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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1642-h.zip b/1642-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3729490 --- /dev/null +++ b/1642-h.zip diff --git a/1642-h/1642-h.htm b/1642-h/1642-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5942398 --- /dev/null +++ b/1642-h/1642-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1833 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Euthyphro, by Plato + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Euthyphro, by Plato + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Euthyphro + +Author: Plato + +Translator: Benjamin Jowett + +Release Date: November 23, 2008 [EBook #1642] +Last Updated: January 15, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTHYPHRO *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + EUTHYPHRO + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Plato + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translated by Benjamin Jowett + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> EUTHYPHRO </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION. + </h2> + <p> + In the Meno, Anytus had parted from Socrates with the significant words: + 'That in any city, and particularly in the city of Athens, it is easier to + do men harm than to do them good;' and Socrates was anticipating another + opportunity of talking with him. In the Euthyphro, Socrates is awaiting + his trial for impiety. But before the trial begins, Plato would like to + put the world on their trial, and convince them of ignorance in that very + matter touching which Socrates is accused. An incident which may perhaps + really have occurred in the family of Euthyphro, a learned Athenian + diviner and soothsayer, furnishes the occasion of the discussion. + </p> + <p> + This Euthyphro and Socrates are represented as meeting in the porch of the + King Archon. (Compare Theaet.) Both have legal business in hand. Socrates + is defendant in a suit for impiety which Meletus has brought against him + (it is remarked by the way that he is not a likely man himself to have + brought a suit against another); and Euthyphro too is plaintiff in an + action for murder, which he has brought against his own father. The latter + has originated in the following manner:—A poor dependant of the + family had slain one of their domestic slaves in Naxos. The guilty person + was bound and thrown into a ditch by the command of Euthyphro's father, + who sent to the interpreters of religion at Athens to ask what should be + done with him. Before the messenger came back the criminal had died from + hunger and exposure. + </p> + <p> + This is the origin of the charge of murder which Euthyphro brings against + his father. Socrates is confident that before he could have undertaken the + responsibility of such a prosecution, he must have been perfectly informed + of the nature of piety and impiety; and as he is going to be tried for + impiety himself, he thinks that he cannot do better than learn of + Euthyphro (who will be admitted by everybody, including the judges, to be + an unimpeachable authority) what piety is, and what is impiety. What then + is piety? + </p> + <p> + Euthyphro, who, in the abundance of his knowledge, is very willing to + undertake all the responsibility, replies: That piety is doing as I do, + prosecuting your father (if he is guilty) on a charge of murder; doing as + the gods do—as Zeus did to Cronos, and Cronos to Uranus. + </p> + <p> + Socrates has a dislike to these tales of mythology, and he fancies that + this dislike of his may be the reason why he is charged with impiety. 'Are + they really true?' 'Yes, they are;' and Euthyphro will gladly tell + Socrates some more of them. But Socrates would like first of all to have a + more satisfactory answer to the question, 'What is piety?' 'Doing as I do, + charging a father with murder,' may be a single instance of piety, but can + hardly be regarded as a general definition. + </p> + <p> + Euthyphro replies, that 'Piety is what is dear to the gods, and impiety is + what is not dear to them.' But may there not be differences of opinion, as + among men, so also among the gods? Especially, about good and evil, which + have no fixed rule; and these are precisely the sort of differences which + give rise to quarrels. And therefore what may be dear to one god may not + be dear to another, and the same action may be both pious and impious; + e.g. your chastisement of your father, Euthyphro, may be dear or pleasing + to Zeus (who inflicted a similar chastisement on his own father), but not + equally pleasing to Cronos or Uranus (who suffered at the hands of their + sons). + </p> + <p> + Euthyphro answers that there is no difference of opinion, either among + gods or men, as to the propriety of punishing a murderer. Yes, rejoins + Socrates, when they know him to be a murderer; but you are assuming the + point at issue. If all the circumstances of the case are considered, are + you able to show that your father was guilty of murder, or that all the + gods are agreed in approving of our prosecution of him? And must you not + allow that what is hated by one god may be liked by another? Waiving this + last, however, Socrates proposes to amend the definition, and say that + 'what all the gods love is pious, and what they all hate is impious.' To + this Euthyphro agrees. + </p> + <p> + Socrates proceeds to analyze the new form of the definition. He shows that + in other cases the act precedes the state; e.g. the act of being carried, + loved, etc. precedes the state of being carried, loved, etc., and + therefore that which is dear to the gods is dear to the gods because it is + first loved of them, not loved of them because it is dear to them. But the + pious or holy is loved by the gods because it is pious or holy, which is + equivalent to saying, that it is loved by them because it is dear to them. + Here then appears to be a contradiction,—Euthyphro has been giving + an attribute or accident of piety only, and not the essence. Euthyphro + acknowledges himself that his explanations seem to walk away or go round + in a circle, like the moving figures of Daedalus, the ancestor of + Socrates, who has communicated his art to his descendants. + </p> + <p> + Socrates, who is desirous of stimulating the indolent intelligence of + Euthyphro, raises the question in another manner: 'Is all the pious just?' + 'Yes.' 'Is all the just pious?' 'No.' 'Then what part of justice is + piety?' Euthyphro replies that piety is that part of justice which + 'attends' to the gods, as there is another part of justice which 'attends' + to men. But what is the meaning of 'attending' to the gods? The word + 'attending,' when applied to dogs, horses, and men, implies that in some + way they are made better. But how do pious or holy acts make the gods any + better? Euthyphro explains that he means by pious acts, acts of service or + ministration. Yes; but the ministrations of the husbandman, the physician, + and the builder have an end. To what end do we serve the gods, and what do + we help them to accomplish? Euthyphro replies, that all these difficult + questions cannot be resolved in a short time; and he would rather say + simply that piety is knowing how to please the gods in word and deed, by + prayers and sacrifices. In other words, says Socrates, piety is 'a science + of asking and giving'—asking what we want and giving what they want; + in short, a mode of doing business between gods and men. But although they + are the givers of all good, how can we give them any good in return? 'Nay, + but we give them honour.' Then we give them not what is beneficial, but + what is pleasing or dear to them; and this is the point which has been + already disproved. + </p> + <p> + Socrates, although weary of the subterfuges and evasions of Euthyphro, + remains unshaken in his conviction that he must know the nature of piety, + or he would never have prosecuted his old father. He is still hoping that + he will condescend to instruct him. But Euthyphro is in a hurry and cannot + stay. And Socrates' last hope of knowing the nature of piety before he is + prosecuted for impiety has disappeared. As in the Euthydemus the irony is + carried on to the end. + </p> + <p> + The Euthyphro is manifestly designed to contrast the real nature of piety + and impiety with the popular conceptions of them. But when the popular + conceptions of them have been overthrown, Socrates does not offer any + definition of his own: as in the Laches and Lysis, he prepares the way for + an answer to the question which he has raised; but true to his own + character, refuses to answer himself. + </p> + <p> + Euthyphro is a religionist, and is elsewhere spoken of, if he be the same + person, as the author of a philosophy of names, by whose 'prancing steeds' + Socrates in the Cratylus is carried away. He has the conceit and + self-confidence of a Sophist; no doubt that he is right in prosecuting his + father has ever entered into his mind. Like a Sophist too, he is incapable + either of framing a general definition or of following the course of an + argument. His wrong-headedness, one-sidedness, narrowness, positiveness, + are characteristic of his priestly office. His failure to apprehend an + argument may be compared to a similar defect which is observable in the + rhapsode Ion. But he is not a bad man, and he is friendly to Socrates, + whose familiar sign he recognizes with interest. Though unable to follow + him he is very willing to be led by him, and eagerly catches at any + suggestion which saves him from the trouble of thinking. Moreover he is + the enemy of Meletus, who, as he says, is availing himself of the popular + dislike to innovations in religion in order to injure Socrates; at the + same time he is amusingly confident that he has weapons in his own armoury + which would be more than a match for him. He is quite sincere in his + prosecution of his father, who has accidentally been guilty of homicide, + and is not wholly free from blame. To purge away the crime appears to him + in the light of a duty, whoever may be the criminal. + </p> + <p> + Thus begins the contrast between the religion of the letter, or of the + narrow and unenlightened conscience, and the higher notion of religion + which Socrates vainly endeavours to elicit from him. 'Piety is doing as I + do' is the idea of religion which first occurs to him, and to many others + who do not say what they think with equal frankness. For men are not + easily persuaded that any other religion is better than their own; or that + other nations, e.g. the Greeks in the time of Socrates, were equally + serious in their religious beliefs and difficulties. The chief difference + between us and them is, that they were slowly learning what we are in + process of forgetting. Greek mythology hardly admitted of the distinction + between accidental homicide and murder: that the pollution of blood was + the same in both cases is also the feeling of the Athenian diviner. He had + not as yet learned the lesson, which philosophy was teaching, that Homer + and Hesiod, if not banished from the state, or whipped out of the + assembly, as Heracleitus more rudely proposed, at any rate were not to be + appealed to as authorities in religion; and he is ready to defend his + conduct by the examples of the gods. These are the very tales which + Socrates cannot abide; and his dislike of them, as he suspects, has + branded him with the reputation of impiety. Here is one answer to the + question, 'Why Socrates was put to death,' suggested by the way. Another + is conveyed in the words, 'The Athenians do not care about any man being + thought wise until he begins to make other men wise; and then for some + reason or other they are angry:' which may be said to be the rule of + popular toleration in most other countries, and not at Athens only. In the + course of the argument Socrates remarks that the controversial nature of + morals and religion arises out of the difficulty of verifying them. There + is no measure or standard to which they can be referred. + </p> + <p> + The next definition, 'Piety is that which is loved of the gods,' is + shipwrecked on a refined distinction between the state and the act, + corresponding respectively to the adjective (philon) and the participle + (philoumenon), or rather perhaps to the participle and the verb + (philoumenon and phileitai). The act is prior to the state (as in + Aristotle the energeia precedes the dunamis); and the state of being loved + is preceded by the act of being loved. But piety or holiness is preceded + by the act of being pious, not by the act of being loved; and therefore + piety and the state of being loved are different. Through such subtleties + of dialectic Socrates is working his way into a deeper region of thought + and feeling. He means to say that the words 'loved of the gods' express an + attribute only, and not the essence of piety. + </p> + <p> + Then follows the third and last definition, 'Piety is a part of justice.' + Thus far Socrates has proceeded in placing religion on a moral foundation. + He is seeking to realize the harmony of religion and morality, which the + great poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Pindar had unconsciously + anticipated, and which is the universal want of all men. To this the + soothsayer adds the ceremonial element, 'attending upon the gods.' When + further interrogated by Socrates as to the nature of this 'attention to + the gods,' he replies, that piety is an affair of business, a science of + giving and asking, and the like. Socrates points out the anthropomorphism + of these notions, (compare Symp.; Republic; Politicus.) But when we expect + him to go on and show that the true service of the gods is the service of + the spirit and the co-operation with them in all things true and good, he + stops short; this was a lesson which the soothsayer could not have been + made to understand, and which every one must learn for himself. + </p> + <p> + There seem to be altogether three aims or interests in this little + Dialogue: (1) the dialectical development of the idea of piety; (2) the + antithesis of true and false religion, which is carried to a certain + extent only; (3) the defence of Socrates. + </p> + <p> + The subtle connection with the Apology and the Crito; the holding back of + the conclusion, as in the Charmides, Lysis, Laches, Protagoras, and other + Dialogues; the deep insight into the religious world; the dramatic power + and play of the two characters; the inimitable irony, are reasons for + believing that the Euthyphro is a genuine Platonic writing. The spirit in + which the popular representations of mythology are denounced recalls + Republic II. The virtue of piety has been already mentioned as one of five + in the Protagoras, but is not reckoned among the four cardinal virtues of + Republic IV. The figure of Daedalus has occurred in the Meno; that of + Proteus in the Euthydemus and Io. The kingly science has already appeared + in the Euthydemus, and will reappear in the Republic and Statesman. But + neither from these nor any other indications of similarity or difference, + and still less from arguments respecting the suitableness of this little + work to aid Socrates at the time of his trial or the reverse, can any + evidence of the date be obtained. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + EUTHYPHRO + </h2> + <p> + PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE: Socrates, Euthyphro. + </p> + <p> + SCENE: The Porch of the King Archon. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Why have you left the Lyceum, Socrates? and what are you doing + in the Porch of the King Archon? Surely you cannot be concerned in a suit + before the King, like myself? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Not in a suit, Euthyphro; impeachment is the word which the + Athenians use. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: What! I suppose that some one has been prosecuting you, for I + cannot believe that you are the prosecutor of another. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Certainly not. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Then some one else has been prosecuting you? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: And who is he? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: A young man who is little known, Euthyphro; and I hardly know + him: his name is Meletus, and he is of the deme of Pitthis. Perhaps you + may remember his appearance; he has a beak, and long straight hair, and a + beard which is ill grown. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No, I do not remember him, Socrates. But what is the charge + which he brings against you? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: What is the charge? Well, a very serious charge, which shows a + good deal of character in the young man, and for which he is certainly not + to be despised. He says he knows how the youth are corrupted and who are + their corruptors. I fancy that he must be a wise man, and seeing that I am + the reverse of a wise man, he has found me out, and is going to accuse me + of corrupting his young friends. And of this our mother the state is to be + the judge. Of all our political men he is the only one who seems to me to + begin in the right way, with the cultivation of virtue in youth; like a + good husbandman, he makes the young shoots his first care, and clears away + us who are the destroyers of them. This is only the first step; he will + afterwards attend to the elder branches; and if he goes on as he has + begun, he will be a very great public benefactor. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I hope that he may; but I rather fear, Socrates, that the + opposite will turn out to be the truth. My opinion is that in attacking + you he is simply aiming a blow at the foundation of the state. But in what + way does he say that you corrupt the young? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He brings a wonderful accusation against me, which at first + hearing excites surprise: he says that I am a poet or maker of gods, and + that I invent new gods and deny the existence of old ones; this is the + ground of his indictment. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I understand, Socrates; he means to attack you about the + familiar sign which occasionally, as you say, comes to you. He thinks that + you are a neologian, and he is going to have you up before the court for + this. He knows that such a charge is readily received by the world, as I + myself know too well; for when I speak in the assembly about divine + things, and foretell the future to them, they laugh at me and think me a + madman. Yet every word that I say is true. But they are jealous of us all; + and we must be brave and go at them. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Their laughter, friend Euthyphro, is not a matter of much + consequence. For a man may be thought wise; but the Athenians, I suspect, + do not much trouble themselves about him until he begins to impart his + wisdom to others, and then for some reason or other, perhaps, as you say, + from jealousy, they are angry. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I am never likely to try their temper in this way. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I dare say not, for you are reserved in your behaviour, and + seldom impart your wisdom. But I have a benevolent habit of pouring out + myself to everybody, and would even pay for a listener, and I am afraid + that the Athenians may think me too talkative. Now if, as I was saying, + they would only laugh at me, as you say that they laugh at you, the time + might pass gaily enough in the court; but perhaps they may be in earnest, + and then what the end will be you soothsayers only can predict. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I dare say that the affair will end in nothing, Socrates, and + that you will win your cause; and I think that I shall win my own. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And what is your suit, Euthyphro? are you the pursuer or the + defendant? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I am the pursuer. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Of whom? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: You will think me mad when I tell you. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why, has the fugitive wings? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Nay, he is not very volatile at his time of life. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Who is he? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: My father. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Your father! my good man? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And of what is he accused? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Of murder, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: By the powers, Euthyphro! how little does the common herd know + of the nature of right and truth. A man must be an extraordinary man, and + have made great strides in wisdom, before he could have seen his way to + bring such an action. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Indeed, Socrates, he must. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I suppose that the man whom your father murdered was one of your + relatives—clearly he was; for if he had been a stranger you would + never have thought of prosecuting him. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I am amused, Socrates, at your making a distinction between one + who is a relation and one who is not a relation; for surely the pollution + is the same in either case, if you knowingly associate with the murderer + when you ought to clear yourself and him by proceeding against him. The + real question is whether the murdered man has been justly slain. If + justly, then your duty is to let the matter alone; but if unjustly, then + even if the murderer lives under the same roof with you and eats at the + same table, proceed against him. Now the man who is dead was a poor + dependant of mine who worked for us as a field labourer on our farm in + Naxos, and one day in a fit of drunken passion he got into a quarrel with + one of our domestic servants and slew him. My father bound him hand and + foot and threw him into a ditch, and then sent to Athens to ask of a + diviner what he should do with him. Meanwhile he never attended to him and + took no care about him, for he regarded him as a murderer; and thought + that no great harm would be done even if he did die. Now this was just + what happened. For such was the effect of cold and hunger and chains upon + him, that before the messenger returned from the diviner, he was dead. And + my father and family are angry with me for taking the part of the murderer + and prosecuting my father. They say that he did not kill him, and that if + he did, the dead man was but a murderer, and I ought not to take any + notice, for that a son is impious who prosecutes a father. Which shows, + Socrates, how little they know what the gods think about piety and + impiety. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Good heavens, Euthyphro! and is your knowledge of religion and + of things pious and impious so very exact, that, supposing the + circumstances to be as you state them, you are not afraid lest you too may + be doing an impious thing in bringing an action against your father? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: The best of Euthyphro, and that which distinguishes him, + Socrates, from other men, is his exact knowledge of all such matters. What + should I be good for without it? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Rare friend! I think that I cannot do better than be your + disciple. Then before the trial with Meletus comes on I shall challenge + him, and say that I have always had a great interest in religious + questions, and now, as he charges me with rash imaginations and + innovations in religion, I have become your disciple. You, Meletus, as I + shall say to him, acknowledge Euthyphro to be a great theologian, and + sound in his opinions; and if you approve of him you ought to approve of + me, and not have me into court; but if you disapprove, you should begin by + indicting him who is my teacher, and who will be the ruin, not of the + young, but of the old; that is to say, of myself whom he instructs, and of + his old father whom he admonishes and chastises. And if Meletus refuses to + listen to me, but will go on, and will not shift the indictment from me to + you, I cannot do better than repeat this challenge in the court. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, indeed, Socrates; and if he attempts to indict me I am + mistaken if I do not find a flaw in him; the court shall have a great deal + more to say to him than to me. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And I, my dear friend, knowing this, am desirous of becoming + your disciple. For I observe that no one appears to notice you—not + even this Meletus; but his sharp eyes have found me out at once, and he + has indicted me for impiety. And therefore, I adjure you to tell me the + nature of piety and impiety, which you said that you knew so well, and of + murder, and of other offences against the gods. What are they? Is not + piety in every action always the same? and impiety, again—is it not + always the opposite of piety, and also the same with itself, having, as + impiety, one notion which includes whatever is impious? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: To be sure, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And what is piety, and what is impiety? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Piety is doing as I am doing; that is to say, prosecuting any + one who is guilty of murder, sacrilege, or of any similar crime—whether + he be your father or mother, or whoever he may be—that makes no + difference; and not to prosecute them is impiety. And please to consider, + Socrates, what a notable proof I will give you of the truth of my words, a + proof which I have already given to others:—of the principle, I + mean, that the impious, whoever he may be, ought not to go unpunished. For + do not men regard Zeus as the best and most righteous of the gods?—and + yet they admit that he bound his father (Cronos) because he wickedly + devoured his sons, and that he too had punished his own father (Uranus) + for a similar reason, in a nameless manner. And yet when I proceed against + my father, they are angry with me. So inconsistent are they in their way + of talking when the gods are concerned, and when I am concerned. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: May not this be the reason, Euthyphro, why I am charged with + impiety—that I cannot away with these stories about the gods? and + therefore I suppose that people think me wrong. But, as you who are well + informed about them approve of them, I cannot do better than assent to + your superior wisdom. What else can I say, confessing as I do, that I know + nothing about them? Tell me, for the love of Zeus, whether you really + believe that they are true. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and things more wonderful still, of which the + world is in ignorance. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And do you really believe that the gods fought with one another, + and had dire quarrels, battles, and the like, as the poets say, and as you + may see represented in the works of great artists? The temples are full of + them; and notably the robe of Athene, which is carried up to the Acropolis + at the great Panathenaea, is embroidered with them. Are all these tales of + the gods true, Euthyphro? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and, as I was saying, I can tell you, if you + would like to hear them, many other things about the gods which would + quite amaze you. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I dare say; and you shall tell me them at some other time when I + have leisure. But just at present I would rather hear from you a more + precise answer, which you have not as yet given, my friend, to the + question, What is 'piety'? When asked, you only replied, Doing as you do, + charging your father with murder. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: And what I said was true, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: No doubt, Euthyphro; but you would admit that there are many + other pious acts? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: There are. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Remember that I did not ask you to give me two or three examples + of piety, but to explain the general idea which makes all pious things to + be pious. Do you not recollect that there was one idea which made the + impious impious, and the pious pious? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I remember. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Tell me what is the nature of this idea, and then I shall have a + standard to which I may look, and by which I may measure actions, whether + yours or those of any one else, and then I shall be able to say that such + and such an action is pious, such another impious. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I will tell you, if you like. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I should very much like. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Piety, then, is that which is dear to the gods, and impiety is + that which is not dear to them. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Very good, Euthyphro; you have now given me the sort of answer + which I wanted. But whether what you say is true or not I cannot as yet + tell, although I make no doubt that you will prove the truth of your + words. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Come, then, and let us examine what we are saying. That thing or + person which is dear to the gods is pious, and that thing or person which + is hateful to the gods is impious, these two being the extreme opposites + of one another. Was not that said? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: It was. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And well said? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, I thought so; it was certainly said. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And further, Euthyphro, the gods were admitted to have enmities + and hatreds and differences? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, that was also said. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And what sort of difference creates enmity and anger? Suppose + for example that you and I, my good friend, differ about a number; do + differences of this sort make us enemies and set us at variance with one + another? Do we not go at once to arithmetic, and put an end to them by a + sum? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Or suppose that we differ about magnitudes, do we not quickly + end the differences by measuring? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And we end a controversy about heavy and light by resorting to a + weighing machine? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: To be sure. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But what differences are there which cannot be thus decided, and + which therefore make us angry and set us at enmity with one another? I + dare say the answer does not occur to you at the moment, and therefore I + will suggest that these enmities arise when the matters of difference are + the just and unjust, good and evil, honourable and dishonourable. Are not + these the points about which men differ, and about which when we are + unable satisfactorily to decide our differences, you and I and all of us + quarrel, when we do quarrel? (Compare Alcib.) + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, the nature of the differences about which we + quarrel is such as you describe. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And the quarrels of the gods, noble Euthyphro, when they occur, + are of a like nature? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly they are. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: They have differences of opinion, as you say, about good and + evil, just and unjust, honourable and dishonourable: there would have been + no quarrels among them, if there had been no such differences—would + there now? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: You are quite right. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Does not every man love that which he deems noble and just and + good, and hate the opposite of them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But, as you say, people regard the same things, some as just and + others as unjust,—about these they dispute; and so there arise wars + and fightings among them. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then the same things are hated by the gods and loved by the + gods, and are both hateful and dear to them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And upon this view the same things, Euthyphro, will be pious and + also impious? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: So I should suppose. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then, my friend, I remark with surprise that you have not + answered the question which I asked. For I certainly did not ask you to + tell me what action is both pious and impious: but now it would seem that + what is loved by the gods is also hated by them. And therefore, Euthyphro, + in thus chastising your father you may very likely be doing what is + agreeable to Zeus but disagreeable to Cronos or Uranus, and what is + acceptable to Hephaestus but unacceptable to Here, and there may be other + gods who have similar differences of opinion. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: But I believe, Socrates, that all the gods would be agreed as + to the propriety of punishing a murderer: there would be no difference of + opinion about that. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well, but speaking of men, Euthyphro, did you ever hear any one + arguing that a murderer or any sort of evil-doer ought to be let off? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I should rather say that these are the questions which they are + always arguing, especially in courts of law: they commit all sorts of + crimes, and there is nothing which they will not do or say in their own + defence. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But do they admit their guilt, Euthyphro, and yet say that they + ought not to be punished? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No; they do not. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then there are some things which they do not venture to say and + do: for they do not venture to argue that the guilty are to be unpunished, + but they deny their guilt, do they not? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then they do not argue that the evil-doer should not be + punished, but they argue about the fact of who the evil-doer is, and what + he did and when? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And the gods are in the same case, if as you assert they quarrel + about just and unjust, and some of them say while others deny that + injustice is done among them. For surely neither God nor man will ever + venture to say that the doer of injustice is not to be punished? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: That is true, Socrates, in the main. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But they join issue about the particulars—gods and men + alike; and, if they dispute at all, they dispute about some act which is + called in question, and which by some is affirmed to be just, by others to + be unjust. Is not that true? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Quite true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well then, my dear friend Euthyphro, do tell me, for my better + instruction and information, what proof have you that in the opinion of + all the gods a servant who is guilty of murder, and is put in chains by + the master of the dead man, and dies because he is put in chains before he + who bound him can learn from the interpreters of the gods what he ought to + do with him, dies unjustly; and that on behalf of such an one a son ought + to proceed against his father and accuse him of murder. How would you show + that all the gods absolutely agree in approving of his act? Prove to me + that they do, and I will applaud your wisdom as long as I live. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: It will be a difficult task; but I could make the matter very + clear indeed to you. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I understand; you mean to say that I am not so quick of + apprehension as the judges: for to them you will be sure to prove that the + act is unjust, and hateful to the gods. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes indeed, Socrates; at least if they will listen to me. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But they will be sure to listen if they find that you are a good + speaker. There was a notion that came into my mind while you were + speaking; I said to myself: 'Well, and what if Euthyphro does prove to me + that all the gods regarded the death of the serf as unjust, how do I know + anything more of the nature of piety and impiety? for granting that this + action may be hateful to the gods, still piety and impiety are not + adequately defined by these distinctions, for that which is hateful to the + gods has been shown to be also pleasing and dear to them.' And therefore, + Euthyphro, I do not ask you to prove this; I will suppose, if you like, + that all the gods condemn and abominate such an action. But I will amend + the definition so far as to say that what all the gods hate is impious, + and what they love pious or holy; and what some of them love and others + hate is both or neither. Shall this be our definition of piety and + impiety? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Why not, Socrates? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why not! certainly, as far as I am concerned, Euthyphro, there + is no reason why not. But whether this admission will greatly assist you + in the task of instructing me as you promised, is a matter for you to + consider. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I should say that what all the gods love is pious and + holy, and the opposite which they all hate, impious. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Ought we to enquire into the truth of this, Euthyphro, or simply + to accept the mere statement on our own authority and that of others? What + do you say? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: We should enquire; and I believe that the statement will stand + the test of enquiry. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: We shall know better, my good friend, in a little while. The + point which I should first wish to understand is whether the pious or holy + is beloved by the gods because it is holy, or holy because it is beloved + of the gods. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand your meaning, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I will endeavour to explain: we, speak of carrying and we speak + of being carried, of leading and being led, seeing and being seen. You + know that in all such cases there is a difference, and you know also in + what the difference lies? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I think that I understand. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And is not that which is beloved distinct from that which loves? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well; and now tell me, is that which is carried in this state of + carrying because it is carried, or for some other reason? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No; that is the reason. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And the same is true of what is led and of what is seen? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And a thing is not seen because it is visible, but conversely, + visible because it is seen; nor is a thing led because it is in the state + of being led, or carried because it is in the state of being carried, but + the converse of this. And now I think, Euthyphro, that my meaning will be + intelligible; and my meaning is, that any state of action or passion + implies previous action or passion. It does not become because it is + becoming, but it is in a state of becoming because it becomes; neither + does it suffer because it is in a state of suffering, but it is in a state + of suffering because it suffers. Do you not agree? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Is not that which is loved in some state either of becoming or + suffering? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And the same holds as in the previous instances; the state of + being loved follows the act of being loved, and not the act the state. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And what do you say of piety, Euthyphro: is not piety, according + to your definition, loved by all the gods? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Because it is pious or holy, or for some other reason? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No, that is the reason. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: It is loved because it is holy, not holy because it is loved? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And that which is dear to the gods is loved by them, and is in a + state to be loved of them because it is loved of them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then that which is dear to the gods, Euthyphro, is not holy, nor + is that which is holy loved of God, as you affirm; but they are two + different things. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: How do you mean, Socrates? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I mean to say that the holy has been acknowledged by us to be + loved of God because it is holy, not to be holy because it is loved. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But that which is dear to the gods is dear to them because it is + loved by them, not loved by them because it is dear to them. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But, friend Euthyphro, if that which is holy is the same with + that which is dear to God, and is loved because it is holy, then that + which is dear to God would have been loved as being dear to God; but if + that which is dear to God is dear to him because loved by him, then that + which is holy would have been holy because loved by him. But now you see + that the reverse is the case, and that they are quite different from one + another. For one (theophiles) is of a kind to be loved cause it is loved, + and the other (osion) is loved because it is of a kind to be loved. Thus + you appear to me, Euthyphro, when I ask you what is the essence of + holiness, to offer an attribute only, and not the essence—the + attribute of being loved by all the gods. But you still refuse to explain + to me the nature of holiness. And therefore, if you please, I will ask you + not to hide your treasure, but to tell me once more what holiness or piety + really is, whether dear to the gods or not (for that is a matter about + which we will not quarrel); and what is impiety? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I really do not know, Socrates, how to express what I mean. For + somehow or other our arguments, on whatever ground we rest them, seem to + turn round and walk away from us. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Your words, Euthyphro, are like the handiwork of my ancestor + Daedalus; and if I were the sayer or propounder of them, you might say + that my arguments walk away and will not remain fixed where they are + placed because I am a descendant of his. But now, since these notions are + your own, you must find some other gibe, for they certainly, as you + yourself allow, show an inclination to be on the move. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Nay, Socrates, I shall still say that you are the Daedalus who + sets arguments in motion; not I, certainly, but you make them move or go + round, for they would never have stirred, as far as I am concerned. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then I must be a greater than Daedalus: for whereas he only made + his own inventions to move, I move those of other people as well. And the + beauty of it is, that I would rather not. For I would give the wisdom of + Daedalus, and the wealth of Tantalus, to be able to detain them and keep + them fixed. But enough of this. As I perceive that you are lazy, I will + myself endeavour to show you how you might instruct me in the nature of + piety; and I hope that you will not grudge your labour. Tell me, then—Is + not that which is pious necessarily just? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And is, then, all which is just pious? or, is that which is + pious all just, but that which is just, only in part and not all, pious? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand you, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And yet I know that you are as much wiser than I am, as you are + younger. But, as I was saying, revered friend, the abundance of your + wisdom makes you lazy. Please to exert yourself, for there is no real + difficulty in understanding me. What I mean I may explain by an + illustration of what I do not mean. The poet (Stasinus) sings— + </p> + <p> + 'Of Zeus, the author and creator of all these things, You will not tell: + for where there is fear there is also reverence.' + </p> + <p> + Now I disagree with this poet. Shall I tell you in what respect? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: By all means. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I should not say that where there is fear there is also + reverence; for I am sure that many persons fear poverty and disease, and + the like evils, but I do not perceive that they reverence the objects of + their fear. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But where reverence is, there is fear; for he who has a feeling + of reverence and shame about the commission of any action, fears and is + afraid of an ill reputation. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No doubt. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then we are wrong in saying that where there is fear there is + also reverence; and we should say, where there is reverence there is also + fear. But there is not always reverence where there is fear; for fear is a + more extended notion, and reverence is a part of fear, just as the odd is + a part of number, and number is a more extended notion than the odd. I + suppose that you follow me now? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Quite well. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: That was the sort of question which I meant to raise when I + asked whether the just is always the pious, or the pious always the just; + and whether there may not be justice where there is not piety; for justice + is the more extended notion of which piety is only a part. Do you dissent? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No, I think that you are quite right. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then, if piety is a part of justice, I suppose that we should + enquire what part? If you had pursued the enquiry in the previous cases; + for instance, if you had asked me what is an even number, and what part of + number the even is, I should have had no difficulty in replying, a number + which represents a figure having two equal sides. Do you not agree? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I quite agree. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: In like manner, I want you to tell me what part of justice is + piety or holiness, that I may be able to tell Meletus not to do me + injustice, or indict me for impiety, as I am now adequately instructed by + you in the nature of piety or holiness, and their opposites. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Piety or holiness, Socrates, appears to me to be that part of + justice which attends to the gods, as there is the other part of justice + which attends to men. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: That is good, Euthyphro; yet still there is a little point about + which I should like to have further information, What is the meaning of + 'attention'? For attention can hardly be used in the same sense when + applied to the gods as when applied to other things. For instance, horses + are said to require attention, and not every person is able to attend to + them, but only a person skilled in horsemanship. Is it not so? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I should suppose that the art of horsemanship is the art of + attending to horses? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Nor is every one qualified to attend to dogs, but only the + huntsman? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And I should also conceive that the art of the huntsman is the + art of attending to dogs? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: As the art of the oxherd is the art of attending to oxen? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: In like manner holiness or piety is the art of attending to the + gods?—that would be your meaning, Euthyphro? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And is not attention always designed for the good or benefit of + that to which the attention is given? As in the case of horses, you may + observe that when attended to by the horseman's art they are benefited and + improved, are they not? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: As the dogs are benefited by the huntsman's art, and the oxen by + the art of the oxherd, and all other things are tended or attended for + their good and not for their hurt? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly, not for their hurt. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But for their good? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And does piety or holiness, which has been defined to be the art + of attending to the gods, benefit or improve them? Would you say that when + you do a holy act you make any of the gods better? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: No, no; that was certainly not what I meant. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And I, Euthyphro, never supposed that you did. I asked you the + question about the nature of the attention, because I thought that you did + not. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: You do me justice, Socrates; that is not the sort of attention + which I mean. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Good: but I must still ask what is this attention to the gods + which is called piety? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: It is such, Socrates, as servants show to their masters. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I understand—a sort of ministration to the gods. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Medicine is also a sort of ministration or service, having in + view the attainment of some object—would you not say of health? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I should. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Again, there is an art which ministers to the ship-builder with + a view to the attainment of some result? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, with a view to the building of a ship. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: As there is an art which ministers to the house-builder with a + view to the building of a house? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And now tell me, my good friend, about the art which ministers + to the gods: what work does that help to accomplish? For you must surely + know if, as you say, you are of all men living the one who is best + instructed in religion. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: And I speak the truth, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Tell me then, oh tell me—what is that fair work which the + gods do by the help of our ministrations? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Many and fair, Socrates, are the works which they do. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why, my friend, and so are those of a general. But the chief of + them is easily told. Would you not say that victory in war is the chief of + them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Many and fair, too, are the works of the husbandman, if I am not + mistaken; but his chief work is the production of food from the earth? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And of the many and fair things done by the gods, which is the + chief or principal one? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I have told you already, Socrates, that to learn all these + things accurately will be very tiresome. Let me simply say that piety or + holiness is learning how to please the gods in word and deed, by prayers + and sacrifices. Such piety is the salvation of families and states, just + as the impious, which is unpleasing to the gods, is their ruin and + destruction. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I think that you could have answered in much fewer words the + chief question which I asked, Euthyphro, if you had chosen. But I see + plainly that you are not disposed to instruct me—clearly not: else + why, when we reached the point, did you turn aside? Had you only answered + me I should have truly learned of you by this time the nature of piety. + Now, as the asker of a question is necessarily dependent on the answerer, + whither he leads I must follow; and can only ask again, what is the pious, + and what is piety? Do you mean that they are a sort of science of praying + and sacrificing? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And sacrificing is giving to the gods, and prayer is asking of + the gods? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Upon this view, then, piety is a science of asking and giving? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: You understand me capitally, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, my friend; the reason is that I am a votary of your + science, and give my mind to it, and therefore nothing which you say will + be thrown away upon me. Please then to tell me, what is the nature of this + service to the gods? Do you mean that we prefer requests and give gifts to + them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Is not the right way of asking to ask of them what we want? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And the right way of giving is to give to them in return what + they want of us. There would be no meaning in an art which gives to any + one that which he does not want. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Very true, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then piety, Euthyphro, is an art which gods and men have of + doing business with one another? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: That is an expression which you may use, if you like. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But I have no particular liking for anything but the truth. I + wish, however, that you would tell me what benefit accrues to the gods + from our gifts. There is no doubt about what they give to us; for there is + no good thing which they do not give; but how we can give any good thing + to them in return is far from being equally clear. If they give everything + and we give nothing, that must be an affair of business in which we have + very greatly the advantage of them. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: And do you imagine, Socrates, that any benefit accrues to the + gods from our gifts? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But if not, Euthyphro, what is the meaning of gifts which are + conferred by us upon the gods? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: What else, but tributes of honour; and, as I was just now + saying, what pleases them? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Piety, then, is pleasing to the gods, but not beneficial or dear + to them? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I should say that nothing could be dearer. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then once more the assertion is repeated that piety is dear to + the gods? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And when you say this, can you wonder at your words not standing + firm, but walking away? Will you accuse me of being the Daedalus who makes + them walk away, not perceiving that there is another and far greater + artist than Daedalus who makes them go round in a circle, and he is + yourself; for the argument, as you will perceive, comes round to the same + point. Were we not saying that the holy or pious was not the same with + that which is loved of the gods? Have you forgotten? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: I quite remember. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And are you not saying that what is loved of the gods is holy; + and is not this the same as what is dear to them—do you see? + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then either we were wrong in our former assertion; or, if we + were right then, we are wrong now. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: One of the two must be true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then we must begin again and ask, What is piety? That is an + enquiry which I shall never be weary of pursuing as far as in me lies; and + I entreat you not to scorn me, but to apply your mind to the utmost, and + tell me the truth. For, if any man knows, you are he; and therefore I must + detain you, like Proteus, until you tell. If you had not certainly known + the nature of piety and impiety, I am confident that you would never, on + behalf of a serf, have charged your aged father with murder. You would not + have run such a risk of doing wrong in the sight of the gods, and you + would have had too much respect for the opinions of men. I am sure, + therefore, that you know the nature of piety and impiety. Speak out then, + my dear Euthyphro, and do not hide your knowledge. + </p> + <p> + EUTHYPHRO: Another time, Socrates; for I am in a hurry, and must go now. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Alas! my companion, and will you leave me in despair? I was + hoping that you would instruct me in the nature of piety and impiety; and + then I might have cleared myself of Meletus and his indictment. I would + have told him that I had been enlightened by Euthyphro, and had given up + rash innovations and speculations, in which I indulged only through + ignorance, and that now I am about to lead a better life. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Euthyphro, by Plato + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTHYPHRO *** + +***** This file should be named 1642-h.htm or 1642-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/4/1642/ + +Produced by Sue Asscher, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Euthyphro + +Author: Plato + +Translator: Benjamin Jowett + +Posting Date: November 23, 2008 [EBook #1642] +Release Date: February, 1999 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTHYPHRO *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher + + + + + +EUTHYPHRO + +By Plato + + +Translated by Benjamin Jowett + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +In the Meno, Anytus had parted from Socrates with the significant words: +'That in any city, and particularly in the city of Athens, it is easier +to do men harm than to do them good;' and Socrates was anticipating +another opportunity of talking with him. In the Euthyphro, Socrates is +awaiting his trial for impiety. But before the trial begins, Plato would +like to put the world on their trial, and convince them of ignorance in +that very matter touching which Socrates is accused. An incident which +may perhaps really have occurred in the family of Euthyphro, a +learned Athenian diviner and soothsayer, furnishes the occasion of the +discussion. + +This Euthyphro and Socrates are represented as meeting in the porch of +the King Archon. (Compare Theaet.) Both have legal business in hand. +Socrates is defendant in a suit for impiety which Meletus has brought +against him (it is remarked by the way that he is not a likely man +himself to have brought a suit against another); and Euthyphro too is +plaintiff in an action for murder, which he has brought against his +own father. The latter has originated in the following manner:--A poor +dependant of the family had slain one of their domestic slaves in Naxos. +The guilty person was bound and thrown into a ditch by the command of +Euthyphro's father, who sent to the interpreters of religion at Athens +to ask what should be done with him. Before the messenger came back the +criminal had died from hunger and exposure. + +This is the origin of the charge of murder which Euthyphro brings +against his father. Socrates is confident that before he could have +undertaken the responsibility of such a prosecution, he must have been +perfectly informed of the nature of piety and impiety; and as he is +going to be tried for impiety himself, he thinks that he cannot do +better than learn of Euthyphro (who will be admitted by everybody, +including the judges, to be an unimpeachable authority) what piety is, +and what is impiety. What then is piety? + +Euthyphro, who, in the abundance of his knowledge, is very willing to +undertake all the responsibility, replies: That piety is doing as I do, +prosecuting your father (if he is guilty) on a charge of murder; doing +as the gods do--as Zeus did to Cronos, and Cronos to Uranus. + +Socrates has a dislike to these tales of mythology, and he fancies that +this dislike of his may be the reason why he is charged with impiety. +'Are they really true?' 'Yes, they are;' and Euthyphro will gladly tell +Socrates some more of them. But Socrates would like first of all to have +a more satisfactory answer to the question, 'What is piety?' 'Doing as +I do, charging a father with murder,' may be a single instance of piety, +but can hardly be regarded as a general definition. + +Euthyphro replies, that 'Piety is what is dear to the gods, and impiety +is what is not dear to them.' But may there not be differences of +opinion, as among men, so also among the gods? Especially, about good +and evil, which have no fixed rule; and these are precisely the sort of +differences which give rise to quarrels. And therefore what may be dear +to one god may not be dear to another, and the same action may be both +pious and impious; e.g. your chastisement of your father, Euthyphro, may +be dear or pleasing to Zeus (who inflicted a similar chastisement on his +own father), but not equally pleasing to Cronos or Uranus (who suffered +at the hands of their sons). + +Euthyphro answers that there is no difference of opinion, either among +gods or men, as to the propriety of punishing a murderer. Yes, rejoins +Socrates, when they know him to be a murderer; but you are assuming the +point at issue. If all the circumstances of the case are considered, are +you able to show that your father was guilty of murder, or that all the +gods are agreed in approving of our prosecution of him? And must you +not allow that what is hated by one god may be liked by another? Waiving +this last, however, Socrates proposes to amend the definition, and +say that 'what all the gods love is pious, and what they all hate is +impious.' To this Euthyphro agrees. + +Socrates proceeds to analyze the new form of the definition. He shows +that in other cases the act precedes the state; e.g. the act of being +carried, loved, etc. precedes the state of being carried, loved, etc., +and therefore that which is dear to the gods is dear to the gods because +it is first loved of them, not loved of them because it is dear to them. +But the pious or holy is loved by the gods because it is pious or holy, +which is equivalent to saying, that it is loved by them because it is +dear to them. Here then appears to be a contradiction,--Euthyphro has +been giving an attribute or accident of piety only, and not the essence. +Euthyphro acknowledges himself that his explanations seem to walk +away or go round in a circle, like the moving figures of Daedalus, the +ancestor of Socrates, who has communicated his art to his descendants. + +Socrates, who is desirous of stimulating the indolent intelligence of +Euthyphro, raises the question in another manner: 'Is all the pious +just?' 'Yes.' 'Is all the just pious?' 'No.' 'Then what part of justice +is piety?' Euthyphro replies that piety is that part of justice which +'attends' to the gods, as there is another part of justice which +'attends' to men. But what is the meaning of 'attending' to the gods? +The word 'attending,' when applied to dogs, horses, and men, implies +that in some way they are made better. But how do pious or holy acts +make the gods any better? Euthyphro explains that he means by pious +acts, acts of service or ministration. Yes; but the ministrations of the +husbandman, the physician, and the builder have an end. To what end do +we serve the gods, and what do we help them to accomplish? Euthyphro +replies, that all these difficult questions cannot be resolved in a +short time; and he would rather say simply that piety is knowing how to +please the gods in word and deed, by prayers and sacrifices. In other +words, says Socrates, piety is 'a science of asking and giving'--asking +what we want and giving what they want; in short, a mode of doing +business between gods and men. But although they are the givers of all +good, how can we give them any good in return? 'Nay, but we give them +honour.' Then we give them not what is beneficial, but what is pleasing +or dear to them; and this is the point which has been already disproved. + +Socrates, although weary of the subterfuges and evasions of Euthyphro, +remains unshaken in his conviction that he must know the nature of +piety, or he would never have prosecuted his old father. He is still +hoping that he will condescend to instruct him. But Euthyphro is in a +hurry and cannot stay. And Socrates' last hope of knowing the nature +of piety before he is prosecuted for impiety has disappeared. As in the +Euthydemus the irony is carried on to the end. + +The Euthyphro is manifestly designed to contrast the real nature of +piety and impiety with the popular conceptions of them. But when the +popular conceptions of them have been overthrown, Socrates does not +offer any definition of his own: as in the Laches and Lysis, he prepares +the way for an answer to the question which he has raised; but true to +his own character, refuses to answer himself. + +Euthyphro is a religionist, and is elsewhere spoken of, if he be the +same person, as the author of a philosophy of names, by whose 'prancing +steeds' Socrates in the Cratylus is carried away. He has the conceit and +self-confidence of a Sophist; no doubt that he is right in prosecuting +his father has ever entered into his mind. Like a Sophist too, he is +incapable either of framing a general definition or of following the +course of an argument. His wrong-headedness, one-sidedness, narrowness, +positiveness, are characteristic of his priestly office. His failure +to apprehend an argument may be compared to a similar defect which +is observable in the rhapsode Ion. But he is not a bad man, and he is +friendly to Socrates, whose familiar sign he recognizes with interest. +Though unable to follow him he is very willing to be led by him, and +eagerly catches at any suggestion which saves him from the trouble +of thinking. Moreover he is the enemy of Meletus, who, as he says, is +availing himself of the popular dislike to innovations in religion in +order to injure Socrates; at the same time he is amusingly confident +that he has weapons in his own armoury which would be more than a match +for him. He is quite sincere in his prosecution of his father, who has +accidentally been guilty of homicide, and is not wholly free from blame. +To purge away the crime appears to him in the light of a duty, whoever +may be the criminal. + +Thus begins the contrast between the religion of the letter, or of the +narrow and unenlightened conscience, and the higher notion of religion +which Socrates vainly endeavours to elicit from him. 'Piety is doing +as I do' is the idea of religion which first occurs to him, and to many +others who do not say what they think with equal frankness. For men are +not easily persuaded that any other religion is better than their own; +or that other nations, e.g. the Greeks in the time of Socrates, were +equally serious in their religious beliefs and difficulties. The chief +difference between us and them is, that they were slowly learning what +we are in process of forgetting. Greek mythology hardly admitted of the +distinction between accidental homicide and murder: that the pollution +of blood was the same in both cases is also the feeling of the Athenian +diviner. He had not as yet learned the lesson, which philosophy was +teaching, that Homer and Hesiod, if not banished from the state, or +whipped out of the assembly, as Heracleitus more rudely proposed, at any +rate were not to be appealed to as authorities in religion; and he is +ready to defend his conduct by the examples of the gods. These are the +very tales which Socrates cannot abide; and his dislike of them, as he +suspects, has branded him with the reputation of impiety. Here is one +answer to the question, 'Why Socrates was put to death,' suggested by +the way. Another is conveyed in the words, 'The Athenians do not care +about any man being thought wise until he begins to make other men wise; +and then for some reason or other they are angry:' which may be said to +be the rule of popular toleration in most other countries, and not at +Athens only. In the course of the argument Socrates remarks that the +controversial nature of morals and religion arises out of the difficulty +of verifying them. There is no measure or standard to which they can be +referred. + +The next definition, 'Piety is that which is loved of the gods,' is +shipwrecked on a refined distinction between the state and the act, +corresponding respectively to the adjective (philon) and the participle +(philoumenon), or rather perhaps to the participle and the verb +(philoumenon and phileitai). The act is prior to the state (as in +Aristotle the energeia precedes the dunamis); and the state of being +loved is preceded by the act of being loved. But piety or holiness is +preceded by the act of being pious, not by the act of being loved; and +therefore piety and the state of being loved are different. Through such +subtleties of dialectic Socrates is working his way into a deeper region +of thought and feeling. He means to say that the words 'loved of the +gods' express an attribute only, and not the essence of piety. + +Then follows the third and last definition, 'Piety is a part of +justice.' Thus far Socrates has proceeded in placing religion on a +moral foundation. He is seeking to realize the harmony of religion and +morality, which the great poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Pindar had +unconsciously anticipated, and which is the universal want of all men. +To this the soothsayer adds the ceremonial element, 'attending upon the +gods.' When further interrogated by Socrates as to the nature of +this 'attention to the gods,' he replies, that piety is an affair of +business, a science of giving and asking, and the like. Socrates points +out the anthropomorphism of these notions, (compare Symp.; Republic; +Politicus.) But when we expect him to go on and show that the true +service of the gods is the service of the spirit and the co-operation +with them in all things true and good, he stops short; this was a lesson +which the soothsayer could not have been made to understand, and which +every one must learn for himself. + +There seem to be altogether three aims or interests in this little +Dialogue: (1) the dialectical development of the idea of piety; (2) the +antithesis of true and false religion, which is carried to a certain +extent only; (3) the defence of Socrates. + +The subtle connection with the Apology and the Crito; the holding back +of the conclusion, as in the Charmides, Lysis, Laches, Protagoras, and +other Dialogues; the deep insight into the religious world; the dramatic +power and play of the two characters; the inimitable irony, are reasons +for believing that the Euthyphro is a genuine Platonic writing. The +spirit in which the popular representations of mythology are denounced +recalls Republic II. The virtue of piety has been already mentioned +as one of five in the Protagoras, but is not reckoned among the four +cardinal virtues of Republic IV. The figure of Daedalus has occurred in +the Meno; that of Proteus in the Euthydemus and Io. The kingly science +has already appeared in the Euthydemus, and will reappear in the +Republic and Statesman. But neither from these nor any other indications +of similarity or difference, and still less from arguments respecting +the suitableness of this little work to aid Socrates at the time of his +trial or the reverse, can any evidence of the date be obtained. + + + + +EUTHYPHRO + + +PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE: Socrates, Euthyphro. + +SCENE: The Porch of the King Archon. + + +EUTHYPHRO: Why have you left the Lyceum, Socrates? and what are you +doing in the Porch of the King Archon? Surely you cannot be concerned in +a suit before the King, like myself? + +SOCRATES: Not in a suit, Euthyphro; impeachment is the word which the +Athenians use. + +EUTHYPHRO: What! I suppose that some one has been prosecuting you, for I +cannot believe that you are the prosecutor of another. + +SOCRATES: Certainly not. + +EUTHYPHRO: Then some one else has been prosecuting you? + +SOCRATES: Yes. + +EUTHYPHRO: And who is he? + +SOCRATES: A young man who is little known, Euthyphro; and I hardly know +him: his name is Meletus, and he is of the deme of Pitthis. Perhaps you +may remember his appearance; he has a beak, and long straight hair, and +a beard which is ill grown. + +EUTHYPHRO: No, I do not remember him, Socrates. But what is the charge +which he brings against you? + +SOCRATES: What is the charge? Well, a very serious charge, which shows +a good deal of character in the young man, and for which he is certainly +not to be despised. He says he knows how the youth are corrupted and +who are their corruptors. I fancy that he must be a wise man, and seeing +that I am the reverse of a wise man, he has found me out, and is going +to accuse me of corrupting his young friends. And of this our mother the +state is to be the judge. Of all our political men he is the only one +who seems to me to begin in the right way, with the cultivation of +virtue in youth; like a good husbandman, he makes the young shoots his +first care, and clears away us who are the destroyers of them. This is +only the first step; he will afterwards attend to the elder branches; +and if he goes on as he has begun, he will be a very great public +benefactor. + +EUTHYPHRO: I hope that he may; but I rather fear, Socrates, that the +opposite will turn out to be the truth. My opinion is that in attacking +you he is simply aiming a blow at the foundation of the state. But in +what way does he say that you corrupt the young? + +SOCRATES: He brings a wonderful accusation against me, which at first +hearing excites surprise: he says that I am a poet or maker of gods, and +that I invent new gods and deny the existence of old ones; this is the +ground of his indictment. + +EUTHYPHRO: I understand, Socrates; he means to attack you about the +familiar sign which occasionally, as you say, comes to you. He thinks +that you are a neologian, and he is going to have you up before the +court for this. He knows that such a charge is readily received by the +world, as I myself know too well; for when I speak in the assembly about +divine things, and foretell the future to them, they laugh at me and +think me a madman. Yet every word that I say is true. But they are +jealous of us all; and we must be brave and go at them. + +SOCRATES: Their laughter, friend Euthyphro, is not a matter of much +consequence. For a man may be thought wise; but the Athenians, I +suspect, do not much trouble themselves about him until he begins to +impart his wisdom to others, and then for some reason or other, perhaps, +as you say, from jealousy, they are angry. + +EUTHYPHRO: I am never likely to try their temper in this way. + +SOCRATES: I dare say not, for you are reserved in your behaviour, and +seldom impart your wisdom. But I have a benevolent habit of pouring out +myself to everybody, and would even pay for a listener, and I am afraid +that the Athenians may think me too talkative. Now if, as I was saying, +they would only laugh at me, as you say that they laugh at you, the +time might pass gaily enough in the court; but perhaps they may be in +earnest, and then what the end will be you soothsayers only can predict. + +EUTHYPHRO: I dare say that the affair will end in nothing, Socrates, and +that you will win your cause; and I think that I shall win my own. + +SOCRATES: And what is your suit, Euthyphro? are you the pursuer or the +defendant? + +EUTHYPHRO: I am the pursuer. + +SOCRATES: Of whom? + +EUTHYPHRO: You will think me mad when I tell you. + +SOCRATES: Why, has the fugitive wings? + +EUTHYPHRO: Nay, he is not very volatile at his time of life. + +SOCRATES: Who is he? + +EUTHYPHRO: My father. + +SOCRATES: Your father! my good man? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And of what is he accused? + +EUTHYPHRO: Of murder, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: By the powers, Euthyphro! how little does the common herd know +of the nature of right and truth. A man must be an extraordinary man, +and have made great strides in wisdom, before he could have seen his way +to bring such an action. + +EUTHYPHRO: Indeed, Socrates, he must. + +SOCRATES: I suppose that the man whom your father murdered was one of +your relatives--clearly he was; for if he had been a stranger you would +never have thought of prosecuting him. + +EUTHYPHRO: I am amused, Socrates, at your making a distinction between +one who is a relation and one who is not a relation; for surely the +pollution is the same in either case, if you knowingly associate with +the murderer when you ought to clear yourself and him by proceeding +against him. The real question is whether the murdered man has been +justly slain. If justly, then your duty is to let the matter alone; but +if unjustly, then even if the murderer lives under the same roof with +you and eats at the same table, proceed against him. Now the man who is +dead was a poor dependant of mine who worked for us as a field labourer +on our farm in Naxos, and one day in a fit of drunken passion he got +into a quarrel with one of our domestic servants and slew him. My father +bound him hand and foot and threw him into a ditch, and then sent to +Athens to ask of a diviner what he should do with him. Meanwhile he +never attended to him and took no care about him, for he regarded him as +a murderer; and thought that no great harm would be done even if he did +die. Now this was just what happened. For such was the effect of cold +and hunger and chains upon him, that before the messenger returned from +the diviner, he was dead. And my father and family are angry with me for +taking the part of the murderer and prosecuting my father. They say +that he did not kill him, and that if he did, the dead man was but a +murderer, and I ought not to take any notice, for that a son is impious +who prosecutes a father. Which shows, Socrates, how little they know +what the gods think about piety and impiety. + +SOCRATES: Good heavens, Euthyphro! and is your knowledge of religion +and of things pious and impious so very exact, that, supposing the +circumstances to be as you state them, you are not afraid lest you too +may be doing an impious thing in bringing an action against your father? + +EUTHYPHRO: The best of Euthyphro, and that which distinguishes him, +Socrates, from other men, is his exact knowledge of all such matters. +What should I be good for without it? + +SOCRATES: Rare friend! I think that I cannot do better than be your +disciple. Then before the trial with Meletus comes on I shall challenge +him, and say that I have always had a great interest in religious +questions, and now, as he charges me with rash imaginations and +innovations in religion, I have become your disciple. You, Meletus, as +I shall say to him, acknowledge Euthyphro to be a great theologian, and +sound in his opinions; and if you approve of him you ought to approve of +me, and not have me into court; but if you disapprove, you should begin +by indicting him who is my teacher, and who will be the ruin, not of the +young, but of the old; that is to say, of myself whom he instructs, +and of his old father whom he admonishes and chastises. And if Meletus +refuses to listen to me, but will go on, and will not shift the +indictment from me to you, I cannot do better than repeat this challenge +in the court. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, indeed, Socrates; and if he attempts to indict me I am +mistaken if I do not find a flaw in him; the court shall have a great +deal more to say to him than to me. + +SOCRATES: And I, my dear friend, knowing this, am desirous of becoming +your disciple. For I observe that no one appears to notice you--not even +this Meletus; but his sharp eyes have found me out at once, and he has +indicted me for impiety. And therefore, I adjure you to tell me the +nature of piety and impiety, which you said that you knew so well, and +of murder, and of other offences against the gods. What are they? Is +not piety in every action always the same? and impiety, again--is it not +always the opposite of piety, and also the same with itself, having, as +impiety, one notion which includes whatever is impious? + +EUTHYPHRO: To be sure, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: And what is piety, and what is impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety is doing as I am doing; that is to say, prosecuting any +one who is guilty of murder, sacrilege, or of any similar crime--whether +he be your father or mother, or whoever he may be--that makes no +difference; and not to prosecute them is impiety. And please to +consider, Socrates, what a notable proof I will give you of the truth +of my words, a proof which I have already given to others:--of the +principle, I mean, that the impious, whoever he may be, ought not to go +unpunished. For do not men regard Zeus as the best and most righteous of +the gods?--and yet they admit that he bound his father (Cronos) because +he wickedly devoured his sons, and that he too had punished his own +father (Uranus) for a similar reason, in a nameless manner. And yet when +I proceed against my father, they are angry with me. So inconsistent are +they in their way of talking when the gods are concerned, and when I am +concerned. + +SOCRATES: May not this be the reason, Euthyphro, why I am charged with +impiety--that I cannot away with these stories about the gods? and +therefore I suppose that people think me wrong. But, as you who are well +informed about them approve of them, I cannot do better than assent to +your superior wisdom. What else can I say, confessing as I do, that +I know nothing about them? Tell me, for the love of Zeus, whether you +really believe that they are true. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and things more wonderful still, of which the +world is in ignorance. + +SOCRATES: And do you really believe that the gods fought with one +another, and had dire quarrels, battles, and the like, as the poets +say, and as you may see represented in the works of great artists? +The temples are full of them; and notably the robe of Athene, which is +carried up to the Acropolis at the great Panathenaea, is embroidered +with them. Are all these tales of the gods true, Euthyphro? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and, as I was saying, I can tell you, if you +would like to hear them, many other things about the gods which would +quite amaze you. + +SOCRATES: I dare say; and you shall tell me them at some other time when +I have leisure. But just at present I would rather hear from you a +more precise answer, which you have not as yet given, my friend, to the +question, What is 'piety'? When asked, you only replied, Doing as you +do, charging your father with murder. + +EUTHYPHRO: And what I said was true, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: No doubt, Euthyphro; but you would admit that there are many +other pious acts? + +EUTHYPHRO: There are. + +SOCRATES: Remember that I did not ask you to give me two or three +examples of piety, but to explain the general idea which makes all pious +things to be pious. Do you not recollect that there was one idea which +made the impious impious, and the pious pious? + +EUTHYPHRO: I remember. + +SOCRATES: Tell me what is the nature of this idea, and then I shall +have a standard to which I may look, and by which I may measure actions, +whether yours or those of any one else, and then I shall be able to say +that such and such an action is pious, such another impious. + +EUTHYPHRO: I will tell you, if you like. + +SOCRATES: I should very much like. + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety, then, is that which is dear to the gods, and impiety +is that which is not dear to them. + +SOCRATES: Very good, Euthyphro; you have now given me the sort of answer +which I wanted. But whether what you say is true or not I cannot as yet +tell, although I make no doubt that you will prove the truth of your +words. + +EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + +SOCRATES: Come, then, and let us examine what we are saying. That thing +or person which is dear to the gods is pious, and that thing or person +which is hateful to the gods is impious, these two being the extreme +opposites of one another. Was not that said? + +EUTHYPHRO: It was. + +SOCRATES: And well said? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, I thought so; it was certainly said. + +SOCRATES: And further, Euthyphro, the gods were admitted to have +enmities and hatreds and differences? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, that was also said. + +SOCRATES: And what sort of difference creates enmity and anger? Suppose +for example that you and I, my good friend, differ about a number; do +differences of this sort make us enemies and set us at variance with one +another? Do we not go at once to arithmetic, and put an end to them by a +sum? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: Or suppose that we differ about magnitudes, do we not quickly +end the differences by measuring? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: And we end a controversy about heavy and light by resorting to +a weighing machine? + +EUTHYPHRO: To be sure. + +SOCRATES: But what differences are there which cannot be thus decided, +and which therefore make us angry and set us at enmity with one another? +I dare say the answer does not occur to you at the moment, and therefore +I will suggest that these enmities arise when the matters of difference +are the just and unjust, good and evil, honourable and dishonourable. +Are not these the points about which men differ, and about which when we +are unable satisfactorily to decide our differences, you and I and all +of us quarrel, when we do quarrel? (Compare Alcib.) + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, the nature of the differences about which we +quarrel is such as you describe. + +SOCRATES: And the quarrels of the gods, noble Euthyphro, when they +occur, are of a like nature? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly they are. + +SOCRATES: They have differences of opinion, as you say, about good and +evil, just and unjust, honourable and dishonourable: there would +have been no quarrels among them, if there had been no such +differences--would there now? + +EUTHYPHRO: You are quite right. + +SOCRATES: Does not every man love that which he deems noble and just and +good, and hate the opposite of them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: But, as you say, people regard the same things, some as just +and others as unjust,--about these they dispute; and so there arise wars +and fightings among them. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: Then the same things are hated by the gods and loved by the +gods, and are both hateful and dear to them? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And upon this view the same things, Euthyphro, will be pious +and also impious? + +EUTHYPHRO: So I should suppose. + +SOCRATES: Then, my friend, I remark with surprise that you have not +answered the question which I asked. For I certainly did not ask you +to tell me what action is both pious and impious: but now it would seem +that what is loved by the gods is also hated by them. And therefore, +Euthyphro, in thus chastising your father you may very likely be doing +what is agreeable to Zeus but disagreeable to Cronos or Uranus, and what +is acceptable to Hephaestus but unacceptable to Here, and there may be +other gods who have similar differences of opinion. + +EUTHYPHRO: But I believe, Socrates, that all the gods would be agreed as +to the propriety of punishing a murderer: there would be no difference +of opinion about that. + +SOCRATES: Well, but speaking of men, Euthyphro, did you ever hear any +one arguing that a murderer or any sort of evil-doer ought to be let +off? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should rather say that these are the questions which they +are always arguing, especially in courts of law: they commit all sorts +of crimes, and there is nothing which they will not do or say in their +own defence. + +SOCRATES: But do they admit their guilt, Euthyphro, and yet say that +they ought not to be punished? + +EUTHYPHRO: No; they do not. + +SOCRATES: Then there are some things which they do not venture to say +and do: for they do not venture to argue that the guilty are to be +unpunished, but they deny their guilt, do they not? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Then they do not argue that the evil-doer should not be +punished, but they argue about the fact of who the evil-doer is, and +what he did and when? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And the gods are in the same case, if as you assert they +quarrel about just and unjust, and some of them say while others deny +that injustice is done among them. For surely neither God nor man will +ever venture to say that the doer of injustice is not to be punished? + +EUTHYPHRO: That is true, Socrates, in the main. + +SOCRATES: But they join issue about the particulars--gods and men alike; +and, if they dispute at all, they dispute about some act which is called +in question, and which by some is affirmed to be just, by others to be +unjust. Is not that true? + +EUTHYPHRO: Quite true. + +SOCRATES: Well then, my dear friend Euthyphro, do tell me, for my better +instruction and information, what proof have you that in the opinion of +all the gods a servant who is guilty of murder, and is put in chains by +the master of the dead man, and dies because he is put in chains before +he who bound him can learn from the interpreters of the gods what he +ought to do with him, dies unjustly; and that on behalf of such an one +a son ought to proceed against his father and accuse him of murder. How +would you show that all the gods absolutely agree in approving of his +act? Prove to me that they do, and I will applaud your wisdom as long as +I live. + +EUTHYPHRO: It will be a difficult task; but I could make the matter very +clear indeed to you. + +SOCRATES: I understand; you mean to say that I am not so quick of +apprehension as the judges: for to them you will be sure to prove that +the act is unjust, and hateful to the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes indeed, Socrates; at least if they will listen to me. + +SOCRATES: But they will be sure to listen if they find that you are a +good speaker. There was a notion that came into my mind while you were +speaking; I said to myself: 'Well, and what if Euthyphro does prove to +me that all the gods regarded the death of the serf as unjust, how do I +know anything more of the nature of piety and impiety? for granting that +this action may be hateful to the gods, still piety and impiety are not +adequately defined by these distinctions, for that which is hateful +to the gods has been shown to be also pleasing and dear to them.' And +therefore, Euthyphro, I do not ask you to prove this; I will suppose, if +you like, that all the gods condemn and abominate such an action. But I +will amend the definition so far as to say that what all the gods hate +is impious, and what they love pious or holy; and what some of them +love and others hate is both or neither. Shall this be our definition of +piety and impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: Why not, Socrates? + +SOCRATES: Why not! certainly, as far as I am concerned, Euthyphro, there +is no reason why not. But whether this admission will greatly assist you +in the task of instructing me as you promised, is a matter for you to +consider. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I should say that what all the gods love is pious and +holy, and the opposite which they all hate, impious. + +SOCRATES: Ought we to enquire into the truth of this, Euthyphro, or +simply to accept the mere statement on our own authority and that of +others? What do you say? + +EUTHYPHRO: We should enquire; and I believe that the statement will +stand the test of enquiry. + +SOCRATES: We shall know better, my good friend, in a little while. The +point which I should first wish to understand is whether the pious or +holy is beloved by the gods because it is holy, or holy because it is +beloved of the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand your meaning, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: I will endeavour to explain: we, speak of carrying and we +speak of being carried, of leading and being led, seeing and being seen. +You know that in all such cases there is a difference, and you know also +in what the difference lies? + +EUTHYPHRO: I think that I understand. + +SOCRATES: And is not that which is beloved distinct from that which +loves? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Well; and now tell me, is that which is carried in this state +of carrying because it is carried, or for some other reason? + +EUTHYPHRO: No; that is the reason. + +SOCRATES: And the same is true of what is led and of what is seen? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And a thing is not seen because it is visible, but conversely, +visible because it is seen; nor is a thing led because it is in the +state of being led, or carried because it is in the state of being +carried, but the converse of this. And now I think, Euthyphro, that +my meaning will be intelligible; and my meaning is, that any state of +action or passion implies previous action or passion. It does not become +because it is becoming, but it is in a state of becoming because it +becomes; neither does it suffer because it is in a state of suffering, +but it is in a state of suffering because it suffers. Do you not agree? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Is not that which is loved in some state either of becoming or +suffering? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And the same holds as in the previous instances; the state of +being loved follows the act of being loved, and not the act the state. + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And what do you say of piety, Euthyphro: is not piety, +according to your definition, loved by all the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Because it is pious or holy, or for some other reason? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, that is the reason. + +SOCRATES: It is loved because it is holy, not holy because it is loved? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And that which is dear to the gods is loved by them, and is in +a state to be loved of them because it is loved of them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Then that which is dear to the gods, Euthyphro, is not holy, +nor is that which is holy loved of God, as you affirm; but they are two +different things. + +EUTHYPHRO: How do you mean, Socrates? + +SOCRATES: I mean to say that the holy has been acknowledged by us to be +loved of God because it is holy, not to be holy because it is loved. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: But that which is dear to the gods is dear to them because it +is loved by them, not loved by them because it is dear to them. + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: But, friend Euthyphro, if that which is holy is the same with +that which is dear to God, and is loved because it is holy, then that +which is dear to God would have been loved as being dear to God; but if +that which is dear to God is dear to him because loved by him, then that +which is holy would have been holy because loved by him. But now you see +that the reverse is the case, and that they are quite different from +one another. For one (theophiles) is of a kind to be loved cause it +is loved, and the other (osion) is loved because it is of a kind to +be loved. Thus you appear to me, Euthyphro, when I ask you what is +the essence of holiness, to offer an attribute only, and not the +essence--the attribute of being loved by all the gods. But you still +refuse to explain to me the nature of holiness. And therefore, if you +please, I will ask you not to hide your treasure, but to tell me once +more what holiness or piety really is, whether dear to the gods or not +(for that is a matter about which we will not quarrel); and what is +impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: I really do not know, Socrates, how to express what I mean. +For somehow or other our arguments, on whatever ground we rest them, +seem to turn round and walk away from us. + +SOCRATES: Your words, Euthyphro, are like the handiwork of my ancestor +Daedalus; and if I were the sayer or propounder of them, you might say +that my arguments walk away and will not remain fixed where they are +placed because I am a descendant of his. But now, since these notions +are your own, you must find some other gibe, for they certainly, as you +yourself allow, show an inclination to be on the move. + +EUTHYPHRO: Nay, Socrates, I shall still say that you are the Daedalus +who sets arguments in motion; not I, certainly, but you make them +move or go round, for they would never have stirred, as far as I am +concerned. + +SOCRATES: Then I must be a greater than Daedalus: for whereas he only +made his own inventions to move, I move those of other people as well. +And the beauty of it is, that I would rather not. For I would give the +wisdom of Daedalus, and the wealth of Tantalus, to be able to detain +them and keep them fixed. But enough of this. As I perceive that you are +lazy, I will myself endeavour to show you how you might instruct me in +the nature of piety; and I hope that you will not grudge your labour. +Tell me, then--Is not that which is pious necessarily just? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And is, then, all which is just pious? or, is that which is +pious all just, but that which is just, only in part and not all, pious? + +EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand you, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: And yet I know that you are as much wiser than I am, as you +are younger. But, as I was saying, revered friend, the abundance of your +wisdom makes you lazy. Please to exert yourself, for there is no +real difficulty in understanding me. What I mean I may explain by an +illustration of what I do not mean. The poet (Stasinus) sings-- + +'Of Zeus, the author and creator of all these things, You will not tell: +for where there is fear there is also reverence.' + +Now I disagree with this poet. Shall I tell you in what respect? + +EUTHYPHRO: By all means. + +SOCRATES: I should not say that where there is fear there is also +reverence; for I am sure that many persons fear poverty and disease, and +the like evils, but I do not perceive that they reverence the objects of +their fear. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: But where reverence is, there is fear; for he who has a +feeling of reverence and shame about the commission of any action, fears +and is afraid of an ill reputation. + +EUTHYPHRO: No doubt. + +SOCRATES: Then we are wrong in saying that where there is fear there +is also reverence; and we should say, where there is reverence there is +also fear. But there is not always reverence where there is fear; for +fear is a more extended notion, and reverence is a part of fear, just as +the odd is a part of number, and number is a more extended notion than +the odd. I suppose that you follow me now? + +EUTHYPHRO: Quite well. + +SOCRATES: That was the sort of question which I meant to raise when +I asked whether the just is always the pious, or the pious always the +just; and whether there may not be justice where there is not piety; for +justice is the more extended notion of which piety is only a part. Do +you dissent? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, I think that you are quite right. + +SOCRATES: Then, if piety is a part of justice, I suppose that we should +enquire what part? If you had pursued the enquiry in the previous cases; +for instance, if you had asked me what is an even number, and what part +of number the even is, I should have had no difficulty in replying, +a number which represents a figure having two equal sides. Do you not +agree? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I quite agree. + +SOCRATES: In like manner, I want you to tell me what part of justice +is piety or holiness, that I may be able to tell Meletus not to do me +injustice, or indict me for impiety, as I am now adequately instructed +by you in the nature of piety or holiness, and their opposites. + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety or holiness, Socrates, appears to me to be that part of +justice which attends to the gods, as there is the other part of justice +which attends to men. + +SOCRATES: That is good, Euthyphro; yet still there is a little point +about which I should like to have further information, What is the +meaning of 'attention'? For attention can hardly be used in the same +sense when applied to the gods as when applied to other things. For +instance, horses are said to require attention, and not every person is +able to attend to them, but only a person skilled in horsemanship. Is it +not so? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: I should suppose that the art of horsemanship is the art of +attending to horses? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Nor is every one qualified to attend to dogs, but only the +huntsman? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And I should also conceive that the art of the huntsman is the +art of attending to dogs? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: As the art of the oxherd is the art of attending to oxen? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: In like manner holiness or piety is the art of attending to +the gods?--that would be your meaning, Euthyphro? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And is not attention always designed for the good or benefit +of that to which the attention is given? As in the case of horses, +you may observe that when attended to by the horseman's art they are +benefited and improved, are they not? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: As the dogs are benefited by the huntsman's art, and the oxen +by the art of the oxherd, and all other things are tended or attended +for their good and not for their hurt? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly, not for their hurt. + +SOCRATES: But for their good? + +EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + +SOCRATES: And does piety or holiness, which has been defined to be the +art of attending to the gods, benefit or improve them? Would you say +that when you do a holy act you make any of the gods better? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, no; that was certainly not what I meant. + +SOCRATES: And I, Euthyphro, never supposed that you did. I asked you the +question about the nature of the attention, because I thought that you +did not. + +EUTHYPHRO: You do me justice, Socrates; that is not the sort of +attention which I mean. + +SOCRATES: Good: but I must still ask what is this attention to the gods +which is called piety? + +EUTHYPHRO: It is such, Socrates, as servants show to their masters. + +SOCRATES: I understand--a sort of ministration to the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + +SOCRATES: Medicine is also a sort of ministration or service, having in +view the attainment of some object--would you not say of health? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should. + +SOCRATES: Again, there is an art which ministers to the ship-builder +with a view to the attainment of some result? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, with a view to the building of a ship. + +SOCRATES: As there is an art which ministers to the house-builder with a +view to the building of a house? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And now tell me, my good friend, about the art which ministers +to the gods: what work does that help to accomplish? For you must surely +know if, as you say, you are of all men living the one who is best +instructed in religion. + +EUTHYPHRO: And I speak the truth, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Tell me then, oh tell me--what is that fair work which the +gods do by the help of our ministrations? + +EUTHYPHRO: Many and fair, Socrates, are the works which they do. + +SOCRATES: Why, my friend, and so are those of a general. But the chief +of them is easily told. Would you not say that victory in war is the +chief of them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Many and fair, too, are the works of the husbandman, if I +am not mistaken; but his chief work is the production of food from the +earth? + +EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + +SOCRATES: And of the many and fair things done by the gods, which is the +chief or principal one? + +EUTHYPHRO: I have told you already, Socrates, that to learn all these +things accurately will be very tiresome. Let me simply say that piety or +holiness is learning how to please the gods in word and deed, by prayers +and sacrifices. Such piety is the salvation of families and states, +just as the impious, which is unpleasing to the gods, is their ruin and +destruction. + +SOCRATES: I think that you could have answered in much fewer words the +chief question which I asked, Euthyphro, if you had chosen. But I see +plainly that you are not disposed to instruct me--clearly not: else why, +when we reached the point, did you turn aside? Had you only answered +me I should have truly learned of you by this time the nature of +piety. Now, as the asker of a question is necessarily dependent on the +answerer, whither he leads I must follow; and can only ask again, what +is the pious, and what is piety? Do you mean that they are a sort of +science of praying and sacrificing? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + +SOCRATES: And sacrificing is giving to the gods, and prayer is asking of +the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Upon this view, then, piety is a science of asking and giving? + +EUTHYPHRO: You understand me capitally, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Yes, my friend; the reason is that I am a votary of your +science, and give my mind to it, and therefore nothing which you say +will be thrown away upon me. Please then to tell me, what is the nature +of this service to the gods? Do you mean that we prefer requests and +give gifts to them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + +SOCRATES: Is not the right way of asking to ask of them what we want? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And the right way of giving is to give to them in return what +they want of us. There would be no meaning in an art which gives to any +one that which he does not want. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Then piety, Euthyphro, is an art which gods and men have of +doing business with one another? + +EUTHYPHRO: That is an expression which you may use, if you like. + +SOCRATES: But I have no particular liking for anything but the truth. I +wish, however, that you would tell me what benefit accrues to the gods +from our gifts. There is no doubt about what they give to us; for there +is no good thing which they do not give; but how we can give any good +thing to them in return is far from being equally clear. If they give +everything and we give nothing, that must be an affair of business in +which we have very greatly the advantage of them. + +EUTHYPHRO: And do you imagine, Socrates, that any benefit accrues to the +gods from our gifts? + +SOCRATES: But if not, Euthyphro, what is the meaning of gifts which are +conferred by us upon the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: What else, but tributes of honour; and, as I was just now +saying, what pleases them? + +SOCRATES: Piety, then, is pleasing to the gods, but not beneficial or +dear to them? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should say that nothing could be dearer. + +SOCRATES: Then once more the assertion is repeated that piety is dear to +the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And when you say this, can you wonder at your words not +standing firm, but walking away? Will you accuse me of being the +Daedalus who makes them walk away, not perceiving that there is another +and far greater artist than Daedalus who makes them go round in a +circle, and he is yourself; for the argument, as you will perceive, +comes round to the same point. Were we not saying that the holy or +pious was not the same with that which is loved of the gods? Have you +forgotten? + +EUTHYPHRO: I quite remember. + +SOCRATES: And are you not saying that what is loved of the gods is holy; +and is not this the same as what is dear to them--do you see? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: Then either we were wrong in our former assertion; or, if we +were right then, we are wrong now. + +EUTHYPHRO: One of the two must be true. + +SOCRATES: Then we must begin again and ask, What is piety? That is an +enquiry which I shall never be weary of pursuing as far as in me lies; +and I entreat you not to scorn me, but to apply your mind to the utmost, +and tell me the truth. For, if any man knows, you are he; and therefore +I must detain you, like Proteus, until you tell. If you had not +certainly known the nature of piety and impiety, I am confident that +you would never, on behalf of a serf, have charged your aged father with +murder. You would not have run such a risk of doing wrong in the sight +of the gods, and you would have had too much respect for the opinions +of men. I am sure, therefore, that you know the nature of piety and +impiety. Speak out then, my dear Euthyphro, and do not hide your +knowledge. + +EUTHYPHRO: Another time, Socrates; for I am in a hurry, and must go now. + +SOCRATES: Alas! my companion, and will you leave me in despair? I was +hoping that you would instruct me in the nature of piety and impiety; +and then I might have cleared myself of Meletus and his indictment. I +would have told him that I had been enlightened by Euthyphro, and had +given up rash innovations and speculations, in which I indulged only +through ignorance, and that now I am about to lead a better life. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Euthyphro, by Plato + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTHYPHRO *** + +***** This file should be named 1642.txt or 1642.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/4/1642/ + +Produced by Sue Asscher + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +This etext was prepared by Sue Asscher <asschers@aia.net.au> + + + + + +EUTHYPHRO + +Plato + + + + +Translated by Benjamin Jowett + + +INTRODUCTION. + +In the Meno, Anytus had parted from Socrates with the significant words: +'That in any city, and particularly in the city of Athens, it is easier to +do men harm than to do them good;' and Socrates was anticipating another +opportunity of talking with him. In the Euthyphro, Socrates is awaiting +his trial for impiety. But before the trial begins, Plato would like to +put the world on their trial, and convince them of ignorance in that very +matter touching which Socrates is accused. An incident which may perhaps +really have occurred in the family of Euthyphro, a learned Athenian diviner +and soothsayer, furnishes the occasion of the discussion. + +This Euthyphro and Socrates are represented as meeting in the porch of the +King Archon. (Compare Theaet.) Both have legal business in hand. +Socrates is defendant in a suit for impiety which Meletus has brought +against him (it is remarked by the way that he is not a likely man himself +to have brought a suit against another); and Euthyphro too is plaintiff in +an action for murder, which he has brought against his own father. The +latter has originated in the following manner:--A poor dependant of the +family had slain one of their domestic slaves in Naxos. The guilty person +was bound and thrown into a ditch by the command of Euthyphro's father, who +sent to the interpreters of religion at Athens to ask what should be done +with him. Before the messenger came back the criminal had died from hunger +and exposure. + +This is the origin of the charge of murder which Euthyphro brings against +his father. Socrates is confident that before he could have undertaken the +responsibility of such a prosecution, he must have been perfectly informed +of the nature of piety and impiety; and as he is going to be tried for +impiety himself, he thinks that he cannot do better than learn of Euthyphro +(who will be admitted by everybody, including the judges, to be an +unimpeachable authority) what piety is, and what is impiety. What then is +piety? + +Euthyphro, who, in the abundance of his knowledge, is very willing to +undertake all the responsibility, replies: That piety is doing as I do, +prosecuting your father (if he is guilty) on a charge of murder; doing as +the gods do--as Zeus did to Cronos, and Cronos to Uranus. + +Socrates has a dislike to these tales of mythology, and he fancies that +this dislike of his may be the reason why he is charged with impiety. 'Are +they really true?' 'Yes, they are;' and Euthyphro will gladly tell +Socrates some more of them. But Socrates would like first of all to have a +more satisfactory answer to the question, 'What is piety?' 'Doing as I do, +charging a father with murder,' may be a single instance of piety, but can +hardly be regarded as a general definition. + +Euthyphro replies, that 'Piety is what is dear to the gods, and impiety is +what is not dear to them.' But may there not be differences of opinion, as +among men, so also among the gods? Especially, about good and evil, which +have no fixed rule; and these are precisely the sort of differences which +give rise to quarrels. And therefore what may be dear to one god may not +be dear to another, and the same action may be both pious and impious; e.g. +your chastisement of your father, Euthyphro, may be dear or pleasing to +Zeus (who inflicted a similar chastisement on his own father), but not +equally pleasing to Cronos or Uranus (who suffered at the hands of their +sons). + +Euthyphro answers that there is no difference of opinion, either among gods +or men, as to the propriety of punishing a murderer. Yes, rejoins +Socrates, when they know him to be a murderer; but you are assuming the +point at issue. If all the circumstances of the case are considered, are +you able to show that your father was guilty of murder, or that all the +gods are agreed in approving of our prosecution of him? And must you not +allow that what is hated by one god may be liked by another? Waiving this +last, however, Socrates proposes to amend the definition, and say that +'what all the gods love is pious, and what they all hate is impious.' To +this Euthyphro agrees. + +Socrates proceeds to analyze the new form of the definition. He shows that +in other cases the act precedes the state; e.g. the act of being carried, +loved, etc. precedes the state of being carried, loved, etc., and therefore +that which is dear to the gods is dear to the gods because it is first +loved of them, not loved of them because it is dear to them. But the pious +or holy is loved by the gods because it is pious or holy, which is +equivalent to saying, that it is loved by them because it is dear to them. +Here then appears to be a contradiction,--Euthyphro has been giving an +attribute or accident of piety only, and not the essence. Euthyphro +acknowledges himself that his explanations seem to walk away or go round in +a circle, like the moving figures of Daedalus, the ancestor of Socrates, +who has communicated his art to his descendants. + +Socrates, who is desirous of stimulating the indolent intelligence of +Euthyphro, raises the question in another manner: 'Is all the pious just?' +'Yes.' 'Is all the just pious?' 'No.' 'Then what part of justice is +piety?' Euthyphro replies that piety is that part of justice which +'attends' to the gods, as there is another part of justice which 'attends' +to men. But what is the meaning of 'attending' to the gods? The word +'attending,' when applied to dogs, horses, and men, implies that in some +way they are made better. But how do pious or holy acts make the gods any +better? Euthyphro explains that he means by pious acts, acts of service or +ministration. Yes; but the ministrations of the husbandman, the physician, +and the builder have an end. To what end do we serve the gods, and what do +we help them to accomplish? Euthyphro replies, that all these difficult +questions cannot be resolved in a short time; and he would rather say +simply that piety is knowing how to please the gods in word and deed, by +prayers and sacrifices. In other words, says Socrates, piety is 'a science +of asking and giving'--asking what we want and giving what they want; in +short, a mode of doing business between gods and men. But although they +are the givers of all good, how can we give them any good in return? 'Nay, +but we give them honour.' Then we give them not what is beneficial, but +what is pleasing or dear to them; and this is the point which has been +already disproved. + +Socrates, although weary of the subterfuges and evasions of Euthyphro, +remains unshaken in his conviction that he must know the nature of piety, +or he would never have prosecuted his old father. He is still hoping that +he will condescend to instruct him. But Euthyphro is in a hurry and cannot +stay. And Socrates' last hope of knowing the nature of piety before he is +prosecuted for impiety has disappeared. As in the Euthydemus the irony is +carried on to the end. + +The Euthyphro is manifestly designed to contrast the real nature of piety +and impiety with the popular conceptions of them. But when the popular +conceptions of them have been overthrown, Socrates does not offer any +definition of his own: as in the Laches and Lysis, he prepares the way for +an answer to the question which he has raised; but true to his own +character, refuses to answer himself. + +Euthyphro is a religionist, and is elsewhere spoken of, if he be the same +person, as the author of a philosophy of names, by whose 'prancing steeds' +Socrates in the Cratylus is carried away. He has the conceit and self- +confidence of a Sophist; no doubt that he is right in prosecuting his +father has ever entered into his mind. Like a Sophist too, he is incapable +either of framing a general definition or of following the course of an +argument. His wrong-headedness, one-sidedness, narrowness, positiveness, +are characteristic of his priestly office. His failure to apprehend an +argument may be compared to a similar defect which is observable in the +rhapsode Ion. But he is not a bad man, and he is friendly to Socrates, +whose familiar sign he recognizes with interest. Though unable to follow +him he is very willing to be led by him, and eagerly catches at any +suggestion which saves him from the trouble of thinking. Moreover he is +the enemy of Meletus, who, as he says, is availing himself of the popular +dislike to innovations in religion in order to injure Socrates; at the same +time he is amusingly confident that he has weapons in his own armoury which +would be more than a match for him. He is quite sincere in his prosecution +of his father, who has accidentally been guilty of homicide, and is not +wholly free from blame. To purge away the crime appears to him in the +light of a duty, whoever may be the criminal. + +Thus begins the contrast between the religion of the letter, or of the +narrow and unenlightened conscience, and the higher notion of religion +which Socrates vainly endeavours to elicit from him. 'Piety is doing as I +do' is the idea of religion which first occurs to him, and to many others +who do not say what they think with equal frankness. For men are not +easily persuaded that any other religion is better than their own; or that +other nations, e.g. the Greeks in the time of Socrates, were equally +serious in their religious beliefs and difficulties. The chief difference +between us and them is, that they were slowly learning what we are in +process of forgetting. Greek mythology hardly admitted of the distinction +between accidental homicide and murder: that the pollution of blood was +the same in both cases is also the feeling of the Athenian diviner. He had +not as yet learned the lesson, which philosophy was teaching, that Homer +and Hesiod, if not banished from the state, or whipped out of the assembly, +as Heracleitus more rudely proposed, at any rate were not to be appealed to +as authorities in religion; and he is ready to defend his conduct by the +examples of the gods. These are the very tales which Socrates cannot +abide; and his dislike of them, as he suspects, has branded him with the +reputation of impiety. Here is one answer to the question, 'Why Socrates +was put to death,' suggested by the way. Another is conveyed in the words, +'The Athenians do not care about any man being thought wise until he begins +to make other men wise; and then for some reason or other they are angry:' +which may be said to be the rule of popular toleration in most other +countries, and not at Athens only. In the course of the argument Socrates +remarks that the controversial nature of morals and religion arises out of +the difficulty of verifying them. There is no measure or standard to which +they can be referred. + +The next definition, 'Piety is that which is loved of the gods,' is +shipwrecked on a refined distinction between the state and the act, +corresponding respectively to the adjective (philon) and the participle +(philoumenon), or rather perhaps to the participle and the verb +(philoumenon and phileitai). The act is prior to the state (as in +Aristotle the energeia precedes the dunamis); and the state of being loved +is preceded by the act of being loved. But piety or holiness is preceded +by the act of being pious, not by the act of being loved; and therefore +piety and the state of being loved are different. Through such subtleties +of dialectic Socrates is working his way into a deeper region of thought +and feeling. He means to say that the words 'loved of the gods' express an +attribute only, and not the essence of piety. + +Then follows the third and last definition, 'Piety is a part of justice.' +Thus far Socrates has proceeded in placing religion on a moral foundation. +He is seeking to realize the harmony of religion and morality, which the +great poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Pindar had unconsciously anticipated, +and which is the universal want of all men. To this the soothsayer adds +the ceremonial element, 'attending upon the gods.' When further +interrogated by Socrates as to the nature of this 'attention to the gods,' +he replies, that piety is an affair of business, a science of giving and +asking, and the like. Socrates points out the anthropomorphism of these +notions, (compare Symp.; Republic; Politicus.) But when we expect him to +go on and show that the true service of the gods is the service of the +spirit and the co-operation with them in all things true and good, he stops +short; this was a lesson which the soothsayer could not have been made to +understand, and which every one must learn for himself. + +There seem to be altogether three aims or interests in this little +Dialogue: (1) the dialectical development of the idea of piety; (2) the +antithesis of true and false religion, which is carried to a certain extent +only; (3) the defence of Socrates. + +The subtle connection with the Apology and the Crito; the holding back of +the conclusion, as in the Charmides, Lysis, Laches, Protagoras, and other +Dialogues; the deep insight into the religious world; the dramatic power +and play of the two characters; the inimitable irony, are reasons for +believing that the Euthyphro is a genuine Platonic writing. The spirit in +which the popular representations of mythology are denounced recalls +Republic II. The virtue of piety has been already mentioned as one of five +in the Protagoras, but is not reckoned among the four cardinal virtues of +Republic IV. The figure of Daedalus has occurred in the Meno; that of +Proteus in the Euthydemus and Io. The kingly science has already appeared +in the Euthydemus, and will reappear in the Republic and Statesman. But +neither from these nor any other indications of similarity or difference, +and still less from arguments respecting the suitableness of this little +work to aid Socrates at the time of his trial or the reverse, can any +evidence of the date be obtained. + + +EUTHYPHRO + +by + +Plato + +Translated by Benjamin Jowett + + +PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE: Socrates, Euthyphro. + +SCENE: The Porch of the King Archon. + + +EUTHYPHRO: Why have you left the Lyceum, Socrates? and what are you doing +in the Porch of the King Archon? Surely you cannot be concerned in a suit +before the King, like myself? + +SOCRATES: Not in a suit, Euthyphro; impeachment is the word which the +Athenians use. + +EUTHYPHRO: What! I suppose that some one has been prosecuting you, for I +cannot believe that you are the prosecutor of another. + +SOCRATES: Certainly not. + +EUTHYPHRO: Then some one else has been prosecuting you? + +SOCRATES: Yes. + +EUTHYPHRO: And who is he? + +SOCRATES: A young man who is little known, Euthyphro; and I hardly know +him: his name is Meletus, and he is of the deme of Pitthis. Perhaps you +may remember his appearance; he has a beak, and long straight hair, and a +beard which is ill grown. + +EUTHYPHRO: No, I do not remember him, Socrates. But what is the charge +which he brings against you? + +SOCRATES: What is the charge? Well, a very serious charge, which shows a +good deal of character in the young man, and for which he is certainly not +to be despised. He says he knows how the youth are corrupted and who are +their corruptors. I fancy that he must be a wise man, and seeing that I am +the reverse of a wise man, he has found me out, and is going to accuse me +of corrupting his young friends. And of this our mother the state is to be +the judge. Of all our political men he is the only one who seems to me to +begin in the right way, with the cultivation of virtue in youth; like a +good husbandman, he makes the young shoots his first care, and clears away +us who are the destroyers of them. This is only the first step; he will +afterwards attend to the elder branches; and if he goes on as he has begun, +he will be a very great public benefactor. + +EUTHYPHRO: I hope that he may; but I rather fear, Socrates, that the +opposite will turn out to be the truth. My opinion is that in attacking +you he is simply aiming a blow at the foundation of the state. But in what +way does he say that you corrupt the young? + +SOCRATES: He brings a wonderful accusation against me, which at first +hearing excites surprise: he says that I am a poet or maker of gods, and +that I invent new gods and deny the existence of old ones; this is the +ground of his indictment. + +EUTHYPHRO: I understand, Socrates; he means to attack you about the +familiar sign which occasionally, as you say, comes to you. He thinks that +you are a neologian, and he is going to have you up before the court for +this. He knows that such a charge is readily received by the world, as I +myself know too well; for when I speak in the assembly about divine things, +and foretell the future to them, they laugh at me and think me a madman. +Yet every word that I say is true. But they are jealous of us all; and we +must be brave and go at them. + +SOCRATES: Their laughter, friend Euthyphro, is not a matter of much +consequence. For a man may be thought wise; but the Athenians, I suspect, +do not much trouble themselves about him until he begins to impart his +wisdom to others, and then for some reason or other, perhaps, as you say, +from jealousy, they are angry. + +EUTHYPHRO: I am never likely to try their temper in this way. + +SOCRATES: I dare say not, for you are reserved in your behaviour, and +seldom impart your wisdom. But I have a benevolent habit of pouring out +myself to everybody, and would even pay for a listener, and I am afraid +that the Athenians may think me too talkative. Now if, as I was saying, +they would only laugh at me, as you say that they laugh at you, the time +might pass gaily enough in the court; but perhaps they may be in earnest, +and then what the end will be you soothsayers only can predict. + +EUTHYPHRO: I dare say that the affair will end in nothing, Socrates, and +that you will win your cause; and I think that I shall win my own. + +SOCRATES: And what is your suit, Euthyphro? are you the pursuer or the +defendant? + +EUTHYPHRO: I am the pursuer. + +SOCRATES: Of whom? + +EUTHYPHRO: You will think me mad when I tell you. + +SOCRATES: Why, has the fugitive wings? + +EUTHYPHRO: Nay, he is not very volatile at his time of life. + +SOCRATES: Who is he? + +EUTHYPHRO: My father. + +SOCRATES: Your father! my good man? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And of what is he accused? + +EUTHYPHRO: Of murder, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: By the powers, Euthyphro! how little does the common herd know +of the nature of right and truth. A man must be an extraordinary man, and +have made great strides in wisdom, before he could have seen his way to +bring such an action. + +EUTHYPHRO: Indeed, Socrates, he must. + +SOCRATES: I suppose that the man whom your father murdered was one of your +relatives--clearly he was; for if he had been a stranger you would never +have thought of prosecuting him. + +EUTHYPHRO: I am amused, Socrates, at your making a distinction between one +who is a relation and one who is not a relation; for surely the pollution +is the same in either case, if you knowingly associate with the murderer +when you ought to clear yourself and him by proceeding against him. The +real question is whether the murdered man has been justly slain. If +justly, then your duty is to let the matter alone; but if unjustly, then +even if the murderer lives under the same roof with you and eats at the +same table, proceed against him. Now the man who is dead was a poor +dependant of mine who worked for us as a field labourer on our farm in +Naxos, and one day in a fit of drunken passion he got into a quarrel with +one of our domestic servants and slew him. My father bound him hand and +foot and threw him into a ditch, and then sent to Athens to ask of a +diviner what he should do with him. Meanwhile he never attended to him and +took no care about him, for he regarded him as a murderer; and thought that +no great harm would be done even if he did die. Now this was just what +happened. For such was the effect of cold and hunger and chains upon him, +that before the messenger returned from the diviner, he was dead. And my +father and family are angry with me for taking the part of the murderer and +prosecuting my father. They say that he did not kill him, and that if he +did, the dead man was but a murderer, and I ought not to take any notice, +for that a son is impious who prosecutes a father. Which shows, Socrates, +how little they know what the gods think about piety and impiety. + +SOCRATES: Good heavens, Euthyphro! and is your knowledge of religion and +of things pious and impious so very exact, that, supposing the +circumstances to be as you state them, you are not afraid lest you too may +be doing an impious thing in bringing an action against your father? + +EUTHYPHRO: The best of Euthyphro, and that which distinguishes him, +Socrates, from other men, is his exact knowledge of all such matters. What +should I be good for without it? + +SOCRATES: Rare friend! I think that I cannot do better than be your +disciple. Then before the trial with Meletus comes on I shall challenge +him, and say that I have always had a great interest in religious +questions, and now, as he charges me with rash imaginations and innovations +in religion, I have become your disciple. You, Meletus, as I shall say to +him, acknowledge Euthyphro to be a great theologian, and sound in his +opinions; and if you approve of him you ought to approve of me, and not +have me into court; but if you disapprove, you should begin by indicting +him who is my teacher, and who will be the ruin, not of the young, but of +the old; that is to say, of myself whom he instructs, and of his old father +whom he admonishes and chastises. And if Meletus refuses to listen to me, +but will go on, and will not shift the indictment from me to you, I cannot +do better than repeat this challenge in the court. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, indeed, Socrates; and if he attempts to indict me I am +mistaken if I do not find a flaw in him; the court shall have a great deal +more to say to him than to me. + +SOCRATES: And I, my dear friend, knowing this, am desirous of becoming +your disciple. For I observe that no one appears to notice you--not even +this Meletus; but his sharp eyes have found me out at once, and he has +indicted me for impiety. And therefore, I adjure you to tell me the nature +of piety and impiety, which you said that you knew so well, and of murder, +and of other offences against the gods. What are they? Is not piety in +every action always the same? and impiety, again--is it not always the +opposite of piety, and also the same with itself, having, as impiety, one +notion which includes whatever is impious? + +EUTHYPHRO: To be sure, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: And what is piety, and what is impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety is doing as I am doing; that is to say, prosecuting any +one who is guilty of murder, sacrilege, or of any similar crime--whether he +be your father or mother, or whoever he may be--that makes no difference; +and not to prosecute them is impiety. And please to consider, Socrates, +what a notable proof I will give you of the truth of my words, a proof +which I have already given to others:--of the principle, I mean, that the +impious, whoever he may be, ought not to go unpunished. For do not men +regard Zeus as the best and most righteous of the gods?--and yet they admit +that he bound his father (Cronos) because he wickedly devoured his sons, +and that he too had punished his own father (Uranus) for a similar reason, +in a nameless manner. And yet when I proceed against my father, they are +angry with me. So inconsistent are they in their way of talking when the +gods are concerned, and when I am concerned. + +SOCRATES: May not this be the reason, Euthyphro, why I am charged with +impiety--that I cannot away with these stories about the gods? and +therefore I suppose that people think me wrong. But, as you who are +well informed about them approve of them, I cannot do better than +assent to your superior wisdom. What else can I say, confessing as I +do, that I know nothing about them? Tell me, for the love of Zeus, +whether you really believe that they are true. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and things more wonderful still, of which the +world is in ignorance. + +SOCRATES: And do you really believe that the gods fought with one +another, and had dire quarrels, battles, and the like, as the poets +say, and as you may see represented in the works of great artists? The +temples are full of them; and notably the robe of Athene, which is +carried up to the Acropolis at the great Panathenaea, is embroidered +with them. Are all these tales of the gods true, Euthyphro? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates; and, as I was saying, I can tell you, if you +would like to hear them, many other things about the gods which +would quite amaze you. + +SOCRATES: I dare say; and you shall tell me them at some other time when I +have leisure. But just at present I would rather hear from you a more +precise answer, which you have not as yet given, my friend, to the +question, What is 'piety'? When asked, you only replied, Doing as you do, +charging your father with murder. + +EUTHYPHRO: And what I said was true, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: No doubt, Euthyphro; but you would admit that there are many +other pious acts? + +EUTHYPHRO: There are. + +SOCRATES: Remember that I did not ask you to give me two or three examples +of piety, but to explain the general idea which makes all pious things to +be pious. Do you not recollect that there was one idea which made the +impious impious, and the pious pious? + +EUTHYPHRO: I remember. + +SOCRATES: Tell me what is the nature of this idea, and then I shall have a +standard to which I may look, and by which I may measure actions, whether +yours or those of any one else, and then I shall be able to say that such +and such an action is pious, such another impious. + +EUTHYPHRO: I will tell you, if you like. + +SOCRATES: I should very much like. + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety, then, is that which is dear to the gods, and impiety is +that which is not dear to them. + +SOCRATES: Very good, Euthyphro; you have now given me the sort of answer +which I wanted. But whether what you say is true or not I cannot as yet +tell, although I make no doubt that you will prove the truth of your words. + +EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + +SOCRATES: Come, then, and let us examine what we are saying. That thing +or person which is dear to the gods is pious, and that thing or person +which is hateful to the gods is impious, these two being the extreme +opposites of one another. Was not that said? + +EUTHYPHRO: It was. + +SOCRATES: And well said? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, I thought so; it was certainly said. + +SOCRATES: And further, Euthyphro, the gods were admitted to have enmities +and hatreds and differences? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, that was also said. + +SOCRATES: And what sort of difference creates enmity and anger? Suppose +for example that you and I, my good friend, differ about a number; do +differences of this sort make us enemies and set us at variance with one +another? Do we not go at once to arithmetic, and put an end to them by a +sum? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: Or suppose that we differ about magnitudes, do we not quickly +end the differences by measuring? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: And we end a controversy about heavy and light by resorting to a +weighing machine? + +EUTHYPHRO: To be sure. + +SOCRATES: But what differences are there which cannot be thus decided, and +which therefore make us angry and set us at enmity with one another? I +dare say the answer does not occur to you at the moment, and therefore I +will suggest that these enmities arise when the matters of difference are +the just and unjust, good and evil, honourable and dishonourable. Are not +these the points about which men differ, and about which when we are unable +satisfactorily to decide our differences, you and I and all of us quarrel, +when we do quarrel? (Compare Alcib.) + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, the nature of the differences about which we +quarrel is such as you describe. + +SOCRATES: And the quarrels of the gods, noble Euthyphro, when they occur, +are of a like nature? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly they are. + +SOCRATES: They have differences of opinion, as you say, about good and +evil, just and unjust, honourable and dishonourable: there would have been +no quarrels among them, if there had been no such differences--would there +now? + +EUTHYPHRO: You are quite right. + +SOCRATES: Does not every man love that which he deems noble and just and +good, and hate the opposite of them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: But, as you say, people regard the same things, some as just and +others as unjust,--about these they dispute; and so there arise wars and +fightings among them. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: Then the same things are hated by the gods and loved by the +gods, and are both hateful and dear to them? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And upon this view the same things, Euthyphro, will be pious and +also impious? + +EUTHYPHRO: So I should suppose. + +SOCRATES: Then, my friend, I remark with surprise that you have not +answered the question which I asked. For I certainly did not ask you to +tell me what action is both pious and impious: but now it would seem that +what is loved by the gods is also hated by them. And therefore, Euthyphro, +in thus chastising your father you may very likely be doing what is +agreeable to Zeus but disagreeable to Cronos or Uranus, and what is +acceptable to Hephaestus but unacceptable to Here, and there may be other +gods who have similar differences of opinion. + +EUTHYPHRO: But I believe, Socrates, that all the gods would be agreed as +to the propriety of punishing a murderer: there would be no difference of +opinion about that. + +SOCRATES: Well, but speaking of men, Euthyphro, did you ever hear any one +arguing that a murderer or any sort of evil-doer ought to be let off? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should rather say that these are the questions which they are +always arguing, especially in courts of law: they commit all sorts of +crimes, and there is nothing which they will not do or say in their own +defence. + +SOCRATES: But do they admit their guilt, Euthyphro, and yet say that they +ought not to be punished? + +EUTHYPHRO: No; they do not. + +SOCRATES: Then there are some things which they do not venture to say and +do: for they do not venture to argue that the guilty are to be unpunished, +but they deny their guilt, do they not? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Then they do not argue that the evil-doer should not be +punished, but they argue about the fact of who the evil-doer is, and what +he did and when? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And the gods are in the same case, if as you assert they quarrel +about just and unjust, and some of them say while others deny that +injustice is done among them. For surely neither God nor man will ever +venture to say that the doer of injustice is not to be punished? + +EUTHYPHRO: That is true, Socrates, in the main. + +SOCRATES: But they join issue about the particulars--gods and men alike; +and, if they dispute at all, they dispute about some act which is called in +question, and which by some is affirmed to be just, by others to be unjust. +Is not that true? + +EUTHYPHRO: Quite true. + +SOCRATES: Well then, my dear friend Euthyphro, do tell me, for my better +instruction and information, what proof have you that in the opinion of all +the gods a servant who is guilty of murder, and is put in chains by the +master of the dead man, and dies because he is put in chains before he who +bound him can learn from the interpreters of the gods what he ought to do +with him, dies unjustly; and that on behalf of such an one a son ought to +proceed against his father and accuse him of murder. How would you show +that all the gods absolutely agree in approving of his act? Prove to me +that they do, and I will applaud your wisdom as long as I live. + +EUTHYPHRO: It will be a difficult task; but I could make the matter very +clear indeed to you. + +SOCRATES: I understand; you mean to say that I am not so quick of +apprehension as the judges: for to them you will be sure to prove that the +act is unjust, and hateful to the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes indeed, Socrates; at least if they will listen to me. + +SOCRATES: But they will be sure to listen if they find that you are a good +speaker. There was a notion that came into my mind while you were +speaking; I said to myself: 'Well, and what if Euthyphro does prove to me +that all the gods regarded the death of the serf as unjust, how do I know +anything more of the nature of piety and impiety? for granting that this +action may be hateful to the gods, still piety and impiety are not +adequately defined by these distinctions, for that which is hateful to the +gods has been shown to be also pleasing and dear to them.' And therefore, +Euthyphro, I do not ask you to prove this; I will suppose, if you like, +that all the gods condemn and abominate such an action. But I will amend +the definition so far as to say that what all the gods hate is impious, and +what they love pious or holy; and what some of them love and others hate is +both or neither. Shall this be our definition of piety and impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: Why not, Socrates? + +SOCRATES: Why not! certainly, as far as I am concerned, Euthyphro, there +is no reason why not. But whether this admission will greatly assist you +in the task of instructing me as you promised, is a matter for you to +consider. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I should say that what all the gods love is pious and +holy, and the opposite which they all hate, impious. + +SOCRATES: Ought we to enquire into the truth of this, Euthyphro, or simply +to accept the mere statement on our own authority and that of others? What +do you say? + +EUTHYPHRO: We should enquire; and I believe that the statement will stand +the test of enquiry. + +SOCRATES: We shall know better, my good friend, in a little while. The +point which I should first wish to understand is whether the pious or holy +is beloved by the gods because it is holy, or holy because it is beloved of +the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand your meaning, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: I will endeavour to explain: we, speak of carrying and we speak +of being carried, of leading and being led, seeing and being seen. You +know that in all such cases there is a difference, and you know also in +what the difference lies? + +EUTHYPHRO: I think that I understand. + +SOCRATES: And is not that which is beloved distinct from that which loves? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Well; and now tell me, is that which is carried in this state of +carrying because it is carried, or for some other reason? + +EUTHYPHRO: No; that is the reason. + +SOCRATES: And the same is true of what is led and of what is seen? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And a thing is not seen because it is visible, but conversely, +visible because it is seen; nor is a thing led because it is in the state +of being led, or carried because it is in the state of being carried, but +the converse of this. And now I think, Euthyphro, that my meaning will be +intelligible; and my meaning is, that any state of action or passion +implies previous action or passion. It does not become because it is +becoming, but it is in a state of becoming because it becomes; neither does +it suffer because it is in a state of suffering, but it is in a state of +suffering because it suffers. Do you not agree? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Is not that which is loved in some state either of becoming or +suffering? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And the same holds as in the previous instances; the state of +being loved follows the act of being loved, and not the act the state. + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And what do you say of piety, Euthyphro: is not piety, +according to your definition, loved by all the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Because it is pious or holy, or for some other reason? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, that is the reason. + +SOCRATES: It is loved because it is holy, not holy because it is loved? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And that which is dear to the gods is loved by them, and is in a +state to be loved of them because it is loved of them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Then that which is dear to the gods, Euthyphro, is not holy, nor +is that which is holy loved of God, as you affirm; but they are two +different things. + +EUTHYPHRO: How do you mean, Socrates? + +SOCRATES: I mean to say that the holy has been acknowledged by us to be +loved of God because it is holy, not to be holy because it is loved. + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: But that which is dear to the gods is dear to them because it is +loved by them, not loved by them because it is dear to them. + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: But, friend Euthyphro, if that which is holy is the same with +that which is dear to God, and is loved because it is holy, then that which +is dear to God would have been loved as being dear to God; but if that +which is dear to God is dear to him because loved by him, then that which +is holy would have been holy because loved by him. But now you see that +the reverse is the case, and that they are quite different from one +another. For one (theophiles) is of a kind to be loved cause it is loved, +and the other (osion) is loved because it is of a kind to be loved. Thus +you appear to me, Euthyphro, when I ask you what is the essence of +holiness, to offer an attribute only, and not the essence--the attribute of +being loved by all the gods. But you still refuse to explain to me the +nature of holiness. And therefore, if you please, I will ask you not to +hide your treasure, but to tell me once more what holiness or piety really +is, whether dear to the gods or not (for that is a matter about which we +will not quarrel); and what is impiety? + +EUTHYPHRO: I really do not know, Socrates, how to express what I mean. +For somehow or other our arguments, on whatever ground we rest them, seem +to turn round and walk away from us. + +SOCRATES: Your words, Euthyphro, are like the handiwork of my ancestor +Daedalus; and if I were the sayer or propounder of them, you might say that +my arguments walk away and will not remain fixed where they are placed +because I am a descendant of his. But now, since these notions are your +own, you must find some other gibe, for they certainly, as you yourself +allow, show an inclination to be on the move. + +EUTHYPHRO: Nay, Socrates, I shall still say that you are the Daedalus who +sets arguments in motion; not I, certainly, but you make them move or go +round, for they would never have stirred, as far as I am concerned. + +SOCRATES: Then I must be a greater than Daedalus: for whereas he only +made his own inventions to move, I move those of other people as well. And +the beauty of it is, that I would rather not. For I would give the wisdom +of Daedalus, and the wealth of Tantalus, to be able to detain them and keep +them fixed. But enough of this. As I perceive that you are lazy, I will +myself endeavour to show you how you might instruct me in the nature of +piety; and I hope that you will not grudge your labour. Tell me, then--Is +not that which is pious necessarily just? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And is, then, all which is just pious? or, is that which is +pious all just, but that which is just, only in part and not all, pious? + +EUTHYPHRO: I do not understand you, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: And yet I know that you are as much wiser than I am, as you are +younger. But, as I was saying, revered friend, the abundance of your +wisdom makes you lazy. Please to exert yourself, for there is no real +difficulty in understanding me. What I mean I may explain by an +illustration of what I do not mean. The poet (Stasinus) sings-- + +'Of Zeus, the author and creator of all these things, +You will not tell: for where there is fear there is also reverence.' + +Now I disagree with this poet. Shall I tell you in what respect? + +EUTHYPHRO: By all means. + +SOCRATES: I should not say that where there is fear there is also +reverence; for I am sure that many persons fear poverty and disease, and +the like evils, but I do not perceive that they reverence the objects of +their fear. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: But where reverence is, there is fear; for he who has a feeling +of reverence and shame about the commission of any action, fears and is +afraid of an ill reputation. + +EUTHYPHRO: No doubt. + +SOCRATES: Then we are wrong in saying that where there is fear there is +also reverence; and we should say, where there is reverence there is also +fear. But there is not always reverence where there is fear; for fear is a +more extended notion, and reverence is a part of fear, just as the odd is a +part of number, and number is a more extended notion than the odd. I +suppose that you follow me now? + +EUTHYPHRO: Quite well. + +SOCRATES: That was the sort of question which I meant to raise when I +asked whether the just is always the pious, or the pious always the just; +and whether there may not be justice where there is not piety; for justice +is the more extended notion of which piety is only a part. Do you dissent? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, I think that you are quite right. + +SOCRATES: Then, if piety is a part of justice, I suppose that we should +enquire what part? If you had pursued the enquiry in the previous cases; +for instance, if you had asked me what is an even number, and what part of +number the even is, I should have had no difficulty in replying, a number +which represents a figure having two equal sides. Do you not agree? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I quite agree. + +SOCRATES: In like manner, I want you to tell me what part of justice is +piety or holiness, that I may be able to tell Meletus not to do me +injustice, or indict me for impiety, as I am now adequately instructed by +you in the nature of piety or holiness, and their opposites. + +EUTHYPHRO: Piety or holiness, Socrates, appears to me to be that part of +justice which attends to the gods, as there is the other part of justice +which attends to men. + +SOCRATES: That is good, Euthyphro; yet still there is a little point about +which I should like to have further information, What is the meaning of +'attention'? For attention can hardly be used in the same sense when +applied to the gods as when applied to other things. For instance, horses +are said to require attention, and not every person is able to attend to +them, but only a person skilled in horsemanship. Is it not so? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: I should suppose that the art of horsemanship is the art of +attending to horses? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: Nor is every one qualified to attend to dogs, but only the +huntsman? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: And I should also conceive that the art of the huntsman is the +art of attending to dogs? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: As the art of the oxherd is the art of attending to oxen? + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true. + +SOCRATES: In like manner holiness or piety is the art of attending to the +gods?--that would be your meaning, Euthyphro? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And is not attention always designed for the good or benefit of +that to which the attention is given? As in the case of horses, you may +observe that when attended to by the horseman's art they are benefited and +improved, are they not? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: As the dogs are benefited by the huntsman's art, and the oxen by +the art of the oxherd, and all other things are tended or attended for +their good and not for their hurt? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly, not for their hurt. + +SOCRATES: But for their good? + +EUTHYPHRO: Of course. + +SOCRATES: And does piety or holiness, which has been defined to be the art +of attending to the gods, benefit or improve them? Would you say that when +you do a holy act you make any of the gods better? + +EUTHYPHRO: No, no; that was certainly not what I meant. + +SOCRATES: And I, Euthyphro, never supposed that you did. I asked you the +question about the nature of the attention, because I thought that you did +not. + +EUTHYPHRO: You do me justice, Socrates; that is not the sort of attention +which I mean. + +SOCRATES: Good: but I must still ask what is this attention to the gods +which is called piety? + +EUTHYPHRO: It is such, Socrates, as servants show to their masters. + +SOCRATES: I understand--a sort of ministration to the gods. + +EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + +SOCRATES: Medicine is also a sort of ministration or service, having in +view the attainment of some object--would you not say of health? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should. + +SOCRATES: Again, there is an art which ministers to the ship-builder with +a view to the attainment of some result? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates, with a view to the building of a ship. + +SOCRATES: As there is an art which ministers to the house-builder with a +view to the building of a house? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes. + +SOCRATES: And now tell me, my good friend, about the art which ministers +to the gods: what work does that help to accomplish? For you must surely +know if, as you say, you are of all men living the one who is best +instructed in religion. + +EUTHYPHRO: And I speak the truth, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Tell me then, oh tell me--what is that fair work which the gods +do by the help of our ministrations? + +EUTHYPHRO: Many and fair, Socrates, are the works which they do. + +SOCRATES: Why, my friend, and so are those of a general. But the chief of +them is easily told. Would you not say that victory in war is the chief of +them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: Many and fair, too, are the works of the husbandman, if I am not +mistaken; but his chief work is the production of food from the earth? + +EUTHYPHRO: Exactly. + +SOCRATES: And of the many and fair things done by the gods, which is the +chief or principal one? + +EUTHYPHRO: I have told you already, Socrates, that to learn all these +things accurately will be very tiresome. Let me simply say that piety or +holiness is learning how to please the gods in word and deed, by prayers +and sacrifices. Such piety is the salvation of families and states, just +as the impious, which is unpleasing to the gods, is their ruin and +destruction. + +SOCRATES: I think that you could have answered in much fewer words the +chief question which I asked, Euthyphro, if you had chosen. But I see +plainly that you are not disposed to instruct me--clearly not: else why, +when we reached the point, did you turn aside? Had you only answered me I +should have truly learned of you by this time the nature of piety. Now, as +the asker of a question is necessarily dependent on the answerer, whither +he leads I must follow; and can only ask again, what is the pious, and what +is piety? Do you mean that they are a sort of science of praying and +sacrificing? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + +SOCRATES: And sacrificing is giving to the gods, and prayer is asking of +the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Upon this view, then, piety is a science of asking and giving? + +EUTHYPHRO: You understand me capitally, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Yes, my friend; the reason is that I am a votary of your +science, and give my mind to it, and therefore nothing which you say will +be thrown away upon me. Please then to tell me, what is the nature of this +service to the gods? Do you mean that we prefer requests and give gifts to +them? + +EUTHYPHRO: Yes, I do. + +SOCRATES: Is not the right way of asking to ask of them what we want? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And the right way of giving is to give to them in return what +they want of us. There would be no meaning in an art which gives to any +one that which he does not want. + +EUTHYPHRO: Very true, Socrates. + +SOCRATES: Then piety, Euthyphro, is an art which gods and men have of +doing business with one another? + +EUTHYPHRO: That is an expression which you may use, if you like. + +SOCRATES: But I have no particular liking for anything but the truth. I +wish, however, that you would tell me what benefit accrues to the gods from +our gifts. There is no doubt about what they give to us; for there is no +good thing which they do not give; but how we can give any good thing to +them in return is far from being equally clear. If they give everything +and we give nothing, that must be an affair of business in which we have +very greatly the advantage of them. + +EUTHYPHRO: And do you imagine, Socrates, that any benefit accrues to the +gods from our gifts? + +SOCRATES: But if not, Euthyphro, what is the meaning of gifts which are +conferred by us upon the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: What else, but tributes of honour; and, as I was just now +saying, what pleases them? + +SOCRATES: Piety, then, is pleasing to the gods, but not beneficial or dear +to them? + +EUTHYPHRO: I should say that nothing could be dearer. + +SOCRATES: Then once more the assertion is repeated that piety is dear to +the gods? + +EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. + +SOCRATES: And when you say this, can you wonder at your words not standing +firm, but walking away? Will you accuse me of being the Daedalus who makes +them walk away, not perceiving that there is another and far greater artist +than Daedalus who makes them go round in a circle, and he is yourself; for +the argument, as you will perceive, comes round to the same point. Were we +not saying that the holy or pious was not the same with that which is loved +of the gods? Have you forgotten? + +EUTHYPHRO: I quite remember. + +SOCRATES: And are you not saying that what is loved of the gods is holy; +and is not this the same as what is dear to them--do you see? + +EUTHYPHRO: True. + +SOCRATES: Then either we were wrong in our former assertion; or, if we +were right then, we are wrong now. + +EUTHYPHRO: One of the two must be true. + +SOCRATES: Then we must begin again and ask, What is piety? That is an +enquiry which I shall never be weary of pursuing as far as in me lies; and +I entreat you not to scorn me, but to apply your mind to the utmost, and +tell me the truth. For, if any man knows, you are he; and therefore I must +detain you, like Proteus, until you tell. If you had not certainly known +the nature of piety and impiety, I am confident that you would never, on +behalf of a serf, have charged your aged father with murder. You would not +have run such a risk of doing wrong in the sight of the gods, and you would +have had too much respect for the opinions of men. I am sure, therefore, +that you know the nature of piety and impiety. Speak out then, my dear +Euthyphro, and do not hide your knowledge. + +EUTHYPHRO: Another time, Socrates; for I am in a hurry, and must go now. + +SOCRATES: Alas! my companion, and will you leave me in despair? I was +hoping that you would instruct me in the nature of piety and impiety; and +then I might have cleared myself of Meletus and his indictment. I would +have told him that I had been enlightened by Euthyphro, and had given up +rash innovations and speculations, in which I indulged only through +ignorance, and that now I am about to lead a better life. + + + + + +End of this Project Gutenberg Etext of Euthyphro, by Plato + diff --git a/old/uthph10.zip b/old/uthph10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..100e74c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/uthph10.zip |