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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, 
+January 26, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,  January 26, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+I.    ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Furcot's Six Horse Power
+      Steam Engine.--With several figures.                        6714
+
+      Foot Lathes.--With engraving.                               6715
+
+      Endless Trough Conveyer.--2 engravings.                     6715
+
+      Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines.                             6715
+
+      English Express Trains.--Average speed, long runs, etc.     6715
+
+      Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the
+      Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.--2 figures.               6717
+
+II.   TECHNOLOGY.--An English Adaptation of the American Oil
+      Mill.--Description of the apparatus, and of the old and
+      new processes.--Several engravings.                         6716
+
+      Large Blue Prints.--By W.B. Parsons, Jr.                    6717
+
+III.  ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electrical Apparatus for Measuring
+      and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.--With
+      descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different
+      machines.                                                   6711
+
+      A New Oxide of Copper Battery.--By F. De Lalande and S.
+      Chaperon.--With description and three illustrations.        6714
+
+IV.   MATHEMATICS, ETC.--To Find the Time of Twilight.--1 figure.  6720
+
+      A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic.                      6725
+
+      Experiments in Binary Arithmetic.                           6726
+
+V.    ARCHÆOLOGY.--Grecian Antiquities.--With engravings of the
+      Monument of Philopappus.--Tomb from the Ceramicus.--Tower
+      of the winds.--The Acropolis.--Old Corinth.--Temple of
+      Jupiter.--The Parthenon.--Temple of Theseus, etc.           6721
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.--Poisonous Serpents and
+      their Venom.--By Dr. Archie Stockwell.--A serpent's mouth,
+      fangs, and poison gland.--Manner of attack.--Nature of
+      the venom.--Action of venom.--Remedies.                     6719
+
+      Ethnological Notes.--Papuans.--Negritos.                    6720
+
+VII.  HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.--The Hornbeams.--Uses to
+      which the tree is put.--Wood for manufactures.--For
+      fuel.--Different varieties.--With engravings of the tree
+      as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc.         6724
+
+      Fruit of Camellia Japonica.--1 engraving.                   6725
+
+VIII. MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.--House Drainage and Refuse.
+      Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.--Treating
+      of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and
+      houses.--Conditions to observe in house drains, etc.        6717
+
+      Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation.                        6718
+
+      Convenient Vaults.                                          6719
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--Spanish Fisheries.--Noticeable objects
+      in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition.      6722
+
+      Duck Shooting at Montauk.                                   6723
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH
+EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics were quite
+numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity, and very naturally a
+large number was to be seen there that presented little difference
+with present models. Several of them, however, merit citation. Among
+the galvanometers, we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by
+Prof. Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us of that
+of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that its inventor
+had combined in it a series of arrangements that permitted of varying
+its sensitiveness within very wide limits. This apparatus, which Prof.
+Zenger calls a "Universal Rheometer" (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin
+whose interior is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not
+meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two terminals.
+This internal shell is capable of serving for currents of quantity,
+and, when the two terminals are united by a wire, it may serve as a
+deadener. Above this copper shell there are two identical coils of
+wire which may, according to circumstances, be coupled in tension or
+in series, or be employed differentially. Reading is performed either
+by the aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror,
+which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral scale,
+R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be slid toward the
+galvanometer. This magnet is capable of rendering the needle less
+sensitive or of making it astatic. In order to facilitate this
+operation, the magnet carries at its extremity a tube which contains a
+bar of soft iron that may be moved slightly so as to vary the length
+of the magnet. Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier.
+It will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the
+apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and, according
+to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a dozen
+galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and permits of
+measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to 1/50000000 an ampere.
+The apparatus may even be employed for measuring magnetic forces, as
+it constitutes a very sensitive magnetometer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a "Universal Electrometer"
+(Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as an electrometric
+needle was of magnetized steel suspended by a cotton thread. In this
+instrument, a silver wire, t, terminating in a ball, is fixed to a
+support, C, hanging from a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case
+of the apparatus. It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body
+near the disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The
+sensitiveness of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like
+that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may be slid up
+and down its support, permits of the instrument being used as a
+condensing electrometer, by giving it, according to the distance of
+the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness. One constructor who
+furnished much to this part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of
+Munich, whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among
+them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer (Fig. 4), in
+which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced by two connected
+cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder formed of four parts; a
+Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses with scale for reading measuring
+instruments (Fig. 3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations,
+of Lamont (Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the
+Wiedemann galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations
+(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball opens
+one current at a time at the moment it leaves the electro-magnet and
+when it reaches the foot of the support, these two breakages producing
+two induction sparks that exactly limit the length to be taken in
+order to measure the time upon the tracing of the chronoscope
+tuning-fork; an absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8)
+for absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two
+vertical steel wires stretched from o to u, and which is rendered
+complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second and fixed helix, so
+that an electro-dynamometer may be made of it; and, finally, a
+galvanometer for strong currents, having a horseshoe magnet pivoted
+upon a vertically divided column which is traversed by the current,
+and a plug that may be arranged at different heights between the two
+parts of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive (Fig.
+9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.]
+
+We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann of Wurtzburg,
+which comprised a series of apparatus of the same class as those that
+we have just enumerated--spyglasses for the reading of apparatus,
+galvanometers, magnetometers, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.]
+
+Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr. Kohlrausch for
+measuring resistances by means of induction currents, and a whole
+series of accessory instruments.
+
+Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be mentioned Prof.
+Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic balance. In this, two
+iron cylinders are suspended from the extremities of a balance. One of
+them is of solid iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of
+larger diameter and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them
+enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current be
+passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted; but
+if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow cylinder will be
+attracted. If the change in the current's intensity occur gradually,
+there will be a moment in which the cylinders will remain in
+equilibrium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally cite is
+an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the position of the
+observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of the spot changes
+accordingly, and errors are liable to result therefrom. Besides,
+because of the non-parallelism of the luminous rays, each of the two
+surfaces is not lighted equally, and hence again there may occur
+divergences. In order to avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives
+his apparatus (Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is
+contained in a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures,
+light from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring
+tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As for the
+screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three vertical
+windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon its paper. Over
+one of the halves of these parts a solution of stearine is passed. To
+operate with the apparatus, in comparing two lights, the central spot
+is first brought to invisibility, and the distances of the sources are
+measured. A second determination is at once made by causing one of the
+two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results is then
+taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding to 3/100
+of a candle between the illumination of the two neighboring windows,
+in the given conditions of the apparatus, the error is thus limited to
+a half of this value, or 2 per cent. of that of one candle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC
+VARIATIONS.]
+
+Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture courses, we
+remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for demonstrating the
+constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in which eight magnetized
+needles, carrying mica disks painted half white and half black, move
+under the influence of the currents that are traversing the solenoid,
+or of magnets that are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus
+of the same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in
+which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the external
+surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are plainly visible
+to spectators at a distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.]
+
+Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating the
+principle of the Gramme machine. A circular magnet, AA', is inserted
+into a bobbin, B, divided into two parts, and moves under the
+influence of a disk, L, actuated by a winch, M. This system permits of
+studying the currents developed in each portion of the bobbin during
+the revolution of the ring (Fig. 12).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.]
+
+To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition we
+shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering
+thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and shall then say a few
+words concerning two types of registering apparatus--Mr. Harlacher's
+water-current register and Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.]
+
+Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying the deep
+currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by a long, vertical,
+hollow rod which is plunged into the river. A cord that passes over a
+pulley, P, allows of the apparatus, properly so called, being let down
+to a certain depth in the water. What is registered is the velocity of
+the vanes that are set in action by the current, and to effect such
+registry each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an
+electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached to
+the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit that includes a
+pile and a registering apparatus that is seen at L, outside of the box
+in which it is usually inclosed. In certain cases, a bell whose sound
+indicates the velocity of the current to the ear is substituted for
+the registering apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.]
+
+Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in which the
+mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting rod is likewise
+in this type utilized as a current conductor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.]
+
+It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for determining the duration of
+combustion of different powders, the velocity of projectiles, etc. The
+registering drum, T, is revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the
+time is inscribed thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion
+by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the curves
+corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork and the
+registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed upon a regulatable
+support, C, by means of which they may be given any position desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING THE
+CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.]
+
+The style, c, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second in order
+to facilitate the reading. The style, b, of the electro-magnet, H,
+registers the beginning and end of the phenomena that are being
+studied.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF
+THE GRAMME MACHINE.]
+
+The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications may thus be
+obtained upon the drum by means of induction sparks jumping between
+the style and the surface of the cylinder. To the left of the figure
+is seen the apparatus constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for
+experimenting on the duration of combustion of bomb fuses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the contact, K, opens
+a current which supports the heavy armature, P, of an electro-magnet,
+M. This weight, P, falls upon the rod, d, and inflames the fuse, Z, at
+that very instant. At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H,
+inscribes a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the
+extremity of the fuse explodes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the drum must be
+revolved by hand, and it would certainly be more convenient could it
+be put in movement at different velocities by means of a clockwork
+movement that would merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired
+moment. As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and,
+although it has already been employed in Germany for some time, it
+will be called upon to render still more extensive services.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of precision that
+were comprised in the Munich Exhibition. In general, it may be said
+that this class of instruments was very well represented there as
+regards numbers, and, on another hand, the manufacturers are to be
+congratulated for the care bestowed on their construction.--_La
+Lumiere Electrique_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+COPPER VOLTAMETER.
+
+
+Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has made some
+experiments upon the disturbing influences on the correct indications
+of a copper voltameter. He investigated the effects of the intensity
+of the current, the distance apart of the plates, and their
+preparation before weighing. The main conclusion which he arrives at
+is this: That in order that the deposit should be proportional to the
+intensity of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven ampères
+per square decimeter of area of the cathode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor Osborne
+Reynolds says these have a great advantage over shafts, for the stress
+on the section will be uniform, the velocity will be uniform, and may
+be at least ten to fifteen times as great as with shafts--say 100 ft.
+per second; the rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at
+distances 500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will
+not be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY.
+
+By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON.
+
+
+We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a single liquid and
+with a solid depolarizing element by associating oxide of copper,
+caustic potash, and zinc.
+
+This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing electrodes
+are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough to keep it in
+contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper constituting the
+positive pole of the element.
+
+Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom of a glass
+jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing oxide of copper,
+B. To this box is attached a copper wire insulated from the zinc by a
+piece of India rubber tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this
+metal coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a
+cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the zinc; an
+India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place where it dips into
+the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away at this level.
+
+The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per cent. of
+potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a Callaud element, with
+this difference--that the depolarizing element is solid and insoluble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the potash, we
+inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid state necessary for
+an element in the box which receives the oxide of copper, and furnish
+it with a cover supported by a ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then
+for working the battery to open the box of potash, to place it at the
+bottom of the jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then
+pour in the copper oxide inclosed in a bag.
+
+We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently into blocks. Among
+the various means which might be employed, we prefer the following:
+
+We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium in the form
+of paste so as to convert the whole into a thick mass, which we
+introduce into metal boxes.
+
+The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action of heat,
+and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with the quantity of
+cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V, is provided
+with a cover of copper, E, screwing into the glass. This cover carries
+two vertical plates of sheet-iron, A, A', against which are fixed the
+prismatic blocks, B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal,
+C, carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc is
+formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to the center
+of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded back upon this tube so as
+to make an air-tight joint.
+
+The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a split
+India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve.
+
+The closing is made hermetical by means of an India rubber tube, K,
+which presses against the glass and the cover. The potash to charge
+the element is in pieces, and is contained either in the glass jar
+itself or in a separate box of sheet-iron.
+
+Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically sealed elements
+with a single plate of a very small size.
+
+The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper, which are not
+attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to easily construct
+elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of iron plate
+brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters long by 20
+centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high.
+
+We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and place in the
+four corners porcelain insulators, L, which support a horizontal plate
+of zinc, D, D', raised at one end and kept at a distance from the
+oxide of copper and from the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters
+of this is filled with a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M,
+fixed respectively to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach
+the leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the carbonic
+acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we cover it with a thin
+layer of heavy petroleum (a substance uninflammable and without
+smell), or better still, we furnish the battery with a cover. These
+elements are easily packed so as to occupy little space.
+
+We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may be varied
+infinitely, but point out the principal properties of the oxide of
+copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a battery with a solid
+depolarizing element, the new battery presents the advantage of only
+consuming its element, in proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc
+and copper are, in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is,
+therefore, durable.
+
+Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal
+resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4 of an ohm for
+polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated by a distance of five
+centimeters.
+
+The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small cells shown
+in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short circuit; the large
+one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these elements can replace a large
+Bunsen cell. They are remarkably constant. We may say that with a
+depolarizing surface double that of the zinc the battery will work
+without notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted,
+even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation of the
+products, the change of the alkali into an alkaline salt of zinc, does
+not perceptibly vary the internal resistance. This great constancy is
+chiefly due to the progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode
+to the state of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity
+and its depolarizing power.
+
+The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an excellent
+battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at first better
+conductivity than oxide of copper, but this property is lost by
+reduction and transformation into lower oxides. It follows that the
+copper battery will give a very large quantity of electricity working
+through low resistances, while under these conditions manganese
+batteries are rapidly polarized.
+
+The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash battery is very
+great, and far superior to that stored by an accumulator of the same
+weight, but the rendering is much less rapid. Potash may be employed
+in concentrated solution at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can
+dissolve the oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than
+one-third of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to be
+employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of zinc which enters
+into action. These data allow of the reduction of the necessary
+substances to a very small relative weight.
+
+The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results in their
+application to telephones. For theatrical purposes the same battery
+may be employed during the whole performance, instead of four or five
+batteries. Their durability is considerable; three elements will work
+continuously, night and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than
+four months without sensible loss of power.
+
+Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low resistances,
+and can be worked at any moment, after several months, for example. It
+is only necessary to protect them by a cover from the action of the
+carbonic acid of the atmosphere.
+
+We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding its
+price and its higher equivalent, because it does not produce, like
+soda, creeping salts. Various modes of regeneration render this
+battery very economical. The deposited copper absorbs oxygen pretty
+readily by simple exposure to damp air, and can be used again. An
+oxidizing flame produces the same result very rapidly.
+
+Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator, that is
+to say, by passing a current through it in the opposite direction, we
+restore the various products to their original condition; the copper
+absorbs oxygen, and the alkali is restored, while the zinc is
+deposited; but the spongy state of the deposited zinc necessitates its
+being submitted to a process, or to its being received upon a mercury
+support. Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a waste
+product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced, loses
+nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery; the
+depolarization may therefore be considered as costing scarcely
+anything. The oxide of copper battery is a durable and valuable
+battery, which by its special properties seems likely to replace
+advantageously in a great number of applications the batteries at
+present in use.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr. E.D. Farcot
+for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine, consists of a cast iron
+bed frame, A, upon which are mounted all the parts. The two jacketed,
+cylinders, B and C, of different diameters, each contains a
+simple-acting piston. The two pistons are connected by one rod in
+common, which is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in
+slides, E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The head
+of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter which
+embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H.
+
+The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J, which is
+provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected with a governor
+placed upon the large cylinder. The steam, as shown in Fig. 2 (which
+represents the piston at one end of its travel), is first admitted
+against the right surface of the small piston, which it causes to
+effect an entire stroke corresponding to a half-revolution of the
+fly-wheel. The stroke completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an
+eccentric keyed to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the
+cylinders, B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and
+drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second half
+of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs through the valve
+chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the large cylinder in connection
+with the eduction port, M.
+
+The volume of air included between the two pistons is displaced at
+every stroke, so that, according to the position occupied by the
+pistons, it is held either by the large or small cylinder. The
+necessary result of this is that a compression of the air, and
+consequently a resistance, is brought about. In order to obviate this
+inconvenience, the constructor has connected the space between the two
+pistons at the part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being
+alternately driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of
+relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant
+resistance.
+
+[Illustration: FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE.
+  Fig. 1.--Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 2.--Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 3.--Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 4.--Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 5.--Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).]
+
+As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a variable
+expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a single acting one, a
+single valve-plate suffices. This latter is, during its travel,
+arrested at one end by a stop and at the other by a cam actuated by
+the governor. Upon the axis of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel,
+with an endless screw, which permits of regulating it by hand.
+
+This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes,
+makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs 2,000 kilogrammes.
+--_Annales Industrielles_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOT LATHES.
+
+
+We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia Manufacturing
+Company, of Colchester, and specially designed for use on board ships.
+These lathes, says _Engineering_, are treble geared, in order that
+work which cannot usually be done without steam power may be
+accomplished by foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or
+plate, or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work
+than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6 inch centers,
+gaps 7œ inches wide and 6œ inches deep, beds 4 feet 6 inches long by
+8Ÿ inches on the face and 6 inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There
+are three speeds on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches
+in diameter and 1œ inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch pitch
+and 1œ inches wide on face. The steel leading screw is 1œ inches in
+diameter by Πinch pitch. Smaller sizes are made for torpedo boats and
+for places where space is limited.
+
+[Illustration: LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications of
+link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain belt carried over
+a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate space a truck on which the
+train runs. This chain or belt is provided with pans which, as they
+overlap, form an endless trough. Power being applied to revolve one of
+the wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once
+becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying engraving
+illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of the pans are removed,
+to show the construction of the links; and above this a link and
+coupler are shown on a larger scale. As will be seen, the link is
+provided with wings, to form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted
+to it. To reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as
+will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof conveyer
+which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln to crusher, and convey
+coal, broken stone, or other gritty and coarse material. The Link Belt
+Machinery Company, of Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E.
+Coffin, of Muirkirk, Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to
+carry the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about
+one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with the
+barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower becomes a
+faithful servant, ready for work in all weather and at all times of
+day or night. This company also manufactures ore elevators of any
+capacity, which, used in connection with this apparatus, will handle
+perfectly anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might
+be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment. Although
+comparatively new in this country, the American _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ says it has been in successful operation for some time
+in England, the English manufacturers of link-belting having had great
+success with it.
+
+[Illustration: ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES.
+
+
+On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is 30 feet to
+the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the mile going east and
+south. Next for easy grades comes the New York Central and Hudson
+River road. From New York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk,
+till it gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the
+time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its
+connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the "Nickel Plate," the
+Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the Canada Southern and Michigan
+Central.
+
+The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio roads pass
+through a country so mountainous that, much as they have expended to
+improve their grades, it is practically impossible for them to attain
+the easy grades so much more readily obtained by the trunk lines
+following the great natural waterways originally extending almost from
+Chicago to New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS.
+
+
+The _Journal of the Statistical Society_ for September contains an
+elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on "English Express Trains; their
+Average Speed, etc. with Notes on Gradients, Long Runs, etc." The
+author takes great pains to explain his definition of the term
+"express trains," which he finally classifies thus: (a) The general
+rule; those which run under ordinary conditions, and attain a
+journey-speed of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the
+whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional
+difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed as low as 36 or
+37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole. (c) Trains which should
+come under (a), but which, through unusually long stoppages or similar
+causes, only reach a journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per
+cent.[1] of the whole.
+
+  [Footnote 1: 10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage,
+  of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.]
+
+He next explains that by "running average" is meant: The average speed
+per hour while actually in motion from platform to platform, i.e., the
+average speed obtained by deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up)
+Great Northern "Scotchman" stops 49 minutes on its journey from
+Edinburgh to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in actual
+motion; its "running average" is therefore 48 miles an hour, or,
+briefly, "r.a.=48." The statement for this train will thus appear:
+Distance in miles between Edinburgh and King's Cross, 392œ; time, 9 h.
+0 m.; journey-speed, 43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48.
+
+Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances of
+the express trains of the leading English and Scottish railways--in
+Ireland there are no trains which come under his definition of
+"express"--giving the times of journey, the journey-speeds, minutes
+stopped on way, and running averages, with the gradients and other
+circumstances bearing on these performances. He sums up the results
+for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows:
+
+  =========================================================================
+  Extent of|                   |           | Average  |         |         |
+  System   |                   | Distinct  | Journey- | Running | Express |
+  in Miles.|                   | Expresses.|  speed.  | Average.| Mileage.|
+  ---------+-------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+    1773   | North-Western     |   {54} 82 |    40    |    43   |  10,400 |
+           |                   |   {28}    |          |         |         |
+    1260   | Midland           |    66     |    41    |    45   |   8,860 |
+     928   | Great Northern    |   {48} 67 |    43    |    46   |   6,780 |
+           |                   |   {19}    |          |         |         |
+     907   | Great Eastern     |    34     |    41    |    43   |   3,040 |
+    2267   | Great Western     |    18     |    42    |    46   |   2,600 |
+    1519   | North-Eastern     |    19     |    40    |    43   |   2,110 |
+     290   | Manch., Sheffield,|    49     |    43    |    44   |   2,318 |
+           |   and Lincoln     |           |          |         |         |
+     767   | Caledonian        |    16     |    40    |    42   |   1,155 |
+     435   | Brighton          |    13     |    41    |    41   |   1,155 |
+     382   | South-Eastern     |    12     |    41    |    41   |     940 |
+     329   | Glasgow and       |     8     |    41    |    43   |     920 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     796   | London and        |     3     |    41    |    44   |     890 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     984   | North British     |    11     |    39    |    41   |     830 |
+     153   | Chatham and Dover |     9     |    42    |    43   |     690 |
+                               +-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+                               |   407     |    41    |    44   |  42,683 |
+  =========================================================================
+
+A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed is 41.6,
+and which run 42,680 miles at an average "running average" of 44.3
+miles per hour.
+
+If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead of their
+mileage, the order is:
+
+                                   Average
+                                     r.a.     Miles
+  Great Northern.                     46      6,780
+  Great Western.                      46   [2]2,600
+  Midland.                            45      8,860
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln  44      2,318
+  London and South-Western.           44        890
+  North-Western.                      43     10,400
+  Glasgow and South-Western.          43        920
+  Great Eastern.                      43      3,040
+  North-Eastern.                      43      2,110
+  Chatham and Dover.                  43        690
+  Caledonian.                         42      1,155
+  South-Eastern.                      41        940
+  Brighton.                           41      1,155
+  North British.                      31        825
+
+  [Footnote 2: Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.]
+
+
+EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF GRADIENTS, ETC.
+
+  North British,
+  Caledonian,
+  Manch., Sheffield & Lincoln,
+  Midland,
+  Glasgow and South-Western,
+  Chatham and Dover,
+  South-Eastern,
+  Great Northern,
+  South-Western,
+  Great Eastern,
+  Brighton,
+  North-Western,
+  North-Eastern,
+  Great Western.
+
+
+LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND.
+
+  =======================================================================
+                                      | Number of | Average |  Running
+                                      |  Trains.  |  Speed. |  Averages.
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+                                      |           |  Miles. |   Miles.
+  Midland.                            |     104   |    53   | 46  (5,512)
+  North-Western.                      |      98   |    60   | 45  (5,880)
+  Great Northern.                     |      49   |    73   | 50  (3,616)
+  Great Western.                      |      24   |    56   | 48  (1,344)
+  Great Eastern.                      |      24   |    56   | 42  (1,362)
+  Brighton.                           |      23   |    45   | 42  (1,047)
+  North-Eastern.                      |      20   |    56   | 44  (1,120)
+  South-Western.                      |      13   |    47   | 44    (615)
+  South-Eastern.                      |      12   |    66   | 42    (795)
+  Chatham and Dover.                  |       8   |    63   | 45    (504)
+  Caledonian.                         |       8   |    59   | 45    (476)
+  Glasgow and South-Western           |       8   |    58   | 44    (468)
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln. |       8   |    48   | 43    (390)
+  North British.                      |       7   |    60   | 40    (423)
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+             Total.                   |     406   |    58   | 45 (23,550)
+  =======================================================================
+
+From this it will be seen that the three great companies run 61 per
+cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per cent. of the whole
+number of long runs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED OIL MILL.
+
+
+The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by mechanical
+means have during the last few years undergone a complete revolution.
+By the old process, the seed, having been flattened between a pair of
+stones, was afterward ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as
+much as 20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute.
+Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken to a kettle or
+steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated, and thence drawn--in
+quantities sufficient for a cake--in woollen bags, which were placed
+in a hydraulic press. From four to six bags was the utmost that could
+be got into the press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between
+wrappers of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a good
+deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable expense
+in the frequent replacing of the horsehair wrappers, each of which
+involved a cost of about £4. The modern requirements of trade have in
+every branch of industry ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the
+slow, easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition
+was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements, almost at every
+turn, more effectually and at greatly increased speed, complete
+manufacturing operations previously performed by hand, and oil-seed
+crushing machinery has been no exception to the general rule. The
+illustrations we give represent the latest developments in improved
+oil-mill machinery introduced by Rose, Downs & Thompson, named the
+"Colonial" mill, and recently we had an opportunity of inspecting the
+machinery complete before shipment to Calcutta, where it is being sent
+for the approaching exhibition. As compared with the old system of
+oil-seed crushing, Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson claim for their
+method, among other advantages, a great saving in driving power,
+economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an improved
+branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in the labor employed
+in the press-room, with also a great saving in wear and tear, while
+the process is equally applicable to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or
+similar seeds. In addition to these improvements in the system, the
+"Colonial" mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement
+to meet the requirements of exporters. The machinery and engine are
+self-contained on an iron foundation, so that there is no need of
+skilled mechanics to erect the mill, nor of expensive stone
+foundations, while the building covering the mill can, if desired, be
+of the lightest possible description, as no wall support is required.
+The mill consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler,
+3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 1œ in. high, with three cross tubes 7œ in.
+diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake 9 in.
+diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood fuel is used
+extra grate area can be provided. This boiler supplies the steam not
+only for the engine, but also for heating and damping the seed in the
+kettle. The engine is vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke,
+with high speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of
+the mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about 30 ft.
+long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various machines, which,
+when the top is leveled, can be fixed in their respective places by
+any intelligent man, and when the machines are in position they form a
+support for the shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden
+bin, placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll frame has
+four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter, so
+arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings, with patent
+pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are driven by fast and loose
+pulleys by the shaft above. After the last rolling the seed falls
+through an opening in the foundation plate in a screen driven from the
+bottom roll shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a
+set of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle. This
+kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in. deep, is
+made of cast iron and of specially strong construction. There is only
+one steam joint in it, and to reduce the liability of leakage this
+joint is faced in a lathe. The inside furnishings of the kettle are a
+damping apparatus with perforated boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and
+delivery plate, and patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a
+wood frame and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron
+sheeting. The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required
+temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped by a jet
+of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with indicating plate.
+When the required temperature has been obtained, the seed is withdrawn
+by a measuring box through a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom,
+and evenly distributed over a strip of bagging supported on a steel
+tray in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes a
+compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be taken in
+by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction of the oil.
+The seed leaves the moulding machine in the form of a thick cake from
+nine to eleven pounds in weight, and each press is constructed to take
+in twelve of these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in.
+diameter and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of
+construction and even distribution of strain throughout the press, all
+the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed and turned
+accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take the columns, in the
+place of being cast, as is sometimes usual, with fitting strips top
+and bottom, are solid throughout, and are planed or slotted out of the
+solid to gauges. The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps
+made of crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the
+pump rams is 2œ in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This ram gives
+only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are such as to obtain
+this pressure upon each press in about fourteen seconds. This pump
+then automatically ceases running, and the work is taken up by a
+second plunger, having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the
+second pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons per
+square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is arrived at in
+less than two minutes. For shutting off the communication between the
+presses, the stop valves are so arranged that either press may be let
+down, or set to work without in the smallest degree affecting the
+other. The oil from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from
+which an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired
+direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press, are stripped
+of the bagging and cut to size in a specially arranged paring machine,
+which is placed off the bed-plate behind the kettle, and is driven by
+the pulley shown on the main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted
+with an arrangement for reducing the parings to meal, which is
+returned to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses
+shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson's
+latest type, but the cakes produced by this process can have any
+desired name or brand in block letters put upon them. The edges on the
+upper plate, it may be added, are found of great use in crushing some
+classes of green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give
+illustrations opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of
+seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been so reduced
+to a minimum that it is intended to be worked by one man, who moulds
+and puts the twenty-four cakes into the presses, and while they are
+under pressure is engaged paring the cakes that have been previously
+pressed. In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or
+separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case the engine
+and boiler would require to be made larger.--_The Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF
+PAPER MILLS, ETC.
+
+
+For extracting such useful materials as are contained in the waste
+waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and, at the same
+time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht, of Siebenlehn, employs
+a sort of filter like that shown in the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and
+underneath which he effects a vacuum.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.]
+
+The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments, which are
+separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the stationary bottom, a,
+there is arranged a lattice-work grating or a strong wire cloth, b,
+upon which rests the filtering material, c, properly so called. The
+reservoir is divided transversely by several partitions, d, of
+different heights. The liquor entering through the leader, f,
+traverses the apparatus slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide
+section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the filtering
+material, it is necessary that, in addition to this horizontal motion,
+it shall have a downward one. As far as to the top of the partitions,
+d, there form in front of the latter certain layers which do not
+participate in the horizontal motion, but which can only move
+downward, as a consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It
+results from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the
+first compartment, while the others run over the first partition, d,
+and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according to their
+degree of fineness, while the clarified water makes its exit through
+the spout, g. When the filtering layer, c, has become gradually
+impermeable, the cock, i, of a jet apparatus, k, is opened, in order
+to suck out the clarified water through the pipe, r.--_Dingler's
+Polytech. Journ., after Bull. Musée de l'Industrie_.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LARGE BLUE PRINTS.
+
+By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E.
+
+
+I send you a description of a device that I got up for the N.Y., L.E.,
+and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by which I overcame the
+difficulties incident to large glasses. The glass was 58 inches long,
+84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In
+order to keep the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of
+thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1" x 1". Each strip was carefully
+planed, and then they were glued and screwed together, while across
+the ends were fastened strips with their grain running transversely.
+This back was then covered on side next to the glass with four
+thicknesses of common gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding
+pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected by two long
+pressure strips running across the back placed at about one quarter
+the length of the frame from the ends, and held by a screw at the
+center. The ends of these strips were made so as to fit in slots in
+the frame at a slight angle, so that as the pressure strips were
+turned it gave them a binding pressure at the same time. In other
+words, it is the same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in
+small picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the back at
+the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall away from the
+glass, distributed it evenly over the whole surface and always kept it
+in position. The frame was run in and out of the printing room on a
+little railway on which it rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one
+pair being at one end, while the other was just beyond the center, so
+the frame could be revolved in direction of its length without
+trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel
+fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed, with a ring that
+could be attached to a corresponding hook at the side of the back, in
+order to hoist it or lower it. Although that is an extremely large
+apparatus, yet by means of the above device it was worked easily and
+rapidly, and gave every satisfaction.
+
+The solution used was of the same proportions as had been adopted in
+the other engineering offices of the road:
+
+  Citrate iron and ammonium      1-7/8 oz.
+  Red prussiate potash (C.P.)    1-1/4 oz.
+
+Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix when ready
+to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle, and that in a tight box
+impervious to light, it can be kept two or three weeks.
+
+In some frames used at the School of Mines for making large blue
+prints a similar device has been in use for several years. Instead,
+however, of the heavy and cumbrous back used by Mr. Parsons, a light,
+somewhat flexible back of one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered
+with heavy Canton flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The
+pressure is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker
+at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform pressure
+across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the back firmly
+against the glass at all points. This system has been used with
+success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two inches, about half as
+large as the one described by Mr. Parsons. A frame of this size can be
+easily handled without mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid
+too great thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the
+plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips used are
+about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle, and taper to about
+three-eighths of an inch at the ends.
+
+The formulæ for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy, and Parsons
+are practically identical so far as the proportions of citrate of iron
+and ammonia and of red prussiate of potash, 3 of the former to 2 of
+the latter, but differ in the amount of water. Laudy's formula calls
+for about 5 parts of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts,
+and Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the solution
+the longer the exposure required. With very strong solutions a large
+portion of the Prussian blue formed comes off in the washwater, and
+when printing from glass negatives the fine lines and lighter tints
+are apt to suffer. The blue color, however, will be deep and the
+whites clear. With weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the
+whites bluish. Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The
+addition of a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an
+advantage, producing the same results as strength of solution, by
+increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper deficient in
+sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.--_H.S.M., Sch. of
+M. Quarterly._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE.
+
+
+A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been delivered during
+the past few weeks before the officers of the Royal Engineers
+stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
+
+The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain Galton,
+whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls under the following
+five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse; 3, stable manure; 4, solid or
+liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater and domestic waste water, including
+water from personal ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of
+passages, stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the
+simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water supply is
+limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are absorbed by the ground;
+but a camp unprovided with latrines would always be in a state of
+danger from epidemic disease. One of the most frequent causes of an
+unhealthy condition of the air of a camp in former times has been
+either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground outside the
+camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing the latrines too
+shallow, and exposing too large a surface to rain, sun, and air. The
+Quartermaster-General's regulations provide against these
+contingencies; but I may as well here recapitulate the general
+principles which govern camp latrines. Latrines should be so managed
+that no smell from them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure
+this very simple precautions only are required:
+
+1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect to prevailing
+winds, and at as great a distance from the tents as is compatible with
+convenience. 2. They should be dug narrow and deep, and their contents
+covered over every evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A
+certain bulk and thickness of earth are required to absorb the
+putrescent gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air
+to a considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled to
+within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be thrown
+into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its site. 4. Great
+care should be taken not to place latrines near existing wells, nor to
+dig wells near where latrines have been placed. The necessity of these
+precautions to prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens
+made out of any available material are, of course, required for
+latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp, and is only
+admissible under such conditions.
+
+A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the most
+immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse will take a
+long time to decay; it should not be disturbed, and will taint the
+adjacent soil for a long time. This is of less consequence in a merely
+temporary encampment, while it might entail serious evils in
+localities continuously inhabited. The following plan of trench has
+been adopted as a more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with
+the object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution of the
+whole country, from the people habitually fouling the fields, roads,
+streets, and watercourses. Long trenches are dug, at about one foot or
+less in depth, at a spot set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from
+dwellings. Matting screens are placed round for decency. Each day the
+trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day, is filled
+up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth obtained by digging a
+new trench adjoining, which, when it has been used, is treated in the
+same manner. Thus the trenches are gradually extended, until
+sufficient ground has been utilized, when they are plowed up and the
+site used for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more
+than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep, the lower
+stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a permanent cesspool, and
+becomes a source of future trouble. It is to be observed, however,
+that in the wet season these trenches cannot be used, and in sandy
+soil they do not answer. This system, although it is preferable to
+what formerly prevailed--viz., the surface defilement of the ground
+all round villages and of the adjacent water courses--is fraught with
+danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be strictly enforced,
+because it would otherwise retain large and increasing masses of
+putrefying matter in the soil, in a condition somewhat unfavorable to
+rapid absorption. These arrangements are applicable only to very rough
+life or very poor communities.
+
+The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure, etc., from
+barracks next calls for notice. The great principle to be observed in
+removing the solid refuse from barracks is that every decomposable
+substance should be taken away at once. This principle applies
+especially in warm climates. Even the daily removal of refuse entails
+the necessity of places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore
+this principle must be applied in various ways to suit local
+convenience. In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there is less
+danger of injury to health from decomposing matters than there would
+be in hot, moist, or close positions. In the country generally there
+is less risk of injury than in close parts of towns. These
+considerations show that the same stringency is not necessarily
+required everywhere. Position by itself affords a certain degree of
+protection from nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually
+produced is also another point to be considered. A small daily product
+is not, of course, so injurious as a large product. Even the manner of
+accumulating decomposing substances influences their effect on health.
+There is less risk from a dung heap to the leeward than to the
+windward of a barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily
+placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be below the
+level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the ground, into which
+the refuse is thrown in the intervals between times of removal, rain
+and surface water will mix with the refuse and hasten its
+decomposition, and generally the lowest part of the filth will not be
+removed, but will be left to fester and produce malaria. In all places
+where the occupation is permanent the following conditions should be
+attended to:
+
+1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from inhabited
+buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by the occupants. 2.
+That the places of deposit be above the level of the ground--never dug
+out of the ground. The floor of the ash pit or dung pit should be at
+least six inches above the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved
+with square sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered.
+5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide that the
+traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or in removing it
+shall not produce a polluted surface.
+
+In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized for manure
+or otherwise are burned. But this is an operation which, if done
+unskillfully, without a properly constructed kiln, may give rise to
+nuisance. One of the best forms of kiln is one now in operation at
+Ealing, which could be easily visited from London.
+
+_The removal of excreta from houses._--The chief object of a perfect
+system of house drainage is the immediate and complete removal from
+the house of all foul and effete matter directly it is produced. The
+first object--viz., removal of foul matter, can be attained either by
+the water closet system, when carried out in this integrity; but it
+could, of course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough
+always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are
+modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools in a
+house do not fulfill this condition of immediate removal. They serve
+for the retention of excremental and other matters. In a porous soil
+it endangers the purity of the wells. The Indian cities afford
+numerous examples of subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to
+the pollution of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the soil
+in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt, the
+chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to decay for many
+generations, from the presence of which the well water is impure.
+There are many factories of saltpeter in India whose supplies are
+derived from this source; and during the great French wars, when
+England blockaded all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon
+obtained saltpeter for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools
+are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected. Cesspits may,
+however, be a necessity in some special cases, as, for instance, in
+detached houses or a small detached barrack. Where they cannot be
+avoided, the following conditions as to their use should be enforced:
+
+1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling. It should be
+placed outside, and as far removed from the immediate neighborhood of
+the dwelling as circumstances will allow. There should be a ventilated
+trap placed on the pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit.
+2d. It should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of no
+leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow should be
+permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be thoroughly emptied and
+cleaned out; for the matter left at the bottom of a cesspit is liable
+to be in a highly putrescible condition.
+
+Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least offensive
+system for emptying it is the pneumatic system. This is applicable to
+the water closet refuse alone. The pneumatic system acts as follows: A
+large air-tight cylinder on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series
+of air-tight barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter,
+placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient; a
+tube of about the same diameter is led from them to the cesspit; the
+air is then exhausted in the barrels or cylinder either by means of an
+air pump or by means of steam injected into it, which, on
+condensation, forms a vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are
+drawn through the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder
+or barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this system
+has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland. He removes the
+fæcal matter from water closets and the sedimentary production of
+kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency. He places large air-tight tanks in
+a suitable part of the town, to which he leads pipes from all houses.
+He creates a vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the
+fæcal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have been tried
+for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the hand removal of
+excreta. The first was the combination of the privy with an ashpit
+above the surface of the ground, the ashes and excreta being mixed
+together, and both being removed periodically. The next improvement
+was the provision of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest
+arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken out, the
+contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the box replaced. The
+difficulty of cleansing the angles of the boxes led to the adoption of
+oval or round pails. The pail is placed under the seat, and removed at
+stated intervals, or when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In
+Marseilles and Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ
+cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes
+hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The household is
+furnished with three or four of these vessels, and when one is full
+the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel thus remaining in a
+harmless condition in the house till taken away by the authorities and
+replaced by a clean one. The contents are converted into manure. In
+consequence of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next
+improvement was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily.
+In the north of England the arrangement generally is that the ashes
+shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are sifted--the finer
+fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser pass into a box,
+whence they can be taken to be again burned--while a separate shoot is
+provided for kitchen refuse, which falls into another pail adjacent.
+
+Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the excreta is the
+dry earth system as applied in the earth closet, in which advantage is
+taken of the deodorizing properties of earth. Dry earth is a good
+deodorizer; 1œ lb. of dry earth of good garden ground or clay will
+deodorize such excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or
+gravel. If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and
+it is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed
+until it has been used ten or twelve times. This system requires close
+attention, or the dry earth closet will get out of order; as compared
+with water closets, it is cheaper in first construction, and is not
+liable to injury by frost; and it has this advantage over any form of
+cesspit--that it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of
+the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as follows: Cost
+of closet, say, £500; expense of ovens, carts, horses, etc., £250;
+total capital, £750, at 6 per cent. £37 10_s._ interest. Wages of two
+men and a boy per week, £1 12_s._; keep of horses, stables, etc., 18_s._;
+fuel for drying earth, 1_s._ 6_d._ per ton dried daily, £1 10_s._; cost of
+earth and repairs, etc., 14_s._; weekly expenses, £4 14_s._ Yearly
+expenses, £247 (equal to 4_s._ 11_d._ per ton per annum); interest, £37
+10_s._--total, £284 10_s._, against which should be put the value of the
+manure. But the value of the manure is simply a question of carriage.
+If the manure is highly concentrated, like guano, it can stand a high
+carriage. If the manuring elements are diffused through a large bulk
+of passive substances, the cost of the carriage of the extra, or
+non-manuring, elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by
+adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large quantity
+of manure, containing much besides the actual manuring elements--such
+as is generally the case with dry earth--as soon as the districts
+immediately around have been fully supplied, a point is soon reached
+at which it is impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry
+earth system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions
+where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable to
+large towns from the practical difficulties connected with procuring,
+carting, and storing the dry earth.
+
+With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be separated
+from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the offensiveness would be
+much diminished, and deodorization be unnecessary, a method for
+getting rid of the liquid portion by what is termed the Goux system
+has been in use at Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail
+with a composition formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which
+can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to give it
+adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position by a means of a
+core or mould, which is allowed to remain in the pails until just
+before they are about to be placed under the seat; the core is then
+withdrawn, and the pail is left ready for use. The liquid which passes
+into the pail soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing
+medium. The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick to the
+central space in a tub of the above dimensions would be about two to
+one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this proportion would be
+insufficient to produce a dry mass in the tubs when used for a week,
+and experience has shown that after being in use for several days the
+absorbing power of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole
+contents have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain by
+the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from nuisance, and
+though it removes the risk of splashing and does away with much of the
+unsightliness of the contents, the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds
+extra weight which has to be carried to and from the houses, is rather
+a disadvantage than otherwise from the manurial point of view.
+
+The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways in the
+northern towns of England, and in the permanent camps to some extent
+at least, and of which the French "tinette" is an improved form, is
+more economically convenient than the dry earth system or the Goux or
+other deodorizing system, where a large amount of removal of refuse
+has to be accomplished, because by the pail system the liquid and
+solid ejections may be collected with a very small, or even without
+any, admixture of foreign substances; and, according to theory, the
+manurial value of dejections per head per annum ought to be from 8_s._
+to 10_s._ The great superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the
+pail or pan systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even
+the middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is
+reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles
+being sometimes effected daily, and the period never exceeding a week.
+The excrementitious matter is removed without soaking in the ground or
+putrefying in the midst of a population.
+
+These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the equally
+important refuse liquid--viz., the waste water from washing and
+stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains for the purpose of
+removing the waste water, it is more economical to allow this waste
+water to carry away the excreta. In any case, you must have drains for
+removing the fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much
+of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take
+precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which the drains are
+liable to contain from passing into your houses.
+
+There is a method which you might find useful on a small scale to
+which I will now draw your attention, as it is applicable to detached
+houses or small barracks--viz., the plan of applying the domestic
+water to land through underground drains, or what is called subsoil
+irrigation. This system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of
+sewage matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open
+irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might be
+exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation
+supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult question. This
+system was applied some years ago by Mr. Waring in Newport, in the
+United States. It has recently been introduced into this country.
+
+The system is briefly as follows: The water from the house is carried
+through a water-tight drain to the ground where the irrigation is to
+be applied. It is there passed through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1
+ft. below the surface, with open joints, by means of which it
+percolates into the soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid
+intermediately between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the
+soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent deposit,
+which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic water is allowed to
+trickle through the drains as it passes away from the house it soon
+chokes the drains. It is, therefore, necessary to pass it in flushes
+through the drains, and this can be best managed by running the water
+from the house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs
+off in a body when full.
+
+When you have water closet and drainage, the great object to be
+attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas from passing
+from the main sewer into the house drain. It was the custom to place a
+flap at the junction of the house drain with the sewer; but this flap
+is useless for preventing sewer gas from passing up the house drain.
+The plan was therefore adopted of placing a water trap under the water
+closet basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the
+drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very great,
+consequently the water in the trap would absorb this gas. When the
+water became warm from increase of temperature, it would give out the
+gas into the house; when it cooled down at night, it would again
+absorb more gas from the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature
+would cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually.
+
+These objections have led to the present recognized system--viz., 1st,
+to place a water trap on the drain to cut off the sewer gases from the
+foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to place an opening to the outer air
+on the soil pipe between the trap and the house to secure efficient
+disconnection between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover,
+necessary to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house
+drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible products
+which may be in it. To do this, we must insure that a current of air
+shall be continually passing through the drains; both an inlet and an
+outlet for fresh air must be provided in the portions of the house
+drain which are cut off from the main sewer, for without an inlet and
+outlet there can be no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet
+can be obtained in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet
+may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter, and
+with an open top to above the roof, in a position away from the
+windows, skylights, or chimneys. And, secondly, an inlet may be
+obtained by an opening into the house drain, on the dwelling side of
+and close to the trap, by means of the disconnecting manhole or
+branch-pipe before mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the
+inlet by means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet
+should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any case less
+than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance and the
+difficulty of conveying the excreta without lodgments, an open gutter
+would be preferable to a closed pipe in the house. This arrangement is
+based on the principle that there should be no deposit in the house
+drains. Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house
+drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to give the
+adequate inclination.
+
+The following are desirable conditions to observe in house drains: 1.
+As to material of pipes. House drains should be made either of glazed
+stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with cement joints, or preferably of
+cast iron pipes jointed with carefully-made lead joints, or with
+turned joints and bored sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New
+York the iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by
+the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a rainwater
+pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes. A lead joint
+cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore the lead joint is to
+some extent a guarantee of soundness. Lead pipes will be eaten away by
+water containing free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure
+rainwater injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will
+also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes appear
+in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that allows sewer gas to pass
+into the house. Moreover, lead is a soft material; it is subject to
+indentations, to injury from nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when
+coated with sewage matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and
+if of sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once well
+fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore, advocate cast
+iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the soilpipe which is to
+receive a water-closet, the trap should form part of the fixed pipe;
+so that if there is any sinking the down pipe will not sink away from
+the trap. It is, however, not sufficient to provide good material.
+There is nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view
+than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter, it is on
+details that all depends. Just consider; the drain pipes under the
+best conditions of aeration contain elements of danger, and those
+pipes are composed of a number of parts, at the point of junction of
+any one of which the poison may escape into the house. You thus
+perceive how necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum
+by cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from the
+street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place being most
+careful in the workmanship of every part of your house drains and
+soilpipes. Reduce your danger where you can by putting your pipes
+outside. But you cannot always do that--for instance, at New York and
+in Canada they would freeze.
+
+All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by plugging up the
+lower end of the drain pipe and filling it with water. In no case
+should a soilpipe be built inside a wall. It should be so placed as to
+be always accessible. 2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter.
+In no instance need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in
+diameter. 3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with
+true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper would be
+preferable. When from circumstances the drain is laid at a smaller
+inclination, a flush tank should be provided. They should be laid in
+straight lines from point to point. At every change of direction there
+should be reserved a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should
+be constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in
+particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases the pipe
+should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid under the house
+should be laid perfectly straight--a means of access should be
+provided at each end; it should have a free air current passing
+through it from end to end, and a flush tank should be placed at the
+upper end. 5. Every house drain should be arranged so as to be
+flushed, and kept at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain
+should be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each
+end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and no pipe
+or opening should be used for ventilation unless the same be carried
+upward without angles or horizontal lengths, and with tight joints.
+The size of such pipes or openings should be fully equal to that of
+the drain pipe ventilated. 7. The upper extremities of ventilating
+pipes should be at a distance from any windows or openings, so that
+there will be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the
+interior of the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate
+at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap, so that
+a current of air would be constantly maintained through the pipe. 8.
+No rainwater pipe and no overflow or waste pipe from any cistern or
+rainwater tank, or from any sink (other than a slop sink for urine),
+or from any bath or lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe;
+but every such pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing
+through the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with an
+end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage arrangements
+of this Parkes Museum in which we are assembled were very defective
+when the building was first taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the
+committee, was requested to drain it properly, and it has been very
+successfully accomplished.
+
+I would now draw your attention to some points of detail in the
+fittings for carrying away waste water.
+
+First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned, every waste
+pipe from the sink should deliver in the open air, but it should have
+an opening at its upper end as well as at its lower end, to permit a
+current of air to pass through it; and it should be trapped close to
+the sink, so as to prevent the air being drawn through it into the
+house; otherwise you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give
+you an instance: At the University College Hospital there are some
+fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows in every day, and
+some flows away through the waste pipes; these pipes, which carry away
+nothing but fresh London water to empty in the yard, got most
+offensive simply from the decomposition of the sediment left in them
+by the London water passing through them day after day. A small waste
+pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It should be of
+a size to empty rapidly--for a bath 2 inches, a basin 1œ, inches.
+There are other points connected with fittings to which I would call
+your attention. The great inventive powers which have been applied to
+the w.c. pan are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many
+kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called "traps" have a
+tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and therefore, in
+reality, partake more or less of the nature of small cesspools, and
+nuisances are frequently attributed to the ingress of "sewer gas"
+which have nothing whatever to do with the sewers, but arise from foul
+air generated in the house drains and internal fittings. The old form
+was always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap. It is
+simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out. Any trap in which
+refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool. It is a receptacle for
+putrescrible matter. In a lead pipe your trap should always be smooth
+and without corners. The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the
+frequency of use of the trap. It varies from œ inch to 3œ inches. When
+a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper than when frequently
+used, to allow of evaporation. In the section of a w.c. pan, the
+object to be attained is to take that form in which all the parts of
+the trap can be easily examined and cleaned, in which both the pan and
+the trap will be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in
+which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of the passage
+of sewer gas.
+
+And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I have had much
+pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in these lectures the
+result of my experience in sanitary science. In doing so, I desired
+especially to impress on you who are just entering your profession the
+importance of giving effect to those principles of sanitary science
+which were left very much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I
+have not desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought,
+by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which sanitary
+science rests. That science is embodied in the words, pure earth, pure
+air, pure water. In nature that purity is insured by increasing
+movement. Neither ought we to stagnate. In the application of these
+principles your goal of to-day should be your starting-post for
+to-morrow. If I have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you
+sufficiently to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward
+to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary science.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION.
+
+
+The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known, and has
+been extensively adopted by English physicians. If the opinion means
+anything, it signifies that the two diseases are in essence one and
+the same, differing only in degree. M. Pasteur has recently found that
+by passing the bacillus of "rouget" of pigs through rabbits, he can
+effect a considerable attenuation of the "rouget" virus. He has shown
+that rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very ill
+and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series of
+rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As regards
+the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs--they are all made
+very ill, or die. But if inoculation be made on pigs from those
+rabbits, at the end of the series it is found that the pigs have the
+disease in a mild form, and, moreover, that they enjoy immunity from
+further attacks of "rouget." This simply means that the rabbits have
+effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an attenuation
+of virulence. So the pigs may be "vaccinated" with the modified virus,
+have the disease in a mild form, and thereafter be protected from the
+disease. The analogy between this process and the accepted view of
+vaccinia is very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass
+through the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations
+from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human subject, but
+cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process, though of very different
+result, mention may be made of some collateral experiments of Pasteur,
+also performed recently. Briefly, it has been discovered that the
+bacillus of the "rouget" of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by
+being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations from the
+last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense form of the
+disease. It will be remembered that the discovery of the bacillus of
+"rouget" of pigs was due to the late Dr. Thuillier.--_Lancet._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an equable
+temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have met with sudden
+death, the result of a weak heart and passionate nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONVENIENT VAULTS.
+
+
+This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept upon
+precept. Many persons have availed themselves of the cheap and easy
+means which we have formerly recommended in the shape of the daily use
+of absorbents, but a larger number strangely neglect these means, and
+foul air and impure drainage are followed by disease and death. Sifted
+coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in barrels till needed
+for use. A neat cask, filled with these absorbents, with a
+long-handled dipper, is placed in the closet, and a conspicuous
+placard directs every occupant to throw down a dipper full before
+leaving. The vaults, made to open on the outside, are then as easily
+cleaned twice a year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by
+secret, underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of
+wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create fevers.
+On this account, this arrangement is safer and better than
+water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and need never get out
+of order. There being no odor whatever, if properly attended to, it
+may be contiguous to the dwelling. An illustration of the way in which
+the latter is accomplished is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat
+addition to a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either
+from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as shown by the
+steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double walls with interposed
+solid earth, to exclude any possible impurity from the cellar in case
+of neglect. The vaults may be reached from the outside opening, for
+removing the contents. In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige
+of impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who cleans
+out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to shovel sand from a
+pit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance from the
+house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides with evergreen
+trees; for no person should be compelled to encounter drifting snows
+to reach it--an exposure often resulting in colds and sickness. A few
+dollars are the whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as
+much.--_Country Gentleman_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM.
+
+By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL.
+
+
+Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days of the sixteenth
+century, when Italian malice and intrigue swayed all Europe, and
+poisons and poisoners stalked forth unblushingly from cottage and
+palace; when crowned and mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed
+clergymen, courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in
+hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and when the
+civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of the daily repast,
+inhale the odors of flower or perfume, light a wax taper, or even
+approach the waters of the holy font. These horrors have been laid
+bare, their cause and effect explained, and tests discovered whereby
+they may be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects
+even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however, it is
+yet far removed from perfection; and there are substances so
+mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set the most delicate tests
+and powerful lenses at naught, while carrying death most horrible in
+their train; and chief of these are the products of Nature's
+laboratory, that provides some sixty species of serpents with their
+deadly venom, enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring
+habits to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation. The
+hideous _trigonocephalus_ has forced the introduction and acclimation
+of the mongoose to the cane fields of the Western tropics; the tiger
+snake (_Heplocephalus curtus_) is the terror of Australian plains; the
+fer de lance (_Craspedocephalus lanceolatus_) renders the paradise of
+Martinique almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (_Daboii russelli_)
+is the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo of
+Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding waste for
+miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (_Naja tripudians_)
+ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh of one per cent.
+of the dense population, annually, and is the more dangerous in that
+an assumed sacred character secures it largely from molestation and
+retributive justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers,
+rattlesnakes, copperheads, and moccasins (_viperinæ_ and _crotalidæ_),
+that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and
+annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways and like
+habits, and if the venom of all be not generically identical, the
+physiological and toxicological phenomena arising therefrom render
+them practically and specifically so. Indeed, their attributes appear
+to be mere modifications arising from difference in age, size,
+development, climate, latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided
+perhaps by idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life.
+
+In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism and precision, the
+inoculatory apparatus of the venomous reptile excels the most
+exquisite appliances devised by the surgical implement maker's art,
+and it is doubtful whether it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man.
+The mouth of the serpent is an object for the closest study,
+presenting as it does a series of independent actions, whereby the
+bones composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated, or
+rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive ligaments,
+whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or enlarged at will--any
+one part being untrammeled and unimpeded in its action by its fellows.
+The recurved, hook-like teeth are thus isolated in application, and
+each venom fang independent of its rival when so desired, and it
+becomes possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible.
+
+The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening presence
+quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear of man, and puts to
+flight the entire animal kingdom--lions, tigers, and leopards, all but
+the restless and plucky mongoose--and whose slightest scratch is
+attended with such dire results, are two in number, one in each upper
+jaw, and placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed by
+five or six times in point of size. Situated just within the lips,
+recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even the finest of
+cambric needles, they are penetrated in their longitudinal diameter by
+a delicate, hair-like canal opening into a groove at the apex,
+terminating on the anterior surface in an elongated fissure. As the
+canal is straight, and the tooth falciform, a like groove or
+longitudinal fissure is formed at the base, where it is inclosed by
+the aperture of the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus.
+
+At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just beneath the
+nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to the commissure of the
+mouth, is the poison gland, analogous to the salivary glands of man,
+that secretes a pure, mucous saliva, and also a pale straw-colored,
+half-oleaginous fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and
+saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with
+circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds lodgment
+in the central portion of the excretory duct, that along its middle is
+dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle, and where only it may be
+obtained in perfect purity.
+
+When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie backward
+along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the mouth, and thus offer
+no impediment to deglutition. Close inspection, however, at once
+reveals not only their presence, but also several rudimentary ones to
+supply their place in case of injury or accident. The bulb of the
+duct, too, is surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the
+outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle by whose
+action both duct and gland are compressed at will, conveying the
+secretion into the basal aperture of the fang, at the same time
+refilling the bulb.
+
+When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive, the reptile
+draws the posterior portion of its body into a coil or spiral, whereby
+the act of straightening, in which it hurls itself forward to nearly
+its full length, lends force to the blow, and at the same instant the
+fangs are erected, drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the
+points to look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor
+muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted, the venom being
+injected with considerable violence through the apical outlets of the
+fangs, and into the bottom of the wound. If the object is not
+attained, the venom may be thrown to considerable distances, falling
+in drops; and Sir Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa
+relates that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of six feet
+or more in length in its death agony, lest it should hurl venom in his
+eyes and create blindness; he afterward found that an officer of Her
+Majesty's XV. Regiment had been thus injured at a distance of
+_forty-five feet_, and did not recover his eyesight for more than a
+week.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, _Naja
+  hæmachites_, who is fully equal to the feat described.]
+
+With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its venom, the
+creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in the wound, thereby
+dragging through and lacerating the flesh; an ingenious bit of
+devilishness hardly to be expected from so low a form of organism; but
+its frequent neglect proves it by no means mechanical, and it
+frequently occurs that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a
+short distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some
+serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water moccasin,
+are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives, and coil
+themselves about the part bitten, clinging with leech-like tenacity
+and resisting all attempts at removal. Two gentlemen of San Antonio,
+Texas,[2] who were bitten by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that
+after having inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered
+away with unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. "Snakes," remarked
+one of the victims, "usually glide smoothly away with the entire body
+prone to the ground; but the fellow I encountered traveled off with an
+up and down wave-like motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then,
+getting under a large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned,
+and raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying. 'Don't
+you feel good now?' It would require but a brief stretch of the
+imagination to constitute that serpent a veritable descendant of the
+old Devil himself."
+
+  [Footnote 2: On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.]
+
+As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the duct, a
+second (the venom being more or less mingled and diluted by the
+salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal in results; and each
+successive repetition correspondingly inoffensive until finally
+nothing but pure mucus is ejected. Nevertheless, when thoroughly
+aroused, the reptile is enabled to constantly hurl a secretion, since
+both rage and hunger swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate
+to extraordinary activity--a fortuitous circumstance to which many an
+unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The removal of a fang,
+however, affects its gland to a degree that it becomes almost
+inoperative, until such a time as a new tooth is grown, and again
+calls it into action, which is commonly but a few weeks at most; and a
+person purchasing a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it
+has been rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth
+lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered permanently
+harmless, however, by first removing the fang, and then cauterizing
+the duct by means of a needle or wire, heated to redness; when for
+experimental purposes the gland may be stimulated, and the virus drawn
+off by means of a fine-pointed syringe.
+
+In what the venom consists more than has already been described, we
+are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure to air in small
+scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol, slightly reddens
+litmus paper, and long retains its noxious properties. It has no acrid
+or burning taste, and but little if any odor; the tongue pronounces it
+inoffensive, and the mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof
+against it, and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities
+without deleterious result--all the poison that could be extracted
+from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was
+powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when poured into its
+open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless to solve the enigma of its
+action, and the microscope to detect its presence, but pathology is at
+fault to explain the reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know
+is that when introduced even in most minute quantities into an open
+wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the stream of life
+paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity. Without test or
+antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical empiricism, necessarily
+attended with no little injury in the search for specifics, and it may
+be reasonably asserted that no substance can be named so inert and
+worthless as not to have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to
+have been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor and
+adherents even among the most enlightened of the medical profession,
+who have rung all the changes of the therapeutical gamut from
+serpentaria[3] and boneset to guaco, cimicifugia, and _Aristolochia
+India_ to curare, alum, chalk, and mercury to arsenic; and in the way
+of surgical dressings and appliances everything from poultices of
+human fæces,[4] burying the part bitten in fresh earth,[5] or
+thrusting the member or entire person into the entrails of living
+animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa.
+
+  [Footnote 3: Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed
+  antidotal properties, and guaco and _Aristolochia India_ enjoyed
+  widely heralded but rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias
+  for a season. Tanjore pill (black pepper and arsenic) is still
+  extensively lauded in districts whose serpents possess little
+  vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.]
+
+  [Footnote 4: A Chinese remedy--as might be imagined.]
+
+  [Footnote 5: Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan,
+  the latter in Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is
+  cooling and soothing, and the other slightly provocative of
+  perspiration in the part, are not altogether devoid of
+  plausibility.]
+
+Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently attended with
+fatal results, such are not necessarily invariable. There are times
+and seasons when all reptiles are sluggish and inactive, and when they
+inflict comparatively trifling injuries; and the poison is much less
+virulent at certain periods than others--during chilling weather for
+instance, or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing sustenance.
+Young and small serpents, too, are less virile than large and more
+aged specimens, and it has likewise been observed that death is more
+apt to follow when the poison is received at the beginning or during
+the continuance of the heated term.
+
+The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its effects are
+manifested almost immediately after inoculation, being at once
+conveyed by the circulatory system to the great nervous centers of the
+body, resulting in rapid paralysis of such organs as are supplied with
+motive power from these sources; its physiological and toxicological
+realizations being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied
+near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary or
+the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate experiences,
+perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning pain in the member
+lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo, nausea, retching, fainting,
+coldness, and collapse; the part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or
+spotted over its surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately,
+extend to the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to
+effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by
+coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving,
+attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles, whose integrity
+is so essential to life, causing them to adhere to one another, and to
+the walls of the vessels by which they are conveyed; being no longer
+able to traverse the capillaries, oedema is produced, followed by the
+peculiar livid blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive
+perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he caused the
+ghost to describe to Hamlet
+
+  "The leprous distillment whose effect
+   Bears such an enmity to the blood of man
+   That swift as quicksilver, it courses through
+   The natural gates and alleys of the body
+   And with sudden vigor it doth posset
+   And curd like eager droppings into milk,
+   The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine
+   And a most instant tetter marked about
+   Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust
+   All my smooth body."
+
+It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major portion of
+the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed to produce a fatal
+result, since death may supervene long before such a consummation can
+be realized. It is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly,
+since the very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk
+vessels afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly dissolved
+and disorganized condition of the blood that may occur secondarily, we
+have evidences in the passive hæmorrhages that attack those that have
+recovered from the immediate effects of serpent poisoning, following
+or coincident with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with
+scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs, nose, and
+bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial wounds, or all
+together, defying all styptics and hæmastatics. In a case occurring
+under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in the Illinois General
+Hospital,[6] blood flowed from the gums in great profusion, and on
+examination was found destitute, even under the microscope, of the
+faintest indications of fibrine--the principle upon which coagulation
+depends. The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations,
+indicative of decomposition, producing serious illness in those
+exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may add, among
+other sequelæ, aside from death produced through primary and secondary
+effects, paralysis, loss of nerve power, impotence, hæmorrhage, even
+mortification or gangrene.
+
+  [Footnote 6: _Medical Independent_, 1855.]
+
+The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles of
+respiration through reflex influence of par vagum and great
+sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation is impeded, are
+among the earliest of phenomena. Breathing becoming retarded and
+laborious, the necessary supply of oxygen is no longer received, and
+blood still venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is
+returned through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain
+are gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both venom
+and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the attending train of
+symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness, rapidly passes into stupor
+followed by profound coma and ultimate dissolution--marked evidence of
+the fact that a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical
+disease; and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing save the
+general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as already noted.
+
+Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into consideration,
+the hope of the person thus poisoned rests solely upon lack of
+vitality in the serpent and its venom, and in his personal
+idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition of health, etc., and the
+varied chapters of accidents. _To look for a specific, in any sense of
+the word, is the utmost folly!_ The action of the poison and its train
+of results follow inoculation in too swift succession to be overtaken
+and counteracted by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible
+product, even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence of this
+in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest approach to a perfect
+antidote that can be secured by mortal skill, inasmuch, if quickly
+injected into the circulation, it retards and restrains the
+disorganizing process whereby the continuity of the blood corpuscles
+is lost; moreover, it is a marked antiseptic, favors the production of
+adhesive inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about
+the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison rendered less
+diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded that shall restore the
+pristine form, functions, and energy of the disorganized globules, man
+arrogates to himself supernal attributes whereby it becomes possible
+not only to save and renew, _but to create life_; and we can scarce
+expect science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival Nature
+and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws. Such, however, is
+the natural outcropping of an ignorant teaching and vulgar prejudice
+that feeds and clothes the charlatan and ascribes to savage and
+uncultured races an occult familiarity with pathological,
+physiological, and remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced
+sciences; and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander,
+and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and their
+antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more than a quarter of a
+century's standing, and amounting to several thousand pounds, is
+offered by the East India Government for the discovery of a specific
+for the bite of the cobra, and for which no claims have ever been
+advanced; and the "snake charmers" or jugglers in whom this superior
+knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the futility of
+specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected, that few venture
+to ply their calling without a broad-bladed, keen-edged knife
+concealed about the person as a means of instant amputation in case of
+accident. Medical and scientific associations of various classes, in
+Europe, Australia, America, even Africa, and the East and West Indies,
+have repeatedly held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in
+exhaustive and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the
+wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general horde of
+venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the saliva of man, as well as
+certain other secretions, is at times so modified by anger as to rival
+the venom of the serpent in fatality, and it has no specific; and a
+careful analysis of the pathological relations of such poison proves
+that further experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the
+pursuit of the "philosopher's stone."
+
+It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals whose
+natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them to be inoculated by the
+most venomous of reptiles without deleterious or unpleasant results,
+and Colonel Matthews Taylor[7] knew several persons of this character
+in India, and who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with
+nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito. Again,
+in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate of Melbourne,
+Australia,[8] met with untimely death under circumstances that
+attracted no little attention. An itinerant vender of nostrums had on
+exhibition a number of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself
+to be successively bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of
+a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round figure.
+Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and his wares valuable only
+as a means of depleting the pockets of the credulous, Mr. Drummond
+loudly asserted the inefficacy of the nostrum, as well as the
+innocuousness of the reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally
+harmless, or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in
+proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this experiment
+the charlatan was extremely averse, offering strenuous objections, and
+finally conveyed a point blank refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands
+becoming more imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed
+the audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he finally
+consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate a tiger snake,
+which he deemed least dangerous, and which instantly struck the
+gentleman in the wrist. The usual symptoms of serpent poisoning
+rapidly manifested themselves, followed by swelling and lividity of
+the part, obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in
+spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of
+physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently conceded
+the worthless character of his nostrum, declaring that be enjoyed
+exemption from the effects of of serpent poison by virtue of recovery
+from a severe inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew
+"some people who were born so," who put him "up to this dodge" as a
+means of gaining a livelihood.
+
+  [Footnote 7: _Vide_ report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.]
+
+  [Footnote 8: London _Times_.]
+
+It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital, is
+acquired _in utero_ by the inoculation of the parent, and Oliver
+Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of "Elsie Venner" embodies many
+interesting features in this connection. Admitting such inoculation
+may secure immunity, recent experiments in the action of this as well
+as kindred poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal
+or even common, but as depending upon occult physiological or
+accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his father are
+equally proof against the contagion and inoculation of vaccination and
+variola, in spite of repeated attempts to secure both, while their
+respective mothers suffered terribly with smallpox at periods
+subsequent to the birth of their children; and it is well understood
+that there are striking analogies between the poisons of certain
+contagious fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one
+attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character. In other
+words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological ones of
+smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping cough, etc., have the power of
+so modifying the animal economy, when it does not succumb to their
+primary influence, as to ever after render it all but proof against
+them. Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in
+certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and who after
+a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer producing pain or
+swelling.
+
+Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and the septic
+ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers, they are not
+necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting to note that one
+Doctor Humboldt in 1852,[9] in an essay read before the Royal Academy
+of Medical Sciences at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and
+advocated the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic of
+the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated numberless persons
+in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom,
+thereby securing them perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from
+the extraordinary nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor
+affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent sufficient to
+produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit over the whole, and
+proofs were demanded and promised. This was the last of the subject,
+however, which soon passed into oblivion, though whether from failure
+on the part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from the
+inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine, though the
+presumption is largely in favor of the former. Nevertheless, it is
+worthy of consideration and exhaustive experimentation, since it is no
+less plausible than the theory which rendered the name of Jenner
+famous.
+
+  [Footnote 9: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are strong
+reasons for believing would be attended with happy results, the sole
+remedies available in serpent poisoning are measures looking to the
+prompt cutting off of the circulation of the affected part, and the
+direct stimulation of the heart's action and the respiratory organs,
+until such a time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical
+evidences; and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic
+stimulants are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining
+cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use is prolonged
+efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend rather to hasten a fatal
+result. They are devoid of the slightest antidotal properties, and in
+no way modify the activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so
+far from enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited, is
+far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled intellect.
+The reasons are obvious. Theoretically, for purely physiological and
+therapeutic reasons _amyl nitrite_ should be of incalculable value,
+though I have no knowledge of its use in this connection, since its
+vapor when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action,
+and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached in its control
+of spasmodically contracted vessels and muscles. The relief its vapor
+affords in the collapse of chloroform anæsthesia, in which dissolution
+is imminent from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its
+effect upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia
+are equally prompt. Moreover, without further discussing its
+physiological functions, it is the nearest approach to an antidote to
+certain zymotic poisons, and especially valuable in warding off and
+aborting the action of the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or
+whooping cough. _Iodide of ethyl_ is another therapeutical measure
+that is worthy of consideration; and _iodoform_ in the treatment of
+the sequelæ incident to recovery.
+
+The native population of India, in spite of the contrary accepted
+opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums that lay claim to
+being antidotes. The person inoculated by the cobra is at once seized
+by his friends, and constant and violent exercise enforced, if
+necessary at the point of stick, and severe and cruel (but
+nevertheless truly merciful) beatings are often a result. In this we
+see a direct application, without in the least understanding them, of
+the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results, as for
+the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent poisoning
+almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor Spillsbury (Physician-General
+of Calcutta),[10] while stationed at Jubulpore, Central India, was
+informed late one evening that his favorite horse keeper had just been
+dangerously bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than
+ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in spite of the
+wails and protestations of the sufferer and his friends, with whom a
+fatal result was already a foregone conclusion, the doctor caused his
+wrists to be bound firmly and inextricably to the back of the vehicle;
+then assuring the man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be
+dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly away. Three
+hours later, or a little more, he returned, having covered nearly
+thirty miles without cessation or once drawing rein. The horse keeper
+was found bathed in profuse perspiration, and almost powerless from
+excessive fatigue. _Eau de luce_, an aromatic preparation of ammonia,
+was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a diffusible
+stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise enforced until near
+dawn, when the sufferer was found to be completely recovered.
+
+  [Footnote 10: London _Lancet_.]
+
+The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration, thereby
+securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging poison from the
+system, is well known; in no other way can action be had so thorough,
+speedy, and prompt. Captain Maxwell[11] tells us it was formerly the
+custom among the Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested
+unmistakable evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death of the
+unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds. In one instance,
+after undergoing this treatment, the supposed corpse was seen, to the
+horror and surprise of all who witnessed it, to crawl from between the
+bolsters, when he was found to be entirely free from his disorder; the
+beds, however, were saturated through and through with the
+perspiration that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal
+agony. More recently a French physician,[12] recognizing the incubatory
+stage of rabies in his own person, resolved upon suicide rather than
+undergo its attendant horrors. The hot bath was selected for the
+purpose, with a view of gradually increasing its temperature until
+syncope should be induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death.
+To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water rose, his
+sensations of distress improved; and the very means chosen for
+terminating life became instead his salvation, restoring to perfect
+health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood[13] relates that a blacksmith residing in
+the neighborhood of his country house was in high repute for miles
+about by reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply in
+forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid walk or trot for
+twenty miles or more, after which he administered copious draughts of
+a hot decoction of broom tops, as much for its moral effect as for its
+value in sustaining and prolonging established diaphoresis.
+
+  [Footnote 11: Wild Sports or the West.]
+
+  [Footnote 12: _L'Union Medicale_--name withheld by request of the
+  gentleman.]
+
+  [Footnote 13: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and serpent
+poisoning are by no means parallel, the _rationale_ of the methods
+employed in opening the emunctories of the skin are the same; and were
+it not for its powerful protracting effect and depressing action upon
+the heart, we might perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi
+(_pilocarpus_), since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as
+it is, more is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the
+latter. It would be desirable also to know what influence the Turkish
+bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at least of trial.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT.
+
+
+_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
+
+Given latitude N. 40° 51', declination N. 20° 25', sun 18° below the
+horizon. To find the time of twilight at that place. In the
+accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial, D D = parallel of
+declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O = the horizon, P = North
+pole, Z = zenith, and S = the sun, 18° below the horizon, H O,
+measured on a vertical circle. It is seen that we have here given us
+the three sides of a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49° 9',
+the co declination 69° 35', and the zenith distance 108°, with which
+to compute the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139° 16' 5.6".
+Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from noon to the
+beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in the given latitude and
+declination, the sun's center coincides with the horizon at sunset
+(allowance being made for refraction), at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from
+apparent noon. Then if we subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m.
+24.4 s., we shall have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight.
+But the real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has
+descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the sun's upper
+limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon. This takes place 7
+h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is hoped the above will be a sufficient
+answer to L.N. (See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.)
+
+B.W. H.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.
+
+
+The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has recently spoken
+before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and we extract from his
+discourse on "Fossil Man and Savages" some notes reported in the
+_Journal d'Hygiene_: "It is in Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and
+in Polynesia where I have looked for examples of savage races. I have
+scarcely spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the
+features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups which they at
+times touch, and which in turn frequently mingle with them. I have
+especially studied the Papuans and Negritos. The Papuans are an
+exclusively Pelasgic race, that many anthropologists consider as
+almost confined to New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it
+becomes more and more manifest that they have had also periods of
+expansion and of dissemination.
+
+"On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of Micronesia;
+on the other we have shown--M. Hamy and myself--that to them alone can
+be assigned the skulls found in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They
+have hence touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime
+world.
+
+"The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day confounded
+with the Papuans by some anthropologists, have spread to the west and
+northwest.
+
+"They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them yet in the
+Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay archipelago; they
+constitute the indigenous population of the Andaman Islands, in the
+Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have formerly occupied a great part of
+the two peninsulas of India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can
+follow their steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus
+to Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this race,
+whose representatives in the past have been the type of the Asiatic
+pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and whose _creoles_ were
+those Ethiopians, black and with smooth hair, who figured in the army
+of Xerxes.
+
+"I have devoted two long examinations to another black race much less
+important in numbers and in the extent of their domain, but which
+possess for the anthropologist a very peculiar interest and a sad one.
+It exists no more; its last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I
+refer to the Tasmanians.
+
+"The documents gathered by various English writers, and above all by
+Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual and moral character
+of the Tasmanians. The complete destruction of the Tasmanians,
+accomplished in at most 72 years over a territory measuring 4,400
+square leagues, raises a sorrowful and difficult question. Their
+extinction has been explained by the barbarity of the civilized
+Europeans, and which, often conspicuous, has never been more
+destructively present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians. But
+I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly do not wish to
+apologize for or extenuate the crimes of the convicts and colonists,
+against which the most vigorous protests have been raised both in
+England and in the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters
+have been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians.
+They have perished from that strange malady which Europeans have
+everywhere transplanted in the maritime world, and which strikes down
+the most flourishing populations.
+
+"Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil. But if it
+explains the increase of the death rate, it does not explain the
+diminution of births. Both these phenomena are apparent. Captain Juan
+has seen at the Marquesas, in the island of Taio-Hahe, the population
+fall in three years from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate,
+we find only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate
+populations rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the
+disappearance of the Tasmanians."
+
+The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia, speaks of
+his interest in the western representatives of these races and his
+special studies in New Zealand, and referring to the latter continues:
+
+"One of the most important results of the labors in this direction has
+been to establish the serious value of the historical songs preserved,
+among the Maoris, by the _Tohungus_, or _wise men_, who represent the
+_Aiepas_ of Tahiti. Thanks to these living archives, we have been able
+to reconstruct a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of
+the first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from
+their other centers of population, and to determine their point of
+departure."
+
+Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding. One is
+devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of the Nilgherie Hills, who
+by their physical, intellectual, and social characteristics differ
+from all the other races of India. "The Todas burn their dead, and we
+possess none of their skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived
+among them, I have been able to fill up this gap."
+
+The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns of Finland,
+whose study reveals the fact that they embrace two ethnic types, one
+of which, the _Tavastlanda_, belongs without doubt to the great
+Finnish family, spread over Asia as well as in Europe, and a second,
+the Karelien, whose representatives possessed the poetic instinct,
+which causes M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, "to whom
+we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas to the poems
+of to-day."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.
+
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Although so much has been written about Athens, there is one striking
+feature which has been little noticed. This is the beautiful colors of
+the Parthenon and Erectheum, the soft mellow yellow which is due to
+age, and which gives these buildings when lighted by the setting sun,
+and framed by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of
+gold.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Until A.D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect, and then not
+age but a shell from the Venetians falling upon Turkish powder, made a
+rent which, when seen from below, makes it look like two temples.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.]
+
+The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of the oldest of
+the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded in B.C. 469, and is a
+small, graceful, and perfect Doric temple. Having served as a
+Christian church, dedicated to St. George, it escaped injury. It
+contains the beautiful and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the
+warrior of Marathon.
+
+[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.]
+
+All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A.D. 132) are a
+few standing columns in an open space, which are imposing from their
+isolated position.
+
+[Illustration: OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.]
+
+The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been begun A.D. 110,
+and for a king in Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.]
+
+The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes about B.C.
+100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial, and a water clock. It is an
+octagonal building, with reliefs on the frieze, representing by
+appropriate figures the eight winds into which the Athenian compass
+was divided.
+
+[Illustration: THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.]
+
+In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing as they
+were found; each year shows many changes in Athens, a tomb last year
+in the Ceramicus may be this year in a museum. There is a great
+similarity in all these tombstones; no doubt they were made
+beforehand, as they seldom suggest the idea of a portrait. They
+generally represent an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends
+standing in the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the
+dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently a dog.
+
+[Illustration: ERECTEUM, ATHENS.]
+
+Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the groves of the
+Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was the road to Eleusis, and
+along which passed the annual sacred processions in the days of the
+Mysteries. Cut there in the rock are the niches for the votive
+offerings. This dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of
+mystery which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once
+observed there.
+
+[Illustration: NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO
+ELEUSIS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.]
+
+From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be seen the
+great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly above the site of
+ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort; the Turkish drawbridge and
+gate stand open and unused. There are on it remains of a Turkish town;
+at one time it was one of the strongest and most important citadels in
+Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched, straggling
+village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive columns. These are
+all that remain of the Temple, and indeed of ancient Corinth. The
+pillars, of the Doric order, are of a brown limestone, not of the
+country. The Turks and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and
+driven the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's
+drive from the Gulf.--_London Graphic_.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.]
+
+[Illustration: TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SPANISH FISHERIES.
+
+
+The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was large and well
+furnished, there being several characteristic models of vessels. No
+certain figures can be obtained of the results of the whole fishing
+industry of Spain. It is, however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a
+tonnage of 51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They gave
+occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons of fish. The
+Government interfere in the fishing industry only to the extent of
+collecting and distributing information to the fishermen on subjects
+that are most likely to be of use to them in their calling. In
+consequence, principally no doubt of this wise policy, we find in
+Spain a vigorous and self-reliant class of men engaged in the
+fisheries. Some of the most interesting features in the Spanish Court
+were the contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations,
+and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection of
+articles that would have formed a good basis in itself for an
+exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was the fishing industry of
+the nation better illustrated by private enterprise than in that of
+Spain. The fishing associations referred to are half benefit societies
+and half trading communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small
+pamphlet, from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members
+divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons or men in
+charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of directors, consisting of 22
+owners, and 24 masters of boats or ordinary fishermen, has the sole
+control of the affairs of the society. The meetings are presided over
+by a majordomo elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a
+boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend of 8,000
+reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest when expressed as 80_l_.
+He has two clerks, who are on the permanent staff, to help him. His
+duties are to keep the books with the assistance of the two clerks, to
+take charge of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make
+necessary payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower and
+guides boats entering the harbor. The _atalayero_ is an official of
+the society, whose duty it is to station himself on the heights and
+signal by means of smoke, to the boats at sea, the movements of
+schools of sardines and anchovies or probable changes of weather. It
+is also the duty of this officer to weigh all the bream caught from
+the 1st November to the 31st of March, for which he receives a
+"gratuity" of 100 pesetas, or say 4_l._, sterling. Two other señeros,
+or signalmen, are told off to keep all boats in port during bad
+weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances appear
+favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference of opinion between
+these experts as to the meteorological probabilities, the patrons, or
+skippers of the fishing-boats, are summoned in council and their
+opinion taken by "secret vote with black and white balls." The
+decision so arrived at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail
+should it be so decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the
+funds of the association. The boats carrying the señeros fly a color
+by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the other vessels.
+These señeros appear to be the Spanish equivalent to the English
+admiral of a trawling fleet.
+
+The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or two models of
+them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class boat will be of about
+the following dimensions: Length over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth
+(extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3 in.; depth (inside), 3 ft. 10 in. to 4
+ft. The keel is of oak 6 in. by 3œ in. The stem and stern posts are
+also of oak. The planking is generally of oak or walnut--the latter
+preferred--and is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 4œ in.
+Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the water line and
+Norway pine above.
+
+The fastenings are galvanized nails 4œ in. long. The mast-partners and
+all the thwarts are of oak 1œ in. thick and 8 in. wide; the latter are
+fastened in with iron knees. Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut,
+or chestnut; the rudder extends 3œ ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and,
+in giving lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust
+down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two lags, the
+smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat; the mainmast being
+amidships. The lug sails are set on long yards, the fair-weather rig
+consisting of a fore lug with 120 square yards, and a main lug of 200
+square yards. There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted
+for the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner similar
+to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce canvas. The fair
+weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and 36 ft. long, and yards 28
+ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively. The oars are 16 ft. long, and are
+pulled double-banked. Such a boat will cost 90_l._ to 100_l._ fitted for
+sea, of which sum the hull will represent rather more than half. These
+vessels generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three to
+four in the morning until the same time in the evening. Tunny, merluza
+(a species of cod), and bream are the principal fish taken. The
+first-named are caught by hook and line operated by means of poles
+rigged out from the boat much in the same way, apparently, as we drail
+for mackerel on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used
+for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off the land
+and run back before the prevailing wind, until they are about nine
+miles from the shore or until they lose the fish. When the fisherman
+gets a bite the wind is spilled out of the sail so as to deaden the
+boat's way. The fish is then got alongside, promptly gaffed, and got
+on board. Tunny sells for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito.
+The season extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the
+winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are caught by
+hook and line in two ways. The first is worth describing. A line 50
+fathoms long has bent to it snoods with hooks attached, 16 in. apart.
+Each man handles three lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line,
+to the end of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until
+soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the operation
+repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away freely, and this
+goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard. When, by the lively and
+continuous jerking of the line, the fisherman concludes that he has a
+good number of fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare
+to shoot again.
+
+The second method of taking the bream is by long lining; fifty of the
+lines we have just described being bent together and duly anchored and
+buoyed. Spaniards do not much care for this way of fishing, as it is
+costly in bait and the gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells
+at about 3œd. a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of
+the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh the price
+is about 6_d._ per lb. A small quantity is preserved in tins. Anchovy or
+cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes the two are placed on one hook.
+
+A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially
+for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine weather they often
+engage in the same fishery as the larger boats. The traineras are
+light and shapely vessels, with a graceful sheer and curved stem and
+stern posts. The keel is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has
+considerable hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length, 38
+feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2 feet 6
+inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are much the same as in
+the larger boats, excepting that there are only four shifts in place
+of six. The largest main lug has an area of about 90 square yards and
+the fore lug about 50 square yards. The other sails for heavier
+weather are naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are
+respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of one of
+these boats and gear is about £122, made up as follows: Hull, £32;
+sails, gear, and oars, £30; nets and gear attached, £60. The season
+for anchovy fishing commences on the 1st of March and ends 30th of
+June; it begins again on the 15th of September, and continues until
+the end of the year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9
+miles from the land, although they often come in much closer.
+Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some are used
+for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are put on the land
+for manure. The greater part are, however, preserved in barrels or
+tins, and are exported to France or England.
+
+The net used in the capture of anchovies is called _traina_ or _copo_.
+It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of the United
+States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as are many of the
+nets, which, in American waters, will inclose a whole school of
+mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms long. The depth is 7 to 10
+fathoms, and the mesh Ÿ inch. Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of
+July and lasts until December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles
+off shore. The price of sardines on the coast is about 2œd. per pound.
+When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the traina in
+the same way as anchovies, a net of œ-inch mesh being used. Sardines
+are also taken by gill nets about 200 feet long and 18 feet wide. When
+used in the daytime the fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the
+liver of cod. When the sardines have been attracted to the
+neighborhood of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The
+fish in their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These
+nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no bait is
+used.
+
+A third class of boats of much the same character are of about the
+following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet; beam, 7 feet 6
+inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The two
+lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards of canvas respectively. They
+are used for sardine catching, when they will carry a crew of four
+men, or for taking conger and cod, in which case they will be manned
+by eight hands.
+
+Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull, £15; gear and
+sail, £10; nets and lines, £13; about £40. The conger season extends
+from March to June, and from October to November. The fish are taken
+by hook and line; sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is
+taken by a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait.
+
+There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may be noticed the
+_bateler_, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16 ft. long, about 5œ
+ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed by one man, set a good
+spread of canvas, and are fast and handy. They are used for taking a
+species of cuttlefish which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and
+line, the fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they
+rush, when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a small
+well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive. None of the
+boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast. They have flat
+hollow floors, and set a large area of of canvas on a shallow draught.
+Lobster fishing is pursued in much the same manner as in England, but
+often four or five miles from land, and in very deep water.
+
+One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was a
+full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole cut in the
+bottom amidships. Through this hole was let down a glass frame in
+which was placed a powerful paraffine lamp. The object of this was to
+attract the fish. It is said that tunny will be drawn from a distance
+of over a hundred yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be
+enticed into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light
+in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving
+operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the
+direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night by a lamp
+to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK.
+
+
+Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and desolate spot
+imaginable during this weather. The frigid monotony of winter has
+settled down upon that region, and now it is haunted only by sea fowl.
+The bleak, barren promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean
+of its summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across it,
+and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the great breakers
+hurled against the narrow sand spit which makes the eastern terminus
+of the island. The tall, white towered light and its black lantern,
+now writhing in frosty northern blizzards, and again shivering in
+easterly gales, now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas
+all about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only
+habitation worthy of the name for many miles around. Keeper Clark and
+his family and assistants are almost perpetually fenced in from the
+outside world by the cold weather, and have to hug closely the roaring
+fires that protect them in that desolation.
+
+But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family would die of
+inanition. With the cold weather comes the ducks, and they continue to
+come till the warmer blasts of spring drive them to the northward.
+Montauk Point is a favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a
+good feeding ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather
+shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the point is
+being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and the reports of their
+successes increase the applicants for lodgings at the light. Some 20
+gunners were out there last week with the most improved paraphernalia
+for the sport, and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite
+method of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the
+point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory
+birds in passing south seem to have it down in their log-book that
+they must not only sight this structure, but must also fly over it as
+nearly as possible. Hence the variety and extent of the flocks which
+are continually passing is a matter of interest and wonder to a
+student of natural history as well as to the sportsman. Coots,
+whistlers, soft bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild
+geese, and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this long and
+strange procession, and the air is frequently so densely packed with
+them as to be actually darkened, while the keen, whistling music of
+their whizzing wings makes a melody that comparatively few landsmen
+ever hear. Millions of the birds never hesitate at this point in their
+flight, although thousands of them do. These latter make the
+neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter. Great flocks
+of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged shores, and the
+frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond Bay, lying to the westward, are
+their favorite feeding-grounds. The birds are always as fat as butter
+when making their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to
+their being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting
+operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it the heads
+of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point this winter.
+
+Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak the
+flights are heavy, and from that time until seven o'clock in the
+morning they increase until it seems as though all the flocks which
+had spent the night in the caves and ponds on the Connecticut shore
+were on the wing and away for the south. By ten o'clock in the
+forenoon the flights grow rarer, and the rest of the day only
+stragglers come along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these
+birds easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand
+the inclemency of the weather.
+
+Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has dawned for two
+months but that several of the poor birds have been picked up at the
+foot of the light house tower with the broken necks which have mutely
+told the story of death, reached by plunging headlong against the
+crystal walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before. There
+is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the wing at night to
+fly very high. But the great, glaring, piercing, single eye of Montauk
+light seems to draw into it by dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet,
+its feathered victims, and they swerve in their course and make
+straight for it. As they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of
+course, grows brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what
+appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy glass, and
+they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked for the oven.
+Inside the lantern the thud made by these birds when they strike is
+readily felt. Although they are comparatively small, yet so great is
+their velocity that the impact creates a perceptible jar, and the
+lantern is disfigured with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and
+foggy nights the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When
+the weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins,
+sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about the
+light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished in
+the morning. Large cranes show themselves to be almost dangerous
+visitors. Recently one of these weighing 40 pounds struck the wrought
+iron guard railing about the lantern with such force as to bend the
+iron slats and to completely sever his long neck from his body.--_N.Y.
+Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HORNBEAMS.
+
+
+The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the temperate
+regions of the northern hemisphere. There are nine species known to
+botanists, most of them being middle-sized trees. In addition to those
+mentioned below, figures of which are herewith given, there are four
+species from Japan and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet
+seem to have found their way to this country; these five are therefore
+omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly
+deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English name is quaintly
+explained by Gerard in his "Herbal" as follows: "The wood," he says,
+"in time, waxeth so hard, that the toughness and hardness of it may be
+rather compared to horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called
+horne-beam or hardbeam."
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.]
+
+_Carpinus Betulus_,[1] the common hornbeam, as is the case with so
+many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits considerable
+variation in habit, and also in foliage characters. Some of the more
+striking of these, those which have received names in nurseries, etc.,
+and are propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are
+described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe from
+Gothland southward, and extends also into West Asia. Although
+apparently an undoubted native in the southern counties of England, it
+appears to have no claim to be considered indigenous as far as the
+northern counties are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it
+occurs in Ireland.
+
+  [Footnote 1: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon,
+  "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl.
+  of Trees and Shrubs, 917. Boswell Syme, "English Botany," vol.
+  viii., p. 176, tab. 1293; Koch, "Dendrologie," zweit. theil.
+  zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, "Student's Flora of the British
+  Islands," ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host., "Flora Austriaca,"
+  ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic. fl. Germ. et
+  Helvet., xxii. fig. 1297.]
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS AMERICANA.]
+
+Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for this reason,
+during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in high repute for the
+formation of the "close alleys," "covert alleys," or the
+"thick-pleached alleys," frequently mentioned in Shakespeare and in
+the works of other authors about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth
+century the topiary art had reached its highest point of development,
+and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the hornbeam--and
+indeed almost every other tree--was cut and tortured into every
+imaginable shape. The "picturesque style," however, soon drove the
+topiarist and his art out of the field, yet even now places still
+remain in England where the old and once much-belauded fashion still
+exists on a large scale--a fact by no means to be deplored from an
+archæological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam hedges
+are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old English mansions, and in
+some old country farmhouses the sixteenth century craze is still
+perpetuated on a smaller scale.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.]
+
+Sir J.E. Smith, in his "English Flora," after enumerating the virtues
+of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his opinion that "when
+standing by itself and allowed to take its natural form, the hornbeam
+makes a much more handsome tree than most people are aware of." Those
+who are familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley Park
+and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming Sir J.E. Smith's
+statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park, from Pembroke Lodge
+toward the Ham Gate, will recur to many Southerners as a good instance
+of the fitness of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question
+there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and agreeable shade
+during the summer months.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS VIMINEA.]
+
+In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily, except
+exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky hillsides it does not
+grow so freely as on clayey plains. Under the latter conditions,
+however, the wood is not so good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam
+occupies a zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely
+ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not injured by
+frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing the edges of the beech
+forests along the bottom of the valleys where the beech would suffer.
+Scarcely any tree coppices more vigorously or makes more useful
+pollards on dry grass land.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.]
+
+On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam is employed
+in engineering work for cogs in machinery. When subjected to vertical
+pressure it cannot be completely destroyed; its fibers, instead of
+breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its
+flexibility and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's "Timber
+and Timber Trees"). According to the same recent authority, the
+vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average 14.844 tons,
+while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons.
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.]
+
+A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity of hornbeam
+wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed to procure it in
+England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining a supply from France,
+where large quantities of this timber are used for that purpose. It
+may be interesting to state that in England at any rate lasts are no
+longer made to any extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous
+numbers by machinery. In France _sabots_ are also made of hornbeam
+wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render it less
+valuable for _sabotage_ than beech. For turnery generally, cabinet
+making, and also for agricultural implements, etc., this wood is
+highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing districts, viz., Côte
+d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the wine barrels are largely made from this
+tree. It makes the best fuel and it is preferred to every other for
+apartments, as it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns
+equally, continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat.
+"Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland it is
+preferred to most others, not only for forges and for cooking by, but
+for making gunpowder, the workmen at the great gunpowder manufactory
+at Berne rarely using any other. The inner bark, according to Linnæus,
+is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the sun, are used
+in France as fodder; and when wanted for use in water, the young
+branches are cut off in the middle of summer, between the first and
+second growth, and strewed or spread out in some place which is
+completely sheltered from the rain to dry without the tree being in
+the slightest degree injured by the operation." (Dict. des Eaux et
+Forêts, art. Charme, as quoted by London).
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.]
+
+It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the hornbeam as a
+hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it is largely used for these
+purposes, the russet-brown leaves remaining on the twigs until
+displaced by the new growths in spring.
+
+_Var. incisa_ (Aiton, "Hortus Kewensis," v., 301; C. asplenifolia,
+Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).--These three names represent two forms,
+which are, however, so near each other, that for all practical
+purposes they are identical. A glance at the accompanying figure will
+show how distinct and ornamental this variety is.
+
+[Illustration: HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).]
+
+_Var. quercifolia_ (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus. d'hist.
+nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla,
+Hort.)--This form, as will be seen by the figure, is thoroughly
+distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very much smaller leaves
+than the type, their outline, as implied by the varietal name,
+resembling that of the foliage of the oak. It frequently reverts to
+the type, and, as far as my experience goes, appears to be much less
+fixed than the variety incisa.
+
+_Var. purpurea_ (Hort.).--The young leaves of this are brownish red;
+it is well worth growing for the pleasing color effect produced by the
+young growths in spring. Apart from color it does not differ from the
+type.
+
+_Var. fastigiata_ (Hort.).--In this variety the branches are more
+ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed, among the
+hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate varieties of the
+common oak.
+
+_Var. variegata_, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata
+(albo-marmorata).--These names represent forms differing so slightly
+from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them separately,
+or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that I have seen is the
+variegation at all striking, and, except in tree collections,
+variegated hornbeams are hardly worth growing.
+
+[Illustration: FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER. CARPINUS BETULUS (Full
+grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).]
+
+_Carpinus orientalis_[2] (the Oriental hornbeam) principally differs
+from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser leaves with
+downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated bractlets. It is a
+native of the south of Europe, whence it extends to the Caucasus, and
+probably also to China; the Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely
+seems to differ, in any material point at any rate, from western
+examples of C. orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to
+this country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that it
+is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth growing; the
+short twiggy branches, densely clothed with dark green leaves, form a
+thoroughly efficient screen. The plant bears cutting quite as well as
+the common hornbeam, and wherever the latter will grow this will also
+succeed. In that very interesting compilation, "Hortus Collinsonianus,"
+the following memorandum occurs: "The Eastern hornbeam was raised from
+seed sent me from Persia, procured by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the
+Czarina. Received it August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year
+(1752) the hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England.
+Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into the gardens of the
+curious. At the same time, from the same source, were raised a new
+acacia, a quince, and a bermudiana, the former very different from any
+in our gardens." This memorandum was probably written from recollection
+long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the species was first
+entered in the catalogue as follows: "Azad, arbor persica carpinus
+folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from seed, anno 1747; not in England
+before." It appears, however, from Rand's "Index" that there was a
+plant of it in the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given
+by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at Duino. As,
+however, Miller had previously described it under the name orientalis,
+that one is adopted in accordance with the rule of priority, by which
+must be decided all such questions in nomenclature.
+
+  [Footnote 2: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus orientalis. Miller,
+  "Gardener's Dictionary," ed. 6 1771; La Marck, Dict, i., 107;
+  Watson, "Dendrologia Britannica," ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl.
+  Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore, "Flora Neapolitana,"
+  v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014, Encycl.
+  Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, "Dendrologie." zweit, theil zweit,
+  abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, "Flora Carniolica," 2 ed.,
+  ii., 243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, "Flora Italica," x., 233; Alph. De
+  Candolle in Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.]
+
+_The American Hornbeam_ [3] also known under the names of blue beech,
+water beech, and iron wood, although a less tree than our native
+species, which it resembles a good deal in size of foliage and general
+aspect, is nevertheless a most desirable one for the park or pleasure
+ground, on account of the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves
+in autumn. Emerson, in his "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," pays a
+just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He says: "The
+crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors, mingling into a
+rich purplish red, as seen at a distance, make it rank in splendor
+almost with the tupelo and the scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated,
+and should have a corner in every collection of trees." It has
+pointed, ovate oblong, sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves.
+The acute bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly
+cut-toothed on one side. Professor C.S. Sargent, in his catalogue of
+the "Forest Trees-of North America," gives the distribution, etc., of
+the American hornbeam as follows: "Northern Nova Scotia and New
+Brunswick, through the valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers,
+along the northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and
+Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling that of
+ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north generally a shrub or small tree,
+but becoming, in the Southern Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50
+feet in height, with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter." It will
+almost grow in any soil or exposition in this country.
+
+  [Footnote 3: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinius caroliniana, Walter,
+  "Flora Caroliniana," 236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer.,
+  ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des. Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique
+  Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson, "Dendrologia
+  Britannica," ii., 157; Gray, "Manual of the Botany of the Northern
+  United States," p. 457.]
+
+_Carpinus viminea_[4] is a rather striking species with long-pointed
+leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a sufficiently clear
+representation of their long, tail-like prolongations. Judging from
+the height at which it grows, it would probably prove hardy in this
+country, and, if so, the distinct aspect and graceful habit of the
+tree would render it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized
+tree, with thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The
+blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches in
+length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long. It is a
+native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of from 5000 to 7000
+feet above sea-level. As in our common hornbeam, the male catkins
+appear before the leaves, and the female flowers develop in spring at
+the same time as the leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood--a cubic
+foot of which weighs 50 lb.--is used for ordinary building purposes by
+the natives of Nepaul.
+
+  [Footnote 4: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall.
+  Plant. Asiat. Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D.C. Prodr., xvi., ii.,
+  127. Loudon, "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," iii., p. 2014;
+  Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 919. Brandis, "Forest Flora,"
+  492.]
+
+GEORGE NICHOLSON.
+Royal Gardens, Kew.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.
+
+
+The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather uncommon, we
+have taken the opportunity of illustrating one of three sent to us a
+fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies, South Lytchett, who says: "The fruits
+are from a large plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a
+wall with an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet
+wide. The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from time to
+time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have raised
+seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety worth sending
+out or naming."
+
+In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural size. Its
+appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard, and has a glazed
+appearance like that of porcelain. The color is pale green, except on
+the exposed side, which is dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and
+on the day after we received it the furrows opened and exposed three
+or four large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp.--_The
+Garden._
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult, owing to
+the necessity of guessing at the successive figures which form the
+divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing the _exact_ quotient
+is required, the following method will be found convenient:
+
+_Rule for division_.
+
+_First._ Treat the divisor as follows:
+
+  If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left
+  as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat the
+  product as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by 5, and
+  treat the product as a divisor.
+
+Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable.
+Call the result the _prepared divisor_.
+
+_Second._ From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure: and, if
+this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it to a 9;
+otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the _extraneous
+multiplier_.
+
+Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus truncated,
+and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous multiplier be 7,
+when increase the product by 5. Call the result the _current
+multiplier_.
+
+_Third._ Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all the
+multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor. Use
+the product to multiply the dividend, calling the result the _prepared
+dividend_.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure, multiply
+this by the current multiplier, and add the product to the truncated
+dividend. Call the sum the _modified dividend_, and treat this in the
+same way. Continue this process until a modified dividend is reached
+which equals the original prepared dividend or some previous modified
+dividend; so that, were the process continued, the same figures would
+recur.
+
+_Fifth._ Consider the series of last figures which have been
+successively cut off from the prepared dividend and from the modified
+dividends as constituting a number, the figure first cut off being in
+the units' place, the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this
+the _first infinite number_, because its left-hand portion consists of
+a series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left.
+Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in the
+repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in that the same
+series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely toward the right
+into the decimal places.
+
+Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and shift the
+decimal point as many places to the left as there were zeros dropped
+in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor.
+
+The result is the quotient sought.
+
+_Examples._
+
+1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by 365.
+
+_First._ The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied by 2,
+giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared divisor.
+
+_Second._ The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3, this is the
+extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated divisor, 7, by the
+extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we have 22 for the current
+multiplier.
+
+_Third._ The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the product
+of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier used in
+preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is the prepared dividend.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the last
+figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22. The
+product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129, and gives 1305
+for the first modified divisor. The whole operation is shown thus:
+
+                   1 8 8 3
+                         6
+                   -------
+                 1 1 2 9|8
+                   1 7 6 -
+                   -----
+                 1 3 0|5
+                 1 1 0 -
+                 -----
+                 2|4 0
+               8 8 ---
+               ---
+              |9 0
+           -----
+           1 9|8
+         1 7 6 -
+         -----
+         1 9|5
+       1 1 0 -
+       -----
+       1 2|9
+     1 9 8 -
+     -----
+     2|1 0
+   2 2 ---
+   2 4
+
+We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified dividend,
+written under the form 240 above. Our two infinite numbers (which need
+not in practice be written down) are, with their difference:
+
+          .        .
+          10,958,904,058      .      .
+          10,958,904,109.5890410958904
+          ----------------------------
+                              .      .
+                      51.5890410958904
+                                .      .
+Hence the quotient sought is 5.158904109.
+
+_Example 2._ Find the reciprocal of 333667.
+
+The whole work is here given:
+
+      3 3 3 6 6|7                    |7
+    2 3 3 5 6 7 -         1 6 3 4 9 6|9
+                        2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                        -------------
+                        2 2 6 5 5 9|9
+                      2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                      -------------
+                      2 3 2 8 6 6|2
+                      4 6 7 1 3 4 -
+                      -----------
+                      7 0 0 0 0 0
+
+            .       .
+_Answer_, 0.000002997.
+
+_Example 3._ Find the reciprocal of 41.
+
+_Solution._--
+
+                    4|1                 |9
+                    -----              -----
+                    3 7|9              3 3|3
+                        -            1 1 1 -
+                                     -----
+                                     1 4|4
+                                   1 4 8 -
+                                   -----
+                                   1 6|2
+                                   7 4 -
+                                   ---
+                                   9 0
+            .   .
+_Answer_, 0.02439.
+
+C.S. PEIRCE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+Those who can perform in that most necessary of all mathematical
+operations, simple addition, any great number of successive examples
+or any single extensive example without consciousness of a severe
+mental strain, followed by corresponding mental fatigue, are
+exceptions to a general rule. These troubles are due to the quantity
+and complexity of the matter with which the mind has to be occupied at
+the same time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of
+numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions
+that must be borne in memory, and the "carrying" is a further
+complication. The strain and consequent weariness are not only felt,
+but seen, in the mistakes in addition that they cause. They are, in
+great part, the tax exacted of us by our decimal system of arithmetic.
+Were only quantities of the same value, in any one column, to be
+added, our memory would be burdened with nothing more than the
+succession of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples of two,
+three, or four, if the counting is by groups.
+
+It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing addition
+to counting similar quantities is by the binary arithmetic of
+Leibnitz, which appears in an altered dress, with most of the zero
+signs suppressed, in the example below. Opposite each number in the
+usual figures is here set the same according to a scheme in which the
+signs of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a very
+small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express any fourth
+power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow 0, any square not a
+fourth power; a curve upward and to the right, like a phonographic
+_l_, any double fourth power; and a curve to the right and downward,
+like a phonographic _r_, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical
+bar to denote the absence of three successive powers not fourth
+powers. Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example
+slightly below the middle, is 2^{16} (represented by a degree-mark in
+the fifth row of these marks, counting from the right) plus 2^{17} +
+2^{9} (two _l_-curves in the fifth and third places of _l_-curves)
+plus 2^{18} + 2^{14} + 2^{6} (three loops) plus 2^{19} (the _r_-curve
+at the extreme left); while the absence of 2^{3}, 2^{2}, and 2^{1} is
+shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent expression
+may be verified, if desired, either by adding the designated powers of
+two from 524,288 down to 64, or by successive multiplications by two,
+adding one when necessary. The form of characters here exhibited was
+thought to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and
+considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic value by
+actual additions.
+
+In order to add them, the object for which these forty numbers are
+here presented in two notations, it is not necessary to know just
+_why_ the figures on the right are equal to those on the left, or to
+know anything more than the order in which the different forms are to
+be taken, and the fact that any one has twice the value of one in the
+column next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made from
+the printed page, first covering over the answer with a paper held
+fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures of the new answer as
+successively obtained. The fingers will be found a great assistance,
+especially if one of each hand be used, to point off similar marks in
+twos, or threes, or fours--as many together as can be certainly
+comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it can be
+done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The eye can catch the
+marks for even powers more easily in going up and those for odd powers
+(the _l_ and _r_ curves) in going down the columns. Beginning at the
+lower right hand corner, we count the right hand column of small
+circles, or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in number.
+Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one of these marks has
+therefore to be entered as part of the answer, and eleven carried to
+the next column, the first one of _l_-curves. But since the curves are
+most advantageously added downward, it is best, when the first column
+is finished, simply to remember the remainder from it, and not to set
+down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition of the
+second column, when the remainders, if any, from both columns can be
+set down together. In this case, starting with the eleven carried and
+counting the number of the _l_-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom
+with twenty-four--twelve to carry, and nothing to set down except the
+degree mark from the first column. With the twelve we go up the
+adjoining loop column, and the sum must be even, as this place is
+vacant in the answer; the _r_-curve column next, downward, and then
+another row of degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this
+time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme left, is
+added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by successive halvings. Here
+we seem to have eleven; hence we enter one loop, and carry five to the
+next place, which, it must be remembered, is of _r_-curves. Halving
+five we express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and
+carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving again gives
+one in the next place, that of _l_-curves; and the work is complete.
+
+It is recommended that this work be gone over several times for
+practice, until the appearance and order of the characters and the
+details of the method become familiar; that, when the work can be done
+mechanically and without hesitation, the time occupied in a complete
+addition of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully
+noted; that this be done several times, with an interval of some days
+between the trials, and the result of each trial kept separate; that
+the time and mistakes by the ordinary figures in the same example, in
+several trials, be observed for comparison. Please pay particular
+attention to the difference in the kind of work required by the two
+methods in its bearing on two questions--which of them would be easier
+to work by for hours together, supposing both equally well learned?
+and in which of them could a reasonable degree of skill be more
+readily acquired by a beginner? The answer to these questions, if the
+comparison be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their high
+importance.
+
+_Example in addition by two notations_
+
+   77,823,876
+   14,348,907
+    8,654,912
+    5,764,801
+    4,635,857
+    1,594,323
+    6,417,728
+    4,782,969
+   83,886,075
+   34,012,224
+    2,903,111
+   48,828,125
+    1,724,826
+    7,529,536
+   43,344,817
+   10,000,000
+    8,334,712
+    1,953,125
+   11,308,417
+      759,375
+   21,180,840
+    9,765,625
+   18,643,788
+    1,000,000
+   44,739,243
+    1,889,568
+    2,517,471
+   40,353,607
+    4,438,414
+    1,679,616
+   23,708,715
+   11,890,625
+      945,754
+      823,543
+   15,308,805
+   60,466,176
+   30,685,377
+   10,077,696
+   19,416,381
+   43,046,721
+  ===========
+  740,685,681
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already been
+submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical skill. One of them
+took but a few seconds over two minutes, in the best of six trials, to
+add by the usual figures, and set down the sum, but one figure in all
+the six additions being wrong; another added once in ten minutes
+fifty-seven seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with
+half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer had had
+very little training in arithmetical work, but perhaps that gave a
+fairer comparison. In the binary figures she made three additions in
+between seven and eight minutes, with but one place wrong in the
+three. With four of the observers the binary notation required nearly
+double the time. These observers were all well practiced in
+computation. Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds, was
+made by one whose best record was two minutes forty seconds in
+ordinary figures. The author's own best results were two minutes
+thirty-eight seconds binary, and three minutes twenty-three seconds
+usual. He thus proved himself inferior to the last observer, as an
+adder, by a system in which both were equally well trained; but a
+greater familiarity (extending over a few weeks instead of a few
+hours) with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice as
+fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the usual figures,
+four were wrong in one figure each; of his thirty-two additions by
+different forms of binary notation, five were wrong, one of them in
+two places. One observer found that he required one minute
+thirty-three seconds to add a single column (average of five tried) by
+the usual figures, and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one
+(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions were
+rather slow, the results are interesting. They show, making allowance
+for the greater number of columns (three and a third times as many)
+required by the binary plan, a saving of nearly half; but they also
+illustrate the necessity of practice. This observer succeeded with the
+binary arithmetic by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly
+embarrass the beginner, by contenting himself with counting only, and
+not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar character, or
+to recognize the mark by which he must distinguish his next column.
+One well-known member of the Washington Philosophical Society and of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science, who declined
+the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his probable time
+with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with strong chances of a
+wrong result, after all.
+
+These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons who can do
+faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning. But too much
+should not be made of them. Let them serve as specimens of facts of
+which a great many more are to be desired, bearing on a question of
+grave importance. Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by
+impartial tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the
+system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a blessing
+enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced by greater
+complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated by a
+correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing with figures, the former
+may be the case. If, on the contrary, a little practice suffices to
+turn the balance of rapidity, for all but a small body of highly
+drilled experts, in favor of an easier system, the latter must be.
+This is the question that the readers of _Science_ are invited to help
+in deciding. The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the
+prevalent system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but they do
+not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment alone can give,
+whether or not the cost of that system is unreasonably high; nor
+should they prevent those who accord them the fullest recognition from
+assisting to furnish the necessary facts.
+
+Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the plan proposed
+or on any better plan, or who will submit it to such acquaintances,
+skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded to take the trouble to learn
+the mechanism of binary adding, will confer a great favor by informing
+the writer of the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each
+addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the subject
+will be most gratefully received.
+
+Henry Farquhar.
+
+Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C.
+
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+Scientific American Supplement, January 26, 1884</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, 
+January 26, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,  January 26, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
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+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online
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+</pre>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" alt="" /></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">I.</td><td><a href="#art23">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Furcot's Six Horse Power
+Steam Engine.&mdash;With several figures.</a></td><td>6714</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art01">Foot Lathes.&mdash;With engraving.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art02">Endless Trough Conveyer.&mdash;2 engravings.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art03">Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art04">English Express Trains.&mdash;Average speed, long runs, etc.</a></td><td>6715</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art05">Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the
+Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">II.</td><td><a href="#art06">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;An English Adaptation of the American Oil
+Mill.&mdash;Description of the apparatus, and of the old and
+new processes.&mdash;Several engravings.</a></td><td>6716</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art07">Large Blue Prints.&mdash;By W.B. Parsons, Jr.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">III.</td><td><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY, ETC.&mdash;Electrical Apparatus for Measuring
+and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.&mdash;With
+descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different
+machines.</a></td><td>6711</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art09">A New Oxide of Copper Battery.&mdash;By F. De Lalande and S.
+Chaperon.&mdash;With description and three illustrations.</a></td><td>6714</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">IV.</td><td><a href="#art10">MATHEMATICS, ETC.&mdash;To Find the Time of Twilight.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td><td>6720</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art11">A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic.</a></td><td>6725</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art12">Experiments in Binary Arithmetic.</a></td><td>6726</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">V.</td><td><a href="#art13">ARCH&AElig;OLOGY.&mdash;Grecian Antiquities.&mdash;With engravings of the
+Monument of Philopappus.&mdash;Tomb from the Ceramicus.&mdash;Tower
+of the winds.&mdash;The Acropolis.&mdash;Old Corinth.&mdash;Temple of
+Jupiter.&mdash;The Parthenon.&mdash;Temple of Theseus, etc.</a></td><td>6721</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VI.</td><td><a href="#art14">NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.&mdash;Poisonous Serpents and
+their Venom.&mdash;By Dr. Archie Stockwell.&mdash;A serpent's mouth,
+fangs, and poison gland.&mdash;Manner of attack.&mdash;Nature of
+the venom.&mdash;Action of venom.&mdash;Remedies.</a></td><td>6719</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art15">Ethnological Notes.&mdash;Papuans.&mdash;Negritos.</a></td><td>6720</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VII.</td><td><a href="#art16">HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.&mdash;The Hornbeams.&mdash;Uses to
+which the tree is put.&mdash;Wood for manufactures.&mdash;For
+fuel.&mdash;Different varieties.&mdash;With engravings of the tree
+as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc.</a></td><td>6724</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art17">Fruit of Camellia Japonica.&mdash;1 engraving.</a></td><td>6725</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VIII.</td><td><a href="#art18">MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.&mdash;House Drainage and Refuse.
+Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.&mdash;Treating
+of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and
+houses.&mdash;Conditions to observe in house drains, etc.</a></td><td>6717</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art19">Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation.</a></td><td>6718</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art20">Convenient Vaults.</a></td><td>6719</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">IX.</td><td><a href="#art21">MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;Spanish Fisheries.&mdash;Noticeable objects
+in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition.</a></td><td>6722</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td><a href="#art22">Duck Shooting at Montauk.</a></td><td>6723</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a><a name="Page_6712" id="Page_6712"></a>ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND
+FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH EXHIBITION.</h2>
+
+<p>Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics
+were quite numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity,
+and very naturally a large number was to be seen there that
+presented little difference with present models. Several of
+them, however, merit citation. Among the galvanometers,
+we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by Prof.
+Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us
+of that of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that
+its inventor had combined in it a series of arrangements that
+permitted of varying its sensitiveness within very wide
+limits. This apparatus, which Prof. Zenger calls a &quot;Universal
+Rheometer&quot; (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin whose interior
+is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not
+meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two
+terminals. This internal shell is capable of serving for currents
+of quantity, and, when the two terminals are united by
+a wire, it may serve as a deadener. Above this copper shell
+there are two identical coils of wire which may, according
+to circumstances, be coupled in tension or in series, or be
+employed differentially. Reading is performed either by the
+aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror,
+which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral
+scale, R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be
+slid toward the galvanometer. This magnet is capable of
+rendering the needle less sensitive or of making it astatic.
+In order to facilitate this operation, the magnet carries at its
+extremity a tube which contains a bar of soft iron that may
+be moved slightly so as to vary the length of the magnet.
+Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier. It
+will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the
+apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and,
+according to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a
+dozen galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and
+permits of measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to
+1/50000000 an ampere. The apparatus may even be employed
+for measuring magnetic forces, as it constitutes a very sensitive
+magnetometer.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1b.png" alt="FIG. 1.&mdash;.ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 1.&mdash;.ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.</p>
+
+
+<p>Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a &quot;Universal
+Electrometer&quot; (Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as
+an electrometric needle was of magnetized steel suspended
+by a cotton thread. In this instrument, a silver wire, <i>t</i>,
+terminating in a ball, is fixed to a support, C, hanging from
+a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case of the apparatus.
+It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body near the
+disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The sensitiveness
+of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like
+that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may
+be slid up and down its support, permits of the instrument
+being used as a condensing electrometer, by giving it, according
+to the distance of the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness.
+One constructor who furnished much to this
+part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of Munich,
+whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among
+them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer
+(Fig. 4), in which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced
+by two connected cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder
+formed of four parts; a Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses
+with scale for reading measuring instruments (Fig.
+3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations, of Lamont
+(Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the Wiedemann
+galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations
+(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball
+opens one current at a time at the moment it leaves the
+electro-magnet and when it reaches the foot of the support,
+these two breakages producing two induction sparks that
+exactly limit the length to be taken in order to measure the
+time upon the tracing of the chronoscope tuning-fork; an
+absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8) for
+absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two
+vertical steel wires stretched from <i>o</i> to <i>u</i>, and which is rendered
+complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second
+and fixed helix, so that an electro-dynamometer may be made
+of it; and, finally, a galvanometer for strong currents, having
+a horseshoe magnet pivoted upon a vertically divided
+column which is traversed by the current, and a plug that
+may be arranged at different heights between the two parts
+of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive
+(Fig. 9).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1c.png" alt="FIG. 2.&mdash;ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER." /><br /> FIG. 2.&mdash;ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.</p>
+
+<p>We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann
+of Wurtzburg, which comprised a series of apparatus of the
+same class as those that we have just enumerated&mdash;spyglasses
+for the reading of apparatus, galvanometers, magnetometers,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/1d.png"><img src="./images/1d_th.png" alt="FIG. 3.&mdash;EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN." /></a><br /> FIG. 3.&mdash;EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.</p>
+
+<p>Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr.
+<a name="Page_6713" id="Page_6713"></a>Kohlrausch for measuring resistances by means of induction
+currents, and a whole series of accessory instruments.</p>
+
+<p>Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be
+mentioned Prof. Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic
+balance. In this, two iron cylinders are suspended
+from the extremities of a balance. One of them is of solid
+iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of larger diameter
+and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them
+enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current
+be passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted;
+but if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow
+cylinder will be attracted. If the change in the current's
+intensity occur gradually, there will be a moment in which
+the cylinders will remain in equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1e.png" alt="FIG. 4.&mdash;EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER." /><br /> FIG. 4.&mdash;EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally
+cite is an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the
+position of the observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of
+the spot changes accordingly, and errors are liable to result
+therefrom. Besides, because of the non-parallelism of the
+luminous rays, each of the two surfaces is not lighted equally,
+and hence again there may occur divergences. In order to
+avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives his apparatus
+(Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is contained in
+a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures, light
+from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring
+tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As
+for the screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three
+vertical windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon
+its paper. Over one of the halves of these parts a solution
+of stearine is passed. To operate with the apparatus, in
+comparing two lights, the central spot is first brought to invisibility,
+and the distances of the sources are measured. A
+second determination is at once made by causing one of the
+two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results
+is then taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding
+to 3/100 of a candle between the illumination of
+the two neighboring windows, in the given conditions of the
+apparatus, the error is thus limited to a half of this value, or
+2 per cent. of that of one candle.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1f.png" alt="FIG. 5.&mdash;WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC VARIATIONS." /><br /> FIG. 5.&mdash;WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC VARIATIONS.</p>
+
+<p>Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture
+courses, we remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for
+demonstrating the constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in
+which eight magnetized needles, carrying mica disks painted
+half white and half black, move under the influence of the
+currents that are traversing the solenoid, or of magnets that
+are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus of the
+same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in
+which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the
+external surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are
+plainly visible to spectators at a distance.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1g.png" alt="FIG. 6.&mdash;ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS." /><br /> FIG. 6.&mdash;ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating
+the principle of the Gramme machine. A circular
+magnet, AA', is inserted into a bobbin, B, divided into two
+parts, and moves under the influence of a disk, L, actuated
+by a winch, M. This system permits of studying the currents
+developed in each portion of the bobbin during the
+revolution of the ring (Fig. 12).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/1h.png" alt="FIG. 7.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER." /><br /> FIG. 7.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.</p>
+
+<p>To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition
+we shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering
+thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and
+shall then say a few words concerning two types of registering
+apparatus&mdash;Mr. Harlacher's water-current register and
+Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/2a.png" alt="FIG. 8.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 8.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying
+the deep currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by
+a long, vertical, hollow rod which is plunged into the river.
+A cord that passes over a pulley, P, allows of the apparatus,
+properly so called, being let down to a certain depth in the
+water. What is registered is the velocity of the vanes that
+are set in action by the current, and to effect such registry
+each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an
+electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached
+to the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit
+that includes a pile and a registering apparatus that is seen
+at L, outside of the box in which it is usually inclosed. In
+certain cases, a bell whose sound indicates the velocity of the
+current to the ear is substituted for the registering apparatus.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/2b.png" alt="FIG. 9.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS." /><br /> FIG. 9.&mdash;WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in
+which the mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting
+rod is likewise in this type utilized as a current conductor.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/2c.png" alt="FIG. 10.&mdash;ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER." /><br /> FIG. 10.&mdash;ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.</p>
+
+<p>It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's
+chronograph. This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for
+determining the duration of combustion of different powders,
+the velocity of projectiles, etc. The registering drum, T, is
+revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the time is inscribed
+thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion
+by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the
+curves corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork
+and the registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed
+upon a regulatable support, C, by means of which they may
+be given any position desired.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/2d.png" alt="FIG. 11.&mdash;VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING" /><br /> FIG. 11.&mdash;VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING
+THE CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.</p>
+
+<p>The style, <i>c</i>, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second
+in order to facilitate the reading. The style, <i>b</i>, of the electro-magnet,
+H, registers the beginning and end of the phenomena
+that are being studied.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/2e.png" alt="FIG. 12.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE" /><br /> FIG. 12.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF THE GRAMME MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications
+may thus be obtained upon the drum by means of induction
+sparks jumping between the style and the surface of the
+cylinder. To the left of the figure is seen the apparatus
+constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for experimenting on the
+duration of combustion of bomb fuses.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/2f.png"><img src="./images/2f_th.png" alt="FIG. 13.&mdash;VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING" /></a><br /> FIG. 13.&mdash;VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the
+contact, K, opens a current which supports the heavy
+armature, P, of an electro-magnet, M. This weight, P, falls
+upon the rod, <i>d</i>, and inflames the fuse, Z, at that very instant.
+At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H, inscribes
+a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the
+extremity of the fuse explodes.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/2g.png"><img src="./images/2g_th.png" alt="FIG. 14.&mdash;VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING THERMOMETROGRAPH." /></a><br /> FIG. 14.&mdash;VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING THERMOMETROGRAPH.</p>
+
+<p>This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the
+drum must be revolved by hand, and it would certainly be
+more convenient could it be put in movement at different
+velocities by means of a clockwork movement that would
+merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired moment.
+As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and, although
+it has already been employed in Germany for some
+time, it will be called upon to render still more extensive
+services.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" alt="FIG. 15.&mdash;HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS." /></a><br /> FIG. 15.&mdash;HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS.</p>
+
+<p>We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of
+precision that were comprised in the Munich Exhibition.
+In general, it may be said that this class of instruments was
+very well represented there as regards numbers, and, on another
+hand, the manufacturers are to be congratulated for
+the care bestowed on their construction.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/3b.png"><img src="./images/3b_th.png" alt="FIG. 16.&mdash;HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS." /></a><br /> FIG. 16.&mdash;HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP CURRENTS IN RIVERS.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/3c.png"><img src="./images/3c_th.png" alt="FIG. 17.&mdash;VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH." /></a><br /> FIG. 17.&mdash;VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>COPPER VOLTAMETER.</h2>
+
+<p>Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has
+made some experiments upon the disturbing influences on
+the correct indications of a copper voltameter. He investigated
+the effects of the intensity of the current, the distance
+apart of the plates, and their preparation before weighing.
+The main conclusion which he arrives at is this: That in
+order that the deposit should be proportional to the intensity
+of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven ampères
+per square decimeter of area of the cathode.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor
+Osborne Reynolds says these have a great advantage
+over shafts, for the stress on the section will be uniform, the
+velocity will be uniform, and may be at least ten to fifteen
+times as great as with shafts&mdash;say 100 ft. per second; the
+rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at distances
+500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will not
+be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a><a name="Page_6714" id="Page_6714"></a>A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY.</h2>
+
+<h3>By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON.</h3>
+
+<p>We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a
+single liquid and with a solid depolarizing element by
+associating oxide of copper, caustic potash, and zinc.</p>
+
+<p>This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing
+electrodes are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough
+to keep it in contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper
+constituting the positive pole of the element.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom
+of a glass jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing
+oxide of copper, B. To this box is attached a copper
+wire insulated from the zinc by a piece of India rubber
+tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this metal
+coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a
+cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the
+zinc; an India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place
+where it dips into the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away
+at this level.</p>
+
+<p>The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per
+cent. of potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a
+Callaud element, with this difference&mdash;that the depolarizing
+element is solid and insoluble.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4a.png" alt="FIG. 1." /><br /> FIG. 1.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the
+potash, we inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid
+state necessary for an element in the box which receives the
+oxide of copper, and furnish it with a cover supported by a
+ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then for working the battery
+to open the box of potash, to place it at the bottom of the
+jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then pour in
+the copper oxide inclosed in a bag.</p>
+
+<p>We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently
+into blocks. Among the various means which might be
+employed, we prefer the following:</p>
+
+<p>We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium
+in the form of paste so as to convert the whole into a
+thick mass, which we introduce into metal boxes.</p>
+
+<p>The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action
+of heat, and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with
+the quantity of cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4b.png" alt="FIG. 2." /><br /> FIG. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V,
+is provided with a cover of copper, E, screwing into
+the glass. This cover carries two vertical plates of sheet-iron,
+A, A', against which are fixed the prismatic blocks,
+B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal, C,
+carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc
+is formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to
+the center of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded
+back upon this tube so as to make an air-tight joint.</p>
+
+<p>The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a
+split India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve.</p>
+
+<p>The closing is made hermetical by means of an India
+rubber tube, K, which presses against the glass and the cover.
+The potash to charge the element is in pieces, and is
+contained either in the glass jar itself or in a separate box of
+sheet-iron.</p>
+
+<p>Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically
+sealed elements with a single plate of a very small size.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper,
+which are not attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to
+easily construct elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 3." /><br /> FIG. 3.</p>
+
+<p>The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of
+iron plate brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters
+long by 20 centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high.</p>
+
+<p>We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and
+place in the four corners porcelain insulators, L, which
+support a horizontal plate of zinc, D, D', raised at one end
+and kept at a distance from the oxide of copper and from
+the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters of this is filled with
+a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M, fixed respectively
+to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach the
+leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the
+carbonic acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we
+cover it with a thin layer of heavy petroleum (a substance
+uninflammable and without smell), or better still, we furnish
+the battery with a cover. These elements are easily packed
+so as to occupy little space.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may
+be varied infinitely, but point out the principal properties
+of the oxide of copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a
+battery with a solid depolarizing element, the new battery
+presents the advantage of only consuming its element, in
+proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc and copper are,
+in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is, therefore,
+durable.</p>
+
+<p>Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal
+
+resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4
+of an ohm for polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated
+by a distance of five centimeters.</p>
+
+<p>The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small
+cells shown in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short
+circuit; the large one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these
+elements can replace a large Bunsen cell. They are remarkably
+constant. We may say that with a depolarizing surface
+double that of the zinc the battery will work without
+notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted,
+even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation
+of the products, the change of the alkali into an
+alkaline salt of zinc, does not perceptibly vary the internal
+resistance. This great constancy is chiefly due to the
+progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode to the state
+of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity
+and its depolarizing power.</p>
+
+<p>The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an
+excellent battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at
+first better conductivity than oxide of copper, but this
+property is lost by reduction and transformation into lower
+oxides. It follows that the copper battery will give a very
+large quantity of electricity working through low resistances,
+while under these conditions manganese batteries are rapidly
+polarized.</p>
+
+<p>The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash
+battery is very great, and far superior to that stored by an
+accumulator of the same weight, but the rendering is much
+less rapid. Potash may be employed in concentrated solution
+at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can dissolve the
+oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than one-third
+of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to
+be employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of
+zinc which enters into action. These data allow of the
+reduction of the necessary substances to a very small relative
+weight.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results
+in their application to telephones. For theatrical purposes
+the same battery may be employed during the whole performance,
+instead of four or five batteries. Their durability is
+considerable; three elements will work continuously, night
+and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than four
+months without sensible loss of power.</p>
+
+<p>Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low
+resistances, and can be worked at any moment, after several
+months, for example. It is only necessary to protect them
+by a cover from the action of the carbonic acid of the
+atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding
+its price and its higher equivalent, because it does
+not produce, like soda, creeping salts. Various modes of
+regeneration render this battery very economical. The deposited
+copper absorbs oxygen pretty readily by simple exposure
+to damp air, and can be used again. An oxidizing
+flame produces the same result very rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator,
+that is to say, by passing a current through it in the
+opposite direction, we restore the various products to their
+original condition; the copper absorbs oxygen, and the alkali
+is restored, while the zinc is deposited; but the spongy state
+of the deposited zinc necessitates its being submitted to a
+process, or to its being received upon a mercury support.
+Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a
+waste product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced,
+loses nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery;
+the depolarization may therefore be considered as
+costing scarcely anything. The oxide of copper battery is a
+durable and valuable battery, which by its special properties
+seems likely to replace advantageously in a great number
+of applications the batteries at present in use.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<p>This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr.
+E. D. Farcot for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine,
+consists of a cast iron bed frame, A, upon which are mounted
+all the parts. The two jacketed, cylinders, B and C, of
+different diameters, each contains a simple-acting piston.
+The two pistons are connected by one rod in common, which
+is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in slides,
+E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The
+head of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter
+which embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H.</p>
+
+<p>The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J,
+which is provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected
+with a governor placed upon the large cylinder. The steam,
+as shown in Fig. 2 (which represents the piston at one end
+of its travel), is first admitted against the right surface of the
+small piston, which it causes to effect an entire stroke corresponding
+to a half-revolution of the fly-wheel. The stroke
+completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an eccentric keyed
+to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the cylinders,
+B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and
+drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second
+half of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs
+through the valve chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the
+large cylinder in connection with the eduction port, M.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of air included between the two pistons is
+displaced at every stroke, so that, according to the position
+occupied by the pistons, it is held either by the large or
+small cylinder. The necessary result of this is that a compression
+of the air, and consequently a resistance, is brought
+about. In order to obviate this inconvenience, the constructor
+has connected the space between the two pistons at the
+part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being alternately
+driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of
+relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant
+resistance.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><a href="./images/4d.png"><img src="./images/4d_th.png" alt="FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE." /></a></div>
+<p class="ind">
+FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE.<br />
+Fig. 1.&mdash;Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br />
+Fig. 2.&mdash;Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br />
+Fig. 3.&mdash;Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br />
+Fig. 4.&mdash;Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br />
+Fig. 5.&mdash;Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).<br /></p>
+
+<p>As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a
+variable expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a
+<a name="Page_6715" id="Page_6715"></a>single acting one, a single valve-plate suffices. This latter
+is, during its travel, arrested at one end by a stop and at
+the other by a cam actuated by the governor. Upon the axis
+of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel, with an endless
+screw, which permits of regulating it by hand.</p>
+
+<p>This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes,
+makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs
+2,000 kilogrammes.&mdash;<i>Annales Industrielles</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>FOOT LATHES.</h2>
+
+<p>We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia
+Manufacturing Company, of Colchester, and specially designed
+for use on board ships. These lathes, says <i>Engineering</i>,
+are treble geared, in order that work which cannot usually
+be done without steam power may be accomplished by
+foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or plate,
+or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work
+than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6
+inch centers, gaps 7œ inches wide and 6œ inches deep,
+beds 4 feet 6 inches long by 8Ÿ inches on the face and 6
+inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There are three speeds
+on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches in diameter
+and 1œ inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch
+pitch and 1œ inches wide on face. The steel leading screw
+is 1œ inches in diameter by Œ inch pitch. Smaller sizes are
+made for torpedo boats and for places where space is
+limited.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src="./images/5a_th.png" alt="LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD." /></a><br /> LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/5b.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications
+of link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain
+belt carried over a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate
+space a truck on which the train runs. This chain or belt
+is provided with pans which, as they overlap, form an endless
+trough. Power being applied to revolve one of the
+wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once
+becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying
+engraving illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of
+the pans are removed, to show the construction of the links;
+and above this a link and coupler are shown on a larger
+scale. As will be seen, the link is provided with wings, to
+form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted to it. To
+reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as
+will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof
+conveyer which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln
+to crusher, and convey coal, broken stone, or other gritty and
+
+coarse material. The Link Belt Machinery Company, of
+Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E. Coffin, of Muirkirk,
+Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to carry
+the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about
+one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with
+the barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower
+becomes a faithful servant, ready for work in all
+weather and at all times of day or night. This company
+also manufactures ore elevators of any capacity, which,
+used in connection with this apparatus, will handle perfectly
+anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might
+be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment.
+Although comparatively new in this country, the American
+<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> says it has been in successful
+operation for some time in England, the English manufacturers
+of link-belting having had great success with it.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/5c.png"><img src="./images/5c_th.png" alt="ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER." /></a><br /> ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES.</h2>
+
+<p>On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is
+30 feet to the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the
+mile going east and south. Next for easy grades comes the
+New York Central and Hudson River road. From New
+York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk, till it
+gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the
+time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its
+connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the &quot;Nickel
+Plate,&quot; the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the
+Canada Southern and Michigan Central.</p>
+
+<p>The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio
+roads pass through a country so mountainous that, much as
+they have expended to improve their grades, it is practically
+impossible for them to attain the easy grades so much more
+readily obtained by the trunk lines following the great
+natural waterways originally extending almost from Chicago
+to New York.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS.</h2>
+
+<p>The <i>Journal of the Statistical Society</i> for September contains
+an elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on &quot;English
+Express Trains; their Average Speed, etc. with Notes on
+Gradients, Long Runs, etc.&quot; The author takes great pains
+to explain his definition of the term &quot;express trains,&quot; which
+he finally classifies thus: (a) The general rule; those which
+run under ordinary conditions, and attain a journey-speed
+of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the
+whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional
+difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed
+as low as 36 or 37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole.
+(c) Trains which should come under (a), but which, through
+unusually long stoppages or similar causes, only reach a
+journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per cent.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a> of the
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>He next explains that by &quot;running average&quot; is meant:
+The average speed per hour while actually in motion from
+platform to platform, <i>i.e.</i>, the average speed obtained by
+deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up) Great Northern
+&quot;Scotchman&quot; stops 49 minutes on its journey from Edinburgh
+
+to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in
+actual motion; its &quot;running average&quot; is therefore 48 miles
+an hour, or, briefly, &quot;r.a.=48.&quot; The statement for this
+train will thus appear: Distance in miles between Edinburgh
+and King's Cross, 392œ; time, 9 h. 0 m.; journey-speed,
+43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances
+of the express trains of the leading English and
+Scottish railways&mdash;in Ireland there are no trains which come
+under his definition of &quot;express&quot;&mdash;giving the times of
+journey, the journey-speeds, minutes stopped on way, and
+running averages, with the gradients and other circumstances
+bearing on these performances. He sums up the
+results for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="7"><col align="right" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" /><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th>Extent<br />of System<br /> in Miles.</th><th>&nbsp;</th><th colspan="2">Distinct<br />Expresses.</th><th>Average<br />Journey-speed.</th><th>Running<br />Average.</th><th>Express<br />Mileage.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>1773</td><td>North-Western</td>
+<td>54<br />28</td><td valign="middle"><span style="font-size: xx-large;">}</span>82</td><td>40</td><td>43</td><td>10,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1260</td><td>Midland</td><td>66</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>45</td><td>8,860</td></tr>
+<tr><td>928</td><td>Great Northern</td>
+<td>48<br />19</td><td valign="middle"><span style="font-size: xx-large;">}</span>67</td><td>43</td><td>46</td><td>6,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td>907</td><td>Great Eastern</td><td>34</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>3,040</td></tr>
+<tr><td>2267</td><td>Great Western</td><td>18</td><td></td><td>42</td><td>46</td><td>2,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1519</td><td>North-Eastern</td><td>19</td><td></td><td>40</td><td>43</td><td>2,110</td></tr>
+<tr><td>290</td><td>Manch., Sheffield, and Lincoln</td><td>49</td><td></td><td>43</td><td>44</td><td>2,318</td></tr>
+<tr><td>767</td><td>Caledonian</td><td>16</td><td></td><td>40</td><td>42</td><td>1,155</td></tr>
+<tr><td>435</td><td>Brighton</td><td>13</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>41</td><td>1,155</td></tr>
+<tr><td>382</td><td>South-Eastern</td><td>12</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>41</td><td>940</td></tr>
+<tr><td>329</td><td>Glasgow and South-Western</td><td>8</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>920</td></tr>
+<tr><td>796</td><td>London and South-Western</td><td>3</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>44</td><td>890</td></tr>
+<tr><td>984</td><td>North British</td><td>11</td><td></td><td>39</td><td>41</td><td>830</td></tr>
+<tr><td>153</td><td>Chatham and Dover</td><td>9</td><td></td><td>42</td><td>43</td><td>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>407</td><td></td><td>41</td><td>44</td><td>42,683</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed
+is 41.6, and which run 42,680 miles at an average &quot;running
+average&quot; of 44.3 miles per hour.</p>
+
+<p>If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead
+of their mileage, the order is:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4"  summary="">
+<colgroup span="3"><col align="left" /><col span="2" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th align="center">Average<br />r.a.</th><th>Miles</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Northern.</td><td>46</td><td>6,780</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Western.</td><td>46</td><td><a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>2</sup></a>2,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Midland.</td><td>45</td><td>8,860</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln</td><td>44</td><td>2,318</td></tr>
+<tr><td>London and South-Western.</td><td>44</td><td>890</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North-Western.</td><td>43</td><td>10,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Glasgow and South-Western.</td><td>43</td><td>920</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Eastern.</td><td>43</td><td>3,040</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North-Eastern.</td><td>43</td><td>2,110</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chatham and Dover.</td><td>43</td><td>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Caledonian.</td><td>42</td><td>1,155</td></tr>
+<tr><td>South-Eastern.</td><td>41</td><td>940</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brighton.</td><td>41</td><td>1,155</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North British.</td><td>31</td><td>825</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF
+GRADIENTS, ETC.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<ul>
+<li>North British,</li>
+<li>Caledonian,</li>
+<li>Manch., Sheffield &amp; Lincoln,</li>
+<li>Midland,</li>
+<li>Glasgow and South-Western,</li>
+<li>Chatham and Dover,</li>
+<li>South-Eastern,</li>
+<li>Great Northern,</li>
+<li>South-Western,</li>
+<li>Great Eastern,</li>
+<li>Brighton,</li>
+<li>North-Western,</li>
+<li>North-Eastern,</li>
+<li>Great Western.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table cellpadding="4" summary="Run, Num of Trains, Average Speed(Miles), Running Average(Miles)" border="1">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="4" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>Number<br />of Trains.</th><th>Average<br />Speed.<br />Miles.</th><th colspan="2">Running<br />Averages.<br />Miles.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Midland.</td><td>104</td><td>53</td><td>46</td><td>(5,512)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North-Western.</td><td>98</td><td>60</td><td>45</td><td>(5,880)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Northern.</td><td>49</td><td>73</td><td>50</td><td>(3,616)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Western.</td><td>24</td><td>56</td><td>48</td><td>(1,344)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Eastern.</td><td>24</td><td>56</td><td>42</td><td>(1,362)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brighton.</td><td>23</td><td>45</td><td>42</td><td>(1,047)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North-Eastern.</td><td>20</td><td>56</td><td>44</td><td>(1,120)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>South-Western.</td><td>13</td><td>47</td><td>44</td><td>(615)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>South-Eastern.</td><td>12</td><td>66</td><td>42</td><td>(795)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chatham and Dover.</td><td>8</td><td>63</td><td>45</td><td>(504)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Caledonian.</td><td>8</td><td>59</td><td>45</td><td>(476)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Glasgow and South-Western</td><td>8</td><td>58</td><td>44</td><td>(468)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln.</td><td>8</td><td>48</td><td>43</td><td>(390)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>North British.</td><td>7</td><td>60</td><td>40</td><td>(423)</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind">Total.</span></td><td>406</td><td>58</td><td>45</td><td>(23,550)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>From this it will be seen that the three great companies
+run 61 per cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per
+cent. of the whole number of long runs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage, of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>IMPROVED OIL MILL.</h2>
+
+<p>The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by
+mechanical means have during the last few years undergone
+a complete revolution. By the old process, the seed, having
+been flattened between a pair of stones, was afterward
+ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as much as
+20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute.
+Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken
+to a kettle or steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated,
+and thence drawn&mdash;in quantities sufficient for a cake&mdash;in
+woollen bags, which were placed in a hydraulic press. From
+four to six bags was the utmost that could be got into the
+press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between wrappers
+of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a
+good deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable
+expense in the frequent replacing of the horsehair
+wrappers, each of which involved a cost of about £4. The
+<a name="Page_6716" id="Page_6716"></a>modern requirements of trade have in every branch of industry
+ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the slow,
+easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition
+was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements,
+almost at every turn, more effectually and at greatly increased
+speed, complete manufacturing operations previously
+performed by hand, and oil-seed crushing machinery has
+been no exception to the general rule. The illustrations we
+give represent the latest developments in improved oil-mill
+machinery introduced by Rose, Downs &amp; Thompson, named
+the &quot;Colonial&quot; mill, and recently we had an opportunity
+of inspecting the machinery complete before shipment to
+Calcutta, where it is being sent for the approaching exhibition.
+As compared with the old system of oil-seed crushing,
+Messrs. Rose, Downs &amp; Thompson claim for their method,
+among other advantages, a great saving in driving power,
+economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an
+improved branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in
+the labor employed in the press-room, with also a great
+saving in wear and tear, while the process is equally applicable
+to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or similar seeds.
+In addition to these improvements in the system, the &quot;Colonial&quot;
+mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement
+to meet the requirements of exporters. The
+machinery and engine are self-contained on an iron foundation,
+so that there is no need of skilled mechanics to erect
+the mill, nor of expensive stone foundations, while the
+building covering the mill can, if desired, be of the lightest
+possible description, as no wall support is required. The mill
+consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler,
+3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 1œ in. high, with three cross tubes
+7œ in. diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake
+9 in. diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood
+fuel is used extra grate area can be provided. This boiler
+supplies the steam not only for the engine, but also for
+heating and damping the seed in the kettle. The engine is
+vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke, with high
+speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of the
+mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about
+30 ft. long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various
+machines, which, when the top is leveled, can be fixed in
+their respective places by any intelligent man, and when
+the machines are in position they form a support for the
+shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden bin,
+placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll
+frame has four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter,
+so arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings,
+with patent pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are
+driven by fast and loose pulleys by the shaft above. After
+the last rolling the seed falls through an opening in the
+foundation plate in a screen driven from the bottom roll
+shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a set
+of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle.
+This kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in.
+deep, is made of cast iron and of specially strong construction.
+There is only one steam joint in it, and to reduce the
+liability of leakage this joint is faced in a lathe. The inside
+furnishings of the kettle are a damping apparatus with perforated
+boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and delivery plate, and
+patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a wood frame
+and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron sheeting.
+The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required
+temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped
+by a jet of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with
+indicating plate. When the required temperature has been
+obtained, the seed is withdrawn by a measuring box through
+a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom, and evenly distributed
+over a strip of bagging supported on a steel tray
+in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes
+a compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be
+taken in by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction
+of the oil. The seed leaves the moulding machine
+in the form of a thick cake from nine to eleven pounds in
+weight, and each press is constructed to take in twelve of
+these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in. diameter
+and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of construction
+and even distribution of strain throughout the
+press, all the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed
+and turned accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take
+the columns, in the place of being cast, as is sometimes
+usual, with fitting strips top and bottom, are solid throughout,
+and are planed or slotted out of the solid to gauges.
+The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps made of
+crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the
+pump rams is 2œ in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This
+ram gives only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are
+such as to obtain this pressure upon each press in about
+<a name="Page_6717" id="Page_6717"></a>fourteen seconds. This pump then automatically ceases
+running, and the work is taken up by a second plunger,
+having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the second
+pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons
+per square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is
+arrived at in less than two minutes. For shutting off the
+communication between the presses, the stop valves are so
+arranged that either press may be let down, or set to work
+without in the smallest degree affecting the other. The oil
+from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from which
+an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired
+direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press,
+are stripped of the bagging and cut to size in a specially
+arranged paring machine, which is placed off the bed-plate
+behind the kettle, and is driven by the pulley shown on the
+main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted with an arrangement
+for reducing the parings to meal, which is returned
+to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses
+shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs
+&amp; Thompson's latest type, but the cakes produced by this
+process can have any desired name or brand in block letters
+put upon them. The edges on the upper plate, it may be
+added, are found of great use in crushing some classes of
+green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give illustrations
+opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of
+seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been
+so reduced to a minimum that it is intended to be worked
+by one man, who moulds and puts the twenty-four cakes
+into the presses, and while they are under pressure is
+engaged paring the cakes that have been previously pressed.
+In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or
+separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case
+the engine and boiler would require to be made larger.&mdash;<i>The
+Engineer</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/6a.png">
+<img src="./images/6a_th.png" alt="AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL." /></a><br />
+AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES
+CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF
+PAPER MILLS, ETC.</h2>
+
+<p>For extracting such useful materials as are contained in
+the waste waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and,
+at the same time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht,
+of Siebenlehn, employs a sort of filter like that shown in
+the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and underneath which he effects
+a vacuum.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7a.png" alt="SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1." />
+<br />SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments,
+which are separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the
+stationary bottom, <i>a</i>, there is arranged a lattice-work grating
+or a strong wire cloth, <i>b</i>, upon which rests the filtering material,
+c, properly so called. The reservoir is divided
+transversely by several partitions, <i>d</i>, of different heights.
+The liquor entering through the leader, <i>f</i>, traverses the apparatus
+slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide
+section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the
+filtering material, it is necessary that, in addition to
+this horizontal motion, it shall have a downward one. As
+far as to the top of the partitions, <i>d</i>, there form in front of
+the latter certain layers which do not participate in the horizontal
+motion, but which can only move downward, as a
+consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It results
+from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the first
+compartment, while the others run over the first partition,
+d, and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according
+to their degree of fineness, while the clarified water
+makes its exit through the spout, g. When the filtering
+layer, <i>c</i>, has become gradually impermeable, the cock, <i>i</i>, of
+a jet apparatus, <i>k</i>, is opened, in order to suck out the clarified
+water through the pipe, r.&mdash;<i>Dingler's Polytech. Journ.,
+after Bull. Musée de l'Industrie</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/7b.png" alt="SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2." />
+<br />SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>LARGE BLUE PRINTS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E.</h3>
+
+<p>I send you a description of a device that I got up for the
+N.Y., L.E., and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by
+which I overcame the difficulties incident to large glasses.
+The glass was 58 inches long, 84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch
+thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In order to keep
+the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of
+thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1&quot; ×  1&quot;. Each strip was
+carefully planed, and then they were glued and screwed
+together, while across the ends were fastened strips with
+their grain running transversely. This back was then covered
+on side next to the glass with four thicknesses of common
+gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding
+pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected
+by two long pressure strips running across the back placed
+at about one quarter the length of the frame from the ends,
+and held by a screw at the center. The ends of these strips
+were made so as to fit in slots in the frame at a slight angle,
+so that as the pressure strips were turned it gave them a
+binding pressure at the same time. In other words, it is the
+same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in small
+picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the
+back at the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall
+away from the glass, distributed it evenly over the whole
+surface and always kept it in position. The frame was run in
+and out of the printing room on a little railway on which it
+rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one pair being at one
+end, while the other was just beyond the center, so the
+frame could be revolved in direction of its length without
+trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel
+fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed,
+with a ring that could be attached to a corresponding hook
+at the side of the back, in order to hoist it or lower it. Although
+that is an extremely large apparatus, yet by means
+of the above device it was worked easily and rapidly, and
+gave every satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>The solution used was of the same proportions as had
+been adopted in the other engineering offices of the road:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" width="50%" summary="">
+<tr><td>Citrate iron and ammonium</td><td align='right'>1-7/8 oz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Red prussiate potash (C.P.)</td><td align='right'>1-1/4 oz.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix
+when ready to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle,
+and that in a tight box impervious to light, it can be kept
+two or three weeks.</p>
+
+<p>In some frames used at the School of Mines for making
+large blue prints a similar device has been in use for several
+years. Instead, however, of the heavy and cumbrous back
+used by Mr. Parsons, a light, somewhat flexible back of
+one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered with heavy Canton
+flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The pressure
+is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker
+at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform
+pressure across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the
+back firmly against the glass at all points. This system has
+been used with success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two
+inches, about half as large as the one described by Mr. Parsons.
+A frame of this size can be easily handled without
+mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid too great
+thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the
+plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips
+used are about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle,
+and taper to about three-eighths of an inch at the ends.</p>
+
+<p>The formul&aelig; for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy,
+and Parsons are practically identical so far as the proportions
+of citrate of iron and ammonia and of red prussiate of
+potash, 3 of the former to 2 of the latter, but differ in the
+amount of water. Laudy's formula calls for about 5 parts
+of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts, and
+Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the
+solution the longer the exposure required. With very strong
+solutions a large portion of the Prussian blue formed comes
+off in the washwater, and when printing from glass negatives
+the fine lines and lighter tints are apt to suffer. The
+blue color, however, will be deep and the whites clear. With
+weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the whites bluish.
+Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The addition of
+a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an advantage,
+producing the same results as strength of solution, by
+increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper
+deficient in sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.&mdash;<i>H.S.M.,
+Sch. of M. Quarterly</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE.</h2>
+
+<p>A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been
+delivered during the past few weeks before the officers of
+the Royal Engineers stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas
+Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.</p>
+
+<p>The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain
+Galton, whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls
+under the following five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse;
+3, stable manure; 4, solid or liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater
+and domestic waste water, including water from personal
+ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of passages,
+stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the
+simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water
+supply is limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are
+absorbed by the ground; but a camp unprovided with latrines
+would always be in a state of danger from epidemic
+disease. One of the most frequent causes of an unhealthy
+condition of the air of a camp in former times has been
+either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground
+outside the camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing
+the latrines too shallow, and exposing too large a surface to
+rain, sun, and air. The Quartermaster-General's regulations
+provide against these contingencies; but I may as well
+here recapitulate the general principles which govern camp
+latrines. Latrines should be so managed that no smell from
+them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure this very
+simple precautions only are required:</p>
+
+<p>1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect
+to prevailing winds, and at as great a distance from the tents
+as is compatible with convenience. 2. They should be dug
+narrow and deep, and their contents covered over every
+evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A certain bulk
+and thickness of earth are required to absorb the putrescent
+gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air to a
+considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled
+to within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be
+thrown into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its
+site. 4. Great care should be taken not to place latrines
+near existing wells, nor to dig wells near where latrines
+have been placed. The necessity of these precautions to
+prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens made
+out of any available material are, of course, required for
+latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp,
+and is only admissible under such conditions.</p>
+
+<p>A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the
+most immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse
+will take a long time to decay; it should not be disturbed,
+and will taint the adjacent soil for a long time. This is of
+less consequence in a merely temporary encampment, while
+it might entail serious evils in localities continuously
+inhabited. The following plan of trench has been adopted as a
+more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with the
+object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution
+of the whole country, from the people habitually fouling
+the fields, roads, streets, and watercourses. Long trenches
+are dug, at about one foot or less in depth, at a spot
+set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from dwellings. Matting
+screens are placed round for decency. Each day the
+trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day,
+is filled up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth
+obtained by digging a new trench adjoining, which, when it
+has been used, is treated in the same manner. Thus the
+
+trenches are gradually extended, until sufficient ground has
+been utilized, when they are plowed up and the site used
+for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more
+than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep,
+the lower stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a
+permanent cesspool, and becomes a source of future trouble.
+It is to be observed, however, that in the wet season these
+trenches cannot be used, and in sandy soil they do not answer.
+This system, although it is preferable to what formerly
+prevailed&mdash;viz., the surface defilement of the ground all
+round villages and of the adjacent water courses&mdash;is fraught
+with danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be
+strictly enforced, because it would otherwise retain large
+and increasing masses of putrefying matter in the soil, in a
+condition somewhat unfavorable to rapid absorption. These
+arrangements are applicable only to very rough life or very
+poor communities.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure,
+etc., from barracks next calls for notice. The great principle
+to be observed in removing the solid refuse from barracks
+is that every decomposable substance should be taken away at
+once. This principle applies especially in warm climates.
+Even the daily removal of refuse entails the necessity of
+places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore this principle
+must be applied in various ways to suit local convenience.
+In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there
+is less danger of injury to health from decomposing matters
+than there would be in hot, moist, or close positions. In
+the country generally there is less risk of injury than in
+close parts of towns. These considerations show that the
+same stringency is not necessarily required everywhere.
+Position by itself affords a certain degree of protection from
+nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually
+produced is also another point to be considered. A small
+daily product is not, of course, so injurious as a large product.
+Even the manner of accumulating decomposing substances
+influences their effect on health. There is less risk
+from a dung heap to the leeward than to the windward of a
+barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily
+placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be
+below the level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the
+ground, into which the refuse is thrown in the intervals between
+times of removal, rain and surface water will mix
+with the refuse and hasten its decomposition, and generally
+the lowest part of the filth will not be removed, but will be
+left to fester and produce malaria. In all places where the
+occupation is permanent the following conditions should be
+attended to:</p>
+
+<p>1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from
+inhabited buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by
+the occupants. 2. That the places of deposit be above the
+level of the ground&mdash;never dug out of the ground. The floor
+of the ash pit or dung pit should be at least six inches above
+the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved with square
+sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered.
+5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide
+that the traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or
+in removing it shall not produce a polluted surface.</p>
+
+<p>In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized
+for manure or otherwise are burned. But this is an
+operation which, if done unskillfully, without a properly
+constructed kiln, may give rise to nuisance. One of the best
+forms of kiln is one now in operation at Ealing, which could
+be easily visited from London.</p>
+
+<p><i>The removal of excreta from houses</i>.&mdash;The chief object of
+a perfect system of house drainage is the immediate and
+complete removal from the house of all foul and effete matter
+directly it is produced. The first object&mdash;viz., removal of
+foul matter, can be attained either by the water closet system,
+when carried out in this integrity; but it could, of
+course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough
+always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are
+modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools
+in a house do not fulfill this condition of immediate
+removal. They serve for the retention of excremental and
+other matters. In a porous soil it endangers the purity of
+the wells. The Indian cities afford numerous examples of
+subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to the pollution
+of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the
+soil in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt,
+the chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to
+decay for many generations, from the presence of which
+the well water is impure. There are many factories of saltpeter
+in India whose supplies are derived from this source;
+and during the great French wars, when England blockaded
+all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon obtained saltpeter
+for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools
+are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected.
+Cesspits may, however, be a necessity in some special cases,
+as, for instance, in detached houses or a small detached barrack.
+Where they cannot be avoided, the following conditions
+as to their use should be enforced:</p>
+
+<p>1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling.
+It should be placed outside, and as far removed from the
+immediate neighborhood of the dwelling as circumstances
+will allow. There should be a ventilated trap placed on the
+pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit. 2d. It
+should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of
+no leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow
+should be permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be
+thoroughly emptied and cleaned out; for the matter left at
+the bottom of a cesspit is liable to be in a highly putrescible
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least
+offensive system for emptying it is the pneumatic system.
+This is applicable to the water closet refuse alone. The
+pneumatic system acts as follows: A large air-tight cylinder
+on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series of air-tight
+barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter,
+placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient;
+a tube of about the same diameter is led from them
+to the cesspit; the air is then exhausted in the barrels or
+cylinder either by means of an air pump or by means of
+steam injected into it, which, on condensation, forms a
+vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are drawn through
+the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder or
+barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this
+system has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland.
+He removes the f&aelig;cal matter from water closets and the sedimentary
+production of kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency.
+He places large air-tight tanks in a suitable part of the town,
+to which he leads pipes from all houses. He creates a
+vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the
+f&aelig;cal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have
+been tried for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the
+hand removal of excreta. The first was the combination of
+the privy with an ashpit above the surface of the ground,
+the ashes and excreta being mixed together, and both being
+removed periodically. The next improvement was the provision
+
+<a name="Page_6718" id="Page_6718"></a>of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest
+arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken
+out, the contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the
+box replaced. The difficulty of cleansing the angles of the
+boxes led to the adoption of oval or round pails. The pail
+is placed under the seat, and removed at stated intervals, or
+when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In Marseilles and
+Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ
+cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes
+hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The
+household is furnished with three or four of these vessels,
+and when one is full the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel
+thus remaining in a harmless condition in the house till
+taken away by the authorities and replaced by a clean one.
+The contents are converted into manure. In consequence
+of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next improvement
+was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily.
+In the north of England the arrangement generally is that
+the ashes shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are
+sifted&mdash;the finer fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser
+pass into a box, whence they can be taken to be again
+burned&mdash;while a separate shoot is provided for kitchen refuse,
+which falls into another pail adjacent.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the
+excreta is the dry earth system as applied in the earth closet,
+in which advantage is taken of the deodorizing properties
+of earth. Dry earth is a good deodorizer; 1œ lb. of dry
+earth of good garden ground or clay will deodorize such
+excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or gravel.
+If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and it
+is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed
+until it has been used ten or twelve times. This
+system requires close attention, or the dry earth closet will
+get out of order; as compared with water closets, it is
+cheaper in first construction, and is not liable to injury by
+frost; and it has this advantage over any form of cesspit&mdash;that
+it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of
+the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as
+follows: Cost of closet, say, £500; expense of ovens, carts,
+horses, etc., £250; total capital, £750, at 6 per cent. £37 10s.
+interest. Wages of two men and a boy per week, £1 12s.;
+keep of horses, stables, etc., 18s.; fuel for drying earth, 1s.
+6d. per ton dried daily, £1 10s.; cost of earth and repairs,
+etc., 14s.; weekly expenses, £4 14s. Yearly expenses, £247
+(equal to 4s. 11d. per ton per annum); interest, £37 10s.&mdash;total,
+£284 10s., against which should be put the value of
+the manure. But the value of the manure is simply a
+question of carriage. If the manure is highly concentrated,
+like guano, it can stand a high carriage. If the manuring
+elements are diffused through a large bulk of passive substances,
+the cost of the carriage of the extra, or non-manuring,
+elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by
+adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large
+quantity of manure, containing much besides the actual
+manuring elements&mdash;such as is generally the case with dry
+earth&mdash;as soon as the districts immediately around have
+been fully supplied, a point is soon reached at which it is
+impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry earth
+system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions
+where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable
+to large towns from the practical difficulties connected
+with procuring, carting, and storing the dry earth.</p>
+
+<p>With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be
+separated from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the
+offensiveness would be much diminished, and deodorization
+be unnecessary, a method for getting rid of the liquid portion
+by what is termed the Goux system has been in use at
+Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail with a composition
+formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which
+can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to
+give it adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position
+by a means of a core or mould, which is allowed to remain
+in the pails until just before they are about to be placed
+under the seat; the core is then withdrawn, and the pail is
+left ready for use. The liquid which passes into the pail
+soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing medium.
+The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick
+to the central space in a tub of the above dimensions would
+be about two to one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this
+proportion would be insufficient to produce a dry mass in
+the tubs when used for a week, and experience has shown
+that after being in use for several days the absorbing power
+of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole contents
+have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain
+by the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from
+nuisance, and though it removes the risk of splashing and
+does away with much of the unsightliness of the contents,
+the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds extra weight which has
+to be carried to and from the houses, is rather a disadvantage
+than otherwise from the manurial point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways
+in the northern towns of England, and in the permanent
+camps to some extent at least, and of which the French
+&quot;tinette&quot; is an improved form, is more economically convenient
+than the dry earth system or the Goux or other deodorizing
+system, where a large amount of removal of
+refuse has to be accomplished, because by the pail system
+the liquid and solid ejections may be collected with a very
+small, or even without any, admixture of foreign substances;
+and, according to theory, the manurial value of dejections
+per head per annum ought to be from 8s. to 10s. The great
+superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the pail or pan
+systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even the
+middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is
+reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles
+being sometimes effected daily, and the period
+never exceeding a week. The excrementitious matter is
+removed without soaking in the ground or putrefying in the
+midst of a population.</p>
+
+<p>These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the
+equally important refuse liquid&mdash;viz., the waste water from
+washing and stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains
+for the purpose of removing the waste water, it is more
+economical to allow this waste water to carry away the excreta.
+In any case, you must have drains for removing the
+fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much
+of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take
+precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which
+the drains are liable to contain from passing into your
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>There is a method which you might find useful on a
+small scale to which I will now draw your attention, as it is
+applicable to detached houses or small barracks&mdash;viz., the
+plan of applying the domestic water to land through underground
+drains, or what is called subsoil irrigation. This
+system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of sewage
+matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open
+irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might
+be exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation
+
+supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult
+question. This system was applied some years ago by Mr.
+Waring in Newport, in the United States. It has recently
+been introduced into this country.</p>
+
+<p>The system is briefly as follows: The water from the
+house is carried through a water-tight drain to the ground
+where the irrigation is to be applied. It is there passed
+through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1 ft. below the surface,
+with open joints, by means of which it percolates into the
+soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid intermediately
+between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the
+soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent
+deposit, which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic
+water is allowed to trickle through the drains as it passes
+away from the house it soon chokes the drains. It is, therefore,
+necessary to pass it in flushes through the drains, and
+this can be best managed by running the water from the
+house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs
+off in a body when full.</p>
+
+<p>When you have water closet and drainage, the great object
+to be attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas
+from passing from the main sewer into the house drain. It was
+the custom to place a flap at the junction of the house drain
+with the sewer; but this flap is useless for preventing sewer
+gas from passing up the house drain. The plan was therefore
+adopted of placing a water trap under the water closet
+basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the
+drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very
+great, consequently the water in the trap would absorb this
+gas. When the water became warm from increase of temperature,
+it would give out the gas into the house; when it
+cooled down at night, it would again absorb more gas from
+the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature would
+cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually.</p>
+
+<p>These objections have led to the present recognized system&mdash;viz.,
+1st, to place a water trap on the drain to cut off
+the sewer gases from the foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to
+place an opening to the outer air on the soil pipe between
+the trap and the house to secure efficient disconnection
+between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover, necessary
+to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house
+drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible
+products which may be in it. To do this, we must insure
+that a current of air shall be continually passing through the
+drains; both an inlet and an outlet for fresh air must be provided
+in the portions of the house drain which are cut off from
+the main sewer, for without an inlet and outlet there can be
+no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet can be obtained
+in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet
+may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter,
+and with an open top to above the roof, in a position
+away from the windows, skylights, or chimneys. And,
+secondly, an inlet may be obtained by an opening into the
+house drain, on the dwelling side of and close to the trap,
+by means of the disconnecting manhole or branch-pipe before
+mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the inlet by
+means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet
+should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any
+case less than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance
+and the difficulty of conveying the excreta without
+lodgments, an open gutter would be preferable to a closed
+pipe in the house. This arrangement is based on the principle
+that there should be no deposit in the house drains.
+Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house
+drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to
+give the adequate inclination.</p>
+
+<p>The following are desirable conditions to observe in house
+drains: 1. As to material of pipes. House drains should be
+made either of glazed stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with
+cement joints, or preferably of cast iron pipes jointed with
+carefully-made lead joints, or with turned joints and bored
+sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New York the
+iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by
+the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a
+rainwater pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes.
+A lead joint cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore
+the lead joint is to some extent a guarantee of soundness.
+Lead pipes will be eaten away by water containing
+free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure rainwater
+injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will
+also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes
+appear in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that
+allows sewer gas to pass into the house. Moreover, lead is a
+soft material; it is subject to indentations, to injury from
+nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when coated with sewage
+matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and if of
+sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once
+well fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore,
+advocate cast iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the
+soilpipe which is to receive a water-closet, the trap should
+form part of the fixed pipe; so that if there is any sinking
+the down pipe will not sink away from the trap. It is, however,
+not sufficient to provide good material. There is
+nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view
+than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter,
+it is on details that all depends. Just consider; the drain
+pipes under the best conditions of aeration contain elements
+of danger, and those pipes are composed of a number of
+parts, at the point of junction of any one of which the
+poison may escape into the house. You thus perceive how
+necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum by
+cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from
+the street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place
+being most careful in the workmanship of every part of
+your house drains and soilpipes. Reduce your danger where
+you can by putting your pipes outside. But you cannot
+always do that&mdash;for instance, at New York and in Canada
+they would freeze.</p>
+
+<p>All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by
+plugging up the lower end of the drain pipe and filling it
+with water. In no case should a soilpipe be built inside a
+wall. It should be so placed as to be always accessible.
+2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter. In no instance
+need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in diameter.
+3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with
+true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper
+would be preferable. When from circumstances the drain
+is laid at a smaller inclination, a flush tank should be provided.
+They should be laid in straight lines from point to
+point. At every change of direction there should be reserved
+a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should be
+constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in
+particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases
+the pipe should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid
+under the house should be laid perfectly straight&mdash;a means
+of access should be provided at each end; it should have a
+free air current passing through it from end to end, and a
+flush tank should be placed at the upper end. 5. Every
+house drain should be arranged so as to be flushed, and kept
+
+at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain should
+be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each
+end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and
+no pipe or opening should be used for ventilation unless the
+same be carried upward without angles or horizontal lengths,
+and with tight joints. The size of such pipes or openings
+should be fully equal to that of the drain pipe ventilated.
+7. The upper extremities of ventilating pipes should be at a
+distance from any windows or openings, so that there will
+be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the interior of
+the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate
+at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap,
+so that a current of air would be constantly maintained
+through the pipe. 8. No rainwater pipe and no overflow or
+waste pipe from any cistern or rainwater tank, or from any
+sink (other than a slop sink for urine), or from any bath or
+lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe; but every such
+pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing through
+the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with
+an end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage
+arrangements of this Parkes Museum in which we are
+assembled were very defective when the building was first
+taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the committee, was requested
+to drain it properly, and it has been very successfully
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>I would now draw your attention to some points of detail
+in the fittings for carrying away waste water.</p>
+
+<p>First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned,
+every waste pipe from the sink should deliver in the open
+air, but it should have an opening at its upper end as well as
+at its lower end, to permit a current of air to pass through
+it; and it should be trapped close to the sink, so as to prevent
+the air being drawn through it into the house; otherwise
+you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give
+you an instance: At the University College Hospital there
+are some fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows
+in every day, and some flows away through the waste pipes;
+these pipes, which carry away nothing but fresh London
+water to empty in the yard, got most offensive simply from
+the decomposition of the sediment left in them by the London
+water passing through them day after day. A small waste
+pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It
+should be of a size to empty rapidly&mdash;for a bath 2 inches, a
+basin 1œ, inches. There are other points connected with
+fittings to which I would call your attention. The great
+inventive powers which have been applied to the w.c. pan
+are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many
+kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called &quot;traps&quot;
+have a tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and
+therefore, in reality, partake more or less of the nature of
+small cesspools, and nuisances are frequently attributed to
+the ingress of &quot;sewer gas&quot; which have nothing whatever
+to do with the sewers, but arise from foul air generated in
+the house drains and internal fittings. The old form was
+always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap.
+It is simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out.
+Any trap in which refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool.
+It is a receptacle for putrescrible matter. In a lead
+pipe your trap should always be smooth and without corners.
+The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the frequency
+of use of the trap. It varies from œ inch to 3œ
+inches. When a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper
+than when frequently used, to allow of evaporation. In the
+section of a w.c. pan, the object to be attained is to take
+that form in which all the parts of the trap can be easily examined
+and cleaned, in which both the pan and the trap will
+be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in
+which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of
+the passage of sewer gas.</p>
+
+<p>And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I
+have had much pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in
+these lectures the result of my experience in sanitary science.
+In doing so, I desired especially to impress on you who are
+just entering your profession the importance of giving effect
+to those principles of sanitary science which were left very
+much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I have not
+desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought,
+by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which
+sanitary science rests. That science is embodied in the words,
+pure earth, pure air, pure water. In nature that purity is
+insured by increasing movement. Neither ought we to
+stagnate. In the application of these principles your goal
+of to-day should be your starting-post for to-morrow. If I
+have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you sufficiently
+to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward
+to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary
+science.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art19" id="art19"></a>PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION.</h2>
+
+<p>The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known,
+and has been extensively adopted by English physicians. If
+the opinion means anything, it signifies that the two diseases
+are in essence one and the same, differing only in degree.
+M. Pasteur has recently found that by passing the bacillus
+of &quot;rouget&quot; of pigs through rabbits, he can effect a considerable
+attenuation of the &quot;rouget&quot; virus. He has shown that
+rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very
+ill and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series
+of rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As
+regards the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs&mdash;they
+are all made very ill, or die. But if inoculation be
+made on pigs from those rabbits, at the end of the series it is
+found that the pigs have the disease in a mild form, and,
+moreover, that they enjoy immunity from further attacks
+of &quot;rouget.&quot; This simply means that the rabbits have
+effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an
+attenuation of virulence. So the pigs may be &quot;vaccinated&quot;
+with the modified virus, have the disease in a mild form,
+and thereafter be protected from the disease. The analogy
+between this process and the accepted view of vaccinia is
+very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass through
+the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations
+from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human
+subject, but cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process,
+though of very different result, mention may be made of
+some collateral experiments of Pasteur, also performed recently.
+Briefly, it has been discovered that the bacillus of
+the &quot;rouget&quot; of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by
+being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations
+from the last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense
+form of the disease. It will be remembered that the
+discovery of the bacillus of &quot;rouget&quot; of pigs was due to
+the late Dr. Thuillier.&mdash;<i>Lancet</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an
+equable temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have
+met with sudden death, the result of a weak heart and
+passionate nature.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a><a name="Page_6719" id="Page_6719"></a>CONVENIENT VAULTS.</h2>
+
+<p>This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept
+upon precept. Many persons have availed themselves
+of the cheap and easy means which we have formerly recommended
+in the shape of the daily use of absorbents, but a
+larger number strangely neglect these means, and foul air
+and impure drainage are followed by disease and death.
+Sifted coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in
+barrels till needed for use. A neat cask, filled with these
+absorbents, with a long-handled dipper, is placed in the
+closet, and a conspicuous placard directs every occupant to
+throw down a dipper full before leaving. The vaults, made
+to open on the outside, are then as easily cleaned twice a
+year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by secret,
+underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of
+wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create
+fevers. On this account, this arrangement is safer and
+better than water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and
+need never get out of order. There being no odor whatever,
+if properly attended to, it may be contiguous to the dwelling.
+An illustration of the way in which the latter is accomplished
+is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat addition to
+a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either
+from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as
+shown by the steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double
+walls with interposed solid earth, to exclude any possible
+impurity from the cellar in case of neglect. The vaults may
+be reached from the outside opening, for removing the contents.
+In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige of
+impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who
+cleans out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to
+shovel sand from a pit.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/9a.png" alt="Fig. 1." /><br /> Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance
+from the house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides
+with evergreen trees; for no person should be compelled to
+encounter drifting snows to reach it&mdash;an exposure often
+resulting in colds and sickness. A few dollars are the
+whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as much.&mdash;<i>Country
+Gentleman</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/9b.png" alt="Fig. 2." /><br /> Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/9c.png" alt="Fig. 3." /><br /> Fig. 3.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM.</h2>
+
+<h3>By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL.</h3>
+
+<p>Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days
+of the sixteenth century, when Italian malice and intrigue
+swayed all Europe, and poisons and poisoners stalked forth
+unblushingly from cottage and palace; when crowned and
+mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed clergymen,
+courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in
+hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and
+when the civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of
+the daily repast, inhale the odors of flower or perfume,
+light a wax taper, or even approach the waters of the holy
+font. These horrors have been laid bare, their cause and
+effect explained, and tests discovered whereby they may
+be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects
+even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however,
+it is yet far removed from perfection; and there are
+substances so mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set
+the most delicate tests and powerful lenses at naught,
+while carrying death most horrible in their train; and chief
+of these are the products of Nature's laboratory, that provides
+some sixty species of serpents with their deadly venom,
+enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring habits
+to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation.
+The hideous <i>trigonocephalus</i> has forced the introduction
+and acclimation of the mongoose to the cane fields
+of the Western tropics; the tiger snake (<i>Heplocephalus curtus</i>)
+is the terror of Australian plains; the fer de lance (<i>Craspedocephalus
+lanceolatus</i>) renders the paradise of Martinique
+almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (<i>Daboii russelli</i>) is
+the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo
+of Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding
+waste for miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (<i>Naja
+tripudians</i>) ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh
+of one per cent. of the dense population, annually,
+and is the more dangerous in that an assumed sacred character
+secures it largely from molestation and retributive
+justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers, rattlesnakes,
+copperheads, and moccasins (<i>viperin&aelig;</i> and <i>crotalid&aelig;</i>),
+that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and
+annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways
+and like habits, and if the venom of all be not generically
+identical, the physiological and toxicological phenomena
+arising therefrom render them practically and specifically
+so. Indeed, their attributes appear to be mere modifications
+arising from difference in age, size, development, climate,
+
+latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided perhaps by
+idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life.</p>
+
+<p>In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism
+and precision, the inoculatory apparatus of the venomous
+reptile excels the most exquisite appliances devised by the
+surgical implement maker's art, and it is doubtful whether
+it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man. The mouth of
+the serpent is an object for the closest study, presenting as it
+does a series of independent actions, whereby the bones
+composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated,
+or rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive
+ligaments, whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or
+enlarged at will&mdash;any one part being untrammeled and unimpeded
+in its action by its fellows. The recurved, hook-like
+teeth are thus isolated in application, and each venom fang
+independent of its rival when so desired, and it becomes
+possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible.</p>
+
+<p>The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening
+presence quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear
+of man, and puts to flight the entire animal kingdom&mdash;lions,
+tigers, and leopards, all but the restless and plucky
+mongoose&mdash;and whose slightest scratch is attended with such
+dire results, are two in number, one in each upper jaw, and
+placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed
+by five or six times in point of size. Situated just within
+the lips, recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even
+the finest of cambric needles, they are penetrated in their
+longitudinal diameter by a delicate, hair-like canal opening
+into a groove at the apex, terminating on the anterior surface
+in an elongated fissure. As the canal is straight, and the
+tooth falciform, a like groove or longitudinal fissure is
+formed at the base, where it is inclosed by the aperture of
+the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just
+beneath the nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to
+the commissure of the mouth, is the poison gland, analogous
+to the salivary glands of man, that secretes a pure, mucous
+saliva, and also a pale straw-colored, half-oleaginous
+fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and
+saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with
+circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds
+lodgment in the central portion of the excretory duct, that
+along its middle is dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle,
+and where only it may be obtained in perfect purity.</p>
+
+<p>When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie
+backward along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the
+mouth, and thus offer no impediment to deglutition. Close
+inspection, however, at once reveals not only their presence,
+but also several rudimentary ones to supply their place in
+case of injury or accident. The bulb of the duct, too, is
+surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the
+outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle
+by whose action both duct and gland are compressed at will,
+conveying the secretion into the basal aperture of the fang,
+at the same time refilling the bulb.</p>
+
+<p>When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive,
+the reptile draws the posterior portion of its body into a
+coil or spiral, whereby the act of straightening, in which it
+hurls itself forward to nearly its full length, lends force to
+the blow, and at the same instant the fangs are erected,
+drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the points to
+look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor
+muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted,
+the venom being injected with considerable violence through
+the apical outlets of the fangs, and into the bottom of the
+wound. If the object is not attained, the venom may be
+thrown to considerable distances, falling in drops; and Sir
+Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa relates
+that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of
+six feet or more in length in its death agony, lest it should
+hurl venom in his eyes and create blindness; he afterward
+found that an officer of Her Majesty's XV. Regiment had
+been thus injured at a distance of <i>forty-five feet</i>,
+and did not recover his eyesight for more than a week.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its
+venom, the creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in
+the wound, thereby dragging through and lacerating the
+flesh; an ingenious bit of devilishness hardly to be expected
+from so low a form of organism; but its frequent neglect
+proves it by no means mechanical, and it frequently occurs
+that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a short
+distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some
+serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water
+moccasin, are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives,
+and coil themselves about the part bitten, clinging with
+leech-like tenacity and resisting all attempts at removal.
+Two gentlemen of San Antonio, Texas,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>2</sup></a> who were bitten
+by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that after having
+inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered away with
+unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. &quot;Snakes,&quot; remarked
+one of the victims, &quot;usually glide smoothly away
+with the entire body prone to the ground; but the fellow I
+encountered traveled off with an up and down wave-like
+motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then, getting under a
+large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned, and
+raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying.
+'Don't you feel good now?' It would require but a brief
+stretch of the imagination to constitute that serpent a
+veritable descendant of the old Devil himself.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the
+duct, a second (the venom being more or less mingled and
+diluted by the salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal
+in results; and each successive repetition correspondingly
+inoffensive until finally nothing but pure mucus is ejected.
+Nevertheless, when thoroughly aroused, the reptile is enabled
+to constantly hurl a secretion, since both rage and hunger
+swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate to
+extraordinary activity&mdash;a fortuitous circumstance to which
+many an unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The
+removal of a fang, however, affects its gland to a degree
+that it becomes almost inoperative, until such a time as a
+new tooth is grown, and again calls it into action, which is
+commonly but a few weeks at most; and a person purchasing
+a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it has been
+rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth
+lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered
+permanently harmless, however, by first removing the fang,
+and then cauterizing the duct by means of a needle or wire,
+heated to redness; when for experimental purposes the gland
+may be stimulated, and the virus drawn off by means of
+a fine-pointed syringe.</p>
+
+<p>In what the venom consists more than has already been described,
+we are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure
+to air in small scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol,
+
+slightly reddens litmus paper, and long retains its noxious
+properties. It has no acrid or burning taste, and but little
+if any odor; the tongue pronounces it inoffensive, and the
+mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof against it,
+and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities without
+deleterious result&mdash;all the poison that could be extracted
+from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was
+powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when
+poured into its open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless
+to solve the enigma of its action, and the microscope to detect
+its presence, but pathology is at fault to explain the
+reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know is that
+when introduced even in most minute quantities into an
+open wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the
+stream of life paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity.
+Without test or antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical
+empiricism, necessarily attended with no little injury in the
+search for specifics, and it may be reasonably asserted that
+no substance can be named so inert and worthless as not to
+have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to have
+been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor
+and adherents even among the most enlightened of the
+medical profession, who have rung all the changes of the
+therapeutical gamut from serpentaria<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>3</sup></a> and boneset to guaco,
+cimicifugia, and <i>Aristolochia India</i> to curare, alum, chalk,
+and mercury to arsenic; and in the way of surgical dressings
+and appliances everything from poultices of human f&aelig;ces,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>4</sup></a>
+burying the part bitten in fresh earth,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>5</sup></a> or thrusting
+the member or entire person into the entrails of living
+animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa.</p>
+
+<p>Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently
+attended with fatal results, such are not necessarily
+invariable. There are times and seasons when all reptiles are
+sluggish and inactive, and when they inflict comparatively
+trifling injuries; and the poison is much less virulent at certain
+periods than others&mdash;during chilling weather for instance,
+or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing
+sustenance. Young and small serpents, too, are less virile
+than large and more aged specimens, and it has likewise
+been observed that death is more apt to follow when the
+poison is received at the beginning or during the continuance
+of the heated term.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its
+effects are manifested almost immediately after inoculation,
+being at once conveyed by the circulatory system to
+the great nervous centers of the body, resulting in rapid
+paralysis of such organs as are supplied with motive power
+from these sources; its physiological and toxicological realizations
+being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied
+near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary
+or the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate
+experiences, perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning
+pain in the member lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo,
+nausea, retching, fainting, coldness, and collapse; the
+part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or spotted over its
+surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately, extend to
+the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to
+effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by
+coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving,
+attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles,
+whose integrity is so essential to life, causing them to adhere
+to one another, and to the walls of the vessels by which
+they are conveyed; being no longer able to traverse the
+capillaries, &oelig;dema is produced, followed by the peculiar livid
+blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive
+perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he
+caused the ghost to describe to Hamlet</p>
+
+<p class="ind">
+&quot;The leprous distillment whose effect<br />
+Bears such an enmity to the blood of man<br />
+That swift as quicksilver, it courses through<br />
+The natural gates and alleys of the body<br />
+And with sudden vigor it doth posset<br />
+And curd like eager droppings into milk,<br />
+The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine<br />
+And a most instant tetter marked about<br />
+Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust<br />
+All my smooth body.&quot;
+</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major
+portion of the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed
+to produce a fatal result, since death may supervene
+long before such a consummation can be realized. It
+is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly, since the
+very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk vessels
+afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly
+dissolved and disorganized condition of the blood that may
+occur secondarily, we have evidences in the passive h&aelig;morrhages
+that attack those that have recovered from the immediate
+effects of serpent poisoning, following or coincident
+with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with
+scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs,
+nose, and bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial
+wounds, or all together, defying all styptics and h&aelig;mastatics.
+In a case occurring under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in
+the Illinois General Hospital,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>6</sup></a> blood flowed from the gums
+in great profusion, and on examination was found destitute,
+even under the microscope, of the faintest indications of
+fibrine&mdash;the principle upon which coagulation depends.
+The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations, indicative
+of decomposition, producing serious illness in those
+exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may
+add, among other sequel&aelig;, aside from death produced
+through primary and secondary effects, paralysis, loss of
+nerve power, impotence, h&aelig;morrhage, even mortification or
+gangrene.</p>
+
+<p>The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles
+of respiration through reflex influence of par vagum
+and great sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation
+is impeded, are among the earliest of phenomena.
+Breathing becoming retarded and laborious, the necessary
+supply of oxygen is no longer received, and blood still
+venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is returned
+through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain are
+gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both
+venom and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the
+attending train of symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness,
+rapidly passes into stupor followed by profound coma
+and ultimate dissolution&mdash;marked evidence of the fact that
+a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical disease;
+
+<a name="Page_6720" id="Page_6720"></a>and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing
+save the general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as
+already noted.</p>
+
+<p>Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into
+consideration, the hope of the person thus poisoned rests
+solely upon lack of vitality in the serpent and its venom,
+and in his personal idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition
+of health, etc., and the varied chapters of accidents. <i>To
+look for a specific, in any sense of the word, is the utmost folly!</i>
+The action of the poison and its train of results follow inoculation
+in too swift succession to be overtaken and counteracted
+by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible product,
+even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence
+of this in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest
+approach to a perfect antidote that can be secured by mortal
+skill, inasmuch, if quickly injected into the circulation, it
+retards and restrains the disorganizing process whereby the
+continuity of the blood corpuscles is lost; moreover, it is
+a marked antiseptic, favors the production of adhesive
+inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about
+the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison
+rendered less diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded
+that shall restore the pristine form, functions, and energy of
+the disorganized globules, man arrogates to himself supernal
+attributes whereby it becomes possible not only to
+save and renew, <i>but to create life</i>; and we can scarce expect
+science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival
+Nature and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws.
+Such, however, is the natural outcropping of an ignorant
+teaching and vulgar prejudice that feeds and clothes the
+charlatan and ascribes to savage and uncultured races an
+occult familiarity with pathological, physiological, and
+remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced sciences;
+and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander,
+and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and
+their antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more
+than a quarter of a century's standing, and amounting to
+several thousand pounds, is offered by the East India
+Government for the discovery of a specific for the bite of the
+cobra, and for which no claims have ever been advanced; and
+the &quot;snake charmers&quot; or jugglers in whom this superior
+knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the
+futility of specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected,
+that few venture to ply their calling without a broad-bladed,
+keen-edged knife concealed about the person as a means of instant
+amputation in case of accident. Medical and scientific
+associations of various classes, in Europe, Australia, America,
+even Africa, and the East and West Indies, have repeatedly
+held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in exhaustive
+and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the
+wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general
+horde of venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the
+saliva of man, as well as certain other secretions, is at times
+so modified by anger as to rival the venom of the serpent in
+fatality, and it has no specific; and a careful analysis of the
+pathological relations of such poison proves that further
+experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the pursuit
+of the &quot;philosopher's stone.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals
+whose natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them
+to be inoculated by the most venomous of reptiles without
+deleterious or unpleasant results, and Colonel Matthews
+Taylor<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>7</sup></a> knew several persons of this character in India, and
+who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with
+nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito.
+Again, in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate
+of Melbourne, Australia,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>8</sup></a> met with untimely death
+under circumstances that attracted no little attention. An
+itinerant vender of nostrums had on exhibition a number
+of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself to be successively
+bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of
+a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round
+figure. Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and
+his wares valuable only as a means of depleting the pockets
+of the credulous, Mr. Drummond loudly asserted the inefficacy
+of the nostrum, as well as the innocuousness of the
+reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally harmless,
+or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in
+proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this
+experiment the charlatan was extremely averse, offering
+strenuous objections, and finally conveyed a point blank
+refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands becoming more
+imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed the
+audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he
+finally consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate
+a tiger snake, which he deemed least dangerous, and which
+instantly struck the gentleman in the wrist. The usual
+symptoms of serpent poisoning rapidly manifested themselves,
+followed by swelling and lividity of the part,
+obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in
+spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of
+physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently
+conceded the worthless character of his nostrum,
+declaring that be enjoyed exemption from the effects of
+of serpent poison by virtue of recovery from a severe
+inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew
+&quot;some people who were born so,&quot; who put him &quot;up to this
+dodge&quot; as a means of gaining a livelihood.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital,
+is acquired <i>in utero</i> by the inoculation of the parent,
+and Oliver Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of &quot;Elsie
+Venner&quot; embodies many interesting features in this connection.
+Admitting such inoculation may secure immunity,
+recent experiments in the action of this as well as kindred
+poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal or
+even common, but as depending upon occult physiological
+or accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his
+father are equally proof against the contagion and inoculation
+of vaccination and variola, in spite of repeated attempts
+to secure both, while their respective mothers suffered
+terribly with smallpox at periods subsequent to the birth of
+their children; and it is well understood that there are striking
+analogies between the poisons of certain contagious
+fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one
+attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character.
+In other words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological
+ones of smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping
+cough, etc., have the power of so modifying the animal
+economy, when it does not succumb to their primary influence,
+as to ever after render it all but proof against them.
+Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in
+certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and
+who after a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer
+producing pain or swelling.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and
+the septic ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers,
+they are not necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting
+to note that one Doctor Humboldt in 1852,<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>9</sup></a> in an
+essay read before the Royal Academy of Medical Sciences
+at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and advocated
+the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic
+of the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated
+numberless persons in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and
+Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom, thereby securing them
+perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from the extraordinary
+nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor
+affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent
+sufficient to produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit
+over the whole, and proofs were demanded and promised.
+This was the last of the subject, however, which soon
+passed into oblivion, though whether from failure on the
+part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from
+the inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine,
+though the presumption is largely in favor of the former.
+Nevertheless, it is worthy of consideration and exhaustive
+experimentation, since it is no less plausible than the theory
+which rendered the name of Jenner famous.</p>
+
+<p>Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are
+strong reasons for believing would be attended with happy
+results, the sole remedies available in serpent poisoning
+are measures looking to the prompt cutting off of the circulation
+of the affected part, and the direct stimulation
+of the heart's action and the respiratory organs, until such a
+time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical evidences;
+and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic stimulants
+are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining
+cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use
+is prolonged efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend
+rather to hasten a fatal result. They are devoid of the
+slightest antidotal properties, and in no way modify the
+activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so far from
+enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited,
+is far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled
+intellect. The reasons are obvious. Theoretically,
+for purely physiological and therapeutic reasons <i>amyl
+nitrite</i> should be of incalculable value, though I have no
+knowledge of its use in this connection, since its vapor
+when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action,
+and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached
+in its control of spasmodically contracted vessels
+and muscles. The relief its vapor affords in the collapse
+of chloroform an&aelig;sthesia, in which dissolution is imminent
+from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its effect
+upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia
+are equally prompt. Moreover, without further
+discussing its physiological functions, it is the nearest approach
+to an antidote to certain zymotic poisons, and especially
+valuable in warding off and aborting the action of
+the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or whooping cough.
+<i>Iodide of ethyl</i> is another therapeutical measure that is
+worthy of consideration; and <i>iodoform</i> in the treatment of
+the sequel&aelig; incident to recovery.</p>
+
+<p>The native population of India, in spite of the contrary
+accepted opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums
+that lay claim to being antidotes. The person inoculated
+by the cobra is at once seized by his friends, and constant
+and violent exercise enforced, if necessary at the point
+of stick, and severe and cruel (but nevertheless truly merciful)
+beatings are often a result. In this we see a direct
+application, without in the least understanding them, of
+the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results,
+as for the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent
+poisoning almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor
+Spillsbury (Physician-General of Calcutta),<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>10</sup></a> while stationed
+at Jubulpore, Central India, was informed late one evening
+that his favorite horse keeper had just been dangerously
+bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than
+ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in
+spite of the wails and protestations of the sufferer and his
+friends, with whom a fatal result was already a foregone
+conclusion, the doctor caused his wrists to be bound firmly
+and inextricably to the back of the vehicle; then assuring the
+man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be
+dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly
+away. Three hours later, or a little more, he returned, having
+covered nearly thirty miles without cessation or once
+drawing rein. The horse keeper was found bathed in profuse
+perspiration, and almost powerless from excessive fatigue.
+<i>Eau de luce</i>, an aromatic preparation of ammonia,
+was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a
+diffusible stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise
+enforced until near dawn, when the sufferer was found to
+be completely recovered.</p>
+
+<p>The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration,
+thereby securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging
+poison from the system, is well known; in no other way
+can action be had so thorough, speedy, and prompt. Captain
+Maxwell<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>11</sup></a> tells us it was formerly the custom among the
+Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested unmistakable
+evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death
+of the unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds.
+In one instance, after undergoing this treatment, the supposed
+corpse was seen, to the horror and surprise of all who witnessed
+it, to crawl from between the bolsters, when he was
+found to be entirely free from his disorder; the beds, however,
+were saturated through and through with the perspiration
+that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal
+agony. More recently a French physician,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>12</sup></a> recognizing
+the incubatory stage of rabies in his own person, resolved
+upon suicide rather than undergo its attendant horrors.
+The hot bath was selected for the purpose, with a view of
+gradually increasing its temperature until syncope should be
+induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death.
+To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water
+rose, his sensations of distress improved; and the very
+means chosen for terminating life became instead his salvation,
+restoring to perfect health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>13</sup></a>
+relates that a blacksmith residing in the neighborhood of
+his country house was in high repute for miles about by
+reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply
+in forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid
+walk or trot for twenty miles or more, after which he administered
+copious draughts of a hot decoction of broom
+tops, as much for its moral effect as for its value in sustaining
+and prolonging established diaphoresis.</p>
+
+<p>Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and
+serpent poisoning are by no means parallel, the <i>rationale</i> of
+the methods employed in opening the emunctories of the
+skin are the same; and were it not for its powerful protracting
+
+effect and depressing action upon the heart, we might
+perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi (<i>pilocarpus</i>).
+since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as it is, more
+is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the latter.
+It would be desirable also to know what influence the
+Turkish bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at
+least of trial.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, <i>Naja h&aelig;machites</i>, who is fully equal to the feat described.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a></p><div class="note"><p>
+Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed antidotal properties,
+and guaco and <i>Aristolochia India</i> enjoyed widely heralded but
+rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias for a season. Tanjore pill
+(black pepper and arsenic) is still extensively lauded in districts whose
+serpents possess little vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A Chinese remedy&mdash;as might be imagined.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan, the latter in
+Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is cooling and soothing, and
+the other slightly provocative of perspiration in the part, are not
+altogether devoid of plausibility.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Medical Independent</i>, 1855.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Vide</i> report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Times</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Wild Sports or the West.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>L'Union Medicale</i>&mdash;name withheld by request of the gentleman.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a></p><div class="note"><p>London <i>Lancet</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT.</h2>
+
+<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Given latitude N. 40° 51', declination N. 20° 25', sun 18°
+below the horizon. To find the time of twilight at that
+place. In the accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial,
+D D = parallel of declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O
+= the horizon, P = North pole, Z = zenith, and S = the
+sun, 18° below the horizon, H O, measured on a vertical
+circle. It is seen that we have here given us the three sides of
+a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49° 9', the co declination
+69° 35', and the zenith distance 108°, with which to compute
+the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139°
+16' 5.6&quot;. Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from
+noon to the beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in
+the given latitude and declination, the sun's center coincides
+with the horizon at sunset (allowance being made for refraction),
+at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from apparent noon. Then if we
+subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., we shall
+have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight. But the
+real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has
+descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the
+sun's upper limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon.
+This takes place 7 h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is
+hoped the above will be a sufficient answer to L.N. (See
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.)</p>
+
+<p class="signature">B.W H.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/10a.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.</h2>
+
+<p>The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has
+recently spoken before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and
+we extract from his discourse on &quot;Fossil Man and Savages&quot;
+some notes reported in the <i>Journal d'Hygiene</i>: &quot;It is in
+Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and in Polynesia where
+I have looked for examples of savage races. I have scarcely
+spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the
+features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups
+which they at times touch, and which in turn frequently
+mingle with them. I have especially studied the Papuans
+and Negritos. The Papuans are an exclusively Pelasgic race,
+that many anthropologists consider as almost confined to
+New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it becomes
+more and more manifest that they have had also
+periods of expansion and of dissemination.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of
+Micronesia; on the other we have shown&mdash;M. Hamy and
+myself&mdash;that to them alone can be assigned the skulls found
+in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They have hence
+touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime
+world.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day
+confounded with the Papuans by some anthropologists,
+have spread to the west and northwest.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them
+yet in the Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay
+archipelago; they constitute the indigenous population of the
+Andaman Islands, in the Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have
+formerly occupied a great part of the two peninsulas of
+India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can follow their
+steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus to
+Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this
+race, whose representatives in the past have been the type
+of the Asiatic pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and
+whose <i>creoles</i> were those Ethiopians, black and with smooth
+hair, who figured in the army of Xerxes.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;I have devoted two long examinations to another black
+race much less important in numbers and in the extent of
+their domain, but which possess for the anthropologist a
+very peculiar interest and a sad one. It exists no more; its
+last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I refer to the
+Tasmanians.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The documents gathered by various English writers, and
+above all by Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual
+and moral character of the Tasmanians. The complete
+destruction of the Tasmanians, accomplished in at most 72
+years over a territory measuring 4,400 square leagues, raises
+a sorrowful and difficult question. Their extinction has
+been explained by the barbarity of the civilized Europeans,
+and which, often conspicuous, has never been more destructively
+present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians.
+But I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly
+do not wish to apologize for or extenuate the
+crimes of the convicts and colonists, against which the most
+vigorous protests have been raised both in England and in
+the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters have
+been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians.
+They have perished from that strange malady which
+Europeans have everywhere transplanted in the maritime
+world, and which strikes down the most flourishing populations.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil.
+But if it explains the increase of the death rate, it does not
+
+<a name="Page_6721" id="Page_6721"></a>explain the diminution of births. Both these phenomena
+are apparent. Captain Juan has seen at the Marquesas, in
+the island of Taio-Hahe, the population fall in three years
+from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate, we find
+only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate populations
+rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the disappearance
+of the Tasmanians.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia,
+speaks of his interest in the western representatives of these
+races and his special studies in New Zealand, and referring
+to the latter continues:</p>
+
+<p>&quot;One of the most important results of the labors in this
+direction has been to establish the serious value of the
+historical songs preserved, among the Maoris, by the
+<i>Tohungus</i>, or <i>wise men</i>, who represent the <i>Aiepas</i> of Tahiti.
+Thanks to these living archives, we have been able to reconstruct
+
+a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of the
+first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from
+their other centers of population, and to determine their
+point of departure.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding.
+One is devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of
+the Nilgherie Hills, who by their physical, intellectual, and
+social characteristics differ from all the other races of India.
+&quot;The Todas burn their dead, and we possess none of their
+skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived among
+them, I have been able to fill up this gap.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns
+of Finland, whose study reveals the fact that they embrace
+two ethnic types, one of which, the <i>Tavastlanda</i>, belongs
+without doubt to the great Finnish family, spread over Asia
+as well as in Europe, and a second, the Karelien, whose representatives
+
+possessed the poetic instinct, which causes
+M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, &quot;to whom
+we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas
+to the poems of to-day.&quot;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src="./images/11a_th.png" alt="MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>Although so much has been written about Athens, there
+is one striking feature which has been little noticed. This
+is the beautiful colors of the Parthenon and Erectheum, the
+soft mellow yellow which is due to age, and which gives
+these buildings when lighted by the setting sun, and framed
+by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of
+gold.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/11b.png"><img src="./images/11b_th.png" alt="TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>Until A. D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect,
+and then not age but a shell from the Venetians falling
+
+<a name="Page_6722" id="Page_6722"></a>upon Turkish powder, made a rent which, when seen from
+below, makes it look like two temples.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/11c.png"><img src="./images/11c_th.png" alt="TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of
+the oldest of the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded
+in B. C. 469, and is a small, graceful, and perfect Doric
+temple. Having served as a Christian church, dedicated
+to St. George, it escaped injury. It contains the beautiful
+and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the warrior of Marathon.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/11d.png"><img src="./images/11d_th.png" alt="THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS." /></a><br /> THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A. D.
+132) are a few standing columns in an open space, which are
+imposing from their isolated position.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/12a.png" alt="OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS." /><br /> OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.</p>
+
+<p>The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been
+begun A. D. 110, and for a king in Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/12b.png" alt="TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes
+about B. C. 100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial,
+and a water clock. It is an octagonal building, with reliefs
+on the frieze, representing by appropriate figures the eight
+winds into which the Athenian compass was divided.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/12c.png" alt="THE PANTHENON, ATHENS." /><br /> THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing
+as they were found; each year shows many changes in
+Athens, a tomb last year in the Ceramicus may be this year
+in a museum. There is a great similarity in all these tombstones;
+no doubt they were made beforehand, as they seldom
+suggest the idea of a portrait. They generally represent
+an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends standing in
+the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the
+dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently
+a dog.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/12d.png" alt="ERECTEUM, ATHENS." /><br /> ERECTEUM, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the
+groves of the Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was
+the road to Eleusis, and along which passed the annual
+sacred processions in the days of the Mysteries. Cut there
+in the rock are the niches for the votive offerings. This
+dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of mystery
+which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once observed
+there.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13a.png" alt="NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO ELEUSIS." /><br /> NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO ELEUSIS.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13b.png" alt="TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.</p>
+
+<p>From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be
+seen the great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly
+above the site of ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort;
+the Turkish drawbridge and gate stand open and unused.
+There are on it remains of a Turkish town; at one time it
+was one of the strongest and most important citadels in
+Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched,
+straggling village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive
+columns. These are all that remain of the Temple, and
+indeed of ancient Corinth. The pillars, of the Doric order,
+are of a brown limestone, not of the country. The Turks
+and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and driven
+the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's
+drive from the Gulf.&mdash;<i>London Graphic</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13c.png" alt="TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS." /><br /> TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/13d.png" alt="TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS." /><br /> TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>SPANISH FISHERIES.</h2>
+
+<p>The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was
+large and well furnished, there being several characteristic
+models of vessels. No certain figures can be obtained of
+the results of the whole fishing industry of Spain. It is,
+however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a tonnage of
+51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They
+gave occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons
+of fish. The Government interfere in the fishing industry
+only to the extent of collecting and distributing information
+to the fishermen on subjects that are most likely to be of use
+to them in their calling. In consequence, principally no
+doubt of this wise policy, we find in Spain a vigorous and
+self-reliant class of men engaged in the fisheries. Some of
+the most interesting features in the Spanish Court were the
+contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations,
+and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection
+of articles that would have formed a good basis in
+itself for an exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was
+the fishing industry of the nation better illustrated by private
+enterprise than in that of Spain. The fishing associations
+referred to are half benefit societies and half trading
+communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small pamphlet,
+from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members
+divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons
+or men in charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of
+directors, consisting of 22 owners, and 24 masters of boats
+or ordinary fishermen, has the sole control of the affairs of
+the society. The meetings are presided over by a majordomo
+elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a
+boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend
+of 8,000 reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest
+when expressed as 80<i>l</i>. He has two clerks, who are on the
+permanent staff, to help him. His duties are to keep the
+books with the assistance of the two clerks, to take charge
+of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make necessary
+payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower
+and guides boats entering the harbor. The <i>atalayero</i> is an
+official of the society, whose duty it is to station himself on
+the heights and signal by means of smoke, to the boats at
+sea, the movements of schools of sardines and anchovies or
+probable changes of weather. It is also the duty of this officer
+to weigh all the bream caught from the 1st November to
+the 31st of March, for which he receives a &quot;gratuity&quot; of
+100 pesetas, or say 4<i>l</i>, sterling. Two other señeros, or signalmen,
+are told off to keep all boats in port during bad
+weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances
+appear favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference
+of opinion between these experts as to the meteorological
+probabilities, the patrons, or skippers of the fishing-boats,
+are summoned in council and their opinion taken by &quot;secret
+vote with black and white balls.&quot; The decision so arrived
+at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail should it be so
+decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the funds
+of the association. The boats carrying the señeros fly a
+color by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the
+other vessels. These señeros appear to be the Spanish
+equivalent to the English admiral of a trawling fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or
+two models of them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class
+boat will be of about the following dimensions: Length
+over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth (extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3
+in.; depth (inside), 3ft. 10 in. to 4 ft. The keel is of oak
+6 in. by 3œ in. The stem and stern posts are also of oak.
+The planking is generally of oak or walnut&mdash;the latter preferred&mdash;and
+is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 4œ
+in. Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the
+water line and Norway pine above.</p>
+
+<p>The fastenings are galvanized nails 4œ in. long. The
+mast-partners and all the thwarts are of oak 1œ in. thick
+and 8 in. wide; the latter are fastened in with iron knees.
+Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut, or chestnut; the
+rudder extends 3œ ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and, in giving
+lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust
+down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two
+lags, the smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat;
+
+the mainmast being amidships. The lug sails are set on
+long yards, the fair-weather rig consisting of a fore lug with
+120 square yards, and a main lug of 200 square yards.
+There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted for
+the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner
+similar to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce
+canvas. The fair weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and
+36 ft. long, and yards 28 ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively.
+The oars are 16 ft. long, and are pulled double-banked.
+
+Such a boat will cost 90 l. to 100 l. fitted for sea, of which sum
+the hull will represent rather more than half. These vessels
+generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three
+to four in the morning until the same time in the evening.
+Tunny, merluza (a species of cod), and bream are the principal
+fish taken. The first-named are caught by hook and
+line operated by means of poles rigged out from the boat
+much in the same way, apparently, as we drail for mackerel
+on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used
+
+<a name="Page_6723" id="Page_6723"></a>for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off
+the land and run back before the prevailing wind, until they
+are about nine miles from the shore or until they lose the
+fish. When the fisherman gets a bite the wind is spilled out
+of the sail so as to deaden the boat's way. The fish is then got
+alongside, promptly gaffed, and got on board. Tunny sells
+for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito. The season
+extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the
+winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are
+caught by hook and line in two ways. The first is worth
+describing. A line 50 fathoms long has bent to it snoods
+
+with hooks attached, 16 in. apart. Each man handles three
+lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line, to the end
+of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until
+soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the
+operation repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away
+freely, and this goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard.
+When, by the lively and continuous jerking of the
+line, the fisherman concludes that he has a good number of
+fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare to
+shoot again.</p>
+
+<p>The second method of taking the bream is by long lining;
+
+fifty of the lines we have just described being bent together
+and duly anchored and buoyed. Spaniards do not much
+care for this way of fishing, as it is costly in bait and the
+gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells at about 3œd.
+a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of
+the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh
+the price is about 6d. per lb. A small quantity is preserved
+in tins. Anchovy or cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes
+the two are placed on one hook.</p>
+
+<p>A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially
+for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine
+weather they often engage in the same fishery as the larger
+boats. The traineras are light and shapely vessels, with a
+graceful sheer and curved stem and stern posts. The keel
+is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has considerable
+hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length,
+38 feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2
+feet 6 inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are
+much the same as in the larger boats, excepting that there
+are only four shifts in place of six. The largest main lug
+has an area of about 90 square yards and the fore lug about
+50 square yards. The other sails for heavier weather are
+naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are
+respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of
+one of these boats and gear is about £122, made up as follows:
+Hull, £32; sails, gear, and oars, £30; nets and gear
+attached, £60. The season for anchovy fishing commences
+on the 1st of March and ends 30th of June; it begins again
+on the 15th of September, and continues until the end of the
+year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9 miles
+from the land, although they often come in much closer.
+Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some
+are used for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are
+put on the land for manure. The greater part are, however,
+preserved in barrels or tins, and are exported to France or
+England.</p>
+
+<p>The net used in the capture of anchovies is called <i>traina</i>
+or <i>copo</i>. It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of
+the United States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as
+are many of the nets, which, in American waters, will inclose
+a whole school of mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms
+long. The depth is 7 to 10 fathoms, and the mesh Ÿ inch.
+Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of July and lasts until
+December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles off shore.
+The price of sardines on the coast is about 2œd. per pound.
+When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the
+traina in the same way as anchovies, a net of œ-inch mesh
+being used. Sardines are also taken by gill nets about 200
+feet long and 18 feet wide. When used in the daytime the
+fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the liver of cod.
+When the sardines have been attracted to the neighborhood
+of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The fish in
+their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These
+nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no
+bait is used.</p>
+
+<p>A third class of boats of much the same character are of
+about the following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet;
+beam, 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet
+8 inches. The two lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards
+of canvas respectively. They are used for sardine catching,
+when they will carry a crew of four men, or for taking conger
+and cod, in which case they will be manned by eight
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull,
+£15; gear and sail, £10; nets and lines, £13; about £40.
+The conger season extends from March to June, and from
+October to November. The fish are taken by hook and line;
+sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is taken by
+a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait.</p>
+
+<p>There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may
+be noticed the <i>bateler</i>, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16
+ft. long, about 5œ ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed
+by one man, set a good spread of canvas, and are fast and
+handy. They are used for taking a species of cuttlefish
+which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and line, the
+fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they rush,
+when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a
+small well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive.
+None of the boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast.
+They have flat hollow floors, and set a large area of
+of canvas on a shallow draught. Lobster fishing is pursued
+in much the same manner as in England, but often four or
+five miles from land, and in very deep water.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was
+a full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole
+cut in the bottom amidships. Through this hole was let
+down a glass frame in which was placed a powerful paraffine
+lamp. The object of this was to attract the fish. It is said
+that tunny will be drawn from a distance of over a hundred
+yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be enticed
+into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light
+in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving
+operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the
+direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night
+by a lamp to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.&mdash;<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK.</h2>
+
+<p>Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and
+desolate spot imaginable during this weather. The frigid
+monotony of winter has settled down upon that region, and
+now it is haunted only by sea fowl. The bleak, barren
+promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean of its
+summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across
+it, and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the
+great breakers hurled against the narrow sand spit which
+makes the eastern terminus of the island. The tall, white
+towered light and its black lantern, now writhing in frosty
+northern blizzards, and again shivering in easterly gales,
+now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas all
+about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only
+habitation worthy of the name for many miles around.
+Keeper Clark and his family and assistants are almost perpetually
+fenced in from the outside world by the cold
+weather, and have to hug closely the roaring fires that protect
+them in that desolation.</p>
+
+<p>But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family
+would die of inanition. With the cold weather comes the
+ducks, and they continue to come till the warmer blasts of
+spring drive them to the northward. Montauk Point is a
+favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a good feeding
+ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather
+shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the
+point is being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and
+the reports of their successes increase the applicants for
+lodgings at the light. Some 20 gunners were out there last
+week with the most improved paraphernalia for the sport,
+and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite method
+of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the
+
+<a name="Page_6724" id="Page_6724"></a>point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory
+birds in passing south seem to have it down in their
+log-book that they must not only sight this structure, but
+must also fly over it as nearly as possible. Hence the variety
+and extent of the flocks which are continually passing
+is a matter of interest and wonder to a student of natural
+history as well as to the sportsman. Coots, whistlers, soft
+bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild geese,
+and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this
+long and strange procession, and the air is frequently so
+densely packed with them as to be actually darkened, while
+the keen, whistling music of their whizzing wings makes a
+melody that comparatively few landsmen ever hear. Millions
+of the birds never hesitate at this point in their flight,
+although thousands of them do. These latter make the
+neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter.
+Great flocks of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged
+shores, and the frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond
+Bay, lying to the westward, are their favorite feeding-grounds.
+The birds are always as fat as butter when making
+their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to their
+being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting
+operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it
+the heads of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point
+this winter.</p>
+
+<p>Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak
+the flights are heavy, and from that time until seven
+o'clock in the morning they increase until it seems as though
+all the flocks which had spent the night in the caves and
+ponds on the Connecticut shore were on the wing and away
+for the south. By ten o'clock in the forenoon the flights
+grow rarer, and the rest of the day only stragglers come
+along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these birds
+easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand
+the inclemency of the weather.</p>
+
+<p>Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has
+dawned for two months but that several of the poor birds
+have been picked up at the foot of the light house tower
+with the broken necks which have mutely told the story
+of death, reached by plunging headlong against the crystal
+walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before.
+There is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the
+wing at night to fly very high. But the great, glaring,
+piercing, single eye of Montauk light seems to draw into it by
+dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet, its feathered victims,
+and they swerve in their course and make straight for it. As
+they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of course, grows
+brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what
+appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy
+glass, and they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked
+for the oven. Inside the lantern the thud made by these
+birds when they strike is readily felt. Although they are
+comparatively small, yet so great is their velocity that the
+impact creates a perceptible jar, and the lantern is disfigured
+with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and foggy nights
+the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When the
+weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins,
+sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about
+the light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished
+in the morning. Large cranes show themselves to
+be almost dangerous visitors. Recently one of these weighing
+40 pounds struck the wrought iron guard railing about
+the lantern with such force as to bend the iron slats and to
+completely sever his long neck from his body.&mdash;<i>N.Y. Times</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>[THE GARDEN.]</h3>
+
+<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>THE HORNBEAMS.</h2>
+
+<p>The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the
+temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. There are
+nine species known to botanists, most of them being middle-sized
+trees. In addition to those mentioned below, figures
+of which are herewith given, there are four species from Japan
+and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet seem to
+have found their way to this country; these five are therefore
+omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly
+deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English
+name is quaintly explained by Gerard in his &quot;Herbal&quot; as follows:
+&quot;The wood,&quot; he says, &quot;in time, waxeth so hard, that
+the toughness and hardness of it may be rather compared to
+horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called horne-beam
+or hardbeam.&quot;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14a.png" alt="CARPINUS ORIENTALIS." /><br /> CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpinus Betulus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a> the common hornbeam, as is the case
+with so many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits
+considerable variation in habit, and also in foliage
+characters. Some of the more striking of these, those
+which have received names in nurseries, etc., and are
+propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are
+described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe
+from Gothland southward, and extends also into West
+Asia. Although apparently an undoubted native in the
+southern counties of England, it appears to have no claim
+to be considered indigenous as far as the northern counties
+are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it occurs
+in Ireland.</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14b.png" alt="CARPINUS AMERICANA." /><br /> CARPINUS AMERICANA.</p>
+
+<p>Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for
+this reason, during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in
+high repute for the formation of the &quot;close alleys,&quot; &quot;covert
+alleys,&quot; or the &quot;thick-pleached alleys,&quot; frequently mentioned
+in Shakespeare and in the works of other authors
+about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth century the
+topiary art had reached its highest point of development,
+and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the
+hornbeam&mdash;and indeed almost every other tree&mdash;was cut and
+tortured into every imaginable shape. The &quot;picturesque
+style,&quot; however, soon drove the topiarist and his art out of
+the field, yet even now places still remain in England where
+the old and once much-belauded fashion still exists on a
+large scale&mdash;a fact by no means to be deplored from an
+arch&aelig;ological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam
+hedges are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old
+English mansions, and in some old country farmhouses the
+sixteenth century craze is still perpetuated on a smaller scale.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14c.png" alt="CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT." /><br /> CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.</p>
+
+<p>Sir J.E. Smith, in his &quot;English Flora,&quot; after enumerating
+the virtues of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his
+opinion that &quot;when standing by itself and allowed to take
+its natural form, the hornbeam makes a much more handsome
+tree than most people are aware of.&quot; Those who are
+familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley
+Park and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming
+Sir J.E. Smith's statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park,
+from Pembroke Lodge toward the Ham Gate,
+will recur to many Southerners as a good instance of the fitness
+of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question
+there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and
+agreeable shade during the summer months.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14d.png" alt="CARPINUS VIMINEA." /><br /> CARPINUS VIMINEA.</p>
+
+<p>In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily,
+except exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky
+hillsides it does not grow so freely as on clayey plains.
+Under the latter conditions, however, the wood is not so
+good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam occupies a
+zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely
+ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not
+
+injured by frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing
+the edges of the beech forests along the bottom of the valleys
+where the beech would suffer. Scarcely any tree coppices
+more vigorously or makes more useful pollards on dry grass
+land.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14e.png" alt="BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS." /><br /> BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.</p>
+
+<p>On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam
+is employed in engineering work for cogs in machinery.
+When subjected to vertical pressure it cannot be completely
+destroyed; its fibers, instead of breaking off short,
+double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its flexibility
+and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's &quot;Timber and
+Timber Trees&quot;). According to the same recent authority,
+the vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average
+14.844 tons, while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14f.png" alt="LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA." /><br /> LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.</p>
+
+<p>A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity
+of hornbeam wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed
+to procure it in England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining
+a supply from France, where large quantities of this timber
+are used for that purpose. It may be interesting to state
+that in England at any rate lasts are no longer made to any
+extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous numbers
+by machinery. In France <i>sabots</i> are also made of hornbeam
+wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render
+it less valuable for <i>sabotage</i> than beech. For turnery generally,
+cabinet making, and also for agricultural implements,
+etc., this wood is highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing
+districts, viz., Côte d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the
+wine barrels are largely made from this tree. It makes the
+best fuel and it is preferred to every other for apartments, as
+it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns equally,
+continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat.
+&quot;Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland
+it is preferred to most others, not only for forges
+and for cooking by, but for making gunpowder, the workmen
+at the great gunpowder manufactory at Berne rarely
+using any other. The inner bark, according to Linn&aelig;us,
+is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the
+sun, are used in France as fodder; and when wanted for use
+in water, the young branches are cut off in the middle of
+summer, between the first and second growth, and strewed
+or spread out in some place which is completely sheltered
+from the rain to dry without the tree being in the slightest
+degree injured by the operation.&quot; (Dict. des Eaux et Forêts,
+art. Charme, as quoted by London).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14g.png" alt="LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA." /><br /> LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.</p>
+
+<p>It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the
+hornbeam as a hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it
+
+<a name="Page_6725" id="Page_6725"></a>is largely used for these purposes, the russet-brown leaves
+remaining on the twigs until displaced by the new growths
+in spring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Var. incisa</i> (Aiton, &quot;Hortus Kewensis,&quot; v., 301; C. asplenifolia,
+Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).&mdash;These three names represent
+two forms, which are, however, so near each other,
+that for all practical purposes they are identical. A glance
+at the accompanying figure will show how distinct and ornamental
+this variety is.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/15a.png" alt="HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK)." /><br /> HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).</p>
+
+<p><i>Var. quercifolia</i> (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus.
+d'hist. nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla,
+Hort.)&mdash;This form, as will be seen by the figure, is
+thoroughly distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very
+much smaller leaves than the type, their outline, as implied
+by the varietal name, resembling that of the foliage of the
+oak. It frequently reverts to the type, and, as far as my
+experience goes, appears to be much less fixed than the variety
+incisa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Var. purpurea</i> (Hort.).&mdash;The young leaves of this are
+brownish red; it is well worth growing for the pleasing
+color effect produced by the young growths in spring.
+Apart from color it does not differ from the type.</p>
+
+<p><i>Var. fastigiata</i> (Hort.).&mdash;In this variety the branches are
+more ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed,
+among the hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate
+varieties of the common oak.</p>
+
+<p><i>Var. variegata</i>, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata (albo-marmorata).&mdash;These
+names represent forms differing so slightly
+from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them
+separately, or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that
+I have seen is the variegation at all striking, and, except in
+tree collections, variegated hornbeams are hardly worth
+growing.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/15b.png" alt="FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER." /><br />
+FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER.<br />CARPINUS BETULUS (Full grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpinus orientalis</i><a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3"><sup>2</sup></a> (the Oriental hornbeam) principally
+differs from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser
+leaves with downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated
+bractlets. It is a native of the south of Europe, whence it
+extends to the Caucasus, and probably also to China; the
+Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely seems to differ, in
+any material point at any rate, from western examples of C.
+orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to this
+country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that
+it is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth
+growing; the short twiggy branches, densely clothed with
+dark green leaves, form a thoroughly efficient screen. The
+plant bears cutting quite as well as the common hornbeam,
+and wherever the latter will grow this will also succeed. In
+that very interesting compilation, &quot;Hortus Collinsonianus,&quot;
+the following memorandum occurs: &quot;The Eastern hornbeam
+was raised from seed sent me from Persia, procured
+by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the Czarina. Received it
+August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year (1752) the
+hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England.
+Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into
+the gardens of the curious. At the same time, from the
+same source, were raised a new acacia, a quince, and a
+bermudiana, the former very different from any in our gardens.&quot;
+This memorandum was probably written from recollection
+
+long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the
+species was first entered in the catalogue as follows: &quot;Azad,
+arbor persica carpinus folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from
+seed, anno 1747; not in England before.&quot; It appears, however,
+from Rand's &quot;Index&quot; that there was a plant of it in
+the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given
+by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at
+Duino. As, however, Miller had previously described it
+under the name orientalis, that one is adopted in accordance
+with the rule of priority, by which must be decided all such
+questions in nomenclature.</p>
+
+<p><i>The American Hornbeam</i> <a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>3</sup></a> also known under the names of
+blue beech, water beech, and iron wood, although a less
+tree than our native species, which it resembles a good deal
+in size of foliage and general aspect, is nevertheless a most
+desirable one for the park or pleasure ground, on account of
+the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves in autumn.
+Emerson, in his &quot;Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts,&quot; pays
+a just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He
+says: &quot;The crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors,
+mingling into a rich purplish red, as seen at a distance,
+make it rank in splendor almost with the tupelo and the
+scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated, and should have a corner
+in every collection of trees.&quot; It has pointed, ovate oblong,
+sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves. The acute
+bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly cut-toothed
+on one side. Professor C. S. Sargent, in his catalogue
+of the &quot;Forest Trees-of North America,&quot; gives the
+distribution, etc., of the American hornbeam as follows:
+&quot;Northern Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, through the
+valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers, along the
+northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and
+Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling
+that of ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north
+generally a shrub or small tree, but becoming, in the Southern
+Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50 feet in height,
+with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter.&quot; It will almost
+grow in any soil or exposition in this country.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpinus viminea</i> <a name="FNanchor_4_3" id="FNanchor_4_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_3"><sup>4</sup></a> is a rather striking species with long-pointed
+leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a
+sufficiently clear representation of their long, tail-like prolongations.
+Judging from the height at which it grows, it
+would probably prove hardy in this country, and, if so, the
+distinct aspect and graceful habit of the tree would render
+it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized tree, with
+thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The
+blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches
+in length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long.
+It is a native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of
+from 5000 to 7000 feet above sea-level. As in our common
+hornbeam, the male catkins appear before the leaves, and
+the female flowers develop in spring at the same time as the
+
+leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood&mdash;a cubic foot of
+which weighs 50 lb.&mdash;is used for ordinary building purposes
+by the natives of Nepaul.</p>
+
+<p>GEORGE NICHOLSON.</p>
+
+<p>Royal Gardens, Kew.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.&mdash;Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon, &quot;Arboretum et
+Fruticetum Britannicum,&quot; vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs,
+917. Boswell Syme, &quot;English Botany,&quot; vol. viii., p. 176, tab. 1293;
+Koch, &quot;Dendrologie,&quot; zweit. theil. zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, &quot;Student's
+Flora of the British Islands,&quot; ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host.,
+&quot;Flora Austriaca,&quot; ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic.
+fl. Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig. 1297.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_3">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.&mdash;Carpinus orientalis. Miller, &quot;Gardener's
+Dictionary,&quot; ed. 6 1771); La Marck, Dict, i., 107; Watson, &quot;Dendrologia
+Britannica,&quot; ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl. Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore,
+&quot;Flora Neapolitana,&quot; v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014,
+Encycl. Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, &quot;Dendrologie.&quot; zweit, theil
+zweit, abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, &quot;Flora Carniolica,&quot; 2 ed., ii.,
+243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, &quot;Flora Italica,&quot; x., 233; Alph. De Candolle in
+Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.&mdash;Carpinius caroliniana, Walter, &quot;Flora Caroliniana,&quot;
+236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer., ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des.
+Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson,
+&quot;Dendrologia Britannica,&quot; ii., 157; Gray, &quot;Manual of the Botany of
+the Northern United States,&quot; p. 457.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_3" id="Footnote_4_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_3">[4]</a></p><div class="note"><p>IDENTIFICATION.&mdash;Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall. Plant. Asiat.
+Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D. C. Prodr., xvi., ii., 127. Loudon, &quot;Arboretum
+et Fruticetum Britannicum,&quot; iii., p. 2014; Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p.
+919. Brandis, &quot;Forest Flora,&quot; 492.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.</h2>
+
+<p>The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather
+uncommon, we have taken the opportunity of illustrating
+one of three sent to us a fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies,
+South Lytchett, who says: &quot;The fruits are from a large
+plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a wall with
+an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet wide.
+The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from
+time to time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have
+raised seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety
+worth sending out or naming.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural
+size. Its appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard,
+and has a glazed appearance like that of porcelain. The
+color is pale green, except on the exposed side, which is
+dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and on the day after
+we received it the furrows opened and exposed three or four
+large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp&mdash;<i>The
+Garden</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/15c.png" alt="FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA." /><br /> FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>[SCIENCE.]</h3>
+
+<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC.</h2>
+
+<p>The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult,
+owing to the necessity of guessing at the successive figures
+which form the divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing
+the <i>exact</i> quotient is required, the following method
+will be found convenient:</p>
+
+<p><i>Rule for division</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>. Treat the divisor as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="note"><p>If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left
+as the divisor.</p>
+
+<p>If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat
+the product as the divisor.</p>
+
+<p>If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by
+5, and treat the product as a divisor.</p></div>
+
+<p>Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable.
+Call the result the <i>prepared divisor</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>. From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure:
+and, if this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it
+to a 9; otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the
+<i>extraneous multiplier</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus
+truncated, and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous
+multiplier be 7, when increase the product by 5. Call
+the result the <i>current multiplier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>. Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all
+the multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared
+divisor. Use the product to multiply the dividend, calling
+the result the <i>prepared dividend</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth</i>. From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure,
+multiply this by the current multiplier, and add the product
+to the truncated dividend. Call the sum the <i>modified dividend</i>,
+and treat this in the same way. Continue this process
+until a modified dividend is reached which equals the original
+prepared dividend or some previous modified dividend;
+so that, were the process continued, the same figures would
+recur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth</i>. Consider the series of last figures which have
+been successively cut off from the prepared dividend
+and from the modified dividends as constituting a
+number, the figure first cut off being in the units' place,
+the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this the <i>first
+infinite number</i>, because its left-hand portion consists of a
+series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left.
+Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in
+the repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in
+that the same series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely
+toward the right into the decimal places.</p>
+
+<p>Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and
+shift the decimal point as many places to the left as there
+were zeros dropped in the process of obtaining the prepared
+divisor.</p>
+
+<p>The result is the quotient sought.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Examples</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by
+365.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>. The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied
+by 2, giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared
+divisor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second</i>. The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3,
+this is the extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated
+divisor, 7, by the extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we
+have 22 for the current multiplier.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third</i>. The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the
+product of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier
+used in preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is
+the prepared dividend.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_6726" id="Page_6726"></a><i>Fourth</i>. From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the
+last figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22.
+The product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129,
+and gives 1305 for the first modified divisor. The whole
+operation is shown thus:</p>
+
+<pre>
+                   1 8 8 3
+                         6
+                   -------
+                 1 1 2 9|8
+                   1 7 6 -
+                   -----
+                 1 3 0|5
+                 1 1 0 -
+                 -----
+                 2|4 0
+               8 8 ---
+               ---
+              |9 0
+           -----
+           1 9|8
+         1 7 6 -
+         -----
+         1 9|5
+       1 1 0 -
+       -----
+       1 2|9
+     1 9 8 -
+     -----
+     2|1 0
+   2 2 ---
+   2 4
+</pre>
+
+
+<p>We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified
+dividend, written under the form 240 above. Our two
+infinite numbers (which need not in practice be written
+down) are, with their difference:</p>
+
+<pre>
+          .        .
+          10,958,904,058      .      .
+          10,958,904,109.5890410958904
+          ----------------------------
+                              .      .
+                      51.5890410958904
+
+                                 .      .
+  Here the quotient sought is 5.158904109.
+</pre>
+
+<p><i>Example 2</i>. Find the reciprocal of 333667.</p>
+
+<p>The whole work is here given:</p>
+
+<pre>
+      3 3 3 6 6|7                    |7
+    2 3 3 5 6 7 -         1 6 3 4 9 6|9
+                        2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                        -------------
+                        2 2 6 5 5 9|9
+                      2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                      -------------
+                      2 3 2 8 6 6|2
+                      4 6 7 1 3 4 -
+                      -----------
+                      7 0 0 0 0 0
+
+            .       .
+  <i>Answer</i>, 0.000002997.
+</pre>
+
+<p><i>Example</i> 3. Find the reciprocal of 41.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solution.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<pre>
+                    4|1                 |9
+                    -----              -----
+                    3 7|9              3 3|3
+                        -            1 1 1 -
+                                     -----
+                                     1 4|4
+                                   1 4 8 -
+                                   -----
+                                   1 6|2
+                                   7 4 -
+                                   ---
+                                   9 0
+
+            .   .
+  <i>Answer</i>, 0.02439.
+</pre>
+
+<p class="signature">C.S. PEIRCE.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>[SCIENCE.]</h3>
+
+<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC.</h2>
+
+<p>Those who can perform in that most necessary of all
+mathematical operations, simple addition, any great number
+of successive examples or any single extensive example
+without consciousness of a severe mental strain, followed by
+corresponding mental fatigue, are exceptions to a general rule.
+These troubles are due to the quantity and complexity of the
+matter with which the mind has to be occupied at the same
+time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of
+numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions
+that must be borne in memory, and the &quot;carrying&quot; is a
+further complication. The strain and consequent weariness
+are not only felt, but seen, in the mistakes in addition that
+they cause. They are, in great part, the tax exacted of us by
+our decimal system of arithmetic. Were only quantities of
+the same value, in any one column, to be added, our memory
+would be burdened with nothing more than the succession
+of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples
+of two, three, or four, if the counting is by groups.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing
+addition to counting similar quantities is by the binary
+arithmetic of Leibnitz, which appears in an altered
+dress, with most of the zero signs suppressed, in the example
+below. Opposite each number in the usual figures is
+here set the same according to a scheme in which the signs
+of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a
+very small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express
+any fourth power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow
+0, any square not a fourth power; a curve upward and to
+the right, like a phonographic <i>l</i>, any double fourth power;
+and a curve to the right and downward, like a phonographic
+<i>r</i>, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical bar to denote the
+absence of three successive powers not fourth powers.
+Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example
+slightly below the middle, is 2<sup>16</sup> (represented by a
+degree-mark in the fifth row of these marks, counting from the
+right) plus 2<sup>17</sup> + 2<sup>9</sup> (two <i>l</i>-curves in the fifth and third places of
+<i>l</i>-curves) plus 2<sup>18</sup> + 2<sup>14</sup> + 2<sup>6</sup> (three loops) plus 2<sup>19</sup> (the <i>r</i>-curve
+at the extreme left); while the absence of 2<sup>3</sup>, 2<sup>2</sup>, and 2<sup>1</sup> is
+shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent
+expression may be verified, if desired, either by adding the
+designated powers of two from 524,288 down to 64, or by
+successive multiplications by two, adding one when necessary.
+The form of characters here exhibited was thought
+to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and
+considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic
+value by actual additions.</p>
+
+<p>In order to add them, the object for which these forty
+numbers are here presented in two notations, it is not necessary
+to know just <i>why</i> the figures on the right are equal
+to those on the left, or to know anything more than the
+order in which the different forms are to be taken, and the
+fact that any one has twice the value of one in the column
+next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made
+from the printed page, first covering over the answer with
+a paper held fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures
+of the new answer as successively obtained. The fingers
+will be found a great assistance, especially if one of
+each hand be used, to point off similar marks in twos, or
+threes, or fours&mdash;as many together as can be certainly
+comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it
+can be done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The
+eye can catch the marks for even powers more easily in going
+up and those for odd powers (the <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> curves) in going
+down the columns. Beginning at the lower right
+
+hand corner, we count the right hand column of small circles,
+or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in
+number. Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one
+of these marks has therefore to be entered as part of the
+answer, and eleven carried to the next column, the first one
+of <i>l</i>-curves. But since the curves are most advantageously
+added downward, it is best, when the first column is finished,
+simply to remember the remainder from it, and not
+to set down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition
+of the second column, when the remainders, if any,
+from both columns can be set down together. In this
+case, starting with the eleven carried and counting the number
+of the <i>l</i>-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom with
+twenty-four&mdash;twelve to carry, and nothing to set down
+except the degree mark from the first column. With the
+twelve we go up the adjoining loop column, and the sum
+must be even, as this place is vacant in the answer; the <i>r</i>-curve
+column next, downward, and then another row of
+degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this
+time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme
+left, is added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by
+successive halvings. Here we seem to have eleven; hence
+we enter one loop, and carry five to the next place, which,
+it must be remembered, is of <i>r</i>-curves. Halving five we
+express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and
+carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving
+again gives one in the next place, that of <i>l</i>-curves; and the
+work is complete.</p>
+
+<p>It is recommended that this work be gone over several
+times for practice, until the appearance and order of the
+characters and the details of the method become familiar;
+that, when the work can be done mechanically and without
+hesitation, the time occupied in a complete addition
+of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully
+noted; that this be done several times, with an interval
+of some days between the trials, and the result of each
+trial kept separate; that the time and mistakes by the ordinary
+figures in the same example, in several trials, be observed
+for comparison. Please pay particular attention to
+the difference in the kind of work required by the two
+methods in its bearing on two questions&mdash;which of them
+would be easier to work by for hours together, supposing
+both equally well learned? and in which of them could a
+reasonable degree of skill be more readily acquired by a
+beginner? The answer to these questions, if the comparison
+be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their. high
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="center"><p class="center"><i>Example in addition by two notations</i></p>
+<a href="./images/16a.png"><img src="./images/16a_th.png" alt="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already
+been submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical
+skill. One of them took but a few seconds over two minutes,
+in the best of six trials, to add by the usual figures,
+and set down the sum, but one figure in all the six additions
+being wrong; another added once in ten minutes fifty-seven
+seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with
+half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer
+had had very little training in arithmetical work, but
+perhaps that gave a fairer comparison. In the binary figures
+she made three additions in between seven and eight
+minutes, with but one place wrong in the three. With four
+of the observers the binary notation required nearly double
+the time. These observers were all well practiced in computation.
+Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds,
+was made by one whose best record was two minutes forty
+seconds in ordinary figures. The author's own best results
+were two minutes thirty-eight seconds binary, and three
+minutes twenty-three seconds usual. He thus proved himself
+inferior to the last observer, as an adder, by a system in
+which both were equally well trained; but a greater familiarity
+(extending over a few weeks instead of a few hours)
+with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice
+as fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the
+usual figures, four were wrong in one figure each; of his
+thirty-two additions by different forms of binary notation,
+five were wrong, one of them in two places. One observer
+found that he required one minute thirty-three seconds to
+add a single column (average of five tried) by the usual figures,
+and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one
+(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions
+were rather slow, the results are interesting. They show,
+making allowance for the greater number of columns (three
+and a third times as many) required by the binary plan, a
+saving of nearly half; but they also illustrate the necessity of
+practice. This observer succeeded with the binary arithmetic
+by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly embarrass
+the beginner, by contenting himself with counting
+
+only, and not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar
+character, or to recognize the mark by which he
+must distinguish his next column. One well-known member
+of the Washington Philosophical Society and of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Science, who
+declined the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his
+probable time with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with
+strong chances of a wrong result, after all.</p>
+
+<p>These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons
+who can do faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning.
+But too much should not be made of them. Let
+them serve as specimens of facts of which a great many more
+are to be desired, bearing on a question of grave importance.
+Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by impartial
+tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the
+system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a
+blessing enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced
+by greater complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated
+by a correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing
+with figures, the former may be the case. If, on the contrary,
+a little practice suffices to turn the balance of rapidity,
+for all but a small body of highly drilled experts, in favor of
+an easier system, the latter must be. This is the question
+that the readers of <i>Science</i> are invited to help in deciding.
+The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the prevalent
+system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but
+they do not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment
+alone can give, whether or not the cost of that system
+is unreasonably high; nor should they prevent those who
+accord them the fullest recognition from assisting to furnish
+the necessary facts.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the
+plan proposed or on any better plan, or who will submit it to
+such acquaintances, skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded
+to take the trouble to learn the mechanism of binary
+adding, will confer a great favor by informing the writer of
+the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each
+addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the
+subject will be most gratefully received.</p>
+
+<p class="signature">Henry Farquhar.</p>
+
+<p>Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C.</p>
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,
+January 26, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,  January 26, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+I.    ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Furcot's Six Horse Power
+      Steam Engine.--With several figures.                        6714
+
+      Foot Lathes.--With engraving.                               6715
+
+      Endless Trough Conveyer.--2 engravings.                     6715
+
+      Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines.                             6715
+
+      English Express Trains.--Average speed, long runs, etc.     6715
+
+      Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the
+      Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.--2 figures.               6717
+
+II.   TECHNOLOGY.--An English Adaptation of the American Oil
+      Mill.--Description of the apparatus, and of the old and
+      new processes.--Several engravings.                         6716
+
+      Large Blue Prints.--By W.B. Parsons, Jr.                    6717
+
+III.  ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electrical Apparatus for Measuring
+      and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.--With
+      descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different
+      machines.                                                   6711
+
+      A New Oxide of Copper Battery.--By F. De Lalande and S.
+      Chaperon.--With description and three illustrations.        6714
+
+IV.   MATHEMATICS, ETC.--To Find the Time of Twilight.--1 figure.  6720
+
+      A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic.                      6725
+
+      Experiments in Binary Arithmetic.                           6726
+
+V.    ARCHAEOLOGY.--Grecian Antiquities.--With engravings of the
+      Monument of Philopappus.--Tomb from the Ceramicus.--Tower
+      of the winds.--The Acropolis.--Old Corinth.--Temple of
+      Jupiter.--The Parthenon.--Temple of Theseus, etc.           6721
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.--Poisonous Serpents and
+      their Venom.--By Dr. Archie Stockwell.--A serpent's mouth,
+      fangs, and poison gland.--Manner of attack.--Nature of
+      the venom.--Action of venom.--Remedies.                     6719
+
+      Ethnological Notes.--Papuans.--Negritos.                    6720
+
+VII.  HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.--The Hornbeams.--Uses to
+      which the tree is put.--Wood for manufactures.--For
+      fuel.--Different varieties.--With engravings of the tree
+      as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc.         6724
+
+      Fruit of Camellia Japonica.--1 engraving.                   6725
+
+VIII. MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.--House Drainage and Refuse.
+      Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.--Treating
+      of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and
+      houses.--Conditions to observe in house drains, etc.        6717
+
+      Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation.                        6718
+
+      Convenient Vaults.                                          6719
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--Spanish Fisheries.--Noticeable objects
+      in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition.      6722
+
+      Duck Shooting at Montauk.                                   6723
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH
+EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics were quite
+numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity, and very naturally a
+large number was to be seen there that presented little difference
+with present models. Several of them, however, merit citation. Among
+the galvanometers, we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by
+Prof. Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us of that
+of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that its inventor
+had combined in it a series of arrangements that permitted of varying
+its sensitiveness within very wide limits. This apparatus, which Prof.
+Zenger calls a "Universal Rheometer" (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin
+whose interior is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not
+meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two terminals.
+This internal shell is capable of serving for currents of quantity,
+and, when the two terminals are united by a wire, it may serve as a
+deadener. Above this copper shell there are two identical coils of
+wire which may, according to circumstances, be coupled in tension or
+in series, or be employed differentially. Reading is performed either
+by the aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror,
+which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral scale,
+R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be slid toward the
+galvanometer. This magnet is capable of rendering the needle less
+sensitive or of making it astatic. In order to facilitate this
+operation, the magnet carries at its extremity a tube which contains a
+bar of soft iron that may be moved slightly so as to vary the length
+of the magnet. Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier.
+It will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the
+apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and, according
+to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a dozen
+galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and permits of
+measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to 1/50000000 an ampere.
+The apparatus may even be employed for measuring magnetic forces, as
+it constitutes a very sensitive magnetometer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a "Universal Electrometer"
+(Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as an electrometric
+needle was of magnetized steel suspended by a cotton thread. In this
+instrument, a silver wire, t, terminating in a ball, is fixed to a
+support, C, hanging from a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case
+of the apparatus. It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body
+near the disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The
+sensitiveness of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like
+that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may be slid up
+and down its support, permits of the instrument being used as a
+condensing electrometer, by giving it, according to the distance of
+the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness. One constructor who
+furnished much to this part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of
+Munich, whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among
+them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer (Fig. 4), in
+which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced by two connected
+cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder formed of four parts; a
+Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses with scale for reading measuring
+instruments (Fig. 3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations,
+of Lamont (Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the
+Wiedemann galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations
+(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball opens
+one current at a time at the moment it leaves the electro-magnet and
+when it reaches the foot of the support, these two breakages producing
+two induction sparks that exactly limit the length to be taken in
+order to measure the time upon the tracing of the chronoscope
+tuning-fork; an absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8)
+for absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two
+vertical steel wires stretched from o to u, and which is rendered
+complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second and fixed helix, so
+that an electro-dynamometer may be made of it; and, finally, a
+galvanometer for strong currents, having a horseshoe magnet pivoted
+upon a vertically divided column which is traversed by the current,
+and a plug that may be arranged at different heights between the two
+parts of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive (Fig.
+9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.]
+
+We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann of Wurtzburg,
+which comprised a series of apparatus of the same class as those that
+we have just enumerated--spyglasses for the reading of apparatus,
+galvanometers, magnetometers, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.]
+
+Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr. Kohlrausch for
+measuring resistances by means of induction currents, and a whole
+series of accessory instruments.
+
+Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be mentioned Prof.
+Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic balance. In this, two
+iron cylinders are suspended from the extremities of a balance. One of
+them is of solid iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of
+larger diameter and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them
+enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current be
+passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted; but
+if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow cylinder will be
+attracted. If the change in the current's intensity occur gradually,
+there will be a moment in which the cylinders will remain in
+equilibrium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally cite is
+an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the position of the
+observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of the spot changes
+accordingly, and errors are liable to result therefrom. Besides,
+because of the non-parallelism of the luminous rays, each of the two
+surfaces is not lighted equally, and hence again there may occur
+divergences. In order to avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives
+his apparatus (Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is
+contained in a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures,
+light from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring
+tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As for the
+screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three vertical
+windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon its paper. Over
+one of the halves of these parts a solution of stearine is passed. To
+operate with the apparatus, in comparing two lights, the central spot
+is first brought to invisibility, and the distances of the sources are
+measured. A second determination is at once made by causing one of the
+two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results is then
+taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding to 3/100
+of a candle between the illumination of the two neighboring windows,
+in the given conditions of the apparatus, the error is thus limited to
+a half of this value, or 2 per cent. of that of one candle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC
+VARIATIONS.]
+
+Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture courses, we
+remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for demonstrating the
+constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in which eight magnetized
+needles, carrying mica disks painted half white and half black, move
+under the influence of the currents that are traversing the solenoid,
+or of magnets that are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus
+of the same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in
+which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the external
+surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are plainly visible
+to spectators at a distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.]
+
+Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating the
+principle of the Gramme machine. A circular magnet, AA', is inserted
+into a bobbin, B, divided into two parts, and moves under the
+influence of a disk, L, actuated by a winch, M. This system permits of
+studying the currents developed in each portion of the bobbin during
+the revolution of the ring (Fig. 12).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.]
+
+To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition we
+shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering
+thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and shall then say a few
+words concerning two types of registering apparatus--Mr. Harlacher's
+water-current register and Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.]
+
+Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying the deep
+currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by a long, vertical,
+hollow rod which is plunged into the river. A cord that passes over a
+pulley, P, allows of the apparatus, properly so called, being let down
+to a certain depth in the water. What is registered is the velocity of
+the vanes that are set in action by the current, and to effect such
+registry each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an
+electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached to
+the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit that includes a
+pile and a registering apparatus that is seen at L, outside of the box
+in which it is usually inclosed. In certain cases, a bell whose sound
+indicates the velocity of the current to the ear is substituted for
+the registering apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.]
+
+Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in which the
+mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting rod is likewise
+in this type utilized as a current conductor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.]
+
+It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for determining the duration of
+combustion of different powders, the velocity of projectiles, etc. The
+registering drum, T, is revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the
+time is inscribed thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion
+by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the curves
+corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork and the
+registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed upon a regulatable
+support, C, by means of which they may be given any position desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING THE
+CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.]
+
+The style, c, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second in order
+to facilitate the reading. The style, b, of the electro-magnet, H,
+registers the beginning and end of the phenomena that are being
+studied.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF
+THE GRAMME MACHINE.]
+
+The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications may thus be
+obtained upon the drum by means of induction sparks jumping between
+the style and the surface of the cylinder. To the left of the figure
+is seen the apparatus constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for
+experimenting on the duration of combustion of bomb fuses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the contact, K, opens
+a current which supports the heavy armature, P, of an electro-magnet,
+M. This weight, P, falls upon the rod, d, and inflames the fuse, Z, at
+that very instant. At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H,
+inscribes a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the
+extremity of the fuse explodes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the drum must be
+revolved by hand, and it would certainly be more convenient could it
+be put in movement at different velocities by means of a clockwork
+movement that would merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired
+moment. As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and,
+although it has already been employed in Germany for some time, it
+will be called upon to render still more extensive services.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of precision that
+were comprised in the Munich Exhibition. In general, it may be said
+that this class of instruments was very well represented there as
+regards numbers, and, on another hand, the manufacturers are to be
+congratulated for the care bestowed on their construction.--_La
+Lumiere Electrique_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+COPPER VOLTAMETER.
+
+
+Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has made some
+experiments upon the disturbing influences on the correct indications
+of a copper voltameter. He investigated the effects of the intensity
+of the current, the distance apart of the plates, and their
+preparation before weighing. The main conclusion which he arrives at
+is this: That in order that the deposit should be proportional to the
+intensity of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven amperes
+per square decimeter of area of the cathode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor Osborne
+Reynolds says these have a great advantage over shafts, for the stress
+on the section will be uniform, the velocity will be uniform, and may
+be at least ten to fifteen times as great as with shafts--say 100 ft.
+per second; the rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at
+distances 500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will
+not be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY.
+
+By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON.
+
+
+We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a single liquid and
+with a solid depolarizing element by associating oxide of copper,
+caustic potash, and zinc.
+
+This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing electrodes
+are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough to keep it in
+contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper constituting the
+positive pole of the element.
+
+Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom of a glass
+jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing oxide of copper,
+B. To this box is attached a copper wire insulated from the zinc by a
+piece of India rubber tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this
+metal coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a
+cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the zinc; an
+India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place where it dips into
+the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away at this level.
+
+The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per cent. of
+potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a Callaud element, with
+this difference--that the depolarizing element is solid and insoluble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the potash, we
+inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid state necessary for
+an element in the box which receives the oxide of copper, and furnish
+it with a cover supported by a ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then
+for working the battery to open the box of potash, to place it at the
+bottom of the jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then
+pour in the copper oxide inclosed in a bag.
+
+We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently into blocks. Among
+the various means which might be employed, we prefer the following:
+
+We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium in the form
+of paste so as to convert the whole into a thick mass, which we
+introduce into metal boxes.
+
+The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action of heat,
+and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with the quantity of
+cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V, is provided
+with a cover of copper, E, screwing into the glass. This cover carries
+two vertical plates of sheet-iron, A, A', against which are fixed the
+prismatic blocks, B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal,
+C, carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc is
+formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to the center
+of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded back upon this tube so as
+to make an air-tight joint.
+
+The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a split
+India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve.
+
+The closing is made hermetical by means of an India rubber tube, K,
+which presses against the glass and the cover. The potash to charge
+the element is in pieces, and is contained either in the glass jar
+itself or in a separate box of sheet-iron.
+
+Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically sealed elements
+with a single plate of a very small size.
+
+The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper, which are not
+attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to easily construct
+elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of iron plate
+brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters long by 20
+centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high.
+
+We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and place in the
+four corners porcelain insulators, L, which support a horizontal plate
+of zinc, D, D', raised at one end and kept at a distance from the
+oxide of copper and from the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters
+of this is filled with a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M,
+fixed respectively to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach
+the leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the carbonic
+acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we cover it with a thin
+layer of heavy petroleum (a substance uninflammable and without
+smell), or better still, we furnish the battery with a cover. These
+elements are easily packed so as to occupy little space.
+
+We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may be varied
+infinitely, but point out the principal properties of the oxide of
+copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a battery with a solid
+depolarizing element, the new battery presents the advantage of only
+consuming its element, in proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc
+and copper are, in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is,
+therefore, durable.
+
+Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal
+resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4 of an ohm for
+polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated by a distance of five
+centimeters.
+
+The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small cells shown
+in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short circuit; the large
+one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these elements can replace a large
+Bunsen cell. They are remarkably constant. We may say that with a
+depolarizing surface double that of the zinc the battery will work
+without notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted,
+even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation of the
+products, the change of the alkali into an alkaline salt of zinc, does
+not perceptibly vary the internal resistance. This great constancy is
+chiefly due to the progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode
+to the state of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity
+and its depolarizing power.
+
+The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an excellent
+battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at first better
+conductivity than oxide of copper, but this property is lost by
+reduction and transformation into lower oxides. It follows that the
+copper battery will give a very large quantity of electricity working
+through low resistances, while under these conditions manganese
+batteries are rapidly polarized.
+
+The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash battery is very
+great, and far superior to that stored by an accumulator of the same
+weight, but the rendering is much less rapid. Potash may be employed
+in concentrated solution at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can
+dissolve the oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than
+one-third of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to be
+employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of zinc which enters
+into action. These data allow of the reduction of the necessary
+substances to a very small relative weight.
+
+The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results in their
+application to telephones. For theatrical purposes the same battery
+may be employed during the whole performance, instead of four or five
+batteries. Their durability is considerable; three elements will work
+continuously, night and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than
+four months without sensible loss of power.
+
+Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low resistances,
+and can be worked at any moment, after several months, for example. It
+is only necessary to protect them by a cover from the action of the
+carbonic acid of the atmosphere.
+
+We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding its
+price and its higher equivalent, because it does not produce, like
+soda, creeping salts. Various modes of regeneration render this
+battery very economical. The deposited copper absorbs oxygen pretty
+readily by simple exposure to damp air, and can be used again. An
+oxidizing flame produces the same result very rapidly.
+
+Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator, that is
+to say, by passing a current through it in the opposite direction, we
+restore the various products to their original condition; the copper
+absorbs oxygen, and the alkali is restored, while the zinc is
+deposited; but the spongy state of the deposited zinc necessitates its
+being submitted to a process, or to its being received upon a mercury
+support. Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a waste
+product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced, loses
+nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery; the
+depolarization may therefore be considered as costing scarcely
+anything. The oxide of copper battery is a durable and valuable
+battery, which by its special properties seems likely to replace
+advantageously in a great number of applications the batteries at
+present in use.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr. E.D. Farcot
+for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine, consists of a cast iron
+bed frame, A, upon which are mounted all the parts. The two jacketed,
+cylinders, B and C, of different diameters, each contains a
+simple-acting piston. The two pistons are connected by one rod in
+common, which is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in
+slides, E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The head
+of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter which
+embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H.
+
+The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J, which is
+provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected with a governor
+placed upon the large cylinder. The steam, as shown in Fig. 2 (which
+represents the piston at one end of its travel), is first admitted
+against the right surface of the small piston, which it causes to
+effect an entire stroke corresponding to a half-revolution of the
+fly-wheel. The stroke completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an
+eccentric keyed to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the
+cylinders, B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and
+drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second half
+of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs through the valve
+chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the large cylinder in connection
+with the eduction port, M.
+
+The volume of air included between the two pistons is displaced at
+every stroke, so that, according to the position occupied by the
+pistons, it is held either by the large or small cylinder. The
+necessary result of this is that a compression of the air, and
+consequently a resistance, is brought about. In order to obviate this
+inconvenience, the constructor has connected the space between the two
+pistons at the part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being
+alternately driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of
+relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant
+resistance.
+
+[Illustration: FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE.
+  Fig. 1.--Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 2.--Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 3.--Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 4.--Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 5.--Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).]
+
+As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a variable
+expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a single acting one, a
+single valve-plate suffices. This latter is, during its travel,
+arrested at one end by a stop and at the other by a cam actuated by
+the governor. Upon the axis of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel,
+with an endless screw, which permits of regulating it by hand.
+
+This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes,
+makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs 2,000 kilogrammes.
+--_Annales Industrielles_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOT LATHES.
+
+
+We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia Manufacturing
+Company, of Colchester, and specially designed for use on board ships.
+These lathes, says _Engineering_, are treble geared, in order that
+work which cannot usually be done without steam power may be
+accomplished by foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or
+plate, or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work
+than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6 inch centers,
+gaps 71/2 inches wide and 61/2 inches deep, beds 4 feet 6 inches long by
+83/4 inches on the face and 6 inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There
+are three speeds on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches
+in diameter and 11/2 inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch pitch
+and 11/2 inches wide on face. The steel leading screw is 11/2 inches in
+diameter by 1/4 inch pitch. Smaller sizes are made for torpedo boats and
+for places where space is limited.
+
+[Illustration: LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications of
+link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain belt carried over
+a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate space a truck on which the
+train runs. This chain or belt is provided with pans which, as they
+overlap, form an endless trough. Power being applied to revolve one of
+the wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once
+becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying engraving
+illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of the pans are removed,
+to show the construction of the links; and above this a link and
+coupler are shown on a larger scale. As will be seen, the link is
+provided with wings, to form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted
+to it. To reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as
+will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof conveyer
+which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln to crusher, and convey
+coal, broken stone, or other gritty and coarse material. The Link Belt
+Machinery Company, of Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E.
+Coffin, of Muirkirk, Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to
+carry the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about
+one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with the
+barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower becomes a
+faithful servant, ready for work in all weather and at all times of
+day or night. This company also manufactures ore elevators of any
+capacity, which, used in connection with this apparatus, will handle
+perfectly anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might
+be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment. Although
+comparatively new in this country, the American _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ says it has been in successful operation for some time
+in England, the English manufacturers of link-belting having had great
+success with it.
+
+[Illustration: ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES.
+
+
+On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is 30 feet to
+the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the mile going east and
+south. Next for easy grades comes the New York Central and Hudson
+River road. From New York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk,
+till it gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the
+time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its
+connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the "Nickel Plate," the
+Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the Canada Southern and Michigan
+Central.
+
+The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio roads pass
+through a country so mountainous that, much as they have expended to
+improve their grades, it is practically impossible for them to attain
+the easy grades so much more readily obtained by the trunk lines
+following the great natural waterways originally extending almost from
+Chicago to New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS.
+
+
+The _Journal of the Statistical Society_ for September contains an
+elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on "English Express Trains; their
+Average Speed, etc. with Notes on Gradients, Long Runs, etc." The
+author takes great pains to explain his definition of the term
+"express trains," which he finally classifies thus: (a) The general
+rule; those which run under ordinary conditions, and attain a
+journey-speed of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the
+whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional
+difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed as low as 36 or
+37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole. (c) Trains which should
+come under (a), but which, through unusually long stoppages or similar
+causes, only reach a journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per
+cent.[1] of the whole.
+
+  [Footnote 1: 10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage,
+  of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.]
+
+He next explains that by "running average" is meant: The average speed
+per hour while actually in motion from platform to platform, i.e., the
+average speed obtained by deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up)
+Great Northern "Scotchman" stops 49 minutes on its journey from
+Edinburgh to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in actual
+motion; its "running average" is therefore 48 miles an hour, or,
+briefly, "r.a.=48." The statement for this train will thus appear:
+Distance in miles between Edinburgh and King's Cross, 3921/2; time, 9 h.
+0 m.; journey-speed, 43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48.
+
+Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances of
+the express trains of the leading English and Scottish railways--in
+Ireland there are no trains which come under his definition of
+"express"--giving the times of journey, the journey-speeds, minutes
+stopped on way, and running averages, with the gradients and other
+circumstances bearing on these performances. He sums up the results
+for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows:
+
+  =========================================================================
+  Extent of|                   |           | Average  |         |         |
+  System   |                   | Distinct  | Journey- | Running | Express |
+  in Miles.|                   | Expresses.|  speed.  | Average.| Mileage.|
+  ---------+-------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+    1773   | North-Western     |   {54} 82 |    40    |    43   |  10,400 |
+           |                   |   {28}    |          |         |         |
+    1260   | Midland           |    66     |    41    |    45   |   8,860 |
+     928   | Great Northern    |   {48} 67 |    43    |    46   |   6,780 |
+           |                   |   {19}    |          |         |         |
+     907   | Great Eastern     |    34     |    41    |    43   |   3,040 |
+    2267   | Great Western     |    18     |    42    |    46   |   2,600 |
+    1519   | North-Eastern     |    19     |    40    |    43   |   2,110 |
+     290   | Manch., Sheffield,|    49     |    43    |    44   |   2,318 |
+           |   and Lincoln     |           |          |         |         |
+     767   | Caledonian        |    16     |    40    |    42   |   1,155 |
+     435   | Brighton          |    13     |    41    |    41   |   1,155 |
+     382   | South-Eastern     |    12     |    41    |    41   |     940 |
+     329   | Glasgow and       |     8     |    41    |    43   |     920 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     796   | London and        |     3     |    41    |    44   |     890 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     984   | North British     |    11     |    39    |    41   |     830 |
+     153   | Chatham and Dover |     9     |    42    |    43   |     690 |
+                               +-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+                               |   407     |    41    |    44   |  42,683 |
+  =========================================================================
+
+A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed is 41.6,
+and which run 42,680 miles at an average "running average" of 44.3
+miles per hour.
+
+If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead of their
+mileage, the order is:
+
+                                   Average
+                                     r.a.     Miles
+  Great Northern.                     46      6,780
+  Great Western.                      46   [2]2,600
+  Midland.                            45      8,860
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln  44      2,318
+  London and South-Western.           44        890
+  North-Western.                      43     10,400
+  Glasgow and South-Western.          43        920
+  Great Eastern.                      43      3,040
+  North-Eastern.                      43      2,110
+  Chatham and Dover.                  43        690
+  Caledonian.                         42      1,155
+  South-Eastern.                      41        940
+  Brighton.                           41      1,155
+  North British.                      31        825
+
+  [Footnote 2: Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.]
+
+
+EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF GRADIENTS, ETC.
+
+  North British,
+  Caledonian,
+  Manch., Sheffield & Lincoln,
+  Midland,
+  Glasgow and South-Western,
+  Chatham and Dover,
+  South-Eastern,
+  Great Northern,
+  South-Western,
+  Great Eastern,
+  Brighton,
+  North-Western,
+  North-Eastern,
+  Great Western.
+
+
+LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND.
+
+  =======================================================================
+                                      | Number of | Average |  Running
+                                      |  Trains.  |  Speed. |  Averages.
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+                                      |           |  Miles. |   Miles.
+  Midland.                            |     104   |    53   | 46  (5,512)
+  North-Western.                      |      98   |    60   | 45  (5,880)
+  Great Northern.                     |      49   |    73   | 50  (3,616)
+  Great Western.                      |      24   |    56   | 48  (1,344)
+  Great Eastern.                      |      24   |    56   | 42  (1,362)
+  Brighton.                           |      23   |    45   | 42  (1,047)
+  North-Eastern.                      |      20   |    56   | 44  (1,120)
+  South-Western.                      |      13   |    47   | 44    (615)
+  South-Eastern.                      |      12   |    66   | 42    (795)
+  Chatham and Dover.                  |       8   |    63   | 45    (504)
+  Caledonian.                         |       8   |    59   | 45    (476)
+  Glasgow and South-Western           |       8   |    58   | 44    (468)
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln. |       8   |    48   | 43    (390)
+  North British.                      |       7   |    60   | 40    (423)
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+             Total.                   |     406   |    58   | 45 (23,550)
+  =======================================================================
+
+From this it will be seen that the three great companies run 61 per
+cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per cent. of the whole
+number of long runs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED OIL MILL.
+
+
+The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by mechanical
+means have during the last few years undergone a complete revolution.
+By the old process, the seed, having been flattened between a pair of
+stones, was afterward ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as
+much as 20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute.
+Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken to a kettle or
+steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated, and thence drawn--in
+quantities sufficient for a cake--in woollen bags, which were placed
+in a hydraulic press. From four to six bags was the utmost that could
+be got into the press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between
+wrappers of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a good
+deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable expense
+in the frequent replacing of the horsehair wrappers, each of which
+involved a cost of about L4. The modern requirements of trade have in
+every branch of industry ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the
+slow, easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition
+was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements, almost at every
+turn, more effectually and at greatly increased speed, complete
+manufacturing operations previously performed by hand, and oil-seed
+crushing machinery has been no exception to the general rule. The
+illustrations we give represent the latest developments in improved
+oil-mill machinery introduced by Rose, Downs & Thompson, named the
+"Colonial" mill, and recently we had an opportunity of inspecting the
+machinery complete before shipment to Calcutta, where it is being sent
+for the approaching exhibition. As compared with the old system of
+oil-seed crushing, Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson claim for their
+method, among other advantages, a great saving in driving power,
+economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an improved
+branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in the labor employed
+in the press-room, with also a great saving in wear and tear, while
+the process is equally applicable to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or
+similar seeds. In addition to these improvements in the system, the
+"Colonial" mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement
+to meet the requirements of exporters. The machinery and engine are
+self-contained on an iron foundation, so that there is no need of
+skilled mechanics to erect the mill, nor of expensive stone
+foundations, while the building covering the mill can, if desired, be
+of the lightest possible description, as no wall support is required.
+The mill consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler,
+3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 11/2 in. high, with three cross tubes 71/2 in.
+diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake 9 in.
+diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood fuel is used
+extra grate area can be provided. This boiler supplies the steam not
+only for the engine, but also for heating and damping the seed in the
+kettle. The engine is vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke,
+with high speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of
+the mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about 30 ft.
+long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various machines, which,
+when the top is leveled, can be fixed in their respective places by
+any intelligent man, and when the machines are in position they form a
+support for the shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden
+bin, placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll frame has
+four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter, so
+arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings, with patent
+pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are driven by fast and loose
+pulleys by the shaft above. After the last rolling the seed falls
+through an opening in the foundation plate in a screen driven from the
+bottom roll shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a
+set of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle. This
+kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in. deep, is
+made of cast iron and of specially strong construction. There is only
+one steam joint in it, and to reduce the liability of leakage this
+joint is faced in a lathe. The inside furnishings of the kettle are a
+damping apparatus with perforated boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and
+delivery plate, and patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a
+wood frame and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron
+sheeting. The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required
+temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped by a jet
+of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with indicating plate.
+When the required temperature has been obtained, the seed is withdrawn
+by a measuring box through a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom,
+and evenly distributed over a strip of bagging supported on a steel
+tray in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes a
+compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be taken in
+by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction of the oil.
+The seed leaves the moulding machine in the form of a thick cake from
+nine to eleven pounds in weight, and each press is constructed to take
+in twelve of these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in.
+diameter and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of
+construction and even distribution of strain throughout the press, all
+the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed and turned
+accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take the columns, in the
+place of being cast, as is sometimes usual, with fitting strips top
+and bottom, are solid throughout, and are planed or slotted out of the
+solid to gauges. The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps
+made of crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the
+pump rams is 21/2 in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This ram gives
+only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are such as to obtain
+this pressure upon each press in about fourteen seconds. This pump
+then automatically ceases running, and the work is taken up by a
+second plunger, having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the
+second pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons per
+square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is arrived at in
+less than two minutes. For shutting off the communication between the
+presses, the stop valves are so arranged that either press may be let
+down, or set to work without in the smallest degree affecting the
+other. The oil from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from
+which an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired
+direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press, are stripped
+of the bagging and cut to size in a specially arranged paring machine,
+which is placed off the bed-plate behind the kettle, and is driven by
+the pulley shown on the main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted
+with an arrangement for reducing the parings to meal, which is
+returned to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses
+shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson's
+latest type, but the cakes produced by this process can have any
+desired name or brand in block letters put upon them. The edges on the
+upper plate, it may be added, are found of great use in crushing some
+classes of green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give
+illustrations opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of
+seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been so reduced
+to a minimum that it is intended to be worked by one man, who moulds
+and puts the twenty-four cakes into the presses, and while they are
+under pressure is engaged paring the cakes that have been previously
+pressed. In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or
+separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case the engine
+and boiler would require to be made larger.--_The Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF
+PAPER MILLS, ETC.
+
+
+For extracting such useful materials as are contained in the waste
+waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and, at the same
+time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht, of Siebenlehn, employs
+a sort of filter like that shown in the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and
+underneath which he effects a vacuum.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.]
+
+The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments, which are
+separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the stationary bottom, a,
+there is arranged a lattice-work grating or a strong wire cloth, b,
+upon which rests the filtering material, c, properly so called. The
+reservoir is divided transversely by several partitions, d, of
+different heights. The liquor entering through the leader, f,
+traverses the apparatus slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide
+section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the filtering
+material, it is necessary that, in addition to this horizontal motion,
+it shall have a downward one. As far as to the top of the partitions,
+d, there form in front of the latter certain layers which do not
+participate in the horizontal motion, but which can only move
+downward, as a consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It
+results from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the
+first compartment, while the others run over the first partition, d,
+and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according to their
+degree of fineness, while the clarified water makes its exit through
+the spout, g. When the filtering layer, c, has become gradually
+impermeable, the cock, i, of a jet apparatus, k, is opened, in order
+to suck out the clarified water through the pipe, r.--_Dingler's
+Polytech. Journ., after Bull. Musee de l'Industrie_.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LARGE BLUE PRINTS.
+
+By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E.
+
+
+I send you a description of a device that I got up for the N.Y., L.E.,
+and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by which I overcame the
+difficulties incident to large glasses. The glass was 58 inches long,
+84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In
+order to keep the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of
+thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1" x 1". Each strip was carefully
+planed, and then they were glued and screwed together, while across
+the ends were fastened strips with their grain running transversely.
+This back was then covered on side next to the glass with four
+thicknesses of common gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding
+pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected by two long
+pressure strips running across the back placed at about one quarter
+the length of the frame from the ends, and held by a screw at the
+center. The ends of these strips were made so as to fit in slots in
+the frame at a slight angle, so that as the pressure strips were
+turned it gave them a binding pressure at the same time. In other
+words, it is the same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in
+small picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the back at
+the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall away from the
+glass, distributed it evenly over the whole surface and always kept it
+in position. The frame was run in and out of the printing room on a
+little railway on which it rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one
+pair being at one end, while the other was just beyond the center, so
+the frame could be revolved in direction of its length without
+trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel
+fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed, with a ring that
+could be attached to a corresponding hook at the side of the back, in
+order to hoist it or lower it. Although that is an extremely large
+apparatus, yet by means of the above device it was worked easily and
+rapidly, and gave every satisfaction.
+
+The solution used was of the same proportions as had been adopted in
+the other engineering offices of the road:
+
+  Citrate iron and ammonium      1-7/8 oz.
+  Red prussiate potash (C.P.)    1-1/4 oz.
+
+Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix when ready
+to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle, and that in a tight box
+impervious to light, it can be kept two or three weeks.
+
+In some frames used at the School of Mines for making large blue
+prints a similar device has been in use for several years. Instead,
+however, of the heavy and cumbrous back used by Mr. Parsons, a light,
+somewhat flexible back of one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered
+with heavy Canton flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The
+pressure is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker
+at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform pressure
+across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the back firmly
+against the glass at all points. This system has been used with
+success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two inches, about half as
+large as the one described by Mr. Parsons. A frame of this size can be
+easily handled without mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid
+too great thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the
+plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips used are
+about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle, and taper to about
+three-eighths of an inch at the ends.
+
+The formulae for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy, and Parsons
+are practically identical so far as the proportions of citrate of iron
+and ammonia and of red prussiate of potash, 3 of the former to 2 of
+the latter, but differ in the amount of water. Laudy's formula calls
+for about 5 parts of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts,
+and Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the solution
+the longer the exposure required. With very strong solutions a large
+portion of the Prussian blue formed comes off in the washwater, and
+when printing from glass negatives the fine lines and lighter tints
+are apt to suffer. The blue color, however, will be deep and the
+whites clear. With weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the
+whites bluish. Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The
+addition of a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an
+advantage, producing the same results as strength of solution, by
+increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper deficient in
+sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.--_H.S.M., Sch. of
+M. Quarterly._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE.
+
+
+A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been delivered during
+the past few weeks before the officers of the Royal Engineers
+stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
+
+The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain Galton,
+whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls under the following
+five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse; 3, stable manure; 4, solid or
+liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater and domestic waste water, including
+water from personal ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of
+passages, stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the
+simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water supply is
+limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are absorbed by the ground;
+but a camp unprovided with latrines would always be in a state of
+danger from epidemic disease. One of the most frequent causes of an
+unhealthy condition of the air of a camp in former times has been
+either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground outside the
+camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing the latrines too
+shallow, and exposing too large a surface to rain, sun, and air. The
+Quartermaster-General's regulations provide against these
+contingencies; but I may as well here recapitulate the general
+principles which govern camp latrines. Latrines should be so managed
+that no smell from them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure
+this very simple precautions only are required:
+
+1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect to prevailing
+winds, and at as great a distance from the tents as is compatible with
+convenience. 2. They should be dug narrow and deep, and their contents
+covered over every evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A
+certain bulk and thickness of earth are required to absorb the
+putrescent gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air
+to a considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled to
+within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be thrown
+into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its site. 4. Great
+care should be taken not to place latrines near existing wells, nor to
+dig wells near where latrines have been placed. The necessity of these
+precautions to prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens
+made out of any available material are, of course, required for
+latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp, and is only
+admissible under such conditions.
+
+A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the most
+immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse will take a
+long time to decay; it should not be disturbed, and will taint the
+adjacent soil for a long time. This is of less consequence in a merely
+temporary encampment, while it might entail serious evils in
+localities continuously inhabited. The following plan of trench has
+been adopted as a more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with
+the object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution of the
+whole country, from the people habitually fouling the fields, roads,
+streets, and watercourses. Long trenches are dug, at about one foot or
+less in depth, at a spot set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from
+dwellings. Matting screens are placed round for decency. Each day the
+trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day, is filled
+up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth obtained by digging a
+new trench adjoining, which, when it has been used, is treated in the
+same manner. Thus the trenches are gradually extended, until
+sufficient ground has been utilized, when they are plowed up and the
+site used for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more
+than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep, the lower
+stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a permanent cesspool, and
+becomes a source of future trouble. It is to be observed, however,
+that in the wet season these trenches cannot be used, and in sandy
+soil they do not answer. This system, although it is preferable to
+what formerly prevailed--viz., the surface defilement of the ground
+all round villages and of the adjacent water courses--is fraught with
+danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be strictly enforced,
+because it would otherwise retain large and increasing masses of
+putrefying matter in the soil, in a condition somewhat unfavorable to
+rapid absorption. These arrangements are applicable only to very rough
+life or very poor communities.
+
+The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure, etc., from
+barracks next calls for notice. The great principle to be observed in
+removing the solid refuse from barracks is that every decomposable
+substance should be taken away at once. This principle applies
+especially in warm climates. Even the daily removal of refuse entails
+the necessity of places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore
+this principle must be applied in various ways to suit local
+convenience. In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there is less
+danger of injury to health from decomposing matters than there would
+be in hot, moist, or close positions. In the country generally there
+is less risk of injury than in close parts of towns. These
+considerations show that the same stringency is not necessarily
+required everywhere. Position by itself affords a certain degree of
+protection from nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually
+produced is also another point to be considered. A small daily product
+is not, of course, so injurious as a large product. Even the manner of
+accumulating decomposing substances influences their effect on health.
+There is less risk from a dung heap to the leeward than to the
+windward of a barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily
+placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be below the
+level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the ground, into which
+the refuse is thrown in the intervals between times of removal, rain
+and surface water will mix with the refuse and hasten its
+decomposition, and generally the lowest part of the filth will not be
+removed, but will be left to fester and produce malaria. In all places
+where the occupation is permanent the following conditions should be
+attended to:
+
+1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from inhabited
+buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by the occupants. 2.
+That the places of deposit be above the level of the ground--never dug
+out of the ground. The floor of the ash pit or dung pit should be at
+least six inches above the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved
+with square sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered.
+5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide that the
+traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or in removing it
+shall not produce a polluted surface.
+
+In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized for manure
+or otherwise are burned. But this is an operation which, if done
+unskillfully, without a properly constructed kiln, may give rise to
+nuisance. One of the best forms of kiln is one now in operation at
+Ealing, which could be easily visited from London.
+
+_The removal of excreta from houses._--The chief object of a perfect
+system of house drainage is the immediate and complete removal from
+the house of all foul and effete matter directly it is produced. The
+first object--viz., removal of foul matter, can be attained either by
+the water closet system, when carried out in this integrity; but it
+could, of course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough
+always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are
+modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools in a
+house do not fulfill this condition of immediate removal. They serve
+for the retention of excremental and other matters. In a porous soil
+it endangers the purity of the wells. The Indian cities afford
+numerous examples of subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to
+the pollution of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the soil
+in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt, the
+chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to decay for many
+generations, from the presence of which the well water is impure.
+There are many factories of saltpeter in India whose supplies are
+derived from this source; and during the great French wars, when
+England blockaded all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon
+obtained saltpeter for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools
+are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected. Cesspits may,
+however, be a necessity in some special cases, as, for instance, in
+detached houses or a small detached barrack. Where they cannot be
+avoided, the following conditions as to their use should be enforced:
+
+1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling. It should be
+placed outside, and as far removed from the immediate neighborhood of
+the dwelling as circumstances will allow. There should be a ventilated
+trap placed on the pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit.
+2d. It should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of no
+leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow should be
+permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be thoroughly emptied and
+cleaned out; for the matter left at the bottom of a cesspit is liable
+to be in a highly putrescible condition.
+
+Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least offensive
+system for emptying it is the pneumatic system. This is applicable to
+the water closet refuse alone. The pneumatic system acts as follows: A
+large air-tight cylinder on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series
+of air-tight barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter,
+placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient; a
+tube of about the same diameter is led from them to the cesspit; the
+air is then exhausted in the barrels or cylinder either by means of an
+air pump or by means of steam injected into it, which, on
+condensation, forms a vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are
+drawn through the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder
+or barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this system
+has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland. He removes the
+faecal matter from water closets and the sedimentary production of
+kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency. He places large air-tight tanks in
+a suitable part of the town, to which he leads pipes from all houses.
+He creates a vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the
+faecal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have been tried
+for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the hand removal of
+excreta. The first was the combination of the privy with an ashpit
+above the surface of the ground, the ashes and excreta being mixed
+together, and both being removed periodically. The next improvement
+was the provision of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest
+arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken out, the
+contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the box replaced. The
+difficulty of cleansing the angles of the boxes led to the adoption of
+oval or round pails. The pail is placed under the seat, and removed at
+stated intervals, or when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In
+Marseilles and Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ
+cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes
+hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The household is
+furnished with three or four of these vessels, and when one is full
+the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel thus remaining in a
+harmless condition in the house till taken away by the authorities and
+replaced by a clean one. The contents are converted into manure. In
+consequence of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next
+improvement was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily.
+In the north of England the arrangement generally is that the ashes
+shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are sifted--the finer
+fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser pass into a box,
+whence they can be taken to be again burned--while a separate shoot is
+provided for kitchen refuse, which falls into another pail adjacent.
+
+Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the excreta is the
+dry earth system as applied in the earth closet, in which advantage is
+taken of the deodorizing properties of earth. Dry earth is a good
+deodorizer; 11/2 lb. of dry earth of good garden ground or clay will
+deodorize such excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or
+gravel. If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and
+it is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed
+until it has been used ten or twelve times. This system requires close
+attention, or the dry earth closet will get out of order; as compared
+with water closets, it is cheaper in first construction, and is not
+liable to injury by frost; and it has this advantage over any form of
+cesspit--that it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of
+the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as follows: Cost
+of closet, say, L500; expense of ovens, carts, horses, etc., L250;
+total capital, L750, at 6 per cent. L37 10_s._ interest. Wages of two
+men and a boy per week, L1 12_s._; keep of horses, stables, etc., 18_s._;
+fuel for drying earth, 1_s._ 6_d._ per ton dried daily, L1 10_s._; cost of
+earth and repairs, etc., 14_s._; weekly expenses, L4 14_s._ Yearly
+expenses, L247 (equal to 4_s._ 11_d._ per ton per annum); interest, L37
+10_s._--total, L284 10_s._, against which should be put the value of the
+manure. But the value of the manure is simply a question of carriage.
+If the manure is highly concentrated, like guano, it can stand a high
+carriage. If the manuring elements are diffused through a large bulk
+of passive substances, the cost of the carriage of the extra, or
+non-manuring, elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by
+adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large quantity
+of manure, containing much besides the actual manuring elements--such
+as is generally the case with dry earth--as soon as the districts
+immediately around have been fully supplied, a point is soon reached
+at which it is impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry
+earth system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions
+where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable to
+large towns from the practical difficulties connected with procuring,
+carting, and storing the dry earth.
+
+With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be separated
+from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the offensiveness would be
+much diminished, and deodorization be unnecessary, a method for
+getting rid of the liquid portion by what is termed the Goux system
+has been in use at Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail
+with a composition formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which
+can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to give it
+adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position by a means of a
+core or mould, which is allowed to remain in the pails until just
+before they are about to be placed under the seat; the core is then
+withdrawn, and the pail is left ready for use. The liquid which passes
+into the pail soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing
+medium. The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick to the
+central space in a tub of the above dimensions would be about two to
+one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this proportion would be
+insufficient to produce a dry mass in the tubs when used for a week,
+and experience has shown that after being in use for several days the
+absorbing power of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole
+contents have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain by
+the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from nuisance, and
+though it removes the risk of splashing and does away with much of the
+unsightliness of the contents, the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds
+extra weight which has to be carried to and from the houses, is rather
+a disadvantage than otherwise from the manurial point of view.
+
+The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways in the
+northern towns of England, and in the permanent camps to some extent
+at least, and of which the French "tinette" is an improved form, is
+more economically convenient than the dry earth system or the Goux or
+other deodorizing system, where a large amount of removal of refuse
+has to be accomplished, because by the pail system the liquid and
+solid ejections may be collected with a very small, or even without
+any, admixture of foreign substances; and, according to theory, the
+manurial value of dejections per head per annum ought to be from 8_s._
+to 10_s._ The great superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the
+pail or pan systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even
+the middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is
+reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles
+being sometimes effected daily, and the period never exceeding a week.
+The excrementitious matter is removed without soaking in the ground or
+putrefying in the midst of a population.
+
+These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the equally
+important refuse liquid--viz., the waste water from washing and
+stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains for the purpose of
+removing the waste water, it is more economical to allow this waste
+water to carry away the excreta. In any case, you must have drains for
+removing the fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much
+of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take
+precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which the drains are
+liable to contain from passing into your houses.
+
+There is a method which you might find useful on a small scale to
+which I will now draw your attention, as it is applicable to detached
+houses or small barracks--viz., the plan of applying the domestic
+water to land through underground drains, or what is called subsoil
+irrigation. This system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of
+sewage matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open
+irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might be
+exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation
+supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult question. This
+system was applied some years ago by Mr. Waring in Newport, in the
+United States. It has recently been introduced into this country.
+
+The system is briefly as follows: The water from the house is carried
+through a water-tight drain to the ground where the irrigation is to
+be applied. It is there passed through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1
+ft. below the surface, with open joints, by means of which it
+percolates into the soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid
+intermediately between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the
+soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent deposit,
+which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic water is allowed to
+trickle through the drains as it passes away from the house it soon
+chokes the drains. It is, therefore, necessary to pass it in flushes
+through the drains, and this can be best managed by running the water
+from the house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs
+off in a body when full.
+
+When you have water closet and drainage, the great object to be
+attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas from passing
+from the main sewer into the house drain. It was the custom to place a
+flap at the junction of the house drain with the sewer; but this flap
+is useless for preventing sewer gas from passing up the house drain.
+The plan was therefore adopted of placing a water trap under the water
+closet basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the
+drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very great,
+consequently the water in the trap would absorb this gas. When the
+water became warm from increase of temperature, it would give out the
+gas into the house; when it cooled down at night, it would again
+absorb more gas from the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature
+would cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually.
+
+These objections have led to the present recognized system--viz., 1st,
+to place a water trap on the drain to cut off the sewer gases from the
+foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to place an opening to the outer air
+on the soil pipe between the trap and the house to secure efficient
+disconnection between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover,
+necessary to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house
+drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible products
+which may be in it. To do this, we must insure that a current of air
+shall be continually passing through the drains; both an inlet and an
+outlet for fresh air must be provided in the portions of the house
+drain which are cut off from the main sewer, for without an inlet and
+outlet there can be no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet
+can be obtained in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet
+may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter, and
+with an open top to above the roof, in a position away from the
+windows, skylights, or chimneys. And, secondly, an inlet may be
+obtained by an opening into the house drain, on the dwelling side of
+and close to the trap, by means of the disconnecting manhole or
+branch-pipe before mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the
+inlet by means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet
+should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any case less
+than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance and the
+difficulty of conveying the excreta without lodgments, an open gutter
+would be preferable to a closed pipe in the house. This arrangement is
+based on the principle that there should be no deposit in the house
+drains. Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house
+drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to give the
+adequate inclination.
+
+The following are desirable conditions to observe in house drains: 1.
+As to material of pipes. House drains should be made either of glazed
+stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with cement joints, or preferably of
+cast iron pipes jointed with carefully-made lead joints, or with
+turned joints and bored sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New
+York the iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by
+the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a rainwater
+pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes. A lead joint
+cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore the lead joint is to
+some extent a guarantee of soundness. Lead pipes will be eaten away by
+water containing free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure
+rainwater injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will
+also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes appear
+in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that allows sewer gas to pass
+into the house. Moreover, lead is a soft material; it is subject to
+indentations, to injury from nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when
+coated with sewage matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and
+if of sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once well
+fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore, advocate cast
+iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the soilpipe which is to
+receive a water-closet, the trap should form part of the fixed pipe;
+so that if there is any sinking the down pipe will not sink away from
+the trap. It is, however, not sufficient to provide good material.
+There is nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view
+than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter, it is on
+details that all depends. Just consider; the drain pipes under the
+best conditions of aeration contain elements of danger, and those
+pipes are composed of a number of parts, at the point of junction of
+any one of which the poison may escape into the house. You thus
+perceive how necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum
+by cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from the
+street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place being most
+careful in the workmanship of every part of your house drains and
+soilpipes. Reduce your danger where you can by putting your pipes
+outside. But you cannot always do that--for instance, at New York and
+in Canada they would freeze.
+
+All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by plugging up the
+lower end of the drain pipe and filling it with water. In no case
+should a soilpipe be built inside a wall. It should be so placed as to
+be always accessible. 2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter.
+In no instance need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in
+diameter. 3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with
+true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper would be
+preferable. When from circumstances the drain is laid at a smaller
+inclination, a flush tank should be provided. They should be laid in
+straight lines from point to point. At every change of direction there
+should be reserved a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should
+be constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in
+particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases the pipe
+should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid under the house
+should be laid perfectly straight--a means of access should be
+provided at each end; it should have a free air current passing
+through it from end to end, and a flush tank should be placed at the
+upper end. 5. Every house drain should be arranged so as to be
+flushed, and kept at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain
+should be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each
+end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and no pipe
+or opening should be used for ventilation unless the same be carried
+upward without angles or horizontal lengths, and with tight joints.
+The size of such pipes or openings should be fully equal to that of
+the drain pipe ventilated. 7. The upper extremities of ventilating
+pipes should be at a distance from any windows or openings, so that
+there will be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the
+interior of the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate
+at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap, so that
+a current of air would be constantly maintained through the pipe. 8.
+No rainwater pipe and no overflow or waste pipe from any cistern or
+rainwater tank, or from any sink (other than a slop sink for urine),
+or from any bath or lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe;
+but every such pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing
+through the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with an
+end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage arrangements
+of this Parkes Museum in which we are assembled were very defective
+when the building was first taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the
+committee, was requested to drain it properly, and it has been very
+successfully accomplished.
+
+I would now draw your attention to some points of detail in the
+fittings for carrying away waste water.
+
+First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned, every waste
+pipe from the sink should deliver in the open air, but it should have
+an opening at its upper end as well as at its lower end, to permit a
+current of air to pass through it; and it should be trapped close to
+the sink, so as to prevent the air being drawn through it into the
+house; otherwise you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give
+you an instance: At the University College Hospital there are some
+fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows in every day, and
+some flows away through the waste pipes; these pipes, which carry away
+nothing but fresh London water to empty in the yard, got most
+offensive simply from the decomposition of the sediment left in them
+by the London water passing through them day after day. A small waste
+pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It should be of
+a size to empty rapidly--for a bath 2 inches, a basin 11/2, inches.
+There are other points connected with fittings to which I would call
+your attention. The great inventive powers which have been applied to
+the w.c. pan are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many
+kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called "traps" have a
+tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and therefore, in
+reality, partake more or less of the nature of small cesspools, and
+nuisances are frequently attributed to the ingress of "sewer gas"
+which have nothing whatever to do with the sewers, but arise from foul
+air generated in the house drains and internal fittings. The old form
+was always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap. It is
+simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out. Any trap in which
+refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool. It is a receptacle for
+putrescrible matter. In a lead pipe your trap should always be smooth
+and without corners. The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the
+frequency of use of the trap. It varies from 1/2 inch to 31/2 inches. When
+a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper than when frequently
+used, to allow of evaporation. In the section of a w.c. pan, the
+object to be attained is to take that form in which all the parts of
+the trap can be easily examined and cleaned, in which both the pan and
+the trap will be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in
+which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of the passage
+of sewer gas.
+
+And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I have had much
+pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in these lectures the
+result of my experience in sanitary science. In doing so, I desired
+especially to impress on you who are just entering your profession the
+importance of giving effect to those principles of sanitary science
+which were left very much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I
+have not desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought,
+by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which sanitary
+science rests. That science is embodied in the words, pure earth, pure
+air, pure water. In nature that purity is insured by increasing
+movement. Neither ought we to stagnate. In the application of these
+principles your goal of to-day should be your starting-post for
+to-morrow. If I have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you
+sufficiently to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward
+to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary science.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION.
+
+
+The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known, and has
+been extensively adopted by English physicians. If the opinion means
+anything, it signifies that the two diseases are in essence one and
+the same, differing only in degree. M. Pasteur has recently found that
+by passing the bacillus of "rouget" of pigs through rabbits, he can
+effect a considerable attenuation of the "rouget" virus. He has shown
+that rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very ill
+and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series of
+rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As regards
+the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs--they are all made
+very ill, or die. But if inoculation be made on pigs from those
+rabbits, at the end of the series it is found that the pigs have the
+disease in a mild form, and, moreover, that they enjoy immunity from
+further attacks of "rouget." This simply means that the rabbits have
+effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an attenuation
+of virulence. So the pigs may be "vaccinated" with the modified virus,
+have the disease in a mild form, and thereafter be protected from the
+disease. The analogy between this process and the accepted view of
+vaccinia is very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass
+through the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations
+from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human subject, but
+cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process, though of very different
+result, mention may be made of some collateral experiments of Pasteur,
+also performed recently. Briefly, it has been discovered that the
+bacillus of the "rouget" of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by
+being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations from the
+last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense form of the
+disease. It will be remembered that the discovery of the bacillus of
+"rouget" of pigs was due to the late Dr. Thuillier.--_Lancet._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an equable
+temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have met with sudden
+death, the result of a weak heart and passionate nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONVENIENT VAULTS.
+
+
+This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept upon
+precept. Many persons have availed themselves of the cheap and easy
+means which we have formerly recommended in the shape of the daily use
+of absorbents, but a larger number strangely neglect these means, and
+foul air and impure drainage are followed by disease and death. Sifted
+coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in barrels till needed
+for use. A neat cask, filled with these absorbents, with a
+long-handled dipper, is placed in the closet, and a conspicuous
+placard directs every occupant to throw down a dipper full before
+leaving. The vaults, made to open on the outside, are then as easily
+cleaned twice a year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by
+secret, underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of
+wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create fevers.
+On this account, this arrangement is safer and better than
+water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and need never get out
+of order. There being no odor whatever, if properly attended to, it
+may be contiguous to the dwelling. An illustration of the way in which
+the latter is accomplished is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat
+addition to a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either
+from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as shown by the
+steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double walls with interposed
+solid earth, to exclude any possible impurity from the cellar in case
+of neglect. The vaults may be reached from the outside opening, for
+removing the contents. In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige
+of impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who cleans
+out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to shovel sand from a
+pit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance from the
+house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides with evergreen
+trees; for no person should be compelled to encounter drifting snows
+to reach it--an exposure often resulting in colds and sickness. A few
+dollars are the whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as
+much.--_Country Gentleman_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM.
+
+By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL.
+
+
+Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days of the sixteenth
+century, when Italian malice and intrigue swayed all Europe, and
+poisons and poisoners stalked forth unblushingly from cottage and
+palace; when crowned and mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed
+clergymen, courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in
+hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and when the
+civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of the daily repast,
+inhale the odors of flower or perfume, light a wax taper, or even
+approach the waters of the holy font. These horrors have been laid
+bare, their cause and effect explained, and tests discovered whereby
+they may be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects
+even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however, it is
+yet far removed from perfection; and there are substances so
+mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set the most delicate tests
+and powerful lenses at naught, while carrying death most horrible in
+their train; and chief of these are the products of Nature's
+laboratory, that provides some sixty species of serpents with their
+deadly venom, enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring
+habits to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation. The
+hideous _trigonocephalus_ has forced the introduction and acclimation
+of the mongoose to the cane fields of the Western tropics; the tiger
+snake (_Heplocephalus curtus_) is the terror of Australian plains; the
+fer de lance (_Craspedocephalus lanceolatus_) renders the paradise of
+Martinique almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (_Daboii russelli_)
+is the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo of
+Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding waste for
+miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (_Naja tripudians_)
+ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh of one per cent.
+of the dense population, annually, and is the more dangerous in that
+an assumed sacred character secures it largely from molestation and
+retributive justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers,
+rattlesnakes, copperheads, and moccasins (_viperinae_ and _crotalidae_),
+that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and
+annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways and like
+habits, and if the venom of all be not generically identical, the
+physiological and toxicological phenomena arising therefrom render
+them practically and specifically so. Indeed, their attributes appear
+to be mere modifications arising from difference in age, size,
+development, climate, latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided
+perhaps by idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life.
+
+In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism and precision, the
+inoculatory apparatus of the venomous reptile excels the most
+exquisite appliances devised by the surgical implement maker's art,
+and it is doubtful whether it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man.
+The mouth of the serpent is an object for the closest study,
+presenting as it does a series of independent actions, whereby the
+bones composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated, or
+rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive ligaments,
+whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or enlarged at will--any
+one part being untrammeled and unimpeded in its action by its fellows.
+The recurved, hook-like teeth are thus isolated in application, and
+each venom fang independent of its rival when so desired, and it
+becomes possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible.
+
+The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening presence
+quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear of man, and puts to
+flight the entire animal kingdom--lions, tigers, and leopards, all but
+the restless and plucky mongoose--and whose slightest scratch is
+attended with such dire results, are two in number, one in each upper
+jaw, and placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed by
+five or six times in point of size. Situated just within the lips,
+recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even the finest of
+cambric needles, they are penetrated in their longitudinal diameter by
+a delicate, hair-like canal opening into a groove at the apex,
+terminating on the anterior surface in an elongated fissure. As the
+canal is straight, and the tooth falciform, a like groove or
+longitudinal fissure is formed at the base, where it is inclosed by
+the aperture of the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus.
+
+At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just beneath the
+nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to the commissure of the
+mouth, is the poison gland, analogous to the salivary glands of man,
+that secretes a pure, mucous saliva, and also a pale straw-colored,
+half-oleaginous fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and
+saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with
+circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds lodgment
+in the central portion of the excretory duct, that along its middle is
+dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle, and where only it may be
+obtained in perfect purity.
+
+When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie backward
+along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the mouth, and thus offer
+no impediment to deglutition. Close inspection, however, at once
+reveals not only their presence, but also several rudimentary ones to
+supply their place in case of injury or accident. The bulb of the
+duct, too, is surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the
+outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle by whose
+action both duct and gland are compressed at will, conveying the
+secretion into the basal aperture of the fang, at the same time
+refilling the bulb.
+
+When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive, the reptile
+draws the posterior portion of its body into a coil or spiral, whereby
+the act of straightening, in which it hurls itself forward to nearly
+its full length, lends force to the blow, and at the same instant the
+fangs are erected, drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the
+points to look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor
+muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted, the venom being
+injected with considerable violence through the apical outlets of the
+fangs, and into the bottom of the wound. If the object is not
+attained, the venom may be thrown to considerable distances, falling
+in drops; and Sir Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa
+relates that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of six feet
+or more in length in its death agony, lest it should hurl venom in his
+eyes and create blindness; he afterward found that an officer of Her
+Majesty's XV. Regiment had been thus injured at a distance of
+_forty-five feet_, and did not recover his eyesight for more than a
+week.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, _Naja
+  haemachites_, who is fully equal to the feat described.]
+
+With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its venom, the
+creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in the wound, thereby
+dragging through and lacerating the flesh; an ingenious bit of
+devilishness hardly to be expected from so low a form of organism; but
+its frequent neglect proves it by no means mechanical, and it
+frequently occurs that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a
+short distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some
+serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water moccasin,
+are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives, and coil
+themselves about the part bitten, clinging with leech-like tenacity
+and resisting all attempts at removal. Two gentlemen of San Antonio,
+Texas,[2] who were bitten by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that
+after having inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered
+away with unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. "Snakes," remarked
+one of the victims, "usually glide smoothly away with the entire body
+prone to the ground; but the fellow I encountered traveled off with an
+up and down wave-like motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then,
+getting under a large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned,
+and raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying. 'Don't
+you feel good now?' It would require but a brief stretch of the
+imagination to constitute that serpent a veritable descendant of the
+old Devil himself."
+
+  [Footnote 2: On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.]
+
+As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the duct, a
+second (the venom being more or less mingled and diluted by the
+salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal in results; and each
+successive repetition correspondingly inoffensive until finally
+nothing but pure mucus is ejected. Nevertheless, when thoroughly
+aroused, the reptile is enabled to constantly hurl a secretion, since
+both rage and hunger swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate
+to extraordinary activity--a fortuitous circumstance to which many an
+unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The removal of a fang,
+however, affects its gland to a degree that it becomes almost
+inoperative, until such a time as a new tooth is grown, and again
+calls it into action, which is commonly but a few weeks at most; and a
+person purchasing a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it
+has been rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth
+lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered permanently
+harmless, however, by first removing the fang, and then cauterizing
+the duct by means of a needle or wire, heated to redness; when for
+experimental purposes the gland may be stimulated, and the virus drawn
+off by means of a fine-pointed syringe.
+
+In what the venom consists more than has already been described, we
+are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure to air in small
+scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol, slightly reddens
+litmus paper, and long retains its noxious properties. It has no acrid
+or burning taste, and but little if any odor; the tongue pronounces it
+inoffensive, and the mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof
+against it, and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities
+without deleterious result--all the poison that could be extracted
+from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was
+powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when poured into its
+open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless to solve the enigma of its
+action, and the microscope to detect its presence, but pathology is at
+fault to explain the reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know
+is that when introduced even in most minute quantities into an open
+wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the stream of life
+paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity. Without test or
+antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical empiricism, necessarily
+attended with no little injury in the search for specifics, and it may
+be reasonably asserted that no substance can be named so inert and
+worthless as not to have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to
+have been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor and
+adherents even among the most enlightened of the medical profession,
+who have rung all the changes of the therapeutical gamut from
+serpentaria[3] and boneset to guaco, cimicifugia, and _Aristolochia
+India_ to curare, alum, chalk, and mercury to arsenic; and in the way
+of surgical dressings and appliances everything from poultices of
+human faeces,[4] burying the part bitten in fresh earth,[5] or
+thrusting the member or entire person into the entrails of living
+animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa.
+
+  [Footnote 3: Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed
+  antidotal properties, and guaco and _Aristolochia India_ enjoyed
+  widely heralded but rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias
+  for a season. Tanjore pill (black pepper and arsenic) is still
+  extensively lauded in districts whose serpents possess little
+  vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.]
+
+  [Footnote 4: A Chinese remedy--as might be imagined.]
+
+  [Footnote 5: Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan,
+  the latter in Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is
+  cooling and soothing, and the other slightly provocative of
+  perspiration in the part, are not altogether devoid of
+  plausibility.]
+
+Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently attended with
+fatal results, such are not necessarily invariable. There are times
+and seasons when all reptiles are sluggish and inactive, and when they
+inflict comparatively trifling injuries; and the poison is much less
+virulent at certain periods than others--during chilling weather for
+instance, or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing sustenance.
+Young and small serpents, too, are less virile than large and more
+aged specimens, and it has likewise been observed that death is more
+apt to follow when the poison is received at the beginning or during
+the continuance of the heated term.
+
+The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its effects are
+manifested almost immediately after inoculation, being at once
+conveyed by the circulatory system to the great nervous centers of the
+body, resulting in rapid paralysis of such organs as are supplied with
+motive power from these sources; its physiological and toxicological
+realizations being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied
+near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary or
+the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate experiences,
+perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning pain in the member
+lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo, nausea, retching, fainting,
+coldness, and collapse; the part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or
+spotted over its surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately,
+extend to the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to
+effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by
+coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving,
+attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles, whose integrity
+is so essential to life, causing them to adhere to one another, and to
+the walls of the vessels by which they are conveyed; being no longer
+able to traverse the capillaries, oedema is produced, followed by the
+peculiar livid blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive
+perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he caused the
+ghost to describe to Hamlet
+
+  "The leprous distillment whose effect
+   Bears such an enmity to the blood of man
+   That swift as quicksilver, it courses through
+   The natural gates and alleys of the body
+   And with sudden vigor it doth posset
+   And curd like eager droppings into milk,
+   The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine
+   And a most instant tetter marked about
+   Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust
+   All my smooth body."
+
+It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major portion of
+the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed to produce a fatal
+result, since death may supervene long before such a consummation can
+be realized. It is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly,
+since the very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk
+vessels afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly dissolved
+and disorganized condition of the blood that may occur secondarily, we
+have evidences in the passive haemorrhages that attack those that have
+recovered from the immediate effects of serpent poisoning, following
+or coincident with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with
+scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs, nose, and
+bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial wounds, or all
+together, defying all styptics and haemastatics. In a case occurring
+under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in the Illinois General
+Hospital,[6] blood flowed from the gums in great profusion, and on
+examination was found destitute, even under the microscope, of the
+faintest indications of fibrine--the principle upon which coagulation
+depends. The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations,
+indicative of decomposition, producing serious illness in those
+exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may add, among
+other sequelae, aside from death produced through primary and secondary
+effects, paralysis, loss of nerve power, impotence, haemorrhage, even
+mortification or gangrene.
+
+  [Footnote 6: _Medical Independent_, 1855.]
+
+The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles of
+respiration through reflex influence of par vagum and great
+sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation is impeded, are
+among the earliest of phenomena. Breathing becoming retarded and
+laborious, the necessary supply of oxygen is no longer received, and
+blood still venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is
+returned through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain
+are gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both venom
+and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the attending train of
+symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness, rapidly passes into stupor
+followed by profound coma and ultimate dissolution--marked evidence of
+the fact that a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical
+disease; and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing save the
+general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as already noted.
+
+Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into consideration,
+the hope of the person thus poisoned rests solely upon lack of
+vitality in the serpent and its venom, and in his personal
+idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition of health, etc., and the
+varied chapters of accidents. _To look for a specific, in any sense of
+the word, is the utmost folly!_ The action of the poison and its train
+of results follow inoculation in too swift succession to be overtaken
+and counteracted by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible
+product, even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence of this
+in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest approach to a perfect
+antidote that can be secured by mortal skill, inasmuch, if quickly
+injected into the circulation, it retards and restrains the
+disorganizing process whereby the continuity of the blood corpuscles
+is lost; moreover, it is a marked antiseptic, favors the production of
+adhesive inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about
+the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison rendered less
+diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded that shall restore the
+pristine form, functions, and energy of the disorganized globules, man
+arrogates to himself supernal attributes whereby it becomes possible
+not only to save and renew, _but to create life_; and we can scarce
+expect science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival Nature
+and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws. Such, however, is
+the natural outcropping of an ignorant teaching and vulgar prejudice
+that feeds and clothes the charlatan and ascribes to savage and
+uncultured races an occult familiarity with pathological,
+physiological, and remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced
+sciences; and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander,
+and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and their
+antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more than a quarter of a
+century's standing, and amounting to several thousand pounds, is
+offered by the East India Government for the discovery of a specific
+for the bite of the cobra, and for which no claims have ever been
+advanced; and the "snake charmers" or jugglers in whom this superior
+knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the futility of
+specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected, that few venture
+to ply their calling without a broad-bladed, keen-edged knife
+concealed about the person as a means of instant amputation in case of
+accident. Medical and scientific associations of various classes, in
+Europe, Australia, America, even Africa, and the East and West Indies,
+have repeatedly held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in
+exhaustive and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the
+wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general horde of
+venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the saliva of man, as well as
+certain other secretions, is at times so modified by anger as to rival
+the venom of the serpent in fatality, and it has no specific; and a
+careful analysis of the pathological relations of such poison proves
+that further experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the
+pursuit of the "philosopher's stone."
+
+It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals whose
+natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them to be inoculated by the
+most venomous of reptiles without deleterious or unpleasant results,
+and Colonel Matthews Taylor[7] knew several persons of this character
+in India, and who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with
+nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito. Again,
+in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate of Melbourne,
+Australia,[8] met with untimely death under circumstances that
+attracted no little attention. An itinerant vender of nostrums had on
+exhibition a number of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself
+to be successively bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of
+a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round figure.
+Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and his wares valuable only
+as a means of depleting the pockets of the credulous, Mr. Drummond
+loudly asserted the inefficacy of the nostrum, as well as the
+innocuousness of the reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally
+harmless, or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in
+proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this experiment
+the charlatan was extremely averse, offering strenuous objections, and
+finally conveyed a point blank refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands
+becoming more imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed
+the audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he finally
+consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate a tiger snake,
+which he deemed least dangerous, and which instantly struck the
+gentleman in the wrist. The usual symptoms of serpent poisoning
+rapidly manifested themselves, followed by swelling and lividity of
+the part, obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in
+spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of
+physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently conceded
+the worthless character of his nostrum, declaring that be enjoyed
+exemption from the effects of of serpent poison by virtue of recovery
+from a severe inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew
+"some people who were born so," who put him "up to this dodge" as a
+means of gaining a livelihood.
+
+  [Footnote 7: _Vide_ report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.]
+
+  [Footnote 8: London _Times_.]
+
+It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital, is
+acquired _in utero_ by the inoculation of the parent, and Oliver
+Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of "Elsie Venner" embodies many
+interesting features in this connection. Admitting such inoculation
+may secure immunity, recent experiments in the action of this as well
+as kindred poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal
+or even common, but as depending upon occult physiological or
+accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his father are
+equally proof against the contagion and inoculation of vaccination and
+variola, in spite of repeated attempts to secure both, while their
+respective mothers suffered terribly with smallpox at periods
+subsequent to the birth of their children; and it is well understood
+that there are striking analogies between the poisons of certain
+contagious fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one
+attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character. In other
+words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological ones of
+smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping cough, etc., have the power of
+so modifying the animal economy, when it does not succumb to their
+primary influence, as to ever after render it all but proof against
+them. Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in
+certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and who after
+a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer producing pain or
+swelling.
+
+Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and the septic
+ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers, they are not
+necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting to note that one
+Doctor Humboldt in 1852,[9] in an essay read before the Royal Academy
+of Medical Sciences at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and
+advocated the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic of
+the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated numberless persons
+in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom,
+thereby securing them perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from
+the extraordinary nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor
+affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent sufficient to
+produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit over the whole, and
+proofs were demanded and promised. This was the last of the subject,
+however, which soon passed into oblivion, though whether from failure
+on the part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from the
+inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine, though the
+presumption is largely in favor of the former. Nevertheless, it is
+worthy of consideration and exhaustive experimentation, since it is no
+less plausible than the theory which rendered the name of Jenner
+famous.
+
+  [Footnote 9: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are strong
+reasons for believing would be attended with happy results, the sole
+remedies available in serpent poisoning are measures looking to the
+prompt cutting off of the circulation of the affected part, and the
+direct stimulation of the heart's action and the respiratory organs,
+until such a time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical
+evidences; and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic
+stimulants are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining
+cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use is prolonged
+efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend rather to hasten a fatal
+result. They are devoid of the slightest antidotal properties, and in
+no way modify the activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so
+far from enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited, is
+far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled intellect.
+The reasons are obvious. Theoretically, for purely physiological and
+therapeutic reasons _amyl nitrite_ should be of incalculable value,
+though I have no knowledge of its use in this connection, since its
+vapor when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action,
+and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached in its control
+of spasmodically contracted vessels and muscles. The relief its vapor
+affords in the collapse of chloroform anaesthesia, in which dissolution
+is imminent from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its
+effect upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia
+are equally prompt. Moreover, without further discussing its
+physiological functions, it is the nearest approach to an antidote to
+certain zymotic poisons, and especially valuable in warding off and
+aborting the action of the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or
+whooping cough. _Iodide of ethyl_ is another therapeutical measure
+that is worthy of consideration; and _iodoform_ in the treatment of
+the sequelae incident to recovery.
+
+The native population of India, in spite of the contrary accepted
+opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums that lay claim to
+being antidotes. The person inoculated by the cobra is at once seized
+by his friends, and constant and violent exercise enforced, if
+necessary at the point of stick, and severe and cruel (but
+nevertheless truly merciful) beatings are often a result. In this we
+see a direct application, without in the least understanding them, of
+the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results, as for
+the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent poisoning
+almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor Spillsbury (Physician-General
+of Calcutta),[10] while stationed at Jubulpore, Central India, was
+informed late one evening that his favorite horse keeper had just been
+dangerously bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than
+ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in spite of the
+wails and protestations of the sufferer and his friends, with whom a
+fatal result was already a foregone conclusion, the doctor caused his
+wrists to be bound firmly and inextricably to the back of the vehicle;
+then assuring the man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be
+dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly away. Three
+hours later, or a little more, he returned, having covered nearly
+thirty miles without cessation or once drawing rein. The horse keeper
+was found bathed in profuse perspiration, and almost powerless from
+excessive fatigue. _Eau de luce_, an aromatic preparation of ammonia,
+was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a diffusible
+stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise enforced until near
+dawn, when the sufferer was found to be completely recovered.
+
+  [Footnote 10: London _Lancet_.]
+
+The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration, thereby
+securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging poison from the
+system, is well known; in no other way can action be had so thorough,
+speedy, and prompt. Captain Maxwell[11] tells us it was formerly the
+custom among the Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested
+unmistakable evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death of the
+unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds. In one instance,
+after undergoing this treatment, the supposed corpse was seen, to the
+horror and surprise of all who witnessed it, to crawl from between the
+bolsters, when he was found to be entirely free from his disorder; the
+beds, however, were saturated through and through with the
+perspiration that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal
+agony. More recently a French physician,[12] recognizing the incubatory
+stage of rabies in his own person, resolved upon suicide rather than
+undergo its attendant horrors. The hot bath was selected for the
+purpose, with a view of gradually increasing its temperature until
+syncope should be induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death.
+To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water rose, his
+sensations of distress improved; and the very means chosen for
+terminating life became instead his salvation, restoring to perfect
+health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood[13] relates that a blacksmith residing in
+the neighborhood of his country house was in high repute for miles
+about by reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply in
+forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid walk or trot for
+twenty miles or more, after which he administered copious draughts of
+a hot decoction of broom tops, as much for its moral effect as for its
+value in sustaining and prolonging established diaphoresis.
+
+  [Footnote 11: Wild Sports or the West.]
+
+  [Footnote 12: _L'Union Medicale_--name withheld by request of the
+  gentleman.]
+
+  [Footnote 13: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and serpent
+poisoning are by no means parallel, the _rationale_ of the methods
+employed in opening the emunctories of the skin are the same; and were
+it not for its powerful protracting effect and depressing action upon
+the heart, we might perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi
+(_pilocarpus_), since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as
+it is, more is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the
+latter. It would be desirable also to know what influence the Turkish
+bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at least of trial.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT.
+
+
+_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
+
+Given latitude N. 40 deg. 51', declination N. 20 deg. 25', sun 18 deg. below the
+horizon. To find the time of twilight at that place. In the
+accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial, D D = parallel of
+declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O = the horizon, P = North
+pole, Z = zenith, and S = the sun, 18 deg. below the horizon, H O,
+measured on a vertical circle. It is seen that we have here given us
+the three sides of a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49 deg. 9',
+the co declination 69 deg. 35', and the zenith distance 108 deg., with which
+to compute the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139 deg. 16' 5.6".
+Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from noon to the
+beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in the given latitude and
+declination, the sun's center coincides with the horizon at sunset
+(allowance being made for refraction), at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from
+apparent noon. Then if we subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m.
+24.4 s., we shall have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight.
+But the real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has
+descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the sun's upper
+limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon. This takes place 7
+h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is hoped the above will be a sufficient
+answer to L.N. (See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.)
+
+B.W. H.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.
+
+
+The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has recently spoken
+before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and we extract from his
+discourse on "Fossil Man and Savages" some notes reported in the
+_Journal d'Hygiene_: "It is in Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and
+in Polynesia where I have looked for examples of savage races. I have
+scarcely spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the
+features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups which they at
+times touch, and which in turn frequently mingle with them. I have
+especially studied the Papuans and Negritos. The Papuans are an
+exclusively Pelasgic race, that many anthropologists consider as
+almost confined to New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it
+becomes more and more manifest that they have had also periods of
+expansion and of dissemination.
+
+"On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of Micronesia;
+on the other we have shown--M. Hamy and myself--that to them alone can
+be assigned the skulls found in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They
+have hence touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime
+world.
+
+"The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day confounded
+with the Papuans by some anthropologists, have spread to the west and
+northwest.
+
+"They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them yet in the
+Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay archipelago; they
+constitute the indigenous population of the Andaman Islands, in the
+Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have formerly occupied a great part of
+the two peninsulas of India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can
+follow their steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus
+to Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this race,
+whose representatives in the past have been the type of the Asiatic
+pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and whose _creoles_ were
+those Ethiopians, black and with smooth hair, who figured in the army
+of Xerxes.
+
+"I have devoted two long examinations to another black race much less
+important in numbers and in the extent of their domain, but which
+possess for the anthropologist a very peculiar interest and a sad one.
+It exists no more; its last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I
+refer to the Tasmanians.
+
+"The documents gathered by various English writers, and above all by
+Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual and moral character
+of the Tasmanians. The complete destruction of the Tasmanians,
+accomplished in at most 72 years over a territory measuring 4,400
+square leagues, raises a sorrowful and difficult question. Their
+extinction has been explained by the barbarity of the civilized
+Europeans, and which, often conspicuous, has never been more
+destructively present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians. But
+I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly do not wish to
+apologize for or extenuate the crimes of the convicts and colonists,
+against which the most vigorous protests have been raised both in
+England and in the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters
+have been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians.
+They have perished from that strange malady which Europeans have
+everywhere transplanted in the maritime world, and which strikes down
+the most flourishing populations.
+
+"Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil. But if it
+explains the increase of the death rate, it does not explain the
+diminution of births. Both these phenomena are apparent. Captain Juan
+has seen at the Marquesas, in the island of Taio-Hahe, the population
+fall in three years from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate,
+we find only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate
+populations rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the
+disappearance of the Tasmanians."
+
+The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia, speaks of
+his interest in the western representatives of these races and his
+special studies in New Zealand, and referring to the latter continues:
+
+"One of the most important results of the labors in this direction has
+been to establish the serious value of the historical songs preserved,
+among the Maoris, by the _Tohungus_, or _wise men_, who represent the
+_Aiepas_ of Tahiti. Thanks to these living archives, we have been able
+to reconstruct a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of
+the first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from
+their other centers of population, and to determine their point of
+departure."
+
+Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding. One is
+devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of the Nilgherie Hills, who
+by their physical, intellectual, and social characteristics differ
+from all the other races of India. "The Todas burn their dead, and we
+possess none of their skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived
+among them, I have been able to fill up this gap."
+
+The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns of Finland,
+whose study reveals the fact that they embrace two ethnic types, one
+of which, the _Tavastlanda_, belongs without doubt to the great
+Finnish family, spread over Asia as well as in Europe, and a second,
+the Karelien, whose representatives possessed the poetic instinct,
+which causes M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, "to whom
+we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas to the poems
+of to-day."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.
+
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Although so much has been written about Athens, there is one striking
+feature which has been little noticed. This is the beautiful colors of
+the Parthenon and Erectheum, the soft mellow yellow which is due to
+age, and which gives these buildings when lighted by the setting sun,
+and framed by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of
+gold.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Until A.D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect, and then not
+age but a shell from the Venetians falling upon Turkish powder, made a
+rent which, when seen from below, makes it look like two temples.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.]
+
+The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of the oldest of
+the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded in B.C. 469, and is a
+small, graceful, and perfect Doric temple. Having served as a
+Christian church, dedicated to St. George, it escaped injury. It
+contains the beautiful and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the
+warrior of Marathon.
+
+[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.]
+
+All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A.D. 132) are a
+few standing columns in an open space, which are imposing from their
+isolated position.
+
+[Illustration: OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.]
+
+The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been begun A.D. 110,
+and for a king in Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.]
+
+The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes about B.C.
+100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial, and a water clock. It is an
+octagonal building, with reliefs on the frieze, representing by
+appropriate figures the eight winds into which the Athenian compass
+was divided.
+
+[Illustration: THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.]
+
+In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing as they
+were found; each year shows many changes in Athens, a tomb last year
+in the Ceramicus may be this year in a museum. There is a great
+similarity in all these tombstones; no doubt they were made
+beforehand, as they seldom suggest the idea of a portrait. They
+generally represent an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends
+standing in the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the
+dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently a dog.
+
+[Illustration: ERECTEUM, ATHENS.]
+
+Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the groves of the
+Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was the road to Eleusis, and
+along which passed the annual sacred processions in the days of the
+Mysteries. Cut there in the rock are the niches for the votive
+offerings. This dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of
+mystery which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once
+observed there.
+
+[Illustration: NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO
+ELEUSIS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.]
+
+From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be seen the
+great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly above the site of
+ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort; the Turkish drawbridge and
+gate stand open and unused. There are on it remains of a Turkish town;
+at one time it was one of the strongest and most important citadels in
+Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched, straggling
+village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive columns. These are
+all that remain of the Temple, and indeed of ancient Corinth. The
+pillars, of the Doric order, are of a brown limestone, not of the
+country. The Turks and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and
+driven the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's
+drive from the Gulf.--_London Graphic_.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.]
+
+[Illustration: TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SPANISH FISHERIES.
+
+
+The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was large and well
+furnished, there being several characteristic models of vessels. No
+certain figures can be obtained of the results of the whole fishing
+industry of Spain. It is, however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a
+tonnage of 51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They gave
+occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons of fish. The
+Government interfere in the fishing industry only to the extent of
+collecting and distributing information to the fishermen on subjects
+that are most likely to be of use to them in their calling. In
+consequence, principally no doubt of this wise policy, we find in
+Spain a vigorous and self-reliant class of men engaged in the
+fisheries. Some of the most interesting features in the Spanish Court
+were the contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations,
+and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection of
+articles that would have formed a good basis in itself for an
+exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was the fishing industry of
+the nation better illustrated by private enterprise than in that of
+Spain. The fishing associations referred to are half benefit societies
+and half trading communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small
+pamphlet, from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members
+divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons or men in
+charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of directors, consisting of 22
+owners, and 24 masters of boats or ordinary fishermen, has the sole
+control of the affairs of the society. The meetings are presided over
+by a majordomo elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a
+boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend of 8,000
+reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest when expressed as 80_l_.
+He has two clerks, who are on the permanent staff, to help him. His
+duties are to keep the books with the assistance of the two clerks, to
+take charge of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make
+necessary payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower and
+guides boats entering the harbor. The _atalayero_ is an official of
+the society, whose duty it is to station himself on the heights and
+signal by means of smoke, to the boats at sea, the movements of
+schools of sardines and anchovies or probable changes of weather. It
+is also the duty of this officer to weigh all the bream caught from
+the 1st November to the 31st of March, for which he receives a
+"gratuity" of 100 pesetas, or say 4_l._, sterling. Two other seneros,
+or signalmen, are told off to keep all boats in port during bad
+weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances appear
+favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference of opinion between
+these experts as to the meteorological probabilities, the patrons, or
+skippers of the fishing-boats, are summoned in council and their
+opinion taken by "secret vote with black and white balls." The
+decision so arrived at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail
+should it be so decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the
+funds of the association. The boats carrying the seneros fly a color
+by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the other vessels.
+These seneros appear to be the Spanish equivalent to the English
+admiral of a trawling fleet.
+
+The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or two models of
+them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class boat will be of about
+the following dimensions: Length over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth
+(extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3 in.; depth (inside), 3 ft. 10 in. to 4
+ft. The keel is of oak 6 in. by 31/2 in. The stem and stern posts are
+also of oak. The planking is generally of oak or walnut--the latter
+preferred--and is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 41/2 in.
+Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the water line and
+Norway pine above.
+
+The fastenings are galvanized nails 41/2 in. long. The mast-partners and
+all the thwarts are of oak 11/2 in. thick and 8 in. wide; the latter are
+fastened in with iron knees. Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut,
+or chestnut; the rudder extends 31/2 ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and,
+in giving lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust
+down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two lags, the
+smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat; the mainmast being
+amidships. The lug sails are set on long yards, the fair-weather rig
+consisting of a fore lug with 120 square yards, and a main lug of 200
+square yards. There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted
+for the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner similar
+to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce canvas. The fair
+weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and 36 ft. long, and yards 28
+ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively. The oars are 16 ft. long, and are
+pulled double-banked. Such a boat will cost 90_l._ to 100_l._ fitted for
+sea, of which sum the hull will represent rather more than half. These
+vessels generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three to
+four in the morning until the same time in the evening. Tunny, merluza
+(a species of cod), and bream are the principal fish taken. The
+first-named are caught by hook and line operated by means of poles
+rigged out from the boat much in the same way, apparently, as we drail
+for mackerel on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used
+for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off the land
+and run back before the prevailing wind, until they are about nine
+miles from the shore or until they lose the fish. When the fisherman
+gets a bite the wind is spilled out of the sail so as to deaden the
+boat's way. The fish is then got alongside, promptly gaffed, and got
+on board. Tunny sells for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito.
+The season extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the
+winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are caught by
+hook and line in two ways. The first is worth describing. A line 50
+fathoms long has bent to it snoods with hooks attached, 16 in. apart.
+Each man handles three lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line,
+to the end of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until
+soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the operation
+repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away freely, and this
+goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard. When, by the lively and
+continuous jerking of the line, the fisherman concludes that he has a
+good number of fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare
+to shoot again.
+
+The second method of taking the bream is by long lining; fifty of the
+lines we have just described being bent together and duly anchored and
+buoyed. Spaniards do not much care for this way of fishing, as it is
+costly in bait and the gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells
+at about 31/2d. a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of
+the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh the price
+is about 6_d._ per lb. A small quantity is preserved in tins. Anchovy or
+cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes the two are placed on one hook.
+
+A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially
+for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine weather they often
+engage in the same fishery as the larger boats. The traineras are
+light and shapely vessels, with a graceful sheer and curved stem and
+stern posts. The keel is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has
+considerable hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length, 38
+feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2 feet 6
+inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are much the same as in
+the larger boats, excepting that there are only four shifts in place
+of six. The largest main lug has an area of about 90 square yards and
+the fore lug about 50 square yards. The other sails for heavier
+weather are naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are
+respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of one of
+these boats and gear is about L122, made up as follows: Hull, L32;
+sails, gear, and oars, L30; nets and gear attached, L60. The season
+for anchovy fishing commences on the 1st of March and ends 30th of
+June; it begins again on the 15th of September, and continues until
+the end of the year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9
+miles from the land, although they often come in much closer.
+Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some are used
+for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are put on the land
+for manure. The greater part are, however, preserved in barrels or
+tins, and are exported to France or England.
+
+The net used in the capture of anchovies is called _traina_ or _copo_.
+It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of the United
+States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as are many of the
+nets, which, in American waters, will inclose a whole school of
+mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms long. The depth is 7 to 10
+fathoms, and the mesh 3/4 inch. Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of
+July and lasts until December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles
+off shore. The price of sardines on the coast is about 21/2d. per pound.
+When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the traina in
+the same way as anchovies, a net of 1/2-inch mesh being used. Sardines
+are also taken by gill nets about 200 feet long and 18 feet wide. When
+used in the daytime the fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the
+liver of cod. When the sardines have been attracted to the
+neighborhood of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The
+fish in their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These
+nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no bait is
+used.
+
+A third class of boats of much the same character are of about the
+following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet; beam, 7 feet 6
+inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The two
+lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards of canvas respectively. They
+are used for sardine catching, when they will carry a crew of four
+men, or for taking conger and cod, in which case they will be manned
+by eight hands.
+
+Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull, L15; gear and
+sail, L10; nets and lines, L13; about L40. The conger season extends
+from March to June, and from October to November. The fish are taken
+by hook and line; sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is
+taken by a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait.
+
+There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may be noticed the
+_bateler_, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16 ft. long, about 51/2
+ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed by one man, set a good
+spread of canvas, and are fast and handy. They are used for taking a
+species of cuttlefish which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and
+line, the fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they
+rush, when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a small
+well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive. None of the
+boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast. They have flat
+hollow floors, and set a large area of of canvas on a shallow draught.
+Lobster fishing is pursued in much the same manner as in England, but
+often four or five miles from land, and in very deep water.
+
+One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was a
+full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole cut in the
+bottom amidships. Through this hole was let down a glass frame in
+which was placed a powerful paraffine lamp. The object of this was to
+attract the fish. It is said that tunny will be drawn from a distance
+of over a hundred yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be
+enticed into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light
+in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving
+operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the
+direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night by a lamp
+to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK.
+
+
+Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and desolate spot
+imaginable during this weather. The frigid monotony of winter has
+settled down upon that region, and now it is haunted only by sea fowl.
+The bleak, barren promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean
+of its summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across it,
+and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the great breakers
+hurled against the narrow sand spit which makes the eastern terminus
+of the island. The tall, white towered light and its black lantern,
+now writhing in frosty northern blizzards, and again shivering in
+easterly gales, now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas
+all about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only
+habitation worthy of the name for many miles around. Keeper Clark and
+his family and assistants are almost perpetually fenced in from the
+outside world by the cold weather, and have to hug closely the roaring
+fires that protect them in that desolation.
+
+But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family would die of
+inanition. With the cold weather comes the ducks, and they continue to
+come till the warmer blasts of spring drive them to the northward.
+Montauk Point is a favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a
+good feeding ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather
+shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the point is
+being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and the reports of their
+successes increase the applicants for lodgings at the light. Some 20
+gunners were out there last week with the most improved paraphernalia
+for the sport, and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite
+method of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the
+point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory
+birds in passing south seem to have it down in their log-book that
+they must not only sight this structure, but must also fly over it as
+nearly as possible. Hence the variety and extent of the flocks which
+are continually passing is a matter of interest and wonder to a
+student of natural history as well as to the sportsman. Coots,
+whistlers, soft bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild
+geese, and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this long and
+strange procession, and the air is frequently so densely packed with
+them as to be actually darkened, while the keen, whistling music of
+their whizzing wings makes a melody that comparatively few landsmen
+ever hear. Millions of the birds never hesitate at this point in their
+flight, although thousands of them do. These latter make the
+neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter. Great flocks
+of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged shores, and the
+frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond Bay, lying to the westward, are
+their favorite feeding-grounds. The birds are always as fat as butter
+when making their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to
+their being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting
+operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it the heads
+of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point this winter.
+
+Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak the
+flights are heavy, and from that time until seven o'clock in the
+morning they increase until it seems as though all the flocks which
+had spent the night in the caves and ponds on the Connecticut shore
+were on the wing and away for the south. By ten o'clock in the
+forenoon the flights grow rarer, and the rest of the day only
+stragglers come along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these
+birds easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand
+the inclemency of the weather.
+
+Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has dawned for two
+months but that several of the poor birds have been picked up at the
+foot of the light house tower with the broken necks which have mutely
+told the story of death, reached by plunging headlong against the
+crystal walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before. There
+is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the wing at night to
+fly very high. But the great, glaring, piercing, single eye of Montauk
+light seems to draw into it by dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet,
+its feathered victims, and they swerve in their course and make
+straight for it. As they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of
+course, grows brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what
+appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy glass, and
+they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked for the oven.
+Inside the lantern the thud made by these birds when they strike is
+readily felt. Although they are comparatively small, yet so great is
+their velocity that the impact creates a perceptible jar, and the
+lantern is disfigured with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and
+foggy nights the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When
+the weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins,
+sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about the
+light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished in
+the morning. Large cranes show themselves to be almost dangerous
+visitors. Recently one of these weighing 40 pounds struck the wrought
+iron guard railing about the lantern with such force as to bend the
+iron slats and to completely sever his long neck from his body.--_N.Y.
+Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HORNBEAMS.
+
+
+The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the temperate
+regions of the northern hemisphere. There are nine species known to
+botanists, most of them being middle-sized trees. In addition to those
+mentioned below, figures of which are herewith given, there are four
+species from Japan and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet
+seem to have found their way to this country; these five are therefore
+omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly
+deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English name is quaintly
+explained by Gerard in his "Herbal" as follows: "The wood," he says,
+"in time, waxeth so hard, that the toughness and hardness of it may be
+rather compared to horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called
+horne-beam or hardbeam."
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.]
+
+_Carpinus Betulus_,[1] the common hornbeam, as is the case with so
+many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits considerable
+variation in habit, and also in foliage characters. Some of the more
+striking of these, those which have received names in nurseries, etc.,
+and are propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are
+described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe from
+Gothland southward, and extends also into West Asia. Although
+apparently an undoubted native in the southern counties of England, it
+appears to have no claim to be considered indigenous as far as the
+northern counties are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it
+occurs in Ireland.
+
+  [Footnote 1: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon,
+  "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl.
+  of Trees and Shrubs, 917. Boswell Syme, "English Botany," vol.
+  viii., p. 176, tab. 1293; Koch, "Dendrologie," zweit. theil.
+  zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, "Student's Flora of the British
+  Islands," ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host., "Flora Austriaca,"
+  ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic. fl. Germ. et
+  Helvet., xxii. fig. 1297.]
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS AMERICANA.]
+
+Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for this reason,
+during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in high repute for the
+formation of the "close alleys," "covert alleys," or the
+"thick-pleached alleys," frequently mentioned in Shakespeare and in
+the works of other authors about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth
+century the topiary art had reached its highest point of development,
+and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the hornbeam--and
+indeed almost every other tree--was cut and tortured into every
+imaginable shape. The "picturesque style," however, soon drove the
+topiarist and his art out of the field, yet even now places still
+remain in England where the old and once much-belauded fashion still
+exists on a large scale--a fact by no means to be deplored from an
+archaeological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam hedges
+are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old English mansions, and in
+some old country farmhouses the sixteenth century craze is still
+perpetuated on a smaller scale.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.]
+
+Sir J.E. Smith, in his "English Flora," after enumerating the virtues
+of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his opinion that "when
+standing by itself and allowed to take its natural form, the hornbeam
+makes a much more handsome tree than most people are aware of." Those
+who are familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley Park
+and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming Sir J.E. Smith's
+statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park, from Pembroke Lodge
+toward the Ham Gate, will recur to many Southerners as a good instance
+of the fitness of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question
+there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and agreeable shade
+during the summer months.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS VIMINEA.]
+
+In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily, except
+exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky hillsides it does not
+grow so freely as on clayey plains. Under the latter conditions,
+however, the wood is not so good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam
+occupies a zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely
+ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not injured by
+frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing the edges of the beech
+forests along the bottom of the valleys where the beech would suffer.
+Scarcely any tree coppices more vigorously or makes more useful
+pollards on dry grass land.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.]
+
+On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam is employed
+in engineering work for cogs in machinery. When subjected to vertical
+pressure it cannot be completely destroyed; its fibers, instead of
+breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its
+flexibility and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's "Timber
+and Timber Trees"). According to the same recent authority, the
+vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average 14.844 tons,
+while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons.
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.]
+
+A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity of hornbeam
+wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed to procure it in
+England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining a supply from France,
+where large quantities of this timber are used for that purpose. It
+may be interesting to state that in England at any rate lasts are no
+longer made to any extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous
+numbers by machinery. In France _sabots_ are also made of hornbeam
+wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render it less
+valuable for _sabotage_ than beech. For turnery generally, cabinet
+making, and also for agricultural implements, etc., this wood is
+highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing districts, viz., Cote
+d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the wine barrels are largely made from this
+tree. It makes the best fuel and it is preferred to every other for
+apartments, as it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns
+equally, continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat.
+"Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland it is
+preferred to most others, not only for forges and for cooking by, but
+for making gunpowder, the workmen at the great gunpowder manufactory
+at Berne rarely using any other. The inner bark, according to Linnaeus,
+is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the sun, are used
+in France as fodder; and when wanted for use in water, the young
+branches are cut off in the middle of summer, between the first and
+second growth, and strewed or spread out in some place which is
+completely sheltered from the rain to dry without the tree being in
+the slightest degree injured by the operation." (Dict. des Eaux et
+Forets, art. Charme, as quoted by London).
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.]
+
+It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the hornbeam as a
+hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it is largely used for these
+purposes, the russet-brown leaves remaining on the twigs until
+displaced by the new growths in spring.
+
+_Var. incisa_ (Aiton, "Hortus Kewensis," v., 301; C. asplenifolia,
+Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).--These three names represent two forms,
+which are, however, so near each other, that for all practical
+purposes they are identical. A glance at the accompanying figure will
+show how distinct and ornamental this variety is.
+
+[Illustration: HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).]
+
+_Var. quercifolia_ (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus. d'hist.
+nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla,
+Hort.)--This form, as will be seen by the figure, is thoroughly
+distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very much smaller leaves
+than the type, their outline, as implied by the varietal name,
+resembling that of the foliage of the oak. It frequently reverts to
+the type, and, as far as my experience goes, appears to be much less
+fixed than the variety incisa.
+
+_Var. purpurea_ (Hort.).--The young leaves of this are brownish red;
+it is well worth growing for the pleasing color effect produced by the
+young growths in spring. Apart from color it does not differ from the
+type.
+
+_Var. fastigiata_ (Hort.).--In this variety the branches are more
+ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed, among the
+hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate varieties of the
+common oak.
+
+_Var. variegata_, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata
+(albo-marmorata).--These names represent forms differing so slightly
+from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them separately,
+or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that I have seen is the
+variegation at all striking, and, except in tree collections,
+variegated hornbeams are hardly worth growing.
+
+[Illustration: FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER. CARPINUS BETULUS (Full
+grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).]
+
+_Carpinus orientalis_[2] (the Oriental hornbeam) principally differs
+from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser leaves with
+downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated bractlets. It is a
+native of the south of Europe, whence it extends to the Caucasus, and
+probably also to China; the Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely
+seems to differ, in any material point at any rate, from western
+examples of C. orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to
+this country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that it
+is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth growing; the
+short twiggy branches, densely clothed with dark green leaves, form a
+thoroughly efficient screen. The plant bears cutting quite as well as
+the common hornbeam, and wherever the latter will grow this will also
+succeed. In that very interesting compilation, "Hortus Collinsonianus,"
+the following memorandum occurs: "The Eastern hornbeam was raised from
+seed sent me from Persia, procured by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the
+Czarina. Received it August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year
+(1752) the hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England.
+Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into the gardens of the
+curious. At the same time, from the same source, were raised a new
+acacia, a quince, and a bermudiana, the former very different from any
+in our gardens." This memorandum was probably written from recollection
+long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the species was first
+entered in the catalogue as follows: "Azad, arbor persica carpinus
+folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from seed, anno 1747; not in England
+before." It appears, however, from Rand's "Index" that there was a
+plant of it in the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given
+by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at Duino. As,
+however, Miller had previously described it under the name orientalis,
+that one is adopted in accordance with the rule of priority, by which
+must be decided all such questions in nomenclature.
+
+  [Footnote 2: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus orientalis. Miller,
+  "Gardener's Dictionary," ed. 6 1771; La Marck, Dict, i., 107;
+  Watson, "Dendrologia Britannica," ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl.
+  Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore, "Flora Neapolitana,"
+  v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014, Encycl.
+  Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, "Dendrologie." zweit, theil zweit,
+  abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, "Flora Carniolica," 2 ed.,
+  ii., 243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, "Flora Italica," x., 233; Alph. De
+  Candolle in Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.]
+
+_The American Hornbeam_ [3] also known under the names of blue beech,
+water beech, and iron wood, although a less tree than our native
+species, which it resembles a good deal in size of foliage and general
+aspect, is nevertheless a most desirable one for the park or pleasure
+ground, on account of the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves
+in autumn. Emerson, in his "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," pays a
+just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He says: "The
+crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors, mingling into a
+rich purplish red, as seen at a distance, make it rank in splendor
+almost with the tupelo and the scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated,
+and should have a corner in every collection of trees." It has
+pointed, ovate oblong, sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves.
+The acute bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly
+cut-toothed on one side. Professor C.S. Sargent, in his catalogue of
+the "Forest Trees-of North America," gives the distribution, etc., of
+the American hornbeam as follows: "Northern Nova Scotia and New
+Brunswick, through the valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers,
+along the northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and
+Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling that of
+ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north generally a shrub or small tree,
+but becoming, in the Southern Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50
+feet in height, with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter." It will
+almost grow in any soil or exposition in this country.
+
+  [Footnote 3: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinius caroliniana, Walter,
+  "Flora Caroliniana," 236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer.,
+  ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des. Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique
+  Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson, "Dendrologia
+  Britannica," ii., 157; Gray, "Manual of the Botany of the Northern
+  United States," p. 457.]
+
+_Carpinus viminea_[4] is a rather striking species with long-pointed
+leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a sufficiently clear
+representation of their long, tail-like prolongations. Judging from
+the height at which it grows, it would probably prove hardy in this
+country, and, if so, the distinct aspect and graceful habit of the
+tree would render it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized
+tree, with thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The
+blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches in
+length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long. It is a
+native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of from 5000 to 7000
+feet above sea-level. As in our common hornbeam, the male catkins
+appear before the leaves, and the female flowers develop in spring at
+the same time as the leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood--a cubic
+foot of which weighs 50 lb.--is used for ordinary building purposes by
+the natives of Nepaul.
+
+  [Footnote 4: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall.
+  Plant. Asiat. Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D.C. Prodr., xvi., ii.,
+  127. Loudon, "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," iii., p. 2014;
+  Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 919. Brandis, "Forest Flora,"
+  492.]
+
+GEORGE NICHOLSON.
+Royal Gardens, Kew.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.
+
+
+The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather uncommon, we
+have taken the opportunity of illustrating one of three sent to us a
+fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies, South Lytchett, who says: "The fruits
+are from a large plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a
+wall with an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet
+wide. The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from time to
+time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have raised
+seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety worth sending
+out or naming."
+
+In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural size. Its
+appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard, and has a glazed
+appearance like that of porcelain. The color is pale green, except on
+the exposed side, which is dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and
+on the day after we received it the furrows opened and exposed three
+or four large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp.--_The
+Garden._
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult, owing to
+the necessity of guessing at the successive figures which form the
+divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing the _exact_ quotient
+is required, the following method will be found convenient:
+
+_Rule for division_.
+
+_First._ Treat the divisor as follows:
+
+  If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left
+  as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat the
+  product as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by 5, and
+  treat the product as a divisor.
+
+Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable.
+Call the result the _prepared divisor_.
+
+_Second._ From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure: and, if
+this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it to a 9;
+otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the _extraneous
+multiplier_.
+
+Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus truncated,
+and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous multiplier be 7,
+when increase the product by 5. Call the result the _current
+multiplier_.
+
+_Third._ Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all the
+multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor. Use
+the product to multiply the dividend, calling the result the _prepared
+dividend_.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure, multiply
+this by the current multiplier, and add the product to the truncated
+dividend. Call the sum the _modified dividend_, and treat this in the
+same way. Continue this process until a modified dividend is reached
+which equals the original prepared dividend or some previous modified
+dividend; so that, were the process continued, the same figures would
+recur.
+
+_Fifth._ Consider the series of last figures which have been
+successively cut off from the prepared dividend and from the modified
+dividends as constituting a number, the figure first cut off being in
+the units' place, the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this
+the _first infinite number_, because its left-hand portion consists of
+a series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left.
+Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in the
+repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in that the same
+series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely toward the right
+into the decimal places.
+
+Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and shift the
+decimal point as many places to the left as there were zeros dropped
+in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor.
+
+The result is the quotient sought.
+
+_Examples._
+
+1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by 365.
+
+_First._ The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied by 2,
+giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared divisor.
+
+_Second._ The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3, this is the
+extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated divisor, 7, by the
+extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we have 22 for the current
+multiplier.
+
+_Third._ The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the product
+of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier used in
+preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is the prepared dividend.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the last
+figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22. The
+product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129, and gives 1305
+for the first modified divisor. The whole operation is shown thus:
+
+                   1 8 8 3
+                         6
+                   -------
+                 1 1 2 9|8
+                   1 7 6 -
+                   -----
+                 1 3 0|5
+                 1 1 0 -
+                 -----
+                 2|4 0
+               8 8 ---
+               ---
+              |9 0
+           -----
+           1 9|8
+         1 7 6 -
+         -----
+         1 9|5
+       1 1 0 -
+       -----
+       1 2|9
+     1 9 8 -
+     -----
+     2|1 0
+   2 2 ---
+   2 4
+
+We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified dividend,
+written under the form 240 above. Our two infinite numbers (which need
+not in practice be written down) are, with their difference:
+
+          .        .
+          10,958,904,058      .      .
+          10,958,904,109.5890410958904
+          ----------------------------
+                              .      .
+                      51.5890410958904
+                                .      .
+Hence the quotient sought is 5.158904109.
+
+_Example 2._ Find the reciprocal of 333667.
+
+The whole work is here given:
+
+      3 3 3 6 6|7                    |7
+    2 3 3 5 6 7 -         1 6 3 4 9 6|9
+                        2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                        -------------
+                        2 2 6 5 5 9|9
+                      2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                      -------------
+                      2 3 2 8 6 6|2
+                      4 6 7 1 3 4 -
+                      -----------
+                      7 0 0 0 0 0
+
+            .       .
+_Answer_, 0.000002997.
+
+_Example 3._ Find the reciprocal of 41.
+
+_Solution._--
+
+                    4|1                 |9
+                    -----              -----
+                    3 7|9              3 3|3
+                        -            1 1 1 -
+                                     -----
+                                     1 4|4
+                                   1 4 8 -
+                                   -----
+                                   1 6|2
+                                   7 4 -
+                                   ---
+                                   9 0
+            .   .
+_Answer_, 0.02439.
+
+C.S. PEIRCE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+Those who can perform in that most necessary of all mathematical
+operations, simple addition, any great number of successive examples
+or any single extensive example without consciousness of a severe
+mental strain, followed by corresponding mental fatigue, are
+exceptions to a general rule. These troubles are due to the quantity
+and complexity of the matter with which the mind has to be occupied at
+the same time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of
+numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions
+that must be borne in memory, and the "carrying" is a further
+complication. The strain and consequent weariness are not only felt,
+but seen, in the mistakes in addition that they cause. They are, in
+great part, the tax exacted of us by our decimal system of arithmetic.
+Were only quantities of the same value, in any one column, to be
+added, our memory would be burdened with nothing more than the
+succession of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples of two,
+three, or four, if the counting is by groups.
+
+It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing addition
+to counting similar quantities is by the binary arithmetic of
+Leibnitz, which appears in an altered dress, with most of the zero
+signs suppressed, in the example below. Opposite each number in the
+usual figures is here set the same according to a scheme in which the
+signs of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a very
+small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express any fourth
+power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow 0, any square not a
+fourth power; a curve upward and to the right, like a phonographic
+_l_, any double fourth power; and a curve to the right and downward,
+like a phonographic _r_, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical
+bar to denote the absence of three successive powers not fourth
+powers. Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example
+slightly below the middle, is 2^{16} (represented by a degree-mark in
+the fifth row of these marks, counting from the right) plus 2^{17} +
+2^{9} (two _l_-curves in the fifth and third places of _l_-curves)
+plus 2^{18} + 2^{14} + 2^{6} (three loops) plus 2^{19} (the _r_-curve
+at the extreme left); while the absence of 2^{3}, 2^{2}, and 2^{1} is
+shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent expression
+may be verified, if desired, either by adding the designated powers of
+two from 524,288 down to 64, or by successive multiplications by two,
+adding one when necessary. The form of characters here exhibited was
+thought to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and
+considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic value by
+actual additions.
+
+In order to add them, the object for which these forty numbers are
+here presented in two notations, it is not necessary to know just
+_why_ the figures on the right are equal to those on the left, or to
+know anything more than the order in which the different forms are to
+be taken, and the fact that any one has twice the value of one in the
+column next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made from
+the printed page, first covering over the answer with a paper held
+fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures of the new answer as
+successively obtained. The fingers will be found a great assistance,
+especially if one of each hand be used, to point off similar marks in
+twos, or threes, or fours--as many together as can be certainly
+comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it can be
+done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The eye can catch the
+marks for even powers more easily in going up and those for odd powers
+(the _l_ and _r_ curves) in going down the columns. Beginning at the
+lower right hand corner, we count the right hand column of small
+circles, or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in number.
+Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one of these marks has
+therefore to be entered as part of the answer, and eleven carried to
+the next column, the first one of _l_-curves. But since the curves are
+most advantageously added downward, it is best, when the first column
+is finished, simply to remember the remainder from it, and not to set
+down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition of the
+second column, when the remainders, if any, from both columns can be
+set down together. In this case, starting with the eleven carried and
+counting the number of the _l_-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom
+with twenty-four--twelve to carry, and nothing to set down except the
+degree mark from the first column. With the twelve we go up the
+adjoining loop column, and the sum must be even, as this place is
+vacant in the answer; the _r_-curve column next, downward, and then
+another row of degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this
+time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme left, is
+added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by successive halvings. Here
+we seem to have eleven; hence we enter one loop, and carry five to the
+next place, which, it must be remembered, is of _r_-curves. Halving
+five we express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and
+carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving again gives
+one in the next place, that of _l_-curves; and the work is complete.
+
+It is recommended that this work be gone over several times for
+practice, until the appearance and order of the characters and the
+details of the method become familiar; that, when the work can be done
+mechanically and without hesitation, the time occupied in a complete
+addition of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully
+noted; that this be done several times, with an interval of some days
+between the trials, and the result of each trial kept separate; that
+the time and mistakes by the ordinary figures in the same example, in
+several trials, be observed for comparison. Please pay particular
+attention to the difference in the kind of work required by the two
+methods in its bearing on two questions--which of them would be easier
+to work by for hours together, supposing both equally well learned?
+and in which of them could a reasonable degree of skill be more
+readily acquired by a beginner? The answer to these questions, if the
+comparison be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their high
+importance.
+
+_Example in addition by two notations_
+
+   77,823,876
+   14,348,907
+    8,654,912
+    5,764,801
+    4,635,857
+    1,594,323
+    6,417,728
+    4,782,969
+   83,886,075
+   34,012,224
+    2,903,111
+   48,828,125
+    1,724,826
+    7,529,536
+   43,344,817
+   10,000,000
+    8,334,712
+    1,953,125
+   11,308,417
+      759,375
+   21,180,840
+    9,765,625
+   18,643,788
+    1,000,000
+   44,739,243
+    1,889,568
+    2,517,471
+   40,353,607
+    4,438,414
+    1,679,616
+   23,708,715
+   11,890,625
+      945,754
+      823,543
+   15,308,805
+   60,466,176
+   30,685,377
+   10,077,696
+   19,416,381
+   43,046,721
+  ===========
+  740,685,681
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already been
+submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical skill. One of them
+took but a few seconds over two minutes, in the best of six trials, to
+add by the usual figures, and set down the sum, but one figure in all
+the six additions being wrong; another added once in ten minutes
+fifty-seven seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with
+half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer had had
+very little training in arithmetical work, but perhaps that gave a
+fairer comparison. In the binary figures she made three additions in
+between seven and eight minutes, with but one place wrong in the
+three. With four of the observers the binary notation required nearly
+double the time. These observers were all well practiced in
+computation. Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds, was
+made by one whose best record was two minutes forty seconds in
+ordinary figures. The author's own best results were two minutes
+thirty-eight seconds binary, and three minutes twenty-three seconds
+usual. He thus proved himself inferior to the last observer, as an
+adder, by a system in which both were equally well trained; but a
+greater familiarity (extending over a few weeks instead of a few
+hours) with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice as
+fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the usual figures,
+four were wrong in one figure each; of his thirty-two additions by
+different forms of binary notation, five were wrong, one of them in
+two places. One observer found that he required one minute
+thirty-three seconds to add a single column (average of five tried) by
+the usual figures, and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one
+(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions were
+rather slow, the results are interesting. They show, making allowance
+for the greater number of columns (three and a third times as many)
+required by the binary plan, a saving of nearly half; but they also
+illustrate the necessity of practice. This observer succeeded with the
+binary arithmetic by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly
+embarrass the beginner, by contenting himself with counting only, and
+not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar character, or
+to recognize the mark by which he must distinguish his next column.
+One well-known member of the Washington Philosophical Society and of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science, who declined
+the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his probable time
+with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with strong chances of a
+wrong result, after all.
+
+These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons who can do
+faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning. But too much
+should not be made of them. Let them serve as specimens of facts of
+which a great many more are to be desired, bearing on a question of
+grave importance. Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by
+impartial tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the
+system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a blessing
+enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced by greater
+complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated by a
+correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing with figures, the former
+may be the case. If, on the contrary, a little practice suffices to
+turn the balance of rapidity, for all but a small body of highly
+drilled experts, in favor of an easier system, the latter must be.
+This is the question that the readers of _Science_ are invited to help
+in deciding. The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the
+prevalent system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but they do
+not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment alone can give,
+whether or not the cost of that system is unreasonably high; nor
+should they prevent those who accord them the fullest recognition from
+assisting to furnish the necessary facts.
+
+Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the plan proposed
+or on any better plan, or who will submit it to such acquaintances,
+skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded to take the trouble to learn
+the mechanism of binary adding, will confer a great favor by informing
+the writer of the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each
+addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the subject
+will be most gratefully received.
+
+Henry Farquhar.
+
+Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C.
+
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