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diff --git a/16353-h/16353-h.htm b/16353-h/16353-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6c9c4e --- /dev/null +++ b/16353-h/16353-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4272 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + +<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of +Scientific American Supplement, January 26, 1884</title> + + +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + p {text-align: justify;} + img {border: 0;} + h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.short {width: 25%;} + hr.long {width: 75%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto;} + .center table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + .signature {text-variant: small-caps; + text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + pre {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + font-family: monospace; } + + ul { list-style: none; + text-align: left; + margin-left: 10% ;} + +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, +January 26, 1884, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, January 26, 1884 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" alt="" /></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td valign="top">I.</td><td><a href="#art23">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Furcot's Six Horse Power +Steam Engine.—With several figures.</a></td><td>6714</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art01">Foot Lathes.—With engraving.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art02">Endless Trough Conveyer.—2 engravings.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art03">Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art04">English Express Trains.—Average speed, long runs, etc.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art05">Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the +Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.—2 figures.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">II.</td><td><a href="#art06">TECHNOLOGY.—An English Adaptation of the American Oil +Mill.—Description of the apparatus, and of the old and +new processes.—Several engravings.</a></td><td>6716</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art07">Large Blue Prints.—By W.B. Parsons, Jr.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">III.</td><td><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY, ETC.—Electrical Apparatus for Measuring +and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.—With +descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different +machines.</a></td><td>6711</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art09">A New Oxide of Copper Battery.—By F. De Lalande and S. +Chaperon.—With description and three illustrations.</a></td><td>6714</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">IV.</td><td><a href="#art10">MATHEMATICS, ETC.—To Find the Time of Twilight.—1 figure.</a></td><td>6720</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art11">A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic.</a></td><td>6725</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art12">Experiments in Binary Arithmetic.</a></td><td>6726</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">V.</td><td><a href="#art13">ARCHÆOLOGY.—Grecian Antiquities.—With engravings of the +Monument of Philopappus.—Tomb from the Ceramicus.—Tower +of the winds.—The Acropolis.—Old Corinth.—Temple of +Jupiter.—The Parthenon.—Temple of Theseus, etc.</a></td><td>6721</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">VI.</td><td><a href="#art14">NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.—Poisonous Serpents and +their Venom.—By Dr. Archie Stockwell.—A serpent's mouth, +fangs, and poison gland.—Manner of attack.—Nature of +the venom.—Action of venom.—Remedies.</a></td><td>6719</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art15">Ethnological Notes.—Papuans.—Negritos.</a></td><td>6720</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">VII.</td><td><a href="#art16">HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.—The Hornbeams.—Uses to +which the tree is put.—Wood for manufactures.—For +fuel.—Different varieties.—With engravings of the tree +as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc.</a></td><td>6724</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art17">Fruit of Camellia Japonica.—1 engraving.</a></td><td>6725</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">VIII.</td><td><a href="#art18">MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.—House Drainage and Refuse. +Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.—Treating +of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and +houses.—Conditions to observe in house drains, etc.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art19">Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation.</a></td><td>6718</td></tr> + +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art20">Convenient Vaults.</a></td><td>6719</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">IX.</td><td><a href="#art21">MISCELLANEOUS.—Spanish Fisheries.—Noticeable objects +in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition.</a></td><td>6722</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art22">Duck Shooting at Montauk.</a></td><td>6723</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a><a name="Page_6712" id="Page_6712"></a>ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND +FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH EXHIBITION.</h2> + +<p>Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics +were quite numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity, +and very naturally a large number was to be seen there that +presented little difference with present models. Several of +them, however, merit citation. Among the galvanometers, +we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by Prof. +Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us +of that of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that +its inventor had combined in it a series of arrangements that +permitted of varying its sensitiveness within very wide +limits. This apparatus, which Prof. Zenger calls a "Universal +Rheometer" (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin whose interior +is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not +meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two +terminals. This internal shell is capable of serving for currents +of quantity, and, when the two terminals are united by +a wire, it may serve as a deadener. Above this copper shell +there are two identical coils of wire which may, according +to circumstances, be coupled in tension or in series, or be +employed differentially. Reading is performed either by the +aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror, +which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral +scale, R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be +slid toward the galvanometer. This magnet is capable of +rendering the needle less sensitive or of making it astatic. +In order to facilitate this operation, the magnet carries at its +extremity a tube which contains a bar of soft iron that may +be moved slightly so as to vary the length of the magnet. +Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier. It +will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the +apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and, +according to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a +dozen galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and +permits of measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to +1/50000000 an ampere. The apparatus may even be employed +for measuring magnetic forces, as it constitutes a very sensitive +magnetometer.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1b.png" alt="FIG. 1.—.ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 1.—.ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.</p> + + +<p>Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a "Universal +Electrometer" (Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as +an electrometric needle was of magnetized steel suspended +by a cotton thread. In this instrument, a silver wire, <i>t</i>, +terminating in a ball, is fixed to a support, C, hanging from +a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case of the apparatus. +It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body near the +disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The sensitiveness +of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like +that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may +be slid up and down its support, permits of the instrument +being used as a condensing electrometer, by giving it, according +to the distance of the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness. +One constructor who furnished much to this +part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of Munich, +whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among +them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer +(Fig. 4), in which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced +by two connected cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder +formed of four parts; a Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses +with scale for reading measuring instruments (Fig. +3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations, of Lamont +(Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the Wiedemann +galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations +(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball +opens one current at a time at the moment it leaves the +electro-magnet and when it reaches the foot of the support, +these two breakages producing two induction sparks that +exactly limit the length to be taken in order to measure the +time upon the tracing of the chronoscope tuning-fork; an +absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8) for +absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two +vertical steel wires stretched from <i>o</i> to <i>u</i>, and which is rendered +complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second +and fixed helix, so that an electro-dynamometer may be made +of it; and, finally, a galvanometer for strong currents, having +a horseshoe magnet pivoted upon a vertically divided +column which is traversed by the current, and a plug that +may be arranged at different heights between the two parts +of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive +(Fig. 9).</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1c.png" alt="FIG. 2.—ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER." /><br /> FIG. 2.—ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.</p> + +<p>We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann +of Wurtzburg, which comprised a series of apparatus of the +same class as those that we have just enumerated—spyglasses +for the reading of apparatus, galvanometers, magnetometers, +etc.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/1d.png"><img src="./images/1d_th.png" alt="FIG. 3.—EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN." /></a><br /> FIG. 3.—EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.</p> + +<p>Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr. +<a name="Page_6713" id="Page_6713"></a>Kohlrausch for measuring resistances by means of induction +currents, and a whole series of accessory instruments.</p> + +<p>Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be +mentioned Prof. Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic +balance. In this, two iron cylinders are suspended +from the extremities of a balance. One of them is of solid +iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of larger diameter +and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them +enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current +be passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted; +but if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow +cylinder will be attracted. If the change in the current's +intensity occur gradually, there will be a moment in which +the cylinders will remain in equilibrium.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1e.png" alt="FIG. 4.—EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER." /><br /> FIG. 4.—EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.</p> + +<p>Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally +cite is an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the +position of the observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of +the spot changes accordingly, and errors are liable to result +therefrom. Besides, because of the non-parallelism of the +luminous rays, each of the two surfaces is not lighted equally, +and hence again there may occur divergences. In order to +avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives his apparatus +(Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is contained in +a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures, light +from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring +tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As +for the screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three +vertical windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon +its paper. Over one of the halves of these parts a solution +of stearine is passed. To operate with the apparatus, in +comparing two lights, the central spot is first brought to invisibility, +and the distances of the sources are measured. A +second determination is at once made by causing one of the +two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results +is then taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding +to 3/100 of a candle between the illumination of +the two neighboring windows, in the given conditions of the +apparatus, the error is thus limited to a half of this value, or +2 per cent. of that of one candle.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1f.png" alt="FIG. 5.—WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC VARIATIONS." /><br /> FIG. 5.—WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC VARIATIONS.</p> + +<p>Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture +courses, we remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for +demonstrating the constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in +which eight magnetized needles, carrying mica disks painted +half white and half black, move under the influence of the +currents that are traversing the solenoid, or of magnets that +are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus of the +same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in +which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the +external surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are +plainly visible to spectators at a distance.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1g.png" alt="FIG. 6.—ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS." /><br /> FIG. 6.—ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.</p> + +<p>Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating +the principle of the Gramme machine. A circular +magnet, AA', is inserted into a bobbin, B, divided into two +parts, and moves under the influence of a disk, L, actuated +by a winch, M. This system permits of studying the currents +developed in each portion of the bobbin during the +revolution of the ring (Fig. 12).</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/1h.png" alt="FIG. 7.—WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER." /><br /> FIG. 7.—WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.</p> + +<p>To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition +we shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering +thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and +shall then say a few words concerning two types of registering +apparatus—Mr. Harlacher's water-current register and +Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/2a.png" alt="FIG. 8.—WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 8.—WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.</p> + +<p>Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying +the deep currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by +a long, vertical, hollow rod which is plunged into the river. +A cord that passes over a pulley, P, allows of the apparatus, +properly so called, being let down to a certain depth in the +water. What is registered is the velocity of the vanes that +are set in action by the current, and to effect such registry +each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an +electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached +to the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit +that includes a pile and a registering apparatus that is seen +at L, outside of the box in which it is usually inclosed. In +certain cases, a bell whose sound indicates the velocity of the +current to the ear is substituted for the registering apparatus.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/2b.png" alt="FIG. 9.—WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS." /><br /> FIG. 9.—WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.</p> + +<p>Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in +which the mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting +rod is likewise in this type utilized as a current conductor.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/2c.png" alt="FIG. 10.—ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 10.—ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.</p> + +<p>It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's +chronograph. This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for +determining the duration of combustion of different powders, +the velocity of projectiles, etc. The registering drum, T, is +revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the time is inscribed +thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion +by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the +curves corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork +and the registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed +upon a regulatable support, C, by means of which they may +be given any position desired.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/2d.png" alt="FIG. 11.—VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING" /><br /> FIG. 11.—VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING +THE CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.</p> + +<p>The style, <i>c</i>, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second +in order to facilitate the reading. The style, <i>b</i>, of the electro-magnet, +H, registers the beginning and end of the phenomena +that are being studied.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/2e.png" alt="FIG. 12.—APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE" /><br /> FIG. 12.—APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF THE GRAMME MACHINE.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications +may thus be obtained upon the drum by means of induction +sparks jumping between the style and the surface of the +cylinder. To the left of the figure is seen the apparatus +constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for experimenting on the +duration of combustion of bomb fuses.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/2f.png"><img src="./images/2f_th.png" alt="FIG. 13.—VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING" /></a><br /> FIG. 13.—VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING +THERMOMETROGRAPH.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the +contact, K, opens a current which supports the heavy +armature, P, of an electro-magnet, M. This weight, P, falls +upon the rod, <i>d</i>, and inflames the fuse, Z, at that very instant. +At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H, inscribes +a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the +extremity of the fuse explodes.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/2g.png"><img src="./images/2g_th.png" alt="FIG. 14.—VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING THERMOMETROGRAPH." /></a><br /> FIG. 14.—VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING THERMOMETROGRAPH.</p> + +<p>This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the +drum must be revolved by hand, and it would certainly be +more convenient could it be put in movement at different +velocities by means of a clockwork movement that would +merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired moment. +As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and, although +it has already been employed in Germany for some +time, it will be called upon to render still more extensive +services.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" alt="FIG. 15.—HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS." /></a><br /> FIG. 15.—HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS.</p> + +<p>We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of +precision that were comprised in the Munich Exhibition. +In general, it may be said that this class of instruments was +very well represented there as regards numbers, and, on another +hand, the manufacturers are to be congratulated for +the care bestowed on their construction.—<i>La Lumiere Electrique</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3b.png"><img src="./images/3b_th.png" alt="FIG. 16.—HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS." /></a><br /> FIG. 16.—HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/3c.png"><img src="./images/3c_th.png" alt="FIG. 17.—VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH." /></a><br /> FIG. 17.—VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>COPPER VOLTAMETER.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has +made some experiments upon the disturbing influences on +the correct indications of a copper voltameter. He investigated +the effects of the intensity of the current, the distance +apart of the plates, and their preparation before weighing. +The main conclusion which he arrives at is this: That in +order that the deposit should be proportional to the intensity +of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven ampères +per square decimeter of area of the cathode.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor +Osborne Reynolds says these have a great advantage +over shafts, for the stress on the section will be uniform, the +velocity will be uniform, and may be at least ten to fifteen +times as great as with shafts—say 100 ft. per second; the +rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at distances +500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will not +be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04.</p> + +<hr /> + + + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a><a name="Page_6714" id="Page_6714"></a>A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY.</h2> + +<h3>By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON.</h3> + +<p>We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a +single liquid and with a solid depolarizing element by +associating oxide of copper, caustic potash, and zinc.</p> + +<p>This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing +electrodes are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough +to keep it in contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper +constituting the positive pole of the element.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom +of a glass jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing +oxide of copper, B. To this box is attached a copper +wire insulated from the zinc by a piece of India rubber +tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this metal +coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a +cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the +zinc; an India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place +where it dips into the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away +at this level.</p> + +<p>The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per +cent. of potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a +Callaud element, with this difference—that the depolarizing +element is solid and insoluble.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/4a.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> FIG. 1.</p> + +<p>To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the +potash, we inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid +state necessary for an element in the box which receives the +oxide of copper, and furnish it with a cover supported by a +ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then for working the battery +to open the box of potash, to place it at the bottom of the +jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then pour in +the copper oxide inclosed in a bag.</p> + +<p>We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently +into blocks. Among the various means which might be +employed, we prefer the following:</p> + +<p>We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium +in the form of paste so as to convert the whole into a +thick mass, which we introduce into metal boxes.</p> + +<p>The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action +of heat, and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with +the quantity of cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.).</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/4b.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V, +is provided with a cover of copper, E, screwing into +the glass. This cover carries two vertical plates of sheet-iron, +A, A', against which are fixed the prismatic blocks, +B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal, C, +carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc +is formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to +the center of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded +back upon this tube so as to make an air-tight joint.</p> + +<p>The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a +split India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve.</p> + +<p>The closing is made hermetical by means of an India +rubber tube, K, which presses against the glass and the cover. +The potash to charge the element is in pieces, and is +contained either in the glass jar itself or in a separate box of +sheet-iron.</p> + +<p>Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically +sealed elements with a single plate of a very small size.</p> + +<p>The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper, +which are not attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to +easily construct elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3).</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br /> FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of +iron plate brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters +long by 20 centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high.</p> + +<p>We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and +place in the four corners porcelain insulators, L, which +support a horizontal plate of zinc, D, D', raised at one end +and kept at a distance from the oxide of copper and from +the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters of this is filled with +a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M, fixed respectively +to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach the +leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the +carbonic acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we +cover it with a thin layer of heavy petroleum (a substance +uninflammable and without smell), or better still, we furnish +the battery with a cover. These elements are easily packed +so as to occupy little space.</p> + +<p>We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may +be varied infinitely, but point out the principal properties +of the oxide of copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a +battery with a solid depolarizing element, the new battery +presents the advantage of only consuming its element, in +proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc and copper are, +in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is, therefore, +durable.</p> + +<p>Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal + +resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4 +of an ohm for polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated +by a distance of five centimeters.</p> + +<p>The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small +cells shown in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short +circuit; the large one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these +elements can replace a large Bunsen cell. They are remarkably +constant. We may say that with a depolarizing surface +double that of the zinc the battery will work without +notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted, +even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation +of the products, the change of the alkali into an +alkaline salt of zinc, does not perceptibly vary the internal +resistance. This great constancy is chiefly due to the +progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode to the state +of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity +and its depolarizing power.</p> + +<p>The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an +excellent battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at +first better conductivity than oxide of copper, but this +property is lost by reduction and transformation into lower +oxides. It follows that the copper battery will give a very +large quantity of electricity working through low resistances, +while under these conditions manganese batteries are rapidly +polarized.</p> + +<p>The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash +battery is very great, and far superior to that stored by an +accumulator of the same weight, but the rendering is much +less rapid. Potash may be employed in concentrated solution +at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can dissolve the +oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than one-third +of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to +be employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of +zinc which enters into action. These data allow of the +reduction of the necessary substances to a very small relative +weight.</p> + +<p>The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results +in their application to telephones. For theatrical purposes +the same battery may be employed during the whole performance, +instead of four or five batteries. Their durability is +considerable; three elements will work continuously, night +and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than four +months without sensible loss of power.</p> + +<p>Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low +resistances, and can be worked at any moment, after several +months, for example. It is only necessary to protect them +by a cover from the action of the carbonic acid of the +atmosphere.</p> + +<p>We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding +its price and its higher equivalent, because it does +not produce, like soda, creeping salts. Various modes of +regeneration render this battery very economical. The deposited +copper absorbs oxygen pretty readily by simple exposure +to damp air, and can be used again. An oxidizing +flame produces the same result very rapidly.</p> + +<p>Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator, +that is to say, by passing a current through it in the +opposite direction, we restore the various products to their +original condition; the copper absorbs oxygen, and the alkali +is restored, while the zinc is deposited; but the spongy state +of the deposited zinc necessitates its being submitted to a +process, or to its being received upon a mercury support. +Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a +waste product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced, +loses nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery; +the depolarization may therefore be considered as +costing scarcely anything. The oxide of copper battery is a +durable and valuable battery, which by its special properties +seems likely to replace advantageously in a great number +of applications the batteries at present in use.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr. +E. D. Farcot for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine, +consists of a cast iron bed frame, A, upon which are mounted +all the parts. The two jacketed, cylinders, B and C, of +different diameters, each contains a simple-acting piston. +The two pistons are connected by one rod in common, which +is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in slides, +E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The +head of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter +which embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H.</p> + +<p>The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J, +which is provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected +with a governor placed upon the large cylinder. The steam, +as shown in Fig. 2 (which represents the piston at one end +of its travel), is first admitted against the right surface of the +small piston, which it causes to effect an entire stroke corresponding +to a half-revolution of the fly-wheel. The stroke +completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an eccentric keyed +to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the cylinders, +B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and +drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second +half of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs +through the valve chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the +large cylinder in connection with the eduction port, M.</p> + +<p>The volume of air included between the two pistons is +displaced at every stroke, so that, according to the position +occupied by the pistons, it is held either by the large or +small cylinder. The necessary result of this is that a compression +of the air, and consequently a resistance, is brought +about. In order to obviate this inconvenience, the constructor +has connected the space between the two pistons at the +part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being alternately +driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of +relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant +resistance.</p> + +<div class="center"><a href="./images/4d.png"><img src="./images/4d_th.png" alt="FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE." /></a></div> +<p class="ind"> +FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE.<br /> +Fig. 1.—Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /> +Fig. 2.—Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /> +Fig. 3.—Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /> +Fig. 4.—Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /> +Fig. 5.—Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /></p> + +<p>As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a +variable expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a +<a name="Page_6715" id="Page_6715"></a>single acting one, a single valve-plate suffices. This latter +is, during its travel, arrested at one end by a stop and at +the other by a cam actuated by the governor. Upon the axis +of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel, with an endless +screw, which permits of regulating it by hand.</p> + +<p>This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes, +makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs +2,000 kilogrammes.—<i>Annales Industrielles</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>FOOT LATHES.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia +Manufacturing Company, of Colchester, and specially designed +for use on board ships. These lathes, says <i>Engineering</i>, +are treble geared, in order that work which cannot usually +be done without steam power may be accomplished by +foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or plate, +or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work +than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6 +inch centers, gaps 7½ inches wide and 6½ inches deep, +beds 4 feet 6 inches long by 8¾ inches on the face and 6 +inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There are three speeds +on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches in diameter +and 1½ inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch +pitch and 1½ inches wide on face. The steel leading screw +is 1½ inches in diameter by ¼ inch pitch. Smaller sizes are +made for torpedo boats and for places where space is +limited.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" alt="LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD." /></a><br /> LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.</h2> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/5b.png" alt="" /></p> + +<p>The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications +of link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain +belt carried over a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate +space a truck on which the train runs. This chain or belt +is provided with pans which, as they overlap, form an endless +trough. Power being applied to revolve one of the +wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once +becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying +engraving illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of +the pans are removed, to show the construction of the links; +and above this a link and coupler are shown on a larger +scale. As will be seen, the link is provided with wings, to +form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted to it. To +reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as +will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof +conveyer which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln +to crusher, and convey coal, broken stone, or other gritty and + +coarse material. The Link Belt Machinery Company, of +Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E. Coffin, of Muirkirk, +Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to carry +the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about +one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with +the barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower +becomes a faithful servant, ready for work in all +weather and at all times of day or night. This company +also manufactures ore elevators of any capacity, which, +used in connection with this apparatus, will handle perfectly +anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might +be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment. +Although comparatively new in this country, the American +<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> says it has been in successful +operation for some time in England, the English manufacturers +of link-belting having had great success with it.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/5c.png"><img src="./images/5c_th.png" alt="ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER." /></a><br /> ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES.</h2> + +<p>On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is +30 feet to the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the +mile going east and south. Next for easy grades comes the +New York Central and Hudson River road. From New +York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk, till it +gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the +time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its +connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the "Nickel +Plate," the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the +Canada Southern and Michigan Central.</p> + +<p>The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio +roads pass through a country so mountainous that, much as +they have expended to improve their grades, it is practically +impossible for them to attain the easy grades so much more +readily obtained by the trunk lines following the great +natural waterways originally extending almost from Chicago +to New York.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS.</h2> + +<p>The <i>Journal of the Statistical Society</i> for September contains +an elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on "English +Express Trains; their Average Speed, etc. with Notes on +Gradients, Long Runs, etc." The author takes great pains +to explain his definition of the term "express trains," which +he finally classifies thus: (a) The general rule; those which +run under ordinary conditions, and attain a journey-speed +of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the +whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional +difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed +as low as 36 or 37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole. +(c) Trains which should come under (a), but which, through +unusually long stoppages or similar causes, only reach a +journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per cent.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a> of the +whole.</p> + +<p>He next explains that by "running average" is meant: +The average speed per hour while actually in motion from +platform to platform, <i>i.e.</i>, the average speed obtained by +deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up) Great Northern +"Scotchman" stops 49 minutes on its journey from Edinburgh + +to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in +actual motion; its "running average" is therefore 48 miles +an hour, or, briefly, "r.a.=48." The statement for this +train will thus appear: Distance in miles between Edinburgh +and King's Cross, 392½; time, 9 h. 0 m.; journey-speed, +43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48.</p> + +<p>Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances +of the express trains of the leading English and +Scottish railways—in Ireland there are no trains which come +under his definition of "express"—giving the times of +journey, the journey-speeds, minutes stopped on way, and +running averages, with the gradients and other circumstances +bearing on these performances. He sums up the +results for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" summary=""> +<colgroup span="7"><col align="right" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup> +<tr><th>Extent<br />of System<br /> in Miles.</th><th> </th><th colspan="2">Distinct<br />Expresses.</th><th>Average<br />Journey-speed.</th><th>Running<br />Average.</th><th>Express<br />Mileage.</th></tr> +<tr><td>1773</td><td>North-Western</td> +<td>54<br />28</td><td valign="middle"><span style="font-size: xx-large;">}</span>82</td><td>40</td><td>43</td><td>10,400</td></tr> +<tr><td>1260</td><td>Midland</td><td>66</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>45</td><td>8,860</td></tr> +<tr><td>928</td><td>Great Northern</td> +<td>48<br />19</td><td valign="middle"><span style="font-size: xx-large;">}</span>67</td><td>43</td><td>46</td><td>6,780</td></tr> +<tr><td>907</td><td>Great Eastern</td><td>34</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>3,040</td></tr> +<tr><td>2267</td><td>Great Western</td><td>18</td><td></td><td>42</td><td>46</td><td>2,600</td></tr> +<tr><td>1519</td><td>North-Eastern</td><td>19</td><td></td><td>40</td><td>43</td><td>2,110</td></tr> +<tr><td>290</td><td>Manch., Sheffield, and Lincoln</td><td>49</td><td></td><td>43</td><td>44</td><td>2,318</td></tr> +<tr><td>767</td><td>Caledonian</td><td>16</td><td></td><td>40</td><td>42</td><td>1,155</td></tr> +<tr><td>435</td><td>Brighton</td><td>13</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>41</td><td>1,155</td></tr> +<tr><td>382</td><td>South-Eastern</td><td>12</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>41</td><td>940</td></tr> +<tr><td>329</td><td>Glasgow and South-Western</td><td>8</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>920</td></tr> +<tr><td>796</td><td>London and South-Western</td><td>3</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>44</td><td>890</td></tr> +<tr><td>984</td><td>North British</td><td>11</td><td></td><td>39</td><td>41</td><td>830</td></tr> +<tr><td>153</td><td>Chatham and Dover</td><td>9</td><td></td><td>42</td><td>43</td><td>690</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>407</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>44</td><td>42,683</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed +is 41.6, and which run 42,680 miles at an average "running +average" of 44.3 miles per hour.</p> + +<p>If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead +of their mileage, the order is:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary=""> +<colgroup span="3"><col align="left" /><col span="2" align="right" /></colgroup> +<tr><td> </td><th align="center">Average<br />r.a.</th><th>Miles</th></tr> +<tr><td>Great Northern.</td><td>46</td><td>6,780</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Western.</td><td>46</td><td><a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>2</sup></a>2,600</td></tr> +<tr><td>Midland.</td><td>45</td><td>8,860</td></tr> +<tr><td>Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln</td><td>44</td><td>2,318</td></tr> +<tr><td>London and South-Western.</td><td>44</td><td>890</td></tr> +<tr><td>North-Western.</td><td>43</td><td>10,400</td></tr> +<tr><td>Glasgow and South-Western.</td><td>43</td><td>920</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Eastern.</td><td>43</td><td>3,040</td></tr> +<tr><td>North-Eastern.</td><td>43</td><td>2,110</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chatham and Dover.</td><td>43</td><td>690</td></tr> +<tr><td>Caledonian.</td><td>42</td><td>1,155</td></tr> +<tr><td>South-Eastern.</td><td>41</td><td>940</td></tr> +<tr><td>Brighton.</td><td>41</td><td>1,155</td></tr> +<tr><td>North British.</td><td>31</td><td>825</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF +GRADIENTS, ETC.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<ul> +<li>North British,</li> +<li>Caledonian,</li> +<li>Manch., Sheffield & Lincoln,</li> +<li>Midland,</li> +<li>Glasgow and South-Western,</li> +<li>Chatham and Dover,</li> +<li>South-Eastern,</li> +<li>Great Northern,</li> +<li>South-Western,</li> +<li>Great Eastern,</li> +<li>Brighton,</li> +<li>North-Western,</li> +<li>North-Eastern,</li> +<li>Great Western.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="center">LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table cellpadding="4" summary="Run, Num of Trains, Average Speed(Miles), Running Average(Miles)" border="1"> +<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="4" /></colgroup> +<tr><td> </td><th>Number<br />of Trains.</th><th>Average<br />Speed.<br />Miles.</th><th colspan="2">Running<br />Averages.<br />Miles.</th></tr> +<tr><td>Midland.</td><td>104</td><td>53</td><td>46</td><td>(5,512)</td></tr> +<tr><td>North-Western.</td><td>98</td><td>60</td><td>45</td><td>(5,880)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Northern.</td><td>49</td><td>73</td><td>50</td><td>(3,616)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Western.</td><td>24</td><td>56</td><td>48</td><td>(1,344)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Great Eastern.</td><td>24</td><td>56</td><td>42</td><td>(1,362)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Brighton.</td><td>23</td><td>45</td><td>42</td><td>(1,047)</td></tr> +<tr><td>North-Eastern.</td><td>20</td><td>56</td><td>44</td><td>(1,120)</td></tr> +<tr><td>South-Western.</td><td>13</td><td>47</td><td>44</td><td>(615)</td></tr> +<tr><td>South-Eastern.</td><td>12</td><td>66</td><td>42</td><td>(795)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chatham and Dover.</td><td>8</td><td>63</td><td>45</td><td>(504)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Caledonian.</td><td>8</td><td>59</td><td>45</td><td>(476)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Glasgow and South-Western</td><td>8</td><td>58</td><td>44</td><td>(468)</td></tr> +<tr><td>Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln.</td><td>8</td><td>48</td><td>43</td><td>(390)</td></tr> +<tr><td>North British.</td><td>7</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>(423)</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="ind">Total.</span></td><td>406</td><td>58</td><td>45</td><td>(23,550)</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>From this it will be seen that the three great companies +run 61 per cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per +cent. of the whole number of long runs.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage, of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.</p></div> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>IMPROVED OIL MILL.</h2> + +<p>The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by +mechanical means have during the last few years undergone +a complete revolution. By the old process, the seed, having +been flattened between a pair of stones, was afterward +ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as much as +20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute. +Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken +to a kettle or steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated, +and thence drawn—in quantities sufficient for a cake—in +woollen bags, which were placed in a hydraulic press. From +four to six bags was the utmost that could be got into the +press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between wrappers +of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a +good deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable +expense in the frequent replacing of the horsehair +wrappers, each of which involved a cost of about £4. The +<a name="Page_6716" id="Page_6716"></a>modern requirements of trade have in every branch of industry +ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the slow, +easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition +was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements, +almost at every turn, more effectually and at greatly increased +speed, complete manufacturing operations previously +performed by hand, and oil-seed crushing machinery has +been no exception to the general rule. The illustrations we +give represent the latest developments in improved oil-mill +machinery introduced by Rose, Downs & Thompson, named +the "Colonial" mill, and recently we had an opportunity +of inspecting the machinery complete before shipment to +Calcutta, where it is being sent for the approaching exhibition. +As compared with the old system of oil-seed crushing, +Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson claim for their method, +among other advantages, a great saving in driving power, +economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an +improved branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in +the labor employed in the press-room, with also a great +saving in wear and tear, while the process is equally applicable +to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or similar seeds. +In addition to these improvements in the system, the "Colonial" +mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement +to meet the requirements of exporters. The +machinery and engine are self-contained on an iron foundation, +so that there is no need of skilled mechanics to erect +the mill, nor of expensive stone foundations, while the +building covering the mill can, if desired, be of the lightest +possible description, as no wall support is required. The mill +consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler, +3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 1½ in. high, with three cross tubes +7½ in. diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake +9 in. diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood +fuel is used extra grate area can be provided. This boiler +supplies the steam not only for the engine, but also for +heating and damping the seed in the kettle. The engine is +vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke, with high +speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of the +mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about +30 ft. long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various +machines, which, when the top is leveled, can be fixed in +their respective places by any intelligent man, and when +the machines are in position they form a support for the +shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden bin, +placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll +frame has four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter, +so arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings, +with patent pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are +driven by fast and loose pulleys by the shaft above. After +the last rolling the seed falls through an opening in the +foundation plate in a screen driven from the bottom roll +shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a set +of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle. +This kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in. +deep, is made of cast iron and of specially strong construction. +There is only one steam joint in it, and to reduce the +liability of leakage this joint is faced in a lathe. The inside +furnishings of the kettle are a damping apparatus with perforated +boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and delivery plate, and +patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a wood frame +and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron sheeting. +The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required +temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped +by a jet of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with +indicating plate. When the required temperature has been +obtained, the seed is withdrawn by a measuring box through +a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom, and evenly distributed +over a strip of bagging supported on a steel tray +in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes +a compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be +taken in by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction +of the oil. The seed leaves the moulding machine +in the form of a thick cake from nine to eleven pounds in +weight, and each press is constructed to take in twelve of +these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in. diameter +and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of construction +and even distribution of strain throughout the +press, all the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed +and turned accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take +the columns, in the place of being cast, as is sometimes +usual, with fitting strips top and bottom, are solid throughout, +and are planed or slotted out of the solid to gauges. +The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps made of +crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the +pump rams is 2½ in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This +ram gives only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are +such as to obtain this pressure upon each press in about +<a name="Page_6717" id="Page_6717"></a>fourteen seconds. This pump then automatically ceases +running, and the work is taken up by a second plunger, +having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the second +pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons +per square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is +arrived at in less than two minutes. For shutting off the +communication between the presses, the stop valves are so +arranged that either press may be let down, or set to work +without in the smallest degree affecting the other. The oil +from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from which +an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired +direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press, +are stripped of the bagging and cut to size in a specially +arranged paring machine, which is placed off the bed-plate +behind the kettle, and is driven by the pulley shown on the +main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted with an arrangement +for reducing the parings to meal, which is returned +to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses +shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs +& Thompson's latest type, but the cakes produced by this +process can have any desired name or brand in block letters +put upon them. The edges on the upper plate, it may be +added, are found of great use in crushing some classes of +green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give illustrations +opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of +seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been +so reduced to a minimum that it is intended to be worked +by one man, who moulds and puts the twenty-four cakes +into the presses, and while they are under pressure is +engaged paring the cakes that have been previously pressed. +In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or +separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case +the engine and boiler would require to be made larger.—<i>The +Engineer</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/6a.png"> +<img src="./images/6a_th.png" alt="AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL." /></a><br /> +AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES +CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF +PAPER MILLS, ETC.</h2> + +<p>For extracting such useful materials as are contained in +the waste waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and, +at the same time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht, +of Siebenlehn, employs a sort of filter like that shown in +the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and underneath which he effects +a vacuum.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt="SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1." /> +<br />SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments, +which are separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the +stationary bottom, <i>a</i>, there is arranged a lattice-work grating +or a strong wire cloth, <i>b</i>, upon which rests the filtering material, +c, properly so called. The reservoir is divided +transversely by several partitions, <i>d</i>, of different heights. +The liquor entering through the leader, <i>f</i>, traverses the apparatus +slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide +section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the +filtering material, it is necessary that, in addition to +this horizontal motion, it shall have a downward one. As +far as to the top of the partitions, <i>d</i>, there form in front of +the latter certain layers which do not participate in the horizontal +motion, but which can only move downward, as a +consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It results +from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the first +compartment, while the others run over the first partition, +d, and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according +to their degree of fineness, while the clarified water +makes its exit through the spout, g. When the filtering +layer, <i>c</i>, has become gradually impermeable, the cock, <i>i</i>, of +a jet apparatus, <i>k</i>, is opened, in order to suck out the clarified +water through the pipe, r.—<i>Dingler's Polytech. Journ., +after Bull. Musée de l'Industrie</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt="SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2." /> +<br />SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>LARGE BLUE PRINTS.</h2> + +<h3>By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E.</h3> + +<p>I send you a description of a device that I got up for the +N.Y., L.E., and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by +which I overcame the difficulties incident to large glasses. +The glass was 58 inches long, 84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch +thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In order to keep +the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of +thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1" × 1". Each strip was +carefully planed, and then they were glued and screwed +together, while across the ends were fastened strips with +their grain running transversely. This back was then covered +on side next to the glass with four thicknesses of common +gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding +pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected +by two long pressure strips running across the back placed +at about one quarter the length of the frame from the ends, +and held by a screw at the center. The ends of these strips +were made so as to fit in slots in the frame at a slight angle, +so that as the pressure strips were turned it gave them a +binding pressure at the same time. In other words, it is the +same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in small +picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the +back at the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall +away from the glass, distributed it evenly over the whole +surface and always kept it in position. The frame was run in +and out of the printing room on a little railway on which it +rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one pair being at one +end, while the other was just beyond the center, so the +frame could be revolved in direction of its length without +trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel +fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed, +with a ring that could be attached to a corresponding hook +at the side of the back, in order to hoist it or lower it. Although +that is an extremely large apparatus, yet by means +of the above device it was worked easily and rapidly, and +gave every satisfaction.</p> + +<p>The solution used was of the same proportions as had +been adopted in the other engineering offices of the road:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="50%" summary=""> +<tr><td>Citrate iron and ammonium</td><td align='right'>1-7/8 oz.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Red prussiate potash (C.P.)</td><td align='right'>1-1/4 oz.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix +when ready to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle, +and that in a tight box impervious to light, it can be kept +two or three weeks.</p> + +<p>In some frames used at the School of Mines for making +large blue prints a similar device has been in use for several +years. Instead, however, of the heavy and cumbrous back +used by Mr. Parsons, a light, somewhat flexible back of +one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered with heavy Canton +flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The pressure +is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker +at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform +pressure across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the +back firmly against the glass at all points. This system has +been used with success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two +inches, about half as large as the one described by Mr. Parsons. +A frame of this size can be easily handled without +mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid too great +thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the +plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips +used are about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle, +and taper to about three-eighths of an inch at the ends.</p> + +<p>The formulæ for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy, +and Parsons are practically identical so far as the proportions +of citrate of iron and ammonia and of red prussiate of +potash, 3 of the former to 2 of the latter, but differ in the +amount of water. Laudy's formula calls for about 5 parts +of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts, and +Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the +solution the longer the exposure required. With very strong +solutions a large portion of the Prussian blue formed comes +off in the washwater, and when printing from glass negatives +the fine lines and lighter tints are apt to suffer. The +blue color, however, will be deep and the whites clear. With +weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the whites bluish. +Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The addition of +a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an advantage, +producing the same results as strength of solution, by +increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper +deficient in sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.—<i>H.S.M., +Sch. of M. Quarterly</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE.</h2> + +<p>A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been +delivered during the past few weeks before the officers of +the Royal Engineers stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas +Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.</p> + +<p>The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain +Galton, whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls +under the following five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse; +3, stable manure; 4, solid or liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater +and domestic waste water, including water from personal +ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of passages, +stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the +simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water +supply is limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are +absorbed by the ground; but a camp unprovided with latrines +would always be in a state of danger from epidemic +disease. One of the most frequent causes of an unhealthy +condition of the air of a camp in former times has been +either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground +outside the camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing +the latrines too shallow, and exposing too large a surface to +rain, sun, and air. The Quartermaster-General's regulations +provide against these contingencies; but I may as well +here recapitulate the general principles which govern camp +latrines. Latrines should be so managed that no smell from +them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure this very +simple precautions only are required:</p> + +<p>1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect +to prevailing winds, and at as great a distance from the tents +as is compatible with convenience. 2. They should be dug +narrow and deep, and their contents covered over every +evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A certain bulk +and thickness of earth are required to absorb the putrescent +gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air to a +considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled +to within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be +thrown into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its +site. 4. Great care should be taken not to place latrines +near existing wells, nor to dig wells near where latrines +have been placed. The necessity of these precautions to +prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens made +out of any available material are, of course, required for +latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp, +and is only admissible under such conditions.</p> + +<p>A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the +most immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse +will take a long time to decay; it should not be disturbed, +and will taint the adjacent soil for a long time. This is of +less consequence in a merely temporary encampment, while +it might entail serious evils in localities continuously +inhabited. The following plan of trench has been adopted as a +more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with the +object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution +of the whole country, from the people habitually fouling +the fields, roads, streets, and watercourses. Long trenches +are dug, at about one foot or less in depth, at a spot +set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from dwellings. Matting +screens are placed round for decency. Each day the +trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day, +is filled up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth +obtained by digging a new trench adjoining, which, when it +has been used, is treated in the same manner. Thus the + +trenches are gradually extended, until sufficient ground has +been utilized, when they are plowed up and the site used +for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more +than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep, +the lower stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a +permanent cesspool, and becomes a source of future trouble. +It is to be observed, however, that in the wet season these +trenches cannot be used, and in sandy soil they do not answer. +This system, although it is preferable to what formerly +prevailed—viz., the surface defilement of the ground all +round villages and of the adjacent water courses—is fraught +with danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be +strictly enforced, because it would otherwise retain large +and increasing masses of putrefying matter in the soil, in a +condition somewhat unfavorable to rapid absorption. These +arrangements are applicable only to very rough life or very +poor communities.</p> + +<p>The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure, +etc., from barracks next calls for notice. The great principle +to be observed in removing the solid refuse from barracks +is that every decomposable substance should be taken away at +once. This principle applies especially in warm climates. +Even the daily removal of refuse entails the necessity of +places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore this principle +must be applied in various ways to suit local convenience. +In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there +is less danger of injury to health from decomposing matters +than there would be in hot, moist, or close positions. In +the country generally there is less risk of injury than in +close parts of towns. These considerations show that the +same stringency is not necessarily required everywhere. +Position by itself affords a certain degree of protection from +nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually +produced is also another point to be considered. A small +daily product is not, of course, so injurious as a large product. +Even the manner of accumulating decomposing substances +influences their effect on health. There is less risk +from a dung heap to the leeward than to the windward of a +barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily +placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be +below the level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the +ground, into which the refuse is thrown in the intervals between +times of removal, rain and surface water will mix +with the refuse and hasten its decomposition, and generally +the lowest part of the filth will not be removed, but will be +left to fester and produce malaria. In all places where the +occupation is permanent the following conditions should be +attended to:</p> + +<p>1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from +inhabited buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by +the occupants. 2. That the places of deposit be above the +level of the ground—never dug out of the ground. The floor +of the ash pit or dung pit should be at least six inches above +the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved with square +sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered. +5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide +that the traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or +in removing it shall not produce a polluted surface.</p> + +<p>In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized +for manure or otherwise are burned. But this is an +operation which, if done unskillfully, without a properly +constructed kiln, may give rise to nuisance. One of the best +forms of kiln is one now in operation at Ealing, which could +be easily visited from London.</p> + +<p><i>The removal of excreta from houses</i>.—The chief object of +a perfect system of house drainage is the immediate and +complete removal from the house of all foul and effete matter +directly it is produced. The first object—viz., removal of +foul matter, can be attained either by the water closet system, +when carried out in this integrity; but it could, of +course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough +always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are +modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools +in a house do not fulfill this condition of immediate +removal. They serve for the retention of excremental and +other matters. In a porous soil it endangers the purity of +the wells. The Indian cities afford numerous examples of +subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to the pollution +of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the +soil in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt, +the chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to +decay for many generations, from the presence of which +the well water is impure. There are many factories of saltpeter +in India whose supplies are derived from this source; +and during the great French wars, when England blockaded +all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon obtained saltpeter +for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools +are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected. +Cesspits may, however, be a necessity in some special cases, +as, for instance, in detached houses or a small detached barrack. +Where they cannot be avoided, the following conditions +as to their use should be enforced:</p> + +<p>1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling. +It should be placed outside, and as far removed from the +immediate neighborhood of the dwelling as circumstances +will allow. There should be a ventilated trap placed on the +pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit. 2d. It +should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of +no leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow +should be permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be +thoroughly emptied and cleaned out; for the matter left at +the bottom of a cesspit is liable to be in a highly putrescible +condition.</p> + +<p>Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least +offensive system for emptying it is the pneumatic system. +This is applicable to the water closet refuse alone. The +pneumatic system acts as follows: A large air-tight cylinder +on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series of air-tight +barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter, +placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient; +a tube of about the same diameter is led from them +to the cesspit; the air is then exhausted in the barrels or +cylinder either by means of an air pump or by means of +steam injected into it, which, on condensation, forms a +vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are drawn through +the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder or +barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this +system has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland. +He removes the fæcal matter from water closets and the sedimentary +production of kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency. +He places large air-tight tanks in a suitable part of the town, +to which he leads pipes from all houses. He creates a +vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the +fæcal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have +been tried for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the +hand removal of excreta. The first was the combination of +the privy with an ashpit above the surface of the ground, +the ashes and excreta being mixed together, and both being +removed periodically. The next improvement was the provision + +<a name="Page_6718" id="Page_6718"></a>of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest +arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken +out, the contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the +box replaced. The difficulty of cleansing the angles of the +boxes led to the adoption of oval or round pails. The pail +is placed under the seat, and removed at stated intervals, or +when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In Marseilles and +Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ +cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes +hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The +household is furnished with three or four of these vessels, +and when one is full the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel +thus remaining in a harmless condition in the house till +taken away by the authorities and replaced by a clean one. +The contents are converted into manure. In consequence +of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next improvement +was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily. +In the north of England the arrangement generally is that +the ashes shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are +sifted—the finer fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser +pass into a box, whence they can be taken to be again +burned—while a separate shoot is provided for kitchen refuse, +which falls into another pail adjacent.</p> + +<p>Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the +excreta is the dry earth system as applied in the earth closet, +in which advantage is taken of the deodorizing properties +of earth. Dry earth is a good deodorizer; 1½ lb. of dry +earth of good garden ground or clay will deodorize such +excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or gravel. +If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and it +is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed +until it has been used ten or twelve times. This +system requires close attention, or the dry earth closet will +get out of order; as compared with water closets, it is +cheaper in first construction, and is not liable to injury by +frost; and it has this advantage over any form of cesspit—that +it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of +the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as +follows: Cost of closet, say, £500; expense of ovens, carts, +horses, etc., £250; total capital, £750, at 6 per cent. £37 10s. +interest. Wages of two men and a boy per week, £1 12s.; +keep of horses, stables, etc., 18s.; fuel for drying earth, 1s. +6d. per ton dried daily, £1 10s.; cost of earth and repairs, +etc., 14s.; weekly expenses, £4 14s. Yearly expenses, £247 +(equal to 4s. 11d. per ton per annum); interest, £37 10s.—total, +£284 10s., against which should be put the value of +the manure. But the value of the manure is simply a +question of carriage. If the manure is highly concentrated, +like guano, it can stand a high carriage. If the manuring +elements are diffused through a large bulk of passive substances, +the cost of the carriage of the extra, or non-manuring, +elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by +adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large +quantity of manure, containing much besides the actual +manuring elements—such as is generally the case with dry +earth—as soon as the districts immediately around have +been fully supplied, a point is soon reached at which it is +impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry earth +system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions +where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable +to large towns from the practical difficulties connected +with procuring, carting, and storing the dry earth.</p> + +<p>With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be +separated from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the +offensiveness would be much diminished, and deodorization +be unnecessary, a method for getting rid of the liquid portion +by what is termed the Goux system has been in use at +Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail with a composition +formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which +can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to +give it adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position +by a means of a core or mould, which is allowed to remain +in the pails until just before they are about to be placed +under the seat; the core is then withdrawn, and the pail is +left ready for use. The liquid which passes into the pail +soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing medium. +The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick +to the central space in a tub of the above dimensions would +be about two to one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this +proportion would be insufficient to produce a dry mass in +the tubs when used for a week, and experience has shown +that after being in use for several days the absorbing power +of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole contents +have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain +by the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from +nuisance, and though it removes the risk of splashing and +does away with much of the unsightliness of the contents, +the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds extra weight which has +to be carried to and from the houses, is rather a disadvantage +than otherwise from the manurial point of view.</p> + +<p>The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways +in the northern towns of England, and in the permanent +camps to some extent at least, and of which the French +"tinette" is an improved form, is more economically convenient +than the dry earth system or the Goux or other deodorizing +system, where a large amount of removal of +refuse has to be accomplished, because by the pail system +the liquid and solid ejections may be collected with a very +small, or even without any, admixture of foreign substances; +and, according to theory, the manurial value of dejections +per head per annum ought to be from 8s. to 10s. The great +superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the pail or pan +systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even the +middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is +reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles +being sometimes effected daily, and the period +never exceeding a week. The excrementitious matter is +removed without soaking in the ground or putrefying in the +midst of a population.</p> + +<p>These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the +equally important refuse liquid—viz., the waste water from +washing and stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains +for the purpose of removing the waste water, it is more +economical to allow this waste water to carry away the excreta. +In any case, you must have drains for removing the +fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much +of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take +precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which +the drains are liable to contain from passing into your +houses.</p> + +<p>There is a method which you might find useful on a +small scale to which I will now draw your attention, as it is +applicable to detached houses or small barracks—viz., the +plan of applying the domestic water to land through underground +drains, or what is called subsoil irrigation. This +system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of sewage +matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open +irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might +be exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation + +supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult +question. This system was applied some years ago by Mr. +Waring in Newport, in the United States. It has recently +been introduced into this country.</p> + +<p>The system is briefly as follows: The water from the +house is carried through a water-tight drain to the ground +where the irrigation is to be applied. It is there passed +through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1 ft. below the surface, +with open joints, by means of which it percolates into the +soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid intermediately +between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the +soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent +deposit, which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic +water is allowed to trickle through the drains as it passes +away from the house it soon chokes the drains. It is, therefore, +necessary to pass it in flushes through the drains, and +this can be best managed by running the water from the +house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs +off in a body when full.</p> + +<p>When you have water closet and drainage, the great object +to be attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas +from passing from the main sewer into the house drain. It was +the custom to place a flap at the junction of the house drain +with the sewer; but this flap is useless for preventing sewer +gas from passing up the house drain. The plan was therefore +adopted of placing a water trap under the water closet +basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the +drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very +great, consequently the water in the trap would absorb this +gas. When the water became warm from increase of temperature, +it would give out the gas into the house; when it +cooled down at night, it would again absorb more gas from +the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature would +cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually.</p> + +<p>These objections have led to the present recognized system—viz., +1st, to place a water trap on the drain to cut off +the sewer gases from the foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to +place an opening to the outer air on the soil pipe between +the trap and the house to secure efficient disconnection +between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover, necessary +to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house +drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible +products which may be in it. To do this, we must insure +that a current of air shall be continually passing through the +drains; both an inlet and an outlet for fresh air must be provided +in the portions of the house drain which are cut off from +the main sewer, for without an inlet and outlet there can be +no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet can be obtained +in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet +may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter, +and with an open top to above the roof, in a position +away from the windows, skylights, or chimneys. And, +secondly, an inlet may be obtained by an opening into the +house drain, on the dwelling side of and close to the trap, +by means of the disconnecting manhole or branch-pipe before +mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the inlet by +means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet +should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any +case less than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance +and the difficulty of conveying the excreta without +lodgments, an open gutter would be preferable to a closed +pipe in the house. This arrangement is based on the principle +that there should be no deposit in the house drains. +Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house +drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to +give the adequate inclination.</p> + +<p>The following are desirable conditions to observe in house +drains: 1. As to material of pipes. House drains should be +made either of glazed stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with +cement joints, or preferably of cast iron pipes jointed with +carefully-made lead joints, or with turned joints and bored +sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New York the +iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by +the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a +rainwater pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes. +A lead joint cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore +the lead joint is to some extent a guarantee of soundness. +Lead pipes will be eaten away by water containing +free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure rainwater +injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will +also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes +appear in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that +allows sewer gas to pass into the house. Moreover, lead is a +soft material; it is subject to indentations, to injury from +nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when coated with sewage +matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and if of +sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once +well fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore, +advocate cast iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the +soilpipe which is to receive a water-closet, the trap should +form part of the fixed pipe; so that if there is any sinking +the down pipe will not sink away from the trap. It is, however, +not sufficient to provide good material. There is +nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view +than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter, +it is on details that all depends. Just consider; the drain +pipes under the best conditions of aeration contain elements +of danger, and those pipes are composed of a number of +parts, at the point of junction of any one of which the +poison may escape into the house. You thus perceive how +necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum by +cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from +the street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place +being most careful in the workmanship of every part of +your house drains and soilpipes. Reduce your danger where +you can by putting your pipes outside. But you cannot +always do that—for instance, at New York and in Canada +they would freeze.</p> + +<p>All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by +plugging up the lower end of the drain pipe and filling it +with water. In no case should a soilpipe be built inside a +wall. It should be so placed as to be always accessible. +2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter. In no instance +need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in diameter. +3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with +true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper +would be preferable. When from circumstances the drain +is laid at a smaller inclination, a flush tank should be provided. +They should be laid in straight lines from point to +point. At every change of direction there should be reserved +a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should be +constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in +particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases +the pipe should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid +under the house should be laid perfectly straight—a means +of access should be provided at each end; it should have a +free air current passing through it from end to end, and a +flush tank should be placed at the upper end. 5. Every +house drain should be arranged so as to be flushed, and kept + +at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain should +be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each +end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and +no pipe or opening should be used for ventilation unless the +same be carried upward without angles or horizontal lengths, +and with tight joints. The size of such pipes or openings +should be fully equal to that of the drain pipe ventilated. +7. The upper extremities of ventilating pipes should be at a +distance from any windows or openings, so that there will +be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the interior of +the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate +at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap, +so that a current of air would be constantly maintained +through the pipe. 8. No rainwater pipe and no overflow or +waste pipe from any cistern or rainwater tank, or from any +sink (other than a slop sink for urine), or from any bath or +lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe; but every such +pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing through +the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with +an end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage +arrangements of this Parkes Museum in which we are +assembled were very defective when the building was first +taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the committee, was requested +to drain it properly, and it has been very successfully +accomplished.</p> + +<p>I would now draw your attention to some points of detail +in the fittings for carrying away waste water.</p> + +<p>First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned, +every waste pipe from the sink should deliver in the open +air, but it should have an opening at its upper end as well as +at its lower end, to permit a current of air to pass through +it; and it should be trapped close to the sink, so as to prevent +the air being drawn through it into the house; otherwise +you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give +you an instance: At the University College Hospital there +are some fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows +in every day, and some flows away through the waste pipes; +these pipes, which carry away nothing but fresh London +water to empty in the yard, got most offensive simply from +the decomposition of the sediment left in them by the London +water passing through them day after day. A small waste +pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It +should be of a size to empty rapidly—for a bath 2 inches, a +basin 1½, inches. There are other points connected with +fittings to which I would call your attention. The great +inventive powers which have been applied to the w.c. pan +are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many +kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called "traps" +have a tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and +therefore, in reality, partake more or less of the nature of +small cesspools, and nuisances are frequently attributed to +the ingress of "sewer gas" which have nothing whatever +to do with the sewers, but arise from foul air generated in +the house drains and internal fittings. The old form was +always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap. +It is simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out. +Any trap in which refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool. +It is a receptacle for putrescrible matter. In a lead +pipe your trap should always be smooth and without corners. +The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the frequency +of use of the trap. It varies from ½ inch to 3½ +inches. When a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper +than when frequently used, to allow of evaporation. In the +section of a w.c. pan, the object to be attained is to take +that form in which all the parts of the trap can be easily examined +and cleaned, in which both the pan and the trap will +be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in +which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of +the passage of sewer gas.</p> + +<p>And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I +have had much pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in +these lectures the result of my experience in sanitary science. +In doing so, I desired especially to impress on you who are +just entering your profession the importance of giving effect +to those principles of sanitary science which were left very +much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I have not +desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought, +by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which +sanitary science rests. That science is embodied in the words, +pure earth, pure air, pure water. In nature that purity is +insured by increasing movement. Neither ought we to +stagnate. In the application of these principles your goal +of to-day should be your starting-post for to-morrow. If I +have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you sufficiently +to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward +to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary +science.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION.</h2> + +<p>The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known, +and has been extensively adopted by English physicians. If +the opinion means anything, it signifies that the two diseases +are in essence one and the same, differing only in degree. +M. Pasteur has recently found that by passing the bacillus +of "rouget" of pigs through rabbits, he can effect a considerable +attenuation of the "rouget" virus. He has shown that +rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very +ill and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series +of rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As +regards the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs—they +are all made very ill, or die. But if inoculation be +made on pigs from those rabbits, at the end of the series it is +found that the pigs have the disease in a mild form, and, +moreover, that they enjoy immunity from further attacks +of "rouget." This simply means that the rabbits have +effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an +attenuation of virulence. So the pigs may be "vaccinated" +with the modified virus, have the disease in a mild form, +and thereafter be protected from the disease. The analogy +between this process and the accepted view of vaccinia is +very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass through +the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations +from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human +subject, but cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process, +though of very different result, mention may be made of +some collateral experiments of Pasteur, also performed recently. +Briefly, it has been discovered that the bacillus of +the "rouget" of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by +being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations +from the last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense +form of the disease. It will be remembered that the +discovery of the bacillus of "rouget" of pigs was due to +the late Dr. Thuillier.—<i>Lancet</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an +equable temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have +met with sudden death, the result of a weak heart and +passionate nature.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a><a name="Page_6719" id="Page_6719"></a>CONVENIENT VAULTS.</h2> + +<p>This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept +upon precept. Many persons have availed themselves +of the cheap and easy means which we have formerly recommended +in the shape of the daily use of absorbents, but a +larger number strangely neglect these means, and foul air +and impure drainage are followed by disease and death. +Sifted coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in +barrels till needed for use. A neat cask, filled with these +absorbents, with a long-handled dipper, is placed in the +closet, and a conspicuous placard directs every occupant to +throw down a dipper full before leaving. The vaults, made +to open on the outside, are then as easily cleaned twice a +year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by secret, +underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of +wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create +fevers. On this account, this arrangement is safer and +better than water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and +need never get out of order. There being no odor whatever, +if properly attended to, it may be contiguous to the dwelling. +An illustration of the way in which the latter is accomplished +is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat addition to +a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either +from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as +shown by the steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double +walls with interposed solid earth, to exclude any possible +impurity from the cellar in case of neglect. The vaults may +be reached from the outside opening, for removing the contents. +In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige of +impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who +cleans out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to +shovel sand from a pit.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9a.png" alt="Fig. 1." /><br /> Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance +from the house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides +with evergreen trees; for no person should be compelled to +encounter drifting snows to reach it—an exposure often +resulting in colds and sickness. A few dollars are the +whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as much.—<i>Country +Gentleman</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9b.png" alt="Fig. 2." /><br /> Fig. 2.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/9c.png" alt="Fig. 3." /><br /> Fig. 3.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM.</h2> + +<h3>By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL.</h3> + +<p>Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days +of the sixteenth century, when Italian malice and intrigue +swayed all Europe, and poisons and poisoners stalked forth +unblushingly from cottage and palace; when crowned and +mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed clergymen, +courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in +hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and +when the civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of +the daily repast, inhale the odors of flower or perfume, +light a wax taper, or even approach the waters of the holy +font. These horrors have been laid bare, their cause and +effect explained, and tests discovered whereby they may +be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects +even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however, +it is yet far removed from perfection; and there are +substances so mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set +the most delicate tests and powerful lenses at naught, +while carrying death most horrible in their train; and chief +of these are the products of Nature's laboratory, that provides +some sixty species of serpents with their deadly venom, +enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring habits +to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation. +The hideous <i>trigonocephalus</i> has forced the introduction +and acclimation of the mongoose to the cane fields +of the Western tropics; the tiger snake (<i>Heplocephalus curtus</i>) +is the terror of Australian plains; the fer de lance (<i>Craspedocephalus +lanceolatus</i>) renders the paradise of Martinique +almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (<i>Daboii russelli</i>) is +the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo +of Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding +waste for miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (<i>Naja +tripudians</i>) ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh +of one per cent. of the dense population, annually, +and is the more dangerous in that an assumed sacred character +secures it largely from molestation and retributive +justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers, rattlesnakes, +copperheads, and moccasins (<i>viperinæ</i> and <i>crotalidæ</i>), +that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and +annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways +and like habits, and if the venom of all be not generically +identical, the physiological and toxicological phenomena +arising therefrom render them practically and specifically +so. Indeed, their attributes appear to be mere modifications +arising from difference in age, size, development, climate, + +latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided perhaps by +idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life.</p> + +<p>In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism +and precision, the inoculatory apparatus of the venomous +reptile excels the most exquisite appliances devised by the +surgical implement maker's art, and it is doubtful whether +it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man. The mouth of +the serpent is an object for the closest study, presenting as it +does a series of independent actions, whereby the bones +composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated, +or rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive +ligaments, whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or +enlarged at will—any one part being untrammeled and unimpeded +in its action by its fellows. The recurved, hook-like +teeth are thus isolated in application, and each venom fang +independent of its rival when so desired, and it becomes +possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible.</p> + +<p>The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening +presence quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear +of man, and puts to flight the entire animal kingdom—lions, +tigers, and leopards, all but the restless and plucky +mongoose—and whose slightest scratch is attended with such +dire results, are two in number, one in each upper jaw, and +placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed +by five or six times in point of size. Situated just within +the lips, recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even +the finest of cambric needles, they are penetrated in their +longitudinal diameter by a delicate, hair-like canal opening +into a groove at the apex, terminating on the anterior surface +in an elongated fissure. As the canal is straight, and the +tooth falciform, a like groove or longitudinal fissure is +formed at the base, where it is inclosed by the aperture of +the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus.</p> + +<p>At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just +beneath the nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to +the commissure of the mouth, is the poison gland, analogous +to the salivary glands of man, that secretes a pure, mucous +saliva, and also a pale straw-colored, half-oleaginous +fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and +saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with +circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds +lodgment in the central portion of the excretory duct, that +along its middle is dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle, +and where only it may be obtained in perfect purity.</p> + +<p>When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie +backward along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the +mouth, and thus offer no impediment to deglutition. Close +inspection, however, at once reveals not only their presence, +but also several rudimentary ones to supply their place in +case of injury or accident. The bulb of the duct, too, is +surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the +outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle +by whose action both duct and gland are compressed at will, +conveying the secretion into the basal aperture of the fang, +at the same time refilling the bulb.</p> + +<p>When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive, +the reptile draws the posterior portion of its body into a +coil or spiral, whereby the act of straightening, in which it +hurls itself forward to nearly its full length, lends force to +the blow, and at the same instant the fangs are erected, +drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the points to +look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor +muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted, +the venom being injected with considerable violence through +the apical outlets of the fangs, and into the bottom of the +wound. If the object is not attained, the venom may be +thrown to considerable distances, falling in drops; and Sir +Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa relates +that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of +six feet or more in length in its death agony, lest it should +hurl venom in his eyes and create blindness; he afterward +found that an officer of Her Majesty's XV. Regiment had +been thus injured at a distance of <i>forty-five feet</i>, +and did not recover his eyesight for more than a week.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></p> + +<p>With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its +venom, the creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in +the wound, thereby dragging through and lacerating the +flesh; an ingenious bit of devilishness hardly to be expected +from so low a form of organism; but its frequent neglect +proves it by no means mechanical, and it frequently occurs +that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a short +distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some +serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water +moccasin, are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives, +and coil themselves about the part bitten, clinging with +leech-like tenacity and resisting all attempts at removal. +Two gentlemen of San Antonio, Texas,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>2</sup></a> who were bitten +by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that after having +inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered away with +unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. "Snakes," remarked +one of the victims, "usually glide smoothly away +with the entire body prone to the ground; but the fellow I +encountered traveled off with an up and down wave-like +motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then, getting under a +large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned, and +raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying. +'Don't you feel good now?' It would require but a brief +stretch of the imagination to constitute that serpent a +veritable descendant of the old Devil himself."</p> + +<p>As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the +duct, a second (the venom being more or less mingled and +diluted by the salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal +in results; and each successive repetition correspondingly +inoffensive until finally nothing but pure mucus is ejected. +Nevertheless, when thoroughly aroused, the reptile is enabled +to constantly hurl a secretion, since both rage and hunger +swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate to +extraordinary activity—a fortuitous circumstance to which +many an unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The +removal of a fang, however, affects its gland to a degree +that it becomes almost inoperative, until such a time as a +new tooth is grown, and again calls it into action, which is +commonly but a few weeks at most; and a person purchasing +a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it has been +rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth +lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered +permanently harmless, however, by first removing the fang, +and then cauterizing the duct by means of a needle or wire, +heated to redness; when for experimental purposes the gland +may be stimulated, and the virus drawn off by means of +a fine-pointed syringe.</p> + +<p>In what the venom consists more than has already been described, +we are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure +to air in small scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol, + +slightly reddens litmus paper, and long retains its noxious +properties. It has no acrid or burning taste, and but little +if any odor; the tongue pronounces it inoffensive, and the +mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof against it, +and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities without +deleterious result—all the poison that could be extracted +from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was +powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when +poured into its open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless +to solve the enigma of its action, and the microscope to detect +its presence, but pathology is at fault to explain the +reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know is that +when introduced even in most minute quantities into an +open wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the +stream of life paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity. +Without test or antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical +empiricism, necessarily attended with no little injury in the +search for specifics, and it may be reasonably asserted that +no substance can be named so inert and worthless as not to +have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to have +been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor +and adherents even among the most enlightened of the +medical profession, who have rung all the changes of the +therapeutical gamut from serpentaria<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a> and boneset to guaco, +cimicifugia, and <i>Aristolochia India</i> to curare, alum, chalk, +and mercury to arsenic; and in the way of surgical dressings +and appliances everything from poultices of human fæces,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a> +burying the part bitten in fresh earth,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>5</sup></a> or thrusting +the member or entire person into the entrails of living +animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa.</p> + +<p>Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently +attended with fatal results, such are not necessarily +invariable. There are times and seasons when all reptiles are +sluggish and inactive, and when they inflict comparatively +trifling injuries; and the poison is much less virulent at certain +periods than others—during chilling weather for instance, +or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing +sustenance. Young and small serpents, too, are less virile +than large and more aged specimens, and it has likewise +been observed that death is more apt to follow when the +poison is received at the beginning or during the continuance +of the heated term.</p> + +<p>The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its +effects are manifested almost immediately after inoculation, +being at once conveyed by the circulatory system to +the great nervous centers of the body, resulting in rapid +paralysis of such organs as are supplied with motive power +from these sources; its physiological and toxicological realizations +being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied +near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary +or the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate +experiences, perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning +pain in the member lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo, +nausea, retching, fainting, coldness, and collapse; the +part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or spotted over its +surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately, extend to +the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to +effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by +coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving, +attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles, +whose integrity is so essential to life, causing them to adhere +to one another, and to the walls of the vessels by which +they are conveyed; being no longer able to traverse the +capillaries, œdema is produced, followed by the peculiar livid +blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive +perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he +caused the ghost to describe to Hamlet</p> + +<p class="ind"> +"The leprous distillment whose effect<br /> +Bears such an enmity to the blood of man<br /> +That swift as quicksilver, it courses through<br /> +The natural gates and alleys of the body<br /> +And with sudden vigor it doth posset<br /> +And curd like eager droppings into milk,<br /> +The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine<br /> +And a most instant tetter marked about<br /> +Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust<br /> +All my smooth body." +</p> + +<p>It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major +portion of the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed +to produce a fatal result, since death may supervene +long before such a consummation can be realized. It +is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly, since the +very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk vessels +afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly +dissolved and disorganized condition of the blood that may +occur secondarily, we have evidences in the passive hæmorrhages +that attack those that have recovered from the immediate +effects of serpent poisoning, following or coincident +with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with +scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs, +nose, and bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial +wounds, or all together, defying all styptics and hæmastatics. +In a case occurring under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in +the Illinois General Hospital,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>6</sup></a> blood flowed from the gums +in great profusion, and on examination was found destitute, +even under the microscope, of the faintest indications of +fibrine—the principle upon which coagulation depends. +The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations, indicative +of decomposition, producing serious illness in those +exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may +add, among other sequelæ, aside from death produced +through primary and secondary effects, paralysis, loss of +nerve power, impotence, hæmorrhage, even mortification or +gangrene.</p> + +<p>The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles +of respiration through reflex influence of par vagum +and great sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation +is impeded, are among the earliest of phenomena. +Breathing becoming retarded and laborious, the necessary +supply of oxygen is no longer received, and blood still +venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is returned +through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain are +gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both +venom and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the +attending train of symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness, +rapidly passes into stupor followed by profound coma +and ultimate dissolution—marked evidence of the fact that +a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical disease; + +<a name="Page_6720" id="Page_6720"></a>and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing +save the general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as +already noted.</p> + +<p>Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into +consideration, the hope of the person thus poisoned rests +solely upon lack of vitality in the serpent and its venom, +and in his personal idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition +of health, etc., and the varied chapters of accidents. <i>To +look for a specific, in any sense of the word, is the utmost folly!</i> +The action of the poison and its train of results follow inoculation +in too swift succession to be overtaken and counteracted +by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible product, +even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence +of this in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest +approach to a perfect antidote that can be secured by mortal +skill, inasmuch, if quickly injected into the circulation, it +retards and restrains the disorganizing process whereby the +continuity of the blood corpuscles is lost; moreover, it is +a marked antiseptic, favors the production of adhesive +inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about +the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison +rendered less diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded +that shall restore the pristine form, functions, and energy of +the disorganized globules, man arrogates to himself supernal +attributes whereby it becomes possible not only to +save and renew, <i>but to create life</i>; and we can scarce expect +science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival +Nature and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws. +Such, however, is the natural outcropping of an ignorant +teaching and vulgar prejudice that feeds and clothes the +charlatan and ascribes to savage and uncultured races an +occult familiarity with pathological, physiological, and +remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced sciences; +and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander, +and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and +their antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more +than a quarter of a century's standing, and amounting to +several thousand pounds, is offered by the East India +Government for the discovery of a specific for the bite of the +cobra, and for which no claims have ever been advanced; and +the "snake charmers" or jugglers in whom this superior +knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the +futility of specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected, +that few venture to ply their calling without a broad-bladed, +keen-edged knife concealed about the person as a means of instant +amputation in case of accident. Medical and scientific +associations of various classes, in Europe, Australia, America, +even Africa, and the East and West Indies, have repeatedly +held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in exhaustive +and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the +wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general +horde of venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the +saliva of man, as well as certain other secretions, is at times +so modified by anger as to rival the venom of the serpent in +fatality, and it has no specific; and a careful analysis of the +pathological relations of such poison proves that further +experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the pursuit +of the "philosopher's stone."</p> + +<p>It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals +whose natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them +to be inoculated by the most venomous of reptiles without +deleterious or unpleasant results, and Colonel Matthews +Taylor<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>7</sup></a> knew several persons of this character in India, and +who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with +nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito. +Again, in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate +of Melbourne, Australia,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>8</sup></a> met with untimely death +under circumstances that attracted no little attention. An +itinerant vender of nostrums had on exhibition a number +of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself to be successively +bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of +a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round +figure. Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and +his wares valuable only as a means of depleting the pockets +of the credulous, Mr. Drummond loudly asserted the inefficacy +of the nostrum, as well as the innocuousness of the +reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally harmless, +or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in +proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this +experiment the charlatan was extremely averse, offering +strenuous objections, and finally conveyed a point blank +refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands becoming more +imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed the +audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he +finally consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate +a tiger snake, which he deemed least dangerous, and which +instantly struck the gentleman in the wrist. The usual +symptoms of serpent poisoning rapidly manifested themselves, +followed by swelling and lividity of the part, +obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in +spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of +physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently +conceded the worthless character of his nostrum, +declaring that be enjoyed exemption from the effects of +of serpent poison by virtue of recovery from a severe +inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew +"some people who were born so," who put him "up to this +dodge" as a means of gaining a livelihood.</p> + +<p>It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital, +is acquired <i>in utero</i> by the inoculation of the parent, +and Oliver Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of "Elsie +Venner" embodies many interesting features in this connection. +Admitting such inoculation may secure immunity, +recent experiments in the action of this as well as kindred +poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal or +even common, but as depending upon occult physiological +or accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his +father are equally proof against the contagion and inoculation +of vaccination and variola, in spite of repeated attempts +to secure both, while their respective mothers suffered +terribly with smallpox at periods subsequent to the birth of +their children; and it is well understood that there are striking +analogies between the poisons of certain contagious +fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one +attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character. +In other words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological +ones of smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping +cough, etc., have the power of so modifying the animal +economy, when it does not succumb to their primary influence, +as to ever after render it all but proof against them. +Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in +certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and +who after a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer +producing pain or swelling.</p> + +<p>Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and +the septic ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers, +they are not necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting +to note that one Doctor Humboldt in 1852,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>9</sup></a> in an +essay read before the Royal Academy of Medical Sciences +at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and advocated +the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic +of the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated +numberless persons in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and +Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom, thereby securing them +perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from the extraordinary +nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor +affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent +sufficient to produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit +over the whole, and proofs were demanded and promised. +This was the last of the subject, however, which soon +passed into oblivion, though whether from failure on the +part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from +the inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine, +though the presumption is largely in favor of the former. +Nevertheless, it is worthy of consideration and exhaustive +experimentation, since it is no less plausible than the theory +which rendered the name of Jenner famous.</p> + +<p>Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are +strong reasons for believing would be attended with happy +results, the sole remedies available in serpent poisoning +are measures looking to the prompt cutting off of the circulation +of the affected part, and the direct stimulation +of the heart's action and the respiratory organs, until such a +time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical evidences; +and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic stimulants +are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining +cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use +is prolonged efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend +rather to hasten a fatal result. They are devoid of the +slightest antidotal properties, and in no way modify the +activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so far from +enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited, +is far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled +intellect. The reasons are obvious. Theoretically, +for purely physiological and therapeutic reasons <i>amyl +nitrite</i> should be of incalculable value, though I have no +knowledge of its use in this connection, since its vapor +when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action, +and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached +in its control of spasmodically contracted vessels +and muscles. The relief its vapor affords in the collapse +of chloroform anæsthesia, in which dissolution is imminent +from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its effect +upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia +are equally prompt. Moreover, without further +discussing its physiological functions, it is the nearest approach +to an antidote to certain zymotic poisons, and especially +valuable in warding off and aborting the action of +the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or whooping cough. +<i>Iodide of ethyl</i> is another therapeutical measure that is +worthy of consideration; and <i>iodoform</i> in the treatment of +the sequelæ incident to recovery.</p> + +<p>The native population of India, in spite of the contrary +accepted opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums +that lay claim to being antidotes. The person inoculated +by the cobra is at once seized by his friends, and constant +and violent exercise enforced, if necessary at the point +of stick, and severe and cruel (but nevertheless truly merciful) +beatings are often a result. In this we see a direct +application, without in the least understanding them, of +the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results, +as for the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent +poisoning almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor +Spillsbury (Physician-General of Calcutta),<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>10</sup></a> while stationed +at Jubulpore, Central India, was informed late one evening +that his favorite horse keeper had just been dangerously +bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than +ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in +spite of the wails and protestations of the sufferer and his +friends, with whom a fatal result was already a foregone +conclusion, the doctor caused his wrists to be bound firmly +and inextricably to the back of the vehicle; then assuring the +man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be +dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly +away. Three hours later, or a little more, he returned, having +covered nearly thirty miles without cessation or once +drawing rein. The horse keeper was found bathed in profuse +perspiration, and almost powerless from excessive fatigue. +<i>Eau de luce</i>, an aromatic preparation of ammonia, +was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a +diffusible stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise +enforced until near dawn, when the sufferer was found to +be completely recovered.</p> + +<p>The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration, +thereby securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging +poison from the system, is well known; in no other way +can action be had so thorough, speedy, and prompt. Captain +Maxwell<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>11</sup></a> tells us it was formerly the custom among the +Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested unmistakable +evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death +of the unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds. +In one instance, after undergoing this treatment, the supposed +corpse was seen, to the horror and surprise of all who witnessed +it, to crawl from between the bolsters, when he was +found to be entirely free from his disorder; the beds, however, +were saturated through and through with the perspiration +that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal +agony. More recently a French physician,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>12</sup></a> recognizing +the incubatory stage of rabies in his own person, resolved +upon suicide rather than undergo its attendant horrors. +The hot bath was selected for the purpose, with a view of +gradually increasing its temperature until syncope should be +induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death. +To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water +rose, his sensations of distress improved; and the very +means chosen for terminating life became instead his salvation, +restoring to perfect health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>13</sup></a> +relates that a blacksmith residing in the neighborhood of +his country house was in high repute for miles about by +reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply +in forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid +walk or trot for twenty miles or more, after which he administered +copious draughts of a hot decoction of broom +tops, as much for its moral effect as for its value in sustaining +and prolonging established diaphoresis.</p> + +<p>Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and +serpent poisoning are by no means parallel, the <i>rationale</i> of +the methods employed in opening the emunctories of the +skin are the same; and were it not for its powerful protracting + +effect and depressing action upon the heart, we might +perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi (<i>pilocarpus</i>). +since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as it is, more +is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the latter. +It would be desirable also to know what influence the +Turkish bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at +least of trial.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, <i>Naja hæmachites</i>, who is fully equal to the feat described.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a></p><div class="note"><p> +Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed antidotal properties, +and guaco and <i>Aristolochia India</i> enjoyed widely heralded but +rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias for a season. Tanjore pill +(black pepper and arsenic) is still extensively lauded in districts whose +serpents possess little vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A Chinese remedy—as might be imagined.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan, the latter in +Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is cooling and soothing, and +the other slightly provocative of perspiration in the part, are not +altogether devoid of plausibility.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Medical Independent</i>, 1855.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Vide</i> report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Times</i>.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Wild Sports or the West.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>L'Union Medicale</i>—name withheld by request of the gentleman.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American</i>:</p> + +<p>Given latitude N. 40° 51', declination N. 20° 25', sun 18° +below the horizon. To find the time of twilight at that +place. In the accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial, +D D = parallel of declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O += the horizon, P = North pole, Z = zenith, and S = the +sun, 18° below the horizon, H O, measured on a vertical +circle. It is seen that we have here given us the three sides of +a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49° 9', the co declination +69° 35', and the zenith distance 108°, with which to compute +the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139° +16' 5.6". Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from +noon to the beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in +the given latitude and declination, the sun's center coincides +with the horizon at sunset (allowance being made for refraction), +at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from apparent noon. Then if we +subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., we shall +have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight. But the +real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has +descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the +sun's upper limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon. +This takes place 7 h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is +hoped the above will be a sufficient answer to L.N. (See +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.)</p> + +<p class="signature">B.W H.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/10a.png" alt="" /></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.</h2> + +<p>The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has +recently spoken before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and +we extract from his discourse on "Fossil Man and Savages" +some notes reported in the <i>Journal d'Hygiene</i>: "It is in +Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and in Polynesia where +I have looked for examples of savage races. I have scarcely +spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the +features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups +which they at times touch, and which in turn frequently +mingle with them. I have especially studied the Papuans +and Negritos. The Papuans are an exclusively Pelasgic race, +that many anthropologists consider as almost confined to +New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it becomes +more and more manifest that they have had also +periods of expansion and of dissemination.</p> + +<p>"On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of +Micronesia; on the other we have shown—M. Hamy and +myself—that to them alone can be assigned the skulls found +in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They have hence +touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime +world.</p> + +<p>"The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day +confounded with the Papuans by some anthropologists, +have spread to the west and northwest.</p> + +<p>"They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them +yet in the Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay +archipelago; they constitute the indigenous population of the +Andaman Islands, in the Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have +formerly occupied a great part of the two peninsulas of +India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can follow their +steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus to +Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this +race, whose representatives in the past have been the type +of the Asiatic pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and +whose <i>creoles</i> were those Ethiopians, black and with smooth +hair, who figured in the army of Xerxes.</p> + +<p>"I have devoted two long examinations to another black +race much less important in numbers and in the extent of +their domain, but which possess for the anthropologist a +very peculiar interest and a sad one. It exists no more; its +last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I refer to the +Tasmanians.</p> + +<p>"The documents gathered by various English writers, and +above all by Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual +and moral character of the Tasmanians. The complete +destruction of the Tasmanians, accomplished in at most 72 +years over a territory measuring 4,400 square leagues, raises +a sorrowful and difficult question. Their extinction has +been explained by the barbarity of the civilized Europeans, +and which, often conspicuous, has never been more destructively +present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians. +But I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly +do not wish to apologize for or extenuate the +crimes of the convicts and colonists, against which the most +vigorous protests have been raised both in England and in +the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters have +been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians. +They have perished from that strange malady which +Europeans have everywhere transplanted in the maritime +world, and which strikes down the most flourishing populations.</p> + +<p>"Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil. +But if it explains the increase of the death rate, it does not + +<a name="Page_6721" id="Page_6721"></a>explain the diminution of births. Both these phenomena +are apparent. Captain Juan has seen at the Marquesas, in +the island of Taio-Hahe, the population fall in three years +from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate, we find +only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate populations +rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the disappearance +of the Tasmanians."</p> + +<p>The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia, +speaks of his interest in the western representatives of these +races and his special studies in New Zealand, and referring +to the latter continues:</p> + +<p>"One of the most important results of the labors in this +direction has been to establish the serious value of the +historical songs preserved, among the Maoris, by the +<i>Tohungus</i>, or <i>wise men</i>, who represent the <i>Aiepas</i> of Tahiti. +Thanks to these living archives, we have been able to reconstruct + +a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of the +first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from +their other centers of population, and to determine their +point of departure."</p> + +<p>Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding. +One is devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of +the Nilgherie Hills, who by their physical, intellectual, and +social characteristics differ from all the other races of India. +"The Todas burn their dead, and we possess none of their +skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived among +them, I have been able to fill up this gap."</p> + +<p>The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns +of Finland, whose study reveals the fact that they embrace +two ethnic types, one of which, the <i>Tavastlanda</i>, belongs +without doubt to the great Finnish family, spread over Asia +as well as in Europe, and a second, the Karelien, whose representatives + +possessed the poetic instinct, which causes +M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, "to whom +we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas +to the poems of to-day."</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.</h2> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src="./images/11a_th.png" alt="MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>Although so much has been written about Athens, there +is one striking feature which has been little noticed. This +is the beautiful colors of the Parthenon and Erectheum, the +soft mellow yellow which is due to age, and which gives +these buildings when lighted by the setting sun, and framed +by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of +gold.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/11b.png"><img src="./images/11b_th.png" alt="TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>Until A. D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect, +and then not age but a shell from the Venetians falling + +<a name="Page_6722" id="Page_6722"></a>upon Turkish powder, made a rent which, when seen from +below, makes it look like two temples.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/11c.png"><img src="./images/11c_th.png" alt="TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of +the oldest of the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded +in B. C. 469, and is a small, graceful, and perfect Doric +temple. Having served as a Christian church, dedicated +to St. George, it escaped injury. It contains the beautiful +and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the warrior of Marathon.</p> + +<p class="center"><a href="./images/11d.png"><img src="./images/11d_th.png" alt="THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A. D. +132) are a few standing columns in an open space, which are +imposing from their isolated position.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/12a.png" alt="OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS." /><br /> OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.</p> + +<p>The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been +begun A. D. 110, and for a king in Asia Minor.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/12b.png" alt="TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes +about B. C. 100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial, +and a water clock. It is an octagonal building, with reliefs +on the frieze, representing by appropriate figures the eight +winds into which the Athenian compass was divided.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/12c.png" alt="THE PANTHENON, ATHENS." /><br /> THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing +as they were found; each year shows many changes in +Athens, a tomb last year in the Ceramicus may be this year +in a museum. There is a great similarity in all these tombstones; +no doubt they were made beforehand, as they seldom +suggest the idea of a portrait. They generally represent +an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends standing in +the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the +dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently +a dog.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/12d.png" alt="ERECTEUM, ATHENS." /><br /> ERECTEUM, ATHENS.</p> + +<p>Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the +groves of the Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was +the road to Eleusis, and along which passed the annual +sacred processions in the days of the Mysteries. Cut there +in the rock are the niches for the votive offerings. This +dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of mystery +which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once observed +there.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13a.png" alt="NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO ELEUSIS." /><br /> NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO ELEUSIS.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13b.png" alt="TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.</p> + +<p>From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be +seen the great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly +above the site of ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort; +the Turkish drawbridge and gate stand open and unused. +There are on it remains of a Turkish town; at one time it +was one of the strongest and most important citadels in +Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched, +straggling village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive +columns. These are all that remain of the Temple, and +indeed of ancient Corinth. The pillars, of the Doric order, +are of a brown limestone, not of the country. The Turks +and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and driven +the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's +drive from the Gulf.—<i>London Graphic</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13c.png" alt="TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/13d.png" alt="TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS." /><br /> TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>SPANISH FISHERIES.</h2> + +<p>The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was +large and well furnished, there being several characteristic +models of vessels. No certain figures can be obtained of +the results of the whole fishing industry of Spain. It is, +however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a tonnage of +51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They +gave occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons +of fish. The Government interfere in the fishing industry +only to the extent of collecting and distributing information +to the fishermen on subjects that are most likely to be of use +to them in their calling. In consequence, principally no +doubt of this wise policy, we find in Spain a vigorous and +self-reliant class of men engaged in the fisheries. Some of +the most interesting features in the Spanish Court were the +contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations, +and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection +of articles that would have formed a good basis in +itself for an exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was +the fishing industry of the nation better illustrated by private +enterprise than in that of Spain. The fishing associations +referred to are half benefit societies and half trading +communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small pamphlet, +from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members +divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons +or men in charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of +directors, consisting of 22 owners, and 24 masters of boats +or ordinary fishermen, has the sole control of the affairs of +the society. The meetings are presided over by a majordomo +elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a +boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend +of 8,000 reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest +when expressed as 80<i>l</i>. He has two clerks, who are on the +permanent staff, to help him. His duties are to keep the +books with the assistance of the two clerks, to take charge +of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make necessary +payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower +and guides boats entering the harbor. The <i>atalayero</i> is an +official of the society, whose duty it is to station himself on +the heights and signal by means of smoke, to the boats at +sea, the movements of schools of sardines and anchovies or +probable changes of weather. It is also the duty of this officer +to weigh all the bream caught from the 1st November to +the 31st of March, for which he receives a "gratuity" of +100 pesetas, or say 4<i>l</i>, sterling. Two other señeros, or signalmen, +are told off to keep all boats in port during bad +weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances +appear favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference +of opinion between these experts as to the meteorological +probabilities, the patrons, or skippers of the fishing-boats, +are summoned in council and their opinion taken by "secret +vote with black and white balls." The decision so arrived +at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail should it be so +decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the funds +of the association. The boats carrying the señeros fly a +color by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the +other vessels. These señeros appear to be the Spanish +equivalent to the English admiral of a trawling fleet.</p> + +<p>The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or +two models of them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class +boat will be of about the following dimensions: Length +over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth (extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3 +in.; depth (inside), 3ft. 10 in. to 4 ft. The keel is of oak +6 in. by 3½ in. The stem and stern posts are also of oak. +The planking is generally of oak or walnut—the latter preferred—and +is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 4½ +in. Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the +water line and Norway pine above.</p> + +<p>The fastenings are galvanized nails 4½ in. long. The +mast-partners and all the thwarts are of oak 1½ in. thick +and 8 in. wide; the latter are fastened in with iron knees. +Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut, or chestnut; the +rudder extends 3½ ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and, in giving +lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust +down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two +lags, the smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat; + +the mainmast being amidships. The lug sails are set on +long yards, the fair-weather rig consisting of a fore lug with +120 square yards, and a main lug of 200 square yards. +There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted for +the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner +similar to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce +canvas. The fair weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and +36 ft. long, and yards 28 ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively. +The oars are 16 ft. long, and are pulled double-banked. + +Such a boat will cost 90 l. to 100 l. fitted for sea, of which sum +the hull will represent rather more than half. These vessels +generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three +to four in the morning until the same time in the evening. +Tunny, merluza (a species of cod), and bream are the principal +fish taken. The first-named are caught by hook and +line operated by means of poles rigged out from the boat +much in the same way, apparently, as we drail for mackerel +on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used + +<a name="Page_6723" id="Page_6723"></a>for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off +the land and run back before the prevailing wind, until they +are about nine miles from the shore or until they lose the +fish. When the fisherman gets a bite the wind is spilled out +of the sail so as to deaden the boat's way. The fish is then got +alongside, promptly gaffed, and got on board. Tunny sells +for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito. The season +extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the +winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are +caught by hook and line in two ways. The first is worth +describing. A line 50 fathoms long has bent to it snoods + +with hooks attached, 16 in. apart. Each man handles three +lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line, to the end +of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until +soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the +operation repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away +freely, and this goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard. +When, by the lively and continuous jerking of the +line, the fisherman concludes that he has a good number of +fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare to +shoot again.</p> + +<p>The second method of taking the bream is by long lining; + +fifty of the lines we have just described being bent together +and duly anchored and buoyed. Spaniards do not much +care for this way of fishing, as it is costly in bait and the +gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells at about 3½d. +a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of +the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh +the price is about 6d. per lb. A small quantity is preserved +in tins. Anchovy or cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes +the two are placed on one hook.</p> + +<p>A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially +for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine +weather they often engage in the same fishery as the larger +boats. The traineras are light and shapely vessels, with a +graceful sheer and curved stem and stern posts. The keel +is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has considerable +hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length, +38 feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2 +feet 6 inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are +much the same as in the larger boats, excepting that there +are only four shifts in place of six. The largest main lug +has an area of about 90 square yards and the fore lug about +50 square yards. The other sails for heavier weather are +naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are +respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of +one of these boats and gear is about £122, made up as follows: +Hull, £32; sails, gear, and oars, £30; nets and gear +attached, £60. The season for anchovy fishing commences +on the 1st of March and ends 30th of June; it begins again +on the 15th of September, and continues until the end of the +year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9 miles +from the land, although they often come in much closer. +Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some +are used for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are +put on the land for manure. The greater part are, however, +preserved in barrels or tins, and are exported to France or +England.</p> + +<p>The net used in the capture of anchovies is called <i>traina</i> +or <i>copo</i>. It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of +the United States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as +are many of the nets, which, in American waters, will inclose +a whole school of mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms +long. The depth is 7 to 10 fathoms, and the mesh ¾ inch. +Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of July and lasts until +December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles off shore. +The price of sardines on the coast is about 2½d. per pound. +When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the +traina in the same way as anchovies, a net of ½-inch mesh +being used. Sardines are also taken by gill nets about 200 +feet long and 18 feet wide. When used in the daytime the +fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the liver of cod. +When the sardines have been attracted to the neighborhood +of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The fish in +their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These +nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no +bait is used.</p> + +<p>A third class of boats of much the same character are of +about the following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet; +beam, 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet +8 inches. The two lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards +of canvas respectively. They are used for sardine catching, +when they will carry a crew of four men, or for taking conger +and cod, in which case they will be manned by eight +hands.</p> + +<p>Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull, +£15; gear and sail, £10; nets and lines, £13; about £40. +The conger season extends from March to June, and from +October to November. The fish are taken by hook and line; +sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is taken by +a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait.</p> + +<p>There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may +be noticed the <i>bateler</i>, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16 +ft. long, about 5½ ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed +by one man, set a good spread of canvas, and are fast and +handy. They are used for taking a species of cuttlefish +which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and line, the +fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they rush, +when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a +small well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive. +None of the boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast. +They have flat hollow floors, and set a large area of +of canvas on a shallow draught. Lobster fishing is pursued +in much the same manner as in England, but often four or +five miles from land, and in very deep water.</p> + +<p>One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was +a full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole +cut in the bottom amidships. Through this hole was let +down a glass frame in which was placed a powerful paraffine +lamp. The object of this was to attract the fish. It is said +that tunny will be drawn from a distance of over a hundred +yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be enticed +into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light +in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving +operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the +direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night +by a lamp to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.—<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK.</h2> + +<p>Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and +desolate spot imaginable during this weather. The frigid +monotony of winter has settled down upon that region, and +now it is haunted only by sea fowl. The bleak, barren +promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean of its +summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across +it, and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the +great breakers hurled against the narrow sand spit which +makes the eastern terminus of the island. The tall, white +towered light and its black lantern, now writhing in frosty +northern blizzards, and again shivering in easterly gales, +now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas all +about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only +habitation worthy of the name for many miles around. +Keeper Clark and his family and assistants are almost perpetually +fenced in from the outside world by the cold +weather, and have to hug closely the roaring fires that protect +them in that desolation.</p> + +<p>But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family +would die of inanition. With the cold weather comes the +ducks, and they continue to come till the warmer blasts of +spring drive them to the northward. Montauk Point is a +favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a good feeding +ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather +shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the +point is being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and +the reports of their successes increase the applicants for +lodgings at the light. Some 20 gunners were out there last +week with the most improved paraphernalia for the sport, +and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite method +of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the + +<a name="Page_6724" id="Page_6724"></a>point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory +birds in passing south seem to have it down in their +log-book that they must not only sight this structure, but +must also fly over it as nearly as possible. Hence the variety +and extent of the flocks which are continually passing +is a matter of interest and wonder to a student of natural +history as well as to the sportsman. Coots, whistlers, soft +bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild geese, +and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this +long and strange procession, and the air is frequently so +densely packed with them as to be actually darkened, while +the keen, whistling music of their whizzing wings makes a +melody that comparatively few landsmen ever hear. Millions +of the birds never hesitate at this point in their flight, +although thousands of them do. These latter make the +neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter. +Great flocks of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged +shores, and the frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond +Bay, lying to the westward, are their favorite feeding-grounds. +The birds are always as fat as butter when making +their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to their +being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting +operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it +the heads of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point +this winter.</p> + +<p>Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak +the flights are heavy, and from that time until seven +o'clock in the morning they increase until it seems as though +all the flocks which had spent the night in the caves and +ponds on the Connecticut shore were on the wing and away +for the south. By ten o'clock in the forenoon the flights +grow rarer, and the rest of the day only stragglers come +along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these birds +easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand +the inclemency of the weather.</p> + +<p>Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has +dawned for two months but that several of the poor birds +have been picked up at the foot of the light house tower +with the broken necks which have mutely told the story +of death, reached by plunging headlong against the crystal +walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before. +There is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the +wing at night to fly very high. But the great, glaring, +piercing, single eye of Montauk light seems to draw into it by +dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet, its feathered victims, +and they swerve in their course and make straight for it. As +they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of course, grows +brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what +appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy +glass, and they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked +for the oven. Inside the lantern the thud made by these +birds when they strike is readily felt. Although they are +comparatively small, yet so great is their velocity that the +impact creates a perceptible jar, and the lantern is disfigured +with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and foggy nights +the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When the +weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins, +sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about +the light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished +in the morning. Large cranes show themselves to +be almost dangerous visitors. Recently one of these weighing +40 pounds struck the wrought iron guard railing about +the lantern with such force as to bend the iron slats and to +completely sever his long neck from his body.—<i>N.Y. Times</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>[THE GARDEN.]</h3> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE HORNBEAMS.</h2> + +<p>The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the +temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. There are +nine species known to botanists, most of them being middle-sized +trees. In addition to those mentioned below, figures +of which are herewith given, there are four species from Japan +and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet seem to +have found their way to this country; these five are therefore +omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly +deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English +name is quaintly explained by Gerard in his "Herbal" as follows: +"The wood," he says, "in time, waxeth so hard, that +the toughness and hardness of it may be rather compared to +horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called horne-beam +or hardbeam."</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14a.png" alt="CARPINUS ORIENTALIS." /><br /> CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.</p> + +<p><i>Carpinus Betulus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a> the common hornbeam, as is the case +with so many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits +considerable variation in habit, and also in foliage +characters. Some of the more striking of these, those +which have received names in nurseries, etc., and are +propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are +described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe +from Gothland southward, and extends also into West +Asia. Although apparently an undoubted native in the +southern counties of England, it appears to have no claim +to be considered indigenous as far as the northern counties +are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it occurs +in Ireland.</p> + + + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14b.png" alt="CARPINUS AMERICANA." /><br /> CARPINUS AMERICANA.</p> + +<p>Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for +this reason, during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in +high repute for the formation of the "close alleys," "covert +alleys," or the "thick-pleached alleys," frequently mentioned +in Shakespeare and in the works of other authors +about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth century the +topiary art had reached its highest point of development, +and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the +hornbeam—and indeed almost every other tree—was cut and +tortured into every imaginable shape. The "picturesque +style," however, soon drove the topiarist and his art out of +the field, yet even now places still remain in England where +the old and once much-belauded fashion still exists on a +large scale—a fact by no means to be deplored from an +archæological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam +hedges are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old +English mansions, and in some old country farmhouses the +sixteenth century craze is still perpetuated on a smaller scale.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14c.png" alt="CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT." /><br /> CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.</p> + +<p>Sir J.E. Smith, in his "English Flora," after enumerating +the virtues of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his +opinion that "when standing by itself and allowed to take +its natural form, the hornbeam makes a much more handsome +tree than most people are aware of." Those who are +familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley +Park and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming +Sir J.E. Smith's statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park, +from Pembroke Lodge toward the Ham Gate, +will recur to many Southerners as a good instance of the fitness +of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question +there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and +agreeable shade during the summer months.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14d.png" alt="CARPINUS VIMINEA." /><br /> CARPINUS VIMINEA.</p> + +<p>In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily, +except exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky +hillsides it does not grow so freely as on clayey plains. +Under the latter conditions, however, the wood is not so +good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam occupies a +zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely +ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not + +injured by frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing +the edges of the beech forests along the bottom of the valleys +where the beech would suffer. Scarcely any tree coppices +more vigorously or makes more useful pollards on dry grass +land.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14e.png" alt="BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS." /><br /> BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.</p> + +<p>On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam +is employed in engineering work for cogs in machinery. +When subjected to vertical pressure it cannot be completely +destroyed; its fibers, instead of breaking off short, +double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its flexibility +and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's "Timber and +Timber Trees"). According to the same recent authority, +the vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average +14.844 tons, while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14f.png" alt="LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA." /><br /> LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.</p> + +<p>A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity +of hornbeam wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed +to procure it in England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining +a supply from France, where large quantities of this timber +are used for that purpose. It may be interesting to state +that in England at any rate lasts are no longer made to any +extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous numbers +by machinery. In France <i>sabots</i> are also made of hornbeam +wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render +it less valuable for <i>sabotage</i> than beech. For turnery generally, +cabinet making, and also for agricultural implements, +etc., this wood is highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing +districts, viz., Côte d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the +wine barrels are largely made from this tree. It makes the +best fuel and it is preferred to every other for apartments, as +it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns equally, +continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat. +"Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland +it is preferred to most others, not only for forges +and for cooking by, but for making gunpowder, the workmen +at the great gunpowder manufactory at Berne rarely +using any other. The inner bark, according to Linnæus, +is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the +sun, are used in France as fodder; and when wanted for use +in water, the young branches are cut off in the middle of +summer, between the first and second growth, and strewed +or spread out in some place which is completely sheltered +from the rain to dry without the tree being in the slightest +degree injured by the operation." (Dict. des Eaux et Forêts, +art. Charme, as quoted by London).</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/14g.png" alt="LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA." /><br /> LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.</p> + +<p>It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the +hornbeam as a hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it + +<a name="Page_6725" id="Page_6725"></a>is largely used for these purposes, the russet-brown leaves +remaining on the twigs until displaced by the new growths +in spring.</p> + +<p><i>Var. incisa</i> (Aiton, "Hortus Kewensis," v., 301; C. asplenifolia, +Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).—These three names represent +two forms, which are, however, so near each other, +that for all practical purposes they are identical. A glance +at the accompanying figure will show how distinct and ornamental +this variety is.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/15a.png" alt="HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK)." /><br /> HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).</p> + +<p><i>Var. quercifolia</i> (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus. +d'hist. nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla, +Hort.)—This form, as will be seen by the figure, is +thoroughly distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very +much smaller leaves than the type, their outline, as implied +by the varietal name, resembling that of the foliage of the +oak. It frequently reverts to the type, and, as far as my +experience goes, appears to be much less fixed than the variety +incisa.</p> + +<p><i>Var. purpurea</i> (Hort.).—The young leaves of this are +brownish red; it is well worth growing for the pleasing +color effect produced by the young growths in spring. +Apart from color it does not differ from the type.</p> + +<p><i>Var. fastigiata</i> (Hort.).—In this variety the branches are +more ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed, +among the hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate +varieties of the common oak.</p> + +<p><i>Var. variegata</i>, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata (albo-marmorata).—These +names represent forms differing so slightly +from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them +separately, or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that +I have seen is the variegation at all striking, and, except in +tree collections, variegated hornbeams are hardly worth +growing.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/15b.png" alt="FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER." /><br /> +FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER.<br />CARPINUS BETULUS (Full grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).</p> + +<p><i>Carpinus orientalis</i><a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3"><sup>2</sup></a> (the Oriental hornbeam) principally +differs from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser +leaves with downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated +bractlets. It is a native of the south of Europe, whence it +extends to the Caucasus, and probably also to China; the +Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely seems to differ, in +any material point at any rate, from western examples of C. +orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to this +country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that +it is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth +growing; the short twiggy branches, densely clothed with +dark green leaves, form a thoroughly efficient screen. The +plant bears cutting quite as well as the common hornbeam, +and wherever the latter will grow this will also succeed. In +that very interesting compilation, "Hortus Collinsonianus," +the following memorandum occurs: "The Eastern hornbeam +was raised from seed sent me from Persia, procured +by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the Czarina. Received it +August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year (1752) the +hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England. +Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into +the gardens of the curious. At the same time, from the +same source, were raised a new acacia, a quince, and a +bermudiana, the former very different from any in our gardens." +This memorandum was probably written from recollection + +long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the +species was first entered in the catalogue as follows: "Azad, +arbor persica carpinus folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from +seed, anno 1747; not in England before." It appears, however, +from Rand's "Index" that there was a plant of it in +the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given +by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at +Duino. As, however, Miller had previously described it +under the name orientalis, that one is adopted in accordance +with the rule of priority, by which must be decided all such +questions in nomenclature.</p> + +<p><i>The American Hornbeam</i> <a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>3</sup></a> also known under the names of +blue beech, water beech, and iron wood, although a less +tree than our native species, which it resembles a good deal +in size of foliage and general aspect, is nevertheless a most +desirable one for the park or pleasure ground, on account of +the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves in autumn. +Emerson, in his "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," pays +a just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He +says: "The crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors, +mingling into a rich purplish red, as seen at a distance, +make it rank in splendor almost with the tupelo and the +scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated, and should have a corner +in every collection of trees." It has pointed, ovate oblong, +sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves. The acute +bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly cut-toothed +on one side. Professor C. S. Sargent, in his catalogue +of the "Forest Trees-of North America," gives the +distribution, etc., of the American hornbeam as follows: +"Northern Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, through the +valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers, along the +northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and +Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling +that of ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north +generally a shrub or small tree, but becoming, in the Southern +Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50 feet in height, +with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter." It will almost +grow in any soil or exposition in this country.</p> + +<p><i>Carpinus viminea</i> <a name="FNanchor_4_3" id="FNanchor_4_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_3"><sup>4</sup></a> is a rather striking species with long-pointed +leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a +sufficiently clear representation of their long, tail-like prolongations. +Judging from the height at which it grows, it +would probably prove hardy in this country, and, if so, the +distinct aspect and graceful habit of the tree would render +it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized tree, with +thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The +blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches +in length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long. +It is a native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of +from 5000 to 7000 feet above sea-level. As in our common +hornbeam, the male catkins appear before the leaves, and +the female flowers develop in spring at the same time as the + +leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood—a cubic foot of +which weighs 50 lb.—is used for ordinary building purposes +by the natives of Nepaul.</p> + +<p>GEORGE NICHOLSON.</p> + +<p>Royal Gardens, Kew.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.—Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon, "Arboretum et +Fruticetum Britannicum," vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, +917. Boswell Syme, "English Botany," vol. viii., p. 176, tab. 1293; +Koch, "Dendrologie," zweit. theil. zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, "Student's +Flora of the British Islands," ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host., +"Flora Austriaca," ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic. +fl. Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig. 1297.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_3">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.—Carpinus orientalis. Miller, "Gardener's +Dictionary," ed. 6 1771); La Marck, Dict, i., 107; Watson, "Dendrologia +Britannica," ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl. Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore, +"Flora Neapolitana," v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014, +Encycl. Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, "Dendrologie." zweit, theil +zweit, abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, "Flora Carniolica," 2 ed., ii., +243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, "Flora Italica," x., 233; Alph. De Candolle in +Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.—Carpinius caroliniana, Walter, "Flora Caroliniana," +236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer., ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des. +Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson, +"Dendrologia Britannica," ii., 157; Gray, "Manual of the Botany of +the Northern United States," p. 457.</p></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4_3" id="Footnote_4_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_3">[4]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.—Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall. Plant. Asiat. +Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D. C. Prodr., xvi., ii., 127. Loudon, "Arboretum +et Fruticetum Britannicum," iii., p. 2014; Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p. +919. Brandis, "Forest Flora," 492.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.</h2> + +<p>The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather +uncommon, we have taken the opportunity of illustrating +one of three sent to us a fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies, +South Lytchett, who says: "The fruits are from a large +plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a wall with +an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet wide. +The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from +time to time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have +raised seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety +worth sending out or naming."</p> + +<p>In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural +size. Its appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard, +and has a glazed appearance like that of porcelain. The +color is pale green, except on the exposed side, which is +dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and on the day after +we received it the furrows opened and exposed three or four +large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp—<i>The +Garden</i>.</p> + +<p class="center"><img src="./images/15c.png" alt="FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA." /><br /> FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h3>[SCIENCE.]</h3> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC.</h2> + +<p>The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult, +owing to the necessity of guessing at the successive figures +which form the divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing +the <i>exact</i> quotient is required, the following method +will be found convenient:</p> + +<p><i>Rule for division</i>.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>. Treat the divisor as follows:</p> + +<div class="note"><p>If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left +as the divisor.</p> + +<p>If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat +the product as the divisor.</p> + +<p>If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by +5, and treat the product as a divisor.</p></div> + +<p>Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable. +Call the result the <i>prepared divisor</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>. From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure: +and, if this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it +to a 9; otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the +<i>extraneous multiplier</i>.</p> + +<p>Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus +truncated, and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous +multiplier be 7, when increase the product by 5. Call +the result the <i>current multiplier</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>. Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all +the multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared +divisor. Use the product to multiply the dividend, calling +the result the <i>prepared dividend</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth</i>. From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure, +multiply this by the current multiplier, and add the product +to the truncated dividend. Call the sum the <i>modified dividend</i>, +and treat this in the same way. Continue this process +until a modified dividend is reached which equals the original +prepared dividend or some previous modified dividend; +so that, were the process continued, the same figures would +recur.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth</i>. Consider the series of last figures which have +been successively cut off from the prepared dividend +and from the modified dividends as constituting a +number, the figure first cut off being in the units' place, +the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this the <i>first +infinite number</i>, because its left-hand portion consists of a +series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left. +Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in +the repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in +that the same series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely +toward the right into the decimal places.</p> + +<p>Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and +shift the decimal point as many places to the left as there +were zeros dropped in the process of obtaining the prepared +divisor.</p> + +<p>The result is the quotient sought.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Examples</i>.</p> + +<p>1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by +365.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>. The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied +by 2, giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared +divisor.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>. The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3, +this is the extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated +divisor, 7, by the extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we +have 22 for the current multiplier.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>. The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the +product of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier +used in preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is +the prepared dividend.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_6726" id="Page_6726"></a><i>Fourth</i>. From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the +last figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22. +The product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129, +and gives 1305 for the first modified divisor. The whole +operation is shown thus:</p> + +<pre> + 1 8 8 3 + 6 + ------- + 1 1 2 9|8 + 1 7 6 - + ----- + 1 3 0|5 + 1 1 0 - + ----- + 2|4 0 + 8 8 --- + --- + |9 0 + ----- + 1 9|8 + 1 7 6 - + ----- + 1 9|5 + 1 1 0 - + ----- + 1 2|9 + 1 9 8 - + ----- + 2|1 0 + 2 2 --- + 2 4 +</pre> + + +<p>We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified +dividend, written under the form 240 above. Our two +infinite numbers (which need not in practice be written +down) are, with their difference:</p> + +<pre> + . . + 10,958,904,058 . . + 10,958,904,109.5890410958904 + ---------------------------- + . . + 51.5890410958904 + + . . + Here the quotient sought is 5.158904109. +</pre> + +<p><i>Example 2</i>. Find the reciprocal of 333667.</p> + +<p>The whole work is here given:</p> + +<pre> + 3 3 3 6 6|7 |7 + 2 3 3 5 6 7 - 1 6 3 4 9 6|9 + 2 1 0 2 1 0 3 - + ------------- + 2 2 6 5 5 9|9 + 2 1 0 2 1 0 3 - + ------------- + 2 3 2 8 6 6|2 + 4 6 7 1 3 4 - + ----------- + 7 0 0 0 0 0 + + . . + <i>Answer</i>, 0.000002997. +</pre> + +<p><i>Example</i> 3. Find the reciprocal of 41.</p> + +<p><i>Solution.</i>—</p> + +<pre> + 4|1 |9 + ----- ----- + 3 7|9 3 3|3 + - 1 1 1 - + ----- + 1 4|4 + 1 4 8 - + ----- + 1 6|2 + 7 4 - + --- + 9 0 + + . . + <i>Answer</i>, 0.02439. +</pre> + +<p class="signature">C.S. PEIRCE.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>[SCIENCE.]</h3> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC.</h2> + +<p>Those who can perform in that most necessary of all +mathematical operations, simple addition, any great number +of successive examples or any single extensive example +without consciousness of a severe mental strain, followed by +corresponding mental fatigue, are exceptions to a general rule. +These troubles are due to the quantity and complexity of the +matter with which the mind has to be occupied at the same +time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of +numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions +that must be borne in memory, and the "carrying" is a +further complication. The strain and consequent weariness +are not only felt, but seen, in the mistakes in addition that +they cause. They are, in great part, the tax exacted of us by +our decimal system of arithmetic. Were only quantities of +the same value, in any one column, to be added, our memory +would be burdened with nothing more than the succession +of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples +of two, three, or four, if the counting is by groups.</p> + +<p>It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing +addition to counting similar quantities is by the binary +arithmetic of Leibnitz, which appears in an altered +dress, with most of the zero signs suppressed, in the example +below. Opposite each number in the usual figures is +here set the same according to a scheme in which the signs +of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a +very small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express +any fourth power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow +0, any square not a fourth power; a curve upward and to +the right, like a phonographic <i>l</i>, any double fourth power; +and a curve to the right and downward, like a phonographic +<i>r</i>, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical bar to denote the +absence of three successive powers not fourth powers. +Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example +slightly below the middle, is 2<sup>16</sup> (represented by a +degree-mark in the fifth row of these marks, counting from the +right) plus 2<sup>17</sup> + 2<sup>9</sup> (two <i>l</i>-curves in the fifth and third places of +<i>l</i>-curves) plus 2<sup>18</sup> + 2<sup>14</sup> + 2<sup>6</sup> (three loops) plus 2<sup>19</sup> (the <i>r</i>-curve +at the extreme left); while the absence of 2<sup>3</sup>, 2<sup>2</sup>, and 2<sup>1</sup> is +shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent +expression may be verified, if desired, either by adding the +designated powers of two from 524,288 down to 64, or by +successive multiplications by two, adding one when necessary. +The form of characters here exhibited was thought +to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and +considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic +value by actual additions.</p> + +<p>In order to add them, the object for which these forty +numbers are here presented in two notations, it is not necessary +to know just <i>why</i> the figures on the right are equal +to those on the left, or to know anything more than the +order in which the different forms are to be taken, and the +fact that any one has twice the value of one in the column +next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made +from the printed page, first covering over the answer with +a paper held fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures +of the new answer as successively obtained. The fingers +will be found a great assistance, especially if one of +each hand be used, to point off similar marks in twos, or +threes, or fours—as many together as can be certainly +comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it +can be done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The +eye can catch the marks for even powers more easily in going +up and those for odd powers (the <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> curves) in going +down the columns. Beginning at the lower right + +hand corner, we count the right hand column of small circles, +or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in +number. Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one +of these marks has therefore to be entered as part of the +answer, and eleven carried to the next column, the first one +of <i>l</i>-curves. But since the curves are most advantageously +added downward, it is best, when the first column is finished, +simply to remember the remainder from it, and not +to set down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition +of the second column, when the remainders, if any, +from both columns can be set down together. In this +case, starting with the eleven carried and counting the number +of the <i>l</i>-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom with +twenty-four—twelve to carry, and nothing to set down +except the degree mark from the first column. With the +twelve we go up the adjoining loop column, and the sum +must be even, as this place is vacant in the answer; the <i>r</i>-curve +column next, downward, and then another row of +degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this +time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme +left, is added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by +successive halvings. Here we seem to have eleven; hence +we enter one loop, and carry five to the next place, which, +it must be remembered, is of <i>r</i>-curves. Halving five we +express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and +carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving +again gives one in the next place, that of <i>l</i>-curves; and the +work is complete.</p> + +<p>It is recommended that this work be gone over several +times for practice, until the appearance and order of the +characters and the details of the method become familiar; +that, when the work can be done mechanically and without +hesitation, the time occupied in a complete addition +of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully +noted; that this be done several times, with an interval +of some days between the trials, and the result of each +trial kept separate; that the time and mistakes by the ordinary +figures in the same example, in several trials, be observed +for comparison. Please pay particular attention to +the difference in the kind of work required by the two +methods in its bearing on two questions—which of them +would be easier to work by for hours together, supposing +both equally well learned? and in which of them could a +reasonable degree of skill be more readily acquired by a +beginner? The answer to these questions, if the comparison +be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their. high +importance.</p> + +<div class="center"><p class="center"><i>Example in addition by two notations</i></p> +<a href="./images/16a.png"><img src="./images/16a_th.png" alt="" /></a></div> + +<p>Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already +been submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical +skill. One of them took but a few seconds over two minutes, +in the best of six trials, to add by the usual figures, +and set down the sum, but one figure in all the six additions +being wrong; another added once in ten minutes fifty-seven +seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with +half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer +had had very little training in arithmetical work, but +perhaps that gave a fairer comparison. In the binary figures +she made three additions in between seven and eight +minutes, with but one place wrong in the three. With four +of the observers the binary notation required nearly double +the time. These observers were all well practiced in computation. +Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds, +was made by one whose best record was two minutes forty +seconds in ordinary figures. The author's own best results +were two minutes thirty-eight seconds binary, and three +minutes twenty-three seconds usual. He thus proved himself +inferior to the last observer, as an adder, by a system in +which both were equally well trained; but a greater familiarity +(extending over a few weeks instead of a few hours) +with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice +as fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the +usual figures, four were wrong in one figure each; of his +thirty-two additions by different forms of binary notation, +five were wrong, one of them in two places. One observer +found that he required one minute thirty-three seconds to +add a single column (average of five tried) by the usual figures, +and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one +(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions +were rather slow, the results are interesting. They show, +making allowance for the greater number of columns (three +and a third times as many) required by the binary plan, a +saving of nearly half; but they also illustrate the necessity of +practice. This observer succeeded with the binary arithmetic +by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly embarrass +the beginner, by contenting himself with counting + +only, and not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar +character, or to recognize the mark by which he +must distinguish his next column. One well-known member +of the Washington Philosophical Society and of the +American Association for the Advancement of Science, who +declined the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his +probable time with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with +strong chances of a wrong result, after all.</p> + +<p>These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons +who can do faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning. +But too much should not be made of them. Let +them serve as specimens of facts of which a great many more +are to be desired, bearing on a question of grave importance. +Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by impartial +tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the +system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a +blessing enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced +by greater complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated +by a correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing +with figures, the former may be the case. If, on the contrary, +a little practice suffices to turn the balance of rapidity, +for all but a small body of highly drilled experts, in favor of +an easier system, the latter must be. This is the question +that the readers of <i>Science</i> are invited to help in deciding. +The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the prevalent +system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but +they do not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment +alone can give, whether or not the cost of that system +is unreasonably high; nor should they prevent those who +accord them the fullest recognition from assisting to furnish +the necessary facts.</p> + +<p>Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the +plan proposed or on any better plan, or who will submit it to +such acquaintances, skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded +to take the trouble to learn the mechanism of binary +adding, will confer a great favor by informing the writer of +the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each +addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the +subject will be most gratefully received.</p> + +<p class="signature">Henry Farquhar.</p> + +<p>Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office.</p> + + +<hr /> + +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p class="center">Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of +the United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, +to any foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 +cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise +be supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. 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