‑os vi‑n pli long‑e. + Fin‑ant‑e, mi las‑os kun vi du + fraz‑et‑o‑j‑n: unu‑e, por la + ideal‑ist‑o‑j, kiu‑j cel‑as unu + frat‑ec‑o‑n inter la popol‑o‑j + de ĉiu land‑o, la Esperant‑a‑n + deviz‑o‑n—"Dum ni spir‑as ni esper‑as": + du‑e, por la hom‑o‑j praktik‑a‑j la + praktik‑a‑n konsil‑o‑n—"Lern‑u + Esperant‑o‑n." +</p> + +<!-- 177.png --> + +<a name="page168"> </a><span class = "pagenum">168</span> + +<!-- 178.png --> + +<a name="page169"> </a> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete" id="partIVchapterIIspecimen2"> + 2. La Mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j: Alegori‑et‑o +</p> + +<p> + Ĉirkaŭ grand‑a mez‑ter‑a mar‑o + viv‑is mult‑a‑j popol‑o‑j. + Ili hav‑is mult‑a‑n inter‑a‑n + komerc‑o‑n. Ĉar la mar‑o + est‑is oft‑e mal‑trankvil‑a kaj ili + hav‑is nur mal‑grand‑a‑j‑n + ŝip‑o‑j‑n, ili vetur‑is + laŭ-long‑e la mar‑bord‑o, neniam + perd‑ant‑e la ter‑o‑n el la vid‑o. +</p> + +<p> + Cert‑a hom‑o el‑pens‑is + ŝip‑o‑n, kiu ir‑is per vapor‑o. Li + dir‑is al la mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j: + "Jen, ni met‑u ni‑a‑n mon‑o‑n + kun‑e, kaj ni konstru‑u grand‑a‑j‑n + vapor-ŝip‑o‑j‑n. Tiel ni vetur‑os + rekt‑e trans la mar‑o unu al ali‑a‑n; kaj ni + far‑os pli da komerc‑o en mal‑pli da temp‑o." + Sed la mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j pli am‑is + ĉirkaŭ-ir‑i en mal‑grand‑a‑j + ŝip‑o‑j, kiel ili kutim‑is. La + el‑pens‑int‑o ne hav‑is sufiĉ-e + da mon‑o por konstru‑i grand‑a‑n + vapor-ŝip‑o‑n, kiu tre mult‑e + en‑hav‑os kaj tre rapid‑e vojaĝ-os; + tial li dev‑is vetur‑ad‑i en si‑a + mez‑grand‑a vapor-ŝip‑o, kiu tamen + almenaŭ rekt‑e ir‑is ĉie‑n. Sed la + mar‑bord‑ist‑o‑j daŭr‑ig‑is + rem‑i kaj vel‑i ĉirkaŭ-e. +</p> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em" id="partIVchapterIIspecimen3" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" class="majusklete" align="center" valign="middle"> + 3. Nesaĝa Gento:<br/>Alegorio + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" class="majusklete" align="center" valign="middle"> + An Unwise<sup>1</sup> Race:<br/>an Allegory + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Malproksime, en nekonata lando, vivis sovaĝa gento. + Ili loĝis en la mezo de vasta ebenaĵo, izolata de + la ekstera mondo. Unuflanken homo dek tagojn vojaĝante + venus al montegaro: aliflanke staris granda lago kaj senlimaj + marĉoj. Tiel oni vivadis trankvile laŭ patra + kutimo, tute senzorga pri la ago kaj faro de aliaj homgentoj + transmontanaj. En somero estis varmege, kaj ĉiu vintro + ŝajnis pli malvarma ol la antaŭa; sed la tero estis + fruktodona, ĝi donis al ili sufiĉe da greno por + manĝi, kaj la riveroj kaj riveretoj plene provizis puran + trinkaĵon. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Far<sup>2</sup> away, in an unknown<sup>3</sup> + land, there lived a savage race, They dwelt in the + midst of a vast plain,<sup>4</sup> cut off from the + outer<sup>5</sup> world. Towards one side<sup>6</sup> a man + journeying<sup>7</sup> ten days<sup>8</sup> would come to a big + mountain-range<sup>9</sup>; on the other side stood a great + lake and boundless<sup>10</sup> swamps. Thus<sup>11</sup> + they lived<sup>12</sup> quietly after the manner of their + fathers, caring nothing<sup>13</sup> for the way of + life<sup>14</sup> of other men beyond the hills. In summer + it was very hot,<sup>15</sup> and every winter seemed colder + than the last; but the earth was fertile, it gave them enough + corn<sup>16</sup> to eat, and the streams and rivers furnished + abundance of pure water to drink.<sup>17</sup> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Unwise. Wise = <i>saĝa</i>; <i>ne</i> = not. + <sup>2</sup>Far. Near = <i>proksim‑e</i> (<i>e</i> = + adverbial ending). To be near = <i>proksimi</i>. <i>Mal-</i> is + a prefix denoting the opposite. <sup>3</sup>Unknown. To know = + <i>koni</i>. Pres. part. pass. <i>-at-</i> Negative = <i>ne</i>. + (<i>bona</i> = good; <i>malbona</i> = bad; <i>nebona</i> = not + good.) <sup>4</sup>Plain. Flat = <i>eben‑a</i>. <i>aĵ</i> + is a suffix denoting something made from or possessing the quality + of. <sup>5</sup>Outer. Outside (preposition) = <i>ekster</i>. + <i>a</i> denotes an adjective. <sup>6</sup>Towards one side. Side + = <i>flank‑o</i>. <i>e</i> denotes an adverb; <i>flanke</i> + = "sidely," i.e. at the side, <i>n</i> denotes motion towards. + <sup>7</sup>Journeying. This participial phrase qualifies the verb, + <i>venus</i>, like an adverb. In Esperanto the participle therefore + takes an <i>e</i> which denotes an adverb. <sup>8</sup>Ten days, + i.e. for the duration of ten days. Duration of time is put in the + accusative case. <sup>9</sup>Big mountain-range. Mountain + = <i>mont‑o</i>. <i>eg</i> is a suffix denoting bigness; + <i>ar</i> is a suffix denoting a collection. <sup>10</sup>Boundless. + Limit = <i>lim‑o</i>. Without = <i>sen</i>. <sup>11</sup>Thus. + See <a href="#partIVchapterV">table of correlatives</a>. + <sup>12</sup>They lived. To live = <i>viv‑i</i>. <i>ad</i> is + a suffix denoting continued action. <sup>13</sup>Caring nothing. + Care = <i>zorg‑o</i>. <i>Sen</i> = without. <i>a</i> denotes + an adjective. <sup>14</sup>Way of life. Lit. the acting and + doing. <sup>15</sup>It was very hot. In such impersonal uses of + the adjective, the adverbial form is used. <sup>16</sup>Enough + corn, <i>da</i> is used after words of quantity. <i>Sufiĉan + grenon</i> would also be right. <sup>17</sup>Water to drink. Lit. + drink-stuff, or drink-thing. +</p> + +<!-- 179.png --> + +<a name="page170"> </a><span class = "pagenum">170</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Tiel ili vivadis ne malfeliĉe, kaj ilia vivo estis la vivo + de la prapatroj, ĉar ili ne sciis kiel ĝin plibonigi. + Sed mankis en ilia lando unu aĵo, kaj pro tiu ĉi + manko ili multe suferis: en la tuta lando ĉeestis nenia + ŝirmilo, ĉu kontraŭ la suno en somero, ĉu + por forteni la vintrajn ventojn. Ĉiuflanke la tero estis + plata; kaj kvankam la greno kaj ĉiuspecaj legomoj kreskis + bone, arboj estis nekonataj. Eĉ la malproksima montaro + staris tutnuda; kaj kiam la ventoj blovis forte el ĝiaj + neĝoj, la mizeruloj tremetis pro malvarmeco, kaj ne povis + eĉ en siaj dometoj komfortiĝi, ĉar la penetranta + enfluo de malvarma aero stele eniris ĝis la familian + kamenon. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Thus they lived not unhappily, and their life was the life of + their forefathers, for they knew not how to better<sup>1</sup> + it. But in their land one thing<sup>2</sup> was lacking; and + for<sup>3</sup> lack of this they suffered greatly: there + was<sup>4</sup> no shelter<sup>5</sup> in all the land, whether + against the sun in summer, or to keep off<sup>6</sup> the + winter winds. On every side the ground was flat; and although + corn and all kinds of<sup>7</sup> vegetables grew well, trees + were unknown. Even the distant mountains stood all bare; and + when the winds blew strong from amidst their<sup>8</sup> + snows, the poor folk shivered for cold, and could not get + comfortable<sup>9</sup> even in their cottages, for the + penetrating draught of the cold air crept<sup>10</sup> right in + to the family fireside. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Better. Good = <i>bon‑a</i>; better = <i>pli bona</i>; + suf. <i>-ig</i> is causative. <sup>2</sup>One thing. The concrete + suffix <i>-aĵ</i> by itself may be used to express "thing." Of + course it takes the substantival ending <i>o</i>. <sup>3</sup>For + lack. Esperanto is absolutely precise in the use of prepositions + according to sense. No idiom. In this it differs from all other + languages. Here "for" means "by reason of." <sup>4</sup>There was. + <i>Est‑i</i> = to be; <i>ĉe</i> = at; <i>ĉeesti</i> = to + be present. <sup>5</sup>Shelter. To shelter = <i>ŝirm‑i</i>; + <i>il</i> is a suffix expressing instrument. <sup>6</sup>Keep + off. To hold = <i>ten‑i</i>; away = <i>for</i>. <sup>7</sup>All + kinds of. Kind = <i>spec‑o</i>; all = <i>ĉiu</i>. <i>a</i> is + adjectival ending. <sup>8</sup>Their snows. Whose snows? The + mountains'. Therefore <i>ĝiaj</i>, referring to <i>montaro</i>. + If "their" referred to "winds," it would be <i>siaj</i>. + <sup>9</sup>Get comfortable. Comfort(able) = <i>komfort‑o</i>; suf. + <i>iĝ</i> denotes becoming. <sup>10</sup>Crept in. To steal = + <i>ŝtel‑i</i>; <i>-e</i> makes it an adverb. +</p> + +<!-- 180.png --> + +<a name="page171"> </a><span class = "pagenum">171</span> + +<!-- 181.png --> + +<a name="page172"> </a> + +<!-- 182.png --> + +<a name="page173"> </a> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Nu okazis ke certa knabo, pensema preter siaj jaroj, komencis + pripensi tiun ĉi mizeran staton. Li vivis kun sia vidvina + patrino, kiu havis du infanetojn krom Namezo (tiel nomiĝis + la knabo). Ili estis tre malriĉaj, kaj devis senĉese + labori por nutri sin mem kaj la infanojn. La vidvino ne havis + pli ol kvardek jarojn, sed Namezo rimarkis ke vespere, post + la taga laboro, ŝi ŝajnis tute lacega, kaj kelkajn + jarojn post la morto de sia edzo ŝi ekmaljuniĝis. + Ofte la knabo diris al ŝi, ke ŝi devus pli ripozi, + sed ĉiumatene post la nokto ŝi havis mienon tiel + same lacegan kiel vespere; kaj ŝi plendis ke la trablovaj + ventoj suferigis sin nokte per reŭmatismaj doloroj, kaj + somere ŝi ne povis dormi pro varmeco. Tiam la knabo turnis + la okulojn ekster sia hejmo kaj rigardis ĉirkaŭen. + Li vidis ke ĉiuflanke estis tiel same: la geviroj frue + maljuniĝis kaj multe suferis. Li pensis, "Baldaŭ + estos al mi ankaŭ simile; la juneco estas mallonga kaj + labora, kaj la vivo estas longa kaj ĉagrena." Fine li + malgajadis. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Now, it happened that a certain boy, thoughtful<sup>1</sup> + beyond his years, began to think over this wretched state of + things. He lived with his<sup>2</sup> widowed mother, who + had two little children besides Namezo (this was the lad's + name<sup>3</sup>). They were very poor, and were obliged to + work hard without stopping to get food for themselves and + the children. The widow was not more than forty, but Namezo + noticed that of an evening, after the day's work, she seemed + quite tired out,<sup>4</sup> and a few years<sup>5</sup> after + her husband's death she grew old all at once.<sup>6</sup> + Often the boy told her she ought to take more rest, but every + morning<sup>7</sup> she had the same worn-out look as in the + evening; and she complained that the winds blowing through of a + night plagued<sup>8</sup> her with<sup>9</sup> rheumatic pains, + and in summer she could not sleep because of the heat. Then the + boy turned his eyes outwards from his home and looked around + him. He saw that on every side it was the same<sup>10</sup>: + men and women<sup>11</sup> grew old early and suffered much. He + thought, "Soon it will be the same with me; youth<sup>12</sup> + is short and full of work, and life is long and full of + trouble." At last he became gloomy altogether.<sup>13</sup> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Thoughtful. To think = <i>pens‑i</i>; suf. + <i>-em</i> denotes propensity. <sup>2</sup>With his widowed + mother, i.e. his own = <i>sia</i>. <sup>3</sup>This was his + name. To name = <i>nom‑i</i>; with suf. <i>-iĝ</i> + = to get named, to be called. <sup>4</sup>Tired out. Tired = + <i>lac‑a</i>; suf. <i>-eg</i> denotes intensity. <sup>5</sup>A + few years. Accusative of time. <sup>6</sup>She grew old all at + once. Young = <i>jun‑a</i>; old = <i>maljuna</i>; suf. + <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming; prefix <i>ek-</i> denotes + beginning, or sudden action. <sup>7</sup>Every morning = + <i>ĉiumatene</i>. "The whole morning" would be <i>la tutan + matenon</i>. <sup>8</sup>Plagued. To suffer = <i>sufer‑i</i>; + suf. <i>-ig</i> is causative; <i>suferigi</i> = to cause to suffer. + <sup>9</sup>With... pains. Think of the sense. + "With" = by means of. <sup>10</sup>It was the same. Impersonal: + use the adverbial form in <i>-e.</i> <sup>11</sup>Men and women. + Pref. <i>ge-</i> denotes both sexes. <sup>12</sup>Youth. Young = + <i>juna</i>; suf. <i>-ec</i> denotes abstract. <sup>13</sup>Became + gloomy altogether. Gay = <i>gaj‑a</i>; gloomy = <i>malgaja</i>; + suf. <i>-ad</i> denotes continuance. +</p> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Vintro forpasis, somero alvenis. Unu nokton la knabo estis + kuŝanta en sia lito: li estis laboreginta en la kampoj, + kaj estis tre laca, sed ju pli li penis ekdormi, des pli + li obstine vekiĝadis. La tutan fajran tagon la suno + estis malsupren brilinta sur la tegmenton de la dometo, tiel + ke la kuŝejo nun similis fornon. Namezo pensis kaj + turniĝis, returniĝis kaj repensis; la samaj pensoj, + ĉiam ronde revenantaj, iĝis turmento. Fine li + ekdormetis, + sed la konfuzigaj pensoj, ĉiam la pensoj, ruladis eĉ + en lia dormo senkompate tra lia cerbo. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Winter passed away, summer came on. One night the boy was + lying in his bed: he had been working hard<sup>1</sup> in the + fields, and was very tired, but the more he tried to go to + sleep<sup>2</sup> the wider awake he grew. All through the long + fiery day the sun had been beating down<sup>3</sup> on the roof + of the cottage, so that the sleeping-place<sup>4</sup> was now + like an oven. Namezo thought and tossed, tossed and thought + again; the same thoughts, always coming round in a circle, + became<sup>5</sup> a + torture. At length he fell into a light sleep,<sup>6</sup> but + the distracting<sup>7</sup> thoughts, always the thoughts, kept + rolling<sup>8</sup> through his brain pitilessly, even in his + sleep. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Subite ekfalis sur lin granda paco. Li ŝajnis stari sur + monta pinto. Laceco kaj zorgo ne estis plu. Ĉirkaŭe + vasta soleco. Li kaj la monto—krom tio ekzistis nenio, kaj + li estis kontenta. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + All at once a great peace fell upon him. He seemed to + be standing on a mountain-peak. Weariness<sup>9</sup> + and care were no more. Around vast solitude. He and the + mountain—there was nought else, and he was glad. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Al li, tiel lukse enspiranta la freŝan aeron, alvenis + fluge blanka birdo. Ĝi aperis, li ne sciis kiel, el la + ĉirkaŭanta soleco, kaj metiĝis apud li sur la + montan pinton. Ĝi komencis paroli, kaj en lia sonĝo + tio ĉi neniel lin surprizis. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + While he thus breathed in the fresh air with delight, a white + bird came flying.<sup>10</sup> It appeared, he knew not how, + out of the surrounding solitude,<sup>11</sup> and came and + perched<sup>12</sup> beside him on the mountain-top. It began to + speak, and in his dream this<sup>13</sup> in no way<sup>14</sup> + astonished him. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>He had been working hard. Pluperfect, lit. he was having + worked. Suf. <i>-eg</i> denotes intensity. <sup>2</sup>To go to + sleep. To sleep = <i>dorm‑i</i>; pref. <i>ek-</i> denotes beginning. + <sup>3</sup>Down. Above = <i>supr‑e</i>; below = <i>malsupre</i>; + <i>n</i> denotes motion. <sup>4</sup>Sleeping‑place. To lie = + <i>kuŝi</i>; suf. <i>-ej</i> denotes place. <sup>5</sup>Became. + Suf. <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming; here used as a separate verb. + <sup>6</sup>Fell into a light sleep. To sleep = <i>dorm‑i</i>; suf. + <i>-et</i> denotes light sleep; pref. <i>ek-</i> denotes beginning. + <sup>7</sup>Distracting. Confused = <i>konfuz‑a</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> + denotes causation, confusion‑causing. <sup>8</sup>Kept rolling. + To roll = <i>rul‑i</i>; suf. <i>-ad</i> denotes continuance. + <sup>9</sup>Weariness. Tired = <i>lac‑a</i>; suf. <i>-ec</i> + denotes abstract. <sup>10</sup>Came flying. To fly = <i>flug‑i</i>; + root <i>flug-</i> with adverbial ending <i>-e</i> = flyingly. + <sup>11</sup>Solitude. Alone = <i>sol‑a</i>; suf. <i>-ec</i> + denotes abstract. <sup>12</sup>Came and perched. The idea of + motion is conveyed by the accusative (<i>-n</i>) <i>pinton</i>. + <sup>13</sup>This. Use neuter form in <i>-o</i>, because it stands + alone. "This dream" = <i>tiu ĉi sonĝo</i>. <sup>14</sup>In + no way. See <a href="#partIVchapterV">table of correlatives</a>. +</p> + +<!-- 183.png --> + +<a name="page174"> </a><span class = "pagenum">174</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "Homa knabo," diris la birdo, faligante en lian manon semon el + sia beko, "prenu tiun ĉi semon: metu ĝin en la teron: + prizorgu ĝin, flegu ĝin, kaj flegadu ĝin. Post + tempo plenigota leviĝos el tiu ĉi semo kreskaĵo + tia, kian la viaj ĝis nun ne vidis. La aliaj homoj nomas + ĝin <i>arbon</i>. Ĝi estos granda; kaj en la venontaj + jaroj, se oni deve ĝin flegos, naskiĝos el ĝi + arbaroj, kiuj estos ŝirmilo por la homaro, kaj por multaj + aliaj celoj utilos. Sed flegi ĝin oni devos, ĉar sen + homa penado nenio al homoj prosperas." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "Mortal<sup>1</sup> boy," said the bird, dropping<sup>2</sup> + a seed into his hand from its beak, "take this seed: put it + in the ground: care for it, tend it, and keep tending it. In + the fulness of time there will rise<sup>3</sup> from this + seed such<sup>5</sup> a growth<sup>4</sup> as<sup>5</sup> + your people<sup>6</sup> never yet saw. Other peoples call + it a <i>tree</i>. It will be big; and in future<sup>7</sup> + years, if it is duly tended, there will spring from it + groves,<sup>8</sup> which will give shelter to men and women, + and will be useful for many other ends. But tended it must be, + for without man's striving nothing turns out well for men." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Namezo volis respondi, sed dum li levis la manon + por rigardi la semon, estis al li kvazaŭ li + turniĝis, la kapo malsupren: la monto malaperis, kaj + li falis... falis... falis.... + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Namezo was about to reply, but as he raised his hand to + look at the seed, he seemed to turn<sup>9</sup> head + downwards: the mountain disappeared,<sup>10</sup> and + he fell... fell... fell.... + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Mortal. Man = <i>hom‑o</i>; ending <i>-a</i> makes + it an adj. <sup>2</sup>Dropping. To fall = <i>fal‑i</i>; suf. + <i>-ig</i> denotes causing to fall. <sup>3</sup>Rise. To raise = + <i>lev‑i</i>; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> makes it intransitive. + <sup>4</sup>A growth. To grow = <i>kreski</i>; "grow‑thing" + — <i>kresk‑aĵ-o</i>. <sup>5</sup>Such...as. + <i>Tia...kia</i> (= Latin <i>talis...qualis).</i> + See <a href="#partIVchapterV">table of correlatives</a>. + <sup>6</sup>Your + people. You = <i>vi</i>; <i>-a</i> makes it an adj. + <sup>7</sup>Future. Future participle active of <i>ven‑i</i> + = about to come. <sup>8</sup>Groves. Tree = <i>arb‑o</i>; + suf. <i>-ar</i> denotes a collection of trees. <sup>9</sup>To + turn. <i>Turn‑i</i> is transitive; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> + makes it intransitive. <sup>10</sup>Disappeared. To appear = + <i>aper‑i</i>; pref. <i>mal-</i> denotes opposite. +</p> + +<!-- 184.png --> + +<a name="page175"> </a><span class = "pagenum">175</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Tiam li estis denove veka en la forna dometo, sed li ne povis + sin malhelpi, rigardi sian manon, por vidi ĉu la semo + enestis. Semo neestis: kaj la pensoj rekomencis ruladi tra lia + cerbo—tamen ne plu la antaŭaj turmentigaj pensoj, sed + novaj esperplenaj pensoj, ĉar li kredis, pasie kredis, ke + estas ja ia veraĵo en lia sonĝo. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Then he was awake again in the oven-like<sup>1</sup> hut, but + he could not refrain<sup>2</sup> from<sup>3</sup> looking at + his hand, to see if the seed was in it. There was no seed; and + the thoughts began to roll through his brain again—yet no + longer the old<sup>4</sup> worrying thoughts, but new thoughts + full of hope, for he believed, passionately believed, that + there was indeed some truth<sup>5</sup> in his dream. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj nun la morgaŭa tago eklumiĝis. Li leviĝis + kaj iris al sia laboro, kaj tiun ĉi tagon kaj multajn + sekvantajn tagojn li laboradis kiel kutime, parolante al neniu + pri la sema sonĝo. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And now the new day began to dawn. He got up and went about his + work, and this day and many succeeding days he went on working + as usual, speaking to no one about his dream of the seed. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Sed kiam la tempo de rikolto forpasis, li aĉetis + dudektagan nutraĵon kaj donis al la patrino sian restan + ŝparaĵon el la rikolta tempo (ĉar vi scias, ke + en la sezono de rikolto bona laboristo gajnas pli ol + alitempe), dirante ke li devos vojaĝi, kaj forestos dudek + tagojn. La patrino miregis, ĉar neniam antaŭe li + estis lasinta ŝin eĉ unu tagon; sed li estis bona + filo, kaj ŝi kontraŭstaris lin en nenio. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + But when harvest-time was over, he bought food<sup>6</sup> + enough for twenty days and gave his mother the rest<sup>7</sup> + of his harvest-tide savings<sup>8</sup> (for you know that + in the harvest season a good workman<sup>9</sup> earns more + than at other times), saying that he must<sup>10</sup> go on a + journey, and would<sup>10</sup> be away for twenty days. His + mother wondered greatly, for he had never left<sup>11</sup> her + before even for a single day; but he was a good son to her, and + she did not thwart him in anything. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Oven-like. Oven = <i>forn‑o</i>; ending + <i>-a</i> makes it an adjective. <sup>2</sup>Refrain. To help + = <i>help‑i</i>; to hinder = <i>malhelpi</i>; to hinder + himself = <i>malhelpi sin.</i> <sup>3</sup>Refrain from looking. + In Esperanto use the simplest construction possible, <i>as long + as it is clear</i>. The simple infinitive <i>rigardi</i> is + clear after <i>malhelpi sin.</i> <sup>4</sup>The old thoughts. + Before = <i>antaŭ</i>; ending <i>-a</i> makes it an + adjective. <sup>5</sup>Truth. Think of the sense. Here truth + = "true‑thing," so use suf. <i>-aĵ</i>. "Truth" = + abstract virtue = <i>vereco</i>. <sup>6</sup>Food. To feed + = <i>nutr‑i</i>; suf. <i>-aĵ</i> denotes stuff. + <sup>7</sup>The rest of. The rest = <i>rest‑o</i>; ending + <i>-a</i> makes it an adjective = remaining. <sup>8</sup>Savings. To + save up = <i>ŝpar‑i</i>; <i>ŝpar‑aĵ-o</i> + = save‑thing (i.e. sav<i>ed</i> thing). <sup>9</sup>Workman. + To work = <i>labor‑i</i>; suf. <i>-ist</i> denotes the agent. + <sup>10</sup>He <i>must</i> go... and <i>would</i> be away. Esperanto + syntax is perfectly simple. Just use the tense which the speaker + would use, here the future; or any tense, so long as the meaning is + clear. <sup>11</sup>He had left. Pluperfect = "he was having left," + <i>esti</i> with past part. <i>active</i>. <i>Li estis lasita</i> + would mean "he had been left." +</p> + +<!-- 185.png --> + +<a name="page176"> </a><span class = "pagenum">176</span> + +<!-- 186.png --> + +<a name="page177"> </a><span class = "pagenum">177</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Li forvojaĝis do, kaj post kvin tagoj li ekvidis + malproksime sur la horizonto blankan nubon, kiu dum la + morgaŭa tago montriĝis kiel monta pinto. Namezo + salutis ĝin, kaj de tiu momento, sen ia dubo, direktis + sian iron tra la ebenaĵo ĉiam al ĝi. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + So he journeyed forth, and in five days he began to see far + off on the horizon a white cloud, which turned out<sup>1</sup> + in the course of the next day to be a mountain-peak. Namezo + saluted it, and from that moment, without any doubt, bent his + course<sup>2</sup> across the plain constantly towards it. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kiam li alvenis piedon de la montoj, la deka tago jam + finiĝis. Efektive li estis grave trompiĝinta pri la + distanco. Neniam antaŭe li vidis monton, kaj tial, kiam + li ekvidis la pinton meze de la vojaĝo, li kredis ke li + ĵus alvenas, kaj marŝis pli malrapide. Tri tagojn li + pensis ĉiumatene, "Mi estos hodiaŭ vespere ĉe + la montpiedo; morgaŭ mi suprenrampos ĝis la pinton." + Sed nun li sciis, ke li estas malfrua. Li formanĝis jam + la duonon de sia provizaĵo, kaj dum la lastaj mejloj li + ekvidis ke lia pinto estas parto de vasta senlima montegaro, ke + ĝi ankoraŭ malproksimas kaj li tute ne tiel facile + supreniros. Li kalkulis ke almenaŭ oktaga nutraĵo + estos necesa por reiri hejmen de la piedo de la montaro, kaj + tiom li tie enterigis por la returna vojaĝo. Sekve restis + nur dutaga manĝaĵo por la suprena kaj malsuprena + montiro. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + When he came to the foot<sup>3</sup> of the mountains, the + tenth<sup>4</sup> day was already drawing to an end. Indeed, + Namezo had been greatly mistaken<sup>5</sup> in the distance. + He had never seen a mountain before, and so, when he caught + sight of the peak half-way, he thought he was just getting + there, and walked slower. For three days he thought every + morning, "I shall be at the foot of the mountains this evening; + to-morrow I'll climb<sup>6</sup> to the top." But now he + knew that he was late.<sup>7</sup> He had already eaten up + half<sup>8</sup> of his provisions,<sup>9</sup> and for the + last few miles he was beginning to see that his peak was part + of a boundless mountain-range, that it was still far off and + he would by no means get up so easily. He calculated that at + least eight days' food would be needed to get home from the + foot of the mountain-range, and he buried<sup>10</sup> that + amount<sup>11</sup> there for the return journey. Thus only + two days' provision was left for the ascent and descent of the + mountain. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Turned out to be. To show = <i>montr‑i</i>; + with suf. <i>-iĝ, montriĝ-i</i> = to show itself, to + become shown. <sup>2</sup>His course. To go = <i>ir‑i</i>; + ending <i>-o</i> makes it a substantive = a going. <sup>3</sup>To + the foot. Motion; use the <i>-n</i> case. <sup>4</sup>Tenth. Ten + = <i>dek</i>; to form the ordinal numbers add <i>-a</i> to the + cardinal. <sup>5</sup>Mistaken. To deceive = <i>tromp‑i</i>; + suf. <i>-iĝ</i> makes it intransitive. <sup>6</sup>Climb. + <i>Supr‑a, -e, -en</i> = upper, above, upwards. + <sup>7</sup>Late. Early = <i>fru‑a</i>; pref. <i>mal</i>- + denotes opposite. <sup>8</sup>Half. Two = <i>du</i>; suf. + <i>-on</i> denotes fractions. cf. <i>kvarono</i> = quarter. + <sup>9</sup>Provisions. Provide‑stuff (i.e. provid<i>ed</i> + stuff). <sup>10</sup>Buried. Earth = <i>ter‑o</i>; in = + <i>en</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> denotes causing to be. <sup>11</sup>That + amount. <i>Tiom</i>. + See <a href="#partIVchapterV">table of correlatives</a>. +</p> + +<!-- 187.png --> + +<a name="page178"> </a><span class = "pagenum">178</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Tre frue do li ekiris la dekunuan tagon, kaj penadis + ĉiutage supren. Vespere li vidis ke li ankoraŭ + havas plenan tagvojaĝon ĝis la pinton, kaj tiel + li devos tre ŝpareme uzi sian restan provizaĵon. + La dekdua tago estis tre doloriga. La monto fariĝis + kruta; li devis rapidi; kaj li terure malsatis pro ekmankanta + manĝaĵo. Malgraŭ ĉio li alvenis montpinton + je la noktiĝo. La subita ekscito, kune kun la laceco kaj + malsato, estis tro: en la momenta de sukceso li falis en sveno + sur la teron. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Very early, then, on the eleventh<sup>1</sup> day he set out, + and toiled the whole day upwards. In the evening he saw that he + still had a full day's journey to the top, and so he must be + very sparing<sup>2</sup> in the use of his remaining stores. + The twelfth day was very painful.<sup>3</sup> The mountain + grew<sup>4</sup> steep; he had to press on; and he was terribly + hungry,<sup>5</sup> as the food was beginning to give out. In + spite of all, he reached the top at nightfall.<sup>6</sup> The + sudden excitement, with his weariness and hunger, was too much: + in the moment of success he fell to the ground in a swoon. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Jen, dum li kuŝis senkonscie, aperis la duan fojon + la sama vidaĵo. Birdo blanka alflugis, metis en lian + manon semon, kaj diris la samajn vortojn. Denove li levis + la manon, kaj denove li ŝajnis renversiĝi, kaj + falis... falis... falis.... + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And lo! as he lay unconscious, there appeared to him for + the second time the same vision.<sup>7</sup> A white bird + flew up, put a seed into his hand, and said the same words. + Again he raised his hand, and again he seemed to turn over, + and fell... fell... fell.... + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Rekonsciiĝinte, li trovis sin kuŝanta trankvile apud + la loko mem, kie li enterigis sian returnan provizaĵon + antaŭ la supreniro. Li kuŝis sur dolĉa herbo, + kaj sentis sin korpe tute mallacigata, kaj granda paco regis + en lia animo. Tuj kiam li malfermis la okulojn, li rigardis en + sian manon, kaj tiun ĉi fojon la semo enestis. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + When he came to himself,<sup>8</sup> he was lying quietly + in the very place where he had buried his food for the home + journey before the ascent. He was lying on soft grass, and his + body felt free from its tiredness,<sup>9</sup> and in his soul + reigned a great peace. As soon as he opened<sup>10</sup> his + eyes, he looked in his hand, and this time the seed was there. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Eleven = <i>dek‑unu</i>; add <i>-a</i> to make + the ordinal. 20 = <i>dudek</i>. <sup>2</sup>Sparing. To save = + <i>ŝpar‑i</i>; suf. <i>-em</i> denotes propensity. + <sup>3</sup>Painful. Pain = <i>dolor‑o</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> + denotes causation; ending <i>-a</i> makes it an adjective. + <sup>4</sup>Grew. To make = <i>far‑i</i>; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> + denotes becoming made, growing. <sup>5</sup>Hungry. Satisfied = + <i>sat‑a</i>; pref. <i>mal-</i> denotes the opposite. To + be hungry = <i>mal‑sat‑i</i>. <sup>6</sup>Nightfall. + Night = <i>nokt‑o</i>; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming. + <sup>7</sup>Vision. See(n)-thing; <i>vid‑i</i> = to see; + with suffix <i>-aĵ</i>. <sup>8</sup>When he came to himself. + Conscious = <i>konsci‑a</i>; prefix <i>re-</i> denotes back + again; suffix <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming. <sup>9</sup>Free from + tiredness. Tired = <i>lac‑a</i>; <i>mal-</i> denotes opposite; + <i>-ig</i> denotes causing to be. <sup>10</sup>Opened. To shut = + <i>ferm‑i</i>; to open = <i>malfermi</i>. +</p> + +<!-- 188.png --> + +<a name="page179"> </a><span class = "pagenum">179</span> + +<!-- 189.png --> + +<a name="page180"> </a><span class = "pagenum">180</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Longa, labora kaj preskaŭ sennutra malsupreniro de la + montpinto jam ne necesis, kaj la hejmvojaĝo trans la + ebenaĵo prosperis, tiel ke Namezo staris baldaŭ ree + en la patrina dometo. La vilaĝanoj kunvenis amase kaj + multe demandis pri lia vojaĝo, ĉar neniu el ili + estis iam tiel malproksimen foririnta de la hejmo. Namezo + ĉion rakontis, kaj montris la semon kiun li devos + planti. La najbaroj komence kredis, ke li volas mirigi ilin, + kiel la vojaĝistoj amas fari, kaj ili ridis pri liaj + rakontaĵoj. Sed, kiam ili vidis ke li estis serioza, ili + ekkoleriĝis kaj volis forpreni lian semon kaj detrui + ĝin. "'<i>Arbo</i>' estas sensencaĵo," ili diris; + "ne povas ekzisti alia kreskaĵo, krom la rikoltoj kaj la + legomoj kiujn ni kaj niaj patroj jam ĉiam kreskigis. Estas + neeble ke io alia kresku kaj iĝu pli granda." Kaj unuj + diris ke li estas vana sonĝisto, kaj aliaj ke li frenezas. + Sed lia patrino kuraĝigis lin. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + A long, laborious descent from the mountain-top almost without + food was now no longer needful, and on the home journey across + the plain all went well, so that Namezo soon stood again + in his mother's<sup>1</sup> cottage. The villagers flocked + in crowds<sup>2</sup> and asked many questions about his + journey, for none of them had ever been so far from home. + Namezo told them everything, and showed the seed which he + was to plant. At first the neighbours thought he was trying + to astonish<sup>3</sup> them, as travellers are wont to do, + and they laughed at his tales. But when they saw that he + was in earnest, they got in a rage,<sup>4</sup> and wanted + to take away his seed and destroy it. "A '<i>tree</i>' is + foolishness,"<sup>5</sup> they said; "no other plant can exist, + except the crops and vegetables that we and our fathers have + always grown. It is impossible for anything else to grow and + become<sup>6</sup> bigger than they." And some said that he was + an idle dreamer, and others that he was mad. But his mother + encouraged him. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Mother's. Father = <i>patr‑o</i>; suf. <i>-in</i> denotes + feminine; ending <i>-a</i> makes it an adjective. <sup>2</sup>In + crowds. Crowd = <i>amas‑o</i>; ending <i>-e</i> makes it an + adverb. <sup>3</sup>Astonish. To wonder = <i>mir‑i</i>; suf. + <i>-ig</i> makes it transitive. <sup>4</sup>Got in a rage. Anger + = <i>koler‑o</i>; pref. <i>ek-</i> denotes beginning; suf. + <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming. <sup>5</sup>Foolishness. Sense + = <i>senc‑o</i>; without = <i>sen</i>; suf. <i>-aĵ</i> = + without‑sense‑stuff. <sup>6</sup>Become. Suf. <i>-iĝ</i> is here + used alone as a verb = to become. +</p> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj Namezo timis por sia semo, kaj pripensis kiel li povos savi + ĝin de la najbaroj kiam ĝi ekkreskos. Kaj li eliris + el la vilaĝo nokte, kaj plantis ĝin malproksime de + ĉiuj domoj, apud rivereto en malleviĝo de la tero, + kie oni ĝin ne vidos ĝis ĝi estos tre granda. + Kaj komence li iris tien nur nokte; sed, ĉar li ne parolis + plu pri sia semo, la vilaĝanoj forgesis la aferon, tiel + ke li povis eliri el la vilaĝo vespere post sia taglaboro + kiam li volis, kaj neniu zorgis pri tio, kien li iras. Sed li + ne kuraĝis ĝin transplanti apud sian dometon, timante + ke oni difektu ĝin aŭ ŝerce aŭ malice, kaj + sekve restis por li la granda laborado iri, kiam li estis jam + laca, malproksimen por flegi ĝin. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And Namezo feared for his seed, and thought how he could save + it from the neighbours when it began to grow up. And he went + out of the village by night, and planted it far away from all + the houses, by a little stream in a hollow<sup>1</sup> of the + ground, where it would not be seen till it grew very big. And + at first he went there only by night; but, as he said no more + about his seed, the villagers forgot the matter, so that he + could go out of the village in the evenings after his day's + work whenever he liked, and nobody troubled about where he was + going.<sup>2</sup> But he did not dare to transplant it to + his own cottage, fearing that they would damage it in jest or + malice, and so the hard work remained for him of going a long + way to look after it, when he was already tired. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>A hollow. To raise = <i>lev‑i</i>; suf <i>-iĝ</i> + makes it intransitive; pref. <i>mal-</i> denotes the opposite; ending + <i>-o</i> makes it a noun. <sup>2</sup>Where he was going. "Where" + here = "whither," therefore add <i>-n</i>, which denotes motion. +</p> + +<!-- 190.png --> + +<a name="page181"> </a><span class = "pagenum">181</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Jaroj forpasadis: Namezo grandiĝis, sed lia kreskaĵo + ne volis grandiĝi. Multfoje li malesperis, vidante + ke ĝi kvazaŭ ne kreskadis plu, aŭ ke + ĝi en somero havis velkan mienon. Multajn vintrojn + ĝi preskaŭ mortis per frosto. Sed li persistis, + kaj ĉiuokaze li provis ian novan flegon, ĉar + neniam antaŭe en la tuta lando oni kreskigis tielan + plantaĵon. Iatempe li metis sterkon: tiam li subdrenis + la teron, ĉirkaŭhakis la branĉetojn, aŭ + ŝirmis la burĝonojn kontraŭ la ventoj. Ree, + vidante ke malgraŭ ĉio la arbeto ne prosperis, + li pretigis novan teraĵon kaj transplantis ĝin, + antaŭe enpluginte alispecan teron. Li eksperimentis per + seka, poste per malseka, subtero: unuvorte, li senĉese + penadis, diversigante konstante la kondiĉojn ĝis + li ĝuste trafos. Fine, kiam li jam de longe estis + plenaĝa, lia deziro plenumiĝis: tie, apud la rivereto + staris granda belkreska <i>arbo</i>. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Years passed away: Namezo grew up,<sup>1</sup> but his plant + would not grow up too. Many a time he despaired,<sup>2</sup> + seeing that it seemed as though it had given up growing, or + that it had a faded look in summer. Many winters it nearly died + of the frosts. But he persevered, and in every case<sup>3</sup> + he tried some new treatment, for never before in the whole land + had any one grown<sup>4</sup> such a plant. At one time he + would put on manure; then he tried draining the ground, pruning + the shoots, or protecting the buds against the winds. Again, + seeing that in spite of all the little tree did not flourish, + he prepared<sup>5</sup> a new soil-bed and transplanted + it, having first ploughed in a different kind of earth. He + experimented with dry, and then with damp, sub-soil: in short, + he toiled ceaselessly, constantly varying<sup>6</sup> the + conditions till he should hit off the right thing. At last, + when he had long come to be a grown man,<sup>7</sup> his desire + was fulfilled:<sup>8</sup> there beside the stream stood a fine + big <i>tree</i>. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Grew up. Big = <i>grand‑a</i>; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> + denotes becoming. <sup>2</sup>Despaired. To hope = <i>esper‑i</i>; + pref. <i>mal</i>- denotes opposite. <sup>3</sup>In every case. + To happen = <i>okaz‑i</i>; any or all = <i>ĉiu</i>; ending + <i>-e</i> makes it adverbial = "any‑happening‑ly," i.e. whatever + happened. <sup>4</sup>Grown. To grow (intrans.) = <i>kresk‑i</i>; + suf. <i>-ig</i> makes it transitive. <sup>5</sup>Prepared. Ready = + <i>pret‑a</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> = to make ready. <sup>6</sup>Varying. + Diverse = <i>divers‑a</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> = to render diverse. + <sup>7</sup>A grown man. Age = <i>aĝ-o</i>; full = + <i>plen‑a</i>; ending <i>-a</i> denotes adj. <sup>8</sup>Was + fulfilled. To fulfil = <i>plenum‑i</i>; <i>-iĝ</i> denotes + becoming. +</p> + +<!-- 191.png --> + +<a name="page182"> </a><span class = "pagenum">182</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + En somero, kiam la folioj estis plenaj, li kondukis tien + kelkajn amikojn, kaj ili ĝojis sidantaj vespere sub la + freŝa ombro. En aŭtuno ili kolektis la semujojn, + portis ilin en la vilaĝon, kaj penis decidigi la + vilaĝanojn planti la semaron apud siaj dometoj, por havi + ŝirmilon. Sed la vilaĝanoj ne volis. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + In summer, when it was in full leaf, he took his friends there, + and they rejoiced sitting in the cool shade at evening. In + autumn they collected the pods,<sup>1</sup> took them to the + village, and tried to get the villagers to plant the seed by + their homes, to give them shelter. But the villagers would not + have them. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Unu diris, "Arbo estas neebla."* + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + One said, "A tree is impossible."<sup>2</sup> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj Namezo respondis, "Arbo ekzistas. Venu kun mi, kaj mi + vidigos vin." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And Namezo answered, "A tree exists. Come with me, and I will + show<sup>3</sup> you." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Sed li diris, "Arbo estas neebla." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + But he said, "A tree is impossible." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + *For this and the following objections of + the villagers, compare + <a href="#page054">Part I., chap. xv</a>. + <sup>1</sup>Pods. Seed = + <i>sem‑o</i>; suf. <i>-uj</i> denotes that which + contains. <sup>2</sup>Impossible. Suf. <i>-ebl</i> denotes + possibility, and can, like all suffixes, be used by itself. + <i>Ne‑ebl‑a</i> = not possible. <sup>3</sup>Show. To see + = <i>vid‑i</i>; with suf. <i>-ig</i> = to cause to see. +</p> + +<!-- 192.png --> + +<a name="page183"> </a><span class = "pagenum">183</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Ree Namezo diris, "Se vi nur tiom da peno faros, kiom necesas + por eliri el la vilaĝo, mi montros al vi arbon, sub kiu + miaj amikoj kaj mi ŝirmiĝas ĉiuvespere. Venu nur + kaj provu se ĝi plaĉos ankaŭ al vi." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Again Namezo said, "If you will only take as much + trouble<sup>1</sup> as is necessary to go out of the village, I + will show you a tree, under which my friends and I take shelter + every evening. Only just come and try whether it pleases you + also." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Sed li diris, "Mi ne volas eliri. Arbo estas neebla." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + But he said, "I will not go out. A tree is impossible." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Alia diris, "Mi vidis vian arbon, kaj mi trovas ĝin tute + senutila." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Another said, "I have seen your tree, and I consider it + perfectly useless." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj Namezo respondis, "Kial?" + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And Namezo answered, "Why?" + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj li diris, "Niaj patroj ne havis arbon." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And he said, "Our fathers had no trees." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Namezo diris, "Niaj patroj suferis pro manko de ŝirmado." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Namezo said, "Our fathers suffered from want of shelter." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj li diris, "Tial mi ankaŭ suferos." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And he said, "Therefore I too will suffer." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Alia diris, "Ni havas ja sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. + Niaj rikoltoj kaj legomoj provizas nutraĵon, kaj la + belaj floroj ĉarmas la okulon. Alia kreskaĵo estus + superflua." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Another said, "We have enough plants. Our crops and vegetables + provide food, and our gay flowers charm the eye. Another + growing thing would be superfluous." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Trouble. To try = <i>pen‑i</i>; ending <i>-o</i> makes + it a substantive = trying, effort. +</p> + +<!-- 193.png --> + +<!-- Apparently 193.png didn't get processed, so I did it myself during PP. --> + +<a name="page184"> </a><span class = "pagenum">184</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj Namezo respondis, "Bone. Niaj ĝisnunaj kreskaĵoj + plenumas la ĉefajn bezonojn de la homaro. Manĝo kaj + certa ornamo estas necesaĵoj por la homa naturo, kaj + por tiuj ĉi uzoj ni havas rikoltojn kaj florojn. Sed la + vivo estus pli plezura se ni estus pli bone ŝirmataj. + Tiun ĉi apartan servon prezentas la arboj, kaj ni povos + ĝui ĝin sen fordoni la profiton de floro kaj rikolto. + Ne, plue, niaj rikoltoj, ŝirmataj de la montaj ventoj, + pli facile maturiĝos: tiel ni havos pli da tempo por + la plezurigaj laboroj, kaj la floroj estos ankoraŭ pli + belaj." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And Namezo answered, "Good. The plants we have + already<sup>1</sup> fulfil the chief needs of mankind. Food and + some ornament are necessities<sup>2</sup> for human nature, + and for these uses we have the crops and flowers. But life + would be pleasanter if we were better sheltered. This special + service<sup>3</sup> is done by the trees, and we can enjoy + it without foregoing the advantage of flower and crop. Nay, + more, our crops, sheltered from the winds that blow from the + mountains, will ripen<sup>4</sup> more easily: thus we shall + have more time for the work that brings pleasure,<sup>5</sup> + and the flowers will be even more lovely." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj li diris, "Tagmeze, kiam la suno brilas, mi kuŝas + inter la altstaranta greno. Tiu ĉi ŝirmilo + sufiĉas. Ni havas sufiĉe da kreskaĵoj. Arbo ne + estas kreskaĵo; ĝi estas monstro. Iru diablon!" + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And he said, "At noon,<sup>6</sup> when the sun shines warm, I + lie amidst the deep standing corn. This shelter is enough. We + have plants enough. A tree is not a plant; it is a monster. Go + to the devil!" + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj Namezo iris al la diablo, ĉar li estis preta iri kien + ajn, plivole ol daŭrigi paroli kun la vilaĝanoj. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And Namezo went to the devil, for he was ready to go anywhere, + rather than continue to talk to the villagers. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Li diris, "Via diabla Moŝto, la vilaĝanoj + naŭzadas min, kaj mi estas laca je mia vivo. Faru el mi + kion vi volas." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + He said, "Your devilish Majesty, the villagers make me + sick,<sup>7</sup> and I am tired of<sup>8</sup> my life. Do + with me as you will." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>The plants we have already. Lit. our till-now plants. + <sup>2</sup>necessities. Necessary = <i>neces‑a</i>: with suf. + <i>-aĵ</i> = necessary things. <sup>3</sup>Service. To + serve = <i>serv‑i</i>; ending <i>-o</i> makes it a substantive. + <sup>4</sup>Ripen. Ripe = <i>matur‑a</i>; suf. <i>-iĝ</i> + denotes becoming. <sup>5</sup>Work that brings pleasure. Pleasure + = <i>plezur‑o</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> denotes causing to be. + <sup>6</sup>Noon. Day = <i>tag‑o</i>; middle = <i>mez‑o</i>; + ending <i>-e</i> is adverbial. <sup>7</sup>Make me sick. To make + sick = <i>naŭz‑i</i>; <i>-ad</i> denotes continuation. + <sup>8</sup>Tired of. The preposition <i>je</i> is used when no other + preposition exactly fits. +</p> + +<!-- 194.png --> + +<a name="page185"> </a><span class = "pagenum">185</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Respondis la diablo, "Mi ne povas ion fari por vi, mizerulo! + La vilaĝanoj estas venkintaj min; kaj mi retiras min de + la aferoj. Neniam, eĉ en miaj plej eltrovemaj tagoj, + mi elpensis tiel mortigan turmenton por progresema homo, + kiel sukcesi en la produkto de profitiga uzilo, kaj tiam + devi penadi, por igi siajn kunulojn alpreni ĝin. Reiru + al la vilaĝanoj kaj donu al ili miajn respektplenajn + komplimentojn." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + The devil made answer, "I can do nothing for you, poor + wretch!<sup>1</sup> The villagers have beaten me; + and I am retiring from business. Never, even in my + most ingenious<sup>2</sup> days, did I invent such a + deadly<sup>3</sup> torment for a progressive man, as to succeed + in producing a beneficial<sup>4</sup> device, and then have + to keep striving to get his fellows<sup>5</sup> to adopt it. + Go back again to the villagers, and give them my respectful + compliments." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Pezakore, Namezo reiris hejmen, kaj envoje li renkontis + vilaĝanaron portantan hakilojn. Li demandis kial ili + portas hakilojn. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Heavy at heart, Namezo went home again, and on the way + he fell in with a band of villagers<sup>6</sup> carrying + axes.<sup>7</sup> He asked why they were carrying axes. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "Por dehaki la arbon," respondis la grupestro; "ni timas ke + ĝi etendiĝos sur la tutan landon. Se oni prenos + la fruktetojn kaj plantos ilin apud sia loĝejo, la + arboj entrudos sin en la kampojn kaj en la florbedojn, kaj + elpuŝos la aliajn kreskaĵojn." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "To cut down the tree," replied the leader of the + band<sup>8</sup>; "we are afraid that it will spread and fill + the whole land. If the people take the fruits and plant them + at their own homes,<sup>9</sup> trees will encroach upon the + fields and upon the flower-beds, and will drive out the other + plants." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Wretch. Misery = <i>miser‑o</i>; suf. <i>-ul</i> + denotes having the quality of. <sup>2</sup>Ingenious. To find = + <i>trov‑i</i>; out = <i>el</i>; suf. <i>-em</i> denotes propensity or + aptitude. <sup>3</sup>Deadly. To die = <i>mort‑i</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> + denotes to cause to die. <sup>4</sup>Beneficial. Profit‑causing; + suf. <i>-ig</i>. <sup>5</sup>Fellows. With = <i>kun</i>; suf. + <i>-ul</i> denotes state or quality. <sup>6</sup>A band of villagers. + Suf. <i>-ar</i> denotes a collection. <sup>7</sup>Axes. To hew = + <i>hak‑i</i>; suf. <i>-il</i> denotes instrument. <sup>8</sup>Leader + of the band. Band = <i>grup‑o</i>; suf. <i>-estr</i> enotes chief + of. <sup>9</sup>Homes. To dwell = <i>loĝ-i</i>; suf. <i>-ej</i> + denotes place. +</p> + +<!-- 195.png --> + +<a name="page186"> </a><span class = "pagenum">186</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "Sed vi tute ne devos planti la arbojn en la kampoj kaj + florbedoj," diris Namezo. La arboj havas utilon diferencan de + la aliaj kreskaĵoj kaj oni plantos ilin en aparta loko. + Se okaze arbo altrudos sin inter la rikoltojn, oni elradikos + ĝin tuj, antaŭ ol ĝi grandiĝos." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "But you must not plant the trees in the fields and + flower-beds," said Namezo. "Trees have a different use from + other plants, and they will be planted in quite separate + places. If by chance a tree pushes itself in amongst the crops, + it will be rooted out at once, before it gets big." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "Ne, arbo estas danĝera," kriis la hakilistoj; kaj Namezo + devis alvoki siajn amikojn por defendi la arbon. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + "No, trees are dangerous," cried the men with the + axes;<sup>1</sup> and Namezo had to call up his friends to + defend the tree. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Poste Namezo iris hejmen kaj enfermis sin en sia dometo. + Lia patrino estis jam de longe morta, kaj la gefratoj jam + edziĝis, kaj li vivadis sole. Sed li nun ne povis eĉ + resti sola. Venis la saĝuloj de la vilaĝo, kaj + ili kriadis tra la fenestro, "Arbo estas bona ideo, sed vi + kreskigis vian arbon malprave. Lasu nin do flegi ĝin + laŭ nia bontrovo, kaj ni baldaŭ plibonigos ĝin, + tiel ke ĝi estos vere alpreninda arbo." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + After this Namezo went home and shut himself up in his cottage. + His mother was by this time long dead, and his brother and + sister<sup>2</sup> were now married,<sup>3</sup> and he lived + all alone. But now he could not even remain alone. The wise men + of the village came along, and they kept shouting through the + window, "Trees are a good idea, but you have grown your tree + the wrong way. So let us look after it as we see fit, and we'll + soon improve<sup>4</sup> it, so that it shall be + a tree really fit for us to take to."<sup>5</sup> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>The men with the axes. To hew = <i>hak‑i</i>; <i>-il</i> + denotes instrument; <i>-ist</i> denotes agent. <sup>2</sup>Brother + and sister. Prefix <i>ge-</i> denotes both sexes. <sup>3</sup>Were + married. Husband (wife) = <i>edz</i> (<i>in</i>) <i>-o</i>; suffix + <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming. <sup>4</sup>Improve. Good = + <i>bon‑a</i>; more = <i>pli</i>; <i>-ig</i> denotes causation. + <sup>5</sup>Fit to take to. To take = <i>pren‑i</i>; to = <i>al</i>; + <i>-ind</i> denotes worthy. +</p> + +<!-- 196.png --> + +<a name="page187"> </a><span class = "pagenum">187</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj al ili Namezo respondis nenion. Li sciis ke li estis + doninta grandan parton de sia vivo por eksperimenti kaj + estis produktinta belkreskan arbon, dum la lertuloj nun + estis vidantaj arbon je la unua fojo, kaj tute malsciis + la malfacilecojn kiujn oni devas venki, kaj eĉ ne + komprenis la demandon kiun ili entreprenis solvi. Sed li + sciis ankaŭ ke tiela konsidero estas por lertuloj malpli + ol nenio. Estis malutile argumenti kun ili, ĉar ili ne + sciis ke ili ne scias, kaj tio ĉi estas plej malfacila + lerni. Tial li lasis ilin paroladi, kaj flegis sian arbon + kiel antaŭe. "Ĉar," li diris al si mem, "kiam + la arbo estos disvastiĝinta kaj multobliĝinta + laŭspece tra la lando, per la grada sperto de multaj homoj + fariĝos arba scienco, kaj tial ni fine ellernos la plej + bonan flegmanieron." Ankaŭ li pensis, "la diablo estis + prava: la diablo estas lertulo." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And to these Namezo answered nothing. He knew that he had + given a great part of his life to making experiment and had + produced a well-grown tree, while the clever men were now + seeing a tree for the first time, and were wholly ignorant of + the difficulties that had to be overcome, and did not even + understand the question they were undertaking to solve. But he + also knew that to clever men such a consideration is less than + nothing. It was no good to argue with them, for they did not + know that they did not know, and this is the hardest thing to + learn. So he let them keep on talking, and tended his tree as + before. "For," said he to himself, "when the tree has spread + and multiplied after its kind throughout the land, from many + men's gradual experience there will arise a science of trees, + and thus we shall in the end find out the best way of tending + them." Also he thought, "The devil was right: the devil is a + clever man." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<!-- 197.png --> + +<a name="page188"> </a><span class = "pagenum">188</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Iom poste alvenis en la vilaĝon homoj el aliaj lokoj, + kunportantaj diversajn semojn. Ĉiu el ili laŭdis + sian propran semon, dirante ke li estas kreskiginta belan + arbon el tia semo, kaj postulante ke la vilaĝanoj plantu + nur liajn semojn. Tiam iuj diris, "Ni metu ĉiujn la + diversajn semojn kunen, kaj ni kreskigu el ili unu bonan + arbon." Kaj tiuj ĉi petis Namezon ke li neniigu sian arbon + kaj pistu ĝiajn semojn kaj almiksu ilin en la kunmetatan + semaĵon, por ke unu bona arbo elkresku. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Now, some time after there arrived in the village men from + other places, bringing with them various seeds. Each of them + praised his own seed, telling how he had grown a fine tree from + such seed, and urging the villagers to plant his seeds only. + Then certain of them said, "Let us put all the divers seeds + together, and let us grow from them one good tree." And these + begged Namezo to destroy<sup>1</sup> his own tree and pound its + seeds and stir them into the compound seedstuff, that one good + tree might grow out of it. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Tiel ili babiladis kaj bataladis inter si; kaj ili + ĉirkaŭ iradis en la vilaĝo, montrante modelojn + de siaj arboj kaj pruvante, ĉiu ke la sia estas la plej + bona. Kaj fine la vilaĝanoj enuiĝis kaj denove volis + dehaki ĉiun kaj ĉies arbon. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Thus they babbled and kept quarrelling among themselves; and + they went round about in the village showing models of their + trees and proving each that his own was the best. And at last + the villagers grew weary of it, and wanted again to hew down + every tree, no matter to whom it belonged.<sup>2</sup> + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Destroy. Nothing = <i>neni‑o</i>; suf. <i>-ig</i> denotes + causation. <sup>2</sup>No matter to whom it belonged. Lit. every + one's. +</p> + +<!-- 198.png --> + +<a name="page189"> </a><span class = "pagenum">189</span> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Sed Namezo kaj liaj amikoj havis jam du aŭ tri <!-- book + says "tre" --> grandajn arbojn, kaj ĝis nun prosperis al + ili defendi ilin kontraŭ la atakoj de la vilaĝanoj. + Kaj ĉiam, kiam la vetero estas varmega, ili sidas sub + la arboj vespere kaj ĝuas la freŝecon. Tamen ili + havas nur duonan profiton el ili, ĉar la vilaĝanoj + malpermesas planti ian arbon en la vilaĝo, kaj tial la + <!-- bona vorto: --> arbanoj devas ĉiufoje marŝi + malproksimen kaj aparte viziti siajn arbojn, anstataŭ havi + ilin apud siaj pordoj. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + But Namezo and his friends had by this time two or three big + trees, and up to this day they have succeeded in defending them + against the villagers' attacks. And always, when the weather is + very hot, they sit under their trees in the evening and enjoy + the coolness. Yet have they only half profit by them, for the + villagers forbid them to plant any tree in the village, and so + the tree people have to walk a long way each time and have to + make special visits to their trees, instead of having them at + their doors. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj la plej granda parto de la vilaĝanoj, malgraŭ ke + oni povas facile piediri al la arboj, diras ankoraŭ, "Arbo + estas neebla." + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And the greater part of the villagers, though the trees are + within a walk, still say, "Trees are impossible." + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em" summary="Story formatting."> + + <tr> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + Kaj la diablo ridas. + </td> + <td width="4%"> + + </td> + <td width="48%" align="left" valign="top"> + And the devil laughs. + </td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterIII"> + III + <div class="subtitolo"> + grammar + </div> +</div> + +<p> + 1. There is one definite article, <i>la</i>, invariable. There is no + indefinite article. +</p> + +<p> + 2. Nouns always end in <i>-o</i>. Ex. <i>patro</i> = father. +</p> + +<p> + 3. Adjectives always end in <i>-a</i>. Ex. <i>patra</i> = paternal. +</p> + +<p> + 4. The plural of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns (except + only the personal pronouns) ends in <i>j</i>. Ex. <i>patroj</i> = + fathers; <i>bonaj patroj</i> = good fathers. +</p> + +<p> + 5. The accusative (objective) case always ends in <i>-n</i>. Ex. + <i>Mi amas mian bonan patron</i> = I love my good father. <i>Ni amas + niajn bonajn patrojn</i> = we love our good fathers. +</p> + +<p> + 6. Adverbs always end in <i>-e</i>. Ex. <i>bone</i> = well; + <i>patre</i> = paternally. (There are a few non-derived adverbs + without the ending <i>-e</i>, as <i>jam, ankaŭ, tiel, kiel</i>). +</p> + +<p> + 7. The personal pronouns are: +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="Personal pronouns."> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>mi</i> = I + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="34%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>ŝi</i> = she + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>ni</i> = we + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>vi</i> = you + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="34%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>ĝi</i> = it + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>vi</i> = you + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>li</i> = he + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="34%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>oni</i> = one + </td> + <td nowrap="nowrap" width="33%" align="left" valign="top"> + <i>ili</i> = they + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- 199.png --> + +<a name="page190"> </a><span class = "pagenum">190</span> + +<p> + Also a reflexive pronoun, <i>si</i>, which always refers to the + subject of its own clause. +</p> + +<p> + All these pronouns form the accusative case by adding <i>-n</i>. +</p> + +<p> + 8. The verb has no separate ending for person or number. +</p> + +<p> + The present ends in <i>-as</i>. Ex. <i>mi amas</i> = I love. +</p> + +<p> + The past ends in <i>-is</i>. Ex. <i>vi amis</i> = you loved. +</p> + +<p> + The future ends in <i>-os</i>. Ex. <i>li amos</i> = he will love. +</p> + +<p> + The conditional ends in <i>-us</i>. Ex. <i>ni amus</i> = we should +love. +</p> + +<p> + The imperative ends in <i>-u</i>. Ex. <i>amu</i> = love! <i>ni + amu</i> = let us love. This form also serves for subjunctive. Ex. + <i>Dio ordonas ke ni amu unu la alian</i> = God commands us to love + one another. +</p> + +<p> + The infinitive ends in <i>-i</i>. Ex. <i>ami</i> = to love. +</p> + +<p> + There are three active participles. +</p> + +<p> + The present participle active is formed by <i>-ant</i>. Ex. + <i>amanta</i> = loving; <i>amanto</i> = a lover. +</p> + +<p> + The past participle active is formed by <i>-int</i>. Ex. + <i>aminta</i> = having loved; <i>la skribinto</i> = the author (lit. + the man who has written). +</p> + +<p> + The future participle active is formed by <i>-ont</i>. Ex. + <i>amonta</i> = being about to love. +</p> + +<p> + There are three passive participles. +</p> + +<p> + The present participle passive is formed by <i>-at</i>. Ex. + <i>amata</i> = being loved. +</p> + +<p> + The past participle passive is formed by <i>-it</i>. Ex. <i>amita</i> + = having been loved. +</p> + +<p> + The future participle passive is formed by <i>-ot</i>. Ex. + <i>amota</i> = being about to be loved. +</p> + +<p> + All compound tenses, as well as the passive voice, are formed by + the verb <i>esti</i> (to be) with a participle. Compound tenses are + employed only when the simple forms are inadequate. Ex. <i>mi estas + aminta</i> = I have loved (lit. I am having loved); <i>vi estis + aminta</i> = you had loved (lit. you were having loved); <i>ili + estas amataj</i> = they are loved; <i>ŝi estas amita</i> = she has + been loved; <i>ni estis amitaj</i> = we had been loved; <i>ili estos + amintaj</i> = they will have loved; <i>ŝi estus aminta</i> = she + would have loved; <i>mi estus amita</i> = I should have been loved. +</p> + +<!-- 200.png --> + +<a name="page191"> </a><span class = "pagenum">191</span> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterIV"> + IV + <div class="subtitolo"> + list of affixes + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center"> + <i>I. Prefixes</i> +</p> + +<p> + <i>bo-</i> denotes relation by marriage: <i>bopatro</i> = +father-in-law. +</p> + +<p> + <i>dis-</i> denotes dissemination, division: <i>dismeti</i> = to put + apart, about, in pieces. +</p> + +<p> + <i>ek-</i> denotes sudden action or beginning: <i>ekdormi</i> = to + fall asleep; <i>ekiri</i> = to start. +</p> + +<p> + <i>ge-</i> denotes both sexes: <i>gepatroj</i> = parents; + <i>geviroj</i> = men and women. +</p> + +<p> + <i>mal-</i> denotes the opposite: <i>bona</i> = good; <i>malbona</i> += bad. +</p> + +<p> + <i>re-</i> denotes back, again: <i>repagi</i> = to repay; + <i>rekomenci</i> = to begin again. +</p> + + +<p align="center"> + <i>II. Suffixes</i> +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ad</i> denotes continuation: <i>penadi</i> = to keep striving, to + make continued effort. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-aĵ</i> denotes something concrete, made of the + material, or possessing the qualities of the root to which + it is attached: <i>bovo</i> = ox; <i>bovaĵo</i> = + beef; <i>okazi</i> = to happen; <i>okazaĵoj</i> = + happenings, events. (For English speakers a good rule is to + add "thing" or "stuff" to the English word; <i>propra</i> = + one's own, <i>propraĵo</i> = own-thing, property; + <i>vidindaĵoj</i> = see-worthy-things, notable + sights. N.B.: <i>-aĵ</i> added to transitive verbal + stems generally has a passive sense: <i>tondi</i> = to clip, + <i>tondaĵo</i> = clipped-thing, clippings; whereas + <i>tondilo</i> = clipping-thing, shears.) See Zamenhof's + explanation of -aĵ, <i>La Revuo</i>, Vol. I., No. 8 (April), + pp. 374–5. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-an</i> denotes an inhabitant, member, or partisan: <i>urbano</i> + = a town-dweller; <i>Kristano</i> = a Christian. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ar</i> denotes a collection: <i>vortaro</i> = a dictionary; + <i>arbaro</i> = a forest; <i>homaro</i> = mankind. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ĉj</i> denotes masculine affectionate diminutives: + <i>paĉjo</i> = daddy; <i>Arĉjo</i> = Archie. +</p> + +<!-- 201.png --> + +<a name="page192"> </a><span class = "pagenum">192</span> + +<p> + <i>-ebl</i> denotes possibility: <i>kredebla</i> = credible. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ec</i> denotes abstract quality: <i>boneco</i> = goodness. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-eg</i> denotes great size or intensity: <i>grandega</i> = + enormous; <i>varmega</i> = intensely hot. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ej</i> denotes place: <i>lernejo</i> = a learn-place, a school. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-em</i> denotes propensity to: <i>lernema</i> = studious; + <i>kredema</i> = credulous. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-er</i> denotes one out of many, or a unit of a mass: + <i>sablero</i> = a grain of sand; <i>fajrero</i> = a spark. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-estr</i> denotes a chief or leader: <i>lernejestro</i> = a head + master. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-et</i> denotes diminution: <i>infaneto</i> = a little child; + <i>varmeta</i> = warmish. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-id</i> denotes the young of, descendant of: <i>bovido</i> = a + calf. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ig</i> denotes causation: <i>bonigi</i>, <i>plibonigi</i> = to + make good, to improve; <i>mortigi</i> = to kill; <i>venigi</i> = to + cause to come, to send for. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-iĝ</i> denotes becoming, and has a passive signification: + <i>saniĝi</i>, <i>resaniĝi</i> = to get well (again); + <i>paliĝi</i> = to grow pale; <i>troviĝi</i> = to be found, + occur. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-il</i> denotes an instrument: <i>razilo</i> = a razor. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-in</i> denotes feminine: <i>patrino</i> = mother; <i>bovino</i> = + cow. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ind</i> denotes worthiness: <i>laŭdinda</i> = laudable, + praiseworthy. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ing</i> denotes a holder: <i>kandelingo</i> = a candlestick; + <i>glavingo</i> = scabbard. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ist</i> denotes profession or occupation; <i>maristo</i> = a + sailor; <i>bonfaristo</i> = a benefactor. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-nj</i> denotes feminine affectionate diminutives: <i>Manjo</i> = + Polly; <i>patrinjo</i> (or <i>panjo</i>) = mamma. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-uj</i> denotes containing or producing: <i>inkujo</i> = inkpot; + <i>Anglujo</i> = England. +</p> + +<p> + <i>-ul</i> denotes characteristic: <i>timulo</i> = a coward: + <i>avarulo</i> = a miser. +</p> + +<p> + [The suffix <i>-aĉ</i> (not in the <i>Fundamento</i>) is coming + into use as a pejorative (= Italian <i>-accio</i>): <i>ridi</i> = to + laugh; <i>ridaĉi</i> = to grin, sneer.] +</p> + +<!-- 202.png --> + +<a name="page193"> </a><span class = "pagenum">193</span> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterV"> + V + <div class="subtitolo"> + table of correlative words + </div> +</div> + +<center> + <table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Correlatives."> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top"> </td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Demonstrative.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Relative and<br/>Interrogative.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Negative.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Universal.</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Indefinite.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Person*</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tiu<br/>that</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kiu<br/>who, which</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">neniu<br/>no one</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉiu<br/> every, all,<br/> every one</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">iu<br/>some,<br/>some one</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Thing*</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tio<br/>that (thing)</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kio<br/>what, which</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">nenio<br/>nothing</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉio<br/>everything</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">io<br/>something</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Quality</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tia<br/>that kind of a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kia<br/>what kind of a</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">nenia<br/>no,<br/>no kind of</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉia<br/>each,<br/>every kind of</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ia<br/>any,<br/>some kind of</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Time</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tiam<br/>then</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kiam<br/>when</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">neniam<br/>never</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉiam<br/>always</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">iam<br/>ever,<br/>at some time</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Place</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tie<br/>there</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kie<br/>where</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">nenie<br/>nowhere</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉie<br/>everywhere</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ie<br/>somewhere</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Manner</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tiel<br/>thus, so</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kiel<br/>how</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">neniel<br/>in no way</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉiel<br/>in every way</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">iel<br/>in some way,<br/>somehow</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Motive</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tial<br/>therefore</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kial<br/>why</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">nenial<br/>for no reason</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉial<br/>for all reasons</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ial<br/>for some reason</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Quantity</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">tiom<br/>so/as much<br/>so/as many</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kiom<br/>how much<br/>how many</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">neniom<br/>none</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉiom<br/>the whole<br/>amount</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">iom<br/>somewhat,<br/>a certain amount</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">Possession</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ties<br/>of that</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">kies<br/>whose,<br/>of which</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">nenies<br/>nobody's</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ĉies<br/>everybody's</td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="center" valign="top">ies<br/>somebody's</td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + In the demonstrative column, to express "this" instead of "that," add + <i>ĉi</i>. +</p> + +<p> + *<i>N.B.</i>—<i>Tiu</i>, <i>kiu</i>, etc., are used in + agreement with a noun expressed, even when it does not represent a + person. +</p> + +<p> + Ex. <i>Tiu libro, kiun mi legis</i> = that book which I read. + <i>Tiuj ĉi floroj</i> = these flowers. +</p> + +<p> + <i>Tio</i>, <i>kio</i>, etc., are used when there is no noun, so that they + stand alone. +</p> + +<p> + Ex. <i>Tio estas vera</i> = that is true; <i>kion vi diris?</i> = + what did you say? <i>Tio ĉi estas pli granda ol tio</i> = this + is bigger than that. +</p> + +<p> + <i>N.B.</i>—In memorizing the above, it is well to remember + that <i>t</i> = demonstrative, <i>k</i> = relative-interrogative, + <i>ĉ</i> = distributive, <i>i</i> = indefinite, <i>nen</i> = + negative. +</p> + +<!-- 203.png --> + +<a name="page194"> </a><span class = "pagenum">194</span> + +<div class="chapitrotitolo" id="partIVchapterVI"> + VI + <div class="subtitolo"> + vocabulary + </div> +</div> + +<p>A</p> + +<i>-a</i>, termination of adjectives.<br/> +<i>aĉet‑i</i>, to buy.<br/> +<i>-ad</i>, suffix denoting continued action.<br/> +<i>aer‑o</i>, air.<br/> +<i>ag‑i</i>, to act.<br/> +<i>-aĵ</i>, suffix denoting concrete substance.<br/> +<i>ajn</i>, (what)ever; <i>kiu ajn</i>, whoever.<br/> +<i>al</i>, to.<br/> +<i>ali‑a</i>, other.<br/> +<i>almenaŭ</i>, at least.<br/> +<i>alt‑a</i>, high.<br/> +<i>am‑i</i>, to love.<br/> +<i>amas‑o</i>, crowd, mass.<br/> +<i>ankaŭ</i>, also.<br/> +<i>ankoraŭ</i>, still.<br/> +<i>anstataŭ</i>, instead of.<br/> +<i>-ant</i>, present participle active.<br/> +<i>antaŭ</i>, before (time and place).<br/> +<i>apart‑a</i>, special.<br/> +<i>apud</i>, at.<br/> +<i>-ar</i>, suffix denoting a collection.<br/> +<i>arb‑o</i>, tree.<br/> +<i>-as</i>, ending of present tense.<br/> +<i>aŭd‑i</i>, to hear.<br/> + +<p>B</p> + +<i>baldaŭ</i>, soon.<br/> +<i>bed‑o</i>, flower bed.<br/> +<i>bel‑a</i>, fine, beautiful.<br/> +<i>bezon‑o</i>, need.<br/> +<i>blank‑a</i>, white.<br/> +<i>bon‑a</i>, good.<br/> +<i>bord‑o</i>, edge, shore.<br/> +<i>bril‑i</i>, to shine.<br/> +<i>burĝon‑o</i>, bud.<br/> + +<p>C</p> + +<i>cel‑o</i>, object, aim.<br/> +<i>cerb‑o</i>, brain.<br/> +<i>cert‑a</i>, certain.<br/> + +<p>Ĉ</p> + +<i>ĉagren‑o</i>, trouble.<br/> +<i>ĉar</i>, for, because.<br/> +<i>ĉe</i>, at.<br/> +<i>ĉes‑i</i>, to cease.<br/> +<i>ĉi</i>, added to demonstrative <i>tiu</i>, expresses nearer connexion: <i>tiu</i> = that; <i>tiu ĉi</i> = this.<br/> +<i>ĉiam</i>, always.<br/> +<i>ĉie</i>, everywhere.<br/> +<i>ĉirkaŭ</i>, around.<br/> +<i>ĉiu</i>, all, each, every.<br/> +<i>ĉu</i>, interrogative particle.<br/> + +<p>D</p> + +<i>da</i>, used after words of quantity: Ex. <i>multe da vino</i>, much wine.<br/> +<i>daŭr‑i</i>, to last, continue.<br/> +<i>de</i>, of, from, by (with passive).<br/> + +<!-- 204.png --> + +<a name="page195"> </a><span class = "pagenum">195</span> + +<i>des</i>, comparative particle; <i>ju...des</i>, the...the: Ex. <i>ju pli des pli bone</i>, the more the better.<br/> +<i>dev‑i</i>, to owe, to be obliged to.<br/> +<i>deviz‑o</i>, device, motto.<br/> +<i>difekt‑i</i>, to spoil.<br/> +<i>dir‑i</i>, to say.<br/> +<i>dom‑o</i>, house.<br/> +<i>don‑i</i>, to give.<br/> +<i>du</i>, two.<br/> +<i>dub‑i</i>, to doubt.<br/> +<i>dum</i>, whilst.<br/> + +<p>E</p> + +<i>-e</i>, ending of adverbs.<br/> +<i>eben‑a</i>, flat, level.<br/> +<i>-ebl</i>, suffix denoting possibility.<br/> +<i>-ec</i>, suffix denoting abstract quality: <i>bon‑ec‑o</i>, goodness.<br/> +<i>eĉ</i>, even.<br/> +<i>edz-(in)-o</i>, husband (wife).<br/> +<i>-eg</i>, suffix denoting great size.<br/> +<i>-ej</i>, suffix denoting place.<br/> +<i>ek-</i>, prefix denoting beginning.<br/> +<i>ekster</i>, outside.<br/> +<i>el</i>, out of.<br/> +<i>-em</i>, suffix denoting propensity.<br/> +<i>en</i>, in.<br/> +<i>entrepren‑i</i>, to undertake.<br/> +<i>enu‑i</i>, to weary, bore.<br/> +<i>esper‑i</i>, to hope.<br/> +<i>Esperant‑o</i>, Esperanto.<br/> +<i>est‑i</i>, to be.<br/> +<i>-et</i>, suffix denoting little.<br/> +<i>etend‑i</i>, to stretch.<br/> + +<p>F</p> + +<i>facil‑a</i>, easy.<br/> +<i>fajr‑o</i>, fire.<br/> +<i>fakt‑o</i>, fact.<br/> +<i>far‑i</i>, to do.<br/> +<i>fenestr‑o</i>, window.<br/> +<i>ferm‑i</i>, to shut.<br/> +<i>fil‑o</i>, son.<br/> +<i>fin‑o</i>, end.<br/> +<i>flank‑o</i>, side.<br/> +<i>fleg‑i</i>, tend.<br/> +<i>flu‑i</i>, flow.<br/> +<i>flug‑i</i>, to fly.<br/> +<i>foj‑o</i>, time; <i>du fojoj</i>, twice.<br/> +<i>foli‑o</i>, leaf.<br/> +<i>for</i>, away.<br/> +<i>forn‑o</i>, oven.<br/> +<i>frat‑o</i>, <!-- [** ought to be "frat-o"] (book says "frato") --> brother.<br/> +<i>fraz‑o</i>, sentence.<br/> +<i>frenez‑o</i>, madness.<br/> +<i>fru‑a</i>, early.<br/> +<i>frukt‑o</i>, fruit.<br/> + +<p>G</p> + +<i>ge-</i>, prefix denoting both sexes.<br/> +<i>gent‑o</i>, race, tribe.<br/> +<i>grand‑a</i>, big, great.<br/> + + +<p>Ĝ</p> + +<i>ĝi</i>, it.<br/> +<i>ĝis</i>, until.<br/> +<i>ĝoj‑o</i>, joy.<br/> +<i>ĝu‑i</i>, to enjoy.<br/> + +<!-- 205.png --> + +<a name="page196"> </a><span class = "pagenum">196</span> + +<p>H</p> + +<i>hav‑i</i>, to have.<br/> +<i>hejm‑o</i>, home.<br/> +<i>hodiaŭ</i>, to‑day.<br/> +<i>hom‑o</i>, man (mortal; no distinction of sex).<br/> + +<p>I</p> + +<i>-i</i>, ending of infinitive.<br/> +<i>ideal‑o</i>, ideal.<br/> +<i>-ig</i>, suffix denoting causation.<br/> +<i>-iĝ</i>, suffix denoting becoming.<br/> +<i>-il</i>, suffix denoting instrument.<br/> +<i>ili</i>, they.<br/> +<i>-int</i>, past participle active.<br/> +<i>inter</i>, between, among.<br/> +<i>ir‑i</i>, to go.<br/> +<i>-is</i>, ending of past tense.<br/> +<i>-ist</i>, suffix denoting agent.<br/> +<i>iu</i>, some one.<br/> + +<p>J</p> + +<i>-j</i>, ending of plural.<br/> +<i>jam</i>, already.<br/> +<i>jar‑o</i>, year.<br/> +<i>jen</i>, here is, here are (French <i>voici</i>).<br/> +<i>ju</i>, comparative particle. See <i>des</i>.<br/> +<i>jun‑a</i>, young.<br/> + +<p>Ĵ</p> + +<i>ĵus</i>, just now.<br/> + +<p>K</p> + +<i>kaj</i>, and.<br/> +<i>kamen‑o</i>, fireplace.<br/> +<i>kamp‑o</i>, field.<br/> +<i>kap‑o</i>, head.<br/> +<i>ke</i>, that (conjunction).<br/> +<i>kelk‑a</i>, some.<br/> +<i>kiam</i>, when.<br/> +<i>kiel</i>, how, as.<br/> +<i>kiu</i>, who, which.<br/> +<i>knab‑o</i>, boy.<br/> +<i>komerc‑o</i>, commerce.<br/> +<i>kompat‑o</i>, sympathy, pity.<br/> +<i>kompren‑i</i>, to understand.<br/> +<i>kon‑i</i>, to know.<br/> +<i>konsil‑i</i>, to counsel.<br/> +<i>konstru‑i</i>, to build.<br/> +<i>kontraŭ</i>, against.<br/> +<i>kred‑i</i>, to believe.<br/> +<i>kresk‑i</i>, to grow.<br/> +<i>krom</i>, besides.<br/> +<i>krut‑a</i>, steep.<br/> +<i>kun</i>, with.<br/> +<i>kuŝ-i</i>, to lie.<br/> +<i>kutim‑i</i>, to be accustomed.<br/> +<i>kvankam</i>, although.<br/> +<i>kvar</i>, four.<br/> +<i>kvazaŭ</i>, as if.<br/> +<i>kvin</i>, five.<br/> + +<p>L</p> + +<i>la</i>, the.<br/> +<i>lac‑a</i>, tired.<br/> +<i>lag‑o</i>, lake.<br/> + +<!-- 206.png --> + +<a name="page197"> </a><span class = "pagenum">197</span> + +<i>land‑o</i>, land.<br/> +<i>lang‑o</i>, tongue.<br/> +<i>las‑i</i>, to let, leave.<br/> +<i>laŭ</i>, according to.<br/> +<i>leg‑i</i>, to read.<br/> +<i>legom‑o</i>, vegetable.<br/> +<i>lern‑i</i>, to learn.<br/> +<i>lert‑a</i>, clever.<br/> +<i>lev‑i</i>, to raise.<br/> +<i>li</i>, he.<br/> +<i>lim‑o</i>, limit.<br/> +<i>lingv‑o</i>, language.<br/> +<i>lit‑o</i>, bed.<br/> +<i>long‑a</i>, long.<br/> +<i>lum‑o</i>, light.<br/> + +<p>M</p> + +<i>mal-</i>, prefix denoting the opposite.<br/> +<i>malgraŭ</i>, in spite of.<br/> +<i>manĝ-i</i>, to eat.<br/> +<i>mank‑i</i>, to be wanting.<br/> +<i>mar‑o</i>, sea.<br/> +<i>marĉ-o</i>, swamp.<br/> +<i>maten‑o</i>, morning.<br/> +<i>mem</i>, self.<br/> +<i>met‑i</i>, to put.<br/> +<i>mez‑o</i>, middle.<br/> +<i>mi</i>, I.<br/> +<i>mien‑o</i>, look, air, gait.<br/> +<i>mir‑i</i>, to wonder.<br/> +<i>mon‑o</i>, money.<br/> +<i>mond‑o</i>, world.<br/> +<i>montr‑i</i>, to show.<br/> +<i>morgaŭ</i>, to‑morrow.<br/> +<i>Moŝt‑o</i>, term of respect: your Highness, Worship, Honour.<br/> +<i>mult‑a</i>, much, many.<br/> + +<p>N</p> + +<i>-n</i>, ending of accusative: also denotes motion towards and duration of time.<br/> +<i>naci‑o</i>, nation.<br/> +<i>nask‑i</i>, to beget.<br/> +<i>ne</i>, no, not.<br/> +<i>neĝ-o</i>, snow.<br/> +<i>neniam</i>, never.<br/> +<i>neniu</i>, no one.<br/> +<i>ni</i>, we.<br/> +<i>nom‑o</i>, name.<br/> +<i>nov‑a</i>, new.<br/> +<i>nub‑o</i>, cloud.<br/> +<i>nun</i>, now.<br/> +<i>nur</i>, only.<br/> +<i>nutr‑i</i>, to feed.<br/> + +<p>O</p> + +<i>-o</i>, ending of nouns.<br/> +<i>oft‑e</i>, often.<br/> +<i>ok</i>, eight.<br/> +<i>okaz‑i</i>, to happen.<br/> +<i>okul‑o</i>, eye.<br/> +<i>ol</i>, than.<br/> +<i>-on</i>, suffix denoting fraction.<br/> +<i>oni</i>, one, people (indef pron.).<br/> +<i>-ont</i>, future participle active.<br/> +<i>orel‑o</i>, ear.<br/> +<i>-os</i>, ending of future.<br/> + +<!-- 207.png --> + +<a name="page198"> </a><span class = "pagenum">198</span> + +<p>P</p> + +<i>pac‑o</i>, peace.<br/> +<i>parol‑i</i>, to speak.<br/> +<i>pen‑i</i>, to try.<br/> +<i>pens‑i</i>, to think.<br/> +<i>per</i>, by means of.<br/> +<i>perd‑i</i>, to lose.<br/> +<i>pez‑a</i>, heavy.<br/> +<i>pied‑o</i>, foot.<br/> +<i>pint‑o</i>, point, peak.<br/> +<i>pist‑i</i>, to pound.<br/> +<i>plaĉ-i</i>, to please.<br/> +<i>plat‑a</i>, flat.<br/> +<i>plej</i>, most.<br/> +<i>plen‑a</i>, full.<br/> +<i>plend‑i</i>, to complain.<br/> +<i>plenum‑i</i>, to fulfill.<br/> +<i>pli</i>, more.<br/> +<i>plu</i>, more, further, farther.<br/> +<i>plug‑i</i>, to plough.<br/> +<i>popol‑o</i>, people, race.<br/> +<i>por</i>, for.<br/> +<i>pord‑o</i>, door.<br/> +<i>post</i>, after, behind (time and place).<br/> +<i>pov‑i</i>, to be able.<br/> +<i>pra</i>, original, great-(grandfather).<br/> +<i>prav‑a</i>, right.<br/> +<i>pren‑i</i>, to take.<br/> +<i>preskaŭ</i>, almost.<br/> +<i>pret‑a</i>, ready.<br/> +<i>preter</i>, beyond, by.<br/> +<i>pri</i>, about, concerning.<br/> +<i>pro</i>, on account of.<br/> + +<p>R</p> + +<i>rakont‑i</i>, to narrate.<br/> +<i>ramp‑i</i>, to crawl, climb.<br/> +<i>rapid‑a</i>, quick.<br/> +<i>rekt‑a</i>, straight.<br/> +<i>rem‑i</i>, to row.<br/> +<i>renkont‑i</i>, to meet.<br/> +<i>renvers‑i</i>, to upset, overthrow.<br/> +<i>rikolt‑o</i>, crop.<br/> + +<p>S</p> + +<i>sat‑a</i>, satisfied, full, replete.<br/> +<i>sci‑i</i>, to know.<br/> +<i>sed</i>, but.<br/> +<i>sek‑a</i>, dry.<br/> +<i>sekv‑i</i>, to follow.<br/> +<i>sem‑o</i>, seed.<br/> +<i>sen</i>, without.<br/> +<i>sent‑i</i>, to feel.<br/> +<i>si</i>, self, relexive pronoun.<br/> +<i>sid‑i</i>, to sit.<br/> +<i>sinjor‑o</i>, sir, Mr., gentleman.<br/> +<i>skrib‑i</i>, to write.<br/> +<i>sol‑a</i>, alone, only.<br/> +<i>son‑o</i>, sound.<br/> +<i>sonĝ-o</i>, dream.<br/> +<i>sonor‑a</i>, sonorous.<br/> +<i>spec‑o</i>, kind, sort.<br/> +<i>spert‑o</i>, experience.<br/> +<i>spir‑i</i>, to breathe.<br/> +<i>star‑i</i>, to stand.<br/> +<i>sterk‑o</i>, manure.<br/> +<i>subit‑a</i>, sudden.<br/> +<i>sufiĉ-a</i>, sufficient.<br/> + +<!-- 208.png --> + +<a name="page199"> </a><span class = "pagenum">199</span> + +<i>supr‑a</i>, upper, superior.<br/> +<i>sven‑i</i>, to swoon.<br/> + +<p>Ŝ</p> + +<i>ŝajn‑i</i>, to seem.<br/> +<i>ŝerc‑i</i>, to joke.<br/> +<i>ŝip‑o</i>, ship.<br/> +<i>ŝirm‑i</i>, to shelter.<br/> +<i>ŝpar‑i</i>, to save up, economize.<br/> +<i>ŝtel‑i</i>, to steal.<br/> + +<p>T</p> + +<i>tag‑o</i>, day.<br/> +<i>tamen</i>, yet, nevertheless.<br/> +<i>tegment‑o</i>, roof.<br/> +<i>temp‑o</i>, time.<br/> +<i>ten‑i</i>, to hold, keep.<br/> +<i>ter‑o</i>, earth.<br/> +<i>tial</i>, therefore.<br/> +<i>tiel</i>, thus, so.<br/> +<i>tiom</i>, so much, so many.<br/> +<i>tiu</i>, that.<br/> +<i>tra</i>, through.<br/> +<i>traf‑i</i>, to hit the mark.<br/> +<i>trans</i>, across.<br/> +<i>tre</i>, very.<br/> +<i>trem‑i</i>, to tremble.<br/> +<i>tro</i>, too much.<br/> +<i>tromp‑i</i>, to deceive.<br/> +<i>trov‑i</i>, to find.<br/> +<i>trud‑i</i>, to shove, thrust.<br/> +<i>tuj</i>, immediately.<br/> +<i>tut‑a</i>, all.<br/> + +<p>U</p> + +<i>-u</i>, ending of imperative subjunctive.<br/> +<i>-uj</i>, suffix denoting "holder".<br/> +<i>-ul</i>, suffix denoting characteristic.<br/> +<i>unu</i>, one.<br/> + +<p>V</p> + +<i>vapor‑o</i>, steam.<br/> +<i>vek‑i</i>, to wake (trans.).<br/> +<i>vel‑o</i>, sail.<br/> +<i>velk‑a</i>, faded.<br/> +<i>ven‑i</i>, to come.<br/> +<i>venk‑i</i>, to conquer.<br/> +<i>vent‑o</i>, wind.<br/> +<i>ver‑a</i>, true.<br/> +<i>vesper‑o</i>, evening.<br/> +<i>vetur‑i</i>, to travel by vehicle (train, carriage, boat, etc.).<br/> +<i>vi</i>, you.<br/> +<i>vid‑i</i>, to see.<br/> +<i>vidv-(in)-o</i>, widow(er).<br/> +<i>vir-(in)-o</i>, man (woman).<br/> +<i>viv‑i</i>, to live.<br/> +<i>voj‑o</i>, way.<br/> +<i>vojaĝ-o</i>, voyage, journey.<br/> +<i>vokal‑o</i>, vowel.<br/> +<i>vol‑i</i>, to wish.<br/> +<i>vom‑i</i>, to vomit, be sick.<br/> +<i>vort‑o</i>, word.<br/> + +<p>Z</p> + +<i>zorg‑o</i>, care.<br/> + +<!-- 209.png --> + +<a name="page200"> </a><span class = "pagenum">200</span> + +<div class="aldonotitolo" id="appendixA"> + APPENDIX A + <div class="subtitolo"> + sample problems in regular language + </div> +</div> + +<p> + Word-building can be made quite an amusing game for children. + For instance, give them the suffixes <i>-ej</i> (denoting place) + and <i>-il</i> (denoting instrument), and set them to form words + for "school," "church," "factory," "knife," "warming-pan," + etc. (<i>lernejo</i>, <i>preĝejo</i>, <i>fabrikejo</i>, + <i>tranĉito</i>, <i>varmigilo</i>). +</p> + +<p> + But since the language is perfectly regular in form and construction, + and the learner can therefore argue from case to case, it is a useful + instrument for instilling clear ideas of grammatical categories. Thus + give the roots— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Sample problems."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>viv‑i</i> = to live</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>san‑a</i> = healthy</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>hom‑o</i> = man</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>long‑a</i> = long</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>saĝ-a</i> = wise</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>Di‑o</i> = God</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> </td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>don‑i</i> = to give</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> </td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + and set such sentences as the following to be worked out— +</p> + +<p> + "He lives long"; "A long life is a gift of God"; "It is wise to live + healthily"; "God is divine, man is human"; "Human life is short," + etc. +</p> + +<p> + The same roots constantly recur with an <i>-o</i>, <i>-a</i>, or + <i>-e</i> tacked on; and the practice in sorting out the endings, and + attaching them like labels to nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, + soon marks off the corresponding ideas clearly in the learner's mind. +</p> + +<p> + Analogous to simple sums and conducive to clear thinking are such + sentences as the following, for rather more advanced pupils: +</p> + +<p> + Given— +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Sample problems."> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>raz‑i</i> = to shave</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>serv‑i</i> = to serve</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>san‑a</i> = healthy</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>akr‑a</i> = sharp</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>mort‑i</i> = to die</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>ven‑i</i> = to come</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>uz‑i</i> = to use</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>hak‑i</i> = to hew</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>kun</i> = with</td></tr> + <tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> </td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"><i>sent‑i</i> = to feel</td> +<td width="5%"></td> +<td nowrap="nowrap" align="left" valign="middle"> </td></tr> + </table> +</center> + +<p> + and the <a href="#partIVchapterIV">table of affixes</a>. +</p> + +<!-- 210.png --> + +<a name="page201"> </a><span class = "pagenum">201</span> + +<p> + Translate—"Constant use had blunted his razor"; "He had his + servant shaved"; "He killed his companion with an axe"; "Let us send + for the doctor." +</p> + +<p> + More advanced exercise (on the same roots): +</p> + +<p> + Translate—"O Death, where is thy sting?" "Community of service + brings together men subject to death, and dulls the perception of + their common mortality. Willing service dissipates the weariness of + the server; the deadliness of disease is mitigated, and the place of + sickness becomes a place of health." +</p> + +<p> + By referring to the table of affixes, the use of which has of course + been explained, the learner can work out the answers as follows: +</p> + +<p> + Uz‑ad‑o estis mal‑akr‑ig‑int‑a lian raz‑il‑on. Li raz‑ig‑is sian + serv‑ant-(<i>or</i> ist)on. Li mort‑ig‑is sian kun‑ul‑on per + hak‑il‑o. Ni ven‑ig‑u la san‑ig‑ist‑on. +</p> + +<p> + More advanced: +</p> + +<p> + Ho Morto, kie estas via akr‑ec‑o? Kun‑servo (<i>or</i> kuneco de + servo) kun‑ig‑as la mort‑em-(ul)-ojn, kaj mal‑akr‑ig‑as la sent‑on de + ilia kun‑a mort‑em‑ec‑o. Serv‑em‑ec‑o dis‑ig‑as la el‑uz‑it‑ec‑on de + la serv‑ant‑o; la mort‑ig‑ec‑o de la mal‑san‑ec‑o mal‑akr‑iĝ-as, + kaj la mal‑san‑ej‑o iĝas san‑ej‑o. +</p> + +<p> + No national language could be used in this way for building sentences + according to rules, and such exercises should give a practical grip + of clear use of language. The student is obliged to analyse the exact + meaning of every word of the English sentence, and this necessity + inculcates a nice discrimination in the use of words. At the same + time the necessary word-building depends upon clear-headed and + logical application of rule. There is no memory work, but the mind + is kept on the stretch, and the exercise is wholesome as combating + confusion of thought and slovenliness of expression. +</p> + +<!-- 211.png --> + +<a name="page202"> </a><span class = "pagenum">202</span> + +<div class="aldonotitolo" id="appendixB"> + APPENDIX B + <div class="subtitolo"> + esperanto hymn by dr. zamenhof + </div> +</div> + +<p align="center" style="font-style: italic"> + La Espero +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Poetry formatting."> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + En la mondon venis nova sento,<br/> + Tra la mondo iras forta voko;<br/> + Per flugiloj de facila vento<br/> + Nun de loko flugu ĝi al loko. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Ne al glavo sangon soifanta<br/> + Ĝi la homan tiras familion:<br/> + Al la mond' eterne militanta<br/> + Ĝi promesas sanktan harmonion. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + Sub la sankta signo de l'espero<br/> + Kolektiĝas pacaj batalantoj,<br/> + Kaj rapide kreskas la afero<br/> + Per laboro de la esperantoj. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Forte staras muroj de miljaroj<br/> + Inter la popoloj dividitaj;<br/> + Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj,<br/> + Per la sankta amo disbatitaj. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + Sub neŭtrala lingva fundamento,<br/> + Komprenante unu la alian,<br/> + La popoloj faros en konsento<br/> + Unu grandan rondon familian. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Nia diligenta kolegaro<br/> + En laboro paca ne laciĝos,<br/> + Ĝis la bela sonĝo de l'homaro<br/> + Por eterna ben' efektiviĝos. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- 212.png --> + +<a name="page203"> </a><span class = "pagenum">203</span> + +<p align="center" class="majusklete" style="margin-top: 1em"> + literal translation +</p> + +<p align="center" style="font-style: italic"> + Hope +</p> + +<center> + <table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Poetry formatting."> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + Into the world has come a new feeling,<br/> + Through the world goes a mighty call;<br/> + On light wind-wings<br/> + Now may it fly from place to place. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Not to the sword thirsting for blood<br/> + Does it draw the human family:<br/> + To the world eternally at war<br/> + It promises holy harmony. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + Beneath the holy banner of hope<br/> + Throng the soldiers of peace,<br/> + And swiftly spreads the Cause<br/> + Through the labour of the hopeful. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Strong stand the walls of a thousand years<br/> + Between the sundered peoples;<br/> + But the stubborn bars shall leap apart,<br/> + Battered to pieces by holy love. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" colspan="2"> + On the fair foundation of common speech,<br/> + Understanding one another,<br/> + The peoples in concord shall make up<br/> + One great family circle. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left" width="8%"> + + </td> + <td align="left"> + Our busy band of comrades<br/> + Shall never weary in the work of peace,<br/> + Till humanity's grand dream<br/> + Shall become the truth of eternal blessing. + </td> + </tr> + </table> +</center> + +<!-- 213.png --> + +<a name="page204"> </a><span class = "pagenum">204</span> + +<div class="aldonotitolo" id="appendixC"> + APPENDIX C + <div class="subtitolo"> + the letter <i>c</i> in esperanto + </div> +</div> + +<p> + <i>c</i> = <i>ts</i> in English "bits." +</p> + +<p> + This has given rise to much criticism. The same sound is also + expressed by the letters <i>ts</i>. Why depart from the Esperanto + principle, "one sound, one letter," and have two symbols (<i>c</i> + and <i>ts</i>) for the same sound? +</p> + +<p> + A standing difficulty of an international language is: What + equivalent shall be adopted for the <i>c</i> of national languages? + The difficulty arises owing to the diversity of value and history of + the <i>c</i> in diverse tongues. Philologists, who know the history + of the Latin hard <i>c</i> and its various descendants in modern + languages, will appreciate this. +</p> + +<p> + (1) Shall <i>c</i> be adopted in the international language, or + omitted? If it is omitted, many useful words, which it is desirable + to adopt and which are ordinarily spelt with a <i>c</i>, will + have to be arbitrarily deformed, and this deformation may amount + to actual obscuring of their sense. E.g. <i>cento</i> = hundred; + <i>centro</i> = centre; <i>cerbo</i> = brain; <i>certa</i> = certain; + <i>cirkonstanco</i> = circumstance; <i>civila</i> = civil, etc. + Such works would become almost unrecognizable for many in the forms + <i>kento</i>, <i>sento</i>, <i>tsento</i>, etc. +</p> + +<p> + (2) If, then, <i>c</i> is retained, what value is to be given to + it? The hard and soft sounds of the English <i>c</i> (as in English + "cat," "civil") are already represented by <i>k</i> and <i>s</i>. + Neither of these letters can be dispensed with in the international + language; and it is undesirable to confuse orthographically or + phonetically <i>c</i>-roots with <i>s</i>- or <i>k</i>-roots. + Therefore another value must be found for the symbol <i>c</i>. The + choice is practically narrowed down to the Italian soft <i>c</i> + = <i>ch</i>, as in English "church," and the German<sup>1</sup> <i>c</i> + = <i>ts</i> in English "bits." Now <i>ch</i> is a useful and + distinctive sound, and has been adopted in Esperanto with a symbol of + its own: ĉ. Therefore <i>ts</i> remains. +</p> + +<p class="piednoto"> + <sup>1</sup>Also late Latin and early Norman French. +</p> + +<!-- 214.png --> + +<a name="page205"> </a><span class = "pagenum">205</span> + +<p> + (3) Why not then abolish <i>c</i> and write <i>ts</i> instead? For + answer, see No. (1) above. It is a worse evil to introduce such + monstrosities as <i>tsento</i>, <i>tsivila</i>, etc., than to allow + two symbols for the same sound, <i>ts</i> and <i>c</i>. International + language has to appeal to the eye as well as to the ear. +</p> + +<p> + This matter of the <i>c</i> is only one more instance of the wisdom + of Dr. Zamenhof in refusing to make a fetish of slavish adherence + to rule. Practical common-sense is a safer guide than theory in + attaining the desired goal—ease (of eye, ear, tongue, and pen) + for greatest number. 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