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diff --git a/1636-h/1636-h.htm b/1636-h/1636-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5dbcf1f --- /dev/null +++ b/1636-h/1636-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4638 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Phaedrus, by Plato + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Phaedrus, by Plato + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Phaedrus + +Author: Plato + +Translator: B. Jowett + +Release Date: October 30, 2008 [EBook #1636] +Last Updated: January 15, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHAEDRUS *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + PHAEDRUS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Plato + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translated by Benjamin Jowett + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> PHAEDRUS </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION. + </h2> + <p> + The Phaedrus is closely connected with the Symposium, and may be regarded + either as introducing or following it. The two Dialogues together contain + the whole philosophy of Plato on the nature of love, which in the Republic + and in the later writings of Plato is only introduced playfully or as a + figure of speech. But in the Phaedrus and Symposium love and philosophy + join hands, and one is an aspect of the other. The spiritual and emotional + part is elevated into the ideal, to which in the Symposium mankind are + described as looking forward, and which in the Phaedrus, as well as in the + Phaedo, they are seeking to recover from a former state of existence. + Whether the subject of the Dialogue is love or rhetoric, or the union of + the two, or the relation of philosophy to love and to art in general, and + to the human soul, will be hereafter considered. And perhaps we may arrive + at some conclusion such as the following—that the dialogue is not + strictly confined to a single subject, but passes from one to another with + the natural freedom of conversation. + </p> + <p> + Phaedrus has been spending the morning with Lysias, the celebrated + rhetorician, and is going to refresh himself by taking a walk outside the + wall, when he is met by Socrates, who professes that he will not leave him + until he has delivered up the speech with which Lysias has regaled him, + and which he is carrying about in his mind, or more probably in a book + hidden under his cloak, and is intending to study as he walks. The + imputation is not denied, and the two agree to direct their steps out of + the public way along the stream of the Ilissus towards a plane-tree which + is seen in the distance. There, lying down amidst pleasant sounds and + scents, they will read the speech of Lysias. The country is a novelty to + Socrates, who never goes out of the town; and hence he is full of + admiration for the beauties of nature, which he seems to be drinking in + for the first time. + </p> + <p> + As they are on their way, Phaedrus asks the opinion of Socrates respecting + the local tradition of Boreas and Oreithyia. Socrates, after a satirical + allusion to the 'rationalizers' of his day, replies that he has no time + for these 'nice' interpretations of mythology, and he pities anyone who + has. When you once begin there is no end of them, and they spring from an + uncritical philosophy after all. 'The proper study of mankind is man;' and + he is a far more complex and wonderful being than the serpent Typho. + Socrates as yet does not know himself; and why should he care to know + about unearthly monsters? Engaged in such conversation, they arrive at the + plane-tree; when they have found a convenient resting-place, Phaedrus + pulls out the speech and reads:— + </p> + <p> + The speech consists of a foolish paradox which is to the effect that the + non-lover ought to be accepted rather than the lover—because he is + more rational, more agreeable, more enduring, less suspicious, less + hurtful, less boastful, less engrossing, and because there are more of + them, and for a great many other reasons which are equally unmeaning. + Phaedrus is captivated with the beauty of the periods, and wants to make + Socrates say that nothing was or ever could be written better. Socrates + does not think much of the matter, but then he has only attended to the + form, and in that he has detected several repetitions and other marks of + haste. He cannot agree with Phaedrus in the extreme value which he sets + upon this performance, because he is afraid of doing injustice to Anacreon + and Sappho and other great writers, and is almost inclined to think that + he himself, or rather some power residing within him, could make a speech + better than that of Lysias on the same theme, and also different from his, + if he may be allowed the use of a few commonplaces which all speakers must + equally employ. + </p> + <p> + Phaedrus is delighted at the prospect of having another speech, and + promises that he will set up a golden statue of Socrates at Delphi, if he + keeps his word. Some raillery ensues, and at length Socrates, conquered by + the threat that he shall never again hear a speech of Lysias unless he + fulfils his promise, veils his face and begins. + </p> + <p> + First, invoking the Muses and assuming ironically the person of the + non-lover (who is a lover all the same), he will enquire into the nature + and power of love. For this is a necessary preliminary to the other + question—How is the non-lover to be distinguished from the lover? In + all of us there are two principles—a better and a worse—reason + and desire, which are generally at war with one another; and the victory + of the rational is called temperance, and the victory of the irrational + intemperance or excess. The latter takes many forms and has many bad names—gluttony, + drunkenness, and the like. But of all the irrational desires or excesses + the greatest is that which is led away by desires of a kindred nature to + the enjoyment of personal beauty. And this is the master power of love. + </p> + <p> + Here Socrates fancies that he detects in himself an unusual flow of + eloquence—this newly-found gift he can only attribute to the + inspiration of the place, which appears to be dedicated to the nymphs. + Starting again from the philosophical basis which has been laid down, he + proceeds to show how many advantages the non-lover has over the lover. The + one encourages softness and effeminacy and exclusiveness; he cannot endure + any superiority in his beloved; he will train him in luxury, he will keep + him out of society, he will deprive him of parents, friends, money, + knowledge, and of every other good, that he may have him all to himself. + Then again his ways are not ways of pleasantness; he is mighty + disagreeable; 'crabbed age and youth cannot live together.' At every hour + of the night and day he is intruding upon him; there is the same old + withered face and the remainder to match—and he is always repeating, + in season or out of season, the praises or dispraises of his beloved, + which are bad enough when he is sober, and published all over the world + when he is drunk. At length his love ceases; he is converted into an + enemy, and the spectacle may be seen of the lover running away from the + beloved, who pursues him with vain reproaches, and demands his reward + which the other refuses to pay. Too late the beloved learns, after all his + pains and disagreeables, that 'As wolves love lambs so lovers love their + loves.' (Compare Char.) Here is the end; the 'other' or 'non-lover' part + of the speech had better be understood, for if in the censure of the lover + Socrates has broken out in verse, what will he not do in his praise of the + non-lover? He has said his say and is preparing to go away. + </p> + <p> + Phaedrus begs him to remain, at any rate until the heat of noon has + passed; he would like to have a little more conversation before they go. + Socrates, who has risen, recognizes the oracular sign which forbids him to + depart until he has done penance. His conscious has been awakened, and + like Stesichorus when he had reviled the lovely Helen he will sing a + palinode for having blasphemed the majesty of love. His palinode takes the + form of a myth. + </p> + <p> + Socrates begins his tale with a glorification of madness, which he divides + into four kinds: first, there is the art of divination or prophecy—this, + in a vein similar to that pervading the Cratylus and Io, he connects with + madness by an etymological explanation (mantike, manike—compare + oionoistike, oionistike, ''tis all one reckoning, save the phrase is a + little variations'); secondly, there is the art of purification by + mysteries; thirdly, poetry or the inspiration of the Muses (compare Ion), + without which no man can enter their temple. All this shows that madness + is one of heaven's blessings, and may sometimes be a great deal better + than sense. There is also a fourth kind of madness—that of love—which + cannot be explained without enquiring into the nature of the soul. + </p> + <p> + All soul is immortal, for she is the source of all motion both in herself + and in others. Her form may be described in a figure as a composite nature + made up of a charioteer and a pair of winged steeds. The steeds of the + gods are immortal, but ours are one mortal and the other immortal. The + immortal soul soars upwards into the heavens, but the mortal drops her + plumes and settles upon the earth. + </p> + <p> + Now the use of the wing is to rise and carry the downward element into the + upper world—there to behold beauty, wisdom, goodness, and the other + things of God by which the soul is nourished. On a certain day Zeus the + lord of heaven goes forth in a winged chariot; and an array of gods and + demi-gods and of human souls in their train, follows him. There are + glorious and blessed sights in the interior of heaven, and he who will may + freely behold them. The great vision of all is seen at the feast of the + gods, when they ascend the heights of the empyrean—all but Hestia, + who is left at home to keep house. The chariots of the gods glide readily + upwards and stand upon the outside; the revolution of the spheres carries + them round, and they have a vision of the world beyond. But the others + labour in vain; for the mortal steed, if he has not been properly trained, + keeps them down and sinks them towards the earth. Of the world which is + beyond the heavens, who can tell? There is an essence formless, + colourless, intangible, perceived by the mind only, dwelling in the region + of true knowledge. The divine mind in her revolution enjoys this fair + prospect, and beholds justice, temperance, and knowledge in their + everlasting essence. When fulfilled with the sight of them she returns + home, and the charioteer puts up the horses in their stable, and gives + them ambrosia to eat and nectar to drink. This is the life of the gods; + the human soul tries to reach the same heights, but hardly succeeds; and + sometimes the head of the charioteer rises above, and sometimes sinks + below, the fair vision, and he is at last obliged, after much contention, + to turn away and leave the plain of truth. But if the soul has followed in + the train of her god and once beheld truth she is preserved from harm, and + is carried round in the next revolution of the spheres; and if always + following, and always seeing the truth, is then for ever unharmed. If, + however, she drops her wings and falls to the earth, then she takes the + form of man, and the soul which has seen most of the truth passes into a + philosopher or lover; that which has seen truth in the second degree, into + a king or warrior; the third, into a householder or money-maker; the + fourth, into a gymnast; the fifth, into a prophet or mystic; the sixth, + into a poet or imitator; the seventh, into a husbandman or craftsman; the + eighth, into a sophist or demagogue; the ninth, into a tyrant. All these + are states of probation, wherein he who lives righteously is improved, and + he who lives unrighteously deteriorates. After death comes the judgment; + the bad depart to houses of correction under the earth, the good to places + of joy in heaven. When a thousand years have elapsed the souls meet + together and choose the lives which they will lead for another period of + existence. The soul which three times in succession has chosen the life of + a philosopher or of a lover who is not without philosophy receives her + wings at the close of the third millennium; the remainder have to complete + a cycle of ten thousand years before their wings are restored to them. + Each time there is full liberty of choice. The soul of a man may descend + into a beast, and return again into the form of man. But the form of man + will only be taken by the soul which has once seen truth and acquired some + conception of the universal:—this is the recollection of the + knowledge which she attained when in the company of the Gods. And men in + general recall only with difficulty the things of another world, but the + mind of the philosopher has a better remembrance of them. For when he + beholds the visible beauty of earth his enraptured soul passes in thought + to those glorious sights of justice and wisdom and temperance and truth + which she once gazed upon in heaven. Then she celebrated holy mysteries + and beheld blessed apparitions shining in pure light, herself pure, and + not as yet entombed in the body. And still, like a bird eager to quit its + cage, she flutters and looks upwards, and is therefore deemed mad. Such a + recollection of past days she receives through sight, the keenest of our + senses, because beauty, alone of the ideas, has any representation on + earth: wisdom is invisible to mortal eyes. But the corrupted nature, + blindly excited by this vision of beauty, rushes on to enjoy, and would + fain wallow like a brute beast in sensual pleasures. Whereas the true + mystic, who has seen the many sights of bliss, when he beholds a god-like + form or face is amazed with delight, and if he were not afraid of being + thought mad he would fall down and worship. Then the stiffened wing begins + to relax and grow again; desire which has been imprisoned pours over the + soul of the lover; the germ of the wing unfolds, and stings, and pangs of + birth, like the cutting of teeth, are everywhere felt. (Compare Symp.) + Father and mother, and goods and laws and proprieties are nothing to him; + his beloved is his physician, who can alone cure his pain. An apocryphal + sacred writer says that the power which thus works in him is by mortals + called love, but the immortals call him dove, or the winged one, in order + to represent the force of his wings—such at any rate is his nature. + Now the characters of lovers depend upon the god whom they followed in the + other world; and they choose their loves in this world accordingly. The + followers of Ares are fierce and violent; those of Zeus seek out some + philosophical and imperial nature; the attendants of Here find a royal + love; and in like manner the followers of every god seek a love who is + like their god; and to him they communicate the nature which they have + received from their god. The manner in which they take their love is as + follows:— + </p> + <p> + I told you about the charioteer and his two steeds, the one a noble animal + who is guided by word and admonition only, the other an ill-looking + villain who will hardly yield to blow or spur. Together all three, who are + a figure of the soul, approach the vision of love. And now a fierce + conflict begins. The ill-conditioned steed rushes on to enjoy, but the + charioteer, who beholds the beloved with awe, falls back in adoration, and + forces both the steeds on their haunches; again the evil steed rushes + forwards and pulls shamelessly. The conflict grows more and more severe; + and at last the charioteer, throwing himself backwards, forces the bit out + of the clenched teeth of the brute, and pulling harder than ever at the + reins, covers his tongue and jaws with blood, and forces him to rest his + legs and haunches with pain upon the ground. When this has happened + several times, the villain is tamed and humbled, and from that time + forward the soul of the lover follows the beloved in modesty and holy + fear. And now their bliss is consummated; the same image of love dwells in + the breast of either, and if they have self-control, they pass their lives + in the greatest happiness which is attainable by man—they continue + masters of themselves, and conquer in one of the three heavenly victories. + But if they choose the lower life of ambition they may still have a happy + destiny, though inferior, because they have not the approval of the whole + soul. At last they leave the body and proceed on their pilgrim's progress, + and those who have once begun can never go back. When the time comes they + receive their wings and fly away, and the lovers have the same wings. + </p> + <p> + Socrates concludes:— + </p> + <p> + These are the blessings of love, and thus have I made my recantation in + finer language than before: I did so in order to please Phaedrus. If I + said what was wrong at first, please to attribute my error to Lysias, who + ought to study philosophy instead of rhetoric, and then he will not + mislead his disciple Phaedrus. + </p> + <p> + Phaedrus is afraid that he will lose conceit of Lysias, and that Lysias + will be out of conceit with himself, and leave off making speeches, for + the politicians have been deriding him. Socrates is of opinion that there + is small danger of this; the politicians are themselves the great + rhetoricians of the age, who desire to attain immortality by the + authorship of laws. And therefore there is nothing with which they can + reproach Lysias in being a writer; but there may be disgrace in being a + bad one. + </p> + <p> + And what is good or bad writing or speaking? While the sun is hot in the + sky above us, let us ask that question: since by rational conversation man + lives, and not by the indulgence of bodily pleasures. And the grasshoppers + who are chirruping around may carry our words to the Muses, who are their + patronesses; for the grasshoppers were human beings themselves in a world + before the Muses, and when the Muses came they died of hunger for the love + of song. And they carry to them in heaven the report of those who honour + them on earth. + </p> + <p> + The first rule of good speaking is to know and speak the truth; as a + Spartan proverb says, 'true art is truth'; whereas rhetoric is an art of + enchantment, which makes things appear good and evil, like and unlike, as + the speaker pleases. Its use is not confined, as people commonly suppose, + to arguments in the law courts and speeches in the assembly; it is rather + a part of the art of disputation, under which are included both the rules + of Gorgias and the eristic of Zeno. But it is not wholly devoid of truth. + Superior knowledge enables us to deceive another by the help of + resemblances, and to escape from such a deception when employed against + ourselves. We see therefore that even in rhetoric an element of truth is + required. For if we do not know the truth, we can neither make the gradual + departures from truth by which men are most easily deceived, nor guard + ourselves against deception. + </p> + <p> + Socrates then proposes that they shall use the two speeches as + illustrations of the art of rhetoric; first distinguishing between the + debatable and undisputed class of subjects. In the debatable class there + ought to be a definition of all disputed matters. But there was no such + definition in the speech of Lysias; nor is there any order or connection + in his words any more than in a nursery rhyme. With this he compares the + regular divisions of the other speech, which was his own (and yet not his + own, for the local deities must have inspired him). Although only a + playful composition, it will be found to embody two principles: first, + that of synthesis or the comprehension of parts in a whole; secondly, + analysis, or the resolution of the whole into parts. These are the + processes of division and generalization which are so dear to the + dialectician, that king of men. They are effected by dialectic, and not by + rhetoric, of which the remains are but scanty after order and arrangement + have been subtracted. There is nothing left but a heap of 'ologies' and + other technical terms invented by Polus, Theodorus, Evenus, Tisias, + Gorgias, and others, who have rules for everything, and who teach how to + be short or long at pleasure. Prodicus showed his good sense when he said + that there was a better thing than either to be short or long, which was + to be of convenient length. + </p> + <p> + Still, notwithstanding the absurdities of Polus and others, rhetoric has + great power in public assemblies. This power, however, is not given by any + technical rules, but is the gift of genius. The real art is always being + confused by rhetoricians with the preliminaries of the art. The perfection + of oratory is like the perfection of anything else; natural power must be + aided by art. But the art is not that which is taught in the schools of + rhetoric; it is nearer akin to philosophy. Pericles, for instance, who was + the most accomplished of all speakers, derived his eloquence not from + rhetoric but from the philosophy of nature which he learnt of Anaxagoras. + True rhetoric is like medicine, and the rhetorician has to consider the + natures of men's souls as the physician considers the natures of their + bodies. Such and such persons are to be affected in this way, such and + such others in that; and he must know the times and the seasons for saying + this or that. This is not an easy task, and this, if there be such an art, + is the art of rhetoric. + </p> + <p> + I know that there are some professors of the art who maintain probability + to be stronger than truth. But we maintain that probability is engendered + by likeness of the truth which can only be attained by the knowledge of + it, and that the aim of the good man should not be to please or persuade + his fellow-servants, but to please his good masters who are the gods. + Rhetoric has a fair beginning in this. + </p> + <p> + Enough of the art of speaking; let us now proceed to consider the true use + of writing. There is an old Egyptian tale of Theuth, the inventor of + writing, showing his invention to the god Thamus, who told him that he + would only spoil men's memories and take away their understandings. From + this tale, of which young Athens will probably make fun, may be gathered + the lesson that writing is inferior to speech. For it is like a picture, + which can give no answer to a question, and has only a deceitful likeness + of a living creature. It has no power of adaptation, but uses the same + words for all. It is not a legitimate son of knowledge, but a bastard, and + when an attack is made upon this bastard neither parent nor anyone else is + there to defend it. The husbandman will not seriously incline to sow his + seed in such a hot-bed or garden of Adonis; he will rather sow in the + natural soil of the human soul which has depth of earth; and he will + anticipate the inner growth of the mind, by writing only, if at all, as a + remedy against old age. The natural process will be far nobler, and will + bring forth fruit in the minds of others as well as in his own. + </p> + <p> + The conclusion of the whole matter is just this,—that until a man + knows the truth, and the manner of adapting the truth to the natures of + other men, he cannot be a good orator; also, that the living is better + than the written word, and that the principles of justice and truth when + delivered by word of mouth are the legitimate offspring of a man's own + bosom, and their lawful descendants take up their abode in others. Such an + orator as he is who is possessed of them, you and I would fain become. And + to all composers in the world, poets, orators, legislators, we hereby + announce that if their compositions are based upon these principles, then + they are not only poets, orators, legislators, but philosophers. All + others are mere flatterers and putters together of words. This is the + message which Phaedrus undertakes to carry to Lysias from the local + deities, and Socrates himself will carry a similar message to his + favourite Isocrates, whose future distinction as a great rhetorician he + prophesies. The heat of the day has passed, and after offering up a prayer + to Pan and the nymphs, Socrates and Phaedrus depart. + </p> + <p> + There are two principal controversies which have been raised about the + Phaedrus; the first relates to the subject, the second to the date of the + Dialogue. + </p> + <p> + There seems to be a notion that the work of a great artist like Plato + cannot fail in unity, and that the unity of a dialogue requires a single + subject. But the conception of unity really applies in very different + degrees and ways to different kinds of art; to a statue, for example, far + more than to any kind of literary composition, and to some species of + literature far more than to others. Nor does the dialogue appear to be a + style of composition in which the requirement of unity is most stringent; + nor should the idea of unity derived from one sort of art be hastily + transferred to another. The double titles of several of the Platonic + Dialogues are a further proof that the severer rule was not observed by + Plato. The Republic is divided between the search after justice and the + construction of the ideal state; the Parmenides between the criticism of + the Platonic ideas and of the Eleatic one or being; the Gorgias between + the art of speaking and the nature of the good; the Sophist between the + detection of the Sophist and the correlation of ideas. The Theaetetus, the + Politicus, and the Philebus have also digressions which are but remotely + connected with the main subject. + </p> + <p> + Thus the comparison of Plato's other writings, as well as the reason of + the thing, lead us to the conclusion that we must not expect to find one + idea pervading a whole work, but one, two, or more, as the invention of + the writer may suggest, or his fancy wander. If each dialogue were + confined to the development of a single idea, this would appear on the + face of the dialogue, nor could any controversy be raised as to whether + the Phaedrus treated of love or rhetoric. But the truth is that Plato + subjects himself to no rule of this sort. Like every great artist he gives + unity of form to the different and apparently distracting topics which he + brings together. He works freely and is not to be supposed to have + arranged every part of the dialogue before he begins to write. He fastens + or weaves together the frame of his discourse loosely and imperfectly, and + which is the warp and which is the woof cannot always be determined. + </p> + <p> + The subjects of the Phaedrus (exclusive of the short introductory passage + about mythology which is suggested by the local tradition) are first the + false or conventional art of rhetoric; secondly, love or the inspiration + of beauty and knowledge, which is described as madness; thirdly, dialectic + or the art of composition and division; fourthly, the true rhetoric, which + is based upon dialectic, and is neither the art of persuasion nor + knowledge of the truth alone, but the art of persuasion founded on + knowledge of truth and knowledge of character; fifthly, the superiority of + the spoken over the written word. The continuous thread which appears and + reappears throughout is rhetoric; this is the ground into which the rest + of the Dialogue is worked, in parts embroidered with fine words which are + not in Socrates' manner, as he says, 'in order to please Phaedrus.' The + speech of Lysias which has thrown Phaedrus into an ecstacy is adduced as + an example of the false rhetoric; the first speech of Socrates, though an + improvement, partakes of the same character; his second speech, which is + full of that higher element said to have been learned of Anaxagoras by + Pericles, and which in the midst of poetry does not forget order, is an + illustration of the higher or true rhetoric. This higher rhetoric is based + upon dialectic, and dialectic is a sort of inspiration akin to love + (compare Symp.); in these two aspects of philosophy the technicalities of + rhetoric are absorbed. And so the example becomes also the deeper theme of + discourse. The true knowledge of things in heaven and earth is based upon + enthusiasm or love of the ideas going before us and ever present to us in + this world and in another; and the true order of speech or writing + proceeds accordingly. Love, again, has three degrees: first, of interested + love corresponding to the conventionalities of rhetoric; secondly, of + disinterested or mad love, fixed on objects of sense, and answering, + perhaps, to poetry; thirdly, of disinterested love directed towards the + unseen, answering to dialectic or the science of the ideas. Lastly, the + art of rhetoric in the lower sense is found to rest on a knowledge of the + natures and characters of men, which Socrates at the commencement of the + Dialogue has described as his own peculiar study. + </p> + <p> + Thus amid discord a harmony begins to appear; there are many links of + connection which are not visible at first sight. At the same time the + Phaedrus, although one of the most beautiful of the Platonic Dialogues, is + also more irregular than any other. For insight into the world, for + sustained irony, for depth of thought, there is no Dialogue superior, or + perhaps equal to it. Nevertheless the form of the work has tended to + obscure some of Plato's higher aims. + </p> + <p> + The first speech is composed 'in that balanced style in which the wise + love to talk' (Symp.). The characteristics of rhetoric are insipidity, + mannerism, and monotonous parallelism of clauses. There is more rhythm + than reason; the creative power of imagination is wanting. + </p> + <p> + ''Tis Greece, but living Greece no more.' + </p> + <p> + Plato has seized by anticipation the spirit which hung over Greek + literature for a thousand years afterwards. Yet doubtless there were some + who, like Phaedrus, felt a delight in the harmonious cadence and the + pedantic reasoning of the rhetoricians newly imported from Sicily, which + had ceased to be awakened in them by really great works, such as the odes + of Anacreon or Sappho or the orations of Pericles. That the first speech + was really written by Lysias is improbable. Like the poem of Solon, or the + story of Thamus and Theuth, or the funeral oration of Aspasia (if + genuine), or the pretence of Socrates in the Cratylus that his knowledge + of philology is derived from Euthyphro, the invention is really due to the + imagination of Plato, and may be compared to the parodies of the Sophists + in the Protagoras. Numerous fictions of this sort occur in the Dialogues, + and the gravity of Plato has sometimes imposed upon his commentators. The + introduction of a considerable writing of another would seem not to be in + keeping with a great work of art, and has no parallel elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + In the second speech Socrates is exhibited as beating the rhetoricians at + their own weapons; he 'an unpractised man and they masters of the art.' + True to his character, he must, however, profess that the speech which he + makes is not his own, for he knows nothing of himself. (Compare Symp.) + Regarded as a rhetorical exercise, the superiority of his speech seems to + consist chiefly in a better arrangement of the topics; he begins with a + definition of love, and he gives weight to his words by going back to + general maxims; a lesser merit is the greater liveliness of Socrates, + which hurries him into verse and relieves the monotony of the style. + </p> + <p> + But Plato had doubtless a higher purpose than to exhibit Socrates as the + rival or superior of the Athenian rhetoricians. Even in the speech of + Lysias there is a germ of truth, and this is further developed in the + parallel oration of Socrates. First, passionate love is overthrown by the + sophistical or interested, and then both yield to that higher view of love + which is afterwards revealed to us. The extreme of commonplace is + contrasted with the most ideal and imaginative of speculations. Socrates, + half in jest and to satisfy his own wild humour, takes the disguise of + Lysias, but he is also in profound earnest and in a deeper vein of irony + than usual. Having improvised his own speech, which is based upon the + model of the preceding, he condemns them both. Yet the condemnation is not + to be taken seriously, for he is evidently trying to express an aspect of + the truth. To understand him, we must make abstraction of morality and of + the Greek manner of regarding the relation of the sexes. In this, as in + his other discussions about love, what Plato says of the loves of men must + be transferred to the loves of women before we can attach any serious + meaning to his words. Had he lived in our times he would have made the + transposition himself. But seeing in his own age the impossibility of + woman being the intellectual helpmate or friend of man (except in the rare + instances of a Diotima or an Aspasia), seeing that, even as to personal + beauty, her place was taken by young mankind instead of womankind, he + tries to work out the problem of love without regard to the distinctions + of nature. And full of the evils which he recognized as flowing from the + spurious form of love, he proceeds with a deep meaning, though partly in + joke, to show that the 'non-lover's' love is better than the 'lover's.' + </p> + <p> + We may raise the same question in another form: Is marriage preferable + with or without love? 'Among ourselves,' as we may say, a little parodying + the words of Pausanias in the Symposium, 'there would be one answer to + this question: the practice and feeling of some foreign countries appears + to be more doubtful.' Suppose a modern Socrates, in defiance of the + received notions of society and the sentimental literature of the day, + alone against all the writers and readers of novels, to suggest this + enquiry, would not the younger 'part of the world be ready to take off its + coat and run at him might and main?' (Republic.) Yet, if like + Peisthetaerus in Aristophanes, he could persuade the 'birds' to hear him, + retiring a little behind a rampart, not of pots and dishes, but of + unreadable books, he might have something to say for himself. Might he not + argue, 'that a rational being should not follow the dictates of passion in + the most important act of his or her life'? Who would willingly enter into + a contract at first sight, almost without thought, against the advice and + opinion of his friends, at a time when he acknowledges that he is not in + his right mind? And yet they are praised by the authors of romances, who + reject the warnings of their friends or parents, rather than those who + listen to them in such matters. Two inexperienced persons, ignorant of the + world and of one another, how can they be said to choose?—they draw + lots, whence also the saying, 'marriage is a lottery.' Then he would + describe their way of life after marriage; how they monopolize one + another's affections to the exclusion of friends and relations: how they + pass their days in unmeaning fondness or trivial conversation; how the + inferior of the two drags the other down to his or her level; how the + cares of a family 'breed meanness in their souls.' In the fulfilment of + military or public duties, they are not helpers but hinderers of one + another: they cannot undertake any noble enterprise, such as makes the + names of men and women famous, from domestic considerations. Too late + their eyes are opened; they were taken unawares and desire to part + company. Better, he would say, a 'little love at the beginning,' for + heaven might have increased it; but now their foolish fondness has changed + into mutual dislike. In the days of their honeymoon they never understood + that they must provide against offences, that they must have interests, + that they must learn the art of living as well as loving. Our misogamist + will not appeal to Anacreon or Sappho for a confirmation of his view, but + to the universal experience of mankind. How much nobler, in conclusion, he + will say, is friendship, which does not receive unmeaning praises from + novelists and poets, is not exacting or exclusive, is not impaired by + familiarity, is much less expensive, is not so likely to take offence, + seldom changes, and may be dissolved from time to time without the + assistance of the courts. Besides, he will remark that there is a much + greater choice of friends than of wives—you may have more of them + and they will be far more improving to your mind. They will not keep you + dawdling at home, or dancing attendance upon them; or withdraw you from + the great world and stirring scenes of life and action which would make a + man of you. + </p> + <p> + In such a manner, turning the seamy side outwards, a modern Socrates might + describe the evils of married and domestic life. They are evils which + mankind in general have agreed to conceal, partly because they are + compensated by greater goods. Socrates or Archilochus would soon have to + sing a palinode for the injustice done to lovely Helen, or some misfortune + worse than blindness might be fall them. Then they would take up their + parable again and say:—that there were two loves, a higher and a + lower, holy and unholy, a love of the mind and a love of the body. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 'Let me not to the marriage of true minds + Admit impediments. Love is not love + Which alters when it alteration finds. + + ..... + + Love's not time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks + Within his bending sickle's compass come; + Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, + But bears it out even to the edge of doom.' +</pre> + <p> + But this true love of the mind cannot exist between two souls, until they + are purified from the grossness of earthly passion: they must pass through + a time of trial and conflict first; in the language of religion they must + be converted or born again. Then they would see the world transformed into + a scene of heavenly beauty; a divine idea would accompany them in all + their thoughts and actions. Something too of the recollections of + childhood might float about them still; they might regain that old + simplicity which had been theirs in other days at their first entrance on + life. And although their love of one another was ever present to them, + they would acknowledge also a higher love of duty and of God, which united + them. And their happiness would depend upon their preserving in them this + principle—not losing the ideals of justice and holiness and truth, + but renewing them at the fountain of light. When they have attained to + this exalted state, let them marry (something too may be conceded to the + animal nature of man): or live together in holy and innocent friendship. + The poet might describe in eloquent words the nature of such a union; how + after many struggles the true love was found: how the two passed their + lives together in the service of God and man; how their characters were + reflected upon one another, and seemed to grow more like year by year; how + they read in one another's eyes the thoughts, wishes, actions of the + other; how they saw each other in God; how in a figure they grew wings + like doves, and were 'ready to fly away together and be at rest.' And + lastly, he might tell how, after a time at no long intervals, first one + and then the other fell asleep, and 'appeared to the unwise' to die, but + were reunited in another state of being, in which they saw justice and + holiness and truth, not according to the imperfect copies of them which + are found in this world, but justice absolute in existence absolute, and + so of the rest. And they would hold converse not only with each other, but + with blessed souls everywhere; and would be employed in the service of + God, every soul fulfilling his own nature and character, and would see + into the wonders of earth and heaven, and trace the works of creation to + their author. + </p> + <p> + So, partly in jest but also 'with a certain degree of seriousness,' we may + appropriate to ourselves the words of Plato. The use of such a parody, + though very imperfect, is to transfer his thoughts to our sphere of + religion and feeling, to bring him nearer to us and us to him. Like the + Scriptures, Plato admits of endless applications, if we allow for the + difference of times and manners; and we lose the better half of him when + we regard his Dialogues merely as literary compositions. Any ancient work + which is worth reading has a practical and speculative as well as a + literary interest. And in Plato, more than in any other Greek writer, the + local and transitory is inextricably blended with what is spiritual and + eternal. Socrates is necessarily ironical; for he has to withdraw from the + received opinions and beliefs of mankind. We cannot separate the + transitory from the permanent; nor can we translate the language of irony + into that of plain reflection and common sense. But we can imagine the + mind of Socrates in another age and country; and we can interpret him by + analogy with reference to the errors and prejudices which prevail among + ourselves. To return to the Phaedrus:— + </p> + <p> + Both speeches are strongly condemned by Socrates as sinful and blasphemous + towards the god Love, and as worthy only of some haunt of sailors to which + good manners were unknown. The meaning of this and other wild language to + the same effect, which is introduced by way of contrast to the formality + of the two speeches (Socrates has a sense of relief when he has escaped + from the trammels of rhetoric), seems to be that the two speeches proceed + upon the supposition that love is and ought to be interested, and that no + such thing as a real or disinterested passion, which would be at the same + time lasting, could be conceived. 'But did I call this "love"? O God, + forgive my blasphemy. This is not love. Rather it is the love of the + world. But there is another kingdom of love, a kingdom not of this world, + divine, eternal. And this other love I will now show you in a mystery.' + </p> + <p> + Then follows the famous myth, which is a sort of parable, and like other + parables ought not to receive too minute an interpretation. In all such + allegories there is a great deal which is merely ornamental, and the + interpreter has to separate the important from the unimportant. Socrates + himself has given the right clue when, in using his own discourse + afterwards as the text for his examination of rhetoric, he characterizes + it as a 'partly true and tolerably credible mythus,' in which amid + poetical figures, order and arrangement were not forgotten. + </p> + <p> + The soul is described in magnificent language as the self-moved and the + source of motion in all other things. This is the philosophical theme or + proem of the whole. But ideas must be given through something, and under + the pretext that to realize the true nature of the soul would be not only + tedious but impossible, we at once pass on to describe the souls of gods + as well as men under the figure of two winged steeds and a charioteer. No + connection is traced between the soul as the great motive power and the + triple soul which is thus imaged. There is no difficulty in seeing that + the charioteer represents the reason, or that the black horse is the + symbol of the sensual or concupiscent element of human nature. The white + horse also represents rational impulse, but the description, 'a lover of + honour and modesty and temperance, and a follower of true glory,' though + similar, does not at once recall the 'spirit' (thumos) of the Republic. + The two steeds really correspond in a figure more nearly to the appetitive + and moral or semi-rational soul of Aristotle. And thus, for the first time + perhaps in the history of philosophy, we have represented to us the + threefold division of psychology. The image of the charioteer and the + steeds has been compared with a similar image which occurs in the verses + of Parmenides; but it is important to remark that the horses of Parmenides + have no allegorical meaning, and that the poet is only describing his own + approach in a chariot to the regions of light and the house of the goddess + of truth. + </p> + <p> + The triple soul has had a previous existence, in which following in the + train of some god, from whom she derived her character, she beheld + partially and imperfectly the vision of absolute truth. All her after + existence, passed in many forms of men and animals, is spent in regaining + this. The stages of the conflict are many and various; and she is sorely + let and hindered by the animal desires of the inferior or concupiscent + steed. Again and again she beholds the flashing beauty of the beloved. But + before that vision can be finally enjoyed the animal desires must be + subjected. + </p> + <p> + The moral or spiritual element in man is represented by the immortal steed + which, like thumos in the Republic, always sides with the reason. Both are + dragged out of their course by the furious impulses of desire. In the end + something is conceded to the desires, after they have been finally humbled + and overpowered. And yet the way of philosophy, or perfect love of the + unseen, is total abstinence from bodily delights. 'But all men cannot + receive this saying': in the lower life of ambition they may be taken off + their guard and stoop to folly unawares, and then, although they do not + attain to the highest bliss, yet if they have once conquered they may be + happy enough. + </p> + <p> + The language of the Meno and the Phaedo as well as of the Phaedrus seems + to show that at one time of his life Plato was quite serious in + maintaining a former state of existence. His mission was to realize the + abstract; in that, all good and truth, all the hopes of this and another + life seemed to centre. To him abstractions, as we call them, were another + kind of knowledge—an inner and unseen world, which seemed to exist + far more truly than the fleeting objects of sense which were without him. + When we are once able to imagine the intense power which abstract ideas + exercised over the mind of Plato, we see that there was no more difficulty + to him in realizing the eternal existence of them and of the human minds + which were associated with them, in the past and future than in the + present. The difficulty was not how they could exist, but how they could + fail to exist. In the attempt to regain this 'saving' knowledge of the + ideas, the sense was found to be as great an enemy as the desires; and + hence two things which to us seem quite distinct are inextricably blended + in the representation of Plato. + </p> + <p> + Thus far we may believe that Plato was serious in his conception of the + soul as a motive power, in his reminiscence of a former state of being, in + his elevation of the reason over sense and passion, and perhaps in his + doctrine of transmigration. Was he equally serious in the rest? For + example, are we to attribute his tripartite division of the soul to the + gods? Or is this merely assigned to them by way of parallelism with men? + The latter is the more probable; for the horses of the gods are both + white, i.e. their every impulse is in harmony with reason; their dualism, + on the other hand, only carries out the figure of the chariot. Is he + serious, again, in regarding love as 'a madness'? That seems to arise out + of the antithesis to the former conception of love. At the same time he + appears to intimate here, as in the Ion, Apology, Meno, and elsewhere, + that there is a faculty in man, whether to be termed in modern language + genius, or inspiration, or imagination, or idealism, or communion with + God, which cannot be reduced to rule and measure. Perhaps, too, he is + ironically repeating the common language of mankind about philosophy, and + is turning their jest into a sort of earnest. (Compare Phaedo, Symp.) Or + is he serious in holding that each soul bears the character of a god? He + may have had no other account to give of the differences of human + characters to which he afterwards refers. Or, again, in his absurd + derivation of mantike and oionistike and imeros (compare Cratylus)? It is + characteristic of the irony of Socrates to mix up sense and nonsense in + such a way that no exact line can be drawn between them. And allegory + helps to increase this sort of confusion. + </p> + <p> + As is often the case in the parables and prophecies of Scripture, the + meaning is allowed to break through the figure, and the details are not + always consistent. When the charioteers and their steeds stand upon the + dome of heaven they behold the intangible invisible essences which are not + objects of sight. This is because the force of language can no further go. + Nor can we dwell much on the circumstance, that at the completion of ten + thousand years all are to return to the place from whence they came; + because he represents their return as dependent on their own good conduct + in the successive stages of existence. Nor again can we attribute anything + to the accidental inference which would also follow, that even a tyrant + may live righteously in the condition of life to which fate has called him + ('he aiblins might, I dinna ken'). But to suppose this would be at + variance with Plato himself and with Greek notions generally. He is much + more serious in distinguishing men from animals by their recognition of + the universal which they have known in a former state, and in denying that + this gift of reason can ever be obliterated or lost. In the language of + some modern theologians he might be said to maintain the 'final + perseverance' of those who have entered on their pilgrim's progress. Other + intimations of a 'metaphysic' or 'theology' of the future may also be + discerned in him: (1) The moderate predestinarianism which here, as in the + Republic, acknowledges the element of chance in human life, and yet + asserts the freedom and responsibility of man; (2) The recognition of a + moral as well as an intellectual principle in man under the image of an + immortal steed; (3) The notion that the divine nature exists by the + contemplation of ideas of virtue and justice—or, in other words, the + assertion of the essentially moral nature of God; (4) Again, there is the + hint that human life is a life of aspiration only, and that the true ideal + is not to be found in art; (5) There occurs the first trace of the + distinction between necessary and contingent matter; (6) The conception of + the soul itself as the motive power and reason of the universe. + </p> + <p> + The conception of the philosopher, or the philosopher and lover in one, as + a sort of madman, may be compared with the Republic and Theaetetus, in + both of which the philosopher is regarded as a stranger and monster upon + the earth. The whole myth, like the other myths of Plato, describes in a + figure things which are beyond the range of human faculties, or + inaccessible to the knowledge of the age. That philosophy should be + represented as the inspiration of love is a conception that has already + become familiar to us in the Symposium, and is the expression partly of + Plato's enthusiasm for the idea, and is also an indication of the real + power exercised by the passion of friendship over the mind of the Greek. + The master in the art of love knew that there was a mystery in these + feelings and their associations, and especially in the contrast of the + sensible and permanent which is afforded by them; and he sought to explain + this, as he explained universal ideas, by a reference to a former state of + existence. The capriciousness of love is also derived by him from an + attachment to some god in a former world. The singular remark that the + beloved is more affected than the lover at the final consummation of their + love, seems likewise to hint at a psychological truth. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to exhaust the meanings of a work like the Phaedrus, which + indicates so much more than it expresses; and is full of inconsistencies + and ambiguities which were not perceived by Plato himself. For example, + when he is speaking of the soul does he mean the human or the divine soul? + and are they both equally self-moving and constructed on the same + threefold principle? We should certainly be disposed to reply that the + self-motive is to be attributed to God only; and on the other hand that + the appetitive and passionate elements have no place in His nature. So we + should infer from the reason of the thing, but there is no indication in + Plato's own writings that this was his meaning. Or, again, when he + explains the different characters of men by referring them back to the + nature of the God whom they served in a former state of existence, we are + inclined to ask whether he is serious: Is he not rather using a + mythological figure, here as elsewhere, to draw a veil over things which + are beyond the limits of mortal knowledge? Once more, in speaking of + beauty is he really thinking of some external form such as might have been + expressed in the works of Phidias or Praxiteles; and not rather of an + imaginary beauty, of a sort which extinguishes rather than stimulates + vulgar love,—a heavenly beauty like that which flashed from time to + time before the eyes of Dante or Bunyan? Surely the latter. But it would + be idle to reconcile all the details of the passage: it is a picture, not + a system, and a picture which is for the greater part an allegory, and an + allegory which allows the meaning to come through. The image of the + charioteer and his steeds is placed side by side with the absolute forms + of justice, temperance, and the like, which are abstract ideas only, and + which are seen with the eye of the soul in her heavenly journey. The first + impression of such a passage, in which no attempt is made to separate the + substance from the form, is far truer than an elaborate philosophical + analysis. + </p> + <p> + It is too often forgotten that the whole of the second discourse of + Socrates is only an allegory, or figure of speech. For this reason, it is + unnecessary to enquire whether the love of which Plato speaks is the love + of men or of women. It is really a general idea which includes both, and + in which the sensual element, though not wholly eradicated, is reduced to + order and measure. We must not attribute a meaning to every fanciful + detail. Nor is there any need to call up revolting associations, which as + a matter of good taste should be banished, and which were far enough away + from the mind of Plato. These and similar passages should be interpreted + by the Laws. Nor is there anything in the Symposium, or in the Charmides, + in reality inconsistent with the sterner rule which Plato lays down in the + Laws. At the same time it is not to be denied that love and philosophy are + described by Socrates in figures of speech which would not be used in + Christian times; or that nameless vices were prevalent at Athens and in + other Greek cities; or that friendships between men were a more sacred + tie, and had a more important social and educational influence than among + ourselves. (See note on Symposium.) + </p> + <p> + In the Phaedrus, as well as in the Symposium, there are two kinds of love, + a lower and a higher, the one answering to the natural wants of the + animal, the other rising above them and contemplating with religious awe + the forms of justice, temperance, holiness, yet finding them also 'too + dazzling bright for mortal eye,' and shrinking from them in amazement. The + opposition between these two kinds of love may be compared to the + opposition between the flesh and the spirit in the Epistles of St. Paul. + It would be unmeaning to suppose that Plato, in describing the spiritual + combat, in which the rational soul is finally victor and master of both + the steeds, condescends to allow any indulgence of unnatural lusts. + </p> + <p> + Two other thoughts about love are suggested by this passage. First of all, + love is represented here, as in the Symposium, as one of the great powers + of nature, which takes many forms and two principal ones, having a + predominant influence over the lives of men. And these two, though + opposed, are not absolutely separated the one from the other. Plato, with + his great knowledge of human nature, was well aware how easily one is + transformed into the other, or how soon the noble but fleeting aspiration + may return into the nature of the animal, while the lower instinct which + is latent always remains. The intermediate sentimentalism, which has + exercised so great an influence on the literature of modern Europe, had no + place in the classical times of Hellas; the higher love, of which Plato + speaks, is the subject, not of poetry or fiction, but of philosophy. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, there seems to be indicated a natural yearning of the human mind + that the great ideas of justice, temperance, wisdom, should be expressed + in some form of visible beauty, like the absolute purity and goodness + which Christian art has sought to realize in the person of the Madonna. + But although human nature has often attempted to represent outwardly what + can be only 'spiritually discerned,' men feel that in pictures and images, + whether painted or carved, or described in words only, we have not the + substance but the shadow of the truth which is in heaven. There is no + reason to suppose that in the fairest works of Greek art, Plato ever + conceived himself to behold an image, however faint, of ideal truths. 'Not + in that way was wisdom seen.' + </p> + <p> + We may now pass on to the second part of the Dialogue, which is a + criticism on the first. Rhetoric is assailed on various grounds: first, as + desiring to persuade, without a knowledge of the truth; and secondly, as + ignoring the distinction between certain and probable matter. The three + speeches are then passed in review: the first of them has no definition of + the nature of love, and no order in the topics (being in these respects + far inferior to the second); while the third of them is found (though a + fancy of the hour) to be framed upon real dialectical principles. But + dialectic is not rhetoric; nothing on that subject is to be found in the + endless treatises of rhetoric, however prolific in hard names. When Plato + has sufficiently put them to the test of ridicule he touches, as with the + point of a needle, the real error, which is the confusion of preliminary + knowledge with creative power. No attainments will provide the speaker + with genius; and the sort of attainments which can alone be of any value + are the higher philosophy and the power of psychological analysis, which + is given by dialectic, but not by the rules of the rhetoricians. + </p> + <p> + In this latter portion of the Dialogue there are many texts which may help + us to speak and to think. The names dialectic and rhetoric are passing out + of use; we hardly examine seriously into their nature and limits, and + probably the arts both of speaking and of conversation have been unduly + neglected by us. But the mind of Socrates pierces through the differences + of times and countries into the essential nature of man; and his words + apply equally to the modern world and to the Athenians of old. Would he + not have asked of us, or rather is he not asking of us, Whether we have + ceased to prefer appearances to reality? Let us take a survey of the + professions to which he refers and try them by his standard. Is not all + literature passing into criticism, just as Athenian literature in the age + of Plato was degenerating into sophistry and rhetoric? We can discourse + and write about poems and paintings, but we seem to have lost the gift of + creating them. Can we wonder that few of them 'come sweetly from nature,' + while ten thousand reviewers (mala murioi) are engaged in dissecting them? + Young men, like Phaedrus, are enamoured of their own literary clique and + have but a feeble sympathy with the master-minds of former ages. They + recognize 'a POETICAL necessity in the writings of their favourite author, + even when he boldly wrote off just what came in his head.' They are + beginning to think that Art is enough, just at the time when Art is about + to disappear from the world. And would not a great painter, such as + Michael Angelo, or a great poet, such as Shakespeare, returning to earth, + 'courteously rebuke' us—would he not say that we are putting 'in the + place of Art the preliminaries of Art,' confusing Art the expression of + mind and truth with Art the composition of colours and forms; and perhaps + he might more severely chastise some of us for trying to invent 'a new + shudder' instead of bringing to the birth living and healthy creations? + These he would regard as the signs of an age wanting in original power. + </p> + <p> + Turning from literature and the arts to law and politics, again we fall + under the lash of Socrates. For do we not often make 'the worse appear the + better cause;' and do not 'both parties sometimes agree to tell lies'? Is + not pleading 'an art of speaking unconnected with the truth'? There is + another text of Socrates which must not be forgotten in relation to this + subject. In the endless maze of English law is there any 'dividing the + whole into parts or reuniting the parts into a whole'—any semblance + of an organized being 'having hands and feet and other members'? Instead + of a system there is the Chaos of Anaxagoras (omou panta chremata) and no + Mind or Order. Then again in the noble art of politics, who thinks of + first principles and of true ideas? We avowedly follow not the truth but + the will of the many (compare Republic). Is not legislation too a sort of + literary effort, and might not statesmanship be described as the 'art of + enchanting' the house? While there are some politicians who have no + knowledge of the truth, but only of what is likely to be approved by 'the + many who sit in judgment,' there are others who can give no form to their + ideal, neither having learned 'the art of persuasion,' nor having any + insight into the 'characters of men.' Once more, has not medical science + become a professional routine, which many 'practise without being able to + say who were their instructors'—the application of a few drugs taken + from a book instead of a life-long study of the natures and constitutions + of human beings? Do we see as clearly as Hippocrates 'that the nature of + the body can only be understood as a whole'? (Compare Charm.) And are not + they held to be the wisest physicians who have the greatest distrust of + their art? What would Socrates think of our newspapers, of our theology? + Perhaps he would be afraid to speak of them;—the one vox populi, the + other vox Dei, he might hesitate to attack them; or he might trace a + fanciful connexion between them, and ask doubtfully, whether they are not + equally inspired? He would remark that we are always searching for a + belief and deploring our unbelief, seeming to prefer popular opinions + unverified and contradictory to unpopular truths which are assured to us + by the most certain proofs: that our preachers are in the habit of + praising God 'without regard to truth and falsehood, attributing to Him + every species of greatness and glory, saying that He is all this and the + cause of all that, in order that we may exhibit Him as the fairest and + best of all' (Symp.) without any consideration of His real nature and + character or of the laws by which He governs the world—seeking for a + 'private judgment' and not for the truth or 'God's judgment.' What would + he say of the Church, which we praise in like manner, 'meaning ourselves,' + without regard to history or experience? Might he not ask, whether we + 'care more for the truth of religion, or for the speaker and the country + from which the truth comes'? or, whether the 'select wise' are not 'the + many' after all? (Symp.) So we may fill up the sketch of Socrates, lest, + as Phaedrus says, the argument should be too 'abstract and barren of + illustrations.' (Compare Symp., Apol., Euthyphro.) + </p> + <p> + He next proceeds with enthusiasm to define the royal art of dialectic as + the power of dividing a whole into parts, and of uniting the parts in a + whole, and which may also be regarded (compare Soph.) as the process of + the mind talking with herself. The latter view has probably led Plato to + the paradox that speech is superior to writing, in which he may seem also + to be doing an injustice to himself. For the two cannot be fairly compared + in the manner which Plato suggests. The contrast of the living and dead + word, and the example of Socrates, which he has represented in the form of + the Dialogue, seem to have misled him. For speech and writing have really + different functions; the one is more transitory, more diffuse, more + elastic and capable of adaptation to moods and times; the other is more + permanent, more concentrated, and is uttered not to this or that person or + audience, but to all the world. In the Politicus the paradox is carried + further; the mind or will of the king is preferred to the written law; he + is supposed to be the Law personified, the ideal made Life. + </p> + <p> + Yet in both these statements there is also contained a truth; they may be + compared with one another, and also with the other famous paradox, that + 'knowledge cannot be taught.' Socrates means to say, that what is truly + written is written in the soul, just as what is truly taught grows up in + the soul from within and is not forced upon it from without. When planted + in a congenial soil the little seed becomes a tree, and 'the birds of the + air build their nests in the branches.' There is an echo of this in the + prayer at the end of the Dialogue, 'Give me beauty in the inward soul, and + may the inward and outward man be at one.' We may further compare the + words of St. Paul, 'Written not on tables of stone, but on fleshly tables + of the heart;' and again, 'Ye are my epistles known and read of all men.' + There may be a use in writing as a preservative against the forgetfulness + of old age, but to live is higher far, to be ourselves the book, or the + epistle, the truth embodied in a person, the Word made flesh. Something + like this we may believe to have passed before Plato's mind when he + affirmed that speech was superior to writing. So in other ages, weary of + literature and criticism, of making many books, of writing articles in + reviews, some have desired to live more closely in communion with their + fellow-men, to speak heart to heart, to speak and act only, and not to + write, following the example of Socrates and of Christ... + </p> + <p> + Some other touches of inimitable grace and art and of the deepest wisdom + may be also noted; such as the prayer or 'collect' which has just been + cited, 'Give me beauty,' etc.; or 'the great name which belongs to God + alone;' or 'the saying of wiser men than ourselves that a man of sense + should try to please not his fellow-servants, but his good and noble + masters,' like St. Paul again; or the description of the 'heavenly + originals'... + </p> + <p> + The chief criteria for determining the date of the Dialogue are (1) the + ages of Lysias and Isocrates; (2) the character of the work. + </p> + <p> + Lysias was born in the year 458; Isocrates in the year 436, about seven + years before the birth of Plato. The first of the two great rhetoricians + is described as in the zenith of his fame; the second is still young and + full of promise. Now it is argued that this must have been written in the + youth of Isocrates, when the promise was not yet fulfilled. And thus we + should have to assign the Dialogue to a year not later than 406, when + Isocrates was thirty and Plato twenty-three years of age, and while + Socrates himself was still alive. + </p> + <p> + Those who argue in this way seem not to reflect how easily Plato can + 'invent Egyptians or anything else,' and how careless he is of historical + truth or probability. Who would suspect that the wise Critias, the + virtuous Charmides, had ended their lives among the thirty tyrants? Who + would imagine that Lysias, who is here assailed by Socrates, is the son of + his old friend Cephalus? Or that Isocrates himself is the enemy of Plato + and his school? No arguments can be drawn from the appropriateness or + inappropriateness of the characters of Plato. (Else, perhaps, it might be + further argued that, judging from their extant remains, insipid rhetoric + is far more characteristic of Isocrates than of Lysias.) But Plato makes + use of names which have often hardly any connection with the historical + characters to whom they belong. In this instance the comparative favour + shown to Isocrates may possibly be accounted for by the circumstance of + his belonging to the aristocratical, as Lysias to the democratical party. + </p> + <p> + Few persons will be inclined to suppose, in the superficial manner of some + ancient critics, that a dialogue which treats of love must necessarily + have been written in youth. As little weight can be attached to the + argument that Plato must have visited Egypt before he wrote the story of + Theuth and Thamus. For there is no real proof that he ever went to Egypt; + and even if he did, he might have known or invented Egyptian traditions + before he went there. The late date of the Phaedrus will have to be + established by other arguments than these: the maturity of the thought, + the perfection of the style, the insight, the relation to the other + Platonic Dialogues, seem to contradict the notion that it could have been + the work of a youth of twenty or twenty-three years of age. The + cosmological notion of the mind as the primum mobile, and the admission of + impulse into the immortal nature, also afford grounds for assigning a + later date. (Compare Tim., Soph., Laws.) Add to this that the picture of + Socrates, though in some lesser particulars,—e.g. his going without + sandals, his habit of remaining within the walls, his emphatic declaration + that his study is human nature,—an exact resemblance, is in the main + the Platonic and not the real Socrates. Can we suppose 'the young man to + have told such lies' about his master while he was still alive? Moreover, + when two Dialogues are so closely connected as the Phaedrus and Symposium, + there is great improbability in supposing that one of them was written at + least twenty years after the other. The conclusion seems to be, that the + Dialogue was written at some comparatively late but unknown period of + Plato's life, after he had deserted the purely Socratic point of view, but + before he had entered on the more abstract speculations of the Sophist or + the Philebus. Taking into account the divisions of the soul, the doctrine + of transmigration, the contemplative nature of the philosophic life, and + the character of the style, we shall not be far wrong in placing the + Phaedrus in the neighbourhood of the Republic; remarking only that + allowance must be made for the poetical element in the Phaedrus, which, + while falling short of the Republic in definite philosophic results, seems + to have glimpses of a truth beyond. + </p> + <p> + Two short passages, which are unconnected with the main subject of the + Dialogue, may seem to merit a more particular notice: (1) the locus + classicus about mythology; (2) the tale of the grasshoppers. + </p> + <p> + The first passage is remarkable as showing that Plato was entirely free + from what may be termed the Euhemerism of his age. For there were + Euhemerists in Hellas long before Euhemerus. Early philosophers, like + Anaxagoras and Metrodorus, had found in Homer and mythology hidden + meanings. Plato, with a truer instinct, rejects these attractive + interpretations; he regards the inventor of them as 'unfortunate;' and + they draw a man off from the knowledge of himself. There is a latent + criticism, and also a poetical sense in Plato, which enable him to discard + them, and yet in another way to make use of poetry and mythology as a + vehicle of thought and feeling. What would he have said of the discovery + of Christian doctrines in these old Greek legends? While acknowledging + that such interpretations are 'very nice,' would he not have remarked that + they are found in all sacred literatures? They cannot be tested by any + criterion of truth, or used to establish any truth; they add nothing to + the sum of human knowledge; they are—what we please, and if employed + as 'peacemakers' between the new and old are liable to serious + misconstruction, as he elsewhere remarks (Republic). And therefore he + would have 'bid Farewell to them; the study of them would take up too much + of his time; and he has not as yet learned the true nature of religion.' + The 'sophistical' interest of Phaedrus, the little touch about the two + versions of the story, the ironical manner in which these explanations are + set aside—'the common opinion about them is enough for me'—the + allusion to the serpent Typho may be noted in passing; also the general + agreement between the tone of this speech and the remark of Socrates which + follows afterwards, 'I am a diviner, but a poor one.' + </p> + <p> + The tale of the grasshoppers is naturally suggested by the surrounding + scene. They are also the representatives of the Athenians as children of + the soil. Under the image of the lively chirruping grasshoppers who inform + the Muses in heaven about those who honour them on earth, Plato intends to + represent an Athenian audience (tettigessin eoikotes). The story is + introduced, apparently, to mark a change of subject, and also, like + several other allusions which occur in the course of the Dialogue, in + order to preserve the scene in the recollection of the reader. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + No one can duly appreciate the dialogues of Plato, especially the + Phaedrus, Symposium, and portions of the Republic, who has not a sympathy + with mysticism. To the uninitiated, as he would himself have acknowledged, + they will appear to be the dreams of a poet who is disguised as a + philosopher. There is a twofold difficulty in apprehending this aspect of + the Platonic writings. First, we do not immediately realize that under the + marble exterior of Greek literature was concealed a soul thrilling with + spiritual emotion. Secondly, the forms or figures which the Platonic + philosophy assumes, are not like the images of the prophet Isaiah, or of + the Apocalypse, familiar to us in the days of our youth. By mysticism we + mean, not the extravagance of an erring fancy, but the concentration of + reason in feeling, the enthusiastic love of the good, the true, the one, + the sense of the infinity of knowledge and of the marvel of the human + faculties. When feeding upon such thoughts the 'wing of the soul' is + renewed and gains strength; she is raised above 'the manikins of earth' + and their opinions, waiting in wonder to know, and working with reverence + to find out what God in this or in another life may reveal to her. + </p> + <p> + ON THE DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE. + </p> + <p> + One of the main purposes of Plato in the Phaedrus is to satirize Rhetoric, + or rather the Professors of Rhetoric who swarmed at Athens in the fourth + century before Christ. As in the opening of the Dialogue he ridicules the + interpreters of mythology; as in the Protagoras he mocks at the Sophists; + as in the Euthydemus he makes fun of the word-splitting Eristics; as in + the Cratylus he ridicules the fancies of Etymologers; as in the Meno and + Gorgias and some other dialogues he makes reflections and casts sly + imputation upon the higher classes at Athens; so in the Phaedrus, chiefly + in the latter part, he aims his shafts at the rhetoricians. The profession + of rhetoric was the greatest and most popular in Athens, necessary 'to a + man's salvation,' or at any rate to his attainment of wealth or power; but + Plato finds nothing wholesome or genuine in the purpose of it. It is a + veritable 'sham,' having no relation to fact, or to truth of any kind. It + is antipathetic to him not only as a philosopher, but also as a great + writer. He cannot abide the tricks of the rhetoricians, or the pedantries + and mannerisms which they introduce into speech and writing. He sees + clearly how far removed they are from the ways of simplicity and truth, + and how ignorant of the very elements of the art which they are professing + to teach. The thing which is most necessary of all, the knowledge of human + nature, is hardly if at all considered by them. The true rules of + composition, which are very few, are not to be found in their voluminous + systems. Their pretentiousness, their omniscience, their large fortunes, + their impatience of argument, their indifference to first principles, + their stupidity, their progresses through Hellas accompanied by a troop of + their disciples—these things were very distasteful to Plato, who + esteemed genius far above art, and was quite sensible of the interval + which separated them (Phaedrus). It is the interval which separates + Sophists and rhetoricians from ancient famous men and women such as Homer + and Hesiod, Anacreon and Sappho, Aeschylus and Sophocles; and the Platonic + Socrates is afraid that, if he approves the former, he will be disowned by + the latter. The spirit of rhetoric was soon to overspread all Hellas; and + Plato with prophetic insight may have seen, from afar, the great literary + waste or dead level, or interminable marsh, in which Greek literature was + soon to disappear. A similar vision of the decline of the Greek drama and + of the contrast of the old literature and the new was present to the mind + of Aristophanes after the death of the three great tragedians (Frogs). + After about a hundred, or at most two hundred years if we exclude Homer, + the genius of Hellas had ceased to flower or blossom. The dreary waste + which follows, beginning with the Alexandrian writers and even before them + in the platitudes of Isocrates and his school, spreads over much more than + a thousand years. And from this decline the Greek language and literature, + unlike the Latin, which has come to life in new forms and been developed + into the great European languages, never recovered. + </p> + <p> + This monotony of literature, without merit, without genius and without + character, is a phenomenon which deserves more attention than it has + hitherto received; it is a phenomenon unique in the literary history of + the world. How could there have been so much cultivation, so much + diligence in writing, and so little mind or real creative power? Why did a + thousand years invent nothing better than Sibylline books, Orphic poems, + Byzantine imitations of classical histories, Christian reproductions of + Greek plays, novels like the silly and obscene romances of Longus and + Heliodorus, innumerable forged epistles, a great many epigrams, + biographies of the meanest and most meagre description, a sham philosophy + which was the bastard progeny of the union between Hellas and the East? + Only in Plutarch, in Lucian, in Longinus, in the Roman emperors Marcus + Aurelius and Julian, in some of the Christian fathers are there any traces + of good sense or originality, or any power of arousing the interest of + later ages. And when new books ceased to be written, why did hosts of + grammarians and interpreters flock in, who never attain to any sound + notion either of grammar or interpretation? Why did the physical sciences + never arrive at any true knowledge or make any real progress? Why did + poetry droop and languish? Why did history degenerate into fable? Why did + words lose their power of expression? Why were ages of external greatness + and magnificence attended by all the signs of decay in the human mind + which are possible? + </p> + <p> + To these questions many answers may be given, which if not the true + causes, are at least to be reckoned among the symptoms of the decline. + There is the want of method in physical science, the want of criticism in + history, the want of simplicity or delicacy in poetry, the want of + political freedom, which is the true atmosphere of public speaking, in + oratory. The ways of life were luxurious and commonplace. Philosophy had + become extravagant, eclectic, abstract, devoid of any real content. At + length it ceased to exist. It had spread words like plaster over the whole + field of knowledge. It had grown ascetic on one side, mystical on the + other. Neither of these tendencies was favourable to literature. There was + no sense of beauty either in language or in art. The Greek world became + vacant, barbaric, oriental. No one had anything new to say, or any + conviction of truth. The age had no remembrance of the past, no power of + understanding what other ages thought and felt. The Catholic faith had + degenerated into dogma and controversy. For more than a thousand years not + a single writer of first-rate, or even of second-rate, reputation has a + place in the innumerable rolls of Greek literature. + </p> + <p> + If we seek to go deeper, we can still only describe the outward nature of + the clouds or darkness which were spread over the heavens during so many + ages without relief or light. We may say that this, like several other + long periods in the history of the human race, was destitute, or deprived + of the moral qualities which are the root of literary excellence. It had + no life or aspiration, no national or political force, no desire for + consistency, no love of knowledge for its own sake. It did not attempt to + pierce the mists which surrounded it. It did not propose to itself to go + forward and scale the heights of knowledge, but to go backwards and seek + at the beginning what can only be found towards the end. It was lost in + doubt and ignorance. It rested upon tradition and authority. It had none + of the higher play of fancy which creates poetry; and where there is no + true poetry, neither can there be any good prose. It had no great + characters, and therefore it had no great writers. It was incapable of + distinguishing between words and things. It was so hopelessly below the + ancient standard of classical Greek art and literature that it had no + power of understanding or of valuing them. It is doubtful whether any + Greek author was justly appreciated in antiquity except by his own + contemporaries; and this neglect of the great authors of the past led to + the disappearance of the larger part of them, while the Greek fathers were + mostly preserved. There is no reason to suppose that, in the century + before the taking of Constantinople, much more was in existence than the + scholars of the Renaissance carried away with them to Italy. + </p> + <p> + The character of Greek literature sank lower as time went on. It consisted + more and more of compilations, of scholia, of extracts, of commentaries, + forgeries, imitations. The commentator or interpreter had no conception of + his author as a whole, and very little of the context of any passage which + he was explaining. The least things were preferred by him to the greatest. + The question of a reading, or a grammatical form, or an accent, or the + uses of a word, took the place of the aim or subject of the book. He had + no sense of the beauties of an author, and very little light is thrown by + him on real difficulties. He interprets past ages by his own. The greatest + classical writers are the least appreciated by him. This seems to be the + reason why so many of them have perished, why the lyric poets have almost + wholly disappeared; why, out of the eighty or ninety tragedies of + Aeschylus and Sophocles, only seven of each had been preserved. + </p> + <p> + Such an age of sciolism and scholasticism may possibly once more get the + better of the literary world. There are those who prophesy that the signs + of such a day are again appearing among us, and that at the end of the + present century no writer of the first class will be still alive. They + think that the Muse of Literature may transfer herself to other countries + less dried up or worn out than our own. They seem to see the withering + effect of criticism on original genius. No one can doubt that such a decay + or decline of literature and of art seriously affects the manners and + character of a nation. It takes away half the joys and refinements of + life; it increases its dulness and grossness. Hence it becomes a matter of + great interest to consider how, if at all, such a degeneracy may be + averted. Is there any elixir which can restore life and youth to the + literature of a nation, or at any rate which can prevent it becoming + unmanned and enfeebled? + </p> + <p> + First there is the progress of education. It is possible, and even + probable, that the extension of the means of knowledge over a wider area + and to persons living under new conditions may lead to many new + combinations of thought and language. But, as yet, experience does not + favour the realization of such a hope or promise. It may be truly answered + that at present the training of teachers and the methods of education are + very imperfect, and therefore that we cannot judge of the future by the + present. When more of our youth are trained in the best literatures, and + in the best parts of them, their minds may be expected to have a larger + growth. They will have more interests, more thoughts, more material for + conversation; they will have a higher standard and begin to think for + themselves. The number of persons who will have the opportunity of + receiving the highest education through the cheap press, and by the help + of high schools and colleges, may increase tenfold. It is likely that in + every thousand persons there is at least one who is far above the average + in natural capacity, but the seed which is in him dies for want of + cultivation. It has never had any stimulus to grow, or any field in which + to blossom and produce fruit. Here is a great reservoir or treasure-house + of human intelligence out of which new waters may flow and cover the + earth. If at any time the great men of the world should die out, and + originality or genius appear to suffer a partial eclipse, there is a + boundless hope in the multitude of intelligences for future generations. + They may bring gifts to men such as the world has never received before. + They may begin at a higher point and yet take with them all the results of + the past. The co-operation of many may have effects not less striking, + though different in character from those which the creative genius of a + single man, such as Bacon or Newton, formerly produced. There is also + great hope to be derived, not merely from the extension of education over + a wider area, but from the continuance of it during many generations. + Educated parents will have children fit to receive education; and these + again will grow up under circumstances far more favourable to the growth + of intelligence than any which have hitherto existed in our own or in + former ages. + </p> + <p> + Even if we were to suppose no more men of genius to be produced, the great + writers of ancient or of modern times will remain to furnish abundant + materials of education to the coming generation. Now that every nation + holds communication with every other, we may truly say in a fuller sense + than formerly that 'the thoughts of men are widened with the process of + the suns.' They will not be 'cribbed, cabined, and confined' within a + province or an island. The East will provide elements of culture to the + West as well as the West to the East. The religions and literatures of the + world will be open books, which he who wills may read. The human race may + not be always ground down by bodily toil, but may have greater leisure for + the improvement of the mind. The increasing sense of the greatness and + infinity of nature will tend to awaken in men larger and more liberal + thoughts. The love of mankind may be the source of a greater development + of literature than nationality has ever been. There may be a greater + freedom from prejudice and party; we may better understand the whereabouts + of truth, and therefore there may be more success and fewer failures in + the search for it. Lastly, in the coming ages we shall carry with us the + recollection of the past, in which are necessarily contained many seeds of + revival and renaissance in the future. So far is the world from becoming + exhausted, so groundless is the fear that literature will ever die out. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PHAEDRUS + </h2> + <p> + PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE: Socrates, Phaedrus. + </p> + <p> + SCENE: Under a plane-tree, by the banks of the Ilissus. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: My dear Phaedrus, whence come you, and whither are you going? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I come from Lysias the son of Cephalus, and I am going to take a + walk outside the wall, for I have been sitting with him the whole morning; + and our common friend Acumenus tells me that it is much more refreshing to + walk in the open air than to be shut up in a cloister. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: There he is right. Lysias then, I suppose, was in the town? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, he was staying with Epicrates, here at the house of + Morychus; that house which is near the temple of Olympian Zeus. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And how did he entertain you? Can I be wrong in supposing that + Lysias gave you a feast of discourse? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You shall hear, if you can spare time to accompany me. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And should I not deem the conversation of you and Lysias 'a + thing of higher import,' as I may say in the words of Pindar, 'than any + business'? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Will you go on? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And will you go on with the narration? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: My tale, Socrates, is one of your sort, for love was the theme + which occupied us—love after a fashion: Lysias has been writing + about a fair youth who was being tempted, but not by a lover; and this was + the point: he ingeniously proved that the non-lover should be accepted + rather than the lover. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: O that is noble of him! I wish that he would say the poor man + rather than the rich, and the old man rather than the young one;—then + he would meet the case of me and of many a man; his words would be quite + refreshing, and he would be a public benefactor. For my part, I do so long + to hear his speech, that if you walk all the way to Megara, and when you + have reached the wall come back, as Herodicus recommends, without going + in, I will keep you company. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What do you mean, my good Socrates? How can you imagine that my + unpractised memory can do justice to an elaborate work, which the greatest + rhetorician of the age spent a long time in composing. Indeed, I cannot; I + would give a great deal if I could. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I believe that I know Phaedrus about as well as I know myself, + and I am very sure that the speech of Lysias was repeated to him, not once + only, but again and again;—he insisted on hearing it many times over + and Lysias was very willing to gratify him; at last, when nothing else + would do, he got hold of the book, and looked at what he most wanted to + see,—this occupied him during the whole morning;—and then when + he was tired with sitting, he went out to take a walk, not until, by the + dog, as I believe, he had simply learned by heart the entire discourse, + unless it was unusually long, and he went to a place outside the wall that + he might practise his lesson. There he saw a certain lover of discourse + who had a similar weakness;—he saw and rejoiced; now thought he, 'I + shall have a partner in my revels.' And he invited him to come and walk + with him. But when the lover of discourse begged that he would repeat the + tale, he gave himself airs and said, 'No I cannot,' as if he were + indisposed; although, if the hearer had refused, he would sooner or later + have been compelled by him to listen whether he would or no. Therefore, + Phaedrus, bid him do at once what he will soon do whether bidden or not. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I see that you will not let me off until I speak in some fashion + or other; verily therefore my best plan is to speak as I best can. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: A very true remark, that of yours. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I will do as I say; but believe me, Socrates, I did not learn + the very words—O no; nevertheless I have a general notion of what he + said, and will give you a summary of the points in which the lover + differed from the non-lover. Let me begin at the beginning. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, my sweet one; but you must first of all show what you have + in your left hand under your cloak, for that roll, as I suspect, is the + actual discourse. Now, much as I love you, I would not have you suppose + that I am going to have your memory exercised at my expense, if you have + Lysias himself here. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Enough; I see that I have no hope of practising my art upon you. + But if I am to read, where would you please to sit? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let us turn aside and go by the Ilissus; we will sit down at + some quiet spot. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I am fortunate in not having my sandals, and as you never have + any, I think that we may go along the brook and cool our feet in the + water; this will be the easiest way, and at midday and in the summer is + far from being unpleasant. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Lead on, and look out for a place in which we can sit down. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Do you see the tallest plane-tree in the distance? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: There are shade and gentle breezes, and grass on which we may + either sit or lie down. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Move forward. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I should like to know, Socrates, whether the place is not + somewhere here at which Boreas is said to have carried off Orithyia from + the banks of the Ilissus? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Such is the tradition. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: And is this the exact spot? The little stream is delightfully + clear and bright; I can fancy that there might be maidens playing near. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I believe that the spot is not exactly here, but about a quarter + of a mile lower down, where you cross to the temple of Artemis, and there + is, I think, some sort of an altar of Boreas at the place. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I have never noticed it; but I beseech you to tell me, Socrates, + do you believe this tale? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The wise are doubtful, and I should not be singular if, like + them, I too doubted. I might have a rational explanation that Orithyia was + playing with Pharmacia, when a northern gust carried her over the + neighbouring rocks; and this being the manner of her death, she was said + to have been carried away by Boreas. There is a discrepancy, however, + about the locality; according to another version of the story she was + taken from Areopagus, and not from this place. Now I quite acknowledge + that these allegories are very nice, but he is not to be envied who has to + invent them; much labour and ingenuity will be required of him; and when + he has once begun, he must go on and rehabilitate Hippocentaurs and + chimeras dire. Gorgons and winged steeds flow in apace, and numberless + other inconceivable and portentous natures. And if he is sceptical about + them, and would fain reduce them one after another to the rules of + probability, this sort of crude philosophy will take up a great deal of + time. Now I have no leisure for such enquiries; shall I tell you why? I + must first know myself, as the Delphian inscription says; to be curious + about that which is not my concern, while I am still in ignorance of my + own self, would be ridiculous. And therefore I bid farewell to all this; + the common opinion is enough for me. For, as I was saying, I want to know + not about this, but about myself: am I a monster more complicated and + swollen with passion than the serpent Typho, or a creature of a gentler + and simpler sort, to whom Nature has given a diviner and lowlier destiny? + But let me ask you, friend: have we not reached the plane-tree to which + you were conducting us? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, this is the tree. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: By Here, a fair resting-place, full of summer sounds and scents. + Here is this lofty and spreading plane-tree, and the agnus castus high and + clustering, in the fullest blossom and the greatest fragrance; and the + stream which flows beneath the plane-tree is deliciously cold to the feet. + Judging from the ornaments and images, this must be a spot sacred to + Achelous and the Nymphs. How delightful is the breeze:—so very + sweet; and there is a sound in the air shrill and summerlike which makes + answer to the chorus of the cicadae. But the greatest charm of all is the + grass, like a pillow gently sloping to the head. My dear Phaedrus, you + have been an admirable guide. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What an incomprehensible being you are, Socrates: when you are + in the country, as you say, you really are like some stranger who is led + about by a guide. Do you ever cross the border? I rather think that you + never venture even outside the gates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Very true, my good friend; and I hope that you will excuse me + when you hear the reason, which is, that I am a lover of knowledge, and + the men who dwell in the city are my teachers, and not the trees or the + country. Though I do indeed believe that you have found a spell with which + to draw me out of the city into the country, like a hungry cow before whom + a bough or a bunch of fruit is waved. For only hold up before me in like + manner a book, and you may lead me all round Attica, and over the wide + world. And now having arrived, I intend to lie down, and do you choose any + posture in which you can read best. Begin. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Listen. You know how matters stand with me; and how, as I + conceive, this affair may be arranged for the advantage of both of us. And + I maintain that I ought not to fail in my suit, because I am not your + lover: for lovers repent of the kindnesses which they have shown when + their passion ceases, but to the non-lovers who are free and not under any + compulsion, no time of repentance ever comes; for they confer their + benefits according to the measure of their ability, in the way which is + most conducive to their own interest. Then again, lovers consider how by + reason of their love they have neglected their own concerns and rendered + service to others: and when to these benefits conferred they add on the + troubles which they have endured, they think that they have long ago made + to the beloved a very ample return. But the non-lover has no such + tormenting recollections; he has never neglected his affairs or quarrelled + with his relations; he has no troubles to add up or excuses to invent; and + being well rid of all these evils, why should he not freely do what will + gratify the beloved? If you say that the lover is more to be esteemed, + because his love is thought to be greater; for he is willing to say and do + what is hateful to other men, in order to please his beloved;—that, + if true, is only a proof that he will prefer any future love to his + present, and will injure his old love at the pleasure of the new. And how, + in a matter of such infinite importance, can a man be right in trusting + himself to one who is afflicted with a malady which no experienced person + would attempt to cure, for the patient himself admits that he is not in + his right mind, and acknowledges that he is wrong in his mind, but says + that he is unable to control himself? And if he came to his right mind, + would he ever imagine that the desires were good which he conceived when + in his wrong mind? Once more, there are many more non-lovers than lovers; + and if you choose the best of the lovers, you will not have many to choose + from; but if from the non-lovers, the choice will be larger, and you will + be far more likely to find among them a person who is worthy of your + friendship. If public opinion be your dread, and you would avoid reproach, + in all probability the lover, who is always thinking that other men are as + emulous of him as he is of them, will boast to some one of his successes, + and make a show of them openly in the pride of his heart;—he wants + others to know that his labour has not been lost; but the non-lover is + more his own master, and is desirous of solid good, and not of the opinion + of mankind. Again, the lover may be generally noted or seen following the + beloved (this is his regular occupation), and whenever they are observed + to exchange two words they are supposed to meet about some affair of love + either past or in contemplation; but when non-lovers meet, no one asks the + reason why, because people know that talking to another is natural, + whether friendship or mere pleasure be the motive. Once more, if you fear + the fickleness of friendship, consider that in any other case a quarrel + might be a mutual calamity; but now, when you have given up what is most + precious to you, you will be the greater loser, and therefore, you will + have more reason in being afraid of the lover, for his vexations are many, + and he is always fancying that every one is leagued against him. Wherefore + also he debars his beloved from society; he will not have you intimate + with the wealthy, lest they should exceed him in wealth, or with men of + education, lest they should be his superiors in understanding; and he is + equally afraid of anybody's influence who has any other advantage over + himself. If he can persuade you to break with them, you are left without a + friend in the world; or if, out of a regard to your own interest, you have + more sense than to comply with his desire, you will have to quarrel with + him. But those who are non-lovers, and whose success in love is the reward + of their merit, will not be jealous of the companions of their beloved, + and will rather hate those who refuse to be his associates, thinking that + their favourite is slighted by the latter and benefited by the former; for + more love than hatred may be expected to come to him out of his friendship + with others. Many lovers too have loved the person of a youth before they + knew his character or his belongings; so that when their passion has + passed away, there is no knowing whether they will continue to be his + friends; whereas, in the case of non-lovers who were always friends, the + friendship is not lessened by the favours granted; but the recollection of + these remains with them, and is an earnest of good things to come. + </p> + <p> + Further, I say that you are likely to be improved by me, whereas the lover + will spoil you. For they praise your words and actions in a wrong way; + partly, because they are afraid of offending you, and also, their judgment + is weakened by passion. Such are the feats which love exhibits; he makes + things painful to the disappointed which give no pain to others; he + compels the successful lover to praise what ought not to give him + pleasure, and therefore the beloved is to be pitied rather than envied. + But if you listen to me, in the first place, I, in my intercourse with + you, shall not merely regard present enjoyment, but also future advantage, + being not mastered by love, but my own master; nor for small causes taking + violent dislikes, but even when the cause is great, slowly laying up + little wrath—unintentional offences I shall forgive, and intentional + ones I shall try to prevent; and these are the marks of a friendship which + will last. + </p> + <p> + Do you think that a lover only can be a firm friend? reflect:—if + this were true, we should set small value on sons, or fathers, or mothers; + nor should we ever have loyal friends, for our love of them arises not + from passion, but from other associations. Further, if we ought to shower + favours on those who are the most eager suitors,—on that principle, + we ought always to do good, not to the most virtuous, but to the most + needy; for they are the persons who will be most relieved, and will + therefore be the most grateful; and when you make a feast you should + invite not your friend, but the beggar and the empty soul; for they will + love you, and attend you, and come about your doors, and will be the best + pleased, and the most grateful, and will invoke many a blessing on your + head. Yet surely you ought not to be granting favours to those who besiege + you with prayer, but to those who are best able to reward you; nor to the + lover only, but to those who are worthy of love; nor to those who will + enjoy the bloom of your youth, but to those who will share their + possessions with you in age; nor to those who, having succeeded, will + glory in their success to others, but to those who will be modest and tell + no tales; nor to those who care about you for a moment only, but to those + who will continue your friends through life; nor to those who, when their + passion is over, will pick a quarrel with you, but rather to those who, + when the charm of youth has left you, will show their own virtue. Remember + what I have said; and consider yet this further point: friends admonish + the lover under the idea that his way of life is bad, but no one of his + kindred ever yet censured the non-lover, or thought that he was + ill-advised about his own interests. + </p> + <p> + 'Perhaps you will ask me whether I propose that you should indulge every + non-lover. To which I reply that not even the lover would advise you to + indulge all lovers, for the indiscriminate favour is less esteemed by the + rational recipient, and less easily hidden by him who would escape the + censure of the world. Now love ought to be for the advantage of both + parties, and for the injury of neither. + </p> + <p> + 'I believe that I have said enough; but if there is anything more which + you desire or which in your opinion needs to be supplied, ask and I will + answer.' + </p> + <p> + Now, Socrates, what do you think? Is not the discourse excellent, more + especially in the matter of the language? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, quite admirable; the effect on me was ravishing. And this I + owe to you, Phaedrus, for I observed you while reading to be in an + ecstasy, and thinking that you are more experienced in these matters than + I am, I followed your example, and, like you, my divine darling, I became + inspired with a phrenzy. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Indeed, you are pleased to be merry. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Do you mean that I am not in earnest? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Now don't talk in that way, Socrates, but let me have your real + opinion; I adjure you, by Zeus, the god of friendship, to tell me whether + you think that any Hellene could have said more or spoken better on the + same subject. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well, but are you and I expected to praise the sentiments of the + author, or only the clearness, and roundness, and finish, and tournure of + the language? As to the first I willingly submit to your better judgment, + for I am not worthy to form an opinion, having only attended to the + rhetorical manner; and I was doubting whether this could have been + defended even by Lysias himself; I thought, though I speak under + correction, that he repeated himself two or three times, either from want + of words or from want of pains; and also, he appeared to me ostentatiously + to exult in showing how well he could say the same thing in two or three + ways. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nonsense, Socrates; what you call repetition was the especial + merit of the speech; for he omitted no topic of which the subject rightly + allowed, and I do not think that any one could have spoken better or more + exhaustively. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: There I cannot go along with you. Ancient sages, men and women, + who have spoken and written of these things, would rise up in judgment + against me, if out of complaisance I assented to you. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Who are they, and where did you hear anything better than this? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I am sure that I must have heard; but at this moment I do not + remember from whom; perhaps from Sappho the fair, or Anacreon the wise; + or, possibly, from a prose writer. Why do I say so? Why, because I + perceive that my bosom is full, and that I could make another speech as + good as that of Lysias, and different. Now I am certain that this is not + an invention of my own, who am well aware that I know nothing, and + therefore I can only infer that I have been filled through the ears, like + a pitcher, from the waters of another, though I have actually forgotten in + my stupidity who was my informant. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is grand:—but never mind where you heard the + discourse or from whom; let that be a mystery not to be divulged even at + my earnest desire. Only, as you say, promise to make another and better + oration, equal in length and entirely new, on the same subject; and I, + like the nine Archons, will promise to set up a golden image at Delphi, + not only of myself, but of you, and as large as life. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: You are a dear golden ass if you suppose me to mean that Lysias + has altogether missed the mark, and that I can make a speech from which + all his arguments are to be excluded. The worst of authors will say + something which is to the point. Who, for example, could speak on this + thesis of yours without praising the discretion of the non-lover and + blaming the indiscretion of the lover? These are the commonplaces of the + subject which must come in (for what else is there to be said?) and must + be allowed and excused; the only merit is in the arrangement of them, for + there can be none in the invention; but when you leave the commonplaces, + then there may be some originality. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I admit that there is reason in what you say, and I too will be + reasonable, and will allow you to start with the premiss that the lover is + more disordered in his wits than the non-lover; if in what remains you + make a longer and better speech than Lysias, and use other arguments, then + I say again, that a statue you shall have of beaten gold, and take your + place by the colossal offerings of the Cypselids at Olympia. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: How profoundly in earnest is the lover, because to tease him I + lay a finger upon his love! And so, Phaedrus, you really imagine that I am + going to improve upon the ingenuity of Lysias? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: There I have you as you had me, and you must just speak 'as you + best can.' Do not let us exchange 'tu quoque' as in a farce, or compel me + to say to you as you said to me, 'I know Socrates as well as I know + myself, and he was wanting to speak, but he gave himself airs.' Rather I + would have you consider that from this place we stir not until you have + unbosomed yourself of the speech; for here are we all alone, and I am + stronger, remember, and younger than you:—Wherefore perpend, and do + not compel me to use violence. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But, my sweet Phaedrus, how ridiculous it would be of me to + compete with Lysias in an extempore speech! He is a master in his art and + I am an untaught man. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You see how matters stand; and therefore let there be no more + pretences; for, indeed, I know the word that is irresistible. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then don't say it. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, but I will; and my word shall be an oath. 'I say, or rather + swear'—but what god will be witness of my oath?—'By this + plane-tree I swear, that unless you repeat the discourse here in the face + of this very plane-tree, I will never tell you another; never let you have + word of another!' + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Villain! I am conquered; the poor lover of discourse has no more + to say. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Then why are you still at your tricks? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I am not going to play tricks now that you have taken the oath, + for I cannot allow myself to be starved. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Proceed. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Shall I tell you what I will do? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I will veil my face and gallop through the discourse as fast as + I can, for if I see you I shall feel ashamed and not know what to say. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Only go on and you may do anything else which you please. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Come, O ye Muses, melodious, as ye are called, whether you have + received this name from the character of your strains, or because the + Melians are a musical race, help, O help me in the tale which my good + friend here desires me to rehearse, in order that his friend whom he + always deemed wise may seem to him to be wiser than ever. + </p> + <p> + Once upon a time there was a fair boy, or, more properly speaking, a + youth; he was very fair and had a great many lovers; and there was one + special cunning one, who had persuaded the youth that he did not love him, + but he really loved him all the same; and one day when he was paying his + addresses to him, he used this very argument—that he ought to accept + the non-lover rather than the lover; his words were as follows:— + </p> + <p> + 'All good counsel begins in the same way; a man should know what he is + advising about, or his counsel will all come to nought. But people imagine + that they know about the nature of things, when they don't know about + them, and, not having come to an understanding at first because they think + that they know, they end, as might be expected, in contradicting one + another and themselves. Now you and I must not be guilty of this + fundamental error which we condemn in others; but as our question is + whether the lover or non-lover is to be preferred, let us first of all + agree in defining the nature and power of love, and then, keeping our eyes + upon the definition and to this appealing, let us further enquire whether + love brings advantage or disadvantage. + </p> + <p> + 'Every one sees that love is a desire, and we know also that non-lovers + desire the beautiful and good. Now in what way is the lover to be + distinguished from the non-lover? Let us note that in every one of us + there are two guiding and ruling principles which lead us whither they + will; one is the natural desire of pleasure, the other is an acquired + opinion which aspires after the best; and these two are sometimes in + harmony and then again at war, and sometimes the one, sometimes the other + conquers. When opinion by the help of reason leads us to the best, the + conquering principle is called temperance; but when desire, which is + devoid of reason, rules in us and drags us to pleasure, that power of + misrule is called excess. Now excess has many names, and many members, and + many forms, and any of these forms when very marked gives a name, neither + honourable nor creditable, to the bearer of the name. The desire of + eating, for example, which gets the better of the higher reason and the + other desires, is called gluttony, and he who is possessed by it is called + a glutton; the tyrannical desire of drink, which inclines the possessor of + the desire to drink, has a name which is only too obvious, and there can + be as little doubt by what name any other appetite of the same family + would be called;—it will be the name of that which happens to be + dominant. And now I think that you will perceive the drift of my + discourse; but as every spoken word is in a manner plainer than the + unspoken, I had better say further that the irrational desire which + overcomes the tendency of opinion towards right, and is led away to the + enjoyment of beauty, and especially of personal beauty, by the desires + which are her own kindred—that supreme desire, I say, which by + leading conquers and by the force of passion is reinforced, from this very + force, receiving a name, is called love (erromenos eros).' + </p> + <p> + And now, dear Phaedrus, I shall pause for an instant to ask whether you do + not think me, as I appear to myself, inspired? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, Socrates, you seem to have a very unusual flow of words. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Listen to me, then, in silence; for surely the place is holy; so + that you must not wonder, if, as I proceed, I appear to be in a divine + fury, for already I am getting into dithyrambics. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nothing can be truer. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The responsibility rests with you. But hear what follows, and + perhaps the fit may be averted; all is in their hands above. I will go on + talking to my youth. Listen:— + </p> + <p> + Thus, my friend, we have declared and defined the nature of the subject. + Keeping the definition in view, let us now enquire what advantage or + disadvantage is likely to ensue from the lover or the non-lover to him who + accepts their advances. + </p> + <p> + He who is the victim of his passions and the slave of pleasure will of + course desire to make his beloved as agreeable to himself as possible. Now + to him who has a mind diseased anything is agreeable which is not opposed + to him, but that which is equal or superior is hateful to him, and + therefore the lover will not brook any superiority or equality on the part + of his beloved; he is always employed in reducing him to inferiority. And + the ignorant is the inferior of the wise, the coward of the brave, the + slow of speech of the speaker, the dull of the clever. These, and not + these only, are the mental defects of the beloved;—defects which, + when implanted by nature, are necessarily a delight to the lover, and when + not implanted, he must contrive to implant them in him, if he would not be + deprived of his fleeting joy. And therefore he cannot help being jealous, + and will debar his beloved from the advantages of society which would make + a man of him, and especially from that society which would have given him + wisdom, and thereby he cannot fail to do him great harm. That is to say, + in his excessive fear lest he should come to be despised in his eyes he + will be compelled to banish from him divine philosophy; and there is no + greater injury which he can inflict upon him than this. He will contrive + that his beloved shall be wholly ignorant, and in everything shall look to + him; he is to be the delight of the lover's heart, and a curse to himself. + Verily, a lover is a profitable guardian and associate for him in all that + relates to his mind. + </p> + <p> + Let us next see how his master, whose law of life is pleasure and not + good, will keep and train the body of his servant. Will he not choose a + beloved who is delicate rather than sturdy and strong? One brought up in + shady bowers and not in the bright sun, a stranger to manly exercises and + the sweat of toil, accustomed only to a soft and luxurious diet, instead + of the hues of health having the colours of paint and ornament, and the + rest of a piece?—such a life as any one can imagine and which I need + not detail at length. But I may sum up all that I have to say in a word, + and pass on. Such a person in war, or in any of the great crises of life, + will be the anxiety of his friends and also of his lover, and certainly + not the terror of his enemies; which nobody can deny. + </p> + <p> + And now let us tell what advantage or disadvantage the beloved will + receive from the guardianship and society of his lover in the matter of + his property; this is the next point to be considered. The lover will be + the first to see what, indeed, will be sufficiently evident to all men, + that he desires above all things to deprive his beloved of his dearest and + best and holiest possessions, father, mother, kindred, friends, of all + whom he thinks may be hinderers or reprovers of their most sweet converse; + he will even cast a jealous eye upon his gold and silver or other + property, because these make him a less easy prey, and when caught less + manageable; hence he is of necessity displeased at his possession of them + and rejoices at their loss; and he would like him to be wifeless, + childless, homeless, as well; and the longer the better, for the longer he + is all this, the longer he will enjoy him. + </p> + <p> + There are some sort of animals, such as flatterers, who are dangerous and + mischievous enough, and yet nature has mingled a temporary pleasure and + grace in their composition. You may say that a courtesan is hurtful, and + disapprove of such creatures and their practices, and yet for the time + they are very pleasant. But the lover is not only hurtful to his love; he + is also an extremely disagreeable companion. The old proverb says that + 'birds of a feather flock together'; I suppose that equality of years + inclines them to the same pleasures, and similarity begets friendship; yet + you may have more than enough even of this; and verily constraint is + always said to be grievous. Now the lover is not only unlike his beloved, + but he forces himself upon him. For he is old and his love is young, and + neither day nor night will he leave him if he can help; necessity and the + sting of desire drive him on, and allure him with the pleasure which he + receives from seeing, hearing, touching, perceiving him in every way. And + therefore he is delighted to fasten upon him and to minister to him. But + what pleasure or consolation can the beloved be receiving all this time? + Must he not feel the extremity of disgust when he looks at an old + shrivelled face and the remainder to match, which even in a description is + disagreeable, and quite detestable when he is forced into daily contact + with his lover; moreover he is jealously watched and guarded against + everything and everybody, and has to hear misplaced and exaggerated + praises of himself, and censures equally inappropriate, which are + intolerable when the man is sober, and, besides being intolerable, are + published all over the world in all their indelicacy and wearisomeness + when he is drunk. + </p> + <p> + And not only while his love continues is he mischievous and unpleasant, + but when his love ceases he becomes a perfidious enemy of him on whom he + showered his oaths and prayers and promises, and yet could hardly prevail + upon him to tolerate the tedium of his company even from motives of + interest. The hour of payment arrives, and now he is the servant of + another master; instead of love and infatuation, wisdom and temperance are + his bosom's lords; but the beloved has not discovered the change which has + taken place in him, when he asks for a return and recalls to his + recollection former sayings and doings; he believes himself to be speaking + to the same person, and the other, not having the courage to confess the + truth, and not knowing how to fulfil the oaths and promises which he made + when under the dominion of folly, and having now grown wise and temperate, + does not want to do as he did or to be as he was before. And so he runs + away and is constrained to be a defaulter; the oyster-shell (In allusion + to a game in which two parties fled or pursued according as an + oyster-shell which was thrown into the air fell with the dark or light + side uppermost.) has fallen with the other side uppermost—he changes + pursuit into flight, while the other is compelled to follow him with + passion and imprecation, not knowing that he ought never from the first to + have accepted a demented lover instead of a sensible non-lover; and that + in making such a choice he was giving himself up to a faithless, morose, + envious, disagreeable being, hurtful to his estate, hurtful to his bodily + health, and still more hurtful to the cultivation of his mind, than which + there neither is nor ever will be anything more honoured in the eyes both + of gods and men. Consider this, fair youth, and know that in the + friendship of the lover there is no real kindness; he has an appetite and + wants to feed upon you: + </p> + <p> + 'As wolves love lambs so lovers love their loves.' + </p> + <p> + But I told you so, I am speaking in verse, and therefore I had better make + an end; enough. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I thought that you were only half-way and were going to make a + similar speech about all the advantages of accepting the non-lover. Why do + you not proceed? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Does not your simplicity observe that I have got out of + dithyrambics into heroics, when only uttering a censure on the lover? And + if I am to add the praises of the non-lover what will become of me? Do you + not perceive that I am already overtaken by the Nymphs to whom you have + mischievously exposed me? And therefore I will only add that the non-lover + has all the advantages in which the lover is accused of being deficient. + And now I will say no more; there has been enough of both of them. Leaving + the tale to its fate, I will cross the river and make the best of my way + home, lest a worse thing be inflicted upon me by you. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Not yet, Socrates; not until the heat of the day has passed; do + you not see that the hour is almost noon? there is the midday sun standing + still, as people say, in the meridian. Let us rather stay and talk over + what has been said, and then return in the cool. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Your love of discourse, Phaedrus, is superhuman, simply + marvellous, and I do not believe that there is any one of your + contemporaries who has either made or in one way or another has compelled + others to make an equal number of speeches. I would except Simmias the + Theban, but all the rest are far behind you. And now I do verily believe + that you have been the cause of another. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is good news. But what do you mean? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I mean to say that as I was about to cross the stream the usual + sign was given to me,—that sign which always forbids, but never + bids, me to do anything which I am going to do; and I thought that I heard + a voice saying in my ear that I had been guilty of impiety, and that I + must not go away until I had made an atonement. Now I am a diviner, though + not a very good one, but I have enough religion for my own use, as you + might say of a bad writer—his writing is good enough for him; and I + am beginning to see that I was in error. O my friend, how prophetic is the + human soul! At the time I had a sort of misgiving, and, like Ibycus, 'I + was troubled; I feared that I might be buying honour from men at the price + of sinning against the gods.' Now I recognize my error. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What error? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: That was a dreadful speech which you brought with you, and you + made me utter one as bad. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: How so? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: It was foolish, I say,—to a certain extent, impious; can + anything be more dreadful? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nothing, if the speech was really such as you describe. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well, and is not Eros the son of Aphrodite, and a god? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: So men say. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But that was not acknowledged by Lysias in his speech, nor by + you in that other speech which you by a charm drew from my lips. For if + love be, as he surely is, a divinity, he cannot be evil. Yet this was the + error of both the speeches. There was also a simplicity about them which + was refreshing; having no truth or honesty in them, nevertheless they + pretended to be something, hoping to succeed in deceiving the manikins of + earth and gain celebrity among them. Wherefore I must have a purgation. + And I bethink me of an ancient purgation of mythological error which was + devised, not by Homer, for he never had the wit to discover why he was + blind, but by Stesichorus, who was a philosopher and knew the reason why; + and therefore, when he lost his eyes, for that was the penalty which was + inflicted upon him for reviling the lovely Helen, he at once purged + himself. And the purgation was a recantation, which began thus,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 'False is that word of mine—the truth is that thou didst not embark in + ships, nor ever go to the walls of Troy;' +</pre> + <p> + and when he had completed his poem, which is called 'the recantation,' + immediately his sight returned to him. Now I will be wiser than either + Stesichorus or Homer, in that I am going to make my recantation for + reviling love before I suffer; and this I will attempt, not as before, + veiled and ashamed, but with forehead bold and bare. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nothing could be more agreeable to me than to hear you say so. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Only think, my good Phaedrus, what an utter want of delicacy was + shown in the two discourses; I mean, in my own and in that which you + recited out of the book. Would not any one who was himself of a noble and + gentle nature, and who loved or ever had loved a nature like his own, when + we tell of the petty causes of lovers' jealousies, and of their exceeding + animosities, and of the injuries which they do to their beloved, have + imagined that our ideas of love were taken from some haunt of sailors to + which good manners were unknown—he would certainly never have + admitted the justice of our censure? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I dare say not, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Therefore, because I blush at the thought of this person, and + also because I am afraid of Love himself, I desire to wash the brine out + of my ears with water from the spring; and I would counsel Lysias not to + delay, but to write another discourse, which shall prove that 'ceteris + paribus' the lover ought to be accepted rather than the non-lover. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Be assured that he shall. You shall speak the praises of the + lover, and Lysias shall be compelled by me to write another discourse on + the same theme. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: You will be true to your nature in that, and therefore I believe + you. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Speak, and fear not. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But where is the fair youth whom I was addressing before, and + who ought to listen now; lest, if he hear me not, he should accept a + non-lover before he knows what he is doing? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He is close at hand, and always at your service. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Know then, fair youth, that the former discourse was the word of + Phaedrus, the son of Vain Man, who dwells in the city of Myrrhina + (Myrrhinusius). And this which I am about to utter is the recantation of + Stesichorus the son of Godly Man (Euphemus), who comes from the town of + Desire (Himera), and is to the following effect: 'I told a lie when I + said' that the beloved ought to accept the non-lover when he might have + the lover, because the one is sane, and the other mad. It might be so if + madness were simply an evil; but there is also a madness which is a divine + gift, and the source of the chiefest blessings granted to men. For + prophecy is a madness, and the prophetess at Delphi and the priestesses at + Dodona when out of their senses have conferred great benefits on Hellas, + both in public and private life, but when in their senses few or none. And + I might also tell you how the Sibyl and other inspired persons have given + to many an one many an intimation of the future which has saved them from + falling. But it would be tedious to speak of what every one knows. + </p> + <p> + There will be more reason in appealing to the ancient inventors of names + (compare Cratylus), who would never have connected prophecy (mantike) + which foretells the future and is the noblest of arts, with madness + (manike), or called them both by the same name, if they had deemed madness + to be a disgrace or dishonour;—they must have thought that there was + an inspired madness which was a noble thing; for the two words, mantike + and manike, are really the same, and the letter tau is only a modern and + tasteless insertion. And this is confirmed by the name which was given by + them to the rational investigation of futurity, whether made by the help + of birds or of other signs—this, for as much as it is an art which + supplies from the reasoning faculty mind (nous) and information (istoria) + to human thought (oiesis) they originally termed oionoistike, but the word + has been lately altered and made sonorous by the modern introduction of + the letter Omega (oionoistike and oionistike), and in proportion as + prophecy (mantike) is more perfect and august than augury, both in name + and fact, in the same proportion, as the ancients testify, is madness + superior to a sane mind (sophrosune) for the one is only of human, but the + other of divine origin. Again, where plagues and mightiest woes have bred + in certain families, owing to some ancient blood-guiltiness, there madness + has entered with holy prayers and rites, and by inspired utterances found + a way of deliverance for those who are in need; and he who has part in + this gift, and is truly possessed and duly out of his mind, is by the use + of purifications and mysteries made whole and exempt from evil, future as + well as present, and has a release from the calamity which was afflicting + him. The third kind is the madness of those who are possessed by the + Muses; which taking hold of a delicate and virgin soul, and there + inspiring frenzy, awakens lyrical and all other numbers; with these + adorning the myriad actions of ancient heroes for the instruction of + posterity. But he who, having no touch of the Muses' madness in his soul, + comes to the door and thinks that he will get into the temple by the help + of art—he, I say, and his poetry are not admitted; the sane man + disappears and is nowhere when he enters into rivalry with the madman. + </p> + <p> + I might tell of many other noble deeds which have sprung from inspired + madness. And therefore, let no one frighten or flutter us by saying that + the temperate friend is to be chosen rather than the inspired, but let him + further show that love is not sent by the gods for any good to lover or + beloved; if he can do so we will allow him to carry off the palm. And we, + on our part, will prove in answer to him that the madness of love is the + greatest of heaven's blessings, and the proof shall be one which the wise + will receive, and the witling disbelieve. But first of all, let us view + the affections and actions of the soul divine and human, and try to + ascertain the truth about them. The beginning of our proof is as follows:— + </p> + <p> + (Translated by Cic. Tus. Quaest.) The soul through all her being is + immortal, for that which is ever in motion is immortal; but that which + moves another and is moved by another, in ceasing to move ceases also to + live. Only the self-moving, never leaving self, never ceases to move, and + is the fountain and beginning of motion to all that moves besides. Now, + the beginning is unbegotten, for that which is begotten has a beginning; + but the beginning is begotten of nothing, for if it were begotten of + something, then the begotten would not come from a beginning. But if + unbegotten, it must also be indestructible; for if beginning were + destroyed, there could be no beginning out of anything, nor anything out + of a beginning; and all things must have a beginning. And therefore the + self-moving is the beginning of motion; and this can neither be destroyed + nor begotten, else the whole heavens and all creation would collapse and + stand still, and never again have motion or birth. But if the self-moving + is proved to be immortal, he who affirms that self-motion is the very idea + and essence of the soul will not be put to confusion. For the body which + is moved from without is soulless; but that which is moved from within has + a soul, for such is the nature of the soul. But if this be true, must not + the soul be the self-moving, and therefore of necessity unbegotten and + immortal? Enough of the soul's immortality. + </p> + <p> + Of the nature of the soul, though her true form be ever a theme of large + and more than mortal discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure. And + let the figure be composite—a pair of winged horses and a + charioteer. Now the winged horses and the charioteers of the gods are all + of them noble and of noble descent, but those of other races are mixed; + the human charioteer drives his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of + noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of ignoble breed; and the + driving of them of necessity gives a great deal of trouble to him. I will + endeavour to explain to you in what way the mortal differs from the + immortal creature. The soul in her totality has the care of inanimate + being everywhere, and traverses the whole heaven in divers forms appearing—when + perfect and fully winged she soars upward, and orders the whole world; + whereas the imperfect soul, losing her wings and drooping in her flight at + last settles on the solid ground—there, finding a home, she receives + an earthly frame which appears to be self-moved, but is really moved by + her power; and this composition of soul and body is called a living and + mortal creature. For immortal no such union can be reasonably believed to + be; although fancy, not having seen nor surely known the nature of God, + may imagine an immortal creature having both a body and also a soul which + are united throughout all time. Let that, however, be as God wills, and be + spoken of acceptably to him. And now let us ask the reason why the soul + loses her wings! + </p> + <p> + The wing is the corporeal element which is most akin to the divine, and + which by nature tends to soar aloft and carry that which gravitates + downwards into the upper region, which is the habitation of the gods. The + divine is beauty, wisdom, goodness, and the like; and by these the wing of + the soul is nourished, and grows apace; but when fed upon evil and + foulness and the opposite of good, wastes and falls away. Zeus, the mighty + lord, holding the reins of a winged chariot, leads the way in heaven, + ordering all and taking care of all; and there follows him the array of + gods and demi-gods, marshalled in eleven bands; Hestia alone abides at + home in the house of heaven; of the rest they who are reckoned among the + princely twelve march in their appointed order. They see many blessed + sights in the inner heaven, and there are many ways to and fro, along + which the blessed gods are passing, every one doing his own work; he may + follow who will and can, for jealousy has no place in the celestial choir. + But when they go to banquet and festival, then they move up the steep to + the top of the vault of heaven. The chariots of the gods in even poise, + obeying the rein, glide rapidly; but the others labour, for the vicious + steed goes heavily, weighing down the charioteer to the earth when his + steed has not been thoroughly trained:—and this is the hour of agony + and extremest conflict for the soul. For the immortals, when they are at + the end of their course, go forth and stand upon the outside of heaven, + and the revolution of the spheres carries them round, and they behold the + things beyond. But of the heaven which is above the heavens, what earthly + poet ever did or ever will sing worthily? It is such as I will describe; + for I must dare to speak the truth, when truth is my theme. There abides + the very being with which true knowledge is concerned; the colourless, + formless, intangible essence, visible only to mind, the pilot of the soul. + The divine intelligence, being nurtured upon mind and pure knowledge, and + the intelligence of every soul which is capable of receiving the food + proper to it, rejoices at beholding reality, and once more gazing upon + truth, is replenished and made glad, until the revolution of the worlds + brings her round again to the same place. In the revolution she beholds + justice, and temperance, and knowledge absolute, not in the form of + generation or of relation, which men call existence, but knowledge + absolute in existence absolute; and beholding the other true existences in + like manner, and feasting upon them, she passes down into the interior of + the heavens and returns home; and there the charioteer putting up his + horses at the stall, gives them ambrosia to eat and nectar to drink. + </p> + <p> + Such is the life of the gods; but of other souls, that which follows God + best and is likest to him lifts the head of the charioteer into the outer + world, and is carried round in the revolution, troubled indeed by the + steeds, and with difficulty beholding true being; while another only rises + and falls, and sees, and again fails to see by reason of the unruliness of + the steeds. The rest of the souls are also longing after the upper world + and they all follow, but not being strong enough they are carried round + below the surface, plunging, treading on one another, each striving to be + first; and there is confusion and perspiration and the extremity of + effort; and many of them are lamed or have their wings broken through the + ill-driving of the charioteers; and all of them after a fruitless toil, + not having attained to the mysteries of true being, go away, and feed upon + opinion. The reason why the souls exhibit this exceeding eagerness to + behold the plain of truth is that pasturage is found there, which is + suited to the highest part of the soul; and the wing on which the soul + soars is nourished with this. And there is a law of Destiny, that the soul + which attains any vision of truth in company with a god is preserved from + harm until the next period, and if attaining always is always unharmed. + But when she is unable to follow, and fails to behold the truth, and + through some ill-hap sinks beneath the double load of forgetfulness and + vice, and her wings fall from her and she drops to the ground, then the + law ordains that this soul shall at her first birth pass, not into any + other animal, but only into man; and the soul which has seen most of truth + shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or some musical and + loving nature; that which has seen truth in the second degree shall be + some righteous king or warrior chief; the soul which is of the third class + shall be a politician, or economist, or trader; the fourth shall be a + lover of gymnastic toils, or a physician; the fifth shall lead the life of + a prophet or hierophant; to the sixth the character of poet or some other + imitative artist will be assigned; to the seventh the life of an artisan + or husbandman; to the eighth that of a sophist or demagogue; to the ninth + that of a tyrant—all these are states of probation, in which he who + does righteously improves, and he who does unrighteously, deteriorates his + lot. + </p> + <p> + Ten thousand years must elapse before the soul of each one can return to + the place from whence she came, for she cannot grow her wings in less; + only the soul of a philosopher, guileless and true, or the soul of a + lover, who is not devoid of philosophy, may acquire wings in the third of + the recurring periods of a thousand years; he is distinguished from the + ordinary good man who gains wings in three thousand years:—and they + who choose this life three times in succession have wings given them, and + go away at the end of three thousand years. But the others (The + philosopher alone is not subject to judgment (krisis), for he has never + lost the vision of truth.) receive judgment when they have completed their + first life, and after the judgment they go, some of them to the houses of + correction which are under the earth, and are punished; others to some + place in heaven whither they are lightly borne by justice, and there they + live in a manner worthy of the life which they led here when in the form + of men. And at the end of the first thousand years the good souls and also + the evil souls both come to draw lots and choose their second life, and + they may take any which they please. The soul of a man may pass into the + life of a beast, or from the beast return again into the man. But the soul + which has never seen the truth will not pass into the human form. For a + man must have intelligence of universals, and be able to proceed from the + many particulars of sense to one conception of reason;—this is the + recollection of those things which our soul once saw while following God—when + regardless of that which we now call being she raised her head up towards + the true being. And therefore the mind of the philosopher alone has wings; + and this is just, for he is always, according to the measure of his + abilities, clinging in recollection to those things in which God abides, + and in beholding which He is what He is. And he who employs aright these + memories is ever being initiated into perfect mysteries and alone becomes + truly perfect. But, as he forgets earthly interests and is rapt in the + divine, the vulgar deem him mad, and rebuke him; they do not see that he + is inspired. + </p> + <p> + Thus far I have been speaking of the fourth and last kind of madness, + which is imputed to him who, when he sees the beauty of earth, is + transported with the recollection of the true beauty; he would like to fly + away, but he cannot; he is like a bird fluttering and looking upward and + careless of the world below; and he is therefore thought to be mad. And I + have shown this of all inspirations to be the noblest and highest and the + offspring of the highest to him who has or shares in it, and that he who + loves the beautiful is called a lover because he partakes of it. For, as + has been already said, every soul of man has in the way of nature beheld + true being; this was the condition of her passing into the form of man. + But all souls do not easily recall the things of the other world; they may + have seen them for a short time only, or they may have been unfortunate in + their earthly lot, and, having had their hearts turned to unrighteousness + through some corrupting influence, they may have lost the memory of the + holy things which once they saw. Few only retain an adequate remembrance + of them; and they, when they behold here any image of that other world, + are rapt in amazement; but they are ignorant of what this rapture means, + because they do not clearly perceive. For there is no light of justice or + temperance or any of the higher ideas which are precious to souls in the + earthly copies of them: they are seen through a glass dimly; and there are + few who, going to the images, behold in them the realities, and these only + with difficulty. There was a time when with the rest of the happy band + they saw beauty shining in brightness,—we philosophers following in + the train of Zeus, others in company with other gods; and then we beheld + the beatific vision and were initiated into a mystery which may be truly + called most blessed, celebrated by us in our state of innocence, before we + had any experience of evils to come, when we were admitted to the sight of + apparitions innocent and simple and calm and happy, which we beheld + shining in pure light, pure ourselves and not yet enshrined in that living + tomb which we carry about, now that we are imprisoned in the body, like an + oyster in his shell. Let me linger over the memory of scenes which have + passed away. + </p> + <p> + But of beauty, I repeat again that we saw her there shining in company + with the celestial forms; and coming to earth we find her here too, + shining in clearness through the clearest aperture of sense. For sight is + the most piercing of our bodily senses; though not by that is wisdom seen; + her loveliness would have been transporting if there had been a visible + image of her, and the other ideas, if they had visible counterparts, would + be equally lovely. But this is the privilege of beauty, that being the + loveliest she is also the most palpable to sight. Now he who is not newly + initiated or who has become corrupted, does not easily rise out of this + world to the sight of true beauty in the other; he looks only at her + earthly namesake, and instead of being awed at the sight of her, he is + given over to pleasure, and like a brutish beast he rushes on to enjoy and + beget; he consorts with wantonness, and is not afraid or ashamed of + pursuing pleasure in violation of nature. But he whose initiation is + recent, and who has been the spectator of many glories in the other world, + is amazed when he sees any one having a godlike face or form, which is the + expression of divine beauty; and at first a shudder runs through him, and + again the old awe steals over him; then looking upon the face of his + beloved as of a god he reverences him, and if he were not afraid of being + thought a downright madman, he would sacrifice to his beloved as to the + image of a god; then while he gazes on him there is a sort of reaction, + and the shudder passes into an unusual heat and perspiration; for, as he + receives the effluence of beauty through the eyes, the wing moistens and + he warms. And as he warms, the parts out of which the wing grew, and which + had been hitherto closed and rigid, and had prevented the wing from + shooting forth, are melted, and as nourishment streams upon him, the lower + end of the wing begins to swell and grow from the root upwards; and the + growth extends under the whole soul—for once the whole was winged. + During this process the whole soul is all in a state of ebullition and + effervescence,—which may be compared to the irritation and + uneasiness in the gums at the time of cutting teeth,—bubbles up, and + has a feeling of uneasiness and tickling; but when in like manner the soul + is beginning to grow wings, the beauty of the beloved meets her eye and + she receives the sensible warm motion of particles which flow towards her, + therefore called emotion (imeros), and is refreshed and warmed by them, + and then she ceases from her pain with joy. But when she is parted from + her beloved and her moisture fails, then the orifices of the passage out + of which the wing shoots dry up and close, and intercept the germ of the + wing; which, being shut up with the emotion, throbbing as with the + pulsations of an artery, pricks the aperture which is nearest, until at + length the entire soul is pierced and maddened and pained, and at the + recollection of beauty is again delighted. And from both of them together + the soul is oppressed at the strangeness of her condition, and is in a + great strait and excitement, and in her madness can neither sleep by night + nor abide in her place by day. And wherever she thinks that she will + behold the beautiful one, thither in her desire she runs. And when she has + seen him, and bathed herself in the waters of beauty, her constraint is + loosened, and she is refreshed, and has no more pangs and pains; and this + is the sweetest of all pleasures at the time, and is the reason why the + soul of the lover will never forsake his beautiful one, whom he esteems + above all; he has forgotten mother and brethren and companions, and he + thinks nothing of the neglect and loss of his property; the rules and + proprieties of life, on which he formerly prided himself, he now despises, + and is ready to sleep like a servant, wherever he is allowed, as near as + he can to his desired one, who is the object of his worship, and the + physician who can alone assuage the greatness of his pain. And this state, + my dear imaginary youth to whom I am talking, is by men called love, and + among the gods has a name at which you, in your simplicity, may be + inclined to mock; there are two lines in the apocryphal writings of Homer + in which the name occurs. One of them is rather outrageous, and not + altogether metrical. They are as follows: + </p> + <p> + 'Mortals call him fluttering love, But the immortals call him winged one, + Because the growing of wings (Or, reading pterothoiton, 'the movement of + wings.') is a necessity to him.' + </p> + <p> + You may believe this, but not unless you like. At any rate the loves of + lovers and their causes are such as I have described. + </p> + <p> + Now the lover who is taken to be the attendant of Zeus is better able to + bear the winged god, and can endure a heavier burden; but the attendants + and companions of Ares, when under the influence of love, if they fancy + that they have been at all wronged, are ready to kill and put an end to + themselves and their beloved. And he who follows in the train of any other + god, while he is unspoiled and the impression lasts, honours and imitates + him, as far as he is able; and after the manner of his God he behaves in + his intercourse with his beloved and with the rest of the world during the + first period of his earthly existence. Every one chooses his love from the + ranks of beauty according to his character, and this he makes his god, and + fashions and adorns as a sort of image which he is to fall down and + worship. The followers of Zeus desire that their beloved should have a + soul like him; and therefore they seek out some one of a philosophical and + imperial nature, and when they have found him and loved him, they do all + they can to confirm such a nature in him, and if they have no experience + of such a disposition hitherto, they learn of any one who can teach them, + and themselves follow in the same way. And they have the less difficulty + in finding the nature of their own god in themselves, because they have + been compelled to gaze intensely on him; their recollection clings to him, + and they become possessed of him, and receive from him their character and + disposition, so far as man can participate in God. The qualities of their + god they attribute to the beloved, wherefore they love him all the more, + and if, like the Bacchic Nymphs, they draw inspiration from Zeus, they + pour out their own fountain upon him, wanting to make him as like as + possible to their own god. But those who are the followers of Here seek a + royal love, and when they have found him they do just the same with him; + and in like manner the followers of Apollo, and of every other god walking + in the ways of their god, seek a love who is to be made like him whom they + serve, and when they have found him, they themselves imitate their god, + and persuade their love to do the same, and educate him into the manner + and nature of the god as far as they each can; for no feelings of envy or + jealousy are entertained by them towards their beloved, but they do their + utmost to create in him the greatest likeness of themselves and of the god + whom they honour. Thus fair and blissful to the beloved is the desire of + the inspired lover, and the initiation of which I speak into the mysteries + of true love, if he be captured by the lover and their purpose is + effected. Now the beloved is taken captive in the following manner:— + </p> + <p> + As I said at the beginning of this tale, I divided each soul into three—two + horses and a charioteer; and one of the horses was good and the other bad: + the division may remain, but I have not yet explained in what the goodness + or badness of either consists, and to that I will now proceed. The + right-hand horse is upright and cleanly made; he has a lofty neck and an + aquiline nose; his colour is white, and his eyes dark; he is a lover of + honour and modesty and temperance, and the follower of true glory; he + needs no touch of the whip, but is guided by word and admonition only. The + other is a crooked lumbering animal, put together anyhow; he has a short + thick neck; he is flat-faced and of a dark colour, with grey eyes and + blood-red complexion (Or with grey and blood-shot eyes.); the mate of + insolence and pride, shag-eared and deaf, hardly yielding to whip and + spur. Now when the charioteer beholds the vision of love, and has his + whole soul warmed through sense, and is full of the prickings and + ticklings of desire, the obedient steed, then as always under the + government of shame, refrains from leaping on the beloved; but the other, + heedless of the pricks and of the blows of the whip, plunges and runs + away, giving all manner of trouble to his companion and the charioteer, + whom he forces to approach the beloved and to remember the joys of love. + They at first indignantly oppose him and will not be urged on to do + terrible and unlawful deeds; but at last, when he persists in plaguing + them, they yield and agree to do as he bids them. And now they are at the + spot and behold the flashing beauty of the beloved; which when the + charioteer sees, his memory is carried to the true beauty, whom he beholds + in company with Modesty like an image placed upon a holy pedestal. He sees + her, but he is afraid and falls backwards in adoration, and by his fall is + compelled to pull back the reins with such violence as to bring both the + steeds on their haunches, the one willing and unresisting, the unruly one + very unwilling; and when they have gone back a little, the one is overcome + with shame and wonder, and his whole soul is bathed in perspiration; the + other, when the pain is over which the bridle and the fall had given him, + having with difficulty taken breath, is full of wrath and reproaches, + which he heaps upon the charioteer and his fellow-steed, for want of + courage and manhood, declaring that they have been false to their + agreement and guilty of desertion. Again they refuse, and again he urges + them on, and will scarce yield to their prayer that he would wait until + another time. When the appointed hour comes, they make as if they had + forgotten, and he reminds them, fighting and neighing and dragging them + on, until at length he on the same thoughts intent, forces them to draw + near again. And when they are near he stoops his head and puts up his + tail, and takes the bit in his teeth and pulls shamelessly. Then the + charioteer is worse off than ever; he falls back like a racer at the + barrier, and with a still more violent wrench drags the bit out of the + teeth of the wild steed and covers his abusive tongue and jaws with blood, + and forces his legs and haunches to the ground and punishes him sorely. + And when this has happened several times and the villain has ceased from + his wanton way, he is tamed and humbled, and follows the will of the + charioteer, and when he sees the beautiful one he is ready to die of fear. + And from that time forward the soul of the lover follows the beloved in + modesty and holy fear. + </p> + <p> + And so the beloved who, like a god, has received every true and loyal + service from his lover, not in pretence but in reality, being also himself + of a nature friendly to his admirer, if in former days he has blushed to + own his passion and turned away his lover, because his youthful companions + or others slanderously told him that he would be disgraced, now as years + advance, at the appointed age and time, is led to receive him into + communion. For fate which has ordained that there shall be no friendship + among the evil has also ordained that there shall ever be friendship among + the good. And the beloved when he has received him into communion and + intimacy, is quite amazed at the good-will of the lover; he recognises + that the inspired friend is worth all other friends or kinsmen; they have + nothing of friendship in them worthy to be compared with his. And when + this feeling continues and he is nearer to him and embraces him, in + gymnastic exercises and at other times of meeting, then the fountain of + that stream, which Zeus when he was in love with Ganymede named Desire, + overflows upon the lover, and some enters into his soul, and some when he + is filled flows out again; and as a breeze or an echo rebounds from the + smooth rocks and returns whence it came, so does the stream of beauty, + passing through the eyes which are the windows of the soul, come back to + the beautiful one; there arriving and quickening the passages of the + wings, watering them and inclining them to grow, and filling the soul of + the beloved also with love. And thus he loves, but he knows not what; he + does not understand and cannot explain his own state; he appears to have + caught the infection of blindness from another; the lover is his mirror in + whom he is beholding himself, but he is not aware of this. When he is with + the lover, both cease from their pain, but when he is away then he longs + as he is longed for, and has love's image, love for love (Anteros) lodging + in his breast, which he calls and believes to be not love but friendship + only, and his desire is as the desire of the other, but weaker; he wants + to see him, touch him, kiss him, embrace him, and probably not long + afterwards his desire is accomplished. When they meet, the wanton steed of + the lover has a word to say to the charioteer; he would like to have a + little pleasure in return for many pains, but the wanton steed of the + beloved says not a word, for he is bursting with passion which he + understands not;—he throws his arms round the lover and embraces him + as his dearest friend; and, when they are side by side, he is not in a + state in which he can refuse the lover anything, if he ask him; although + his fellow-steed and the charioteer oppose him with the arguments of shame + and reason. After this their happiness depends upon their self-control; if + the better elements of the mind which lead to order and philosophy + prevail, then they pass their life here in happiness and harmony—masters + of themselves and orderly—enslaving the vicious and emancipating the + virtuous elements of the soul; and when the end comes, they are light and + winged for flight, having conquered in one of the three heavenly or truly + Olympian victories; nor can human discipline or divine inspiration confer + any greater blessing on man than this. If, on the other hand, they leave + philosophy and lead the lower life of ambition, then probably, after wine + or in some other careless hour, the two wanton animals take the two souls + when off their guard and bring them together, and they accomplish that + desire of their hearts which to the many is bliss; and this having once + enjoyed they continue to enjoy, yet rarely because they have not the + approval of the whole soul. They too are dear, but not so dear to one + another as the others, either at the time of their love or afterwards. + They consider that they have given and taken from each other the most + sacred pledges, and they may not break them and fall into enmity. At last + they pass out of the body, unwinged, but eager to soar, and thus obtain no + mean reward of love and madness. For those who have once begun the + heavenward pilgrimage may not go down again to darkness and the journey + beneath the earth, but they live in light always; happy companions in + their pilgrimage, and when the time comes at which they receive their + wings they have the same plumage because of their love. + </p> + <p> + Thus great are the heavenly blessings which the friendship of a lover will + confer upon you, my youth. Whereas the attachment of the non-lover, which + is alloyed with a worldly prudence and has worldly and niggardly ways of + doling out benefits, will breed in your soul those vulgar qualities which + the populace applaud, will send you bowling round the earth during a + period of nine thousand years, and leave you a fool in the world below. + </p> + <p> + And thus, dear Eros, I have made and paid my recantation, as well and as + fairly as I could; more especially in the matter of the poetical figures + which I was compelled to use, because Phaedrus would have them. And now + forgive the past and accept the present, and be gracious and merciful to + me, and do not in thine anger deprive me of sight, or take from me the art + of love which thou hast given me, but grant that I may be yet more + esteemed in the eyes of the fair. And if Phaedrus or I myself said + anything rude in our first speeches, blame Lysias, who is the father of + the brat, and let us have no more of his progeny; bid him study + philosophy, like his brother Polemarchus; and then his lover Phaedrus will + no longer halt between two opinions, but will dedicate himself wholly to + love and to philosophical discourses. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I join in the prayer, Socrates, and say with you, if this be for + my good, may your words come to pass. But why did you make your second + oration so much finer than the first? I wonder why. And I begin to be + afraid that I shall lose conceit of Lysias, and that he will appear tame + in comparison, even if he be willing to put another as fine and as long as + yours into the field, which I doubt. For quite lately one of your + politicians was abusing him on this very account; and called him a 'speech + writer' again and again. So that a feeling of pride may probably induce + him to give up writing speeches. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: What a very amusing notion! But I think, my young man, that you + are much mistaken in your friend if you imagine that he is frightened at a + little noise; and, possibly, you think that his assailant was in earnest? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I thought, Socrates, that he was. And you are aware that the + greatest and most influential statesmen are ashamed of writing speeches + and leaving them in a written form, lest they should be called Sophists by + posterity. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: You seem to be unconscious, Phaedrus, that the 'sweet elbow' (A + proverb, like 'the grapes are sour,' applied to pleasures which cannot be + had, meaning sweet things which, like the elbow, are out of the reach of + the mouth. The promised pleasure turns out to be a long and tedious + affair.) of the proverb is really the long arm of the Nile. And you appear + to be equally unaware of the fact that this sweet elbow of theirs is also + a long arm. For there is nothing of which our great politicians are so + fond as of writing speeches and bequeathing them to posterity. And they + add their admirers' names at the top of the writing, out of gratitude to + them. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What do you mean? I do not understand. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why, do you not know that when a politician writes, he begins + with the names of his approvers? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: How so? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why, he begins in this manner: 'Be it enacted by the senate, the + people, or both, on the motion of a certain person,' who is our author; + and so putting on a serious face, he proceeds to display his own wisdom to + his admirers in what is often a long and tedious composition. Now what is + that sort of thing but a regular piece of authorship? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And if the law is finally approved, then the author leaves the + theatre in high delight; but if the law is rejected and he is done out of + his speech-making, and not thought good enough to write, then he and his + party are in mourning. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: So far are they from despising, or rather so highly do they + value the practice of writing. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: No doubt. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And when the king or orator has the power, as Lycurgus or Solon + or Darius had, of attaining an immortality or authorship in a state, is he + not thought by posterity, when they see his compositions, and does he not + think himself, while he is yet alive, to be a god? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then do you think that any one of this class, however + ill-disposed, would reproach Lysias with being an author? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Not upon your view; for according to you he would be casting a + slur upon his own favourite pursuit. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Any one may see that there is no disgrace in the mere fact of + writing. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly not. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The disgrace begins when a man writes not well, but badly. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Clearly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And what is well and what is badly—need we ask Lysias, or + any other poet or orator, who ever wrote or will write either a political + or any other work, in metre or out of metre, poet or prose writer, to + teach us this? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Need we? For what should a man live if not for the pleasures of + discourse? Surely not for the sake of bodily pleasures, which almost + always have previous pain as a condition of them, and therefore are + rightly called slavish. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: There is time enough. And I believe that the grasshoppers + chirruping after their manner in the heat of the sun over our heads are + talking to one another and looking down at us. What would they say if they + saw that we, like the many, are not conversing, but slumbering at mid-day, + lulled by their voices, too indolent to think? Would they not have a right + to laugh at us? They might imagine that we were slaves, who, coming to + rest at a place of resort of theirs, like sheep lie asleep at noon around + the well. But if they see us discoursing, and like Odysseus sailing past + them, deaf to their siren voices, they may perhaps, out of respect, give + us of the gifts which they receive from the gods that they may impart them + to men. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What gifts do you mean? I never heard of any. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: A lover of music like yourself ought surely to have heard the + story of the grasshoppers, who are said to have been human beings in an + age before the Muses. And when the Muses came and song appeared they were + ravished with delight; and singing always, never thought of eating and + drinking, until at last in their forgetfulness they died. And now they + live again in the grasshoppers; and this is the return which the Muses + make to them—they neither hunger, nor thirst, but from the hour of + their birth are always singing, and never eating or drinking; and when + they die they go and inform the Muses in heaven who honours them on earth. + They win the love of Terpsichore for the dancers by their report of them; + of Erato for the lovers, and of the other Muses for those who do them + honour, according to the several ways of honouring them;—of Calliope + the eldest Muse and of Urania who is next to her, for the philosophers, of + whose music the grasshoppers make report to them; for these are the Muses + who are chiefly concerned with heaven and thought, divine as well as + human, and they have the sweetest utterance. For many reasons, then, we + ought always to talk and not to sleep at mid-day. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Let us talk. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Shall we discuss the rules of writing and speech as we were + proposing? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very good. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: In good speaking should not the mind of the speaker know the + truth of the matter about which he is going to speak? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: And yet, Socrates, I have heard that he who would be an orator + has nothing to do with true justice, but only with that which is likely to + be approved by the many who sit in judgment; nor with the truly good or + honourable, but only with opinion about them, and that from opinion comes + persuasion, and not from the truth. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The words of the wise are not to be set aside; for there is + probably something in them; and therefore the meaning of this saying is + not hastily to be dismissed. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let us put the matter thus:—Suppose that I persuaded you + to buy a horse and go to the wars. Neither of us knew what a horse was + like, but I knew that you believed a horse to be of tame animals the one + which has the longest ears. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That would be ridiculous. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: There is something more ridiculous coming:—Suppose, + further, that in sober earnest I, having persuaded you of this, went and + composed a speech in honour of an ass, whom I entitled a horse beginning: + 'A noble animal and a most useful possession, especially in war, and you + may get on his back and fight, and he will carry baggage or anything.' + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: How ridiculous! + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Ridiculous! Yes; but is not even a ridiculous friend better than + a cunning enemy? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And when the orator instead of putting an ass in the place of a + horse, puts good for evil, being himself as ignorant of their true nature + as the city on which he imposes is ignorant; and having studied the + notions of the multitude, falsely persuades them not about 'the shadow of + an ass,' which he confounds with a horse, but about good which he + confounds with evil,—what will be the harvest which rhetoric will be + likely to gather after the sowing of that seed? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: The reverse of good. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But perhaps rhetoric has been getting too roughly handled by us, + and she might answer: What amazing nonsense you are talking! As if I + forced any man to learn to speak in ignorance of the truth! Whatever my + advice may be worth, I should have told him to arrive at the truth first, + and then come to me. At the same time I boldly assert that mere knowledge + of the truth will not give you the art of persuasion. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: There is reason in the lady's defence of herself. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Quite true; if only the other arguments which remain to be + brought up bear her witness that she is an art at all. But I seem to hear + them arraying themselves on the opposite side, declaring that she speaks + falsely, and that rhetoric is a mere routine and trick, not an art. Lo! a + Spartan appears, and says that there never is nor ever will be a real art + of speaking which is divorced from the truth. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: And what are these arguments, Socrates? Bring them out that we + may examine them. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Come out, fair children, and convince Phaedrus, who is the + father of similar beauties, that he will never be able to speak about + anything as he ought to speak unless he have a knowledge of philosophy. + And let Phaedrus answer you. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Put the question. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Is not rhetoric, taken generally, a universal art of enchanting + the mind by arguments; which is practised not only in courts and public + assemblies, but in private houses also, having to do with all matters, + great as well as small, good and bad alike, and is in all equally right, + and equally to be esteemed—that is what you have heard? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nay, not exactly that; I should say rather that I have heard the + art confined to speaking and writing in lawsuits, and to speaking in + public assemblies—not extended farther. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then I suppose that you have only heard of the rhetoric of + Nestor and Odysseus, which they composed in their leisure hours when at + Troy, and never of the rhetoric of Palamedes? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: No more than of Nestor and Odysseus, unless Gorgias is your + Nestor, and Thrasymachus or Theodorus your Odysseus. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Perhaps that is my meaning. But let us leave them. And do you + tell me, instead, what are plaintiff and defendant doing in a law court—are + they not contending? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Exactly so. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: About the just and unjust—that is the matter in dispute? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And a professor of the art will make the same thing appear to + the same persons to be at one time just, at another time, if he is so + inclined, to be unjust? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Exactly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And when he speaks in the assembly, he will make the same things + seem good to the city at one time, and at another time the reverse of + good? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Have we not heard of the Eleatic Palamedes (Zeno), who has an + art of speaking by which he makes the same things appear to his hearers + like and unlike, one and many, at rest and in motion? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The art of disputation, then, is not confined to the courts and + the assembly, but is one and the same in every use of language; this is + the art, if there be such an art, which is able to find a likeness of + everything to which a likeness can be found, and draws into the light of + day the likenesses and disguises which are used by others? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: How do you mean? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let me put the matter thus: When will there be more chance of + deception—when the difference is large or small? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: When the difference is small. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And you will be less likely to be discovered in passing by + degrees into the other extreme than when you go all at once? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Of course. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He, then, who would deceive others, and not be deceived, must + exactly know the real likenesses and differences of things? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He must. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And if he is ignorant of the true nature of any subject, how can + he detect the greater or less degree of likeness in other things to that + of which by the hypothesis he is ignorant? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He cannot. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And when men are deceived and their notions are at variance with + realities, it is clear that the error slips in through resemblances? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, that is the way. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then he who would be a master of the art must understand the + real nature of everything; or he will never know either how to make the + gradual departure from truth into the opposite of truth which is effected + by the help of resemblances, or how to avoid it? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He will not. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He then, who being ignorant of the truth aims at appearances, + will only attain an art of rhetoric which is ridiculous and is not an art + at all? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That may be expected. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Shall I propose that we look for examples of art and want of + art, according to our notion of them, in the speech of Lysias which you + have in your hand, and in my own speech? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Nothing could be better; and indeed I think that our previous + argument has been too abstract and wanting in illustrations. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes; and the two speeches happen to afford a very good example + of the way in which the speaker who knows the truth may, without any + serious purpose, steal away the hearts of his hearers. This piece of + good-fortune I attribute to the local deities; and, perhaps, the prophets + of the Muses who are singing over our heads may have imparted their + inspiration to me. For I do not imagine that I have any rhetorical art of + my own. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Granted; if you will only please to get on. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Suppose that you read me the first words of Lysias' speech. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: 'You know how matters stand with me, and how, as I conceive, + they might be arranged for our common interest; and I maintain that I + ought not to fail in my suit, because I am not your lover. For lovers + repent—' + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Enough:—Now, shall I point out the rhetorical error of + those words? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Every one is aware that about some things we are agreed, whereas + about other things we differ. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I think that I understand you; but will you explain yourself? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: When any one speaks of iron and silver, is not the same thing + present in the minds of all? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But when any one speaks of justice and goodness we part company + and are at odds with one another and with ourselves? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Precisely. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then in some things we agree, but not in others? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: In which are we more likely to be deceived, and in which has + rhetoric the greater power? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Clearly, in the uncertain class. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then the rhetorician ought to make a regular division, and + acquire a distinct notion of both classes, as well of that in which the + many err, as of that in which they do not err? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He who made such a distinction would have an excellent + principle. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes; and in the next place he must have a keen eye for the + observation of particulars in speaking, and not make a mistake about the + class to which they are to be referred. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Now to which class does love belong—to the debatable or to + the undisputed class? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: To the debatable, clearly; for if not, do you think that love + would have allowed you to say as you did, that he is an evil both to the + lover and the beloved, and also the greatest possible good? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Capital. But will you tell me whether I defined love at the + beginning of my speech? for, having been in an ecstasy, I cannot well + remember. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, indeed; that you did, and no mistake. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then I perceive that the Nymphs of Achelous and Pan the son of + Hermes, who inspired me, were far better rhetoricians than Lysias the son + of Cephalus. Alas! how inferior to them he is! But perhaps I am mistaken; + and Lysias at the commencement of his lover's speech did insist on our + supposing love to be something or other which he fancied him to be, and + according to this model he fashioned and framed the remainder of his + discourse. Suppose we read his beginning over again: + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: If you please; but you will not find what you want. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Read, that I may have his exact words. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: 'You know how matters stand with me, and how, as I conceive, + they might be arranged for our common interest; and I maintain I ought not + to fail in my suit because I am not your lover, for lovers repent of the + kindnesses which they have shown, when their love is over.' + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Here he appears to have done just the reverse of what he ought; + for he has begun at the end, and is swimming on his back through the flood + to the place of starting. His address to the fair youth begins where the + lover would have ended. Am I not right, sweet Phaedrus? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, indeed, Socrates; he does begin at the end. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then as to the other topics—are they not thrown down + anyhow? Is there any principle in them? Why should the next topic follow + next in order, or any other topic? I cannot help fancying in my ignorance + that he wrote off boldly just what came into his head, but I dare say that + you would recognize a rhetorical necessity in the succession of the + several parts of the composition? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You have too good an opinion of me if you think that I have any + such insight into his principles of composition. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: At any rate, you will allow that every discourse ought to be a + living creature, having a body of its own and a head and feet; there + should be a middle, beginning, and end, adapted to one another and to the + whole? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Can this be said of the discourse of Lysias? See whether you can + find any more connexion in his words than in the epitaph which is said by + some to have been inscribed on the grave of Midas the Phrygian. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What is there remarkable in the epitaph? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: It is as follows:— + </p> + <p> + 'I am a maiden of bronze and lie on the tomb of Midas; So long as water + flows and tall trees grow, So long here on this spot by his sad tomb + abiding, I shall declare to passers-by that Midas sleeps below.' + </p> + <p> + Now in this rhyme whether a line comes first or comes last, as you will + perceive, makes no difference. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You are making fun of that oration of ours. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Well, I will say no more about your friend's speech lest I + should give offence to you; although I think that it might furnish many + other examples of what a man ought rather to avoid. But I will proceed to + the other speech, which, as I think, is also suggestive to students of + rhetoric. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: In what way? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The two speeches, as you may remember, were unlike; the one + argued that the lover and the other that the non-lover ought to be + accepted. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: And right manfully. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: You should rather say 'madly;' and madness was the argument of + them, for, as I said, 'love is a madness.' + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And of madness there were two kinds; one produced by human + infirmity, the other was a divine release of the soul from the yoke of + custom and convention. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The divine madness was subdivided into four kinds, prophetic, + initiatory, poetic, erotic, having four gods presiding over them; the + first was the inspiration of Apollo, the second that of Dionysus, the + third that of the Muses, the fourth that of Aphrodite and Eros. In the + description of the last kind of madness, which was also said to be the + best, we spoke of the affection of love in a figure, into which we + introduced a tolerably credible and possibly true though partly erring + myth, which was also a hymn in honour of Love, who is your lord and also + mine, Phaedrus, and the guardian of fair children, and to him we sung the + hymn in measured and solemn strain. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I know that I had great pleasure in listening to you. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let us take this instance and note how the transition was made + from blame to praise. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What do you mean? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I mean to say that the composition was mostly playful. Yet in + these chance fancies of the hour were involved two principles of which we + should be too glad to have a clearer description if art could give us one. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What are they? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: First, the comprehension of scattered particulars in one idea; + as in our definition of love, which whether true or false certainly gave + clearness and consistency to the discourse, the speaker should define his + several notions and so make his meaning clear. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What is the other principle, Socrates? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The second principle is that of division into species according + to the natural formation, where the joint is, not breaking any part as a + bad carver might. Just as our two discourses, alike assumed, first of all, + a single form of unreason; and then, as the body which from being one + becomes double and may be divided into a left side and right side, each + having parts right and left of the same name—after this manner the + speaker proceeded to divide the parts of the left side and did not desist + until he found in them an evil or left-handed love which he justly + reviled; and the other discourse leading us to the madness which lay on + the right side, found another love, also having the same name, but divine, + which the speaker held up before us and applauded and affirmed to be the + author of the greatest benefits. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Most true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I am myself a great lover of these processes of division and + generalization; they help me to speak and to think. And if I find any man + who is able to see 'a One and Many' in nature, him I follow, and 'walk in + his footsteps as if he were a god.' And those who have this art, I have + hitherto been in the habit of calling dialecticians; but God knows whether + the name is right or not. And I should like to know what name you would + give to your or to Lysias' disciples, and whether this may not be that + famous art of rhetoric which Thrasymachus and others teach and practise? + Skilful speakers they are, and impart their skill to any who is willing to + make kings of them and to bring gifts to them. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, they are royal men; but their art is not the same with the + art of those whom you call, and rightly, in my opinion, dialecticians:—Still + we are in the dark about rhetoric. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: What do you mean? The remains of it, if there be anything + remaining which can be brought under rules of art, must be a fine thing; + and, at any rate, is not to be despised by you and me. But how much is + left? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: There is a great deal surely to be found in books of rhetoric? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes; thank you for reminding me:—There is the exordium, + showing how the speech should begin, if I remember rightly; that is what + you mean—the niceties of the art? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then follows the statement of facts, and upon that witnesses; + thirdly, proofs; fourthly, probabilities are to come; the great Byzantian + word-maker also speaks, if I am not mistaken, of confirmation and further + confirmation. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You mean the excellent Theodorus. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes; and he tells how refutation or further refutation is to be + managed, whether in accusation or defence. I ought also to mention the + illustrious Parian, Evenus, who first invented insinuations and indirect + praises; and also indirect censures, which according to some he put into + verse to help the memory. But shall I 'to dumb forgetfulness consign' + Tisias and Gorgias, who are not ignorant that probability is superior to + truth, and who by force of argument make the little appear great and the + great little, disguise the new in old fashions and the old in new + fashions, and have discovered forms for everything, either short or going + on to infinity. I remember Prodicus laughing when I told him of this; he + said that he had himself discovered the true rule of art, which was to be + neither long nor short, but of a convenient length. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Well done, Prodicus! + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then there is Hippias the Elean stranger, who probably agrees + with him. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And there is also Polus, who has treasuries of diplasiology, and + gnomology, and eikonology, and who teaches in them the names of which + Licymnius made him a present; they were to give a polish. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Had not Protagoras something of the same sort? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, rules of correct diction and many other fine precepts; for + the 'sorrows of a poor old man,' or any other pathetic case, no one is + better than the Chalcedonian giant; he can put a whole company of people + into a passion and out of one again by his mighty magic, and is first-rate + at inventing or disposing of any sort of calumny on any grounds or none. + All of them agree in asserting that a speech should end in a + recapitulation, though they do not all agree to use the same word. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You mean that there should be a summing up of the arguments in + order to remind the hearers of them. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I have now said all that I have to say of the art of rhetoric: + have you anything to add? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Not much; nothing very important. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Leave the unimportant and let us bring the really important + question into the light of day, which is: What power has this art of + rhetoric, and when? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: A very great power in public meetings. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: It has. But I should like to know whether you have the same + feeling as I have about the rhetoricians? To me there seem to be a great + many holes in their web. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Give an example. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I will. Suppose a person to come to your friend Eryximachus, or + to his father Acumenus, and to say to him: 'I know how to apply drugs + which shall have either a heating or a cooling effect, and I can give a + vomit and also a purge, and all that sort of thing; and knowing all this, + as I do, I claim to be a physician and to make physicians by imparting + this knowledge to others,'—what do you suppose that they would say? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: They would be sure to ask him whether he knew 'to whom' he would + give his medicines, and 'when,' and 'how much.' + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And suppose that he were to reply: 'No; I know nothing of all + that; I expect the patient who consults me to be able to do these things + for himself'? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: They would say in reply that he is a madman or a pedant who + fancies that he is a physician because he has read something in a book, or + has stumbled on a prescription or two, although he has no real + understanding of the art of medicine. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And suppose a person were to come to Sophocles or Euripides and + say that he knows how to make a very long speech about a small matter, and + a short speech about a great matter, and also a sorrowful speech, or a + terrible, or threatening speech, or any other kind of speech, and in + teaching this fancies that he is teaching the art of tragedy—? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: They too would surely laugh at him if he fancies that tragedy is + anything but the arranging of these elements in a manner which will be + suitable to one another and to the whole. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But I do not suppose that they would be rude or abusive to him: + Would they not treat him as a musician a man who thinks that he is a + harmonist because he knows how to pitch the highest and lowest note; + happening to meet such an one he would not say to him savagely, 'Fool, you + are mad!' But like a musician, in a gentle and harmonious tone of voice, + he would answer: 'My good friend, he who would be a harmonist must + certainly know this, and yet he may understand nothing of harmony if he + has not got beyond your stage of knowledge, for you only know the + preliminaries of harmony and not harmony itself.' + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And will not Sophocles say to the display of the would-be + tragedian, that this is not tragedy but the preliminaries of tragedy? and + will not Acumenus say the same of medicine to the would-be physician? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Quite true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And if Adrastus the mellifluous or Pericles heard of these + wonderful arts, brachylogies and eikonologies and all the hard names which + we have been endeavouring to draw into the light of day, what would they + say? Instead of losing temper and applying uncomplimentary epithets, as + you and I have been doing, to the authors of such an imaginary art, their + superior wisdom would rather censure us, as well as them. 'Have a little + patience, Phaedrus and Socrates, they would say; you should not be in such + a passion with those who from some want of dialectical skill are unable to + define the nature of rhetoric, and consequently suppose that they have + found the art in the preliminary conditions of it, and when these have + been taught by them to others, fancy that the whole art of rhetoric has + been taught by them; but as to using the several instruments of the art + effectively, or making the composition a whole,—an application of it + such as this is they regard as an easy thing which their disciples may + make for themselves.' + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I quite admit, Socrates, that the art of rhetoric which these + men teach and of which they write is such as you describe—there I + agree with you. But I still want to know where and how the true art of + rhetoric and persuasion is to be acquired. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The perfection which is required of the finished orator is, or + rather must be, like the perfection of anything else; partly given by + nature, but may also be assisted by art. If you have the natural power and + add to it knowledge and practice, you will be a distinguished speaker; if + you fall short in either of these, you will be to that extent defective. + But the art, as far as there is an art, of rhetoric does not lie in the + direction of Lysias or Thrasymachus. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: In what direction then? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I conceive Pericles to have been the most accomplished of + rhetoricians. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What of that? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: All the great arts require discussion and high speculation about + the truths of nature; hence come loftiness of thought and completeness of + execution. And this, as I conceive, was the quality which, in addition to + his natural gifts, Pericles acquired from his intercourse with Anaxagoras + whom he happened to know. He was thus imbued with the higher philosophy, + and attained the knowledge of Mind and the negative of Mind, which were + favourite themes of Anaxagoras, and applied what suited his purpose to the + art of speaking. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Explain. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Rhetoric is like medicine. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: How so? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Why, because medicine has to define the nature of the body and + rhetoric of the soul—if we would proceed, not empirically but + scientifically, in the one case to impart health and strength by giving + medicine and food, in the other to implant the conviction or virtue which + you desire, by the right application of words and training. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: There, Socrates, I suspect that you are right. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And do you think that you can know the nature of the soul + intelligently without knowing the nature of the whole? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Hippocrates the Asclepiad says that the nature even of the body + can only be understood as a whole. (Compare Charmides.) + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, friend, and he was right:—still, we ought not to be + content with the name of Hippocrates, but to examine and see whether his + argument agrees with his conception of nature. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I agree. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then consider what truth as well as Hippocrates says about this + or about any other nature. Ought we not to consider first whether that + which we wish to learn and to teach is a simple or multiform thing, and if + simple, then to enquire what power it has of acting or being acted upon in + relation to other things, and if multiform, then to number the forms; and + see first in the case of one of them, and then in the case of all of them, + what is that power of acting or being acted upon which makes each and all + of them to be what they are? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You may very likely be right, Socrates. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: The method which proceeds without analysis is like the groping + of a blind man. Yet, surely, he who is an artist ought not to admit of a + comparison with the blind, or deaf. The rhetorician, who teaches his pupil + to speak scientifically, will particularly set forth the nature of that + being to which he addresses his speeches; and this, I conceive, to be the + soul. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: His whole effort is directed to the soul; for in that he seeks + to produce conviction. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then clearly, Thrasymachus or any one else who teaches rhetoric + in earnest will give an exact description of the nature of the soul; which + will enable us to see whether she be single and same, or, like the body, + multiform. That is what we should call showing the nature of the soul. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Exactly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He will explain, secondly, the mode in which she acts or is + acted upon. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Thirdly, having classified men and speeches, and their kinds and + affections, and adapted them to one another, he will tell the reasons of + his arrangement, and show why one soul is persuaded by a particular form + of argument, and another not. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You have hit upon a very good way. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, that is the true and only way in which any subject can be + set forth or treated by rules of art, whether in speaking or writing. But + the writers of the present day, at whose feet you have sat, craftily + conceal the nature of the soul which they know quite well. Nor, until they + adopt our method of reading and writing, can we admit that they write by + rules of art? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What is our method? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I cannot give you the exact details; but I should like to tell + you generally, as far as is in my power, how a man ought to proceed + according to rules of art. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Let me hear. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Oratory is the art of enchanting the soul, and therefore he who + would be an orator has to learn the differences of human souls—they + are so many and of such a nature, and from them come the differences + between man and man. Having proceeded thus far in his analysis, he will + next divide speeches into their different classes:—'Such and such + persons,' he will say, are affected by this or that kind of speech in this + or that way,' and he will tell you why. The pupil must have a good + theoretical notion of them first, and then he must have experience of them + in actual life, and be able to follow them with all his senses about him, + or he will never get beyond the precepts of his masters. But when he + understands what persons are persuaded by what arguments, and sees the + person about whom he was speaking in the abstract actually before him, and + knows that it is he, and can say to himself, 'This is the man or this is + the character who ought to have a certain argument applied to him in order + to convince him of a certain opinion;'—he who knows all this, and + knows also when he should speak and when he should refrain, and when he + should use pithy sayings, pathetic appeals, sensational effects, and all + the other modes of speech which he has learned;—when, I say, he + knows the times and seasons of all these things, then, and not till then, + he is a perfect master of his art; but if he fail in any of these points, + whether in speaking or teaching or writing them, and yet declares that he + speaks by rules of art, he who says 'I don't believe you' has the better + of him. Well, the teacher will say, is this, Phaedrus and Socrates, your + account of the so-called art of rhetoric, or am I to look for another? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: He must take this, Socrates, for there is no possibility of + another, and yet the creation of such an art is not easy. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Very true; and therefore let us consider this matter in every + light, and see whether we cannot find a shorter and easier road; there is + no use in taking a long rough roundabout way if there be a shorter and + easier one. And I wish that you would try and remember whether you have + heard from Lysias or any one else anything which might be of service to + us. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: If trying would avail, then I might; but at the moment I can + think of nothing. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Suppose I tell you something which somebody who knows told me. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: May not 'the wolf,' as the proverb says, 'claim a hearing'? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Do you say what can be said for him. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He will argue that there is no use in putting a solemn face on + these matters, or in going round and round, until you arrive at first + principles; for, as I said at first, when the question is of justice and + good, or is a question in which men are concerned who are just and good, + either by nature or habit, he who would be a skilful rhetorician has no + need of truth—for that in courts of law men literally care nothing + about truth, but only about conviction: and this is based on probability, + to which he who would be a skilful orator should therefore give his whole + attention. And they say also that there are cases in which the actual + facts, if they are improbable, ought to be withheld, and only the + probabilities should be told either in accusation or defence, and that + always in speaking, the orator should keep probability in view, and say + good-bye to the truth. And the observance of this principle throughout a + speech furnishes the whole art. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is what the professors of rhetoric do actually say, + Socrates. I have not forgotten that we have quite briefly touched upon + this matter already; with them the point is all-important. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I dare say that you are familiar with Tisias. Does he not define + probability to be that which the many think? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly, he does. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I believe that he has a clever and ingenious case of this sort:—He + supposes a feeble and valiant man to have assaulted a strong and cowardly + one, and to have robbed him of his coat or of something or other; he is + brought into court, and then Tisias says that both parties should tell + lies: the coward should say that he was assaulted by more men than one; + the other should prove that they were alone, and should argue thus: 'How + could a weak man like me have assaulted a strong man like him?' The + complainant will not like to confess his own cowardice, and will therefore + invent some other lie which his adversary will thus gain an opportunity of + refuting. And there are other devices of the same kind which have a place + in the system. Am I not right, Phaedrus? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Bless me, what a wonderfully mysterious art is this which Tisias + or some other gentleman, in whatever name or country he rejoices, has + discovered. Shall we say a word to him or not? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What shall we say to him? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let us tell him that, before he appeared, you and I were saying + that the probability of which he speaks was engendered in the minds of the + many by the likeness of the truth, and we had just been affirming that he + who knew the truth would always know best how to discover the resemblances + of the truth. If he has anything else to say about the art of speaking we + should like to hear him; but if not, we are satisfied with our own view, + that unless a man estimates the various characters of his hearers and is + able to divide all things into classes and to comprehend them under single + ideas, he will never be a skilful rhetorician even within the limits of + human power. And this skill he will not attain without a great deal of + trouble, which a good man ought to undergo, not for the sake of speaking + and acting before men, but in order that he may be able to say what is + acceptable to God and always to act acceptably to Him as far as in him + lies; for there is a saying of wiser men than ourselves, that a man of + sense should not try to please his fellow-servants (at least this should + not be his first object) but his good and noble masters; and therefore if + the way is long and circuitous, marvel not at this, for, where the end is + great, there we may take the longer road, but not for lesser ends such as + yours. Truly, the argument may say, Tisias, that if you do not mind going + so far, rhetoric has a fair beginning here. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I think, Socrates, that this is admirable, if only practicable. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But even to fail in an honourable object is honourable. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: True. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Enough appears to have been said by us of a true and false art + of speaking. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But there is something yet to be said of propriety and + impropriety of writing. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Do you know how you can speak or act about rhetoric in a manner + which will be acceptable to God? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: No, indeed. Do you? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I have heard a tradition of the ancients, whether true or not + they only know; although if we had found the truth ourselves, do you think + that we should care much about the opinions of men? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Your question needs no answer; but I wish that you would tell me + what you say that you have heard. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: At the Egyptian city of Naucratis, there was a famous old god, + whose name was Theuth; the bird which is called the Ibis is sacred to him, + and he was the inventor of many arts, such as arithmetic and calculation + and geometry and astronomy and draughts and dice, but his great discovery + was the use of letters. Now in those days the god Thamus was the king of + the whole country of Egypt; and he dwelt in that great city of Upper Egypt + which the Hellenes call Egyptian Thebes, and the god himself is called by + them Ammon. To him came Theuth and showed his inventions, desiring that + the other Egyptians might be allowed to have the benefit of them; he + enumerated them, and Thamus enquired about their several uses, and praised + some of them and censured others, as he approved or disapproved of them. + It would take a long time to repeat all that Thamus said to Theuth in + praise or blame of the various arts. But when they came to letters, This, + said Theuth, will make the Egyptians wiser and give them better memories; + it is a specific both for the memory and for the wit. Thamus replied: O + most ingenious Theuth, the parent or inventor of an art is not always the + best judge of the utility or inutility of his own inventions to the users + of them. And in this instance, you who are the father of letters, from a + paternal love of your own children have been led to attribute to them a + quality which they cannot have; for this discovery of yours will create + forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their + memories; they will trust to the external written characters and not + remember of themselves. The specific which you have discovered is an aid + not to memory, but to reminiscence, and you give your disciples not truth, + but only the semblance of truth; they will be hearers of many things and + will have learned nothing; they will appear to be omniscient and will + generally know nothing; they will be tiresome company, having the show of + wisdom without the reality. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, Socrates, you can easily invent tales of Egypt, or of any + other country. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: There was a tradition in the temple of Dodona that oaks first + gave prophetic utterances. The men of old, unlike in their simplicity to + young philosophy, deemed that if they heard the truth even from 'oak or + rock,' it was enough for them; whereas you seem to consider not whether a + thing is or is not true, but who the speaker is and from what country the + tale comes. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I acknowledge the justice of your rebuke; and I think that the + Theban is right in his view about letters. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: He would be a very simple person, and quite a stranger to the + oracles of Thamus or Ammon, who should leave in writing or receive in + writing any art under the idea that the written word would be intelligible + or certain; or who deemed that writing was at all better than knowledge + and recollection of the same matters? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is most true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I cannot help feeling, Phaedrus, that writing is unfortunately + like painting; for the creations of the painter have the attitude of life, + and yet if you ask them a question they preserve a solemn silence. And the + same may be said of speeches. You would imagine that they had + intelligence, but if you want to know anything and put a question to one + of them, the speaker always gives one unvarying answer. And when they have + been once written down they are tumbled about anywhere among those who may + or may not understand them, and know not to whom they should reply, to + whom not: and, if they are maltreated or abused, they have no parent to + protect them; and they cannot protect or defend themselves. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That again is most true. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Is there not another kind of word or speech far better than + this, and having far greater power—a son of the same family, but + lawfully begotten? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Whom do you mean, and what is his origin? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I mean an intelligent word graven in the soul of the learner, + which can defend itself, and knows when to speak and when to be silent. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: You mean the living word of knowledge which has a soul, and of + which the written word is properly no more than an image? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Yes, of course that is what I mean. And now may I be allowed to + ask you a question: Would a husbandman, who is a man of sense, take the + seeds, which he values and which he wishes to bear fruit, and in sober + seriousness plant them during the heat of summer, in some garden of + Adonis, that he may rejoice when he sees them in eight days appearing in + beauty? at least he would do so, if at all, only for the sake of amusement + and pastime. But when he is in earnest he sows in fitting soil, and + practises husbandry, and is satisfied if in eight months the seeds which + he has sown arrive at perfection? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, Socrates, that will be his way when he is in earnest; he + will do the other, as you say, only in play. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And can we suppose that he who knows the just and good and + honourable has less understanding, than the husbandman, about his own + seeds? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly not. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Then he will not seriously incline to 'write' his thoughts 'in + water' with pen and ink, sowing words which can neither speak for + themselves nor teach the truth adequately to others? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: No, that is not likely. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: No, that is not likely—in the garden of letters he will + sow and plant, but only for the sake of recreation and amusement; he will + write them down as memorials to be treasured against the forgetfulness of + old age, by himself, or by any other old man who is treading the same + path. He will rejoice in beholding their tender growth; and while others + are refreshing their souls with banqueting and the like, this will be the + pastime in which his days are spent. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: A pastime, Socrates, as noble as the other is ignoble, the + pastime of a man who can be amused by serious talk, and can discourse + merrily about justice and the like. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: True, Phaedrus. But nobler far is the serious pursuit of the + dialectician, who, finding a congenial soul, by the help of science sows + and plants therein words which are able to help themselves and him who + planted them, and are not unfruitful, but have in them a seed which others + brought up in different soils render immortal, making the possessors of it + happy to the utmost extent of human happiness. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Far nobler, certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And now, Phaedrus, having agreed upon the premises we may decide + about the conclusion. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: About what conclusion? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: About Lysias, whom we censured, and his art of writing, and his + discourses, and the rhetorical skill or want of skill which was shown in + them—these are the questions which we sought to determine, and they + brought us to this point. And I think that we are now pretty well informed + about the nature of art and its opposite. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, I think with you; but I wish that you would repeat what was + said. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Until a man knows the truth of the several particulars of which + he is writing or speaking, and is able to define them as they are, and + having defined them again to divide them until they can be no longer + divided, and until in like manner he is able to discern the nature of the + soul, and discover the different modes of discourse which are adapted to + different natures, and to arrange and dispose them in such a way that the + simple form of speech may be addressed to the simpler nature, and the + complex and composite to the more complex nature—until he has + accomplished all this, he will be unable to handle arguments according to + rules of art, as far as their nature allows them to be subjected to art, + either for the purpose of teaching or persuading;—such is the view + which is implied in the whole preceding argument. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Yes, that was our view, certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Secondly, as to the censure which was passed on the speaking or + writing of discourses, and how they might be rightly or wrongly censured—did + not our previous argument show—? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Show what? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: That whether Lysias or any other writer that ever was or will + be, whether private man or statesman, proposes laws and so becomes the + author of a political treatise, fancying that there is any great certainty + and clearness in his performance, the fact of his so writing is only a + disgrace to him, whatever men may say. For not to know the nature of + justice and injustice, and good and evil, and not to be able to + distinguish the dream from the reality, cannot in truth be otherwise than + disgraceful to him, even though he have the applause of the whole world. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: But he who thinks that in the written word there is necessarily + much which is not serious, and that neither poetry nor prose, spoken or + written, is of any great value, if, like the compositions of the + rhapsodes, they are only recited in order to be believed, and not with any + view to criticism or instruction; and who thinks that even the best of + writings are but a reminiscence of what we know, and that only in + principles of justice and goodness and nobility taught and communicated + orally for the sake of instruction and graven in the soul, which is the + true way of writing, is there clearness and perfection and seriousness, + and that such principles are a man's own and his legitimate offspring;—being, + in the first place, the word which he finds in his own bosom; secondly, + the brethren and descendants and relations of his idea which have been + duly implanted by him in the souls of others;—and who cares for them + and no others—this is the right sort of man; and you and I, + Phaedrus, would pray that we may become like him. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: That is most assuredly my desire and prayer. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And now the play is played out; and of rhetoric enough. Go and + tell Lysias that to the fountain and school of the Nymphs we went down, + and were bidden by them to convey a message to him and to other composers + of speeches—to Homer and other writers of poems, whether set to + music or not; and to Solon and others who have composed writings in the + form of political discourses which they would term laws—to all of + them we are to say that if their compositions are based on knowledge of + the truth, and they can defend or prove them, when they are put to the + test, by spoken arguments, which leave their writings poor in comparison + of them, then they are to be called, not only poets, orators, legislators, + but are worthy of a higher name, befitting the serious pursuit of their + life. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What name would you assign to them? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Wise, I may not call them; for that is a great name which + belongs to God alone,—lovers of wisdom or philosophers is their + modest and befitting title. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Very suitable. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: And he who cannot rise above his own compilations and + compositions, which he has been long patching and piecing, adding some and + taking away some, may be justly called poet or speech-maker or law-maker. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Certainly. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Now go and tell this to your companion. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: But there is also a friend of yours who ought not to be + forgotten. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Who is he? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Isocrates the fair:—What message will you send to him, and + how shall we describe him? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Isocrates is still young, Phaedrus; but I am willing to hazard a + prophecy concerning him. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: What would you prophesy? + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: I think that he has a genius which soars above the orations of + Lysias, and that his character is cast in a finer mould. My impression of + him is that he will marvellously improve as he grows older, and that all + former rhetoricians will be as children in comparison of him. And I + believe that he will not be satisfied with rhetoric, but that there is in + him a divine inspiration which will lead him to things higher still. For + he has an element of philosophy in his nature. This is the message of the + gods dwelling in this place, and which I will myself deliver to Isocrates, + who is my delight; and do you give the other to Lysias, who is yours. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: I will; and now as the heat is abated let us depart. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Should we not offer up a prayer first of all to the local + deities? + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: By all means. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Beloved Pan, and all ye other gods who haunt this place, give me + beauty in the inward soul; and may the outward and inward man be at one. + May I reckon the wise to be the wealthy, and may I have such a quantity of + gold as a temperate man and he only can bear and carry.—Anything + more? The prayer, I think, is enough for me. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS: Ask the same for me, for friends should have all things in + common. + </p> + <p> + SOCRATES: Let us go. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Phaedrus, by Plato + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PHAEDRUS *** + +***** This file should be named 1636-h.htm or 1636-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/3/1636/ + +Produced by Sue Asscher, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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