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diff --git a/old/16316-8.txt b/old/16316-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..428a88c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/16316-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9012 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Outdoor Sports and Games, by Claude H. Miller + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Outdoor Sports and Games + + +Author: Claude H. Miller + + + +Release Date: July 16, 2005 [eBook #16316] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES*** + + +E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Karen Dalrymple, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 16316-h.htm or 16316-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316/16316-h/16316-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316/16316-h.zip) + + + + + +The Library of Work and Play + +OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES + +by + +CLAUDE H. MILLER, PH.B. + +Garden City +New York +Doubleday, Page & Company + +1911 + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A Boys' Camp] + + + +[Illustration: Title Page] + + + + +CONTENTS + +I. Introductory + + The human body a perfect machine--How to keep well--Outdoor + sleeping--Exercise and play--Smoking--Walking. + +II. The Boy Scouts of America + + Headquarters--Purpose--Scout Law--How to form a patrol of + Scouts--Organization of a troop--Practical activities for + Scouts--A Scout camp--Model Programme of Sir R.S.S. + Baden-Powell Scout camp. + +III. Camps and Camping + + How to select the best place to pitch a tent--A brush bed--The + best kind of a tent--How to make the camp fire--What to do when + it rains--Fresh air and good food--The brush leanto and how to + make it. + +IV. Camp Cooking + + How to make the camp fire range--Bread bakers--Cooking + utensils--The grub list--Simple camp recipes. + +V. Woodcraft + + The use of an axe and hatchet--Best woods for special + purposes--What to do when you are lost--Nature's compasses. + +VI. Use of Fire-arms + + Importance of early training--Why a gun is better than a + rifle--How to become a good shot. + +VII. Fishing + + Proper tackle for all purposes--How to catch bait--The fly + fisherman--General fishing rules. + +VIII. Nature Study + + What is a true naturalist?--How to start a collection--Moth + collecting--The herbarium. + +IX. Water Life + + The water telescope--How to manage an aquarium--Our insect + friends and enemies--The observation beehive. + +X. The Care of Pets + + Cats--Boxes for song birds--How to attract the birds--Tame + crows--The pigeon fancier--Ornamental land and water + fowl--Rabbits, guinea pigs, rats and mice--How to build + coops--General rules for the care of pets--The dog. + +XI. The Care of Chickens + + The best breed--Good and bad points of incubators--What to feed + small chicks--A model chicken house. + +XII. Winter Sports + + What to wear--Skating--Skiing--Snowshoeing--Hockey. + +XIII. Horsemanship + + How to become a good rider--The care of horses--Saddles. + +XIV. How to Swim and to Canoe + + The racing strokes--Paddling and sailing canoes. + +XV. Baseball + + How to organize a team and to select the players--The various + positions--Curve pitching. + +XVI. How to Play Football + + The various positions and how to select men for them--Team + work and signals--The rules. + +XVII. Lawn Tennis + + How to make and mark a court--Clay and sod courts--The proper + grip of the racket--Golf--The strokes and equipment. + +XVIII. Photography + + The selection of a camera--Snapshots vs. real pictures--How to + make a photograph from start to finish. + +XIX. Outdoor Sports for Girls + + What to wear--Confidence--Horseback riding--Tennis--Golf--Camping. + +XX. One Hundred Outdoor Games + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + A Boy's Camp + + A Child's May-day Party + + Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood + that Holds Our Interest Through Life + + The Moth Collector and His Outfit + + The Exciting Sport of Ski-running + + Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports + + In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Streams + a Pole is Used in Place of the Paddle + + Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play + + How an Expert Plays Golf + + + + +I + +INTRODUCTORY + +The human body a perfect machine--How to keep well--Outdoor +sleeping--Exercise and play--Smoking--Walking + + +Suppose you should wake up Christmas morning and find yourself to be +the owner of a bicycle. It is a brand-new wheel and everything is in +perfect working order. The bearings are well oiled, the nickel is +bright and shiny and it is all tuned up and ready for use. If you are +a careful, sensible boy you can have fun with it for a long time until +finally, like the "One Hoss Shay" in the poem, it wears out and goes +to pieces all at once. On the other hand, if you are careless or +indifferent or lazy you may allow the machine to get out of order or +to become rusty from disuse, or perhaps when a nut works loose you +neglect it and have a breakdown on the road, or you may forget to oil +the bearings and in a short time they begin to squeak and wear. If you +are another kind of a boy, you may be careful enough about oiling and +cleaning the wheel, but you may also be reckless and head--strong and +will jump over curbstones and gutters or ride it over rough roads at a +dangerous rate of speed, and in this way shorten its life by abuse +just as the careless boy may by neglect. + +It is just so with the human body which, after all, is a machine too, +and, more than that, it is the most wonderful and perfect machine in +the world. With care it should last many years. With abuse or neglect +it may very soon wear out. The boy who neglects his health is like the +boy who allows the bearings on his wheel to become dry or the metal +parts rusty. The chief difference is that when the bicycle wears out +or breaks down we may replace the parts or even buy another machine, +but when our health is injured, money will not restore it. + +In order to keep well we must observe certain rules of health. By +exercise we keep the working parts in good order. If we are lazy or +indolent we are like the bicycle that is allowed to go to pieces from +lack of use. If we are reckless and foolhardy we may injure some part +of the delicate machinery from excessive exercise or strain. + +Play is the most natural thing in the world but we must use judgment +in our play. A boy or girl who is not allowed to play or who is +restrained by too anxious parents is unhappy indeed. Nearly all +animals play. We know, for instance, that puppies, kittens, and lambs +are playful. It is a perfectly natural instinct. By proper play we +build up our bodies and train our minds. The healthy man never gets +too old to play. He may not care to play marbles or roll hoops, but he +will find his pleasure in some game or sport like tennis, golf, +horseback riding, camping, fishing or hunting. + +In this book we shall talk about some forms of play and recreation +that are not strictly confined to children, but which we may still +enjoy even after we have become grown men and women. We shall also +talk about some children's games that some of the older readers may +have outgrown. While we play we keep our minds occupied by the sport, +and at the same time we exercise our muscles and feed our lungs and +our bodies with oxygen. + +It is unfortunate that in school or college athletics those who need +exercise the most are often those who are physically unfitted to play +on the school teams. In other words, we select our runners and jumpers +and football players from among the stronger boys, while the weaker +ones really need the benefit of the sport. Every boy should take part +in school games when possible even if he is not as swift or as strong +as some other boys. + +It is very unmanly of one boy to make fun of another because he is +weak or clumsy or unskilful. After all, the thing that counts and the +thing that is most creditable is to make the most of our opportunities +whatever they may be. If an undersized or timid boy becomes stronger +or more brave because he joins in games and sports, he deserves a +hundred times more credit than the big, strong boy whom nature has +given a sturdy frame and good lungs and who makes a place on the +school team without any real effort. + +If we live a natural, open-air life we shall have but little need of +doctors or medicine. Many of our grandmothers' notions on how to keep +well have changed in recent years. Old-fashioned remedies made from +roots and herbs have been almost completely replaced by better habits +of life and common-sense ideas. We used to believe that night air was +largely responsible for fevers and colds. Doctors now say that one of +the surest ways to keep well is to live and sleep in the open air. In +many modern houses the whole family is provided with outside sleeping +porches with absolutely no protection from the outside air but the +roof. I have followed the practice of sleeping in the open air for +some time, and in midwinter without discomfort have had the +temperature of my sleeping porch fall to six degrees below zero. Of +course it is foolish for any one to sleep exposed to rain or snow or +to think that there is any benefit to be derived from being cold or +uncomfortable. The whole idea of open-air sleeping is to breathe pure, +fresh air in place of the atmosphere of a house which, under the best +conditions, is full of dust and germs. If we become outdoor sleepers, +coughs and colds will be almost unknown. General Sherman once wrote a +letter in which he said that he did not have a case of cold in his +entire army and he attributed it to the fact that his soldiers slept +and lived in the open air. + +[Illustration: A Child's May Day Party (Photograph by Mary H. +Northend)] + +One can almost tell a man who sleeps in the open by looking at him. +His eye is clear and his cheek ruddy. There is no surer way to become +well and strong than to become accustomed to this practice. Then you +can laugh at the doctor and throw the medicine bottles away. In +stating this I know that many parents will not agree with me, and will +feel that to advise a boy to sleep in the open when the weather is +stormy or extremely cold is almost like inviting him to his death. It +is a fact just the same that every one would be healthier and happier +if they followed this practice. In a few years I expect to see outdoor +sleeping the rule rather than the exception. Progressive doctors are +already agreed on this method of sleeping for sick people. In some +hospitals even delicate babies are given open-air treatment in +midwinter as a cure for pneumonia. My own experience is that in the +two years that I have been an outdoor sleeper, with the snow drifts +sometimes covering the foot of the bed, with the wintry winds howling +about my head in a northeaster, I have been absolutely free from any +trace of coughs or colds. Thousands of others will give the same +testimony. According to old-fashioned ideas such things would give me +my "death of cold." It rarely happens that one begins the practice of +sleeping out without becoming a firm believer in it. + +One of the children of a friend in Connecticut who had just built a +beautiful home was taken ill, and the doctor recommended that the +child's bed be moved out on the porch. This was in December. The +father also had his own bed moved out to keep the baby company. My +friend told me that after the first night he felt like a changed man. +He awoke after a refreshing sleep and felt better than he had in +years. The whole family soon followed and all the beautiful bedrooms +in the house were deserted. The baby got well and stayed well and the +doctor's visits are few and far between in that household. + +By all means sleep in the open if you can. Of course one must have +ample protection from the weather, such as a porch or piazza with a +screen or shelter to the north and west. A warm room in which to dress +and undress is also absolutely necessary. If your rest is disturbed by +cold, as it will probably be until you become accustomed to it and +learn the tricks of the outdoor sleeper, you simply need more covers. +In winter, the bed should be made up with light summer blankets in +place of sheets, which would become very cold. Use, as a night cap, an +old sweater or skating cap. A good costume consists of a flannel +shirt, woollen drawers, and heavy, lumberman's stockings. With such an +outfit and plenty of covers, one can sleep out on the coldest night +and never awaken until the winter's sun comes peeping over the hill to +tell him that it is time to get up. + +Besides fresh air, another important thing in keeping well is to eat +slowly and to chew your food thoroughly. Boys and girls often develop +a habit of rapid eating because they are anxious to get back to play +or to school. Slow eating is largely a matter of habit as well, and +while it may seem hard at first it will soon become second nature to +us. Remember to chew your food thoroughly. The stomach has no teeth. +We have all heard of Mr. Horace Fletcher, that wonderful old man who +made himself young again by chewing his food. + +There is no fun in life unless we are well, and a sensible boy should +realize that his parents' interest in him is for his own benefit. It +may seem hard sometimes to be obliged to do without things that we +want, but as a rule the judgment of the older people is better than +our own. A growing boy will often eat too much candy or too many sweet +things and then suffer from his lack of judgment. To fill our stomachs +with indigestible food is just as foolish as it would be to put sand +in the bearings of our wheel, or to interfere with the delicate +adjustment of our watch until it refuses to keep time. + +While we play, our muscles are developed, our lungs filled with fresh +air and the whole body is made stronger and more vigorous. Some boys +play too hard. Over-exertion will sometimes cause a strain on the +delicate machinery of the body that will be very serious in after +life. The heart is especially subject to the dangers of overstrain in +growing boys. We are not all equally strong, and it is no discredit to +a boy that he cannot run as far or lift as much as some of his +playmates or companions. You all remember the fable of the frog who +tried to make himself as big as the ox and finally burst. The idea of +exercise is not to try to excel every one in what you do, but to do +your best without over-exertion. If a boy has a rugged frame and well +developed muscles, it is perfectly natural that he should be superior +in most sports to a boy that is delicate or undersized. + +To be in good physical condition and to laugh at the doctor we must +keep out of doors as much as possible. Gymnasium work of course will +help us to build up our strength and develop our muscles, but skill in +various acrobatics and gymnastic tricks does not give the clear eye +and ruddy cheek of the person whose life is in the open air. Outdoor +sports, like tennis, baseball, and horseback riding are far superior +to chestweights or Indian clubs as a means of obtaining normal +permanent development. + +Parents who criticize school or college athletics often forget that +the observance of the strict rules of training required from every +member of a team is the very best way to keep a boy healthy in mind +and body. + +Tobacco and alcohol are absolutely prohibited, the kind of food eaten +and the hours for retiring are compulsory, and a boy is taught not +only to train his muscles but to discipline his mind. Before a +candidate is allowed to take active part in the sport for which he is +training he must be "in condition," as it is called. + +There are a great many rules of health that will help any one to keep +well, but the best rule of all is to live a common-sense life and not +to think too much about ourselves. Systematic exercises taken daily +with setting up motions are very good unless we allow them to become +irksome. All indoor exercise should be practised with as much fresh +air in the room as possible. It is an excellent plan to face an open +window if we practise morning and evening gymnastics. + +There are many exercises that can be performed with no apparatus +whatever. In all exercises we should practise deep regular breathing +until it becomes a habit with us. Most people acquire a faulty habit +of breathing and only use a small part of their total lung capacity. +Learn to take deep breaths while in the fresh air. After a while it +will become a habit. + +Just how much muscle a boy should have will depend upon his physical +make-up. The gymnasium director in one of our largest colleges, who +has spent his whole life in exercise, is a small, slender man whose +muscles are not at all prominent and yet they are like steel wires. +He has made a life-long study of himself and has developed every +muscle in his body. From his appearance he would not be considered a +strong man and yet some of the younger athletes weighing fifty pounds +more than he, have, in wrestling and feats of strength, found that the +man with the largest muscles is not always the best man. + +There is one question that every growing boy will have to look +squarely in the face and to decide for himself. It is the question of +smoking. There is absolutely no question but that smoking is injurious +for any one, and in the case of boys who are not yet fully grown +positively dangerous. Ask any cigarette smoker you know and he will +tell you _not to smoke_. If you ask him why he does not take his own +advice he will possibly explain how the habit has fastened its grip on +him, just as the slimy tentacles of some devil fish will wind +themselves about a victim struggling in the water, until he is no +longer able to escape. A boy may begin to smoke in a spirit of fun or +possibly because he thinks it is manly, but more often it is because +the "other fellers" are trying it too. + +My teacher once gave our school an object lesson in habits which is +worth repeating. He called one of the boys to the platform and wound a +tiny piece of thread around the boy's wrists. He then told him to +break it, which the boy did very easily. The teacher continued to wind +more thread until he had so many strands that the boy could break them +only with a great effort and finally he could not break them at all. +His hands were tied. Just so it is with a habit. The first, second, or +tenth time may be easy to break, but we shall finally get so many tiny +threads that our hands are tied. We have acquired a habit. Don't be a +fool. Don't smoke cigarettes. + +Walking is one of the most healthful forms of exercise. It may seem +unnecessary to devote much space to a subject that every one thinks +they know all about, but the fact is that, with trolley cars, +automobiles, and horses, a great many persons have almost lost the +ability to walk any distance. An excellent rule to follow if you are +going anywhere is this: If you have the time, and the distance is not +too great, walk. In recent years it has been the practice of a number +of prominent business and professional men who get but little outdoor +exercise to walk to and from their offices every day, rain or shine. +In this way elderly men will average from seven to ten miles a day and +thus keep in good condition with no other exercise. + +It is very easy to cultivate the street car habit, and some boys feel +that they must ride to and from school even if it is only a few blocks +or squares. We have all read of the old men who are walking across the +country from New York to California and back again and maintaining an +average of forty miles a day. There is not a horse in the world that +would have the endurance to go half the distance in the same time and +keep it up day after day. For the first week or ten days the horse +would be far ahead but, like the fable of the hare and the tortoise, +after a while the tortoise would pass the hare and get in first. + +In walking for pleasure, avoid a rambling, purposeless style. Decide +where you are going and go. Walk out in the country if possible and on +roads where the automobiles will not endanger your life or blow clouds +of dust in your face. Never mind the weather. One rarely takes cold +while in motion. To walk comfortably we should wear loose clothing and +old shoes. Walking just for the sake of exercise can easily become a +tiresome occupation, but the active mind can always see something of +interest, such as wild flowers, gardens, and all the various sides of +nature study in the country, and people, houses and life in the city. + +A tramping vacation of several days furnishes a fine opportunity to +see new scenes and to live economically, but near a city you may have +difficulty in persuading the farm-wife where you stop that you are not +a tramp who will burn the house in the night. If you intend to live by +the wayside, the surest way to inspire confidence is to show in +advance that you have money to pay for your accommodations. Also try +to avoid looking like a tramp, which is quite different from looking +like a tramper. + +There seems to be a great difference of opinion on the question of how +fast one can walk. The popular idea is "four miles an hour" but any +one who has tried to cover a mile every fifteen minutes will testify +that such a rate of speed is more like a race than a walk and that it +will require great physical exertion to maintain it for any +considerable distance. An eighteen or twenty-mile walk is about all +the average boy should attempt in a day, and this is allowing the full +day for the task from early morning until sunset. + +Short and frequent rests are much better than long stops, which have a +tendency to stiffen the muscles. The walker on a long tramp must pay +especial attention to the care of his feet. They should be bathed +frequently in cold water to which a little alum has been added. A +rough place or crease in the stocking will sometimes cause a very +painful blister. + +Mountain climbing is a very interesting branch of walking. It is +sometimes very dangerous as well and in such cases should only be +attempted under the guidance of some one familiar with the +neighbourhood. For rough climbing our shoes should be provided with +iron hob nails. Steel nails often become very slippery and will cause +a bad fall on rocks. + +Cross-country running and hare and hound chases are much more common +in England than in America. Our runners as a rule excel in the sprints +and short dashes, although in the recent Olympic sports we have shown +that our trained athletes are the equal of the world in nearly all +branches of sport. + +In many of the English schools it is a regular part of the school work +for the teacher to organize hare and hound chases. The hares are given +a start of several minutes and leave a trail by means of bits of paper +or confetti, which they carry in a bag. In this kind of running the +object to be sought is not so much speed as endurance. An easy dog +trot with deep regular breathing will soon give us our second wind, +when we can keep on for a long distance. + +After any kind of physical exertion, especially when we are in a +perspiration, care must be exercised not to become chilled suddenly. A +rub down with a rough towel will help to prevent soreness and stiff +muscles. The lameness that follows any kind of unusual exercise is an +indication that certain muscles have been brought into use that are +out of condition. A trained athlete does not experience this soreness +unless he has unduly exerted himself, and the easiest way to get over +it is to do more of the same kind of work until we are in condition. + + + + +II + +THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA + +Headquarters--Purpose--Scout law--How to form a patrol of +scouts--Organization of a troop--Practical activities for scouts--A +scout camp--Model programme of a Sir R.S.S. Baden-Powell scout camp + + +The Boy Scout movement that has recently been introduced both in +England and America with such wonderful success is so closely related +to nearly all branches of outdoor recreation and to the things that +boys are interested in that this book would be incomplete without +mention of the object and purposes of this organization. It is a +splendid movement for the making of better citizens, and it cannot be +too highly recommended. + +The Boy Scouts of America is a permanent organization, and it has its +headquarters at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. From the central +office, patrols and troops are being formed all over the United +States. Any information with reference to the movement may be +obtained by applying to this office. + +Through the courtesy of the managing secretary, Mr. John L. Alexander, +certain facts are presented concerning the organization, which are +obtained from their published literature, for which due credit is +hereby given. + +The Boy Scouts is an organization the purpose of which is +character-building for boys between the ages of twelve and eighteen. +It is an effort to get boys to appreciate the things about them and to +train them in self-reliance, manhood, and good citizenship. It is +"peace-scouting" these boys engage in, living as much as possible out +of doors; camping, hiking and learning the secrets of the woods and +fields. The movement is not essentially military, but the military +virtues of discipline, obedience, neatness and order are scout +virtues. Endurance, self-reliance, self-control and an effort to help +some one else are scout objectives. Every activity that lends itself +to these aims is good scoutcraft. + +The Boy Scouts were started in England by Gen. Sir Robert +Baden-Powell. He was impressed with the fact that 46 per cent. of the +boys of England were growing up without any knowledge of useful +occupations, and wanted to do something that would help the boy to +become a useful citizen. He emphatically stated that his intention was +not the making of soldiers. In his work. General Baden-Powell has +touched the boy's life in all its interests and broadened a boy's +outlook by the widest sort of activities. In two and a half years over +half a million Boy Scouts have been enrolled, and twenty thousand of +these have been in parade at one time in London. + +The scout idea has sprung up spontaneously all over America. In +Canadian cities the Boy Scouts number thousands. In the United States, +towns and cities are being swept by the idea. Gangs of boys are to be +seen on every hand, doing their best at scoutcraft, "doing a good turn +every day to some one," and getting fun out of it. Prominent business +men and educators are behind the movement. + +The aim of the Boy Scouts is to supplement the various existing +educational agencies, and to promote the ability in boys to do things +for themselves and others. The method is summed up in the term +"scoutcraft" and is a combination of observation, deduction and +handiness--or the ability to do. Scoutcraft consists of "First Aid," +Life Saving, Tracking, Signalling, Cycling, Nature Study, Seamanship +and other instruction. This is accomplished in games and team play and +in pleasure, not work, for the boy. The only equipment it needs is the +out-of-doors, a group of boys and a leader. + +Before he becomes a scout, a boy must take the scouts' oath thus: + +"On my honour, I promise that I will do my best, 1. To do my duty to +God and my country. 2. To help other people at all times. 3. To obey +the scout law." + +When taking this oath the scout will stand holding his right hand +raised level with his shoulder, palm to the front, thumb resting on +the nail of the little finger, and the other three fingers upright +pointing upward. This the scouts' salute and secret sign. + +When the hand is raised shoulder high it is called "the half salute." + +When raised to the forehead it is called "the full salute." + +The three fingers held up (like the three points on the scouts' badge) +remind him of his three promises in the scouts' oath. + +There are three classes of scouts. A boy on joining the Boy Scouts +must pass a test in the following points before taking the oath: + +Know the scouts' laws and signs and the salute. + +Know the composition of the national flag and the right way to fly it. + +Tie four of the following knots: Reef, sheet bend, clove hitch, +bowline, middleman's, fisherman's, sheep-shank. + +He then takes the scouts' oath and is enrolled as a tenderfoot and is +entitled to wear the buttonhole badge. + + +A SECOND-CLASS SCOUT + +Before being awarded a second-class scout's badge, a boy must pass the +following tests: + +1. Have at least one month's service as a tenderfoot. + +2. Elementary first aid bandaging. + +3. Signalling. Elementary knowledge of semaphore or Morse alphabet. + +4. Track half a mile in twenty-five minutes, or if in a town describe +satisfactorily the contents of one store window out of four, observed +for one minute each. + +5. Go a mile in twelve minutes at "scouts' pace." + +6. Lay and light a fire using not more than two matches. + +7. Cook a quarter of a pound of meat and two potatoes without cooking +utensils other than the regulation billy. + +8. Have at least twenty-five cents in the savings bank. + +9. Know the sixteen principal points of the compass. + + +FIRST-CLASS SCOUT + +Before being awarded a first-class scout's badge, a scout must pass +the following test in addition to the tests laid down for a +second-class scout: + +1. Swim fifty yards. (This may be omitted where the doctor certifies +that bathing is dangerous to the boy's health). + +2. Must have at least fifty cents in the savings bank. + +3. Signalling. Send and receive a message either in semaphore or +Morse, sixteen letters per minute. + +4. Go on foot or row a boat alone to a point seven miles away and +return again, or if conveyed by any vehicle or animal go a distance of +fifteen miles and back and write a short report on it. It is +preferable that he should take two days over it. + +5. Describe or show the proper means for saving life in case of two of +the following accidents: Fire, drowning, runaway carriage, sewer gas, +ice breaking, or bandage an injured patient or revive an apparently +drowned person. + +6. Cook satisfactorily two of the following dishes as may be directed: +Porridge, bacon, hunter's stew; or skin and cook a rabbit or pluck and +cook a bird. Also "make a damper" of half a pound of flour or a +"twist" baked on a thick stick. + +7. Read a map correctly and draw an intelligent rough sketch map. +Point out a compass direction without the help of a compass. + +8. Use an axe for felling or trimming light timber: or as an +alternative produce an article of carpentry or joinery or metal work, +made by himself satisfactorily. + +9. Judge distance, size, numbers and height within 25 per cent. error. + +10. Bring a tenderfoot trained by himself in the points required of a +tenderfoot. + + +THE SCOUTS' LAW + +1. A scout's honour is to be trusted. If a scout were to break his +honour by telling a lie, or by not carrying out an order exactly, when +trusted on his honour to do so, he may be directed to hand over his +scouts' badge and never to wear it again. He may also be directed to +cease to be a scout. + +2. A scout is loyal to his country, his officers, his parents and his +employers. He must stick to them through thick and thin against any +one who is their enemy or who even talks badly about them. + +3. A scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. He must be +prepared at any time to save life or to help injured persons, and he +must try his best to do a good turn to somebody every day. + +4. A scout is a friend to all and a brother to every other scout, no +matter to what social class the other belongs. + +5. A scout is courteous, especially to women, children, old people, +invalids, and cripples. And he must never take a reward for being +courteous. + +6. A scout is a friend to animals. Killing an animal for food is +allowable. + +7. A scout obeys orders of his parents, patrol leader, or scout master +without question. + +8. A scout smiles and whistles under all circumstances. + +9. A scout is thrifty and saves every penny he can and puts it into +the bank. + +The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. A troop consists of +three or more patrols. The scout master may begin with one patrol. He +must have a deep interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have +the ability to lead and command the boys' respect and obedience, and +possess some knowledge of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on +scoutcraft. The good scout master will discover experts for the +various activities. + +To organize a patrol, get together seven or more boys, explain to them +the aims of the Boy Scouts, have them elect a leader and corporal from +their own number and take the scout oath as tenderfeet. To organize a +local committee, call together the leading men of a town or city, +teachers, business men, professional men, and all who are interested +in the proper training of boys, for a committee to superintend the +development of the scout movement. + +There are a number of divisions to scouting depending upon the place +where the boys live and upon their opportunities. For instance, to +obtain: + +_An Ambulance Badge_: A scout must know: The fireman's lift. How to +drag an insensible man with ropes. How to improvise a stretcher. How +to fling a life-line. The position of main arteries. How to stop +bleeding from vein or artery, internal or external. How to improvise +splints and to diagnose and bind fractured limb. The Schafer method of +artificial respiration. How to deal with choking, burning, poison, +grit in eye, sprains and bruises, as the examiners may require. +Generally the laws of health and sanitation as given in "Scouting for +Boys," including dangers of smoking, in continence, want of +ventilation, and lack of cleanliness. + +_Aviator_: A scout must have a knowledge of the theory of æroplanes, +ball balloons and dirigibles, and must have made a working model of an +æroplane or dirigible that will fly at least twenty-five yards. He +must also have a knowledge of the engines used for æroplanes and +dirigibles. + +_Bee-farmer_: A scout must have a practical knowledge of swarming, +hiving, hives, and general apiculture, including a knowledge of the +use of artificial combs, etc. + +_Blacksmith_: A scout must be able to upset and weld a one-inch iron +rod, make a horseshoe, know how to tire a wheel, use a sledge hammer +and forge, shoe a horse correctly, and rough-shod a horse. + +_Bugler_: A scout must be able to sound properly on the bugle the +Scouts' Rally and the following army calls: Alarm, charge, orderlies +(ord. corpls.), orders, warning for parade, quarter bugle, fall in, +dismiss, rations, first and second dinner calls (men's), reveille, +last post, lights out. + +_Carpenter_: A scout must be able to shoot and glue a four-foot +straight joint, make a housing, tenon and mortise, and halved joint, +grind and set a chisel and plane iron, make a 3 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in., by +1 ft. by 6 ft. dovetailed locked box, or a table or chair. + +_Clerk_: A scout must have the following qualifications: Good +handwriting and hand printing. Ability to use typewriting machine. +Ability to write a letter from memory on the subject given verbally +five minutes previously. Knowledge of simple bookkeeping. Or, as +alternative to typewriting, write in shorthand from dictation at +twenty words a minute as minimum. + +_Cook_: A scout must be able to light a fire and make a cook-place +with a few bricks or logs; cook the following dishes: Irish stew, +vegetables, omelet, rice pudding, or any dishes which the examiner may +consider equivalent; make tea, coffee, or cocoa; mix dough and bake +bread in oven; or a "damper" or "twist" (round steak) at a camp fire; +carve properly, and hand plates and dishes correctly to people at +table. + +_Cyclist_: A scout must sign a certificate that he owns a bicycle in +good working order, which he is willing to use in the scouts' service +if called upon at any time in case of emergency. He must be able to +ride his bicycle satisfactorily, and repair punctures, etc. He must +be able to read a map, and repeat correctly a verbal message. On +ceasing to own a bicycle the scout must be required to hand back his +badge. + +_Dairyman_: A scout must understand: Management of dairy cattle; be +able to milk, make butter and cheese; understand sterilization of +milk, safe use of preservatives, care of dairy utensils and +appliances. + +_Electrician_: A scout must have a knowledge of method of rescue and +resuscitation of persons insensible from shock. Be able to make a +simple electro-magnet, have elementary knowledge of action of simple +battery cells, and the working of electric bells and telephone. +Understand and be able to remedy fused wire, and to repair broken +electric connections. + +_Engineer_: A scout must have a general idea of the working of motor +cars and steam locomotives, marines, internal combustion and electric +engines. He must also know the names of the principal parts and their +functions; how to start, drive, feed, stop, and lubricate any one of +them chosen by the candidate. + +_Farmer_: A scout must have a practical knowledge of ploughing, +cultivating, drilling, hedging and draining. He must also have a +working knowledge of farm machinery, hay-making, reaping, heading and +stacking, and a general acquaintance with the routine seasonal work on +a farm, including the care of cattle, horses, sheep and pigs. + +_Fireman_: A scout must know how to give the alarm to inhabitants, +police, etc. How to enter burning buildings. How to prevent spread of +fire. Use of hose, unrolling, joining up, hydrants, use of nozzle, +etc. The use of escape, ladders, and shutes; improvising ropes, +jumping sheets, etc. The fireman's lift, how to drag patient, how to +work in fumes, etc. The use of fire extinguishers. How to rescue +animals. How to salve property, climb and pass buckets. "Scrum" to +keep back crowd. + +_First Aid to Animals_: A scout must have a general knowledge of the +anatomy of domestic and farm animals, and be able to describe +treatment and symptoms of the following: Wounds, fractures and +sprains, exhaustion, choking, lameness. He must understand shoeing and +shoes, and must be able to give a drench for colic. + +_Gardener_: A scout must dig a piece of ground not less than twelve +feet square, know the names of a dozen plants pointed out in an +ordinary garden, understand what is meant by pruning, grafting and +manuring, plant and grow successfully six kinds of vegetables or +flowers from seeds or cuttings, cut and make a walking stick, or cut +grass with scythe under supervision. + +_Handyman_: A scout must be able to paint a door or bath, whitewash a +ceiling, repair gas fittings, tap washers, sash lines, window and door +fastenings, replace gas mantles and electric light bulbs, hang +pictures and curtains, repair blinds, fix curtain and portiere rods, +blind fixtures, lay carpets, mend clothing and upholstery, do small +furniture and china repairs, and sharpen knives. + +_Horseman_: A scout must know how to ride at all paces, and to jump an +ordinary fence on horseback. How to saddle and bridle a horse +correctly. How to harness a horse correctly in single or double +harness, and to drive. How to water and feed, and to what amount. How +to groom his horse properly. The evil of bearing and hame reins and +ill-fitting saddlery. Principal causes and remedies of lameness. + +_Interpreter_: A scout must be able to carry on a simple conversation, +write a simple letter on subject given by examiner, read and translate +a passage from a book or newspaper, in either Esperanto or any +language that is not that of his own country. + +_Leather Worker_: A scout must have a knowledge of tanning and +curing, and either (a) be able to sole and heel a pair of boots, sewn +or nailed, and generally repair boots and shoes: or (b) be able to +dress a saddle, repair traces, stirrup leathers, etc., and know the +various parts of harness. + +_Marksman_: A scout must pass the following tests for miniature rifle +shooting from any position: N.R.A. Standard Target to be used. Twenty +rounds to be fired at 15 or 25 yards. Highest possible, 100 points. A +scout gaining 60 points or over to be classified as marksman. Scoring: +Bull's-eye, 5 points; inner, 4 points; magpie, 3 points; outer 2 +points. Also: Judge distance on unknown ground: Five distances under +300 yards, 5 between 300 and 600 yards, with not more than an error of +25 per cent. on the average. + +_Master-at-arms_: A scout must attain proficiency in two out of the +following subjects: Single-stick, quarter-staff, fencing, boxing, +jiu-jitsu and wrestling. + +_Missioner_: The qualifications are: A general elementary knowledge of +sick-nursing; invalid cookery, sick-room attendance, bed-making, and +ventilation. Ability to help aged and infirm. + +_Musician_: A scout must be able to play a musical instrument +correctly other than triangle, and to read simple music. Or to play +properly any kind of musical toy, such as a penny whistle, +mouth-organ, etc., and sing a song. + +_Pathfinder_: It is necessary to know every lane, by-path, and short +cut for a distance of at least two miles in every direction around the +local scouts' headquarters in the country, or for one mile if in a +town, and to have a general knowledge of the district within a +five-mile radius of his local headquarters, so as to be able to guide +people at any time, by day or night. To know the general direction of +the principal neighbouring towns for a distance of twenty-five miles, +and to be able to give strangers clear directions how to get to them. +To know, in the country, in the two-mile radius, generally, how many +hayricks, strawricks, wagons, horses, cattle, sheep and pigs there are +on the different neighbouring farms; or, in a town, to know in a +half-mile radius what livery stabling, corn chandlers, forage +merchants, bakers, butchers, there are. In town or country to know +where are the police stations, hospitals, doctors, telegraph, +telephone offices, fire engines, turncocks, blacksmiths and +job-masters or factories, where over a dozen horses are kept. To know +something of the history of the place, or of any old buildings, such +as the church, or other edifice. As much as possible of the above +information is to be entered on a large scale map. + +_Photographer_: A scout must have a knowledge of the theory and use of +lenses, and the construction of cameras, action of developers. He must +take, develop and print twelve separate subjects, three interiors, +three portraits, three landscapes and three instantaneous photographs. + +_Pioneer_: A scout must have extra efficiency in pioneering in the +following tests, or suitable equivalents: Fell a nine-inch tree or +scaffolding pole neatly and quickly. Tie eight kinds of knots quickly +in the dark or blindfolded. Lash spars properly together for +scaffolding. Build model bridge or derrick. Make a camp kitchen. Build +a hut of one kind or another suitable for three occupants. + +_Piper_: A scout must be able to play a march and a reel on the pipes, +to dance the sword-dance, and must wear kilt and Highland dress. + +_Plumber_: A scout must be able to make wiped and brazed joints, to +cut and fix a window pane, repair a burst pipe, mend a ball or faucet +tap, and understand the ordinary hot and cold water system of a house. + +_Poultry Farmer_: A scout must have a good knowledge of incubators, +brooders, sanitary fowl-houses and coops and runs; also of rearing, +feeding, killing, and dressing birds for market; also he must be able +to pack birds and eggs for market. + +_Printer_: A scout must know the names of different types and paper +sizes. Be able to compose by hand or machine, understand the use of +hand or power printing machines. He must also print a handbill set up +by himself. + +_Seaman_: A scout must be able to tie eight knots rapidly in the dark +or blindfolded. Splice ropes, fling a rope coil. Row and punt a boat +single-handed, and punt with pole, or scull it over the stern. Steer a +boat rowed by others. Bring the boat properly alongside and make it +fast. Box the compass. Read a chart. State direction by the stars and +sun. Swim fifty yards with trousers, socks, and shirt on. Climb a rope +or pole of fifteen feet, or, as alternative, dance the hornpipe +correctly. Sew and darn a shirt and trousers. Understand the general +working of steam and hydraulic winches, and have a knowledge of +weather wisdom and knowledge of tides. + +_Signaller_: A scout must pass tests in both sending and receiving in +semaphore and Morse signalling by flag, not fewer than twenty-four +letters per minute. He must be able to give and read signals by +sound. To make correct smoke and flame signals with fires. To show the +proper method of signalling with the staff. + +_Stalker_: A scout must take a series of twenty photographs of wild +animals or birds from life, and develop and print them. Or, +alternately, he must make a collection of sixty species of wild +flowers, ferns, or grasses, dried and mounted in a book and correctly +named. Or, alternately, he must make coloured drawings of twenty +flowers, ferns or grasses, or twelve sketches from life of animals and +birds. Original sketches, as well as the finished pictures, to be +submitted. Or, alternately he must be able to name sixty different +kinds of animals, insects, reptiles, or birds in a museum or +zoological garden, or from unnamed coloured plates, and give +particulars of the lives, habits, appearance and markings of twenty of +them. + +_Starman_: A scout must have a general knowledge of the nature and +movements of the stars. He must be able to point out and name six +principal constellations. Find the north by means of other stars than +the Pole Star in case of that star being obscured by clouds, etc., and +tell the hour of the night by the stars or moon. He must have a +general knowledge of the positions and movements of the earth, sun +and moon, and of tides, eclipses, meteors, comets, sun spots, planets. + +_Surveyor_: A scout must map correctly, from the country itself, the +main features of a half a mile of road, with 440 yards each side, to a +scale of two feet to the mile, and afterward re-draw same map from +memory. Measure the heights of a tree, telegraph pole and church +steeple, describing method adopted. Measure width of a river, and +distance apart of two objects a known distance away and +unapproachable. Be able to measure a gradient, contours, conventional +signs of ordnance survey and scales. + +_Swimming and Life Saving_: A scout must be able to dive and swim +fifty yards with clothes on (shirt, trousers, socks as minimum). Able +to fling and use life-line or life-buoy. Able to demonstrate two ways +of rescue of drowning person, and revival of apparently drowned. + + +THE PATROL + +The simplest way to form a patrol of scouts is to call together a +small group of boys over twelve years of age. A simple recital of the +things that scouts do, with perhaps an opportunity to look over the +Manual, will be enough to launch the organization. The selection of a +patrol leader will then follow, and the scouting can begin. It is well +not to attempt too much at the start. Get the boys to start work to +pass the requirements for the tenderfoot. + +_The Patrol Leader_: Each patrol should have a patrol +leader--preferably a boy. The choice of this leader has much to do +with the success of the patrol. He should be a recognized leader among +the boys in the group. Do not hesitate to entrust him with details. +Let him feel that he is your right-hand man. Ask his opinion on +matters pertaining to the patrol. Make him feel that the success of +the organization depends largely upon him, being careful, of course, +not to overdo it. You will find that this attitude will enlist the +hearty cooperation of the boy and you will find him an untiring +worker, with the ability to bind the boys closer together than you +could ever hope to do alone. + + +POINTS OF INTEREST + +1. Scouting does not consist in wearing a khaki suit or a lot of +decorations. It is in doing the things that are required for the +tenderfoot, second-class and first-class scout badges and the badges +of merit. + +2. Scouts do not wish any one to buy things for them. They buy their +own equipment and pay their own way. + +3. Scouts do their best to keep the scout oath and law. + +4. The glory of scouting is "_to do a good turn to some one every day +without reward_." + +5. Scouts regard the rights of others, and do not trespass on the +property or feelings of others. + +6. Scouting means obedience and discipline. The boy who can't obey +will never command. + +7. Scouts are always busy and getting fun out of it--at work, at +school, at home, at play. _Be a good scout._ + + +HOW TO ORGANIZE A TROOP + +_First_: Write to Headquarters, which is at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York +City, for a scout master's certificate. + +_Second_: Either combine three or more patrols or having one patrol, +appoint several patrol leaders and enlist boys for the new patrols. + +_Third_: The minimum number of patrols in a troop is three, and the +maximum the number a scout master can _rightly_ handle. Care should be +taken not to organize for the sake of a big showing. + +_Hints on starting_: In actually starting a troop, it has been found +better to start in a small way. Begin by one or two leader-men making +a careful study of "Scouting for Boys" and as soon as the main ideas +have been grasped, get together a small number of boys, and go through +with them the initial stages step by step, until the boys bubble over +with scouting ideals, and until the notion of a fancy uniform and +games in the country have given place to a definite desire to qualify +for manhood and citizenship. These boys will make the nucleus round +which to form a troop, and should pass on their training and +enthusiasm to the boys who are enlisting under them. It has been found +better to obtain _distinctly older fellows for patrol leaders_: the +scout masters should invariably be men who feel the great +responsibility of having boys under their charge, and the possibility +of leading the boys from the moment when they enlist in the scouts to +the time they pass out again to be fully fledged men. + +_Finances_: The finances necessary to run a troop of scouts should be +met by the scouts themselves. It is a main principle of scouting to +teach the boys to be self-reliant, and anything which will militate +against the constant sending round of the hat will be a national +good. + +_The Scout Master_: The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. +The scout master may begin with one patrol. He must have a deep +interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have the ability to lead +and command the boys' respect and obedience and possess some knowledge +of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on scoutcraft. The good +scout master will discover experts for the various activities. +Applications for scout masters' certificates may be made at the +Headquarters, 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. + +From the outset, the scout master must have the interest of each boy +at heart. He must not play favourites with any of the boys in his +patrol or troop. While there are sure to be boys in the group who will +develop more rapidly than others, and whose keenness will be sure to +call forth the admiration of the scout master, he should not permit +himself to be "carried away" by the achievements of these "star boys" +to such an extent that he will neglect the less aggressive boy. The +latter boy is the one who needs your attention most, and your interest +in him must be genuine. Every effort he makes, no matter how poor it +may be, should be commended just as heartily as the better +accomplishments of the more handy boy. + + +PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR SCOUTS + +1. _Scoutcraft_: Boy Scouts' organization, scout laws, discipline, +scouts' secret signs, badges, etc. + +2. _Campaigning_: Camp life and resourcefulness. Hut and mat making. +Knots. Fire lighting. Cooking. Boat management. Judging distances, +heights and numbers. Swimming. Cycling. Finding the way. + + +SIGN POSTS + +1. Do not have in the same patrol boys of great disparity in ages. For +instance, the boy of twelve should not be in the same group with the +sixteen-year-old boy, if it can possibly be avoided. You must remember +that in most cases the things that appeal to the younger boy will have +no attraction for the older boy. + +2. Do not enroll boys under twelve. If you do you are certain to lose +your older boy. The movement is distinctly for boys of the adolescent +period and is designed to help them to rightly catch the spirit of +helpfulness. + +3. Do not try to do everything yourself. Try to remember that the +boys are always willing and anxious to take hold. Let the boys +understand that the whole proposition is theirs. It is what they make +it. Your contract with them should be largely of a big brother nature. + +4. Do not burden nor weary the boys with excessive military drills and +tactics. The movement is not a military one. The military virtues of +obedience, neatness, order, endurance and erect, alert bearing, +however, are scout virtues. Use everything that develops boys. This is +good scoutcraft. + +5. Do not confine the activities of the patrols to things of one +character. Touch every activity as far as possible. Do not omit +anything. Get the proper agencies to cooperate with you for these +ends--a military man for signalling; a naturalist for woodcraft; a +physician for first aid, etc. + +6. Do not permit the boys to fail in the proper keeping of the scout +oath and law. + +7. Never fail to keep an engagement with your patrol or troop. If +something should delay your coming or should you find yourself unable +to keep an appointment with them, be sure to notify the patrol leaders +beforehand. It might be well to require the same of the boys. + +8. A real danger point is the failure of a scout master to visit the +boys in their homes. Knowing the boys' parents means much, and their +cooperation will be much heartier when they know the man to whose care +they entrust their boy, after he has discussed with them the real +purpose of the scout movement. + +9. Do not hesitate to give a boy a hard task, but not an impossible +one. A boy likes to do hard things. + +10. Do not attempt right at the start to give the boy every bit of +detail regarding the activities of the troop. Work out the plans with +the boys from time to time, always reserving some things of interest +for the next meeting. Your attempt to give them everything at one time +will cause the whole proposition to assume the nature of a task +instead of pleasurable education, as was originally intended. + +11. Hold frequent tests for advancement to the classes of scouthood. +Get your fellows to really win their badges. + +12. As a scout master use good judgment. If there are other scout +masters in your town, or a scout council or local committee, cooperate +with these. To be a scout master, you must have the spirit of '76, +but be sure to work with others. The boys will benefit by the lesson. + + +THE SCOUTS' CAMP + +To go camping should mean more than merely living under canvas away +from the piles of brick and stone that make up our cities. To be in +the open air, to breathe pure oxygen, to sleep upon "a bed of boughs +beside the trail," to look at the camp fire and the stars, and to hear +the whisper of the trees--all of this is good. But the camp offers a +better opportunity than this. It offers the finest method for a boy's +education. Between twelve and eighteen years the interests of a boy +are general ones, and reach from the catching of tadpoles and minnows +to finding God in the stars. His interests are the general mass +interests that are so abundant in nature, the activities that give the +country boy such an advantage for the real enjoyment of life over the +city lad. Two weeks or two months in camp, they are too valuable to be +wasted in loafing, cigarette smoking, card playing or shooting craps. +To make a camp a profitable thing there must needs be instruction; not +formal but _informal_ instruction. Scouting, nature study, scout law, +camp cooking, signalling, pioneering, path finding, sign reading, +stalking for camera purposes, knowledge of animals and plants, first +aid, life saving, manual work (making things), hygiene, sex +instruction, star gazing, discipline, knowing the rocks and trees, and +the ability to do for one's self, in order that a boy may grow strong, +self-reliant, and helpful. This is a partial list of the subject in +the camp curricula. + +A model scout camp programme is given here. It takes eight days to +carry it out, but there is material enough to run ten times the number +of days specified. + + +A SIR R.S.S. BADEN-POWELL SCOUT CAMP MODEL PROGRAMME + +_First Day_: Preliminary work: settling into camp, formation of +patrols, distribution of duties, orders, etc. + +_Second Day_: Campaigning: camp resourcefulness, hut and mat making, +knots, fire lighting, cooking, health and sanitation, endurance, +finding way in strange country, and boat management. + +_Third Day_: Observation: noticing and memorizing details far and +near, landmarks, tracking, deducing meaning from tracks and signs, and +training the eyesight. + +_Fourth Day_: Woodcraft: study of animals, birds, plants and stars; +stalking animals, noticing people, reading their character and +condition, and thereby gaining their sympathy. + +_Fifth Day_: Chivalry: honour, code of knights, unselfishness, +courage, charity and thrift; loyalty to God, country, parents and +employers, or officers; practical chivalry to women; the obligation to +do a "good turn" daily, and how to do it. + +_Sixth Day_: Saving life: from fire, drowning, sewer gas, runaway +horses, panic, street accidents, improvised apparatus, and first aid. + +_Seventh Day_: Patriotism: national geography, the history and deeds +that won our world power, the navy and army, flags, medals, duties of +a citizen, marksmanship, helping the police. + +_Eighth Day_: A summary of the whole course: sports comprising games +and competitive practices in all subjects of the course. + + +CAMP ROUTINES + + 6.30 a.m. Turn out, bathe, etc. + 7.00 " Breakfast + 8.00 " Air bedding in sun if possible + 9.00 " Scouting games and practice + 11.00 " Swimming + 12.00 m. Dinner + 1.00 p.m. Talk by leader + 2.00 " Water games, etc. + 6.00 " Supper + 7.30 " Evening council around camp fire + Order of business: + Opening council + Roll-call + Record of last council + Report of scouts + Left-over business + Complaints + Honours + New scouts + New business + Challenges + Social doings, songs, dances, stories + Closing council (devotional services when desired) + 10.00 p.m. Lights out. + +The father of scouting for boys in America, and in fact the +inspiration for the movement in England under Lieut-Gen. Sir Robert +S.S. Baden-Powell, K.C.B., is Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton, the +distinguished naturalist and nature student. + +The official handbook of the organization may be obtained from +Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, N.Y., the publishers of this +book, or from the national headquarters of The Boy Scouts of America. + + + + +III + +CAMPS AND CAMPING + +How to select the best place and to pitch the tent--A brush bed--The +best kind of a tent--How to make the camp fire--What to do when it +rains--Fresh air and good food--The brush leanto and how to make it + + +Going camping is the best fun in the world if we know how to do it. +Every healthy boy and girl if given an opportunity should enjoy living +outdoors for a week or two and playing at being an Indian. There is +more to camping however than "roughing it" or seeing how much hardship +we can bear. A good camper always makes himself just as comfortable as +he can under the circumstances. The saying that "an army travels on +its stomach" means that a soldier can not make long marches or fight +hard unless he has good food. The surest sign of a "tenderfoot" is the +boy who makes fun of you because you try to have a soft dry bed while +he prefers to sleep on the ground under the mistaken idea that it is +manly or brave. He will usually spoil a trip in the woods for every +one in the party. + +Another poor kind of a camper pitches his tent so that his bed gets +wet and his food spoiled on the first rainy day, and then sits around +cold and hungry trying hard to think that he is having fun, to keep +from getting homesick. This kind of a boy "locks the door after the +horse is stolen." If we go camping we must know how to prevent the +unpleasant things from happening. We must always be ready for wind and +rain, heat and cold. A camping party should make their plans a long +time ahead in order to get their equipment ready. Careful lists should +be made of what we think we shall need. After we are out in the woods, +there will be no chance to run around the corner to the grocer's to +supply what we have forgotten. If it is forgotten, we must simply make +the best of it and not allow it to spoil our trip. + +It is surprising how many things that we think are almost necessary to +life we can get along without if we are obliged to. The true woodsman +knows how to turn to his use a thousand of nature's gifts and to make +himself comfortable, while you and I might stand terrified and +miserable under the same conditions. + +Daniel Boone, the great wilderness traveller, could go out alone in +the untracked forest with nothing but his rifle, his axe and a small +pack on his back and by a knowledge of the stars, the rivers, the +trees and the wild animals, he could go for weeks travelling hundreds +of miles, building his bed and his leanto out of the evergreen boughs, +lighting his fire with his flint and steel, shooting game for his food +and dressing and curing their skins for his clothing and in a thousand +ways supplying his needs from nature's storehouse. The school of the +woods never sends out graduates. We may learn something new every day. + +[Illustration: With a head shelter and a sleeping bag he can keep dry +and warm] + +The average city boy or girl does not have an opportunity to become a +skilled master of woodcraft, but because we cannot learn it all is no +reason why we should not learn something. The best way to learn it is +in the woods themselves and not out of books. + +A party of four boys makes a good number for a camping trip. They will +probably agree better than two or three. They can do much of the camp +work in pairs. No one need to be left alone to look after the camp +while the others go fishing or hunting or to some nearby town for the +mail or for supplies. There is no reason why four boys of fifteen who +are resourceful and careful cannot spend a week or two in the woods in +perfect safety and come back home sounder in mind and body than when +they left. It is always better to take along some one who has "camped +out" before. If he cannot be found, then make your plans, decide what +you will do and how you will do it, take a few cooking lessons from +mother or the cook--if the latter is good-natured--and go anyway. +First elect a leader, not because he is any more important than the +rest but because if some one goes ahead and gives directions, the life +in camp will run much more smoothly and every one will have a better +time. + +If it is your first experience in camping, you had better go somewhere +near home. The best place is one that can be reached by wagon. If we +have to carry our supplies on our backs or in a canoe, the amount we +can take will be much less. After you have had some experience near +home you can safely try the other way. Where you go is of +comparatively little importance. Near every large city there is some +lake or river where you can find a good camping site. Campers always +have more fun if they are near some water, but if such a place is not +easily found near where you live, go into the woods. Try to get away +from towns or villages. The wilder the place is, the better. + +You had better make sure of your camping ground before you go by +writing a letter to the owner of the land. It isn't much fun after we +have pitched the tent and made everything shipshape to have some angry +landowner come along and order us off because we are trespassers. + +In selecting a place to camp, there are several very important things +to look out for. + +1. Be sure you are near a supply of drinking water. A spring or a +brook is best, but even the lake or river will do if the water is pure +and clean. The water at the bottom of a lake is always much colder and +cleaner than the surface water. When I was a boy, I used a simple +device for getting cold water which some of you may like to copy. I +took an old-fashioned jug and fastened a strong string to the handle +and also fastened this string to the cork of the jug as the drawing +shows. The jug was weighted so that it would sink, by means of a piece +of stone tied to the handle. We used to go out to the middle of the +lake where the water was the deepest and lower the jug over the side +of a boat. When it reached bottom we would give the string a sharp tug +and thus pull out the cork. The bubbles coming to the surface showed +us when the jug was full. We then hauled it on board and had clear, +cold, drinking water from a lake that on the surface was warm enough +for swimming. + +[Illustration: The jug by which we obtained pure, cold water] + +2. The next important thing in selecting a camp is being near a supply +of firewood. A week in camp will consume an amazing amount of wood, +especially if we have a camp fire at night to sit around and sing and +tell stories before turning in. In most sections there is plenty of +dead wood that we can use for camp fires. This does not mean a lot of +twigs and brush. There is no use trying to go camping unless some one +knows how to use an axe. In another chapter I will tell you something +about the proper use of axes and hatchets. For the present it is +sufficient to say that an excellent place to practise handling an axe +is on the family woodpile. You will thus combine business and +pleasure, and your efforts will be appreciated by your family, which +would not be the case if, like George Washington, you began your +lessons in woodcraft on the favourite cherry tree. + +Almost any kind of wood will burn when it is dry, but it takes +experience to know the kinds of trees that will burn when they are +green. If there is no dry wood in the neighbourhood, and we are +obliged to cut a tree down to get our supply, it is very important to +pitch our camp somewhere near the right kind of a tree and not be +obliged to carry our firewood a long distance. The best "green wood" +for the campers' fire is hickory, although birch is excellent. Hickory +is also the best dry wood. Other trees that will burn well when green +are cedar, white ash, locust or white oak. There are comparatively few +places, however, where dry wood is not available and of course it is +always best to avoid such a place. + +3. The camp site should be in a fairly open spot. Thick woods and +underbrush are either hot or "damp" cool. If you can find a site that +is shaded during the heat of the day so much the better. It is unwise +to pitch the tent under a tree that stands alone on account of +possible danger from lightning. If your tent is shaded by a tree be +sure there are no dead limbs to blow off and wreck it during a storm. + +Be sure that the drainage is good, so that in case of heavy rains, the +water will run off and not flood the camp. It is very important if +your camp is along some river or stream to be high enough to avoid the +danger of sudden floods. This can usually be determined by talking to +some one who knows the country. You can also tell it by studying the +previous high water marks in the trees. In case of floods there are +always some wisps of straw, pieces of brush, etc., caught and held by +the limbs of trees after the water settles back to its former level. +It is a good chance to practise your woodcraft by trying to find them. + +Damp locations are very bad. The higher we can get, the drier it will +be. We avoid both fogs and mosquitoes. Usually there is some prominent +place that will give us a good outlook and where the breezes can reach +us. + +There are both good and bad points in pitching our tent on the site of +a former camp. As long as the former campers have not scoured the +surrounding neighbourhood for firewood nor have left a place littered +up with all sorts of rubbish and garbage to draw flies and vermin, +they may have fixed up things around the camp site to save us work and +to add to our comfort and pleasure. Each case will have to be decided +on its own merits. + +[Illustration: A wall tent] + +The three important things then are the water supply, the firewood +supply, and good drainage. + +Next in importance to the camp site is the outfit, and the most +important thing is the tent. For a party of four boys on their first +camping trip, the best kind will be a wall tent. A tent, 11 x 14 feet +will be large enough to provide sleeping quarters and to have every +one comfortable. A simple shelter of canvas outside can be provided +as a dining-room but this is more of a luxury than a real necessity. + +Canvas or duck is the common material from which tents are made. The +standard eight-ounce khaki duck used in the United States army will, +for this size tent, cost about twenty dollars. This will include a +fly, which is merely a second roof to the tent. The best material for +tents is balloon silk. It is much more waterproof than canvas and only +weighs a quarter as much. It is also much more expensive. A tent can +be made at home, which is of course the cheaper way. They can also be +hired from previous campers or from some awning maker who is also +usually a tent maker. + +A canvas tent without a fly will leak in a rain storm if the roof is +touched on the inside either by our hands or our clothing. It may be +made partially waterproof by a coating of paraffine which has been +previously dissolved in turpentine. The simplest and at the same time +the warmest tent for an experienced camper who knows the tricks of the +trade is a leanto tent, one with one side entirely open, in front of +which a blazing fire may be kept burning. This is hardly adapted for +boys on their first trip, however. + +Another very good and very simple tent is the "A" tent used in the +army. This looks like a "V" turned upside down. We can pitch it +without the aid of tent poles by simply hanging it be ween two trees +to which a rope has been stretched. + +[Illustration: An "A" tent] + +The Hudson Bay tent, trapper's tent, forester's tent, canoe tent, and +a dozen others, including an Indian tepee and wigwam, are all good +tents for special purposes. The pictures show the different styles and +all of them are designed for special uses, either for warmth or +lightness in carrying or ease in pitching. If we go camping in summer +and can have our equipment or "duffle," as the woodsmen call it, +carried by team, the wall tent will be the best one to take. + +Tent pegs can always be cut in the woods, but it is far more +satisfactory to get them ready at home before we leave. If you do cut +your own pegs, select hardwood saplings to make them from and to +further harden the points, char them slightly in a fire. If you spend +a few winter evenings at home making the pegs, it will save you a lot +of time and trouble when you reach the camping ground. The best pegs +are made of iron or steel. This is especially true when the ground +where they are to be driven is hard or rocky, which is usually the +case. Steel tent pins may be bought for six cents apiece or possibly +the local blacksmith will make them for less. They should be a foot +long. + +A sod cloth is a strip of canvas eight or ten inches wide fastened to +the bottom of the tent wall. Its purpose is to keep the wind and rain +from blowing under the tent. After the tent is pitched a ditch should +be dug all around it to catch the rain and carry it away. The earth +that is dug from this trench may be thrown on the sod cloth to hold it +down. + +It is an excellent idea, if you are a beginner, to practise pitching +the tent at home so that you will understand it better when you are in +the woods. Besides this, you can try sleeping out a night or two to +see how you are going to like it. + +[Illustration: A trapper's tent] + +When you reach your camping place, the first step is to clear the +ground of all rubbish, loose stones, sticks and brush to have a clean +floor. Then unpack the tent and fit the pegs of the two upright poles +through the two holes in the ridge pole. Next raise the tent and peg +the guy ropes on the four corners first. A little practice will show +you how to do this. After all the ropes are pegged at a proper +distance from the tent, they should be tightened and the tent made +secure. + +Always plan to have a full four hours of daylight to make your camp +ready. If the drive is a long one and you are obliged to get up very +early in the morning, you will have to do it, that is all. I made my +first camping trip when I was twelve years old. We had just reached +the camping ground, unloaded our kit and sent the team home that +brought us when--bang! over the mountain across the lake from where we +were going to camp, a terrific thunder shower came up and in a few +minutes it was pouring. There was our whole outfit--tent, bedding and +food--getting soaked because, instead of hurrying along during the +day, we had fooled away our time trying to catch fish in wayside +brooks that had never seen a fish and not realizing how important it +is to make haste as well as hay while the sun shines. + +[Illustration: An Indian tepee] + +We quickly pitched the tent, not as it should have been pitched, but +in a heap over the rest of our goods to keep out as much water as +possible and then ran for a nearby barn where we spent a cold hungry +night, wetter but wiser. The next day, out came the sun and dried our +things, but if the rain had continued we certainly should have been +obliged to go home or at least to a farmhouse to stay until the +weather cleared. We soon forgot our unpleasant experience but we have +not forgotten the lesson it taught--and that is not to waste time +along the road when there is work to be done at the journey's end. + +Next to a good tent, the most important thing for the camper is a good +bed. It is even more important than good food because if we sleep +well, hunger will furnish the sauce for our grub, but if we spend the +night trying to dodge some root or rock that is boring into our back +and that we hardly felt when we turned in but which grew to an +enormous size in our imagination before morning, we will be half sick +and soon get enough of being an Indian. A canvas cot makes the best +camp bed if it can be taken along conveniently. There is one important +thing to look out for in sleeping on a cot. In my first experience of +the kind, I nearly froze. I kept piling things on me until all my +clothing, and even the camp towels and table-cloth were pressed into +service and was thinking about pulling some dry grass to pile on the +rest of the stuff. Still I shivered until I discovered that the cold +was coming up from underneath because there was nothing to keep it out +but the single thickness of canvas. When I put one of my blankets +under me, I was as warm as toast. + +Very often it is impossible to carry cots on a trip, and that is +where a knowledge of woodcraft comes in. The softest, sweetest, +downiest bed in the world can be made with no other materials but +those which grow in the forest--if we know how. At least the tired +camper will think it is soft and will sleep on it like a top and wake +up refreshed in the morning. Perhaps if we had our choice we would +prefer our own bed at home, but in the woods we do not have this +choice. Most people call this a bed of "pine boughs." + +[Illustration: How the bough bed is made] + +Why I do not know as it never should be made of pine under any +circumstances. The best wood for the bough bed is balsam. If this does +not grow in the neighbourhood, hemlock, spruce, or even cedar will do. +To make a bough bed properly means a lot of work. The first step is to +cut four straight sticks. The side pieces should be six feet and a +half long and the end pieces three feet and a half. They should be +notched on the ends with an axe and either nailed or tied together +from saplings or from a tree that you have felled. Small balsam boughs +should be broken off with the fingers and laid one on the other until +the whole bed is filled with them. On this, the rubber blanket or +poncho should be spread and the blankets over all. All the boughs +should be shingled with the stems down to keep them in the best +condition. This kind of a bed will require remaking every day. + +A better bed for the boy camper is made as follows: Take a piece of +heavy bed ticking and sew it into a bag about three feet by six feet. +When you reach camp you can make a regular mattress by filling it with +whatever material is most easily found. Dry leaves? grass, hay, even +moss or wet filler can be used if nothing dry can be found, but in +this case the rubber blanket will be an absolute necessity. Of course +it is much better to use some dry material. + +Be sure to have a comfortable bed. No matter what ideas you may have +about cowboys and soldiers rolling up in their blankets and snatching +a few hours' sleep under the stars by lying on the bare ground, a boy +who is used to a good bed at home will never have much fun out of a +camping trip if he tries to sleep on the ground with a rock for his +pillow. + +For a summer camping trip, one blanket is enough. You must learn to +roll up in it. Lie flat on your back and cover the blanket over you. +Then raise up your legs and tuck it under first on one side and then +the other. The rest is easy. This beats trying to "roll up" in it, +actually. The common summer blankets used at home are not much use for +the camper. These are usually all cotton. A camper's blanket should be +all wool. You can buy a standard U.S. Army blanket, size 66 x 84 +inches, for five dollars. They can often be purchased in stores that +deal in second hand army supplies for much less and are just as good +as new except for some slight stain or defect. + +A sleeping bag is expensive but is excellent for cold weather camping. +It is much too hot for the boy camper in summer. + +Do not sleep in your clothing. Unless it is too cold, undress, about +as you do at home. If the blanket feels tickly, it would not be a +great crime, no matter what the tenderfoot says who wanted you to +sleep on the ground, to take along a sheet. I have never done this, +however. + +At the end of this chapter, you will find a list of things to take +with you. + +The camp fire and the cooking fire should be separate. Almost any one +can kindle a fire with dry materials. It takes a woodman to build a +fire when it has been raining and everything is wet. The boy's method +of taking a few newspapers, and a handful of brush or leaves will not +do. + +First look around for an old dead top of a pine or cedar. If you +cannot find one, chop down a cedar tree. Whittle a handful of +splinters and shavings from the dry heart. Try to find the lee side of +a rock or log where the wind and rain do not beat in. First put down +the shavings or some dry birch bark if you can find it, and shelter it +as well as you can from the rain. Pile up some larger splinters of +wood over the kindling material like an Indian's wigwam. Then light it +and give it a chance to get into a good blaze before you pile on any +larger wood and put the whole fire out. It sounds easy but before you +try it in the woods I advise you to select the first rainy day and go +out near home and experiment. + +To make a fire that will burn in front of the tent all night, first +drive two green stakes into the ground at a slant and about five feet +apart. Then lay two big logs one on each side of a stake to serve as +andirons. Build a fire between these logs and pile up a row of logs +above the fire and leaning against the stakes. You may have to brace +the stakes with two others which should have a forked end. When the +lower log burns out the next one will drop down in its place and +unless you have soft, poor wood the fire should burn for ten hours. +With this kind of a fire and with a leanto, it is possible to keep +warm in the woods, on the coldest, night in winter. + +[Illustration: The frame for a brush leanto] + +This is the way to build a brush leanto: First cut two sticks and +drive them into the ground. They should have a point on one end and a +fork on the other. Lay a stout pole across the two forks like a gypsy +fire rig. Then lean poles against the crosspiece and finally thatch +the roof with spruce, hemlock or other boughs and pile up boughs for +the sides. A brush camp is only a makeshift arrangement and is never +weather proof. It is simply a temporary shelter which with the +all-night fire burning in front will keep a man from freezing to death +in the woods. Any kind of a tent is better or even a piece of canvas +or a blanket for the roof of the leanto will be better than the roof +of boughs. Be careful not to set the leanto on fire with the sparks +from your camp fire. + +Mosquitoes have probably spoiled more camping trips that any other one +thing. The best tents have mosquito net or cheese cloth fronts which +may be held close to the ground by a stick on the bottom. Perhaps the +easiest way to secure protection is for each boy to take along a few +yards of cotton mosquito netting and by means of curved sticks build a +canopy over his bed. + +A smoky fire called a "smudge" will sometimes keep the pests away from +the neighbourhood of the tent or if we build it in the tent will drive +them out, but the remedy is almost as bad as the disease. As a rule +they will only be troublesome at night and the net over our bed will +enable us to sleep in peace. + +The most common "dope" used in the woods to keep off mosquitoes is +called oil of citronella. It has a very pungent odour that the +mosquitoes do not like and the chances are that you will not like it +either. At the same time it may be a good plan to take a small bottle +along. + +You may safely count on finding mosquitoes, no matter where you go or +what the people tell you who live there. Perhaps they have never tried +sleeping in the woods and do not know. Be sure therefore to take +along some netting or cheese cloth to protect yourself against them. + +Everything that you can do at home to get ready for your camping trip +will add to your pleasure when you get out in the woods. If any part +of your kit needs fixing, fishing rods wound or varnished, your +jackknife ground, your camera fixed, or if your clothing needs any +patches or buttons, do it at home. + +No one ever does half that he plans to on a trip like this unless he +does not plan to do anything. Take along a few books to read for the +rainy days and have them covered with muslin if you ever expect to put +them back into your library. + +If you have been putting off a visit to the dentist, by all means do +it before you get out where there are no dentists. An aching tooth can +spoil a vacation in the woods about as easily as anything I know of. + +As a final word of advice to the beginner in camping, let me tell you +a few things that my own experience has taught me. + +A felt hat is better than a cap as it is sun and rain proof. + +Wear a flannel shirt and take one extra one. You can wash one and wear +the other. Be sure to have a new shirt plenty loose in the neck as +camp washing in cold water will make it shrink. Do not go around in +gymnasium shirts or sleeveless jerseys. One of my companions did this +once and was so terribly sunburned that his whole trip was spoiled. + +Two sets of underwear are plenty, including the one you wear. + +Take along a silk handkerchief to wear around your neck. + +Wear comfortable shoes. A camping trip is a poor place to break in new +hunting boots or shoes. + +Take bandanna handkerchiefs and leave your linen ones at home. + +If you have to choose between a coat and a sweater take the sweater +and leave the coat at home. A coat is out of place in the woods. + +Khaki or canvas trousers are excellent. So are corduroy. An old pair +of woollen trousers are just as good as either. + +A poncho is almost necessary to your comfort. It is merely a rubber or +oilskin piece with a slit in it to put your head through. The right +size is 66 x 90 inches. With it you can keep dry day or night, either +using it as a garment or as a cover. When you are not using it you can +cover it over your bed or food supply. + +Take along a good pocket knife and compass. Better leave the revolver +home. Also always carry a waterproof box of matches. + +You will require some kind of a waterproof "duffle" bag to carry your +personal things--tooth brush, extra clothing, mirror, fishing tackle, +towel, soap, medicine, in fact whatever you think you will need. If it +is your first camping trip you will come home without having had any +use whatever for more than half the things you take. That is the +experience of every one, so do not become discouraged. + +If you camp within reach of a post-office, address some stamped +envelopes to your home in ink before you leave. Then you will have no +excuse for not writing a letter home. + +You can make an excellent pillow by rolling up your trousers. Be sure +to take everything out of the pockets first, including your knife, and +roll them with the top inside so that the buttons or your belt buckle +will not bore into your ear. + +If you fall overboard and come ashore to dry out, stuff your shoes +full of dry grass or old paper to keep them from shrinking. When they +are dry, soften them with tallow or oil. Every one who goes camping at +some time or other gets wet. The only advice I can give you is to get +dry again as soon as possible. As long as you keep moving it will +probably not injure you. Waterproof garments are of little use in the +woods. They are always too warm for summer wear and by holding the +perspiration, are more of an injury than a benefit. + +Never wear rubber boots in the woods or you will surely take cold. +Better have wet feet. The best foot wear is moccasins. If you wear +them see that they are several sizes too large and wear at least two +pairs of heavy woollen stockings with them. + + + + +IV + +CAMP COOKING + +How to make the camp fire range--Bread bakers--Cooking utensils--The +grub list--Simple camp recipes + + +Most boys, and I regret to say a few girls too, nowadays, seem to +regard a knowledge of cooking as something to be ashamed of. The boy +who expects to do much camping or who ever expects to take care of +himself out in the woods had better get this idea out of his head just +as soon as possible. Cooking in a modern kitchen has been reduced to a +science, but the boy or man who can prepare a good meal with little +but nature's storehouse to draw on and who can make an oven that will +bake bread that is fit to eat, with the nearest range fifty miles +away, has learned something that his mother or sister cannot do and +something that he should be very proud of. Camp cooking is an art and +to become an expert is the principal thing in woodcraft--nothing else +is so important. + +We often hear how good the things taste that have been cooked over the +camp fire. Perhaps a good healthy appetite has something to do with +it, but it is pretty hard even for a hungry boy to relish half-baked, +soggy bread or biscuits that are more suitable for fishing sinkers +than for human food. A party without a good cook is usually ready to +break camp long before the time is up, and they are lucky if the +doctor is not called in as soon as they get home. + +There is really no need for poor food in the woods. Very few woodsmen +are good cooks simply because they will not learn. The camp cook +always has the best fun. Every one is ready to wait on him _"if he +will only, please get dinner ready"_ + +One year when I was camping at the head of Moosehead Lake in Maine, I +had a guide to whom I paid three dollars a day. He cooked and I got +the firewood, cleaned the fish and did the chores around camp. His +cooking was so poor that the food I was forced to eat was really +spoiling my trip. One day I suggested that we take turns cooking, and +in place of the black muddy coffee, greasy fish and soggy biscuit, I +made some Johnny cake, boiled a little rice and raisins and baked a +fish for a change instead of frying it. His turn to cook never came +again. He suggested himself that he would be woodchopper and scullion +and let me do the cooking. I readily agreed and found that it was +only half as much work as being the handy man. + +The basis of camp cooking is the fire. It is the surest way to tell +whether the cook knows his business or not. The beginner always starts +with a fire hot enough to roast an ox and just before he begins +cooking piles on more wood. Then when everything is sizzling and +red-hot, including the handles of all his cooking utensils, he is +ready to begin the preparation of the meal. A cloud of smoke follows +him around the fire with every shift of the wind. Occasionally he will +rush in through the smoke to turn the meat or stir the porridge and +rush out again puffing and gasping for breath, his eyes watery and +blinded and his fingers scorched almost like a fireman coming out of a +burning building where he has gone to rescue some child. The chances +are, if this kind of a cook takes hold of the handle of a hot frying +pan, pan and contents will be dumped in a heap into the fire to +further add to the smoke and blaze. + +When the old hand begins to cook, he first takes out of the fire the +unburned pieces and blazing sticks, leaving a bed of glowing coals to +which he can easily add a little wood, if the fire gets low and a +watched pot refuses to boil to his satisfaction. When the fire is +simply a mass of red coals he quietly goes to cooking, and if his fire +has been well made and of the right kind of wood, the embers will +continue to glow and give out heat for an hour. + +Of course, if the cooking consists in boiling water for some purpose, +there is no particular objection to a hot fire, the fire above +described is for broiling, frying and working around generally. + +[Illustration: A type of camp fire that will burn all night] + +There are all sorts of camp fireplaces. The quickest one to build and +one of the best as well, is the "hunter's fire," All you need is an +axe. Take two green logs about six to eight inches thick and five feet +long and lay them six inches apart at one end and about fourteen +inches at the other. Be sure that the logs are straight. It is a good +plan to flatten the surface slightly on one side with the axe to +furnish a better resting place for the pots and pans. If the logs roll +or seem insecure, make a shallow trench to hold them or wedge them +with flat stones. The surest way to hold them in place is to drive +stakes at each end. Build your fire between the logs and build up a +cob house of firewood. Split wood will burn much more quickly than +round sticks. As the blazing embers fall between the logs, keep adding +more wood. Do not get the fire outside of the logs. The object is to +get a bed of glowing coals between them. When you are ready to begin +cooking, take out the smoky, burning pieces and leave a bed of red-hot +coals. If you have no axe and can find no logs, a somewhat similar +fireplace can be built up of flat stones, but be sure that your stone +fireplace will not topple over just at the critical time. + +If you only have your jack-knife, the best fire is a "Gypsy Rig". Cut +two crotched sticks, drive them into the ground and lay a crosspiece +on them just as you would begin to build the leanto described in the +preceding chapter, but of course not so high above the ground. The +kettles and pots can be hung from the crossbar by means of pot hooks, +which are pieces of wood or wire shaped like a letter "S." Even +straight sticks will do with two nails driven into them. These should +be of different lengths to adjust the pots at various heights above +the fire, depending on whether you wish to boil something furiously or +merely to let it simmer. Do not suspend the kettles by running the bar +through them. This is very amateurish. With a gypsy fire, the frying +pan, coffee pot and gridiron will have to be set right on the bed of +coals. + +An arrangement for camp fires that is better and less work than the +logs is obtained by using fire irons, which are two flat pieces of +iron a yard or so long resting on stones and with the fire built +underneath. + +The whole object of either logs or irons is to furnish a secure +resting place for cooking utensils above the fire. + +There are several kinds of ovens used for baking bread and roasting +meat in outdoor life. The simplest way is to prop a frying pan up in +front of the fire. This is not the best way but you will have to do it +if you are travelling light. A reflector, when made of sheet iron or +aluminum is the best camp oven. Tin is not so satisfactory because it +will not reflect the heat equally. Both the top and bottom of the +reflector oven are on a slope and midway between is a steel baking pan +held in place by grooves. This oven can be moved about at will to +regulate the amount of heat and furthermore it can be used in front of +a blazing fire without waiting for a bed of coals. Such a rig can +easily be made by any tinsmith. A very convenient folding reflector +oven can be bought in aluminum for three or four dollars. When not +used for baking, it makes an excellent dishpan. + +[Illustration: A reflector camp oven] + +The standard camp oven that has been used by generations of pioneers +and campers is the Dutch oven. It is simply an iron pot on short legs +and is provided with a heavy cover. To use it, dig a hole in the +ground large enough to hold it, build a fire and fill the hole with +embers. Then scoop out a place for the pot, cover it over with more +embers and ashes and let the contents bake. + +For the boy who wants to go to the limit in depending on his own +resources, the clay oven is the nearest to real woodcraft. This is +made in the side of a bank by burrowing out a hole, with a smoke +outlet in the rear. A hot fire built inside will bake the clay and +hold it together. To use this oven, build a fire in it and when the +oven is hot, rake out the coals and put in your bread or meat on flat +stones. Close the opening with another stone and keep it closed long +enough to give the oven a chance. This method is not recommended to +beginners who are obliged to eat what they cook, but in the hands of a +real cook, will give splendid results. The reflector oven is the best +for most cases if you can carry it conveniently. + +The kind of a cooking equipment that we take with us on a camping trip +will depend on what we can carry conveniently, how much we are willing +to rough it and what our stock of provisions will be. One thing is +sure--the things that we borrow from home will rarely be fit to +return. In making a raid on the family kitchen, better warn the folks +that they are _giving_ us the pots and pans instead of merely +_lending_ them. Very compact cooking outfits can be bought if one +cares to go to the expense. An aluminum cook kit for four people, so +made that the various articles nest one into the other, can be bought +for fifteen dollars. It weighs only ten pounds and takes up a space +of 10 x 12 inches. Such a kit is very convenient if we move camp +frequently or have to carry our outfit with us, but for the party of +boys going out by team it is not worth the expense. You will need +several tin pails, two iron pots, a miner's coffee pot--all in one +piece including the lip--two frying pans, possibly a double boiler for +oatmeal and other cooked cereals, iron spoon, large knife, vegetable +knife, iron fork and broiler. A number of odds and ends will come in +handy, especially tin plates to put things on. Take no crockery or +glassware. It will be sure to be broken. Do not forget a can opener. + +Camp fire utensils should never be soldered. Either seamless ware or +riveted joints are the only safe kind. Solder is sure to melt over a +hot open fire. + +The personal equipment for each boy should be tin cup, knife, fork, +and spoons, deep tin plate, extra plate and perhaps one extra set of +everything for company if they should happen to drop in. A lot of dish +washing can be avoided if we use paper or wooden plates and burn them +up after the meal. + +The main question is "What shall we take to eat." A list of food or as +it is commonly known "the grub list" is a subject that will have to be +decided by the party themselves. I will give you a list that will +keep four hungry boys from staying hungry for a trip of two weeks and +leave something over to bring home. If the list does not suit you +exactly you can substitute or add other things. It is an excellent +plan for the party to take a few home cooked things to get started on, +a piece of roasted meat, a dish of baked beans, some crullers, cookies +or ginger snaps. We must also consider whether we shall get any fish +or game. If fishing is good, the amount of meat we take can be greatly +cut down. + +This list has been calculated to supply a party who are willing to eat +camp fare and who do not expect to be able to buy bread, milk, eggs or +butter. If you can get these things nearby, then camping is but little +different from eating at home. + + +GRUB LIST + +Ten lbs. bacon, half a ham, 4 cans corned beef, 2 lbs. cheese, 3 lbs. +lard, 8 cans condensed milk, 8 lbs. hard tack, 10 packages soda +crackers, 6 packages sweet crackers, 12-1/2 lbs. of wheat flour, +12-1/2 lbs. of yellow cornmeal, can baking powder, 1/2 bushel +potatoes, 1 peck onions, 3 lbs. ground coffee, 1/2 lb. tea, sack salt, +7 lbs. granulated sugar, 3 packages prepared griddle cake flour, 4 +packages assorted cereals, including oatmeal, 4 lbs. rice, dried +fruits, canned corn, peas, beans, canned baked beans, salmon, +tomatoes, sweetmeats and whatever else you like. + +Be sure to take along plenty of tin boxes or tight wooden boxes to +keep rain and vermin away from the food. Tell your grocer to pack the +stuff for a camping trip and to put the perishable things in tight +boxes as far as possible. + +If you are going to move camp, have some waterproof bags for the +flour. If you can carry eggs and butter, so much the better. A tin +cracker box buried in the mud along some cold brook or spring makes an +excellent camper's refrigerator especially if it is in the shade. +Never leave the food exposed around camp. As soon as the cook is +through with it let some one put it away in its proper place where the +flies, ants, birds, sun, dust, and rain cannot get at it. + +Always examine food before you cook it. Take nothing for granted. Once +when camping the camp cook for breakfast made a huge pot of a certain +brand of breakfast food. We were all tucking it away as only hungry +boys can, when some one complained that caterpillars were dropping +from the tree into his bowl. We shifted our seats--and ate some more, +and then made the astonishing discovery that the breakfast food was +full of worms. We looked at the package and found that the grocers had +palmed off some stale goods on us and that the box was fairly alive. +We all enjoy the recollection of it more than we did the actual +experience. + +It is impossible in a book of this kind to say very much about how to +cook. That subject alone has filled some very large books. We can +learn some things at home provided that we can duplicate the +conditions in the woods. So many home recipes contain eggs, milk and +butter that they are not much use when we have none of the three. +There is a book in my library entitled "One Hundred Ways to Cook Eggs" +but it would not do a boy much good in the woods unless he had the +eggs. If you ask your mother or the cook to tell you how to raise +bread or make pies and cakes, be sure that you will have the same +ingredients and tools to work with that she has. + +It might be well to learn a few simple things about frying and +boiling, as both of these things can be done even by a beginner over +the camp fire. There are a few general cooking rules that I will +attempt to give you and leave the rest for you to learn from +experience. + +You use bacon in the woods to furnish grease in the frying pan for +the things that are not fat enough themselves to furnish their own +grease. + +Condensed milk if thinned with water makes a good substitute for sweet +milk, after you get used to it. + +To make coffee, allow a tablespoonful of ground coffee to each cup of +water. Better measure both things until you learn just how full of +water to fill the pot to satisfy the wants of your party. Do not boil +coffee furiously. The best way is not to boil it at all but that would +be almost like telling a boy not to go swimming. Better let it simmer +and when you are ready for it, pour in a dash of cold water to settle +the grounds and see that no one shakes the pot afterward to stir up +grounds--and trouble. + +A teaspoonful of tea is enough for two people. This you must not boil +unless you want to tan your stomach. Pour boiling water on the tea and +let it steep. + +Good camp bread can be made from white flour, one cup; salt, one +teaspoonful; sugar, one teaspoonful and baking powder, one +teaspoonful. Wet with water or better with diluted condensed milk. +Pour in a greased pan and bake in the reflector oven until when you +test it by sticking a wooden splinter into it, the splinter will come +out clean without any dough adhering to it. + +If you want to make the kind of bread that has been the standard +ration for campers for hundreds of years you must eat johnny-cake or +pone. It is really plain corn bread. Personally I like it better than +any of the raised breads or prepared flours that are used in the +woods. It should always be eaten hot and always broken by the hands. +To cut it with a knife will make it heavy. The ingredients are simply +one quart of yellow meal, one teaspoonful of salt and three cups--one +and one-half pints--of warm water. Stir until the batter is light and +bake for a short hour. Test it with the wooden splinter the same as +wheat bread. It may be baked in an open fire on a piece of flat wood +or by rolling up balls of it, you can even roast it in the ashes. A +teaspoonful of sugar improves it somewhat and it can be converted into +cake by adding raisins or huckleberries. For your butter, you will use +bacon grease or gravy. + +Indian meal, next to bacon, is the camper's stand-by. In addition to +the johnny-cake, you can boil it up as mush and eat with syrup or +condensed milk and by slicing up the cold mush, if there is any left, +you can fry it next day in a spider. + +The beginner at cooking always makes the mistake of thinking that to +cook properly you must cook fast. The more the grease sputters or the +harder the pot boils, the better. As a rule, rapid boiling of meat +makes it tough. Game and fish should be put on in cold water and after +the water has boiled, be set back and allowed to simmer. Do not throw +away the water you boil meat in. It will make good soup--unless every +one in camp has taken a hand at salting the meat, as is often the +case. + +All green vegetables should be crisp and firm when they are cooked. If +they have been around camp for several days and have lost their +freshness, first soak them in cold water. A piece of pork cooked with +beans and peas will give them a richer flavour. The water that is on +canned vegetables should be poured off before cooking. Canned tomatoes +are an exception to this rule, however. + +Save all the leftovers. If you do not know what else to do with them, +make a stew or soup. You can make soup of almost anything. The Chinese +use birds' nests and the Eskimos can make soup of old shoes. A very +palatable soup can be made from various kinds of vegetables with a few +bones or extract of beef added for body. + +The length of time to cook things is the most troublesome thing to +the beginner. Nearly everything will take longer than you think. +Oatmeal is one of the things that every beginner is apt to burn, hence +the value of the double boiler. + +Rice is one of the best camp foods if well cooked. It can be used in a +great variety of ways like cornmeal. But beware! There is nothing in +the whole list of human food that has quite the swelling power of +rice. Half a teacupful will soon swell up to fill the pot. A +tablespoonful to a person will be an ample allowance and then, unless +you have a good size pot to boil it in, have some one standing by +ready with an extra pan to catch the surplus when it begins to swell. + +There are certain general rules for cooking which may help the +beginner although they are not absolute. + +Mutton, beef, lamb, venison, chicken, and large birds or fish will +require from ten to twenty minutes' cooking for each pound of weight. +The principal value of this is to at least be sure that you need not +test a five-pound chicken after it has been cooking fifteen minutes to +see if it is done. + +Peas, beans, potatoes, corn, onions, rice, turnips, beets, cabbage, +and macaroni should, when boiled, be done in from twenty to thirty +minutes. The surest test is to taste them. They will be burned in +that many seconds, if you allow the water to boil off or put them in +the middle of a smoky fire where they cannot be watched. + +Fried things are the easiest to cook because you can tell when they +are done more easily. Fried food however is always objectionable and +as little of it should be eaten as possible. You are not much of a +camp cook if a frying pan is your only tool. + +A bottle of catsup or some pickles will often give just the right +taste to things that otherwise seem to be lacking in flavour. + +In frying fish, always have the pan piping hot. Test the grease by +dropping in a bread crumb. It should quickly turn brown. "Piping hot" +does not mean smoking or grease on fire. Dry the fish thoroughly with +a towel before putting them into the pan. Then they will be crisp and +flaky instead of grease-soaked. The same rule is true of potatoes. If +you put the latter on brown butcher's paper when they are done, they +will be greatly improved. + +Nearly every camper will start to do things away from home that he +would never think of doing under his own roof. One of these is to +drink great quantities of strong coffee three times a day. If you find +that after you turn in for the night, you are lying awake for a long +time watching the stars and listening to the fish splashing in the +lake or the hoot owl mournfully "too-hooing" far off in the woods, do +not blame your bed or commence to wonder if you are not getting sick. +Just cut out the coffee, that's all. + + + + +V + +WOODCRAFT + +The use of an axe and hatchet--Best woods for special purposes--What +to do when you are lost--Nature's compasses + + +The word "woodcraft" simply means skill in anything which pertains to +the woods. The boy who can read and understand nature's signboards, +who knows the names of the various trees and can tell which are best +adapted to certain purposes, what berries and roots are edible, the +habits of game and the best way to trap or capture them, in short the +boy that knows how to get along without the conveniences of +civilization and is self-reliant and manly, is a student of woodcraft. +No one can hope to become a master woodsman. What he learns in one +section may be of little value in some other part of the country. + +A guide from Maine or Canada might be comparatively helpless in +Florida or the Tropics, where the vegetation, wild animal life, and +customs of the woods are entirely different. Most of us are hopeless +tenderfeet anywhere, just like landlubbers on shipboard. The real +masters of woodcraft--Indians, trappers, and guides--are, as a rule, +men who do not even know the meaning of the word "woodcraft." + +Some people think that to know woodcraft, we must take it up with a +teacher, just as we might learn to play golf or tennis. It is quite +different from learning a game. Most of what we learn, we shall have +to teach ourselves. Of course we must profit from the experience and +observation of others, but no man's opinion can take the place of the +evidence of our own eyes. A naturalist once told me that chipmunks +never climb trees. I have seen a chipmunk on a tree so I know that he +is mistaken. As a rule the natives in any section only know enough +woods-lore or natural history to meet their absolute needs. Accurate +observation is, as a rule, rare among country people unless they are +obliged to learn from necessity. Plenty of boys born and raised in the +country are ignorant of the very simplest facts of their daily +experience. They could not give you the names of a dozen local birds +or wildflowers or tell you the difference between a mushroom and a +toadstool to save their lives. + +[Illustration: The wilderness traveller] + +On the other hand, some country boys who have kept their ears and eyes +open will know more about the wild life of the woods than people who +attempt to write books about it; myself, for example. I have a boy +friend up in Maine who can fell a tree as big around as his body in +ten minutes, and furthermore he can drop it in any direction that he +wants to without leaving it hanging up in the branches of some other +tree or dropping it in a soft place where the logging team cannot +possibly haul it out without miring the horses. The stump will be +almost as clean and flat as a saw-cut. This boy can also build a log +cabin, chink up the cracks with clay and moss and furnish it with +benches and tables that he has made, with no other tools than an axe +and a jackknife. He can make a rope out of a grape-vine or patch a +hole in his birch bark canoe with a piece of bark and a little spruce +gum. He can take you out in the woods and go for miles with never a +thought of getting lost, tell you the names of the different birds and +their calls, what berries are good to eat, where the partridge nests +or the moose feeds, and so on. If you could go around with him for a +month, you would learn more real woodcraft than books could tell you +in a lifetime. And this boy cannot even read or write and probably +never heard the word "woodcraft." His school has been the school of +hard knocks. He knows these things as a matter of course just as you +know your way home from school. His father is a woodchopper and has +taught him to take care of himself. + +If you desire to become a good woodsman, the first and most important +thing is to learn to use an axe. Patent folding hatchets are well +enough in their way, but for real woodchopping an axe is the only +thing. One of four pounds is about the right weight for a beginner. As +it comes from the store, the edge will be far too thick and clumsy to +do good work. First have it carefully ground by an expert and watch +how he does it. + +If I were a country boy I should be more proud of skilful axemanship +than to be pitcher on the village nine. With a good axe, a good rifle, +and a good knife, a man can take care of himself in the woods for +days, and the axe is more important even than the rifle. + +The easiest way to learn to be an axeman is to make the acquaintance +of some woodchopper in your neighbourhood. But let me warn you. Never +ask him to lend you his axe. You would not be friends very long if you +did. You must have one of your own, and let it be like your watch or +your toothbrush, your own personal property. + +A cheap axe is poor economy. The brightest paint and the gaudiest +labels do not always mean the best steel. Your friend the woodchopper +will tell you what kind to buy in your neighbourhood. The handle +should be straight-grained hickory and before buying it you will run +your eye along it to see that the helve is not warped or twisted and +that there are no knots or bad places in it. The hang of an axe is the +way the handle or helve is fitted to the head. An expert woodchopper +is rarely satisfied with the heft of an axe as it comes from the +store. He prefers to hang his own. In fact, most woodchoppers prefer +to make their own axe handles. + +You will need a stone to keep a keen edge on the axe. No one can do +good work with a dull blade, and an edge that has been nicked by +chopping into the ground or hitting a stone is absolutely inexcusable. + +To chop a tree, first be sure that the owner is willing to have it +chopped. Then decide in which direction you wish it to fall. This will +be determined by the kind of ground, closeness of other trees, and the +presence of brush or undergrowth. When a tree has fallen the +woodchopper's work has only begun. He must chop off the branches, cut +and split the main trunk, and either make sawlogs or cordwood lengths. +Hence the importance of obtaining a good lie for the tree. + +Before beginning to chop the tree, cut away all the brush, vines, and +undergrowth around its butt as far as you will swing the axe. This is +very important as many of the accidents with an axe result from +neglect of this precaution. As we swing the axe it may catch on a bush +or branch over our head, which causes a glancing blow and a possible +accident. Be careful not to dull the axe in cutting brush. You can +often do more damage to its edge with undergrowth no thicker than +one's finger than in chopping a tree a foot through. If the brush is +very light, it will often be better to use your jack-knife. + +In cutting a tree, first make two nicks or notches in the bark on the +side to which you wish it to fall and as far apart as half the +diameter of the tree. Then begin to swing the axe slowly and without +trying to bury its head at every blow and prying it loose again, but +with regular strokes first across the grain at the bottom and then in +a slanting direction at the top. The size of the chips you make will +be a measure of your degree of skill. Hold the handle rather loosely +and keep your eye on the place you wish to hit and not on the axe. Do +not work around the tree or girdle it but keep right at the notch you +are making until it is half way through the tree. Do not shift your +feet at every blow or rise up on your toes. This would tire even an +old woodchopper in a short time. See that you do not set yourself too +fast a pace at first. A beginner always starts with too small a notch. +See to it that yours is wide enough in the start. + +[Illustration: The right way to chop a tree--make two notches on +opposite sides] + +[Illustration: The wrong way--this looks like the work of a beaver] + +When you have cut about half way through, go to the other side of the +tree and start another notch a little higher than the first one. A +skilled man can chop either right-or left-handed but this is very +difficult for a beginner. If you are naturally right-handed, the +quickest way to learn left-handed wood chopping is to study your usual +position and note where you naturally place your feet and hands. Then +reverse all this and keep at it from the left-handed position until it +becomes second nature to you and you can chop equally well from either +position. This you may learn in a week or you may never learn it. It +is a lot easier to write about than it is to do. + +When the tree begins to creak and show signs of toppling over, give it +a few sharp blows and as it falls jump sideways. Never jump or run +backward. This is one way that men get killed in the woods. A falling +tree will often kick backward like a shot. It will rarely go far to +either side. Of course a falling tree is a source of danger anyway, so +you must always be on your guard. + +If you wish to cut the fallen tree into logs, for a cabin, for +instance, you will often have to jump on top of it and cut between +your feet. This requires skill and for that reason I place a knowledge +of axemanship ahead of anything else in woodcraft except cooking. +With a crosscut saw, we can make better looking logs and with less +work. + +Next to knowing how to chop a tree is knowing what kind of a tree to +chop. Different varieties possess entirely different qualities. The +amateur woodchopper will note a great difference between chopping a +second growth chestnut and a tough old apple tree. We must learn that +some trees, like oak, sugar maple, dogwood, ash, cherry, walnut, +beech, and elm are very hard and that most of the evergreens are soft, +such as spruce, pine, arbor vitae, as well as the poplars and birches. +It is easy to remember that lignum vitae is one of the hardest woods +and arbor vitae one of the softest. Some woods, like cedar, chestnut, +white birch, ash, and white oak, are easy to split, and wild cherry, +sugar maple, hemlock, and sycamore are all but unsplitable. We decide +the kind of a tree to cut by the use to which it is to be put. For the +bottom course of a log cabin, we place logs like cedar, chestnut, or +white oak because we know that they do not rot quickly in contact with +the ground. We always try to get straight logs because we know that it +is all but impossible to build a log house of twisted or crooked ones. + +It is a very common custom for beginners to make camp furniture, +posts, and fences of white birch. This is due to the fact that the +wood is easily worked and gives us very pretty effects. Birch however +is not at all durable and if we expect to use our camp for more than +one season we must expect to replace the birch every year or two. +Rustic furniture made of cedar will last for years and is far superior +to birch. + +Getting lost in the woods may be a very serious thing. If you are a +city boy used to signboards, street corners, and familiar buildings +you may laugh at the country boy who is afraid to go to a big city +because he may get lost, but he knows what being lost means at home +and he fails to realize when he is in a city how easy it is to ask the +nearest policeman or passer-by the way home. Most city boys will be +lost in the woods within five minutes after they leave their camp or +tent. If you have no confidence in yourself and if you are in a +wilderness like the North woods, do not venture very far from home +alone until you are more expert. + +It is difficult to say when we are really lost in the woods. As long +as we think we know the way home we are not lost even if we may be +absolutely wrong in our opinion of the proper direction. In such a +case we may soon find our mistake and get on the right track again. +When we are really lost is when suddenly a haunting fear comes over us +that we do not know the way home. Then we lose our heads as well as +our way and often become like crazy people. + +A sense of direction is a gift or instinct. It is the thing that +enables a carrier pigeon that has been taken, shut up in a basket say +from New York to Chicago, to make a few circles in the air when +liberated and start out for home, and by this sense to fly a thousand +miles without a single familiar landmark to guide him and finally land +at his home loft tired and hungry. + +No human being ever had this power to the same extent as a pigeon, but +some people seem to keep a sense of direction and a knowledge of the +points of compass in a strange place without really making an effort +to do it. One thing is sure. If we are travelling in a strange country +we must always keep our eyes and ears open if we expect to find our +way alone. We must never trust too implicitly in any "sense of +direction." + +Forest travellers are always on the lookout for peculiar landmarks +that they will recognize if they see them again. Oddly shaped trees, +rocks, or stumps, the direction of watercourses and trails, the +position of the sun, all these things will help us to find our way +out of the woods when a less observing traveller who simply tries to +remember the direction he has travelled may become terrified. + +Rules which tell people what to do when they are lost are rarely of +much use, because the act of losing our way brings with it such a +confusion of mind that it would be like printing directions for terror +stricken people who are drowning. + +Suppose, for example, a boy goes camping for a week or two in the +Adirondacks or Maine woods. If he expects to go about alone, his first +step should be to become familiar with the general lay of the land, +the direction of cities, towns, settlements, mountain ranges, lakes, +and rivers in the section where he is going, and especially with the +location of other camps, railroads, lumber camps, and so on in his +immediate neighbourhood, say within a five-mile radius. It is an +excellent plan to take along a sectional map which can usually be +bought of the state geologist. One can by asking questions also learn +many things from the natives. + +Such a boy may start out from his camp, which is on the shore of a +lake, for example, on an afternoon's fishing or hunting trip. If he is +careful he will always consult his compass to keep in mind the general +direction in which he travels. He will also tell his friends at camp +where he expects to go. If he has no compass, he at least knows that +the sun rises in the east and sets in the west and he can easily +remember whether he has travelled toward the setting sun or away from +it. Rules for telling the points of compass by the thickness of the +bark or moss on trees are well enough for story books. They are not of +much value to a man lost in the woods. + +Suddenly, say at four o'clock, this boy decides to "turn around" and +go back to camp. And then the awful feeling comes to him that he +doesn't know which way to turn. The woods take on a strange and +unfamiliar look. He is lost. The harder he tries to decide which way +the camp lies, the worse his confusion becomes. If he would only +collect his thoughts and like the Indian say "Ugh! Indian not lost, +Indian here. Wigwam lost," he probably would soon get his bearings. It +is one thing to lose your way and another to lose your head. + +When you are lost, you are confused, and the only rule to remember is +to sit down on the nearest rock or stump and wait until you get over +being "rattled." Then ask yourself, "How far have I gone since I was +not sure of my way?" and also, "How far am I from camp?" If you have +been out three hours and have walked pretty steadily, you may have +gone five miles. Unless you have travelled in a straight line and at a +rapid pace, the chances are that you are not more than half that +distance. But even two or three miles in strange woods is a long +distance. You may at least be sure that you must not expect to find +camp by rushing about here and there for ten minutes. + +We have all heard how lost people will travel in circles and keep +passing the same place time after time without knowing it. This is +true and many explanations have been attempted. One man says that we +naturally take longer steps with our right leg because it is the +stronger; another thinks that our heart has something to do with it, +and so on. Why we do this no one really knows, but it seems to be a +fact. Therefore, before a lost person starts to hunt for camp, he +should blaze a tree that he can see from any direction. Blazing simply +means cutting the bark and stripping it on all four sides. If you have +no hatchet a knife will do, but be sure to make a blaze that will show +at some distance, not only for your own benefit but to guide a +searching party that may come out to look for you. You can mark an +arrow to point the direction that you are going, or if you have +pencil and notebook even leave a note for your friends telling them +your predicament. This may all seem unnecessary at the time but if you +are really lost, nothing is unnecessary that will help you to find +yourself. + +As you go along give an occasional whack at a tree with your hatchet +to mark the bark or bend over the twigs and underbrush in the +direction of your course. The thicker the undergrowth the more blaze +marks you must make. Haste is not so important as caution. You may go +a number of miles and at the end be deeper in the woods than ever, but +your friends who are looking for you, if they can run across one of +your blazes, will soon find you. + +When you are certain that you will not be able to find your way out +before dark, there is not much use of going any farther. The thing to +do then is to stop and prepare for passing the night in the woods +while it is still daylight. Go up on the highest point of ground, +build a leanto and make your camp-fire. If you have no matches, you +can sometimes start a fire by striking your knife blade with a piece +of flint or quartz, a hard white stone that is common nearly +everywhere. The sparks should fall in some dry tinder or punk and the +little fire coaxed along until you get a blaze. There are many kinds +of tinder used in the woods, dried puff balls, "dotey" or rotten wood +that is not damp, charred cotton cloth, dry moss, and so on. In the +pitch pine country, the best kindlings after we have caught a tiny +blaze are splinters taken from the heart of a decayed pine log. They +are full of resin and will burn like fireworks. The Southerners call +it "light-wood." + +Dry birch bark also makes excellent kindlings. A universal signal of +distress in the woods that is almost like the flag upside down on +shipboard is to build two smoky fires a hundred yards or more apart. +One fire means a camp, two fires means trouble. + +Another signal is two gunshots fired quickly, a pause to count ten and +then a third. Always listen after you have given this signal to see if +it is answered. Give your friends time enough to get the gun loaded at +camp. Always have a signal code arranged and understood by your party +before you attempt to go it alone. You may never need it but if you do +you will need it badly. + +Sometimes we can get our bearings by climbing a tree. Another aid to +determine our direction is this: Usually all the brooks and water +courses near a large lake or river flow into it. If you are sure that +you haven't crossed a ridge or divide, the surest way back home if +camp is on a lake is to follow down the first brook or spring you come +across. It will probably bring you up at the lake, sooner or later. + +On a clear night you can tell the points of compass from the stars. +Whether a boy or girl is a camper or not, they surely ought to know +how to do this. Have some one point out to you the constellation +called the "dipper." It is very conspicuous and when you have once +learned to know it you will always recognize it as an old friend. The +value of the dipper is this: The two stars that form the lower corners +of its imaginary bowl are sometimes called the "north star pointers." +The north star or Polaris, because of its position with reference to +the earth, never seems to move. If you draw an imaginary line through +the two pointers up into the heavens, the first bright star you come +to, which is just a little to the right of this line, is the north +star. It is not very bright or conspicuous like Venus or Mars but it +has pointed the north to sailors over the uncharted seas for hundreds +of years. By all means make the acquaintance of Polaris. + + + + +VI + +THE USE OF FIRE-ARMS + +Importance of early training--Why a gun is better than a rifle--How to +become a good shot + + +Whether a boy of fifteen should have a gun or a rifle is a question +that parents will have to settle for themselves. There is no question +but that a careful boy who has been taught by some older person how to +handle a gun is more to be trusted than a man who has never learned +the proper use of fire-arms and who takes up the sport of hunting +after he is grown up. Most of the shooting accidents are caused by +inexperienced men who have never been accustomed to guns in their +younger days. Once or twice I have just missed being shot by friends +who had never been hunting before, and who became so excited when they +unexpectedly kicked up a rabbit or walked into a flock of quail that +they fired the gun without knowing whether any of their friends were +in range or not. When a boy is allowed to have a gun it should be a +real one. Air rifles and small calibre guns are all the more +dangerous, because they are often looked upon as toys. + +In handling a gun, always treat it as though it were loaded, no matter +if you _know_ it is empty. By this means it will soon become second +nature to you never to point the gun at any one even carelessly or in +fun. A guide once said to me, "A gun is a dangerous critter without +lock, stock, or barrel, and if a feller ever points one at me I think +he means business." + +[Illustration: A double barrelled hammerless shot-gun] + +A gun can never be trusted. Accidents happen so quickly that it is +over before we know it and the terrible damage is done. Sometimes the +trigger will catch on a coat button or a twig, and, bang! an +unexpected discharge takes place and if you were careless just for an +instant, it may cost some one his life. Especial care must be taken in +loading and unloading a gun. It is at this time that a gun is most +likely to go off unexpectedly. + +The best way to learn how to handle a gun is to watch the methods of +an old hand. Never fire a gun when you are standing behind another +person. You may know that you are not aiming at him, but the +concussion of the air near the end of the barrel is terrific, and your +friend may have a split ear drum as a result. + +A shot-gun is better for a boy than a rifle, for the reason that most +real shooting except for big game is done with a shot-gun, and +besides, it takes a lot of practice to shoot well with it. A shot-gun +is not a weapon for play but a real tool. In almost every section of +the country there is some small game to be hunted and there is usually +also an opportunity to practise at clay pigeons. + +No one would think of hunting quail, ducks, or rabbits with a rifle, +and even if you were an excellent rifle shot at a still mark you might +not be able to hit moving game at all. A shot-gun is less dangerous +for the reason that its range is limited to a little over a hundred +yards, while a rifle may carry a mile. A cheap shot-gun is far more +dangerous than a cheap rifle. Until it is possible to buy a good one +it is better to have none at all. A good American-made gun can be +bought for about twenty-five dollars. A gun suitable for its owner +should fit just as his clothing fits him. When a gun is quickly +brought to the shoulder in firing position, there is no time in actual +hunting to shift it around. When you buy a gun, remember that your +canvas or corduroy hunting coat makes more of a bulge at the shoulder +than an ordinary suit and accordingly see that the stock is the proper +length. The "drop" of a gun is the number of inches that the stock +falls below the line of the barrel. If the stock is bent too much you +will shoot under your game. If it is too straight the tendency will be +to shoot over game. The average stock is made to fit most people and +will probably answer most purposes unless you can afford to have a +stock made especially. The principal thing is to do all your +practising with your own gun until it becomes second nature to bring +it up quickly and have the eye find the barrel instantly. A shot-gun +is not aimed in the same way as a rifle. The method of good shots is +rather to keep their eye on the game and when they "feel" that the gun +is pointed right to fire. A skilful shot can tell whether he is +shooting too high or too low just as he pulls the trigger. The brain, +head, and eyes and trigger-finger must all work in harmony or you will +never be a good shot. Never flinch as you shoot. This is a very common +fault of beginners and it is fatal to becoming a marksman. + +The first lesson in handling a gun is to understand perfectly how it +works. If it is a hammerless gun, remember that it is always cocked. +When you open the barrels you cock the gun automatically. For this +reason there is some kind of a safety device provided, which should +always be left at "safe" except at the actual instant of firing. It is +just as easy to learn to push the safety off when you fire as it is to +learn to pull the trigger, if one starts right. + +Never carry your gun with your finger on the trigger. Wait until you +put the gun up as you are ready to shoot. Don't forget the safety. A +great many shots are missed because the hunter forgets whether he has +left it on or off and in his anxiety to hit the game will tug and pull +on the trigger until, just as the game disappears out of range, he +will remember that he did not release it. This shows the importance of +acquiring the proper habit at first. + +It is harder to correct bad habits in handling a gun than to teach the +beginner the proper way at first. On your first lesson in the field, +walk on the left side of your teacher so that your gun will be +pointing away from him. If you come across any game, try to take your +time before you fire. Nearly every one shoots too quickly. As most +shot-gun shooting is what is called snap shooting, there isn't much +time at best, but a good shot will be sure that he has covered his +game before he fires, while a beginner will trust to luck. This will +be the hardest fault to correct. Consequently a beginner should if +possible hunt alone for a while, as the presence of another gun +alongside of him makes him too anxious to get in the first shot, and +gets him into bad habits. + +If your teacher also has a gun, he must assure you that he does not +intend to shoot and then you will try harder to get the game and run +less chance of missing. Always unload a gun before going into a house, +under or over a fence, or in or out of a boat or carriage. If you +leave your gun, even for a minute, unload it. Never rest a loaded gun +against a tree or building. Never pull a gun loaded or empty toward +you by the muzzle. In unloading always point it toward the ground. A +jar will sometimes discharge a gun and very often a discharge will +take place when closing the breech on a tight shell. + +Always be ready for game. In hunting, we never can tell at what +instant it will rise up in front of us. "Be ready" does not mean +having the muscles and nerves constantly on a tension. It is simply +to carry your gun in such a position that you can quickly bring it to +the shoulder at any time. It is a good plan to practise aiming at +various objects as you go along until you gradually overcome your +awkwardness. + +It is difficult to say what makes a good shot with a gun. There is no +question but that practice will make any one a better shot than he +would be without it, but some people are better shots with very little +practice than others with a great deal. One very important thing is to +do your practising under conditions similar to the actual hunting. If +the cover is thick where you hunt, a swamp or brush lot for example, +you will not derive much benefit from practising entirely in the open. +A pigeon trap is an inexpensive way to learn to shoot. Some +experienced hunters will say that practice at clay pigeons does not +help in the field, but at the same time a good brush shot is almost +always a good trap shot and if you can become skilful enough to break +an average of eighteen to twenty clay pigeons out of twenty-five at +sixteen yards rise, you may be sure that you will get your share of +game under actual hunting conditions. + +The most difficult part of bird hunting is to learn to give the game a +start. The average shot-gun will kill quail at sixty yards and duck +at forty. The farther the game is away from us, provided it is within +range, the more the shot will spread. I once saw a half-dozen hunters +fire at a covey of quail that rose in an open field before they had +gone thirty yards and every hunter scored a clean miss. Any one of +these men could bring down his bird under the same conditions nine +times out of ten if he had taken his time. On this occasion when their +guns were empty another hunter who had withheld his fire said, "Are +you all done, boys?" and shot a bird with each barrel at a measured +fifty-eight yards. To kill a bird that another man has shot at is +called "wiping his eye," and it is the chief joy of an old hunter to +do this with a beginner. If you do not want to let the old hunter wipe +your eye, take your time. + +Learn to shoot with your head well up and with both eyes open. When +the game rises, keep your eye on it and at the instant that you see it +on the end of your gun barrel, fire. The greatest joy of hunting is to +see the game appear to tumble off the end of your gun barrel when it +is hit. If there is a doubt as to whose bird it is, and this happens +constantly as two people often shoot at the same time at the same +bird, do not rush in and claim it. Remember you are a gentleman, but +if you are sure that you hit it, at least stand for your rights. + +So much of the pleasure of hunting depends on our companions that we +must be considerate of the feelings of others as well as our own. +Always hunt if possible with experienced hunters. You will not only +have more fun, but you will run much less risk. In rabbit hunting, one +is especially at the mercy of the beginner who fires wildly without +any thought as to whose life he may be endangering, so long as he gets +the rabbit. If you hunt with some one who owns the dogs, be very +careful not to interfere with them by giving commands. As a rule the +owner of a well-trained dog prefers to handle him without any help, +and, while he may not tell you, you may be sure that he will resent it +if you try to make the dog do your bidding when his master is around. + +The pattern of a gun, as it is called, is the number of shot it will +put within a circle at a given distance. As a rule the factory test +pattern will be found on a tag attached to the gun. If not, you can +easily get the pattern yourself. The usual distance for targeting a +new gun is thirty yards, and the standard circle is thirty inches. +Make a circle on the barn door with a piece of chalk and string +fifteen inches long. First drive a nail into the wood and fasten the +string to it with the chalk on the loose end. Then describe and +measure ninety feet from the target. Fire as nearly as you can at the +centre of the circle and count the shot that are inside the chalk +mark. In order not to count the same shot twice mark them off with a +pencil. Perhaps a surer way would be to fire at the door first and in +the centre of the load of shot drive the nail and describe a circle +afterward. The chief advantage of studying the pattern of your gun is +to know just how much it scatters and how far it may be depended upon +to shoot and kill. + +In a choke-bore gun, the end of the barrel is drawn in slightly and +made smaller to keep the shot together. Guns that are used in duck and +goose hunting are usually full choked as most of the shots are long +ones, but for ordinary brush and field shooting a gun that has a full +cylinder right barrel and a modified choke on the left will be the +best for general purposes. + +The best size is 12-bore or gauge. Ten gauge guns are entirely too +heavy for general use and the smaller bores, such as sixteen or even +twenty gauge, while they are very light and dainty, are not a typical +all around gun for a boy who can only afford to have one size. The +smaller bores, however, have become very popular in recent years and +much may be said in their favour. + +The standard length of barrels is either twenty-eight or thirty +inches. The shorter length will probably be just as satisfactory and +makes a much better proportion between the stock and barrels. You can +easily test the amount of choke in a 12-gauge gun. A new ten-cent +piece will just go inside the end of the barrel of a full cylinder gun +and just fail to go into one that has been slightly choked. + +While it is impossible to give any written directions for shooting +that are as valuable as actual practice, the important thing for a +beginner is to get his form right at first, just as in golf or +horseback riding, and then to make up his mind that every shot has got +to count. + +Rifle shooting is entirely different from shot-gun shooting and skill +in one branch of the sport of marksmanship does not mean much in the +other. A boy may be an excellent rifle shot at a stationary target and +still not be able to hit "a flock of barns," as the country boys say, +with a shot-gun. Skill with a rifle is chiefly of value to those who +are interested in military affairs and more rarely to those who are +fortunate enough to have an opportunity for hunting big game. In +settled communities there is a strong feeling against allowing boys to +have rifles. Practically the only game that can be hunted will be our +little friends, the song birds, and no self-respecting boy will shoot +them. A small calibre rifle such as a 22-calibre Flobert will afford +considerable pastime at target practice and is also excellent to hunt +snakes and frogs along some brook or creek, but generally a boy with a +rifle is a public nuisance, and as a rule is liable to arrest in +possessing it. If we fix up a rifle range where there are no dangers +of damage from spent bullets or badly aimed shots it is well enough to +practise with a small rifle. + +A real sporting rifle, such as is used for big game, is a very +dangerous fire-arm and cannot be used with safety anywhere but in an +absolute wilderness or on a target range. Such guns will kill at a +mile and go through a tree a foot or two in diameter; to use such a +weapon in even a sparsely settled section is very dangerous indeed. If +a boy has any chance of going hunting for deer or moose, he will +surely need practice and for this purpose a range will have to be +selected where there is absolutely no danger to any one within a mile +or two. A good practice range is across a lake or river with a bank +of earth or clay to stop the bullets. Big game hunting is done so +frequently from canoes that it is well to get practice from a boat, +both moving and stationary. To shoot successfully from a sitting +position in a canoe is a very difficult feat. Just as with a shot-gun +the universal tendency is to shoot too quickly, with a rifle it is to +shoot too high. The reason is that we hold our head so high up in +looking at our game that we fail to see the rear sight at all. Be sure +your head is low enough to see both sights. + +[Illustration: The modern sporting rifle that will kill at a mile. An +unsafe weapon for boys] + +Always hold your breath while you are taking aim. Learn to shoot from +all sorts of positions, lying, sitting, kneeling, and standing. If the +shot is a long one, be sure that your rear sight is properly elevated +for the distance. Most of the shots at big game are stationary shots +and within a hundred yards; consequently accuracy counts for more than +quickness. + +With a magazine or repeating rifle be sure that you have emptied your +magazine before you leave the gun. With a shot-gun there is a +possibility that the "person who didn't know it was loaded" may not +kill his victim outright. With a sporting rifle it is practically sure +death. + +The general rules of care apply to both rifles and shot-guns. Always +clean the gun after you have taken it into the field. This is +necessary whether you have fired the gun or not, as a gun barrel will +always collect a certain amount of dampness. It is an excellent +practice to keep a gun covered with oil or vaseline except when it is +in use. It not only prevents rust, but the grease also discourages +visitors and friends from handling the gun, snapping the trigger, or +otherwise damaging it. + +In this chapter, I have not said anything about revolvers or pistols, +because I do not believe that any sensible boy will care to own one. A +revolver is a constant source of danger owing to its short barrel, and +as it has no practical value except as a weapon of defence, and as +there is a severe penalty for carrying a concealed weapon, I should +not care to recommend any boy to own a revolver. + +The final question whether we may have a gun and what kind it should +be, will depend very largely on the place we live. Any kind of a gun +is very much out of place in cities or towns. The boy who does not +really have an opportunity to use a gun should be too sensible to ask +for one, for surely if we own it we shall constantly want to use it +even at some risk. It will be far better to ask for something we can +use and leave the gun question until the time when we have a real +opportunity. + +Finally we must remember that the one who has the gun in his +possession is rarely the one that is accidentally shot. We should +therefore avoid companions who do own guns and who are careless with +them. No amount of care on our part will prevent some careless boy +friend from risking our lives. The safer way is to stay home. + + + + +VII + +FISHING + +Proper tackle for all purposes--How to catch bait--The fly +fisherman--General fishing rules + + +Fishing is one sport of boyhood that we never outgrow our love for. +Some of the most enthusiastic fishermen are gray-haired men. We often +hear about the boy with the bent pin and the piece of thread who +catches more fish than the expert fisherman with modern, up-to-date +tackle, but I doubt if it is so. As a rule the better our tackle the +more fish we shall catch. If the country boy catches the most fish, it +is simply because he is better acquainted with the places where the +fish hide or feed. He knows their habits better and the best kind of +bait to use. A lover of fishing should take a personal interest in his +equipment and should desire to have the best he can afford. + +The chief requirement of a successful fisherman is patience. Next to +that is a knowledge of the waters fished in and the habits of the fish +and how to attract them. A man or a boy who will sit all day in the +hot sun waiting for a bite is not always a good fisherman. He must +use common sense as well as patience. + +A game fish may be defined as one that will make a good fight for its +life and that is caught by scientific methods of angling. Almost any +fish will struggle to escape the hook, but generally by game fish we +understand that in fresh water the salmon, bass, or trout family is +referred to. Pickerel and pike are also game fish, but in some +sections they are considered undesirable because they rarely rise to +the fly, which is the most scientific method of fishing. + +A fisherman who is a real sportsman always uses tackle as light as he +can with safety and still have a chance of landing the fish. If the +angler will take his time he can, with skill, tire out and land fish +of almost any size. Tunas and tarpon weighing over a hundred pounds +are caught with a line that is but little thicker than a grocer's +twine, and even sharks and jewfish weighing over five hundred pounds +have been caught in the same way. Sometimes the fight will last all +day, and then it is a question whether the fisherman or the fish will +be exhausted first. + +[Illustration: Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood That Holds +Our Interest Through Life] + +In selecting our tackle, we must always keep in mind the kind of fish +we expect to catch. For general, fresh-water use, except fly +casting, an eight-foot rod weighing seven or eight ounces will fill +most purposes. A fly rod should be a foot longer and at least two +ounces lighter. The best rods are made of split bamboo, but cheap rods +of this material are not worth having. The best cheap rods (i.e., +costing five dollars or less) are either lancewood or steel. See that +your rod has "standing guides" and not movable rings. Most of the wear +comes on the tip, therefore it should if possible be agate lined. A +soft metal tip will have a groove worn in it in a very short time +which will cut the line. The poorest ferrules are nickel-plated. The +best ones are either German silver or brass. To care for a rod +properly, we must keep the windings varnished to prevent them from +becoming unwound. Spar varnish is the best for this purpose but +shellac will answer. In taking a rod apart, never twist it. Give a +sharp pull, and if it refuses to budge, it can sometimes be loosened +by slightly heating the ferrule with a candle. If a ferrule is kept +clean inside, and if the rod is taken apart frequently, there is no +reason why it should stick. + +A multiplying reel holding sixty yards is large enough for most +fishing. The raised pillar reels are the best, one of good quality +costing about four dollars. A cheap reel soon goes to pieces. + +Silk lines are better than linen because greater strength is obtained +with the same thickness. Always dry a line every time it is used, or +it will soon rot and be worthless. The back of a chair is excellent +for this purpose. Never tie a knot in a line that you expect to use +with rod and reel. The knot will always catch in one of the guides +just at the time when you are landing your "biggest" fish. + +[Illustration: Actual sizes of hooks] + +Hooks come in a great variety of shapes and models but there are none +better than the standard "Sproat." It is the general favourite of +fishermen everywhere, although of course the other leading models, +Carlisle, Limerick, Pennell, Aberdeen, Sneck and a number of others +all have their friends. + +A great many fishermen make the mistake of using hooks that are too +large. The hook sizes that are commonly used are numbered from 6/0, +which is the largest, to No. 12, which is a tiny thing about right to +catch minnows. Where we expect to catch fish a pound or two in weight, +the No. 1 size is about right. Such a hook will catch much larger fish +if they happen to come along. I have caught a twelve-pound lake trout +on a No. 4 Sproat hook and the hook did not show that it had bent in +the least. + +Our tackle box should contain an assortment of sizes however. Snelled +hooks are better than ringed hooks and those of blued steel better +than black enamel. No matter how inexpensive the rest of the equipment +is, be sure that your hooks are of good quality. Keep the points +sharp. A tiny bit of oil stone, a file, or a piece of emery cloth are +all good for this purpose. It takes a sharp point to penetrate the +bony jaw of a fish. Always inspect your hook after you have caught it +on a rock or snag. + +Fishing is generally divided into four classes: fly casting, bait +casting, trolling, and still fishing. The average boy is a still +fisherman, which means not only that he must keep still, but that his +bait remains in one place instead of being trolled or cast about. The +usual strings of fish that boys catch, such as perch, sunfish, +bullheads, catfish, and whitefish, are called pan fish. This is not +entirely a correct name as I have seen some catfish that it would take +a pretty big pan to hold. One caught in the Mississippi River weighed +over a hundred pounds. + +Fly casting is the most scientific method of fishing and gives the +greatest pleasure to the fisherman after he has once become an expert. +No matter what method we follow in fishing, we must never try to catch +fish by any method which the laws may prohibit, such as spearing, set +lines, or nets. Each state has its own laws which the fisherman must +learn and obey. + +Worms are the best all around bait for fishing. They are as a rule +easily obtained and may be kept for a long time. The boy's method of +placing them in a tin can with a mixture of mud will soon kill them, +however, especially if the worms are exposed to the sun for a time. A +half-buried soap box makes a very good place to keep a supply of worms +which will be ready for use at any time without the necessity of +digging them. Worms may be fed on the white of a hard-boiled egg, but +if given plenty of room they will usually find enough food in the +soil. By placing worms in sand they will soon scour and turn pink when +they are far more attractive as bait. The large worms, or "night +walkers," can be caught at night with a lantern. These large worms are +best obtained after a rain or on lawns that are sprinkled frequently, +when they will be found moving about on top of the ground but always +with one end in the hole from which they have emerged and into which +they can dart if they are disturbed. + +For big fish, the best bait is minnows. In trolling with them it will +make but little difference whether dead or alive, but for still +fishing the minnows must not only be alive, but, to attract the fish, +lively as well. The regulation minnow bucket consists of one pail +fitted inside of another, the inner one being made of wire mesh to +permit the free circulation of the water. This enables us to change +the water frequently without handling the fish. When we reach a place +where fresh water is obtainable, we simply remove the inner pail, pour +out the stale water from the other pail, and fill it as quickly as +possible. To keep bait alive in warm weather we must change the water +frequently. Another method where fresh water is not available, as on a +long drive, is to aerate it by pouring from one pail to another. It is +an excellent plan to place a piece of ice on top of the minnow pail. +With this arrangement, it will not be necessary to give them fresh +water for a long time. + +[Illustration: An excellent device for catching minnows] + +The simplest way to catch minnows is with a drop net. Take an iron +ring or hoop such as children use and sew to it a bag of cotton +mosquito netting, half as deep as the diameter of the ring. Sew a +weight in the bottom of the net to make it sink readily and fasten it +to a pole. When we reach the place which the minnows frequent, such as +the cove of a lake, we must proceed very cautiously, lowering the net +into the water and then baiting it with bits of bread or meat, a very +little at a time, until we see a school of bait darting here and there +over the net. We must then give a quick lift without any hesitation +and try to catch as many as possible from escaping over the sides. The +minnow bucket should be close at hand to transfer them to and care +must be used not to injure them or allow them to scale themselves in +their efforts to escape. The common method of capturing minnows is to +use a sweep net, but it takes several people to handle one properly +and for our own use the drop net method will probably supply us with +all the bait that we need. + +Fish are very fickle in their tastes. What will be good bait one day +will absolutely fail the next and sometimes even in an hour this same +thing will take place. Why this is so no one has been able to explain +satisfactorily, but that it is a fact no fisherman will deny. We +should therefore have as great a variety of bait in our equipment as +possible. Worms, crawfish, minnows, frogs, grasshoppers, grubs and +helgramites are all good at times in fresh water, as well as various +kinds of artificial baits, spoons, spinners, and rubber lures. + +[Illustration: A trolling spoon] + +Sometimes fish will take very unusual baits. Black bass have been +caught on young bats. The famous old trout in the Beaverkill River in +New York State, which had refused all the ordinary baits and flies +that were offered him for years and that on bright days could be seen +in a pool lying deep down in the water, finally fell a victim to a +young mouse that was tied to the hook with pink silk. + +Fly fishing is the most expert and scientific method of angling. It is +the poetry of fishing. The fly fisherman usually wades in the brook or +stream where he is fishing, although it is sometimes possible to cast +a fly from the bank or a boat. It is useless to go fly fishing while +there is snow water in the brooks but just as soon as the first warm +days of spring come, then fishing is at its best. + +The whole idea of casting a fly is to drop it in the most +likely-looking places and to strike the fish just as soon as he seizes +the hook. To do this we must always have the line under perfect +control, therefore do not attempt to cast a line too great a distance. +If we do not fix the hook into the fish's mouth at the instant that +he seizes the fly, he will very soon find that what he thought was a +nice fat bug or juicy caterpillar is nothing but a bit of wool and +some feathers with a sting in its tail, and he will spit it out before +we can recover our slack line. + +It is a common mistake to use flies that are too large. Ordinary trout +flies are the proper size for bass and the smallest size trout flies +are plenty large enough for trout. There are hundreds of kinds of +flies of various combinations of colours and no one can say which is +the best. This question has been argued by fishermen ever since the +days of Izaak Walton. + +The universal rule of trout and bass fishermen who use a fly is to +select small dark flies for bright days or when the water is very +clear or low and the more brightly coloured ones when the day is dark +or the water dark or turbid. The fly book should contain a varied +assortment to meet these conditions. + +The best lines for fly fishing are made of braided enamelled silk. +Some fly lines are tapered but this is not necessary and is a needless +expense. Twisted lines are much cheaper but very unsatisfactory. + +Fly fishing is not only the most scientific and sportsmanlike method +of fishing but it is also the most difficult to acquire skill in. It +is of course possible to catch trout and salmon on other bait than +flies. In fact, there is really no better bait for brook trout than +common fish worms that have been scoured in sand. The use of a fly, +however, is more satisfactory where the pleasure derived in fishing is +more important than the size of the string. + +[Illustration: An artificial fly; used for salmon] + +In learning to cast a fly, you can practise at home, either in an open +space or wherever there is room to work the line. It is not necessary +to practise with the actual hooks or flies on the line. Simply tie a +knot in it. Hold the rod lightly but firmly in the right hand. Point +your thumb along the line of the rod and start by pulling out a little +line from the reel with the left hand. With a steady sweep, cast the +end of the line toward some near-by object and with each cast pull out +a little more line until you reach a point when you are handling all +the line you can take care of without effort or without too much of a +sweep on the back cast. You must not allow the line to become +entangled in trees or other obstacles. The wrist does most of the work +in casting. The elbow should be close to the side. If you find that +the line snaps like a whip on the back cast, it is because you start +the forward cast before the line straightens out behind. + +When you can handle twenty-five or thirty feet accurately, you can +safely get ready to go fishing. The most successful fly fishermen use +a short line, but they use it with the utmost accuracy and can make +the flies land within a foot of the place they are aiming at almost +every time. When a trout strikes your fly, you must snub him quickly +or he will surely get away. If the flies you are using do not cause +the fish to rise, and if you are certain that it is not due to your +lack of skill, it will be well to change to some other combination of +colours; but give your first selection a fair trial. + +Bait casting is much easier than fly casting as the weight of the bait +will help to carry out the line. It is the common method of fishing +with minnows, frogs, small spoons and spinners, and other artificial +lures. Some fishermen practise the method of allowing the line to run +from the reel. The principal point in this way of fishing is to stop +the reel by using the thumb as a brake at the instant that the bait +strikes the water. This prevents the reel from spinning and causing +the line to overrun. Neglect of this precaution will cause a very +annoying tangle that is sometimes call a "backlash" but more often +characterized by much harsher names by the impatient fisherman who has +the misfortune to experience it. + +In live bait casting, start with the line reeled to within fifteen +inches of the end of the rod, holding the thumb on the reel spool. +With a rather strong overhead sweep, bring the rod forward. At the +proper instant, which is just as the point of the rod goes over your +head, release the pressure of your thumb and the bait will go forward +as the line runs out rapidly. When the bait lands, reel in slowly and +with various motions try to give to the bait as life-like an +appearance as possible. If you have a strike, allow the fish +sufficient time to obtain a secure hold of the bait and by a sudden +jerk fix the hook in his mouth. + +Bait casting is as a rule a very effective method of catching fish, +especially in shallow lakes and where fly fishing is not practised. In +deep water, trolling or still fishing are usually the best methods of +catching fish and often the only methods that will be successful. +Trolling consists simply in rowing or paddling slowly with the bait or +spoon trailing behind. It is not a scientific way of fishing and +requires but little skill. When the fish strikes, it usually hooks +itself and all that remains is to reel it into the boat and land it. +The conditions on large lakes often make it necessary to follow one of +these methods of trolling or still fishing, especially during the warm +weather when the big fish have left the spawning grounds and are in +deep water. There are trolling devices called spinners that have +several gangs of hooks, sometimes as many as fifteen. No real +fisherman would use such a murderous arrangement which gives the fish +practically no chance at all and in many states their use is properly +prohibited by law. A single hook, or at most a single gang of three +hooks, is all that any one should ever use. + +[Illustration: A raised pillar multiplying reel] + +Every boy knows what still fishing is. It is the common method of +baiting our hook, casting it from the shore or from a boat and +waiting for a bite. In still fishing it is customary to use a light +sinker to keep the bait near the bottom and a float or "cork" which +serves the double purpose of keeping the bait away from snags, stones, +or weeds on the bottom and also of showing us when we have a bite. The +more expert still fishermen never use a float, as they prefer to tell +by the pull on the line when a fish has taken the bait. + +A fishing boat should be thoroughly seaworthy and also have plenty of +room. Flat-bottom boats make the best type for fishing, provided that +we do not have to row them far or if the place where we use them is +not subject to sudden squalls or rough water. The middle seat should +contain both a fish well and a minnow box with a dividing partition +and with two hinged lids fitted into the seat. Such a boat can be +built by an ordinary carpenter and should not cost over ten or twelve +dollars. It should be painted every year to keep it in good condition. +Use clear white pine or cedar for the sides. The bottom boards should +not be fitted tightly together but left with cracks fully a half-inch +wide to allow for the swelling of the wood when the boat is launched. +The best oarlocks are fastened to the oars and fit in the sockets with +a long pin. This arrangement permits one to fish alone, and if +trolling to drop the oars quickly and take up the rod without danger +of losing them. + +[Illustration: A landing net should be a part of every fisherman's +outfit] + +A landing net should be a part of every fishing outfit. More fish are +lost just as they are about to be lifted from the water than at any +other time. A gaff is used for this same purpose with fish too large +to go into a landing net. A gaff is a large hook without a barb +fastened into a short pole. If you have no net or gaff and have +succeeded in bringing a large fish up alongside the boat, try to reach +under him and get a firm grip in his gills before you lift him on +board. If it is a pickerel, look out for his needle-like teeth. + +The best time to fish is either in the early morning or just before +sundown. During the heated part of the day most game fish stop feeding +and seek the cool, deep places in the lake or river. + +In many states, fishing is prohibited by law until after the fish are +through the spawning season. + +In all kinds of fishing, the rule is to keep as quiet as possible. +Talking does not make so much difference, but any sudden noises in the +water or on the bottom of the boat are especially likely to frighten +the fish. + +Never fish in your own shadow or that of your boat. Try to have the +sun in front of you or at your side. + +Never be in a hurry to land a big fish. Remember that some of the +so-called "big game fish" of the ocean will take all day to land. You +must use skill to tire your fish out or by keeping his gills open to +drown him. The rod and line are not intended as a lever to force the +fish to the landing net but merely as a guide to lead him about and by +his struggles to force him to become exhausted. A very interesting +experiment has demonstrated that a skilful fisherman can with a fly +rod and light line in a very short time tire out a strong swimmer to +which the line has been attached and force him to give up the struggle +and come to the side of a boat. + +Methods of fishing differ so much in different localities that aside +from the ordinary equipment of rods, reels, lines, leaders, and hooks, +the fisherman going to a new locality had better first ascertain what +the general methods of fishing are, or else, if possible, secure his +equipment after he reaches his fishing grounds. + + + + +VIII + +NATURE STUDY + +What is a true naturalist?--How to start a collection--Moth +collecting--The Herbarium + + +There is nothing in the world that will bring more pleasure into the +life of a boy or girl than to cultivate a love for nature. It is one +of the joys of life that is as free as the air we breathe. A nature +student need never be lonely or at a loss for friends or companions. +The birds and the bugs are his acquaintances. Whenever he goes afield +there is something new or interesting to see and to observe. He +finds-- + +"----_tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones +and good in everything_." + +To love nature and her mysteries does not necessarily mean to be some +kind of a queer creature running around with a butterfly net or an +insect box. A true naturalist is simply a man or boy who keeps his +eyes and ears open. He will soon find that nature is ready to tell him +many secrets. After a time, the smell of the woods, the chirp of a +cricket and the rustling of the wind in the pines become his +pleasures. + +The reason that people do not as a rule know more about nature is +simply because their minds are too full of other things. They fail to +cultivate the power of accurate observation, which is the most +important thing of all. A practical start in nature study is to go out +some dewy morning and study the first spider web you come across, +noting how wonderfully this little creature makes a net to catch its +food just as we make nets to catch fish, how the web is braced with +tiny guy ropes to keep the wind from blowing it away in a way similar +to the method an engineer would use in securing a derrick or a tall +chimney. When a fly or bug happens to become entangled in its meshes, +the spider will dart out quickly from its hiding place and if the fly +is making a violent struggle for life will soon spin a ribbon-like web +around it which will hold it secure, just as we might attempt to +secure a prisoner or wild animal that was trying to make its escape, +by binding it with ropes. A spider makes a very interesting pet and +the surest way to overcome the fear that many people have of spiders +is to know more about them. + +There is no need to read big books or listen to dry lectures to study +nature. In any square foot that you may pick out at random in your +lawn you will find something interesting if you will look for it. Some +tiny bug will be crawling around in its little world, not aimlessly +but with some definite purpose in view. To this insect the blades of +grass are almost like mighty trees and the imprint of your heel in the +ground may seem like a valley between mountains. To get an adequate +idea of the myriads of insects that people the fields, we should +select a summer day just as the sun is about to set. The reflection of +its waning rays on their wings will show countless thousands of flying +creatures in places where, if we did not take the trouble to observe, +we might think there were none. + +There is one very important side to nature that must not be +overlooked. It consists in knowing that we shall find a thousand +things that we cannot explain to one that we fully understand. +Education of any kind consists more in knowing when to say "I don't +know and no one else knows either" than to attempt a foolish +explanation of an unexplainable thing. + +If you ask "why a cat has whiskers," or why and how they make a +purring noise when they are pleased and wag their tails when they are +angry, while a dog wags his to show pleasure, the wisest man cannot +answer your question. A teacher once asked a boy about a cat's +whiskers and he said they were to keep her from trying to get her body +through a hole that would not admit her head without touching her +whiskers. + +No one can explain satisfactorily why the sap runs up in a tree and by +some chemical process carries from the earth the right elements to +make leaves, blossoms or fruit. Nature study is not "why?" It is +"how." We all learn in everyday life how a hen will take care of a +brood of chicks or how a bee will go from blossom to blossom to sip +honey. Would it not also be interesting to see how a little bug the +size of a pin head will burrow into the stem of an oak leaf and how +the tree will grow a house around him that will be totally unlike the +rest of the branches or leaves. That is an "oak gall." If you +carefully cut a green one open you will find the bug in the centre or +in the case of a dried one that we often find on the ground, we can +see the tiny hole where he has crawled out. + +Did you ever know that some kinds of ants will wage war on other kinds +and make slaves of the prisoners just as our ancestors did in the +olden times with human beings? Did you ever see a play-ground where +the ants have their recreation just as we have ball fields and +dancing halls? Did you ever hear of a colony of ants keeping a cow? It +is a well-known fact that they do, and they will take their cow out to +pasture and bring it in and milk it and then lock it up for the night +just as you might do if you were a farm boy. The "ants' cow" is a +species of insect called "aphis" that secretes from its food a sweet +kind of fluid called "honey dew." + +The ten thousand things that we can learn in nature could no more be +covered in a chapter in this book than the same space could cover a +history of the world. I have two large books devoted to the discussion +of a single kind of flower, the "orchid." It is estimated that there +are about two hundred thousand kinds of flowers, so for this subject +alone, we should need a bookshelf over a mile long. This is not stated +to discourage any one for of course no one can learn all there is to +know about any subject. Most people are content not to learn anything +or even see anything that is not a part of their daily life. + +The only kind of nature study worth while is systematic. It is not +safe to trust too much to the memory. Keep a diary and record in it +even the most simple things for future reference. All sorts of items +can be written in such a book. As it is your own personal affair, you +need not try to make it a work of literary merit. Have entries such as +these: + + First frost--Oct. 3rd + + First snow--3 inches Thanksgiving day + + Skating--December 3rd + + Weather clear and bright on Candlemas day, Feb. 2nd and + therefore ground-hog saw his shadow + + Heard crows cawing--Feb. 18th. Last year--Jan. 26th + + Saw first robin--March 14th + + Last snow--April 28th + +There is scarcely anything in nature that is not interesting and in +some way useful. Perhaps you will say "How about a bat?" As a matter +of fact a bat is one of our best friends because he will spend the +whole night catching mosquitoes. But some one will say "he flies into +your hair and is covered with a certain kind of disgusting vermin." +Did you ever know of a bat flying into any one's hair? And as for the +vermin science tells us that they are really his favourite food so it +is unlikely that he would harbour a colony of them very long. + +The subject of snakes is one in which there is more misinformation +than any other common thing. There are only three venomous kinds of +snakes in America. They are the rattlesnake, copperhead and moccasin. +All of them can be distinguished by a deep pit behind the eye, which +gives them the name of "pit vipers." The general impression that puff +adders, pilots, green snakes or water snakes are poisonous is +absolutely wrong, and as for hoop snakes and the snake with a sting in +his tail that all boys have heard about, they are absolutely fairy +tales like "Jack and the Bean Stalk" or "Alice in Wonderland." We have +all heard about black snakes eight or ten feet long that will chase +you and wind themselves around your neck, but of the many hundreds of +black snakes that a well known naturalist has seen he states that he +never saw one that did not do its best to escape if given half a +chance. Why so much misinformation about snakes exists is a mystery. + +Nature study has recently been introduced into schools and it is a +very excellent way to have the interesting things pointed out to us +until our eyes are trained to see for ourselves. The usual methods of +nature study may be roughly divided into, 1. Keeping pets. 2. Bird +study. 3. Insect study. 4. Systematic study of flowers and plants. 5. +Wild animal life. The basis of nature study consists in making +collections. A collection that we have made for ourselves of moths or +flowers, for instance, is far more interesting than a stamp or coin +collection where we buy our specimens. If we go afield and collect for +ourselves, the cost is practically nothing and we have the benefit of +being in the air and sunshine. + +One kind of collecting is absolutely wrong--that of birds' eggs, +nests or even the birds themselves. Our little feathered songsters are +too few now and most states have very severe penalties for killing or +molesting them. A nature student must not be a lawbreaker. + +The outfit for a butterfly or moth collection is very simple and +inexpensive. We shall need an insect net to capture our specimens. +This can be made at home from a piece of stiff wire bent into the +shape of a flattened circle about a foot across. Fasten the ring +securely to a broom handle and make a cheesecloth net the same +diameter as the ring and about two feet deep. + +[Illustration: The cyanide bottle] + +It is very cruel to run a pin through insects and to allow them slowly +to torture to death. An insect killer that is generally used is called +"the cyanide bottle." Its principle ingredient, cyanide of potassium +is a harmless looking white powder but it is the _most deadly poison +in the world_. Unless a boy or girl knows fully its terrible danger, +they should never touch it or even breathe its fumes. One of your +parents or the druggist should prepare the cyanide bottle for you and +as long as you do not look into the bottle to watch the struggles of a +dying bug or in any way get any of the contents of the bottle on your +fingers, you are safe. + +Take a wide-mouthed bottle made of clear glass and fit a cork or +rubber stopper to it. Then wash the bottle thoroughly and dry it, +finally polishing the inside with a piece of soft cloth or tissue +paper. Place one ounce of cyanide of potassium into the bottle and +pour in enough dry sawdust to cover the lumps of poison. Then wet some +plaster of paris until it is the consistency of thick cream and +quickly pour it over the sawdust, taking care that it does not run +down the sides or splash against the bottle. Place the bottle on a +level table and very soon the plaster of paris will set and harden +into a solid cake. + +Sufficient fumes from the cyanide will come up through the plaster to +poison the air in the bottle and to kill any living thing that +attempts to breathe it. As you capture your specimens of moths, bugs +or butterflies afield you place them into the bottle, and as soon as +they are dead, you remove them; fold them carefully in stiff paper and +store them in a paper box or a carrying case until you get home. They +should then be mounted on boards or cork sheets, labelled carefully +with the name of the specimen, date and place of capture and any +other facts that you may wish to keep. + +[Illustration: How insects are spread to dry them in a natural +position] + +Considerable skill is required to mount insects properly and in a +life-like position. If they are out of shape you must "spread" them +before they dry out. Spreading consists in holding them in the proper +position by means of tiny bits of glass and pins until they are dry. + +As moths are, as a rule, night-flying creatures the collector will +either obtain them in a larval stage, or will adopt the method of +"sugaring," one of the most fascinating branches of nature study. A +favourable locality is selected, a comparatively open space in +preference to a dense growth, and several trees are baited or sugared +to attract the moths when in search of food. The sugar or bait is made +as follows: Take four pounds of dark brown sugar, one quart of +molasses, a bottle of stale ale or beer, four ounces of Santa Cruz +rum. Mix and heat gradually. After it is cooked for five minutes allow +it to cool and place in Mason jars. The bait will be about the +consistency of thick varnish. + +Just before twilight the bait should be painted on a dozen or more +trees with a strip about three inches wide and three feet long. You +will need a bull's-eye lantern or bicycle lamp and after dark, make +the rounds of your bait and cautiously flash the light on the baited +tree. If you see a moth feeding there, carefully bring the cyanide +bottle up and drop him into it. Under no circumstances, clap the +bottle over the specimen. If you do the neck of the bottle will become +smeared with the bait and the moth would be daubed over and ruined. +You will soon have all the specimens that you can care for at one time +and will be ready to go home and take care of them. + +The moths are among the most beautiful creatures in nature and a +reasonably complete collection of the specimens in your neighbourhood +will be something to be proud of. + +[Illustration: The Moth Collector and His Outfit (Photograph by +F.W. Stack)] + +The plant and flower collector should combine his field work with a +study of botany. Like most subjects in school books, botany may seem +dry and uninteresting but when we learn it for some definite purpose +such as knowing the wild flowers and calling them our friends, we must +accept the few strange words and dry things in the school work as a +little bitter that goes with a great deal of sweet. + +A collection of dried plants is called an herbarium. It is customary +to take the entire plant as a specimen including the roots. Separate +specimens of buds, leaves, flowers and fruit taken at different +seasons of the year will make the collection more complete. Specimens +should be first pressed or flattened between sheets of blotting paper +and then mounted on sheets of white paper either by glue or by strips +of gummed paper. + +After a flower is properly identified, these sheets should be +carefully numbered and labelled and a record kept in a book so that we +can readily find a specimen without unnecessarily handling the +specimen sheets. The sheets should be kept in heavy envelopes of +manila paper and placed in a box just the size to hold them. The +standard or museum size of herbarium sheets is 11-1/2 x 16-1/2 inches. +Specimens of seaweed or leaves can be kept in blank books. + +A typical label for plants or flowers should be as follows: + + Common names Yellow adder's tongue Date collected, May 16th, 1908 + Dog tooth violet + Botanical name Erythronium Americanum REMARKS: John Burroughs + Family Lilies suggests that the name + Where found Rockaway Valley near be changed either to + Beaver Brook fawn lily because its + leaves look like a spotted + fawn or trout lily + because they always + appear at trout fishing + season. + +A boy or girl living in a section where minerals are plentiful, can +make a very interesting collection of stones and mineral substances, +especially crystals. This should be taken up in connection with school +work in chemistry and mineralogy. To determine the names of minerals +is by no means as easy as that of flowers or animals. We shall need to +understand something of blow-pipe analysis. As a rule a high school +pupil can receive a great deal of valuable instruction and aid from +one of his teachers in this work. Mineral specimens should be mounted +on small blocks or spindles using sealing wax to hold them in place. + +There are unlimited possibilities in nature for making collections. +Shells, mosses, ferns, leaves, grasses, seeds, are all interesting and +of value. An observation beehive with a glass front which may be +darkened will show us the wonderful intelligence of these little +creatures. The true spirit of nature study is to learn as much as we +can of her in all of her branches, not to make a specialty of one +thing to the neglect of the rest and above all not to make work of +anything. + +We see some new side to our most common things when we once learn to +look for it. Not one person in ten thousand knows that bean vines and +morning glories will twine around a pole to the right while hop vines +and honeysuckle will go to the left and yet who is there who has not +seen these common vines hundreds of times? + +No one can give as an excuse that he is too busy to study nature. The +busiest men in national affairs have had time for it and surely we +with our little responsibilities and cares can do so too. I once went +fishing with a clergyman and I noticed that he stood for a long time +looking at a pure white water lily with beautiful fragrance that grew +from the blackest and most uninviting looking mud that one could find. +The next Sunday he used this as an illustration for his text. How many +of us ever saw the possibility of a sermon in this common everyday +sight? + + + + +IX + +WATER LIFE + +The water telescope--How to manage an aquarium--Our insect friends and +enemies--The observation beehive + + +The eggs of so many insects, toads, frogs and other interesting +creatures are laid and hatched in water that a close study of pools, +brooks and small bodies of water will disclose to the nature student +some wonderful stories of animal life. To obtain water specimens for +our collection, we shall need a net somewhat similar to the butterfly +net described in the previous chapter but with a much stronger frame. + +One that I have used for several years was made by the village +blacksmith. The ring or hoop is of quarter-inch round iron, securely +fastened to a stout handle and bent to a shape as shown in the +drawing. To this ring is fastened a regular landing net such as +fishermen use, with an extra bag of cheesecloth to fit inside to +capture insects too small to be held by the meshes of the outside net. +For frogs, turtles, and minnows, the single net is all that is +necessary. + +This device is almost strong enough to use as a shovel. It will scoop +up a netful of mud without bending. This is important as muddy ditches +and sluggish ponds will yield us more specimens than swiftly running +brooks. In addition to the net, the collector will require a small +pail to hold his trophies. A fisherman's minnow bucket is excellent +for this purpose and the water can easily be freshened and the +contents of the pail reached by simply lifting out the inside pail +from the water, which will drain out. + +[Illustration: A heavy net is useful to capture aquarium specimens] + +To study the animal life under the surface of a clear and shallow +lake, a water telescope is a great aid. It is simply a wooden box a +foot or so long and open at both ends. The inside should be painted +black to prevent cross reflection of light. A square of clear glass +should be fitted into one end and puttied tight to keep out the water. +To use the water telescope, we simply shove the glass end under water +and look into the box. A cloth hood or eye piece to keep out the +outside light will make it more effective. The best way to use a water +telescope is to lie in the bottom of a boat which is drifting about, +and to look through the telescope over the side. As you study the +marvellous animal and plant life that passes along under you like a +panorama, see to it that in your excitement you do not fall overboard +as a boy friend of mine once did. + +The care of an aquarium is a never ending source of interest to the +nature student. If a boy is handy with tools he can build one himself. +It is by no means an easy task however to make a satisfactory +water-tight box with glass sides, and my advice is not to attempt it. +Glass aquaria may be bought so cheaply that it is doubtful if you can +save any money by making one at home. If you care to try it, this is +the way it is usually done: + +Use a piece of seasoned white wood 1-1/4 inches thick for the bottom. +If you wish your aquarium to be, say, 16 inches wide and 30 inches +long, this bottom board should be 20 x 34 to give a margin at the +edge. The size of a home-made aquarium can be anything that you +desire. It is customary to allow a gallon of water to each three-inch +gold fish that will inhabit it. By multiplying the three dimensions, +length, width and height of your box and by dividing your result, +which will be in cubic inches, by 231 (the number of cubic inches in a +gallon) you can tell how many gallons of water it will hold. Of course +the rule for gold fish is not absolute. The nature student will +probably have no gold fish at all. They are not nearly so interesting +as our native kinds. Besides nearly all varieties of fresh water fish +will either kill gold fish or if they are too large to kill will at +least make life so miserable for them that to keep them together is +cruelty to animals. If we keep in our aquarium the specimens that we +collect in our neighbourhood, beetles, newts, crawfish, snails, and +tiny sunfish the number may be greatly increased. Overcrowding however +is very bad. The ideal we should strive for is not "how many +specimens" but "how many kinds" we can have in our collection. + +The white wood board should have three or four hardwood cleats screwed +to the bottom to prevent warping. The corner pieces of our glass box +may either be made of sheet copper or heavy tin, or of wood, if we +cannot work in metals. The wooden strips and the bottom board should +have grooves ploughed in them to hold the glass. All the woodwork +should be given several coats of asphalt varnish and to further +waterproof it and as a final coat use some kind of marine copper paint +that is used to coat the bottoms of vessels. Never use the common +white lead and linseed oil paint for an aquarium. + +You can sometimes buy aquarium cement or prepared putty at a "gold +fish" store. This you will need to putty in the glass. If you cannot +buy it, make it yourself from the asphalt varnish and whiting. Be sure +that the paint and putty of an aquarium is thoroughly dry before you +fill it with water. + +Perhaps the most satisfactory way to study fish and insect life in +water is to use all glass boxes and globes. So many kinds of fish and +insects are natural enemies, even though they inhabit the same +streams, that they must be kept separate anyway. To put them in the +same aquarium would be like caging up two game roosters. If we were +studying the development of mosquitoes, for instance, from the larvae +or eggs to the fully developed insect, we should not get very far in +our nature study if we put them in an aquarium with fish. A fish will +soon make short work of a hundred mosquito wigglers just as a large +frog will eat the fish, a snake will eat the frog and so on. + +Rectangular glass boxes such as are commonly used for aquaria cost +less than a dollar per gallon capacity. Goldfish globes cost about the +same. White glass round aquaria are much cheaper and those made of +greenish domestic glass are the cheapest of all, a glass tank holding +eight gallons costing but two dollars. + +[Illustration: A self-sustaining or balanced aquarium] + +Any transparent vessel capable of holding water, even a Mason jar will +make an aquarium from which a great deal of pleasure may be derived. +The old way of maintaining aquaria in good condition required a great +deal of care and attention. The water had to be changed at least once +a day if running water was not available, and altogether they were so +much trouble that as a rule owners soon tired of them. + +Modern aquaria are totally different. By a proper combination of fish +and growing plants we can almost duplicate the conditions of nature +and strike a balance so that the water need never be changed except +when it becomes foul or to clean the glass. + +These are called "self-sustaining" aquaria and they are the only kind +to have unless we can furnish running water from a public water +supply. Self-sustaining aquaria are very simple and any boy or girl +living near a brook can stock one at no expense whatever. + +The method is as follows: First cover the bottom of the aquarium with +a layer of sand and pebbles to a depth of about two inches. Then plant +in the bottom some aquatic or water plants that you have collected +from a near-by lake. Any kind of water plants will do--the kind of +plants boys always call seaweed, even a thousand miles from the sea. +In collecting the plants, choose small specimens and obtain roots and +all. + +If you can find it, the best plant is fanwort. Other good kinds are +hornwort, water starwort, tape grass, water poppy, milfoil, willow +moss, and floating plants like duckweed. Even if you do not know +these by name they are probably common in your neighbourhood. Fill the +tank with clean water. That taken from a spring or well is better than +cistern water. After two or three days, when the plants seem to be +well rooted, put in your fish. You may keep your aquarium in a light +place, but always keep it out of the sun in summer and away from the +heat of a stove or radiator in winter. + +The nature student will not attempt to stock up his aquarium +immediately. He should always leave room for one more fish or bug. One +year I started with a lone newt and before the summer was over I had +thirteen sunfish, pickerel, bass, minnows, catfish, carp, trout, more +newts, pollywogs or tadpoles, five kinds of frogs, an eel and all +sorts of bugs, waterbeetles and insects. I soon found that one kind of +insect would kill another and that sometimes my specimens would grow +wings over night and fly away. But to learn these things, even at our +own disappointment is "nature study." If we knew it all in advance, we +would not have much use for our experimental aquarium. + +Always keep a few snails and tadpoles, for they are the scavengers and +will eat the refuse stuff and keep the glass free from greenish scum. +Boys and girls are almost sure to overfeed fish. This is a great +mistake. The best standard feed is dried ants' eggs that can be bought +for a few cents a box at any bird and fish store. Do not feed pieces +of bread and meat. Study what their natural food is and if possible +get that for them. + +If your fish seem sickly, give them a five-minute bath in salt water +every day for a week. The kind of an aquarium above described is +intended to fill an entirely different purpose from the usual gold +fish globe. In your excursions you will find all sorts of queer +looking eggs and specimens. Some of the eggs are so tiny that they +look almost like black or white dust on the water. Another kind will +be a mass like a jellyfish with brown dots in it, still others will be +fastened in masses to the under side of a leaf in the water or perhaps +on the bottom. What are they? That is just the question and that is +why you will carefully collect them and take them home to await +developments. + +Always keep an accurate note-book with dates and facts. Also keep a +close watch on your specimens. Sometimes they will hatch and be eaten +by the other bugs before you could read this chapter. + +A nature student will need some part of the house that he may call his +very own. Here he can keep his specimens, his aquarium, his herbarium +and what not. Around the wall he can hang the twigs with their +cocoons, oak galls, last year's wasp and bird nests and other +treasures. He should also have a work table that a little glue or ink +will not injure and a carpet that has no further use in the household. +Usually one corner of the attic or cellar is just the place. + +See to it that you do not make other people uncomfortable in the +pursuit of your hobby. You will find that almost every one is afraid +of bugs and toads and that most people live in a world full of +wonderful things and only see a little beyond the end of their noses. + +There is a very practical side to nature study and the principal way +that we can make it really pay, is to know our friends from our +enemies in the animal and insect world. There are insects that chew, +suck and bore to ruin our orchards and grain crops. They are our +enemies. If we know their life story, where they hide and how they +breed, we can fight them better. For every dollar's worth of crops +that a farmer grows, it is estimated that his insect enemies eat +another dollar's worth. A little bug called the "San José" scale has +nearly ruined the orchards of some of the Eastern states. To fight +him, we must know how he lives. That is nature study. By study we +learn that the hop-toad is our best garden friend. He will spend the +whole night watching for the cutworms that are after our tomato +plants. When we see a woodpecker industriously pecking at the bark of +our apple trees, we know that he is after the larvae of the terrible +codling moth and we call him our friend. + +After we learn that a ladybug lives almost entirely on plant lice and +scale insects, we never kill one again except perhaps to place a +specimen In our collection. Naturalists say that without ladybugs, our +orchards would soon be entirely killed off. + +The dragon fly or mosquito hawk as well as "water tigers," water +striders and many kinds of beetles are the natural enemies of +mosquitoes and as they never harm our crops we should never harm them. +Nearly every living creature has some enemies. + +You have perhaps heard the famous verse of Dean Swift: + + "So naturalists observe, a flea + Has smaller that upon them prey + And these have smaller still to bite 'em + And so proceed _ad infinitum_." + +[Illustration: An observation beehive] + +Among our insect friends the leading place belongs either to the honey +bee or the silkworm. As silkworms are not especially successful in +this country and as their principal food, mulberry trees, are not +common, the nature student who cares to study our beneficial insects +had better devote his attention to honey bees. An observation beehive +is simply a glass box or hive instead of a wooden one. When we are not +engaged in studying our bee city, the hive must be covered with a +blanket as bees prefer to work in the dark. A boy or girl living in +the country can also keep bees profitably and thus combine business +with pleasure. A single hive will in a few years produce enough swarms +to give us a good start as "bee farmers." + + + + +X + +THE CARE OF PETS + +Cats--Boxes for song birds--How to attract the birds--Tame crows--The +pigeon fancier--Ornamental land and water fowl--Rabbits, guinea pigs, +rats and mice--How to build coops--General rules for pets--The dog + + +In this chapter on pets, I regret exceedingly that I cannot say much +in favour of the family cat. Like nearly all children, I was brought +up to love kittens and to admire their playful, cunning ways. When a +kitten becomes a cat my love for it ceases. Cats will do so many mean, +dishonourable things, and will catch so many song birds and so few +rats and mice that it simply has become a question whether we shall +like the song birds or the cat. So many people do like cats that it is +unfair perhaps to condemn the whole race for the misdeeds of a few. If +a cat is carefully watched or if we put a bell on its neck, these +precautions will to a certain extent keep the cat from catching birds, +but most people have something better to do than to act as guardian +for a cat. The fact is that a cat is a stupid animal seldom showing +any real affection or loyalty for its owner and possessing but little +intelligence. It is very difficult to teach a cat even the simplest +tricks. We never know when a cat will turn on its best friend. They +have the "tiger" instinct of treachery. A cat which one minute is +contentedly purring on our lap may sink its claws into us the next. + +The only way to force a cat to catch mice is to keep it half starved. +Then instead of catching mice, it will probably go after birds if +there are any in the neighbourhood. I have shut a cat up in a room +with a mouse and it is doubtful whether the cat or the mouse were the +more frightened. The cat does more damage to the song birds of this +country than any other enemy they have. If kept at home and well fed, +cats sometimes become so fat and stupid that they will not molest +birds but this is due to laziness and not to any good qualities in the +cat. In normal condition they are natural hunters. + +The habits of a cat are unclean, its unearthly cries at night are +extremely disagreeable and altogether it is a nuisance. A famous +naturalist, Shaler, once said "A cat is the only animal that has been +tolerated, esteemed and at times worshipped without having a single +distinctly valuable quality." + +A few years ago a quail had a nest under a rock opposite my house. +Quail raise their young like poultry rather than like robins or wrens +or the other song birds. As soon as the tiny quail chicks are hatched, +the mother takes them around like a hen with a brood of chickens. This +mother quail was my especial care and study. She became so tame that I +could feed her. Finally she hatched out ten tiny brown balls of +feathers. Our cat had been watching her, too, but not from the same +motives and one day the cat came home with the mother quail in her +mouth. She ran under the porch just out of reach and calmly ate it. +The little brood were too small to look out for themselves so of +course they all died or fell an easy victim to other cats. The mother +was probably an easy prey because in guarding the young, a quail will +pretend to have a broken wing and struggle along to attract attention +to her and away from her little ones, who scurry to high grass for +safety. I have never been very friendly to cats since I witnessed this +episode. + +It has been estimated that the average domestic cat kills an average +of one song bird a day during the season when the birds are with us. +In certain sections a cat has been known to destroy six nests of +orioles, thrushes and bobolinks in a single day. The worst offenders +are cats that live around barns and old houses in a half wild +condition. Many people who say they "haven't the heart to kill a cat" +will take it away from home and drop it along the road. A thoughtless +act like this may mean the death of a hundred birds in that +neighbourhood. It takes less heart to kill the cat than to kill the +birds. So much for the cat. + +[Illustration: A bird house] + +Birds make splendid pets, but in keeping them in captivity, we must be +sure that we are not violating the game laws of the state we live in. +Nearly everywhere it is unlawful to keep in cages any native song +birds or those that destroy harmful insects--the so-called +"insectivorous birds." This includes thrushes, wrens, robins, +bluebirds, orioles or, in fact, practically all birds but crows, +blackbirds and kingfishers. It does not cover canaries, parrots, or +any birds that are not native. It is an excellent law and every boy or +girl should act as a special policeman to see that his friends and +companions do not molest either birds or their nests. It is cruel to +cage a wild bird anyway for a cage is nothing but a prison. There is +no law against taming the birds or making friends of them and after +all this is the most satisfactory way. + +If we build houses for the birds to nest in, provide feed for them and +in other ways do what we can to attract them, they will soon learn +that we are their friends. We must study their habits and always avoid +frightening them. Next to a cat, the worst enemies of our song birds +are the English sparrows. A sparrow is always fair game for the boy +with a slingshot or rifle. In many places these sparrows have driven +practically all the other birds out of the neighbourhood, have robbed +their nests and in other ways have shown themselves to be a public +nuisance. Until 1869 there were no sparrows in this country and now +they are more numerous than any other variety of birds, and sooner or +later, the Government will have to take steps to exterminate them or +we shall have no song birds at all. + +The usual size of a bird house is six inches square and about eight +inches high. It should always be made of old weather-beaten boards in +order not to frighten away its prospective tenants by looking like a +trap of some kind. The chances are that the sparrows will be the +first birds to claim a house unless we keep a close watch and drive +them away. + +One way to keep them out is to make the entrance doorway too small for +them to enter. A hole an inch in diameter will admit a wren or +chickadee and bar out a sparrow, but it will also keep out most of the +other birds. The usual doorway should be two inches in diameter. It is +surprising how soon after we build our bird house we find a tiny pair +making their plans to occupy it and to take up housekeeping. Sometimes +this will happen the same day the bird house is set up. Always provide +some nesting material near at hand; linen or cotton thread, +ravellings, tow, hair and excelsior are all good. Of course we must +not attempt to build the nest. No one is skillful enough for that. + +Nearly all of our native birds are migratory, that is they go south +for the winter. The date that we may look for them to return is almost +the same year after year. Some few birds--bluebirds, robins, cedar +birds and song sparrows will stay all winter if it is mild but as a +rule we must not expect the arrival of the feathered songsters until +March. The phoebe bird is about the first one we shall see. + +In April look for the brown thrasher, catbird, wren, barn, eave and +tree swallows, martins, king birds and chipping sparrows. In May the +principal birds of our neighbourhood will return--thrushes, vireos, +tanagers, grosbeaks, bobolinks, orioles. The game birds--quail, +partridge, meadowlarks and pheasants do not migrate as a rule. At +least they do not disappear for a time and then return. When they +leave a neighbourhood, they rarely come back to it. + +All the song birds begin nesting in May. Consequently we should have +our bird houses "ready for occupancy" May 1st. It will take about +twelve days for most birds to hatch their eggs. Some varieties will +hatch three broods in a season, but two is the usual rule. + +We shall require a great deal of patience to tame the wild birds. Some +bird lovers have succeeded in teaching birds to feed from their hands. +A wild bird that is once thoroughly frightened can probably never be +tamed again. + +A crow is a very interesting pet. Crows are especially tamable and may +be allowed full liberty around the dooryard. We must get a young one +from the nest just before it is ready to fly. Crows are great thieves +and are attracted by bright objects. If you have a tame crow, and if +any member of your household misses jewellery or thimbles you had +better look in the crows' nest before you think that burglars have +been around. + +The chief difference between tamed wild animals, such as squirrels, +birds, owls, foxes, crows and so on, and the domesticated animals and +birds, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons and chickens, lies in +the possibility with the latter of modifying nature and breeding for +certain special markings, colours or size. All breeds of chickens from +the little bantams to the enormous Brahmas have been bred from a wild +species of chicken found in India and called the jungle fowl. + +All the great poultry shows held throughout the country annually are +for the purpose of exhibiting the most perfectly marked specimens of +the breeders' skill. This is decided by judges who award prizes. The +competition is sometimes very keen. In barred Plymouth Rock chickens, +for example, there are sometimes a hundred birds entered to compete +for a single prize. The breeders are called fanciers. The principal +breeders of certain animals such as rabbits, pigeons or poultry, form +an association or club and agree to an imaginary type of the animal +called the ideal or "Standard of Perfection." + +For example, the breeders of white fantail pigeons agree that perfect +birds shall be of certain shape and size, with the head resting on the +back just at the base of the tail; the tail should be spread out like +a fan and contain at least twenty-eight feathers. These feathers +should be laced on the ends. The model fantail should have a nervous +jerky motion and never be at rest. Each of these points is given a +certain value on a scale of marking and in judging the birds they are +marked just as you may be in your lessons at school. The fancier tries +to breed a bird that comes the nearest to this model. The prizes are +sometimes of great value. + +There is an enormous list of breeds in nearly all varieties of animals +and poultry. In pigeons alone there are carriers, pouters, tumblers, +baldheads, beards, dragoons, barbs, jacobins, Antwerps, turbits, owls, +orientals, damoscenes, capuchins, fantails, trumpeters, swifts, +Lahores, Burmese, Scandaroons, magpies, nuns, Archangels, runts and so +on. + +These birds are very different in appearance, the pouter, for example, +has the power of inflating his crop until it puffs out in front as +large as a baseball. Jacobins or as they are commonly called, +"ruffle-necks," have an immense ruffle of feathers like a feather boa. +Dragoons have a huge wart on the bill as large as an almond. The +tumblers are so named from their habit of turning backward +somersaults during flight. + +Almost every one who starts keeping domestic pets either soon tires of +the sport or becomes a fancier. The care of common pigeons is a very +simple matter. The principal thing is a good loft or cote for them in +the top of a barn or house. They will practically take care of +themselves and after a few years greatly increase in numbers. + +A model pigeon house for breeding fancy pigeons requires separate +mating boxes, nests and other appliances. It would be impossible to +make much of a success with fancy pigeons if they are allowed their +liberty to fly about and mate at will. + +The best nest boxes for pigeons are rough earthenware pans, eight +inches across, which may be bought cheaply at a bird store. The floor +of the cote should be covered with sawdust or gravel to the depth of +half an inch. Pigeons that are confined should be fed regularly on a +mixture of small grains and cracked corn. They should also be given +cracked oyster shells, grit and charcoal occasionally. A pigeon loft +should be rat proof and clean. + +It is very doubtful whether there is any money in raising pigeons or +squabs for market. Fanciers never sell their output for market +purposes unless it is to get rid of surplus or undesirable stock. A +breeder who is successful in winning prizes with birds of his "strain" +as it is called will find a ready market with other breeders for all +the birds he cares to sell. Prize winning birds sometimes bring a +hundred dollars a pair. It is by no means easy to breed prizewinners +and the chances are that the beginner will be a buyer of stock rather +than a seller. + +Homing pigeons or as they are commonly called, carriers, are not bred +for special markings like fancy pigeons but because of their power and +speed in flight. A carrier has the "homing" instinct more fully +developed than any other animal. In some homing pigeon races, the +birds have made speed records of over a mile a minute for many hours +and have flown over a thousand miles. If a well-bred homing pigeon +fails to return to his home loft it is almost a certainty that he is +either forcibly detained or that he has been killed by hunters or +hawks. Never try to capture a pigeon that may stop for a rest at your +loft. He may be in a race and his owner may be waiting for his return +five hundred miles away when every minute counts in winning a prize. + +Another large class of birds that make fine pets although they are not +strictly in the class of birds bred by the fancier are the ornamental +land and water fowl. The chief objection to these birds as pets is the +expense of buying them. The list of birds in this class is very large. +In swans the leading varieties are mute, American whistling, black +Australian, white Berwick and black-necked swans. The largest class +are the pheasants. They are exceedingly beautiful, especially the +golden, silver, Lady Amherst, Elliott, Reeves, green Japanese, +Swinhoe, English ring neck, Melanotis, and Torquatis pheasants. The +common wild geese are Egyptian, Canadian, white-fronted, Sebastopol, +snow, brant, bar-headed, spin-winged and many others. In ducks, there +are mallards, black, wood, mandarin, blue and green winged teal, +widgeon, redhead, pin-tail, bluebill, gadwell, call and many others. +Beside pheasants, ducks and geese there are also the various storks, +cranes, pea-fowl and herons in the "ornamental fowl" list. + +These are all wild fowl. The commoner varieties will cost from six to +fifteen dollars a pair and the rare ones several hundred. To keep the +semi-wild birds from flying away they are usually pinioned, a process +of taking off the end joint of one wing. The colours of some of the +ornamental fowl are more beautiful than any birds in nature. Pheasants +especially are easily cared for and make interesting pets. They can +be tamed and if kept outdoors they will seldom be subject to disease. +Most of these birds are as easily cared for as chickens. + +[Illustration: A home-made rabbit house] + +Rabbits make fine pets for boys and girls. They are clean in their +habits, hardy and gentle. The common kinds are white rabbits with pink +eyes or albinos, and brown rabbits or Belgian hares. With rabbits also +there is a "fancy." The Fur Fanciers' Association recognizes the +following distinct breeds: Belgians, Flemish giants, Dutch marked, +English, Himalayan, silvers, tans, Polish, lops, and Angoras. + +A rabbit hutch or coop is easily built from old packing boxes. One +third of the coop should be darkened and made into a nest, with an +entrance door outside and the rest simply covered with a wire front, +also with a door for cleaning and feeding. The hutch should stand on +legs above ground as rabbits do not thrive well in dampness. They +will, however, live out all winter in a dry place. A box four feet +long and two feet wide will hold a pair of rabbits nicely. Rabbits +will become very tame and may often be allowed full liberty about the +place if there are no dogs to molest them. + +The drawing shows a standard type of rabbit hutch. A boy who is handy +with tools can easily build one. We can always dispose of the increase +in our rabbit family to friends or to dealers. + +Guinea pigs or cavies are similar to rabbits in their requirements. +The chief difference is that guinea pigs cannot stand excessive cold +and will not do well if kept outside in severe winter weather. Rabbits +and cavies will eat almost anything and eat constantly. The usual feed +is hay, clover, wheat, corn, carrots, turnips, cabbage, lettuce, +celery, potato parings, or any green food or grains. Cavies are +especially fond of bread and milk. + +The three classes of cavies are Peruvians or Angoras, with long silky +hair; Abyssinians, with coarse hair in tufts or rosettes, and the +common guinea pig or smooth, cavy. A pair of cavies will cost about +two dollars. A dry airy cellar is a good place to keep them as they +are cleanly in their habits. Neither cavies nor rabbits are especially +intelligent but they do learn to know their master or at least the one +who feeds them. Pet rats and mice are in the same class as rabbits but +they should always have a coop that they will not gnaw out of. There +is even a mouse club. It is in Europe and has over a thousand members. + +An interesting example of skill in breeding is seen in Dutch belted +varieties of cattle, in hogs, rabbits, cavies and mice. In all of +these animals the same markings have been bred by careful crossing and +selection. In all lines of "fancy" it is important to stick to a few +varieties. We shall never make much of a success if we have half a +dozen kinds of chickens, pigeons or rabbits. By far the most important +"fancy" is with chickens, but this subject will be considered in the +chapter on the care of poultry. + +Among other pets are tame squirrels, turtles, snakes, lizards and +toads. A tame gray squirrel makes a splendid pet. After a while we can +give our squirrel full liberty and find him back in his nest at night. +I once had a tame owl but I found that because of his habit of flying +and feeding at night he was a very stupid pet. Besides that his +powerful beak and sharp claws or talons were dangerous. I also once +had a pair of flying squirrels but they also only appear at night and +were consequently uninteresting in the daytime. We must always study +the natural habits of our pets and try to give them coops and food as +much like nature as possible. My flying squirrels were given soft feed +in place of the usual hard-shelled nuts. Consequently their teeth grew +so long that they were a positive deformity. We finally liberated them +but before they could get to a place of safety one of them was caught +and killed by a chicken. The poor little creature was so fat from +overfeeding and lack of exercise that he had all but lost the power of +using his legs. + +Coops for pets may be as elaborate as our pocketbook will allow. The +important things to remember are to construct a coop so that it may be +cleaned easily, and to provide plenty of ventilation. It must also be +dry. Fresh air is as important for animals as for people. The larger +we can make a coop, the better it will be. Be careful not to overfeed +pets. Regular and frequent meals of just what they will eat up clean +is better than an occasional big meal. Rabbits require very little +water. Usually they will obtain enough moisture from the green food +they eat. It is a mistake, however, to think that water will kill +rabbits. Change the straw in the nest boxes frequently. When they make +fur nests do not disturb them. + +For squirrels and other small animals, the coop may be made entirely +of wire except the baseboard, which should be a piece of seasoned +wood. Be sure that there are no sharp wire points or projecting nails +in a coop to injure the animals. + +The whole secret of taming wild creatures is patience. We must try to +show them that we are their friends. The most direct way to an +animal's heart is through his stomach, which is another way of saying +that the owner should personally feed his own pets if he wishes them +to know him. + +There is really no reason why a country boy or girl should have any +caged pets at all. In the city it is different. Perhaps the best pet +for the unnatural conditions of city life is a canary. The real spirit +to develop a love for the little creatures that inhabit our woods and +fields is to feel that they are our friends rather than that they are +prisoners. By all means cultivate the acquaintance of your "small +country neighbours." + + +THE DOG + +Every boy should own a dog. He is the friend and companion of our +youth. For a boy to grow up without a dog is to be denied one of the +real joys of life. + +Senator Vest once said: "The one absolute, unselfish friend that a man +can have in this selfish world; the one that never deserts him, the +one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous is his dog. He will +sleep on the cold ground where the wintry winds blow and the snow +drives fiercely if only he can be near his master's side. He will kiss +the hand that has no food to offer, he will guard the sleep of his +pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert he +remains." + +The breed makes but little difference so long as the dog is +intelligent and kind. Mixed breeds and mongrel dogs are often the most +intelligent. A thoroughbred dog will give us more satisfaction +possibly than a mongrel because he will make a better appearance. But +at the same time, he is far more likely to be stolen. There are so +many breeds to select from that it is almost impossible to give much +advice. As a rule, the dog we shall like is the one we can get. The +very heavy dogs such as Saint Bernards, mastiffs and great Danes are +clumsy and will require outside quarters, as they are too bulky to +have in the house. On the other hand the small toy breeds such as +Pomeranians, black and tans and King Charles spaniels and pugs, are +too delicate to be a real boy's dog. A list from which you may safely +select a dog would be bull terriers, Airedale terriers, Scotch +terriers, Irish terriers, cocker spaniels, pointers and setters, +either Irish or English. This is by no means a complete list. I prefer +a setter because my first dog, "Old Ben," was a setter, and he shared +in most of my fun from the earliest recollections that I have. When he +died I lost a true friend. It was the first real sorrow I ever had. + +A dog should not sleep in the same room with his owner, but should +have a warm dry kennel and be taught to regard it as his home. + +Do not make the mistake of overfeeding a dog. He does not need three +meals a day. One is sufficient, about nine in the morning, when he +should have all he wants to eat. If you insist on a second meal give +him a dog biscuit or a bone to gnaw on in the evening. + +Keep your dog free from fleas, in spite of what David Harum says that +"a reasonable amount of fleas is good for a dog, because it keeps him +from brooding over being a dog." A thorough bath with carbolic soap +and water will rid a dog of fleas, but this treatment should be +repeated at weekly intervals to kill the eggs which hatch in the +meantime. + +Fresh insect powder or Scotch snuff if dusted thoroughly in a dog's +coat will cause fleas to leave. This treatment should be done out of +doors. A good plan is to place the dog on a sheet or piece of white +paper and work the powder well into the hair, especially around his +neck and behind the ears. Be careful not to injure his eyes. + +A dog will soon recognize his master, and there is no quicker way to +show that you are his master than to enforce obedience when you +attempt to make him mind. Whether a whipping is necessary depends on +the dog. With most dogs a good scolding will be sufficient. Never whip +a dog when you are angry and never overdo the matter. It is possible +to "break a dog's spirit," which simply means to make him afraid of +you. A dog so frightened is ruined until you regain his confidence, a +very difficult thing to do. Never cuff a dog with your hand. Always +use a whip or switch. Let the whipping be a definite ceremony with a +plain object in view. + +Some dogs will prove to be headstrong and others will try to do +whatever their master wants. There is an amazing difference in dogs +and their intelligence seems to have no limits. + +A dog must never be allowed to annoy our neighbours or friends. One of +the most annoying habits that a dog cultivates is that of running out +and barking at passing carriages or people. A few lessons in +discipline early in life will break him of this habit, but once +acquired it is practically unbreakable. + +Another very annoying habit is that of allowing a dog to put his paws +on us. We may not mind it when we are dressed in old clothes but +friends or callers are possibly not so considerate. + +Nearly every bad habit that a dog learns is usually the fault of the +owner rather than of the dog. The training of a dog should be done as +a puppy. Therefore we must secure our dog as young as possible. + +In training hunting dogs the first step is called "yard-breaking." +With ordinary dogs a thorough course in yard-breaking by teaching the +simple command is all that will be necessary. First of all, teach your +dog to lie down and come to you at call. The usual word for the former +is "charge." A dog can be taught this in a very short time. Take him +by the neck and back, and at the word, force him to lie down. Do not +use any other words, or even pet him. Simply impress on his mind that +when he hears "charge" it means lie down. As a rule a puppy is taught +to come by snapping the fingers or by making a noise with the lips +similar to that by which we urge a horse. It is almost natural to say +"Come here." After a puppy learns to follow us at the command "heel +in" and to run ahead when we say "go on," we must also teach him to +come when we whistle. Most boys can make a whistle with the fingers +sufficiently penetrating to call a dog for a long distance but a small +metal whistle to carry in the pocket is the best way. + +After a dog has acquired the simple lessons of training we shall find +that he learns to understand us and to do our wishes very quickly. +There should be a complete understanding between a dog and his owner. +He will know our ways and we shall know his. + +I have hunted in Virginia with a dog so intelligent that merely by +watching him his master could tell whether he was on the trail of a +rabbit, wild turkey, or deer. For each kind of game he had a different +manner of barking and what is more remarkable, he was a thoroughly +broken quail dog with the best "nose" or scent I have ever known and +of course did not bark under these circumstances. Such a dog would be +a mystery to any one who did not know his ways. + +This dog "Old Doc" would hunt with any one on quail, but if the +hunter did not succeed in killing game the dog would soon show his +disapproval in every way, sulk along behind, and if the poor shooting +continued, finally leave for home. A friend who took him out told me, +"First I missed the birds and then I missed the dog." He had left in +disgust. + +No matter what breed our dog is we shall surely become greatly +attached to him and almost look upon him as a friend rather than as an +animal. A boy should never encourage a dog to fight. It is a cruel, +unmanly thing and one that a real dog lover will never do. Dog +fighting is a form of brutality second only to tying tin cans and +other things to a dog's tail for the "fun" of seeing him run. I once +saw a poor beast lose his tail as a result of this brutal joke. Some +one had tied a string tightly around his tail and the dog ran until +completely exhausted. He then kept out of sight for a few days. In the +meantime the string caused his tail to become fearfully sore and +finally to fall off. Can any one see a joke in this? + + + + +XI + +THE CARE OF CHICKENS + +The best breed--Good and bad points of incubators--What to feed small +chicks--A model chicken house + + +A pen of chickens gives a boy or girl an opportunity for keeping pets +that have some real value. Whether there is much profit in poultry is +a question, but it is at least certain that the more care you give +them the better they pay. There is but little difference in the +results obtained from the various breeds of chickens, but there is a +great difference in the people who take care of them. It is very +difficult to make poultry pay on a large scale. Nearly every poultry +farm that has started as a business has failed to make a success. The +surest way to make chickens pay is to have only a few. Then the table +scraps and the worms and weed seeds they can pick up will supply them +with practically all their feed and the time you give them need not be +counted as expense. + +There are sixty or seventy distinct breeds of poultry recognized by +expert fanciers and from three to ten colours or varieties in many of +these breeds. New ones are being added constantly. For example, a +breed called Orpingtons was recently introduced from England and now +has ten varieties or colours that are "standard." At the New York +Poultry Show a record price of $2,500 was paid for the prize-winning +hen of this breed. There is a style in chickens as well as in anything +else. A new breed will always have a great many admirers at first, and +great claims will be made for its superior qualities. The poultrymen +who have stock and eggs to sell will secure high prices for their +output. Very soon, however, the real value of a new breed will be +known and it will be on the same basis as the older breeds. + +A beginner had better start with some standard recognized breed and +leave the experimenting to some one else. One thing is certain: +thoroughbreds will pay better than mongrels. Their eggs are of more +uniform size and colour, the stock will be healthy and as a rule weigh +a pound or two more than birds of uncertain breeding. Thoroughbreds do +not cost any more to feed or care for than the mongrels and in every +way are superior. + +Breeds of poultry are usually divided into three separate classes, +depending on the place where the breed originated. They are the +American, Asiatic, and Mediterranean strains. The leading American +breed is the barred Plymouth Rock and for a beginner will probably be +the best to start with. + +Another very excellent American or general purpose breed is the White +Wyandotte. They are especially valuable as broilers, as they make +rapid growth while young. The Leghorns are the leading breed for eggs. +They are "non-sitters" and, being very active, do not become overfat. +Their small size, however, makes them poor table fowls and for this +reason they are not adapted to general use. The Asiatic type, which +includes Brahmas, Langshans, and Cochins, are all clumsy, heavy birds, +which make excellent table fowl but are poor layers and poor foragers. +Brahma roosters will frequently weigh fifteen pounds and can eat corn +from the top of a barrel. + +A beginner should never attempt to keep more than one kind of +chickens. To get a start, we must either buy a pen of birds or buy the +eggs and raise our own stock. The latter method will take a year more +than the former, as the chicks we hatch this year will be our layers a +year later. Sometimes a pen of eight or ten fowls can be bought +reasonably from some one who is selling out. If we buy from a breeder +who is in the business they will cost about five dollars a trio of +two hens and a rooster. The cheapest way is to buy eggs and hatch your +own stock. The usual price for hatching-eggs is one dollar for fifteen +eggs. We can safely count on hatching eight chicks from a setting, of +which four may be pullets. Therefore we must allow fifteen eggs for +each four pullets we intend to keep the next year. The surplus +cockerels can be sold for enough to pay for the cost of the eggs. If +we have good luck we may hatch every egg in a setting and ten of them +may be pullets. On the other hand, we may have only two or three +chicks, which may all prove to be cockerels; so the above calculation +is a fair average. If we start with eggs, we shall have to buy or rent +some broody hens to put on the eggs. A good plan is to arrange with +some farmer in the neighbourhood to take charge of the eggs and to set +his own hens on them. I once made such an arrangement and agreed to +give him all but one of the cockerels that hatched. I was to take all +the pullets. The arrangement was mutually satisfactory and he kept and +fed the chicks until they were able to leave the mother hen--about +eight weeks. It is also possible to buy one-day-old chicks for about +ten or fifteen cents apiece from a poultry dealer, but the safest way +is to hatch your own stock. + +The easiest way to make a large hatch all at one time is with an +incubator. There are a number of very excellent makes advertised in +the farm papers and other magazines and the prices are quite +reasonable. An incubator holding about a hundred eggs will cost ten or +twelve dollars. There are many objections to incubators which we can +learn only from practical experience. We shall not average more than +50 per cent. hatches as a rule. That is to say, for every hundred eggs +we set we must not count on hatching more than fifty chicks. +Incubators are a constant care. The most important objection to an +incubator is that it is against the rules of most fire insurance +companies to allow it to be operated in any building that the +insurance policy covers. If the automatic heat regulator fails to work +and the heat in our incubator runs up too high we may have a fire. At +any rate, we shall lose our entire hatch. The latter is also true if +the lamp goes out and the eggs become too cool. I have made a great +many hatches with incubators of different makes and my experience has +been that we must watch an incubator almost constantly to have success +with it. + +The sure way to hatch chickens is with a broody hen, but at the same +time incubators are perfectly satisfactory if run in a room where the +temperature does not vary much (a cellar is the best place). With an +incubator there is always a temptation to attempt to raise more +chickens than we can care for properly. Overcrowding causes more +trouble than any other one thing. It is better to have a dozen +chickens well cared for than a hundred that are neglected. + +Eggs for incubators will cost about five dollars a hundred. Of course +if they are from prize-winning stock the cost will be several times +this amount. Before placing any eggs in an incubator it should be run +for two days to be sure that the heat regulator is in working order. +The usual temperature for hatching is 103 degrees and the machine +should be regulated for this temperature as it comes from the factory. +Full directions for operating, as well as a thermometer, will come +with the machine and should be studied and understood before we begin +to operate it. As the hatch progresses, the heat will "run up," as it +is called, and we shall need to understand how to regulate the +thermostat to correct this tendency toward an increased temperature. +The eggs in an incubator must be turned twice a day. To be sure that +we do this thoroughly it is customary to mark the eggs before we place +them in the machine. The usual mark is an "X" on one side of the egg +and an "O" on the other written in lead pencil. In placing the eggs in +the trays we start with all the "O" marks up, for instance, and at the +time of the first turning leave all the "X's" visible, alternating +this twice every day. + +In order to operate an incubator successfully, we shall also need a +brooder, which is really an artificial mother. There is a standard +make of brooder costing five dollars that will accommodate fifty +chicks. Brooders are very simple in construction and can be made at +home. A tinsmith will have to make the heating drum. The rest of it is +simply a wooden box with a curtain partition to separate the hot room +from the feeding space. Ventilating holes must be provided for a +supply of fresh air and a box placed at the bottom to prevent a +draught from blowing out the lamp. In a very few days after we place +the chicks in a brooder they should be allowed to go in and out at +will. In a week or two we shall be able to teach them the way in, and +then by lowering the platform to the ground for a runway we can permit +them to run on the ground in an enclosed runway. On rainy days we must +shut them in. + +There is always a temptation to feed chicks too soon after they are +hatched. We should always wait at least twenty-four hours to give them +a chance to become thoroughly dry. The general custom of giving wet +cornmeal for the first feed is wrong. Always feed chicks on dry food +and you will avoid a great deal of sickness. An excellent first food +is hard-boiled egg and corn bread made from cornmeal and water without +salt and thoroughly baked until it may be crumbled. Only feed a little +at a time, but feed often. Five times a day is none too much for +two-week-old chicks. + +One successful poultryman I am acquainted with gives, as the first +feed, dog biscuit crushed. All the small grains are good if they are +cracked so that the chicks can eat them. The standard mixture sold by +poultry men under the name "chick food" is probably the best. It +consists of cracked wheat, rye, and corn, millet seed, pinhead +oatmeal, grit, and oyster shells. Do not feed meat to chicks until +their pin feathers begin to show, when they may have some well-cooked +lean meat, three times a week. + +There is quite an art in setting a hen properly. They always prefer a +dry, dark place. If we are sure that there are no rats around, there +is no better place to set a hen than on the ground. This is as they +sit in nature and it usually seems to be the case that a hen that +steals her nest will bring out more chicks than one that we have +coddled. Eggs that we are saving for hatching should be kept in a cool +place but never allowed to freeze. They should be turned every day +until they are set. Hens' eggs will hatch in about twenty-one days. +The eggs that have failed to hatch at this time may be discarded. When +we move a broody hen we must be sure that she will stay on her new +nest before we give her any eggs. Test her with a china egg or a +doorknob. If she stays on for two nights we may safely give her the +setting. It is always better when convenient to set a hen where she +first makes her nest. If she must be moved, do it at night with as +little disturbance as possible. It is always a good plan to shut in a +sitting hen and let her out once a day for feed and exercise. Do not +worry if in your judgment she remains off the nest too long. The eggs +require cooling to develop the air chamber properly, and as a rule the +hen knows best. + +Young chickens are subject to a great many diseases, but if they are +kept dry and warm, and if they have dry food, most of the troubles may +be avoided. With all poultry, lice are a great pest. Old fowls can +dust themselves and in a measure keep the pest in check, but little +chicks are comparatively helpless. The big gray lice will be found on +a chick's neck near the head. The remedy for this is to grease the +feathers with vaseline on the head and neck. The small white lice can +be controlled by dusting the chicks with insect powder and by keeping +the brooder absolutely clean. A weekly coat of whitewash to which some +carbolic acid has been added will keep lice in check in poultry houses +and is an excellent plan. Hen-hatched chicks are usually more subject +to lice than those hatched In incubators and raised in brooders, as +they become infected from the mother. Some people say that chicks have +lice on them when they are hatched, but this is not so. + +The first two weeks of a chick's life are the important time. If they +are chilled or neglected they never get over it, but will develop into +weaklings. There are many rules and remedies for doctoring sick +chickens, but the best way is to kill them. This is especially so in +cases of roup or colds. The former is a very contagious disease and +unless checked may kill an entire pen of chickens. A man who raises +25,000 chickens annually once told me that "the best medicine for a +sick chicken is the axe." + +A very low fence will hold small chicks from straying away, but it +must be absolutely tight at the bottom, as a very small opening will +allow them to get through. Avoid all corners or places where they can +be caught fast. The mesh of a wire fence must be fine. Ordinary +chicken wire will not do. + +[Illustration: A home-made chicken coop built on the "scratching-shed" +plan] + +A brooder that will accommodate fifty chicks comfortably for eight +weeks will be entirely too small even for half that number after they +begin to grow. As soon as they can get along without artificial heat, +the chickens should be moved to a colony house and given free range. +They will soon learn to roost and to find their way in and out of +their new home, especially if we move away the old one where they +cannot find it. + +A chicken coop for grown fowls can be of almost any shape, size, or +material, providing that we do not crowd it to more than its proper +capacity. The important thing is to have a coop that is dry, easily +cleaned and with good ventilation, but without cracks to admit +draughts. A roost made of two by four timbers set on edge with the +sharp corners rounded off is better than a round perch. No matter how +many roosts we provide, our chickens will always fight and quarrel to +occupy the top one. Under the roost build a movable board or shelf +which may easily be taken out and cleaned. Place the nest boxes under +this board, close to the ground. One nest for four hens is a fair +allowance. Hens prefer to nest in a dark place if possible. A modern, +up-to-date coop should have a warm, windproof sleeping room and an +outside scratching shed. A sleeping room should be provided with a +window on the south side and reaching nearly to the floor. A hotbed +sash is excellent for this purpose. The runway or yard should be as +large as our purse will permit. In this yard plant a plum tree for +shade. The chickens will keep the plum trees free from the "curculio," +a small beetle which is the principal insect pest of this fruit. This +beetle is sometimes called "the little Turk" because he makes a mark +on a plum that resembles the "star and crescent" of the Turkish flag. + +Whether we can make our poultry pay for the trouble and expense of +keeping them will depend on the question of winter eggs. It is +contrary to the natural habits of chickens to lay in winter, and if +left to themselves they will practically stop laying when they begin +to moult or shed their feathers in the fall, and will not begin again +until the warm days of spring. When eggs are scarce it will be a great +treat to be able to have our own supply instead of paying a high price +at the grocer's. + +The fact that it is possible to get really fresh eggs in midwinter +shows that with the proper care hens will lay. The average farm hen +does not lay more than eighty eggs a year, which is hardly enough to +pay for her feed. On the other hand, at an egg-laying contest held in +Pennsylvania, the prize-winning pen made a record of 290 eggs per year +for each hen. This was all due to better care and proper feed. + +The birds were healthy pullets to begin with, they had warm food and +warm drinking water throughout the winter, their coop was a bright, +clean, dry place with an outside scratching shed. The grain was fed in +a deep litter of straw to make them work to get it and thus to obtain +the necessary exercise to keep down fat. The birds in this contest +were all hatched early in March and were all through the moult before +the cold weather came. Most of the advertised poultry feeds for winter +eggs are a swindle. If we give the birds proper care we shall not +require any drugs. It is an excellent plan to give unthreshed straw to +poultry in winter. They will work to obtain the grain and be kept +busy. The usual quantity of grain for poultry is at the rate of a +quart of corn or wheat to each fifteen hens. A standard winter ration +is the so-called hot bran mash. This is made from wheat bran, clover +meal, and either cut bone or meat scraps. It will be necessary to feed +this in a hopper to avoid waste and it should be given at night just +before the birds go to roost, with the grain ration in the morning, +which will keep them scratching all day. Always keep some grit and +oyster shells where the chickens can get it; also feed a little +charcoal occasionally. + +A dust bath for the hens will be appreciated in winter when the ground +is frozen. Sink a soap box in a corner of the pen and sheltered from +rain or snow and fill it with dry road dust. Have an extra supply to +fill up the box from time to time. + +The best place for a chicken house is on a sandy hillside with a +southern slope. A heavy clay soil with poor drainage is very bad. +Six-foot chicken wire will be high enough to enclose the run. If any +of the chickens persist in flying out we must clip the flight feathers +of their wings (one wing, not both). Do not put a top board on the +run. If a chicken does not see something to fly to, it will seldom +attempt to go over a fence, even if it is quite low. + +It is much better to allow chickens full liberty if they do not ruin +our garden or flower beds or persist in laying in out of the way +places where the eggs cannot be found. + + + + +XII + +WINTER SPORTS + +What to wear--Skating--Skiing--Snowshoeing--Hockey + + +If one is fortunate enough to live in a part of the country where they +have old-fashioned winters, the possibilities for outdoor sports are +very great and the cold weather may be made the best part of the year +for healthful outdoor exercise. To enjoy winter recreations properly +we must have proper clothing. An ordinary overcoat is very much out of +place, except possibly for sleighing. The regulation costume for +almost any outdoor sport in winter is a warm coat, a heavy sweater, +woollen trousers and stockings, and stout leather shoes. If in +addition we have woollen gloves or mittens and a woollen skating cap +or toque, we shall be enabled to brave the coldest kind of weather, +provided of course that we have warm woollen underwear. Various +modifications in this costume such as high hunting boots, or leggings +and a flannel shirt worn under the sweater are possible. In the far +North, the universal winter footwear is moccasins. We must be careful +not to dress too warmly when we expect to indulge in violent exercise. +Excessive clothing will render us more liable to a sudden check of +perspiration, a consequent closing of the pores and a resulting cold. +Rubber boots or overshoes are very bad if worn constantly. The rubber, +being waterproof, holds in the perspiration and we often find our +stockings damp even when the walking is dry. Rubber boots also make +our feet tender and cause cold feet. Tight shoes are also bad for the +reason that they check circulation. The best footwear for a boy who +lives in the country will be Indian moccasins or shoepacs worn with +several pairs of lumbermen's woollen stockings. Such footwear would +not do for skating, as they have no soles, but for outdoor tramping in +the snow they are just the thing. No leather is thoroughly waterproof +against snow water, but by frequent greasing with mutton tallow, +neatsfoot oil or vaseline, shoes can be kept soft and practically +waterproof as long as the soles and uppers are in good condition. + +[Illustration: A shoepac] + +In all winter sports, especially in Canada, the custom is to wear +gaily coloured goods. A mackinaw jacket made from the same material as +a blanket, with very prominent stripes or plaids, is often worn. +Closely woven goods are better than a thicker loose weave as they are +lighter, warmer, and more waterproof. + +Chief among winter sports is skating. There is no healthier +recreation, provided that the ice is safe. Even in the coldest weather +with the ice a foot thick or more we must always be sure to be on the +lookout for air-holes or thin places over springs. It is said that ice +an inch thick will hold the weight of a man, but it is better to be +sure than to be sorry, and three or four inches are much safer. + +[Illustration: The club skate model] + +A few years ago the height of the skater's art was so called "fancy or +figure" skating, but recently the tendency has been for speed rather +than for grace and the old-fashioned club skates have been replaced by +racing or hockey skates with much longer runners. Fancy skating for +prizes is governed by rules just as any other game or sport. The +contestants do not attempt figures of their own invention but strive +to excel in the so-called "compulsory" figures. A fancy skater can +practise from diagrams and directions just as one might practise moves +in a game of chess. In printed directions for fancy skating the +following abbreviations are used for the strokes: + + R--right + L--left + F--forward + B--backward + O--outside + I--inside + + T--three + LP--loop + B--bracket + RC--rocker + C--counter + +Supposing the figure to be executed to be the well-known "figure +eight." It would be described as follows: + +R-F-O L-F-O. R-F-I L-F-I. R-B-O L-B-O. R-B-I L-B-I. + +By referring to the above table the skater can easily determine just +what strokes are necessary to produce the figure properly. + +Racing skates should be attached to shoes of special design either by +screws or rivets. The most important thing is to have the blades +carefully ground by an expert. They should be keen enough to cut a +hair. To become a fast skater, practise if possible with an expert. +Have him skate ahead of you and measure your stroke with his. By +keeping your hands clasped behind your back your balance will not only +be greatly improved but your endurance will be doubled. The sprinting +stroke is a direct glide ahead with the foot straight. A trained +skater can go very long distances with very little fatigue but one +must carefully measure his speed to the distance to be travelled. When +you can cover a measured mile in three and one-half minutes you may +consider yourself in the class of fast skaters. + +[Illustration: A hockey skate] + +Hockey skates are somewhat shorter than racing skates although built +on the same general lines, the standard length being from nine and +one-half to eleven and one-half inches. Hockey is one of the best +winter games either outdoors or in a rink. The game of shinney or +"bandy" as it is called in England has been modified in this country +by substituting a flat piece of rubber weighing a pound called a +"puck" for the india rubber lacrosse ball, which weighs but four +ounces. The best hockey sticks are made of Canadian rock elm. + +The whole idea of hockey is to shoot the puck through your opponents' +goal and to prevent them from shooting it through yours. In practice +almost any number can play hockey and have plenty of exercise. The +less experienced players should when securing the puck always shoot it +as quickly as possible to a more experienced player on their own side +to attempt shooting the goal. Skilful passing is the most important +branch of hockey and consequently good team work is absolutely +essential to success. + +[Illustration: The hockey player's costume] + +A regulation hockey team consist of seven players called goal, point, +cover point, right centre, left centre, right wing, left wing. + +The position of goal tender is the most difficult to acquire skill in. +He stands directly in front of the goal and is expected to stop the +puck with hands, feet, and body. While the position of goal does not +involve much skating, a goal tender should also be a good skater. His +position requires more nerve and cool-headedness than any other +position on the team because the final responsibility of all goals +scored against his team is up to him. His position is largely a +defensive one and his work at times very severe. The goal keeper must +very rarely leave his position but must depend upon the two other +defensive men the "point" and "cover point" to stop the puck when it +away from the direct line of the goal. The defensive men on a hockey +team should not by any strategy or coaxing on the part of their +opponents allow themselves to leave their own goal unprotected. + +The forwards have most of the work of shooting goals and advancing the +puck. Of course such a man must be very active and a good all round +player. Hockey is a poor game in which to display grand-stand playing. +The player's whole idea should be to shoot the puck so that either he +or some member of his team may score a goal. + +The rules of hockey are comparatively few and simple. The game +consists of two twenty-minute halves with a ten-minute intermission +between. In case of a tie at the end of a game it is customary to +continue until one side secures a majority of the points. + +A standard rink must be at least one hundred and twelve feet long by +fifty-eight feet wide. Nets are six feet wide and four feet high. + +One of the most exciting of winter sports is skate sailing. The same +principles that are applied to sailing a boat are brought into play in +sailing with skates. While considerable skill is necessary to handle a +skate sail well, any one who is a good skater will soon acquire it. +The direction that you go is determined by the angle at which the sail +is held. When you wish to turn around or stop you simply shift its +position until you run dead into the wind. A skate sail should be +light and strong. A limit of five pounds' weight is all that is +necessary. The sail is a very simple device. There are a great many +kinds but one of the simplest is made from a T-shaped frame of bamboo +with a V-shaped piece of canvas or balloon silk sewed or wired to the +frame. The best skate sails are made with a jointed frame like a +fishing rod so that they may be taken apart and easily carried. + +While an expert can handle a sail eight or ten feet wide and twelve +feet high it is better for the beginner to start with one much +smaller. The construction of the sail and the method of holding it are +shown in the diagram. + +[Illustration: A skate sail] + +Snowshoeing is another winter sport that will furnish a great deal of +pleasure and will enable us to be outdoors when our less fortunate +friends may be cooped up in the house. There are a number of standard +shapes in snowshoes, but probably the "Canadian" model will be found +to be the most satisfactory generally. Snowshoes should be from +twenty-four to forty-four inches long depending on the weight to be +carried. In order to enjoy snowshoeing we must use moccasins. The +proper method of attaching the snowshoes is clearly shown in the +diagrams. The beginner will find that snowshoeing is a very simple art +to acquire, being far less difficult than skating and with far less +danger of having a bad fall. + +[Illustration: Four types of snowshoes] + +The sport of "ski-running" or skiing is practised more generally +abroad than in this country. A number of winter resorts owe their +popularity largely to this sport. Skis are simply long flat pieces of +wood fastened or strapped to the shoes. The best type are the so +called "Norway" pattern. Various lengths are used from four to eight +or nine feet long, but for a beginner the shorter ones will be better. + +[Illustration: To throw the lumberman's hitch, start this way] + +[Illustration: Then across the toe with both ends and under the loop] + +Ski-running is simply coasting down steep inclines on the snow with +the skis used in much the same way as a sled. The longer they are the +greater the speed obtained, but the longer ones are also +correspondingly hard to manage. + +[Illustration: Draw the ends tightly forward to fasten down the toe] + +[Illustration: Then tie the ends together in a bow knot back of the +heel] + +In Norway and Sweden skis are made to order just as we might be +measured for suits of clothes. The theory is that the proper length +of ski will be such that the user, can, when standing erect and +reaching above his head, just crook his forefinger over it as it +stands upright. Ski shoes should be strong, with well blocked toes. A +pair of heavy school shoes are just the thing if well made. + +[Illustration: The straps over the toe remain buckled] + +[Illustration: This is the "thong" hitch but it is not as good as the +lumberman's hitch] + +To learn skiing we should select the slope of a hill not very steep +and with no dangerous rocks or snags to run foul of. The best snow +conditions are usually found two or three days after it has fallen. +Fresh snow is too light to offer good skiing and snow with a crust is +also bad. In running with skis on the level ground a long, sweeping +stride is used somewhat after the fashion of skating. The strokes +should be made just as long as possible, and the skis kept close +together. In going up an incline the tendency to slip backward is +overcome by raising the toe of the ski slightly and bringing the heel +down sharply. One foot should be firmly implanted before the other is +moved. In going up a steep hill a zigzag course will be necessary. + +[Illustration: Front and side view of a ski] + +As an aid in ski-running it is customary to employ a pair of ski +poles, which are fastened to the wrist by leather thongs. They are +usually made of bamboo or other light material with a wicker disk near +the end to keep the pole from sinking into the soft snow. Ski poles +should never be used in attempting a jump, as under these +circumstances they might be very dangerous. + +Ski coasting is the sport that most boys will be interested in. To +make a descent, begin at the top of a hill as one would in coasting +with a sled and lean well forward with the skis parallel and with one +foot slightly ahead of the other. The knees should be bent and the +body rigid. The weight should be borne by the ball of the foot that is +behind. As the start forward begins, the impulse will be to lean back, +but this Impulse must be overcome or you will take a tumble in the +snow as you gain speed. + +[Illustration: A ski pole] + +In jumping with skis an abrupt drop is necessary. For the beginner a +few inches is sufficient. The start is made by coasting down an +incline, and just before the take-off is reached, the runner assumes a +crouching attitude and then straightens up quickly, maintaining an +erect attitude until he is about to land, when, as in jumping, the +knees are bent slightly to break the force of landing. During the +flight the skis should be kept perfectly parallel but drooping +slightly behind. + +[Illustration: The Exciting Sport of Ski Running] + +The various forms of coasting with toboggan sleds and bobsleds are +all well known to boys who live where there are snow and hills. A sled +can be steered either by dragging the foot or by shifting the sled +with the hands. Sleds with flexible runners have recently been +introduced and are a great improvement on the old type. + +One branch of carpenter work that nearly all boys attempt at some time +in their lives is to make a bobsled or double runner, which is a pair +of sleds fastened on either end of a board long enough to hold from +three to twenty or thirty people. + +[Illustration: A bobsled or double runner] + +Coasting, especially with a bob, is somewhat dangerous sport, +especially in cities or where the turns are sharp and there is danger +of upsetting. A good bob is broad between the runners and low to the +ground. The drawing shows one that almost any boy can make at little +cost. Various devices are used as brakes on a bob. Most of them are +found to be out of order or frozen when the time comes to use them. A +brake that is made from a piece of iron bent in an angle and fastened +to the side of the runners on the rear sled is the best arrangement to +have. A bobsled should not cost over ten dollars complete with +steering wheel, bell, and necessary iron work, which should be made at +the blacksmith's. + + + + +XIII + +HORSEMANSHIP + +How to become a good rider--The care of a horse--Saddles + + +So many branches of outdoor sport depend on a knowledge of +horsemanship that every boy or girl who has the opportunity should +learn to ride horseback. When once acquired, we shall never forget it. +The first few lessons will make us feel discouraged, because the +jolting and jarring every one receives in learning to ride almost make +it appear that we can never acquire the knack, but remember that even +the cowboy has had to go through the same experience. A beginner +should only ride a gentle horse. In case we do take a tumble, it is +well to take our first lesson on soft ground or in a tanbark ring. + +There are three types of saddles generally used: The English saddle is +simply a leather seat with stirrups, and while it is the most refined +type and the one used for fox hunting and all expert riding in +England, it is not the best kind to learn on. The army saddle and the +Mexican or cowboy saddle with a pommel or box-stirrups are far safer +and less expensive. If you know of a dealer in second-hand army +equipments you can buy a saddle and bridle of excellent material at +less than half the retail price of the stores. + +[Illustration: Mexican saddle, Army saddle, English saddle] + +Before mounting your horse always examine carefully your saddle and +bridle to see that the girths are tight, that the bridle is properly +buckled, and the stirrups are the proper length. The latter is +sometimes determined by placing the stirrup under the armpits and +touching the saddle with the finger tips. A more accurate way is to +have the straps adjusted after you are in the saddle. A beginner will +prefer a short stirrup, but it is a bad habit to acquire. In mounting, +stand on the left side and place the left foot in the stirrup. Swing +the right leg over the horse and find the right stirrup with the toe +just as quickly as possible. Do not jerk a restless horse or otherwise +betray your excitement if he starts. Let him see by your calmness that +he too should be calm. + +So much depends on the kind of horse you are riding that it will be +difficult to say just how to handle him. A horse that is "bridle wise" +is not guided in the customary way; that is, by pulling on the rein on +the side you wish him to turn as one does in driving. A bridle-wise +horse is guided by pressing the opposite rein against his neck. Such a +horse is much easier to handle on horseback and we should try to teach +our horse this method as soon as possible. + +There is very close understanding between a horse and rider that does +not exist when a horse is driven to a carriage. A horse can be guided +simply by the leg pressure or spur. The proper seat is well back in +the saddle with the toe pointing almost straight ahead. In order to +learn to ride quickly we must overcome any strain or tension of our +muscles and try to be flexible above the waist. In this way we soon +accommodate our own motion to that of the horse. The most difficult +gait to ride is the trot. There are two distinct styles of riding--to +trot in English style of treading the stirrups, which necessitates +rising from the saddle at every step of the horse, and the army style +of simply sitting back in the saddle and taking the jouncing. Either +method will prove very difficult for the beginner. A partial treading +or easing up but not as extreme as the English style will probably be +the best to acquire. So much depends upon the gait of a horse that we +learn to ride some horses in a very few days, and would be several +times as long with some others. + +[Illustration: The wrong way to mount a horse--facing forward] + +A horse that habitually stumbles is very dangerous. We must be sure +our saddle horse is sure footed. In using English stirrups never +permit the foot to go through the stirrup and rest on the ball. The +toes should be in such a position that the stirrups can be kicked off +at an instant's notice in case the horse falls with us. + +[Illustration: The right way to mount--facing toward his tail] + +In tying a saddle horse in the stable for feeding or rest always +loosen the girth and throw the stirrups over the saddle. + +A saddle horse should always be spoken to gently but firmly. The horse +can tell by your voice when you are afraid of him. + +The canter is the ideal gait. After we once learn it, the motion of a +good saddle horse is almost like a rocking chair and riding becomes +one of the most delightful of outdoor pastimes. The boy who expects to +go on an extended trip in the saddle should learn to care for a horse +himself. A horse should never be fed or watered when he is warm unless +we continue to drive him immediately afterward. Neglect of this +precaution may cause "foundering," which has ruined many a fine horse. + +The art of packing a horse is one which every one in mountain +countries away from railroads should understand. Packing a horse +simply means tying a load over his back. There are a great many +hitches used for this purpose by Western mountaineers, but the +celebrated diamond hitch will answer most purposes. + +Hunting and steeplechasing, leaping fences and ditches, are the +highest art of horsemanship. It is difficult to teach an old horse to +be a hunter, but with a young one you can soon get him to take a low +obstacle or narrow ditch, and by gradually increasing the distance +make a jumper of him. + +[Illustration: Jumping fences is the highest art of horsemanship] + +The popularity of automobiles has caused the present generation +partially to lose interest in horseflesh, but no automobile ever made +will furnish the real bond of friendship which exists between a boy +and his horse, or will be a substitute for the pleasure that comes +from a stiff canter on the back of our friend and companion. + +We do not really need an expensive horse. A typical Western or polo +pony is just the thing for a boy or girl provided that it has no +vicious or undesirable traits such as kicking, bucking, or stumbling, +or is unsound or lame. It is always better if possible to buy a horse +from a reliable dealer or a private owner. There is a great deal of +dishonesty in horse trading and an honest seller who has nothing to +conceal should be willing to grant a fair trial of a week or more. + +To enjoy our horse to the fullest extent we should take entire care of +him ourselves. He should be fed and watered regularly and groomed +every morning until his coat shines. If we neglect a horse and allow +his coat to become rough it is almost as bad as to neglect feeding +him. Never trust the care of your horse too much to another. Even if +you keep him in a public stable or have a man of your own to care for +him, it is well to let them see that you are interested in giving your +horse close personal attention. + + + + +XIV + +HOW TO SWIM AND TO CANOE + +The racing strokes--Paddling and sailing canoes + + +It has been said that the human being is the only animal that does not +know instinctively how to swim without the necessity of being taught. +If we take a dog or a horse or even a mouse and suddenly place it in +the water it will immediately begin to swim, even though it has never +seen a body of water larger than the source from which it obtains its +drink. With a man or boy it is different, for the reason that with all +the other animals the motions necessary to swim are those by which +they walk or run; with a human being it is entirely an acquired +stroke. After one becomes an expert swimmer he will find that he can +keep afloat or at least keep his head above water, which is all there +is to swimming anyway, by almost any kind of a motion. By a little +practice we can learn to swim "no hands," "no feet," "one hand and one +foot," by all sorts of twists and squirms and in fact to propel +ourselves by a simple motion of the toes. + +The first stroke that a self-taught small boy learns is what is +called "dog fashioned." This name accurately describes the stroke, as +it is in reality very similar to the motions by which a dog swims. No +amount of book instruction can teach a person to swim, but a clear +idea of the best general strokes will be of great assistance. + +Swimming is probably the best general exercise among athletic sports. +Practically every important muscle in the body is brought into play, +and measurements show that swimmers have the most uniform muscular +development of any class of athletes. After we learn to swim, the +distance that we are capable of going is largely dependent upon our +physical strength. Almost any man can swim a mile if he begins slowly +and with the same regard for conserving his strength that a runner +would have in attempting a mile run. + +[Illustration: Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports (Photograph +by A.R. Dugmore)] + +However skillful one is as a swimmer, a proper respect for the dangers +of the sport should always be present. To take unnecessary risks, such +as swimming alone far beyond reach of help or jumping and diving from +high places into water of uncertain depth is not bravery; it is simply +foolhardiness. A good swimmer is a careful swimmer always. The +beginner must first of all try to overcome his natural fear of the +water. This is much harder to do than to learn the simple motions of +hands or feet that makes us keep afloat and swim. Nothing will help to +give us this confidence more quickly than to take a few lessons from +some one in whom we have confidence and who will above all things not +frighten us and so get us into danger. With a good teacher, a boy +should be able to learn how to swim in two or three lessons. Of course +he will take only a few strokes at first, but those few strokes, which +carry with them self-confidence and which make us feel that swimming +is not so hard an art after all, is really half the battle. After we +are at least sure that we can get to shore somehow, we can take up all +the finished strokes which make a fancy swimmer. + +There are a number of strokes used in swimming and especially in +racing. The common breast stroke is the first one to learn. In this +the swimmer should lie flat on his breast in the water and either be +supported by the hand of his teacher or by an inflated air cushion. +The hands are principally used to maintain the balance and to keep +afloat. The real work should be done with the legs. We learn to use +the hands properly in a very short time, but the beginner always shows +a tendency to forget to kick properly. For this reason swimming +teachers lay great stress on the leg motion and in a measure let the +hands take care of themselves. In swimming the important thing is to +keep our heads above the water, a simple statement, but one that +beginners may take a long time to learn. The impulse is not only to +keep our heads but our shoulders out of the water also, and this is a +feat that even an expert can not accomplish for very long. If we can +allow ourselves to sink low in the water without fear, and if we can +also remember to kick and, above all, to make our strokes slowly and +evenly, we shall very soon learn to swim. I have frequently seen boys +learn to swim in a single afternoon. Another tendency of the beginner +is to hold his breath while swimming. Of course we cannot swim very +far or exert ourselves unless we can breathe. We should take a breath +at each stroke, inhaling though the mouth and exhaling through the +nose, which is just the opposite to the hygienic method of land +breathing. Whatever may be our methods, however, the main thing is not +to forget to breathe, which always results in finishing our five or +ten strokes out of breath and terrified. + +A great deal may be learned about swimming strokes by practice on +land. In fact some swimming teachers always follow the practice of +teaching the pupil ashore how to make the stroke and how to breathe +correctly. A small camp stool or a box will give us the support we +need. The three things to keep in mind are the leg motion and the +taking in of the breath through the mouth as the arms are being drawn +in and exhaling as they are pushed forward. It is better to learn to +swim in salt water, for the reason that it will support the body +better. An additional advantage is that we always feel more refreshed +after a salt-water bath. + +If we take up fast swimming, we must learn one of the various overhand +or overarm strokes. The chief difference between these strokes and the +simple breast stroke is that the arms as well as the legs are used to +propel the body through the water, and this power is applied so +steadily and uniformly that instead of moving by jerks we move with a +continuous motion and at a greater speed. The single overarm is easier +to learn than the double overarm or "trudgeon" stroke. This latter +stroke is very tiring and while undoubtedly faster than any other when +once mastered, it is only used for short sprints. Most of the great +swimmers have developed peculiar strokes of their own, but nearly all +of them have adopted a general style which may be called the "crawl." + +There are many fancy strokes in swimming that one may acquire by +practice, all of which require close attention to form rather than +speed, just as fancy skating is distinguished from racing. One of the +simplest tricks to learn is called "the rolling log." We take a +position just as we would in floating and then exerting the muscles +first of one side and then the other we shall find that we can roll +over and over just as a log might roll. The idea in performing this +trick successfully is not to show any apparent motion of the muscles. + +Swimming on the back is easily learned and is not only a pretty trick +but is very useful in giving us an opportunity to rest on a long swim. + +Diving is also a branch of swimming that requires confidence rather +than lessons. A dive is simply a plunge head first into the water. A +graceful diver plunges with as little splash as possible. It is very +bad form either to bend the knees or to strike on the stomach, the +latter being a kind of dive for which boys have a very expressive +though not elegant name. Somersaults and back dives from a stationary +take-off or from a spring-board are very easily learned. We shall +probably have a few hard splashes until we learn to turn fully over, +but there is not much danger of injury if we are sure of landing in +the water. + +[Illustration: A perfect dive] + +Water wings and other artificial supports are very useful for the +beginner until he has mastered the strokes, but all such artificial +devices should be given up just as soon as possible, and, furthermore, +as soon as we can really swim, in order to gain confidence, we should +go beyond our depth, where it will be necessary to swim or drown. + +A swimmer should always know how to assist another to shore in case of +accident. It is not nearly so easy as one who has never tried it might +think. A drowning person will for the time being be panic-stricken and +the first impulse will be to seize us about the neck. Always approach +a drowning person from the rear and support him under an armpit, +meanwhile talking to him and trying to reassure him. Every year we +hear of terrible drowning accidents which might have been avoided if +some one in the party had kept his head and had been able to tell the +others what to do. + +I have placed canoeing and swimming in the same chapter because the +first word in canoeing is never go until you can swim. There is +practically no difference between the shape of the modern canoe and +the shape of the Indian birch bark canoes which were developed by the +savages in America hundreds of years ago. All the ingenuity of white +men has failed to improve on this model. A canoe is one of the most +graceful of water craft and, while it is regarded more in the light of +a plaything by people in cities, it is just as much a necessity to the +guides and trappers of the great Northern country as a pony is to the +cowboy and the plainsman. The canoe is the horse and wagon of the +Maine woodsman and in it he carries his provisions and his family. + +[Illustration: A typical Indian model canoe] + +While a canoe is generally propelled by paddles, a pole is sometimes +necessary to force it upstream, especially in swift water. In many +places the sportsman is forced to carry his canoe around waterfalls +and shallows for several miles. For this reason a canoe must be as +light as possible without too great a sacrifice of strength. The old +styles of canoes made of birch bark, hollow logs, the skins of +animals and so on have practically given way to the canvas-covered +cedar or basswood canoes of the Canadian type. + +[Illustration: A sailing canoe in action] + +It will scarcely pay the boy to attempt to make his own canoe, as the +cost of a well-made eighteen-foot canoe of the type used by +professional hunters and trappers is but thirty dollars. With care a +canoe should last its owner ten years. It will be necessary to protect +it from the weather when not in use and frequently give it a coat of +paint or spar varnish. + +Sailing canoes are built after a different model from paddling +canoes. They usually are decked over and simply have a cockpit. They +are also stronger and much heavier. Their use is limited to more open +water than most of the rivers and lakes of Maine and Canada. Cruising +canoes are made safer if watertight air chambers are built in the +ends. + +Even if a canoe turns over it does not sink. Some experts can right a +capsized canoe and clamber in over the side even while swimming in +deep water. The seaworthiness of a canoe depends largely upon its +lines. Some canoes are very cranky and others can stand a lot of +careless usage without capsizing. One thing is true of all, that +accidents occur far more often in getting in and out of a canoe than +in the act of sailing it. It is always unsafe to stand in a canoe or +to lean far out of it to pick lilies or to reach for floating objects. + +Canoes may be propelled by either single or double paddles, but the +former is the sportman's type. It is possible to keep a canoe on a +straight course entirely by paddling on one side and merely shifting +to rest, but the beginner may have some difficulty in acquiring the +knack of doing this, which consists of turning the paddles at the end +of the stroke to make up the amount that the forward stroke deflects +the canoe from a straight course. + +[Illustration: In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Steams a Pole +is Used in Place of the Paddle (Photographs by A.R. Dugmore)] + +[Illustration: A type of sailing canoe] + +An open canoe for paddling does not require a rudder. A sailing canoe, +however, will require a rudder, a keel, and a centreboard as well. +Canoe sailing is an exciting and dangerous sport. In order to keep the +canoe from capsizing, a sliding seat or outrigger is used, upon which +the sailor shifts his position to keep the boat on an even keel. The +centreboard is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered by means +of a line. + + + + +XV + +BASEBALL + +How to organize a team and to select the players--The various +positions--Curve pitching + + +Baseball is called the National Game of America just as cricket is +regarded as the national game in England. The game received its wide +popularity directly after the Civil War by the soldiers who returned +to all parts of the country and introduced the game that they had +learned in camp. Almost every village and town has its ball team, in +which the interest is general. It is not a game for middle-aged men to +play, like golf, but if one has been a ball player in youth the +chances are that he will keep his interest in the game through life. +Baseball is largely a game of skill. It does not afford nearly as much +opportunity for physical exercise as tennis or football, and because +of the professional games it is not always conducted with as high a +regard for sportsmanlike conduct, but it has a firm hold on the +American public, and the winning of a championship series in the +professional leagues is almost a national event. + +Every boy knows that a baseball team consists of nine players, the +positions being pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +and shortstop, which are called the in-field, and right-field, +centre-field, and left-field, which positions are called the +out-field. The umpire has a very important position in baseball, as +his decisions in a close game may result either in defeat or victory +for a team. An umpire should always be some one who knows the rules +thoroughly and who is not too greatly interested in either team. He +should always try to be fair, and having once made a decision be sure +enough of himself to hold to it even if the whole opposing team may +try by "kicking" to cause him to change. Much of the rowdyism in +baseball can be attributed to this cause. A good ball player is first +of all a boy or man who shows himself to be a gentleman under, all +circumstances. + +In baseball, like many games where winning is sometimes the important +thing rather than fair play, the real benefits of the game are lost +sight of in the desire to have a higher score than one's opponents. +Probably the most clean-cut games are played by school and college +teams, which should always be strictly amateur. + +The pitcher has the most important position on the team. If by his +skill he is able to deceive the opposing batsmen and cause them to +strike out or to make feeble hits, the rest of the team will have but +little to do except of course to bat when their turn comes and try to +score runs. Baseball has become a very scientific game in recent years +and the sustained interest in it year after year is largely due to the +fact that the regular attendants at a game have learned to understand +and to appreciate the finer points of the game almost as well as the +players themselves. While it might appear to a beginner that the +battery does all the work in a game, as a matter of fact every man on +the nine is supposed to do his part in backing up every play and to be +in the right place at the right time. + +[Illustration: The in-curve] + +[Illustration: The out-curve] + +A good pitcher must be able to pitch a curved ball. This art will only +come with constant practice. Until about forty years ago a curve was +unknown. In the old days the number of runs scored in a game was very +high, it being a common thing for a winning team to make twenty to +thirty runs. The rules of baseball are changed frequently and almost +every change has been made with a view to restricting the batsman. As +a consequence, in modern games the scores are very low and sometimes +neither side will score a single run in a tie game of ten or twelve +innings. + +[Illustration: The drop] + +[Illustration: The out-drop] + +In modern baseball a team that plays together frequently has a +prearranged code of signals that are understood by each member of the +team. It is very important for every player on a side to know whether +the pitcher intends to deliver a high or a low ball or one that may +either be batted well into the out-field or probably be a grounder +that will be taken care of by some one on the in-field. Of course +these things do not always work out as is planned. The pitcher may not +have good control of the ball or pitch wild, the catcher may make a +bad "muff" and let the ball get by him, or what we expect to be a +bunted ball may be a home run, but all of this is part of the sport +and helps to make baseball one of the most interesting and exciting of +games. In any case there is no question that nine boys who are +accustomed to play together and who understand each other's methods of +play and signals will have a better chance of winning a close game +than nine other players who may have a shade the better of it in +individual work but who do not play together. + +Most games are won or lost in a single instant at a crucial moment +when some one fails to make good, or who, usually in the case of a +pitcher, lets up on his speed or accuracy just at the critical time. +The National Championship of 1908 was decided in favour of Chicago +because one of New York's players in the deciding game of the season +failed to touch second base when the last man was out. The game had +been won by New York except for this mistake, and the result was that +another game was played, which Chicago won before the largest crowd +that probably ever assembled to witness a game of baseball. + +When a baseball team is organized, the first thing to do is to elect a +captain from one of the players, and after this is decided every boy +on the team should give him absolute support and obedience. A team +should also have a manager whose duties are to arrange games with +other teams of the same class, to arrange for the transportation of +players and, in fact, to attend to all the business duties of games +that come outside of actual playing. Usually a boy is chosen for +manager who is not a ball player himself, but who has shown an +interest in the team. The captain should be a boy who first of all +knows the game and who has the respect and cooperation of the other +players. The position that he may play on the team is not so +important, but usually it is better to have some one from the +in-field as captain, as he will be in a better position to keep close +watch on the progress of the game and to give directions to the other +players. + +In case of a disputed point it is better to allow your captain to make +a protest if such is necessary. Observance of this rule will prevent +much of the rowdyism that has characterized the game of baseball. No +boy should ever attempt to win games by unfair tactics. The day of +tripping, spiking, and holding is gone. If you are not able by your +playing to hold up your end on a ball team you had better give up the +game and devote your attention to something that you can do without +being guilty of rowdyism. + +Strict rules of training are not as necessary for baseball players as +for some other branches of sport, because the game is not so strenuous +nor does it involve such sustained physical exertion, but any boy will +make a better ball player as well as a better man if he observes the +rules of training, such as early hours for retiring, simple food, and +regular systematic exercise. + +The battery of a team is an exception to the rule regarding strict +training. Both the pitcher and catcher should be in the best physical +condition. A pitcher who stands up for nine innings is obliged to do +a tremendous amount of work and if he becomes tired or stiff toward +the end of the game he will probably be at the mercy of the opposing +batsmen. + +Usually the pitcher of a team is a boy who is physically strong and +who can stand hard work. The other positions, however, are usually +assigned because of the build of the individual player. The pitcher, +however, may be tall or short, fat or thin, so long as he can pitch. + +The pitcher is the most important member of a ball team. Most of the +work falls to him, and a good pitcher, even with a comparatively weak +team behind him, can sometimes win games where a good team with a weak +pitcher would lose. A good pitcher must first of all have a cool head +and keep his nerve even under the most trying circumstances. He must +also have good control of the ball and be able to pitch it where he +wants it to go. After that he must have a knowledge of curves and know +how by causing the ball to spin in a certain way to cause it to change +its course and thus to deceive the batsman. The art of curving a ball +was discovered in 1867. Before that time all that a pitcher needed was +a straight, swift delivery. The three general classes of curved balls +used to-day are the out-curve, the in-curve, and the drop. There are +also other modifications called "the fade away," "the spitball," and +others. Curve pitching will only come with the hardest kind of +practice. + +In general the spin is given to the ball by a certain use of the +fingers and the method of releasing it. It is necessary to conceal +your intentions from the batsman in preparing to deliver a curve or he +will divine your intention and the effort may be wasted. All curves +are produced by a snap of the wrist at the instant of releasing the +ball. Excellent practice may be had in curving by pitching at a post +from a sixty-foot mark and watching to see the effect of various +twists and snaps. Pitching is extremely hard on the arm and practice +should be very light at first until the muscles become hardened. Even +the best professional pitchers are not worked as a rule oftener than +two or three games a week. + +A good baseball captain always tries to develop several pitchers from +his team. It is of course very desirable to have a "star pitcher" who +can be depended on, but if the star should happen to be ill or to +injure his fingers on a hot liner or for some reason cannot play, +unless there is a substitute, the effect of his absence on his team +will be to demoralize it. For that reason every encouragement should +be given to any boy who wants to try his hand at pitching. If a game +is well in hand it is usually safe to put in a substitute pitcher to +finish it. This is done in college teams for the reason that no amount +of practice is quite like playing in an actual game. + +It may be said to guide the beginner that the method of producing +curves varies greatly with different pitchers, but that in general the +out-curve is produced by grasping the ball with the first and second +fingers and the thumb. The grip for this curve should be tight and the +back of the hand turned downward. The out-curve can be produced either +with a fast ball or a slow one. + +For the in-curve a swinging sidearm motion is used, the ball being +released over the tips of the first two fingers with a snap to set it +spinning. It may also be produced by releasing the ball over all four +fingers. + +The grip of the ball for the drop is very similar to the out-curve, +but in delivery the hand is brought almost directly over the shoulder. +In all curves the pitcher must have extremely sensitive fingers and be +able to control them with almost as much skill as one requires in +playing a piano. We must keep in mind which way we desire the ball to +spin to produce the required curve and then to give it just as much +of this spin as we can without interfering with our accuracy. + +No two pitchers will have the same form or manner of delivery. In +learning to pitch, the main thing is to adopt the delivery that seems +most natural to you without especial regard to form, and with no +unnecessary motions. + +A pitcher must always be on the alert and keep a close watch on the +bases when they are occupied. He must not, however, allow the remarks +of coacher or spectators to cause him to become rattled or confused. +Baseball at best is a noisy game, and a pitcher who is sensitive to +outside remarks or joshing will never be a real success. + +The catcher is usually a short, stocky player with a good reach and a +quick, accurate throw. He is usually the acting general in a game and +signals to the whole team. The principal test of a good catcher is to +be able to make a quick, swift throw to second base without being +obliged to draw his arm fully back. Such a ball is snapped from the +wrist and should be aimed to catch the base runner who is attempting +to steal the base. This play is very common in ball games, and as +there is only a difference of an instant in the time that it takes a +runner to go from first base to second, who starts just as the +pitcher delivers the ball, and the time it takes a pitched ball to be +caught by the catcher and snapped to second, a game may be won or lost +just on this play alone. If the opposing team finds that it can make +second in safety by going down with the pitcher's arm, it will surely +take full advantage of the knowledge. To have a man on second is +disconcerting to the pitcher as well as a difficult man to handle. It +therefore follows that a catcher who cannot throw accurately to the +bases becomes a serious disadvantage to his team. In the old days a +catcher had to be able to catch either with bare hand or with a light +glove, but the modern catcher's mitt, mask, chest-protector, and +shin-guards make the position far safer, and almost any boy who is +quick and has nerve can be trained to become a fairly good catcher so +long as he has a good throw and is a good general. + +The first baseman is usually a tall boy who is active and who can +cover his position both in reaching for high balls and in picking up +grounders. Of course in a baseball score the first baseman will score +the largest number of "put outs," because practically all he is +obliged to do is to cover the base and to catch the ball before the +runner gets there. It is in fielding his position and in pulling down +balls that are thrown wildly that the first baseman can show his +chief skill. + +The positions of second base and shortstop are practically the same, +and these two players should understand each other perfectly and know +just when to cover the base and when to back up the other. Neglect of +this precaution often results in the most stupid errors, which are +discouraging alike to the team and the spectators. Both players should +be quick and active, with an ability to throw both over and under +handed as well as to toss the ball after picking it up on the run. The +shortstop is often the smallest man on a team, due no doubt to the +theory that his work is largely in picking up grounders. + +The shortstop is often led into habits which are commonly known as +"grand-stand plays"; that is, he attempts to make difficult plays or +one-handed stops with an unnecessary display of motions, to bring the +applause of the spectators. No ball player was ever made by playing to +the audience. Good form is not only very desirable but very necessary, +but the main thing in ball playing is to play your part and to forget +that there is such a thing as an audience or applause. If your form is +good so much the better, but if by paying too much attention to it +you miss the ball and score an error, your team may suffer defeat on +account of your pride. The main thing is to get the ball and after +that to to do it as gracefully as possible. One-handed stops are well +enough when you cannot get both hands on the ball, but an error made +in this way is not only the most humiliating kind but also the most +inexcusable. + +It must not be inferred that grand-stand playing is confined to the +shortstop. Any member of the team can be guilty of it. No player, no +matter how good he may be, should be allowed to hold his position on a +team unless he is willing to do his best at all times and unless he +feels that the game is not lost nor won until the last man is out. + +Many experienced players consider that the most difficult position to +play well is third base. This player has to be ready for slow bunts as +well as hard drives; he must cover a lot of ground and try to get +every ball that comes near him. At the same time he must cover his +base to stop the base runner from advancing home. He will be obliged +to stop hot liners with one hand and often while on the run to make an +accurate throw to first base. + +Out-fielders are usually chosen because of their ability to bat as +well as to be quick on their feet and catch fly balls on the run. +Fielders should practise if possible to catch the ball in a throwing +position, so that no unnecessary time may be lost in getting the ball +back to the in-field. Of the three fielding positions, right-field is +by far the most important. He must be sure of ground balls as well as +flies and also, in common with all the fielders, be a good judge of +the batsmen and try to be where the batted ball is going. The +centre-fielder must be especially quick on his feet, as he is expected +to back up both shortstop and second base as well as to run in for +line hits that just go over the in-fielders' heads. The ability to +start quickly when running for a ball can be greatly developed by +practice and will greatly improve the player's game. + +Very often a fly ball will fall in such a position that the +out-fielders will be in doubt who is to take it. The result is usually +a collision, a missed ball and a chorus of groans from the spectators. +The remedy for this is to arrange beforehand for the second baseman to +call out who in the case of a doubtful ball is to take it. All of +these things are part of the finer points of the game and will only +come from practice. A boy who really desires to become proficient in +his position will try to avoid changing from one position to another, +but decide which position he likes to play best or is best fitted for +and try to get all the practice possible. An excellent opportunity +will come from studying the methods of a good player in the same +position, noting carefully what he does on each play, how he backs up +the other players and how he fits in the general plan of team work. + +It is a great advantage to any player to learn as much as he can about +the skill and methods of his opponents. Some men cannot hit a low ball +or a high one, some will flinch when the ball comes close to them, +giving the pitcher a chance to deliver a straight, swift ball over the +inside of the plate, which the umpire will call a strike even though +the batsman devotes all of his energy to getting out of the way. + +A left-handed thrower will seldom make a success as a ball player +except as pitcher or on first base. Left-handed batsmen, however, are +a distinct advantage to a team, as nothing will so disconcert a green +pitcher as to have batsmen standing first on one side of the plate and +then on the other. + +Every boy who plays baseball must know the rules thoroughly to be a +success. It is in this way that advantage of every fair opportunity +can be taken. Nothing is so disheartening to a team as to lose a +closely contested game on a technicality of rules. + +Batting and base running are two departments of the game where one +member of the team is as important as another. A good batsman must +have a quick eye and a quick brain. When he decides to strike at a +ball he must not change his mind and simply swing at it feebly after +it is in the catcher's hands. The best batters are not those who hit +the ball the hardest. Judgment in placing hits is far more important +than trying to knock out a home run every time you are at the bat. You +must remember that the pitcher is studying your batting methods and +you must try just as hard to deceive him as he is trying to deceive +you. Many a game has been won by a man who knew how to wait at the bat +instead of swinging wildly at everything just for fear of having +strikes called. + +When you hit the ball there is only one rule--run. You will very soon +find out whether the ball is fair or foul or whether there is any +chance of making first base. A base runner should never stop trying to +make a base until the ball is in the hands of the baseman. One never +can tell when a ball may be fumbled or muffed. + +A baseball diamond should be a part of a town just as is the public +square or a town hall. The distance between the bases should be ninety +feet and the four base-lines should form a square and all the angles +should be right angles. The three bases should be canvas bags filled +with sawdust and fastened to their positions by pegs that are driven +into the ground. The home plate should if possible be a piece of +whitened rubber. A board securely fastened will do. + +[Illustration: How to lay out a baseball field] + +The pitcher's box should be denoted by a strip of wood or rubber 24 +inches long and 6 inches wide. This and home plate should be buried +so that they are flush with the surface of the field. The pitcher's +box on a full-sized field is exactly 60-1/2 feet from home plate. + +The standard baseball is the kind used by professional players. It is +covered with horsehide, and is warranted to last an entire game +without ripping or getting out of shape. Baseball bats are made of a +variety of woods, the common materials being ash, willow, and hickory. +A bat must not exceed 2-3/4 inches in thickness at its thickest part. +There are a great many shapes and models named after the professional +players who use them. The shape of a bat does not make as much +difference as some poor batters are inclined to think. The +manufacturers of sporting goods make all the accessories for playing +baseball both in men's and boys' sizes. Every ball player should own +his own mitt or glove and become accustomed to it. The same is true of +his bat. + +The art of becoming a good ball player depends largely on the boy +himself. No one plays ball naturally. It all comes with practice, and +it follows that the more practice we can get the better ball players +we shall become. It is a game where a loss of nerve is absolutely +fatal to good work. A player must keep his head no matter how trying +the circumstances may be. Cool-headedness is especially important and +the surest way to develop it is to be just as indifferent to the +criticism of the crowd or your fellow-players, so long as you know +that you have done your best, as you should be to their applause. Just +play the game for all there is in it, and you will be sure to become a +moderately good player even though you may not be a star. In field +practice, when some one is batting out balls to you, try just as hard +to stop and field each ball that comes within reach as you would if +the result of the game depended on it. It is only by this means that +you can hope to become a finished ball player. You can never learn by +lying around in the shade and telling your friends how good you are +going to be in the coming match game. + +A regularly organized ball team should always adopt some club colours +and be provided with uniforms. Very good ones complete with shirt, +pants, stockings, belt, and cap can be purchased of sporting goods +outfitters for two or three dollars a suit (when ordered in lots of +nine or more). They can also sometimes be made more cheaply at home if +mothers and sisters are willing. The shirt should always be lettered +with the name or initials of the team. Baseball shoes are usually +provided with steel plates or leather knobs. Spikes are very dangerous +and should not be permitted. The regulation baseball shoe reaches just +under the instep. + +The rules of baseball are too long and complicated to be published +here. Almost every year many important changes are made to improve the +sport and to make it harder for the batsmen to make runs. All of this +tends to make the game more interesting and to develop it from a +scientific side. + +When a team is playing away from its home grounds the choice of +innings--i.e., who is to bat first--goes to the home team. + +A game consists of nine full innings unless called by rain, darkness +or for some other cause. If five complete innings have been played +when the game stops, the score always stands and the team ahead is +declared the winner. In case of a tie at the end of the game the play +continues until at the completion of a full inning one team is ahead. +That ends the game and the team ahead is the winner. + +In arranging games with visiting teams it is customary to make some +arrangement as to expenses, share of gate receipts or other guarantee. +It is very important in order to avoid unpleasant disputes to have +this matter fully understood and agreed upon by the managers of each +team before the game starts. + +On account of fences, houses, and other obstacles that some baseball +fields have it is customary for the umpire to decide what are called +"ground rules" before the game starts. The principal thing that mars a +good game of ball next to kicking and wrangling is the tendency of the +crowd to get on the field and to interfere with the players. An easy +remedy for this is simply to call the game until the spectators take +their proper places. + +Baseball is a good game if it is properly played. It is unfortunate +that so many amateur games are spoiled because some of the players +lose their tempers in their anxiety to have their wrongs righted. No +matter how good a ball player a boy is he will never get the real +benefit of the game unless he remembers that it is not the one who +loses his temper but "he who ruleth his spirit" that is really +entitled to the respect of his fellows. Make up your mind to abide by +the decision of the umpire just as a soldier obeys the orders of his +superior officer. It is the easiest thing in the world for an umpire +to make a mistake, but he will be far less likely to correct his +errors if nine angry boys are all talking to him at once than if your +captain quietly goes to him with the rules or the facts behind him +and states the case. It is an old saying but none the less true that +"oil catches more flies than vinegar." + +A boy who has developed a healthy interest in baseball while young +will probably never lose it in after life even though his +opportunities to play or even to see a game are few. I once met a +mining man in the interior of Mexico, a hundred miles from a railroad +and in a town where only three people spoke the English language, and +this man had not been to his home town in ten years, but he had +followed his baseball team through the papers all those years and +could tell you more about the players than many a man living in the +town where the team played. + +Such a man is what the newspapers call a "fan," which is an +abbreviation of the word "fanatic." There is no harm in being a +baseball enthusiast, provided that we do not allow it to interfere +with our work or allow our desire to witness games to take the place +of systematic exercise for ourselves. + + + + +XVI + +HOW TO PLAY FOOTBALL + +The various positions and how to select men for them--Team, work and +signals--The rules + + +Football is usually played in the fall of the year because the +exercise that it involves is so violent that to attempt it at any +other time would probably result in injury to the players. The cool, +frosty days of October and November make baseball out of season, and +such weather is ideal for football. + +So much has been said and written about the dangers of football as a +sport that many parents have strong objections to permitting their +sons to play. There is no question that it is a hard game and not +suited to weaklings, but a strong, healthy boy can play football under +proper conditions and with proper training quite as safely as he can +do many other things to which parents raise no objections, such as +wrestling, climbing trees, playing hockey, or even performing +difficult feats of gymnastics or acrobatics in a gymnasium. Every +year there are a number of serious accidents from football, but there +are also injuries from other games, and people are injured who play no +games at all, so it simply is a question whether we are willing to +take the chances of a sprained ankle or broken bone for the love of +one of the best of outdoor sports. + +[Illustration: The lineup] + +The recent changes in rules have made football a much safer game than +it was in the early nineties, when such plays as the "flying wedge" +and line bucking were practically all there was to the game. To any +one who does not understand football it seems as though it were played +with practically no science and with but few rules. As a matter of +fact a well-coached college team will sometimes have sixty or seventy +separate plays each of which has been carefully practised and which +requires each man on the team to do something to help make the play +successful, while on the other hand each man on the opposing team is +doing his best to cause the play to fail. The result to any one not +understanding the game is simply a confused mass of struggling men and +a final tumble with a pile of legs and arms flying about. + +The American game of football called Rugby is a development of the +English game, but the present game is very different from the English +game of soccer or association football, in which kicking predominates +and where a round ball is used instead of the oval-shaped American +football. + +Numerous efforts have been made to introduce the game of soccer into +this country, but the long popularity of the American game and the +strong support that has been given to it by the colleges have +prevented soccer from gaining much of a foothold. + +Football is played by two opposing teams of eleven men each. The +positions are right and left end, right and left tackle, right and +left guard, centre rush, quarter-back, right and left half-backs and +full-back. + +The manner in which they line up is shown in the accompanying +diagram. + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. + + 0 + q. + + 0 0 + l.h.-b. r.h.-b. + + 0 + f-b. + +The weight and size of the men on a football team largely govern the +positions where they play. The centre rush and the two guards are +usually the heaviest men on the team, as extra weight in the centre of +the line is important to prevent what is called "bucking the centre." +The two tackles should be strong, stocky players, not too tall, but +still with sufficient weight to enable them to keep their feet in a +mass play and to offer strong resistance to a united attack on their +position. They should also be quick and agile and be able to advance +the ball by rushing when called upon. The two ends must be fleet of +foot and quick, sure tacklers. With the constant changes in football +rules the position of end has become more and more important, until +now a team with weak, slow ends is almost like a baseball team with a +poor pitcher. + +Many people regard the position of quarter-back as the most important +on the team. He is virtually the field captain. A good quarter-back +must be an all around player of the highest order. He must first of +all have a good head and be able to run off the plays of his team +without confusion. He must keep his head under the most trying +circumstances. He must watch for weak places in the opposing team and +direct the play of his men against them. He must offer encouragement +to his own team and be always on the alert to capture a fumbled ball, +stop a runner who has eluded the tacklers or to catch a punt that may +come within his reach. In nearly all the big college games the +quarter-back is one of the star players. The nature of his many duties +is such that he is forced to be a grand-stand player and to be +conspicuous even though he may not desire to. In running back punts +the quarter-back will often be used because he is sure in catching +them, which is a matter of the greatest importance. And all of this +work is required of a man who is usually the smallest, lightest man on +the team and who alongside of the giant guards and centre sometimes +looks like a pigmy. There is no higher honour in football than to be a +good all around quarter-back. + +The half-backs are chosen because of their speed and their ability to +advance the ball and to elude the tackling of the opposing team. They +come in for a very large share of the work and must be boys of +superior strength and agility. + +Next to the quarter-back the player of the greatest importance is +full-back. His duty first of all is to attend to the kicking end of +the game. For that reason he must practise constantly both with punts +and drop kicks and be able to put the ball between the goal-posts from +all angles and distances within reason. A great many games are won by +a good drop kicker making a field goal at a critical time, and such a +man is of the highest value to a team. As drop kicking, like pitching +in baseball, comes largely from practice, the captain or manager of a +team should see to it that any member of his team who shows any +ability at all in this department should be given every opportunity +and encouragement to develop his skill. A good drop kicker can be used +temporarily from almost any position in the line, whether he be guard, +tackle or end. As a rule, however, the full-back is the player who +does most of the kicking. He must also be a good line bucker and be +able to gain the required distance when called upon. + +In general, then, we choose the three centre men because of their +weight, the tackles and ends for speed and ability in tackling, the +quarter-back for his all around ability and his generalship, the +half-backs because of their skill in rushing the ball, and the +full-back for the kicking department. Any man on the team may be +chosen captain. As his work is largely done in practice and in +perfecting plays, unless a team is in the hands of a coach it is +better not to add the duties of captain to the already overburdened +quarter-back. Otherwise he is the logical and ideal man for the +position. + +[Illustration: A football gridiron] + +There is no game in which team work is more important than in +football. Eleven boys of moderate ability and comparative light weight +who can execute their plays with skill and precision can beat a team +of heavier boys or superior players who may lack their skill and +organization. In the case of a school team it is almost always +possible to secure the services of a coach from among the graduates. +If such a one has had experience on a college team so much the better. + +A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. At each end are +goal posts set 18 feet 6 inches apart, with a crossbar 10 feet above +the ground. The field is marked off in chalk lines similar to a tennis +court, these lines being 5 yards apart. The centre of the field where +the play starts is 55 yards from either end. It is usually customary +to run lines parallel to the sides of the field, also 5 yards apart, +but as a field is but 160 feet wide the first and last of these lines +are but 5 feet from the side lines instead of 5 yards. The lines on a +football field make a checkerboard effect and have given to the field +the name of "gridiron." + +Football is a game where eleven men try to force the ball back of the +opposing players' goal line by various efforts in running with it or +in kicking, while the opposing team meanwhile, by throwing the runner +or by pushing him back, try to prevent any gain being made. Each team +is allowed a certain number of attempts to make a certain distance +and, if they fail to do this the ball becomes the property of the +other team to make a similar attempt. Each of these attempts is called +a "down," and, according to the rules, after three attempts, if the +runners have failed to gain the required distance, the ball is given +to their opponents. In practice it is customary for a team to kick the +ball on its last down and thus to surrender it just as far from its +own goal line as possible. The distance that must be made in three +downs according to the present rules is ten yards. Sometimes a team +will not kick on its last down because the distance remaining to be +gained is so little that the quarter-back feels sure that one of his +men can make it, but this is an exception. When ten or more yards are +gained the ball becomes at first down again and the team has three +more attempts to make another ten yards figured from where the ball +was finally downed. + +The ultimate object of "rushing the ball," as this play is called, is +to place it on the ground behind the enemy's goal line, which is +called a "touchdown." Sometimes a team will succeed in getting the +ball almost over the goal line and then because of the superior +resistance of its opponents will find that it can advance it no +further. It is then customary for one of the players who has had +practice in drop kicking to attempt to kick what is called a "goal +from the field" or "field goal." This play counts less than a +touchdown in the score, counting but three points, while a touchdown +counts five, but many a game has been won by a field goal. + +Football scores between evenly matched teams who play scientifically +are usually low, one or two scores in a game being all that are made. +It frequently happens that neither side will score, but, unlike +baseball, the game does not continue after the time limit has expired, +but simply becomes a tie game. The game is divided into four periods +of fifteen minutes each. There are resting periods of three minutes +each between the first and second and third and fourth periods, and +fifteen minutes between the second and third periods. + +At the beginning of the game the two opposing captains toss up a coin +and the winner of the toss has the choice of goals or of the ball. His +decision will be governed by the position of the sun and the wind +conditions, two very important things in football. After each score +the sides change goals, however; so the choice is not so important +unless the game happens to be scoreless. + +At the first play the ball is placed in the centre of the field and +is kicked off, a man on the opposing team trying to catch it and to +run back as far as possible before he is tackled and the ball +"downed." The next lineup takes place at this point and the game +proceeds until a score is made. After each score the ball is put in +play just as at the beginning of the game. + +The quarter-back calls out a series of numbers and letters called +"signals" before the ball is put into play. These signals will tell +his team what the play is to be, whether a run around end, a kick, or +a mass play on centre, for example. The matter of thorough coaching in +signals is very important and must be practised by the team until it +can tell in an instant just what the play is to be when the play +starts. The centre stoops low and holds the ball in an upright +position on the ground between his feet. The quarter-back is directly +behind him with outstretched hands ready to receive it. After the +signal is given the team must be ready to execute the play, but must +not by look or motion permit its opponents know what the play is to +be. At a touch or word from the quarter-back, the full-back snaps the +ball back and the play starts. + +The position of the men on a team is generally as the diagram shows +but for various plays other formations are used, provided that they +do not violate the rules, which specify just how many men must be in +the lineup and how many are permitted behind the line. + +The first requirement of signals is to have them simple. In the heat +and stress of a game the players will have but little time to figure +out what the play is to be, even though it may all have seemed very +simple on paper. + +To begin a code of signals each position on the team is given a +letter. The eleven positions will require eleven letters and no two +must be alike. It would be possible of course to simply start with the +letter "a" and go to "k," but this system would be too simple and +easily understood by your opponents. A better way is to take a word +easily remembered in which no letter occurs twice, such as +"B-l-a-c-k-h-o-r-s-e-x" or any other combination. "Buy and trade" +"importance," "formidable," and many others are used. The same +principle is used by tradesmen in putting private price marks on their +goods. + +Take the words "buy and trade" for example. Their positions right and +left end, abbreviated (r.e. and l.e.), right and left tackle (r.t. and +l.t.), right and left guard (r.g. and l.g.), centre (c.), +quarter-back (q.), right and left half-backs (r.h. and l.h.), and +full-back (f.b.), would be assigned letters as follows: + + l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. q. l.h. f.b. r.h. + _B U Y A N D T R A D E_ + +The letters denote not only players but holes in the line, as the +spaces between the players are called. The quarter-back always adds to +his signal a number of other letters or figures which have no meaning, +simply to confuse the opposing players. For example the signal given +is "24-E-N-72-X." The figures 24 and 72 mean nothing, nor does the +"X." The signal says "E will take the ball and go through N," or right +half-back through right guard. Any number of other plays can be +denoted by letters or numbers, for example all punts by figures which +are a multiple of ten, as 10-20, 150-300, and so on. + +The beginner in football should first of all be provided with a +suitable uniform; there is no game in which this is more important. +The game is rough and many and harsh are the jolts we receive; +consequently we must use whatever padding and guards we can to provide +against injury. + +The custom is to wear a tight jersey with elbow pads, a tight-fitting +canvas jacket and well-padded canvas khaki or moleskin trousers. The +appearance of our uniform is of little consequence, as football +players are not noted for the beauty of their costumes. Heavy woollen +stockings and football shoes complete the outfit. The shoes are the +most important part of the uniform. They should lace with eyelets and +be well provided with leather cleats to prevent slipping. + +[Illustration: Football shoes] + +A beginner at football can gain a lot of valuable points by carefully +watching the practice of his team from the side lines. He is then in a +position when called upon to fill a given position which he may be +trying for, without obliging the coach or captain to give him +instruction in many rudiments which he can just as well learn from +observation. He must also be thoroughly familiar with the rules and +their interpretation. A violation of the rules in football carries +with it a severe penalty for the team, provided of course that the +referee sees it, consequently, a beginner must be especially careful +not to permit his anxiety to make a good showing to result in being +offside when the ball is put in play, interfering with a man about to +make a fair catch or in doing many other things which the excitement +of the game may occasion. + +The moment of putting the ball into play is called a "scrimmage" and +the scrimmage continues until the ball is downed. A ball is "down" +when the runner is brought to a standstill or when he touches the +ground with any part of his body except his hands or feet. At this +point the referee will blow his whistle and a lineup for a new +scrimmage will take place. + +[Illustration: The football uniform] + +When the ball is kicked, a member of the opposing team who raises his +hand and stands in one spot is entitled to make a catch without +interference, which if successful gives his team a free kick. In a +free kick his opponents may not come within ten yards of where the +ball was caught and some member of his team may kick either a drop +kick, punt or place kick as he sees fit. After a touchdown, which +counts five, a place kick for goal is attempted. If the ball goes +between the goal-posts and above the crossbar it counts one point +additional for the team making the touchdown, or six in all. A score +of one alone cannot be made in football, as the attempt for goal +cannot be made until after a touchdown. This of course does not apply +to a field goal, which may be attempted at any time while the ball is +in possession of the team and which counts three. + +The smallest score is from a "safety," which results when a member of +a team is forced to touch the ball down behind his own goal or is +downed there by the opposing team. This play counts two for his +opponents and is an evidence of weakness of the team. It has the +advantage, however, of permitting the ball to be brought out +twenty-five yards to be put into play. + +The rules of football were practically unchanged for a number of +years, but the game developed so many dangerous features that nearly +all the colleges recently agreed to certain important changes +especially directed to abolishing mass play and line bucking. For that +reason the rules for the present game may be changed considerably +within a few years. A boy taking up football should therefore +acquaint himself with the latest rules governing the sport. + +Football requires careful training, but the best training will come +from actual play itself. In the beginning of the season a period of +ten minutes' hard play is all that a boy should be called upon to do, +unless he is in excellent physical shape. After that the time of +practice should be lengthened until a candidate can go through a game +of two full halves without being exhausted. One reason for many +football injuries is that the players become so completely winded that +the ordinary power of resistance is lost. + +Besides actual play the best training is in taking long runs to +improve the wind, one of the most essential things in football. In the +colleges training for nearly all athletic events is done in this way +and a candidate who cannot go out with his squad and run four or five +miles at a stiff dog trot will have but little chance of making his +team. + + + + +XVII + +LAWN TENNIS + +How to make and mark a tennis court--Clay and sod courts--The proper +grip of the racket--Golf--The strokes and equipment + + +The steady growth in popularity of lawn tennis as well as the splendid +exercise that results from playing this game has given it a sure place +in the field of athletic sports. It is a game that requires a great +deal of skill, and as no one realizes this fact more than those who +are experts, a beginner should not be deterred from playing tennis +simply because he may fear the criticism of the more experienced. The +only way to learn the various strokes and to be able to play a good +game is to practise at every opportunity. It is better to play against +some one who is more skilful than ourselves and who will keep us on +our mettle to make a good showing. + +The eye and the muscles must work automatically and with precision. No +amount of written instructions can give us this skill. The personal +outfit for playing tennis is of course very simple. Every player +should own his racket and become accustomed to it. They cost almost +any price up to eight dollars, which will buy the very best rackets +made. The weight and size of the racket will depend on our strength. +The average weight for a man is about fourteen ounces and for a boy an +ounce or two lighter. A skilful player becomes so accustomed to the +feeling and weight of his own racket that often he will play an +indifferent game if he is forced to use any other. + +The game of lawn tennis was first played on a lawn or grass court, and +many players still prefer this kind of a court, but the difficulty of +obtaining a good sod, and after having obtained it the greater +difficulty of keeping it in good condition, have increased the +popularity of a skinned or clay court, which is always in fair +condition except immediately after a heavy rain. The expense of +maintaining a tennis court is more than most boys or most families +would care to undertake. + +As a rule, tennis courts fall in the same general class with golf +links in that they lend themselves readily to the joint ownership of a +club or school, where the expense falls on a number rather than on an +individual. In a great many places the boys of a town or village have +clubbed together and have obtained permission from some one owning a +piece of vacant ground that is not likely to be sold or improved +within a few years and have built a tennis court on it. This +arrangement helps the appearance of the land, that should be secured +at a very low rental, or none at all if the owner is public spirited +and prefers to see the boys of his town grow up as healthy, athletic +men rather than weaklings who have no place for recreation but in the +village streets, where passing trucks and automobiles will endanger +their lives, or at least cause them to be a nuisance to the public. + +[Illustration: The dimensions of a tennis court] + +To build a tennis court properly means a lot of work and it should +only be attempted under the direction of some one who understands it. +The things most important are good drainage, good light, and +sufficient room. A double court is 36 feet wide by 72 feet long, but +in tournament games or on courts where experts play it is customary to +have an open space about 60 feet wide by 110 to 120 feet long, to give +the players plenty of room to run back and otherwise to play a fast +game. A court should always be laid out north and south or as near +these points of the compass as possible. In courts running east and +west the sun is sure to be in the eyes of one of the players nearly +all day; this is of course a very serious objection. While it is very +pleasant to play tennis in the shade of a tree or building, a court +should never be located under these conditions if it is possible to +avoid it. A properly placed court should be fully exposed to the sun +all day. + +First of all it will be necessary to decide whether a grass or "dirt" +court is to be built. If the grass is fine and the place where the +court is to be happens to be level, there is little to do but to cut +the sod very short with a lawn-mower and to mark out the court. If, on +the contrary, there is much grading or levelling to be done, a dirt +court will be much cheaper and better in the end, as constant playing +on turf soon wears bare spots. The upkeep of a grass court will be +expensive unless it is feasible to move its position from time to +time. + +Whatever the court is to be, the first question to consider is proper +drainage. If the subsoil is sandy the chances are that the natural +soakage will take care of the surplus water, but on the contrary, if +the court is at the bottom of a hill or in a low place where clay +predominates, it is necessary to provide some means of getting rid of +the surplus water from rainfalls or our court may be a sea of mud just +when it would be most useful to us. To level a court properly we shall +need the services of some one expert with a levelling instrument of +some kind. It is not safe to depend on what seems to be level to our +eye, as our judgment is often influenced by leaning trees, the +horizon, and other natural objects. With a few stakes driven into the +ground, the tops of which are level, we are enabled to stretch lines +which will give us our levels accurately. + +A court should have a slope of a few inches from one end to the other +to carry off water. After the level is determined, all there is to +making a court is to fill in or cut away soil and earth until the +proper level space is obtained. As a rule it is better to dig away for +a court rather than to fill in, as we thus obtain a better bottom and +one that will require but little rolling. In the case of a slope, it +is well so to locate the court that the amount of earth excavated +from one end will be just about sufficient to fill in the other. + +The final surfacing of a court is done by means of clay and sand in +the proportion of about four or five to one, the clay of course being +in excess. To mix clay and sand thoroughly, the former should first be +pulverized thoroughly when dry and the mixture sifted over the court +carefully and evenly. The next step is rolling and wetting, and more +rolling and wetting until finally the whole is allowed to dry and is +ready for play. The slight irregularities and roller ridges that often +appear in a court will soon be worn off by the players' feet, but +playing of course will not change the grade. A new court will be +greatly improved by use, but no one should be allowed on a court +except with rubber-soled shoes. Heeled shoes will soon ruin a court, +and it is bad practice even to allow any one to walk over a court +unless with proper footwear. + +The preliminary levelling of a court can be accomplished with a rake +and a straight-edged board, but after the clay has become packed and +hard it will be necessary to use considerable force in scraping off +the inequalities. A metal cutting edge, such as a hoe or scraper, will +be found useful. A court should be swept with a coarse broom to +distribute the fine material evenly. Another very good sweeper can be +made from a piece of wood about six or eight feet long to which +several thicknesses of bagging have been tacked or fastened. The final +step in making a court consists in marking it out. Most courts are +marked so that they will be suitable either for singles or doubles or +so that either two or four people can play at a time. Where tape +markers are to be used, the proper distances will appear on the tape +without measuring, but if lime is used for marking a careful plotting +will be necessary to secure the proper distances, after which the +corners should be indicated by angle irons, so that the court may be +re-marked at any time without re-measuring. + +[Illustration: A game of doubles in lawn tennis] + +Considerable difficulty is often experienced by beginners in marking +out a court, and, in fact, it is not a simple matter. The first thing +of importance is to determine generally one corner of the court and to +get a base line and a side line at a true right angle of ninety +degrees. The same principle may be employed that is used by builders +and surveyors in "squaring a building," as it is called. You will need +a ten-foot pole with marks for the feet indicated on it in lead +pencil, and in addition to this a few 20-penny spikes and a ball of +stout twine. Drive a nail into the ground where you want one corner of +the court and fasten the line to it; then stretch the line to another +nail to mark either a side line or back line. You will then have one +side and the corner fixed, and the problem is to get another line at +right angles to it. Boys who have studied geometry know that "in a +right-angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum +of the squares of the other two sides." It isn't necessary to +understand this, but it is the principle employed in "squaring." You +next stretch another line and have some one hold it. On the fixed side +line you measure eight feet from the corner nail and mark it with a +piece of twine tied around the line. You also make a six-foot mark on +the line to be at right angles to it, the exact direction of which is +yet to be determined. Both of these measurements must be accurate. +The boy on the end of the loose line moves it until the distance +between the two pieces of twine is exactly the length of your ten-foot +pole. The angle thus formed is exactly ninety degrees, or a right +angle. Having obtained one side and one end, to finish marking is +simply a matter of making the necessary measurements of a court as +shown on the diagram and marking each intersecting point with a nail +driven into the ground. + +[Illustration: How to mark out a tennis court] + +Another way to lay out a court is to drive two stakes or nails into +the ground 27 feet apart. (The line of these stakes should be the +position of the net.) Then take two pieces of twine, one 47 feet 5 +inches long, and the other 39 feet. Fasten one line to each of the +spikes that you have placed 27 feet apart. Where the two lines meet +as they are pulled taut are the true corners of the court, as there +are only four points where they can meet. The various measurements can +then be marked as above by referring to the diagram. It is customary +to mark a double court and to indicate the lines for singles +afterward. + +The game of tennis may be played either by two or four persons, or +sometimes an expert player will stand two beginners. The ball used is +rubber filled with air and covered with white felt and is 2-1/2 inches +in diameter. It is necessary to play with two balls, and to save time +in chasing those that go wild it is customary to play with three or +four. + +One of the players begins by serving. The selection of the court is +usually chosen by lot or by tossing up a racket in a way similar to +tossing a cent. The side of the racket where the woven gut appears is +called "rough," and the other side "smooth." This practice is not to +be recommended, as it injures the racket. It is better to toss a coin. +The game of tennis consists in knocking the ball over the net and into +the court of your opponent, keeping up this volley until one side or +player fails to make the return properly or at all, which scores his +opponent a point. While a game in tennis consists of four points, the +simple numbers from one to four are not used. The points run 15,30, +40, game, when one side makes them all. Or it may be "15-30," "15 +all," and so on, the score of the server being mentioned first. Where +one side has nothing their score is called "love." When one side has +scored four points the game is won--with this exception: When both +sides are tied at 40, or "deuce," as it is called, the winners must +make two points more than their opponents to win. In this way the game +may be continued for a long time as the points are won first by one +side and then by the other. The score at deuce, or "40 all," will be +denoted as "vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether the +server's side or the other wins one of the two points necessary to win +from "deuce." If first one side, then the other, obtains one of these +points the score will be "vantage in" or "out," as the case may be, +and then "deuce" again, until finally when two points clear are made +it is "game." A set of tennis consists in winning six games, but in +this case also there is a peculiar condition. Where each side wins +five games it is necessary in order to win the set to obtain a lead of +two games. The score in games is then denoted just as in a single +game, "deuce" and "vantage" games being played until a majority of two +is won. + +[Illustration: Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play] + +[Illustration: (a) the right and (b) the wrong way to hold a tennis +racket] + +To learn the game of tennis, first obtain a proper grip of the racket. +It should always be held firmly and as near the end as possible, the +leather butt being inside the hand. A loose grip will absolutely +prevent a player from becoming expert, as the accuracy and quickness +that are a part of tennis can never be obtained unless we have the +racket under perfect control. The various backhand, high and low +strokes will only come from constant practice. The most important +stroke to master as well as the most difficult is a swift, accurate +service. A player who is otherwise a fair player can easily lose game +after game by not having mastered his service stroke, and thus he +beats himself without any effort on the part of his opponent. The +various "twist" services have almost passed out of use. Even the best +players employ a straight, swift overhand ball. To fail to serve the +ball over the net and in the proper place is called a "fault." The +player has two chances and to fail in both is called "a double fault." +A common mistake is to attempt a swift smash on the first ball, which +may fail half the time, and then to make sure of the second ball by an +easy stroke which a skilful opponent can return almost at will and +thus either extend us to the utmost to return it or else make us fail +altogether. It is better to make sure of the first serve than to +attempt a more difficult serve than our skill will permit. + + +GOLF + +The game of golf, while of comparatively recent introduction in this +country, has sprung rapidly into popularity. It is hard to say just +why it should be such a popular game except that it combines a certain +amount of healthful outdoor exercise with an unlimited opportunity for +skill, and in addition to this, unlike the more violent games, it can +be joined in by old as well as young. The proper construction and +maintenance of a golf course is an expensive proposition. A private +course is altogether out of the question except for the very wealthy. +A club in starting with a limited amount of money will find it more +satisfactory to begin with the construction of a nine-hole or even a +six-hole course rather than to attempt a full course of eighteen holes +which will be indifferently constructed or kept up. The average +eighteen-hole course is about three miles long and is built according +to the general lay of the land. A hole in golf consists in the stretch +between the "tee," from which the ball is knocked off, and the +"putting green," where the player "putts" the ball into the "hole"--a +can sunk into the ground which has about the same diameter as a +tomato can. The score consists in the number of strokes required to +make the hole, and of course the player making the fewest number of +strokes is the winner of the hole or match. + +[Illustration: Addressing] + +[Illustration: At the top of the swing] + +[Illustration: Just before the ball is struck] + +Golf has but few rules. The secret of playing well consists in being +able to swing the clubs with accuracy and precision. There is no game +where proper form counts for more and none in which more careful +preliminary instruction by an expert is so important. If one can at +the very outset obtain the services of a professional or a skilful +player for a few lessons, it will do far more good than ten times as +many lessons after we have contracted bad habits which will have to be +unlearned. + +[Illustration: How An Expert Plays Golf] + +The surest way to be a poor golfer is first to think that it is a +sort of "old man's game," or, as one boy said, "a game of knocking a +pill around a ten-acre lot"; then when the chance to play our first +game comes along to do it indifferently, only to learn later that +there is a lot more to the skill of a good player than we ever +realized. Another very common mistake is to buy a complete outfit of +clubs, which a beginner always improperly calls "sticks," before we +really know just what shape and weight of club is best adapted to our +needs. + +[Illustration: A good outfit of clubs for golf] + +The common clubs in most players' outfits consist of a driver, +brassie, cleek, iron, and putter. We can add to this list almost +indefinitely if we wish, as there are all sorts of clubs made for +various shots and with various angles. The game of golf consists in +covering a certain fixed course in the fewest number of shots. We +shall have to practise both for distance and accuracy. The first few +shots on a hole of average length will give us an opportunity for +distance. This is especially true of the first shot, or drive, but +after that we make what are known as approach shots--that is to say, +we are approaching the putting green where we complete the hole by +"putting" the ball into the tin cup sunk into the ground. On the green +we shall need to be very careful, as a stroke wasted or poorly played +counts just as much against our score if the ball goes only a few feet +as if we sliced or "foozled" our drive. + +In scoring for golf there are two methods: Either the score of each +hole is taken and the winner of a majority of holes wins the match, or +the total score in counted as in "medal" or "tournament play." + +"Bogie score" is a fictitious score for the course that is supposed to +denote perfect playing without flukes or luck. The mysterious "Colonel +Bogie" is an imaginary player who always makes this score. + + + + +XVIII + +PHOTOGRAPHY + +The selection of a camera--Snapshots vs. real pictures--How to make a +photograph from start to finish + + +Aside from our own pleasant recollections, an album of photographs can +be the most satisfactory reminder of the good times we have had on +some vacation or outdoor trip. + +Photography has been made so easy and so inexpensive by modern methods +that every one should have some kind of a camera. Small instruments +capable of taking really excellent pictures within their limits can be +bought for five dollars or even less. Of course we cannot hope often +to obtain pictures that will be really artistic with such a small +outfit, but sometimes the inexpensive cameras will give remarkably +good results. + +Snapshot pictures seem to fill such an important place in our outdoor +life that no vacation or excursion trip seems to be complete unless +some one takes along a camera. + +The modern way of taking pictures, which is simply pressing a button +and sending a film to the professional to "do the rest," including +developing, printing and mounting, is really not photography. Almost +any one can take pictures with a small hand camera. The manufacturers +have perfected instruments so complete for this kind of work that +there is very little for us to do beyond being sure that we have an +unexposed section of film in place and that we have sufficient light +to obtain a picture. Of course we must have the focus right and must +be sure we are pointing at what we wish to take. + +Real photography is quite different from snapshot work. It is a hobby +so fascinating and with such great possibilities that there is +scarcely anything that will give a boy or girl more real pleasure in +life and a better opportunity to be outdoors than to become an expert +outdoor photographer. Unfortunately it is a rather expensive pastime, +but even with a moderate priced instrument we can obtain excellent +results under the right conditions. I have seen a prize-winning +picture in an exhibition that was made with a cigar box, with a +pinhole in one end for a lens. + +Even though one does not care to become an expert photographer, by all +means get a camera and make snapshots. It is quite a common idea for +an amateur to attribute his failures to defects in his material or +outfit. You may be sure when you fail it is your own fault. Dealers in +photographic supplies constantly have complaints from customers about +defective materials, and certainly nine out of every ten of these +cases are simply due to the carelessness of the operator with +perfectly good material. + +It is well for a beginner in photography to start with a simple +snapshot camera. They can be bought for three or four dollars up to +twenty-five. Such cameras are used with films, and simply require the +operator to expose his film in plenty of light and with the proper +attention to the distance that the object to be photographed may be +from the camera. Until we can accurately estimate distances, such as +8, 15, 25 or more feet, it will be far safer to pace off the distance, +remembering that a long step for a boy is about equivalent to three +feet. Some cameras have a universal focus and require no adjusting, +but an adjustable camera will usually give better results. + +Some cameras are so constructed that they may be used either as a hand +machine or on a tripod for view work. They can also be adapted either +to films or plates and be operated with the ground glass for +focussing, or if desired, the focussing scale and view finder may be +used. + +The size of our camera will depend largely upon our purse. The cost of +the camera itself is not the only thing to consider. All the plates +and supplies increase in proportion to the size of our instrument. A +good all around size is 4x5, or if we really wish to become +photographers the 5x7 is a standard. A number of new sizes have +recently been introduced and have proven very satisfactory. Perhaps +the best size for a snapshot camera is 3-1/4 x 5-1/2. + +There are a great many makes of cameras on the market, but even at the +risk of advertising one firm more than another it is only fair to say +that there is really nothing better in pocket snapshot machines than +the kodaks. In view cameras it is different. There are instruments of +a dozen makes any of which will produce excellent results. The tests +to apply in selecting a view camera are its workmanship, compactness, +and the various attachments and conveniences it has. The salesman from +whom you purchase will explain fully just what its possibilities are, +especially if you take some experienced person with you who can ask +questions. + +Suppose you begin photographing with a simple "snapshot" outfit. The +first thing to remember is that there is absolutely no excuse for the +large percentages of failures that beginners have in making pictures, +and which are due solely to their own carelessness and inattention to +simple details. First of all, immediately after making an exposure, be +sure to form the habit of turning the key until a fresh film comes +into place; then you will never be troubled with the question whether +you have exposed the film or not. Every professional photographer who +develops for amateurs handles many films in which some of the +negatives are blank and some are double negatives with two pictures on +one film. This is solely the fault of the photographer, who was never +quite sure and would first make the mistake of exposing a film twice, +then turning the roll without exposing it at all. If you are really in +doubt, it is better to turn the roll to the next number, as you thus +simply lose a film but preserve both negatives; if, on the other hand, +you make a double exposure, you will lose both pictures. + +The snapshot photographer should never take a picture unless he really +wants it and unless he is pretty certain of making a picture. Snapping +here and there without a proper condition of light, focus, or subject +is a very bad habit to contract. Until you can make at least eight +good pictures out of ten you are not a photographer. No average lower +than this should satisfy you. Do not blame the lens for your failures. +In recent years the art of making lenses has advanced wonderfully, and +while the one in your camera may not be an expensive one or capable of +a wide range of use, it is at least adapted to the purpose of your +instrument or you may be sure that the manufacturers would never have +used it. + +We should not consider the snapshot expert who merely presses the +button as a real photographer, even though he obtains fine pictures. +No one deserves this name who does not understand the operations of +the dark room. One who has experienced the wonderful sensation of +working in a faint yellow-ruby light and by the application of certain +mysterious chemicals of seeing a picture gradually come into view on +the creamy surface of a dry plate will never again be satisfied to +push the button and allow some one else "to do the rest." However, if +you do not wish to go into photography extensively you may at least +learn just what limits your hand camera has, and at the end of the +season in place of a lot of ill-timed pictures you can have an album +full of creditable prints for which no apology will be necessary. + +It is quite beyond the limits of this chapter to go into photography +fully, but some of the simple principles may be of use to the boy or +girl who has taken up the subject. The modern snapshot camera even of +small size has great possibilities. With a clear negative we can have +an enlargement made on bromide paper that will be a source of great +satisfaction. The actual making of enlargements is usually beyond the +limits of an amateur's outfit. In this part of photographic work it +will be better to patronize a professional. + +To become an expert photographer and one whose work will be worth +while, we must really make a study of the subject. The modern outfits +and chemicals make it very easy for us if we do our part. + +The basis of successful work is a good lens, which is really the eye +of the camera. In selecting it we should get just as good a one as we +can afford. There are a great many excellent makes of lenses on the +market and even the stock types that are supplied with moderate-priced +cameras are of very good quality. The two distinct types of lenses are +the "rapid rectilinear" and the "anastigmatic," which names refer to +their optical properties in distributing the light. For our purpose +all we need to know is that the higher price we pay the better our +lenses will be, and in addition to this the further fact that the best +kind of results can be obtained by any lens provided that we do not +try to force it to do work for which it is not adapted. + +To understand photography we must first of all get a clear notion of +the use and purpose of the stops, as the various openings or apertures +are called that the lens is provided with. A "fast" lens is one that +will give a sharp picture at a maximum opening, and such lenses are +both the most expensive and the most universal in their application. +Lenses of this class are used in making instantaneous pictures with +very rapid exposures, and for ordinary view or portrait work will +produce no better results than much slower and less expensive types. + +Perhaps the best way to understand photography as an art rather than a +"push the button" pastime is to take up the process of making a +picture step by step. To begin with, the real photographer will use +plates instead of films, as much better pictures usually are possible +by their use. Dry plates come a dozen in a box, usually packed face to +face--that is, with the film or sensitive sides facing. The +plate-holder must be loaded in a dark room or dark closet, with +absolutely no exposure to daylight or any artificial light whatever +except a very faint light from a dark-room lantern, a combination of +ruby and yellow glass or paper. We should always test our dark room +and light by means of a plate before we trust them to actual working +conditions. Take a fresh plate and cover it half with a piece of +cardboard, or if it is in a holder draw the slide half way out and +allow the dark-room light to strike it for five minutes, then develop +the plate just as you would an exposed negative, and if the test plate +shows the effect of the exposure and darkens, we shall need to make +our light safer either by adding a sheet or two of yellow or ruby +paper or we must examine our room carefully to stop up any cracks +where rays of white light may enter. We must remember that a plate +sensitive enough to record instantaneous exposures of 1-500 of a +second must be sensitive to any tiny ray of outside light also. Almost +any room will make a dark room, especially if it is used at night. By +drawing the shades and by doing our work in a far corner of the room +away from outside light we are comparatively safe. Of course an +electric street lamp or other bright light would have to be shut out, +but this can easily be done by pinning up a blanket over the window. +When we have loaded our plate-holders we are ready to make a picture. +Suppose, for example, it is to be a house or a vista of some kind such +as a group of trees or a bit of water: the first thing of importance +is to obtain a point of view that will not only give us the picture we +desire but that will leave out any undesirable features that we do not +care to take. Some cameras are provided with a small view finder for +snapshot work, and this may often be used to get a general idea of +what the picture will be. + +Successful photography consists largely in knowing just what to take +and what to omit. Sometimes an ugly piece of fence or a post will +spoil an otherwise excellent picture. We must also remember that in a +photograph our colours are expressed in black and white, and therefore +a picture that depends on its colour contrast for its beauty, such as +autumn foliage or a sunset, may be disappointing as a photograph. + +When we have decided upon our subject, the next step is to set our +camera in the proper position to permit the plate to take in what we +wish. Usually it will be necessary to shift our position several times +until we find the proper position. The tripod should be firmly set on +the ground and the camera made as level as possible. The camera should +then be focussed with the stop or diaphragm wide open. The fact that +the image is inverted as it appears on the ground glass will at first +be confusing to a beginner, but we soon become accustomed to it and +never give it a thought. Our focussing cloth should be tightly drawn +about the head to keep out as much outside light as possible. At first +we have some difficulty in seeing the image on the ground glass, but +after we learn to look at the glass and not through it we should have +no further trouble in this respect. By moving the lens backward and +forward we finally strike a position where the principal image to be +photographed will appear sharp and clear. The camera is then in focus, +but we shall discover that other objects more in the background or +foreground will appear blurred and confused. Often it is desirable to +have a blurred or "fuzzy" background, but if we desire to bring the +indistinct objects in focus we must "stop down" our lens first by +trying the No. 8 stop, and if this does not accomplish the results the +No. 16, and so on until we get what we wish. As we look at the image +on the ground glass, it will be evident that as we stop down our lens, +the more remote objects are gradually brought into view with a sharp +outline, we shall discover that the image on the ground glass becomes +less and less distinct, which shows very clearly that we are +admitting less light, and the lesson to be learned is that when we +make the exposure we must give a corresponding increase in time as the +amount of light admitted decreases. An exposure that would give a +perfect picture at No. 8 may be very much under-exposed at No. 32 +diaphragm. + +Having focussed our camera and set the stop, we then close the +shutter, insert the plate-holder in the back of the camera and +carefully draw the slide. Omitting to pull the slide is a common +mistake with beginners. We are now ready to decide just what exposure +to give our plate. Rules for exposure are almost useless, but in +general it may be said that the modern plates are lightning fast and +that in bright sunlight at midday the average exposures will not be +over 1-25 of a second. An "exposure meter" will prove to be of great +assistance to a beginner, but such arrangements are not often used by +experts except in doubtful cases. We soon find that we can guess at +average exposures with considerable accuracy, especially if we adopt a +certain brand of plate and become accustomed to its working qualities. +Of course all of these speeds must be indicated on the shutter, and +all we can do is to set our shutter at this point and squeeze the +bulb. Correct judgment in exposure will only come after experience. +In taking interior views or making pictures on dark days we shall be +less likely to make a mistake than in bright sunlight. I have made two +interior views, to one of which I gave ten minutes and the other an +hour, with practically the same result in the negative. An +over-exposed plate is flat, which means that the print will lack +contrast and be unsatisfactory as a photograph. + +After the bulb is squeezed and the exposure made we are ready to +develop our plate and to see what result we have obtained. Of course +in practice we make a number of exposures before we begin to develop. +Some photographers use numbered plate-holders and keep a record of the +pictures, time of day and of exposure, stop and any other items of +interest. We now take the plate-holder in our dark room and prepare +our developer. There are a great many developers on the market and we +can scarcely make a mistake with any of them. Probably the best of all +is "pyro," but the fact that it stains the fingers is a serious +objection to it for amateur use, and almost any other developer, such +as metol, eikonogen or hydroquinon will be better. + +These stock developers usually come in dry salts, which must be +dissolved and mixed. All of this work must be done in the light so we +can see that we are getting the proper proportions and that the +chemicals are thoroughly in solution. The developing trays should be +washed thoroughly and placed conveniently at hand so that we can find +them in the dark. In addition to developers we must have what is +called the "hypo" fixing bath. This is a solution of hyposulphite of +soda, a chemical which is used in development and which renders the +plate no longer sensitive to light, but dissolves that part which has +not been acted upon by the developer. The hypo should be in a tray or +box placed conveniently at hand but not so located that it will be +liable to become mixed with the developer or in any way to splash or +spot the plate. We must always wash the hands thoroughly after +immersing a plate in the hypo before handling a fresh plate, as a very +few drops will ruin a negative. + +After we have prepared the hypo and the developer we are ready to +develop the plate. Place it face side up in the tray and quickly pour +the developer over it, being sure that the solution covers the surface +immediately, to avoid unequal development. While we should not develop +in a strong red or yellow light we can at least place our tray in +such a position that we may watch the process of bringing up the +image out of the creamy surface of the plate. This is the most +fascinating part of photography. First the high lights will appear and +then the shadows, and then after an instant the whole image will come +into view and then begin to fade away. To know at what point +development should stop will only come by experience with negatives of +all sorts of classes. Generally speaking, when the image fades from +view and begins to appear through the film on the glass side we should +wash it quickly and immerse it in the hypo. The "fixing" in hypo will +take probably five minutes and should be continued until the white +coating is thoroughly dissolved. The plate may then be brought safely +to the light and should be washed thoroughly either in running water +for half an hour or in at least twelve changes of fresh water. Care +must be taken not to touch the film side of the plate during +development or fixing, as the gelatine coating becomes very soft and +will show the slightest scratch or abrasion. We must dry the plate +away from dust, sunlight, or artificial heat. After it is dry we are +ready to make a print. + +Photographic printing papers are of two classes--those which are used +in direct sunlight and upon which the image gradually appears, and +those which are similar to plates and which are given a very short +time exposure in artificial light and the picture developed just as we +should a plate. The beginner will probably have more uniform success +with sunlight paper after the simple process of toning and fixing is +learned, although the developing papers are extremely simple to handle +and give better results. + +The final step of trimming and mounting the print is too simple to +require explanation. + +There are a great many things that might be said about photography, +but in a book of this kind only the most simple facts are stated. If +you become a photographer you will soon learn many of the fine points. + +Our negatives should all be kept carefully in labelled envelopes and a +record kept in a book of some kind. + +When we really become expert as a photographer, there are many +opportunities to make our hobby pay. The publishers of nearly all the +magazines experience the greatest difficulty in securing the kind of +pictures they wish to reproduce. This is remarkable when so many +people are taking pictures. If one wishes to sell pictures, it is +important to study the class of materials that the magazines use. +Then, if we can secure good results, we can be almost sure of +disposing of some of our work and, in addition to the money, have the +satisfaction of seeing our pictures published. + + + + +XIX + +OUTDOOR SPORTS FOR GIRLS + +What to wear--Confidence--Horseback riding--Tennis--Golf--Camping + + +A generation ago the girl who joined her brother in his sports would +have been considered a "tom boy," but in recent years girls have +discovered that with comparatively few exceptions they can join in the +sports and recreations of their brothers and in some cases attain a +remarkable degree of skill. + +Girls' schools have done much to spread this idea. A rational outdoor +costume and a desire to be physically well also has helped "the +outdoor girl" to be regarded as the highest type of womanhood. Only +her grandmother sighs over tanned cheeks and muscular arms. + +The girl who is not a good sport is the exception rather than the +rule. Besides, our grandmothers worked at their gardening, which is +out-of-door exercise, and a preventive, as Kipling tells, of the +"hump" we get from having too little to do. He says: + + _"The cure for this ill is not to sit still, + Or frowst with a book by the fire, + But to take a large hoe and a shovel also, + And dig till you gently perspire."_ + +From a feminine standpoint the first question must be, "What shall I +wear?" There is no need to be handicapped by skirts, at least when +one's exercise is taken in company with a crowd of girls. The bicycle +introduced the bloomer girl and this costume is now generally regarded +as proper for outdoor girls. In camp one should in addition wear a +sailor blouse, and a pair of sneakers, which though rather heating for +the feet are very comfortable and very satisfactory for long tramps +through the woods. The rubber soles give a firm footing on slippery +moss and dead leaves, while high heels might cause a wrenched ankle or +a bad fall. It is perfectly allowable for a girl to wear a +broad-brimmed hat to avoid sunburn, which might be so serious as to +spoil a vacation. A gradually acquired coat of tan is much more +desirable. The hat prevents headaches or sunstroke, neither of which +may be dared with impunity by a delicate girl, unless she wears her +hair on top of her head. + +In regard to hair, which is of great importance to its owner, though +very much of a nuisance after the age when it may be worn boyishly +short, the one word is that it must be fixed to stay without +re-pinning or tucking back at frequent intervals. For bathing, a girl +must either be willing to have her hair well soaked or else to put a +cap on so tightly that it cannot be loosened. To hesitate to try a +dive for fear of getting wet hair spoils much of the sport of +swimming. Each moment of hesitation makes her more convinced that +perhaps, after all, she had better not try that dive, because she +probably would not be able to do it anyway. The lack of confidence is +disastrous. I have known girls who could swim perfectly well in the +shallows but could not keep up at all in water out of their depth. And +yet they have not been touching the bottom in the shallow water, but +they _could_ if they wished. Learning to swim in water that is over +your head is really better, though it is more "scary" at first. If you +do learn in that way you can thereafter look upon the deepest water +with confident scorn. + +Confidence is a necessary possession for the beginner in almost any +sport. It is so much easier to do anything if we are quite positive +that we can. Probably, because you are a girl and are modest, you +will have to assume this attitude, but in horseback riding, for +example, an instant of fear while on the horse's back will "give you +away" to the beast. Since he is as keen as a dog to know when you fear +and dislike him, he will undoubtedly take advantage of it. If you are +quite positive that you can learn to ride and that the horse under you +is harmless, you will keep a firm hold on the reins instead of +clinging to the saddle horn in a panic. + +The trying part of learning to ride is that the first day's experience +is painfully stiffening. This applies to almost any unusual exercise. +But to withdraw on account of that you may as well resign yourself to +taking exercise no more severe than that afforded by a rocking chair. +It does not pay to stop when you are stiff. Sticking to it is the only +way that will train those hitherto unused muscles to perform their +duties with no creaking of the hinges. A good night's rest is the +utmost limit of time that should intervene between each trial. + +A girl has the physical disadvantage of less endurance than a boy, and +she does have to care for herself in that respect, and leave untried +some forms of exercise that would be overexertion for her. A girl may +"paddle her own canoe," of course, without risk of overstraining +herself, but when it comes to moving it from place to place out of the +water, the feather-light canoe of poetry becomes heavy reality. Two +girls can carry a canoe between them for a short distance without much +difficulty, but if one is alone it is far better to drag the canoe +over the ground, which is not particularly hard on it, unless the +ground is rough. The boy's way of carrying it balanced upside down on +his shoulders requires considerable strength. + +Devotees of tennis will claim first place for that among girls' +sports. The amount of practice and quickness of thought and motion +that maybe acquired in a game of tennis is remarkable; the fascination +of the game itself rather than the benefits to be derived from it will +hold the attention. The main trouble is in the learning, which +requires unflagging energy and constant practice. An overmodest +beginner will make the mistake of playing only against her likewise +beginning friends; the result is that she takes a discouragingly long +time finding out how to use her racket properly and never gets a +chance to return a really good serve. + +It is really just as well at some point in your practising to see some +well-trained athlete do the thing you are trying to learn. + +A girl can accomplish a great deal with her brain as well as with her +muscles in athletics. Some one once remarked that he learned to swim +in winter and to skate in summer. He meant that after he had in its +proper season practised skill in the winter sport, his brain, during +the warm months, kept repeating to the muscles those directions until +by the next winter they had a very fair idea of what they had to do, +and responded more quickly and easily. It is rather consoling to think +you do not lose time, but rather progress, between seasons. + +The girl who goes camping with a crowd of boys and girls realizes how +much depends on the mere strength of the boys; at the same time she +herself has an opportunity of showing not only her athletic +proficiency and nerve, but also her superior common sense. She will +really have to leave the heavy work of pitching the tents and chopping +the wood to the boys, but she cannot sit down and fold her hands +meanwhile. She can be collecting materials for the beds of balsam on +which they hope to sleep in comfort, or she may gather chips for the +fire, or she may be helping to unload the wagon or canoes in which +they have come. When the tents are pitched she has a woman's +prerogative of "putting the house in order," and during the time of +camping keeping it so. + +If there is actually a case of nothing for her to do, far better for +her to sit down and keep quiet than to get in the way of the boys and +bother them. A young man who in his first season as a guide in the +Canadian woods took out a party of girls from a summer school on a +camping trip told me that he would never do it again, because they +gave him no relief from a continual rain of questions. A case where +zeal for knowledge outruns discretion. + +After the tents are pitched and the fire made by the boys, it is +plainly up to the girls to get supper. Let us hope they have practised +cooking for some time before they went camping. Every one gets so +desperately hungry in the outdoor life that meals are of first +importance, as tempers are apt to develop unexpectedly if many +failures are turned out. If the girls are good cooks, however, and +wash the dishes after each meal the division of labour will be fair to +all concerned. + +A girl is more or less dependent on her boy friends for instruction in +sports and considerably anxious for their approval. Even if she has a +woman instructor, in nine cases out of ten she requires some kind of +praise from some man before she is satisfied with her performance. +Sister may tell her that she steers her canoe with beautiful +precision, but unless brother remarks carelessly that "the kid +paddles pretty well" she will hesitate to take her canoe in places +where expert paddling is required. When you know that you can do some +things as well as any boy you still have to rest content with the +grudging assurance that "you do pretty well for a girl." + + + + +XX + +ONE HUNDRED OUTDOOR GAMES + + +The following games are described in this chapter: + + All-around Athletic Championship + Archery + Association Football + Badminton + Balli-callie + Bandy + Baseball + Basket Ball + Bean Bag + Best College Athletic Records + Blind Man's Buff + Boulder On + Bull in the Ring + Call Ball + Cane Rush + Canoe Tilting + Cat, or Cattie + Counting-out Rhymes + Court Tennis + Cricket + Croquet + Curling + Dixie's Land + Duck on the Rock + Equestrian Polo + Fat + Feather Race + Foot-and-a-half + Football + Garden Hockey + Golf + Golf-Croquet + Hab-Enihan + Haley Over + Hand Ball + Hand Polo + Hand Tennis + Hat Ball + Hide and Seek + High Kick + Hockey + Hop Over + Hop Scotch + Hunkety + Hunt the Sheep + Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association of America + I Spy + Jack Fagots + Jai-A-Li + Japanese Fan Ball + Kick the Stick + King of the Castle + Knuckle There + Lacrosse + Lawn Bowls + Lawn Bowling + Lawn Hockey + Lawn Skittles + Lawn Tennis + Last Tag + Luge-ing + Marathon Race + Marbles + Mumblety Peg + Names of Marbles + Nigger Baby + Olympic Games + One Old Cat + Over the Barn + Pass It + Pelota + Plug in the Ring + Polo + Potato Race + Prisoner's Base + Push Ball + Quoits + Racquets or Rackets + Red Line + Red Lion + Roley Boley + Roque + Rowing Record + Rubicon + Sack Racing + Scotland's Burning + Skiing + Soccer + Spanish Fly + Squash + Stump Master + Suckers + Tether Ball + Tether Tennis + Three-Legged Racing + Tub Racing + Volley Ball + Warning + Washington Polo + Water + Water Race + Wicket Polo + Wolf and Sheep + Wood Tag + Yank + +While all the games and sports described in this chapter are not +absolutely confined to outdoors, almost any game in which violent +physical exercise results is better if played in the open air rather +than in a house or gymnasium. In fact, we should only play indoors +when the weather makes it impossible for us to be outside. + +There are very few indoor games that cannot be played in the open air +with proper apparatus or rules. It is also equally true that many of +our outside sports may be played indoors with certain modifications. + + +ALL-AROUND ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIP + +This contest was instituted in America in 1884 to give athletes an +opportunity to demonstrate their ability in all-around work. The +contest is rapidly becoming the blue ribbon championship event in +America for track athletes. The following ten events are contested +for: + + 100-yard dash + High jump + Long jump + Vault + Throwing 16-pound hammer + Putting a 16-pound shot + Throwing 56-pound weight + 120-yard hurdle race + Half-mile walk + One-mile run + +The system of scoring in the All-around Championship is complicated. +Each contestant has his score made up independently. The world's best +amateur record is taken as a basis and 1,000 points are allowed for +it. For example, the best record (amateur) for the 100-yard dash is +9-4/5 seconds and for each 1/5 of a second more than this that the +runner in the All-around Championship contest makes in his trial 42 +points are deducted from this score. The same method is used in all +the events. In the ten events the maximum score where the contestant +equalled every world's record would be 10,000 points. The contest was +won in 1909 by the remarkable score of 7,385 points. + + +ARCHERY + +Archery is the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. It is especially +adapted as a lawn game for ladies and gentlemen, but boys and girls +can practise archery and become proficient with bows and arrows just +as the Indians were or the boys in England in the days of Robin Hood. +Of course the invention of gunpowder has practically done away with +the bow and arrow either as a means of warfare or as a weapon to be +used in the chase, but it is still used by savages. + +The modern bow used in archery is made of lancewood or yew and for +men's use is usually 6 feet long and for women and children 6 inches +shorter. The strength or pull necessary to bend the bow, given in +pounds, determines its classification. The arrows for men's use should +be 28 inches long and for women 24 to 25 inches. The target is a +straw-filled canvas disk painted in bright colours. There are usually +five circles and the object in archery, as in shooting with firearms, +is to hit either the centre ring or "bull's-eye" or as near to it as +possible. In scoring, a shot in the inner gold centre counts nine; red +ring, seven; inner white ring, five; black ring, three, and outer +white ring, one. Targets are of various sizes from 18 inches in +diameter to 4 feet, depending on the distance of the range. A common +distance will be from 50 to 100 yards. + +Each archer should have some distinguishing mark or colour on his +arrows. Standard lancewood bows will cost two or three dollars, arrows +from one to two dollars a dozen, and targets from two to five dollars +each, with three dollars extra for the target stand. + +In championship matches in archery the customary range for men is 60 +yards with 96 arrows, and the same number of arrows at 50 yards for +women. A recent match championship was decided for men with 90 hits +and a total score of 458, and for women with 85 hits and a total +score of 441. + + +ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL OR SOCCER + +A game similar to Rugby football except that it more closely resembles +what its name implies and kicking predominates. A round, +leather-covered ball is used and the game is considered to be much +safer than our college football. Efforts consequently have been made +to introduce the game into American colleges because of its less +dangerous character. As there is practically no tackling or falling, +the "soccer" uniform does not require the same amount of padding as a +Rugby player's uniform. The game is ordinarily played in running +trousers with a full sleeved shirt and special shoes with leather pegs +or cleats. The stockings are rolled down just below the knee. The +association football goal net into which the ball is kicked is +fastened to the ground and is made of tarred rope. Thus far, the game +has not been very popular in America, although a number of exhibition +match games have recently been played by visiting English teams which +attracted considerable attention. As a game, soccer is fast and +exciting, and splendid opportunities are given for team work; but for +some reason it has not succeeded in displacing our American game of +Rugby, although possibly it is more interesting for the spectator. + + +BADMINTON + +An English outdoor game similar to lawn tennis but played with +shuttlecocks. The net is five feet above the ground. The shuttlecock +is a cork in which feathers have been inserted. The shuttlecock is +served and returned as in tennis and either two or four may play. A +badminton court is 30 feet wide and 44 feet long. + + +BANDY + +A game very similar to hockey, except that it is played out of doors +instead of in a covered rink and a ball is used in place of a puck or +rubber disk. + +The name "bandy" is sometimes applied also to shinney or shinty and in +England it is also applied to our American game of ice hockey. + + +BASEBALL + +The national game of America. (See chapter on baseball.) The game is +played by eighteen persons, nine on a side, called "nines." The +positions are pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +shortstop, right-field, left-field, centre-field. The first six +positions are called the in-field, and the last three, the out-field. +The diamond or field where the game is played is a square plot of +ground with sides ninety feet long. At each corner of the square are +bases called first, second, third and home plate. A game consists of +nine innings, in each of which both teams have an opportunity to bat +the ball and to score runs. The players bat in turn and attempt to +reach the various bases without being put out by their opponents. Each +year the rules are changed in some slight particulars, consequently a +beginner in baseball must be thoroughly familiar with the rules of the +game before attempting to play. The pitcher attempts to pitch the ball +over the home plate to the catcher and the batsman endeavours to hit +it. If the ball after being hit is caught by one of the opposing +players, or if it is thrown to the base to which the batsman is +running before he reaches the base, he is "out." Otherwise he is +"safe" and will try to make the next base. If he completes the circuit +of the four bases without being put out, he scores a run for his team +or nine. When a player makes the entire circuit without being forced +to stop for safety he makes a "home run." A hit which gains him a +single base only is called a "base hit." Similarly if he reaches +second base it is a "two-bagger," and third base, a "three-bagger." + +After three players are put out, the other side has its "innings," and +at the completion of nine full innings the side having scored the +greatest number of runs is the winner. The game of baseball has become +very scientific and the salaries of professional players are almost as +high as those of the highest salaried men in business life. + +The ball used in the game is made of the best all wool yarn with a +horsehide cover and a rubber centre. Baseball bats are usually made of +ash. + + +BASKET BALL + +A game of ball which may be played either indoors or out, but which is +especially adapted to in-door play when weather conditions make +out-door sports impossible. Two baskets suspended on wire rings are +placed at the two opposite ends of a room or gymnasium and the players +strive to knock or pass the ball from one to another on their own side +and to throw it so that it will fall into the basket. It is not +permissible to run with the ball as in Rugby football. The ball used +is round, but in other respects resembles the ball used in football. +It is made in four sections of grained English leather and is +inflated by means of a rubber bladder. The players use rubber-soled +shoes with peculiar knobs, ridges, or depressions to prevent slipping. +The conventional uniform is simply a gymnasium shirt, running +trousers, and stockings which are rolled down just below the knees. + +The game of basket ball is especially adapted to women and girls and +consequently it is played very largely in girls' schools and colleges. + +Any level space may be used for basket ball. A convenient size is 40 +by 60 feet. The baskets used for goals are 18 inches in diameter and +are fixed 10 feet above the ground or floor. The official ball weighs +about 18 ounces and is 31 inches in circumference. Five players +constitute a team. The halves are usually twenty minutes, with a +ten-minute intermission for rest. + +It is not permissible to kick, carry or hold the ball. Violation of a +rule constitutes a foul and gives the opponents a free throw for the +basket from a point fifteen feet away. A goal made in play counts two +points and a goal from a foul one point. + + +BEAN BAGS + +This game is known to every one by name and yet its simple rules are +often forgotten. A couple of dozen bean bags are made in two colours +of muslin. The players stand in two lines opposite each other and +evenly divided. At the end of the line is a clothes basket. The bags +are placed on two chairs at the opposite end of the line and next to +the two captains. At a signal the captains select a bag and pass it to +the next player, who passes it along until finally it is dropped into +the basket. When all the bags are passed they are then taken out and +passed rapidly back to the starting point. The side whose bags have +gone up and down the line first scores a point. If a bag is dropped in +transit it must be passed back to the captain, who starts it again. +Five points usually constitute a game. + + +BEST COLLEGE ATHLETIC RECORDS + +These records have been made in the Intercollegiate contests which are +held annually under the Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association +of America. + + 100-yard dash 9-4/5 seconds made in 1896 + 220-yard dash 21-1/5 seconds made in 1896 + 440-yard dash 48-4/5 seconds made in 1907 + Half-mile run 1 min. 56 seconds made in 1905 + One-mile run 4 min. 17-4/5 seconds made in 1909 + Two-mile run 9 min. 27-3/5 seconds made in 1909 + Running broad jump 24 feet 4-1/2 in. made in 1899 + Running high jump 6 feet 3-1/4 in. made in 1907 + Putting 16-pound shot 46 feet 5-1/2 in. made in 1907 + Throwing the hammer 164 feet 10 in. made in 1902 + Pole vault 12 feet 3-1/4 in. made in 1909 + 120-yard high hurdle 15-1/5 seconds made in 1908 + 220-yard hurdle 23-3/5 seconds made in 1898 + One-mile walk 6 min. 45-2/5 seconds made in 1898 + + +BLIND MAN'S BUFF + +This game is played in two ways. In each case one player is +blindfolded and attempts to catch one of the others and to identify +him by feeling. In regular blind man's buff, the players are allowed +to run about at will and sometimes the game is dangerous to the one +blindfolded, but in the game of "Still Pon" the one who is "it" is +turned several times and then announces, "Still Pon no more moving," +and awards a certain number of steps, which may be taken when in +danger of capture. After this number is exhausted the player must +stand perfectly still even though he is caught. + + +BULL IN THE RING + +In this game the players form a circle with clasped hands. To be +"bull" is the position of honour. The bull is supposed to be locked in +by various locks of brass, iron, lead, steel, and so on. He endeavours +to break through the ring by catching some of the players off their +guard. He will then run until captured, and the one who catches him +has the position of bull for the next game. In playing, it is +customary for the bull to engage one pair of players in conversation +by asking some question such as "What is your lock made of?" At the +answer, brass, lead, etc., he will then make a sudden rush at some +other part of the ring and try to break through. + + +CALL BALL + +In this game a rubber ball is used. One of the players throws it +against a wall and as it strikes calls out the name of another player, +who must catch it on its first bounce. If he does so he in turn then +throws the ball against the wall, but if he misses he recovers it as +quickly as possible while the rest scatter, and calls "stand," at +which signal all the players must stop. He then throws it at whoever +he pleases. If he misses he must place himself against the wall and +each of the others in turn has a free shot at him with the ball. + + +CANE RUSH + +This contest is usually held in colleges between the rival freshman +and sophomore classes. A cane is held by some non-contestant and the +two classes endeavour by pulling and pushing and hauling to reach the +cane and to hold their hands on it. At the end of a stated time, the +class or side having the most hands on the cane is declared the +winner. It is a very rough and sometimes dangerous game and in many +colleges has been abolished on account of serious injuries resulting +to some of the contestants. + + +CANOE TILTING + +This is a revival of the ancient game of tilting as described in +"Ivanhoe," except that the tilters use canoes instead of horses and +blunt sticks in place of spears and lances. The object is for the +tilter to shove his opponent out of his canoe, meanwhile seeing to it +that the same undesirable fate does not fall to his own lot. In +singles each contestant paddles his own canoe with one end of his pike +pole, but the sport is much greater if each canoe has two occupants, +one to paddle and the other to do the "tilting". + + +CAT + +A small block of wood pointed at both ends is used in this game. The +batter strikes it with a light stick and as it flies into the air +attempts to bat it with the stick. If the cat is caught the batter is +out. Otherwise he is entitled to a score equal to the number of jumps +it will take him to reach the place where the cat has fallen. He then +returns to bat again and continues until he is caught out. + + +COUNTING-OUT RHYMES + +Almost every section has some favourite counting-out rhyme of its own. +Probably the two most generally used are: + + "_My mother told me to take this one_," + +and that old classic-- + + "_Eeny, meeny, miny, mo._ + _Catch a nigger by the toe;_ + _If he hollers, let him go._ + _Eeny, meeny, miny, mo._" + +This is also varied into + + "_Ena, mena, mona, mite._ + _Pasca, laura, bona, bite._ + _Eggs, butter, cheese, bread._ + _Stick, stock, stone dead._" + +The object of a counting-out rhyme is to determine who is to be "it" +for a game. As each word is pronounced by the counter some one is +pointed at, and at the end of the verse the one last pointed at is +"it." + + +COURT TENNIS + +This game, though very similar to rackets and squash, is more +scientific than either. The court is enclosed by four walls. A net +midway down the court divides the "service" side from the "hazard" +side. The rackets used in court tennis have long handles and a large +face. The balls used are the same size as tennis balls, but are +heavier and stronger. In play, the ball rebounds over the court and +many shots are made against the roof. While somewhat similar to lawn +tennis, the rules of court tennis are extremely complicated. The game +is scored just as in lawn tennis, except that instead of calling the +server's score first the marker always announces the score of the +winner of the last stroke. + + +CRICKET + +A game of ball which is generally played in England and the British +provinces, but which is not very popular in the United States. There +are two opposite sides or sets of players of eleven men each. At two +points 22 yards apart are placed two wickets 27 inches high and +consisting of three sticks called stumps. As in baseball, one side +takes the field and the other side is at the bat. Two men are at bat +at a time and it is their object to prevent the balls from being +bowled so that they will strike the wickets. To do this a broad bat is +used made of willow with a cane handle, through which are inserted +strips of rubber to give greater spring and driving power. The batsman +will either merely stop the ball with his bat or will attempt to drive +it. When the ball is being fielded the two batsmen exchange wickets, +and each exchange is counted as a run, and is marked to the credit of +the batsman or striker. The batsman is allowed to bat until he is out. +This occurs when the ball strikes the wicket and carries away either a +bail, the top piece, or a stump, one of the three sticks. He is also +out if he knocks down any part of his own wicket or allows the ball to +do it while he is running, or if he interferes with the ball by any +part of his person as it is being thrown, or if one of the opposing +players catches a batted ball before it touches the ground, as in +baseball. + +When ten of the eleven men on a side have been put out it constitutes +an inning, and the side in the field takes its turn at the bat. The +game usually consists of two innings, and at its completion the side +having scored the greater number of runs is the winner. The eleven +positions on a cricket team are called bowler, wicket-keeper, long +stop, slip, point cover-slip, cover-point, mid-off, long-leg, +square-leg, mid-on. The one at bat is, as in baseball, called the +batsman. The two lines between which the batsmen stand while batting +are called "popping creases" and "bowling creases." + + +CROQUET + +A game played with wooden balls and mallets, on a flat piece of +ground. The game consists in driving the ball around a circuitous +course through various wire rings called "wickets" and, after striking +a wooden peg or post, returning to the starting place. Any number may +play croquet either independently or on sides. Each player may +continue making shots as long as he either goes through a wicket, hits +the peg or post, or hits the ball of an opponent. In this latter case +he may place his ball against that of his opponent and, holding the +former with his foot, drive his opponent's ball as far as possible +from the croquet ground. He then also has another shot at his wicket. + +A croquet set consists of mallets, balls, wickets, and stakes and may +be bought for two or three dollars. Experts use mallets with much +shorter handles than those in common sets. They are made of either +maple, dogwood, or persimmon. In place of wooden balls, championship +and expert games are often played with balls made of a patented +composition. All croquet implements are usually painted in bright +colours. The game of "roque" is very similar to croquet. + +Croquet can be made more difficult by using narrow arches or wickets. +Hard rubber balls are more satisfactory than wood and also much more +expensive. + +As a rule the colours played in order are red, white, blue and black. +According to the rules any kind of a mallet may be used, depending +upon the individual preference of the player. + + +CURLING + +An ancient Scotch game played on the ice, in which the contestants +slide large flat stones, called curling stones, from one point to +another. These points or marks are called "tees." In playing, an +opportunity for skill is shown in knocking an opponent out of the way, +and also in using a broom ahead of the stone as it slides along to +influence its rate of speed. + +At the present time the greatest curling country is Canada. Curling is +one of the few outdoor games that are played without a ball of some +kind. + + +DIXIE'S LAND + +This game is also called "Tommy Tiddler's Land." It is a game of tag +in which a certain portion of the playground is marked off as the +"land." The one who is "it" endeavours to catch the others as they +invade his land. When a player is tagged he also becomes "it," and so +on until the game ends because all the invaders are captured. The game +is especially interesting because of the variety of verses and rhymes +used in various parts of the country to taunt the one who is "it" as +they come on his land. + + +DUCK ON A ROCK + +This game is also called "Boulder Up." It is not customary to "count +out" to decide it. For this game usually some one suggests, "Let's +play Duck on a Rock," and then every one scurries around to find an +appropriate stone, or "duck." As fast as they are found the fact is +announced by the cry, "My one duck," "My two duck," etc. The last boy +to find a stone is "drake," or "it." + +The drake is larger than the ducks and is placed on an elevated +position such as a boulder. Then from a specified distance ducks +attempt to hit the drake and to knock him from his position. If they +miss they are in danger of being tagged by the drake, as it is his +privilege to tag any player who is not in possession of his duck. If, +however, the drake is knocked from his perch, the ducks have the +privilege of rushing in and recovering their stones, but unless they +do so before the drake replaces his stone on the rock they may be +tagged. The first one tagged becomes "it" and the drake becomes a +duck. + + +FAT + +This is the universal game of marbles. It is sometimes called "Yank," +or "Knuckle There." A ring is scratched in the ground a foot or two in +diameter. It is then divided into four parts by two lines drawn +through the diameter. The first step is for each player to "lay a +duck," which in simple language means to enter a marble to be played +for. This is his entrance fee and may be either a "dub," an "alley," a +"crystal," or sometimes a "real," although this is very rare as well +as extravagant. About ten feet from this ring a line is made called a +"taw line." The first player, usually determined as soon as school is +out by his having shouted, "First shot, fat!" stands behind the taw +line and shoots to knock out a marble. If he is successful he +continues shooting; if not he loses his turn and Number 2 shoots. +Number 1 after his first shot from the taw line must then shoot from +wherever his marble lies. If Number 2 can hit Number 1 he has a right +to claim all the marbles that Number 1 has knocked out of the ring. In +this way it is very much to the advantage of each player to leave +himself as far from the taw line as possible. + + +FEATHER RACE + +The contestants endeavour to blow a feather over a certain course in +the shortest time. The rule is that the feather must not be touched +with the hands. Out of doors this game is only possible on a very +still day. + + +FOOT AND A HALF + +This is a game of "Leap Frog" also called "Par" or "Paw." One of the +boys is chosen "down," who leans over and gives a "back" to the rest, +who follow leader, usually the boy who suggests the game. He will +start making an easy jump at first and over "down's" back, then +gradually increase the distance of the point at which he lands, and +each of those following must clear this line or become "it" +themselves. The leader must also surpass his previous jumps each time +or he becomes "down" himself. In this way the smaller or less agile +boys have a more equal chance with the stronger ones. + + +FOOTBALL + +The present game of football as played in American schools and +colleges is a development of the English game of Rugby. There are +twenty-two players, eleven on a side or team. The game is played on a +level field, at each end of which are goal posts through which the +team having the ball in its possession attempts to force or "rush" it, +while their opponents by various means, such as tackling, shoving or +blocking, strive to prevent the ball from being successfully forced +behind the goal line or from being kicked over the crossbar between +the goal-posts. A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. It +is usually marked out with white lines five yards apart, which gives +the field the name of "gridiron." The various positions on a football +team are centre rush, right and left guards, right and left tackles, +right and left ends, quarter-back, right and left half-back, and +full-back. As in baseball, the rules of football are constantly being +changed and the game as played ten or fifteen years ago is very +different from the modern game. The various changes in rules have been +made with a view to making the game less dangerous to the players and +more interesting to the spectator. + +The principal scores in football are the "touchdown" and the "field +goal." In a touchdown the ball is carried by one of the players and +touched on the ground behind the opponents' goal line. In a field +goal, or, as it is often called, "a goal from the field," the ball is +kicked over the crossbar between the goal posts. In a field goal the +player executing it must not kick the ball until after it has touched +the ground. Such a kick is called a "drop kick" as distinguished from +a "punt" where the ball is released from the hands and immediately +kicked before touching the ground. A team in possession of the ball is +allowed a certain number of attempts to advance it the required +distance. Each of these attempts is called a "down." If they fail to +gain the necessary distance, the ball goes to their opponents. It is +customary on the last attempt, or down, to kick the ball so that when +the opposing team obtains possession of it it will be as far as +possible from the goal line toward which they are rushing. In this +play a "punt" is allowed. There are also other scores. A safety is +made when a team is forced to touch the ball down behind its own goal +line. + +The ball used in American football is a long oval case made of leather +and inflated by means of a rubber bag or envelope. The football +player's uniform consists of a heavily padded pair of trousers made of +canvas, moleskin, khaki or other material, a jacket made of the same +material, a tight-fitting jersey with elbow and shoulder pads, heavy +stockings, and cleated shoes. Players will often use other pads, +braces and guards to protect them from injury. Football is usually +played in the fall months after baseball has been discontinued on +account of the cold weather. A full game consists of four +fifteen-minute periods. + + +GARDEN HOCKEY + +This game is played between two parallel straight lines, 3 feet 6 +inches apart and marked on the lawn with two strips of tape. At the +opposite two ends of the tape are two goal posts 14 inches apart with +a crossbar. The length of the tapes should be 36 feet when two or +four players engage in the game, and may be extended for a greater +number. The game is played with balls and hockey sticks. The game is +started by placing the ball in the centre of the field. The two +captains then face each other and at a signal strike off. If the ball +is driven outside the tape boundaries it must be returned to the +centre of the field opposite the place where it crossed the line. The +object of the game is to score a goal through your opponents' goal +posts as in ice hockey. If a player steps over the tape into the +playing space he commits a foul. The penalty for a foul is a free hit +for his opponents. + + +GOLF + +A game played over an extensive piece of ground which is divided into +certain arbitrary divisions called holes. A golf course is usually +undulating with the holes laid out to afford the greatest possible +variety of play. The ordinary course consists of either nine or +eighteen holes from 100 to 500 yards apart. An ideal course is about +6000 yards long. The holes which mark the termination of a playing +section consist of tin cans 4 inches in diameter sunk into and flush +with the level of the surrounding turf, which is called "the putting +green." The game is played with a gutta-percha ball weighing about +1-3/4 ounces and with a set of "clubs" of various odd shapes and for +making shots under various conditions. Usually a boy accompanies each +player to carry his clubs. Such boys are called "caddies." The clubs +are peculiarly named and it is optional with each player to have as +many clubs as he desires. Some of the more common ones are called +"driver," "brassie," "cleek," "iron," "mashie," "niblick," "putter," +and "lofting iron." + +The game, which may be played by either two or four players, consists +in endeavouring to drive the ball over the entire course from hole to +hole in the fewest possible number of strokes. At the start a player +takes his position on what is called the "teeing ground" and drives +the ball in the direction of the first hole, the position of which is +shown in the distance by a flag or tin sign with a number. Before +driving he is privileged to place the ball on a tiny mound of earth or +sand which is called a "tee." The players drive in order and then +continue making shots toward the hole until finally they have all +"holed out" by "putting" their balls into the hole, and the lowest +score wins the hole. + +Golf is a game in which form is more essential than physical strength +and which is adapted for elderly people as well as the young. The +wooden clubs are usually made with either dogwood or persimmon heads +and with split hickory handles or shafts. The handles are usually +wound with a leather grip. Golf clubs of good quality will cost from +two to three dollars apiece and a set for most purposes will consist +of four to six clubs. The caddy bag to carry the clubs is made of +canvas or leather and will cost from two dollars up. Standard quality +golf balls will cost about nine dollars a dozen. Almost any +loose-fitting outdoor costume is suitable for playing golf and the +tendency in recent years is to wear long trousers in preference to +what are known as "golf trousers." + +A golf course--sometimes called a "links," from a Scotch word meaning +a flat stretch of ground near the seashore--should be kept in good +condition in order to enjoy the game properly. The leading golf clubs +maintain a large force of men who are constantly cutting the grass, +repairing damages to the turf, and rolling the greens. For this reason +it is a game only adapted to club control unless one is very wealthy +and can afford to maintain private links. + + +GOLF-CROQUET + +This game may be played either by two or four persons. Wickets are +placed at irregular distances, and the object of the game is to drive +a wooden ball 2-3/4 inches in diameter through these wickets. It may +be played either as "all strokes," in which the total number of +strokes to get through all the wickets is the final score, or as in +golf, "all wickets," in which the score for each wicket is taken +separately, as each hole in golf is played. The mallet used is +somewhat different from a croquet mallet. The handle is longer and a +bevel is made on one end to raise or "loft" the ball as in golf. + +The size of a golf-croquet course will depend upon the field +available. A field 200 yards long will make a good six-wicket course. + + +HAB-ENIHAN + +This game is played with smooth stones about the size of a butter +dish. A target is marked on the sand or on any smooth piece of ground, +or if played on the grass the target must be marked with lime similar +to marks on a tennis court. The outside circle of the target should +be six feet in diameter, and every six inches another circle described +with a piece of string and two pegs for a compass. + +The object of the game is to stand at a stated distance from the +"enihan," or target, and to toss the "habs" as in the game of quoits. +The player getting the best score counting from the inside ring or +bull's-eye wins the game. + + +HALEY OVER + +The players, equally divided, take positions on opposite sides of a +building such as a barn, so that they can not be seen by their +opponents. A player on one side then throws the ball over the roof and +one of his opponents attempts to catch it and to rush around the +corner of the building and throw it at one of the opposing side. If he +succeeds, the one hit is a prisoner of war and must go over to the +other side. The game continues until all of one side are captured. + + +HAND BALL + +A game of ancient Irish origin which is much played by baseball +players and other athletes to keep in good condition during the winter +when most outdoor sports are impossible. + +A regulation hand ball court has a back wall 30 feet high and 50 feet +wide. Each game consists of twenty-one "aces." The ball is 1-7/8 +inches in diameter and weighs 1-5/8 ounces. The ball is served and +returned against the playing wall just as in many of the other indoor +games and is similar in principle to squash and rackets. + + +HAND POLO + +A game played with a tennis ball in which two opposing sides of six +players each endeavour to score goals by striking the ball with the +hands. The ball must be struck with the open hand. In play, the +contestants oppose each other by shouldering and bucking and in this +way the game can be made a dangerous one. + +The goal is made into a cage form 3 feet 6 inches square. At the +beginning of the game the ball is placed in the centre of the playing +surface and the players rush for it. The umpire in hand polo is a very +important official and calls all fouls, such as tripping, catching, +holding, kicking, pushing, or throwing an opponent. Three fouls will +count as a goal for the opponents. + + +HAND TENNIS + +A game of lawn tennis in which the hand is used in place of a racket. +A hand tennis court is smaller than a regulation tennis court. Its +dimensions are 40 feet long and 16 feet wide. The net is 2 feet high. +The server is called the "hand in" and his opponent the "hand out." A +player first scoring twenty-five points wins the game. A player can +only score when he is the server. + +A foul line is drawn 3 feet on each side of the net, inside of which +play is not allowed. In all essential particulars of the rules the +game is similar to lawn tennis. + + +HAT BALL + +This game is very similar to Roley Boley or Nigger Baby except that +hats are used instead of hollows in the ground. The ball is tossed to +the hats and the first boy to get five stones, or "babies," in his hat +has to crawl through the legs of his opponents and submit to the +punishment of being paddled. + + +HIGH KICK + +A tin pan or wooden disk is suspended from a frame by means of a +string and the contestants in turn kick it as it is drawn higher and +higher until finally, as in high jumping, it reaches a point where +the survivor alone succeeds in touching it with his toe. + + +HOCKEY + +Hockey is usually played on the ice by players on skates, although, +like the old game of shinney, it may be played on any level piece of +ground. The hockey stick is a curved piece of Canadian rock elm with a +flat blade. Instead of a ball the modern game of ice hockey is played +with a rubber disk called a "puck." In hockey, as in many other games, +the whole object is to drive the puck into your opponents' goal and to +prevent them from driving it into yours. Almost any number of boys can +play hockey, but a modern team consists of five players. Hockey skates +are of special construction with long flat blades attached to the +shoes. The standard length of blade is from 14-1/2 to 15-1/2 inches. +They cost from three to six dollars. The hockey player's uniform is a +jersey, either padded trousers or tights, depending upon his position, +and padded shin guards for the goal tenders. + + +HOP OVER + +All but one of the players, form a ring standing about two feet apart. +Then by some "counting out" rhyme some one is made "it." He then +takes his place in the centre of the circle, holding a piece of stout +string on the end of which is tied a small weight or a book. He whirls +the string about and tries to strike the feet or ankles of some one in +the circle, who must hop quickly as the string comes near him. If he +fails to "hop over" he becomes "it." + + +HOP SCOTCH + +Hop scotch is a game that is played by children all over the world. A +court about 20 feet long and 4 or 5 feet wide is drawn with chalk, +coal, or a piece of soft brick on the sidewalk or scratched with a +pointed stick on a piece of level ground. A line called the "taw line" +is drawn a short distance from the court. The court is divided into +various rectangles, usually eleven divisions, although this varies in +different sections. At the end of the court a half circle is drawn, +variously called the "cat's cradle," "pot," or "plum pudding." The +players decide who is to be first, second, etc., and a flat stone or +piece of broken crockery or sometimes a folded piece of tin is placed +in division No. 1. The stone is called "potsherd." The object of the +game is to hop on one foot and to shoot the potsherd in and out of the +court through the various divisions until they are all played. He +then hops and straddles through the court. Whenever he fails to do the +required thing the next player takes his turn. + + +HUNT THE SHEEP + +Two captains are chosen and the players divided into equal sides. One +side stays in the home goal and the other side finds a hiding place. +The captain of the side that is hidden or "out" then goes back to the +other side and they march in a straight line to find the hidden sheep. +When they approach the hiding place their own captain shouts, "Apple!" +which is a warning that danger is near. When he is sure of their +capture or discovery he shouts, "Run, sheep, run!" and all the party +make a dash for the goal. + + +INTERCOLLEGIATE AMATEUR ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA + +This association controls the field athletic contests between the +colleges known as the "Intercollegiates." + +It is generally known as the I.C.A.A.A.A. To win a point for one's +college in this contest is the highest honour that a track athlete may +obtain. In these games, which take place annually, the following +thirteen events are contested for: + + Mile run + Shotput + 440-yard run + 120-yard hurdles + 100-yard dash + Running high jump + Two-mile run + 880-yard run + 220-yard low hurdles + Pole vault + Broad jump + 220-yard dash + Hammer throw + + +I SPY + +This game is sometimes called "Hide and Seek," One of the players is +made "it" by any of the familiar counting-out rhymes. The rest then +secure a hiding place while he counts fifty or one hundred. A certain +tree or fence corner is considered "home." "It" then attempts to spy +his hidden playmates in their hiding places and to run "home" +shouting, "I spy" and their names. If the one discovered can get home +before "it," he does so, shouting, "In free!" with all the breath that +is left in him. The game is especially interesting just at dusk, when +the uncertain light makes the "outs" brave in approaching home without +detection. If "it" succeeds in capturing all the players the first +one caught is "it" for the next game. + + +JACK FAGOTS + +This game is the same in principle as Jackstraws except that fagots or +sticks of wood two feet long are used in place of jackstraws. They are +removed from a pile with a crooked stick and must be taken out one at +a time without disturbing the rest. The number of sticks removed +constitutes a player's score. When any stick other than the one he is +trying for is moved he loses his turn. The next player must attempt to +remove the same stick that the other failed on. The game is won by the +player having the greatest number of sticks to his credit. + + +JAPANESE FAN BALL + +This game is especially adapted for a lawn party for girls. Either +Japanese fans or the ordinary palm-leaf fans will do for rackets. The +balls are made of paper and should be six or eight inches in diameter +and in various colours. At opposite ends of a space about the size of +a tennis court are erected goal-posts similar to those used in +football, but only six feet above ground. These may be made of light +strips of wood. There is also a similar pair of posts and a crossbar +midway between the goals. + +The game is played by two contestants at a time. Each takes an +opposite end of the court and tosses the ball into the air. Then by +vigorous fanning she endeavours to keep it aloft and to drive it over +the opponent's goal-post. At the middle posts the ball must be +"fanned" under the crossbar. If the ball falls to the ground it may be +picked up on the fan and tossed aloft again, but it must not be +touched by the hands. The winner is the one who first drives the ball +the length of the court and over the crossbar. + + +KICK THE STICK + +One player is chosen to be "it" and the rest are given a count of +twenty-five or fifty to hide. A stick is leaned against a tree or wall +and this is the home goal. As soon as the goal keeper can spy one of +the players he runs in and touches the stick and makes a prisoner, who +must come in and stand behind the stick. If one of the free players +can run in and kick the stick before the goal tender touches it, he +frees all the rest and they scurry to a place of hiding before the +stick can again be set up and the count of twenty-five made. As the +object of the game is to free your fellow-prisoners, the free players +will attempt all sorts of ruses to approach the stick without being +seen or to make a dash for it in hope of kicking it ahead of the goal +keeper. The game is over when all the players are captured, and the +first prisoner is "it" for the next game. + + +KING OF THE CASTLE + +This can be made a very rough game, as it simply consists in a player +taking a position on a mound or hillock and defying any one to +dislodge him from his position by the taunting words: + + "_I'm the King of the Castle,_ + _Get down you cowardly rascal._" + +The rest try to shove him from his position and to hold it +successfully against all comers themselves. The game, if played +fairly, simply consists in fair pulls and pushes without grasping +clothing, but if played roughly it is almost a "free-for-all" fight. + + +LACROSSE + +A game of ball played by two opposing teams of twelve players each. +The lacrosse field is a level piece of ground with net or wire goals +at each end. The players strive to hurl the ball into their opponents' +goal by means of a lacrosse stick or "crosse." This is a peculiar bent +stick with a shallow gut net at one end. It somewhat resembles a +tennis racket, but is more like a snowshoe with a handle. The game +originated with the Indians and is much played in Canada. + +In playing, the ball must not be touched with the hands, but is hurled +from one player to another by the "lacrosses" until it is possible to +attempt for a goal. It is also passed when a player is in danger of +losing the ball. + +Lacrosse sticks cost from two to five dollars each and are made of +hickory with rawhide strings. The players wear specially padded gloves +to protect the knuckles. The usual uniform for lacrosse is a +tight-fitting jersey and running trousers. + + +LAWN BOWLS + +This is a very old game and of great historic importance. The famous +Bowling Green in New York City was named from a small park where the +game was played by New Yorkers before the Revolution. The game is +played with wooden balls five inches in diameter and painted in +various gay colours. Usually lignum vitae is the material used. They +are not perfectly round but either slightly flattened at the poles +into an "oblate spheroid" or made into an oval something like a modern +football. Each player uses two balls, which are numbered. A white +ball, called a "jack ball," is then thrown or placed at the end of the +bowling green or lawn and the players in turn deliver their balls or +"bowl" toward the jack. The whole game consists in placing your ball +as near to the jack as possible and of knocking away the balls of your +opponents. It is also possible to strike the jack and to drive it +nearer to where the balls of your side are lying. When all the players +have bowled, the two balls nearest the jack each count a point for the +side owning it. The game if played by sides is somewhat different from +a two-handed contest. The main point first is to deliver the ball as +near to the jack as possible and then to form a barrier or "guard" +behind it with succeeding balls to block those of your adversaries. +Sometimes the Jack is placed in the middle of the green and the teams +face each other and bowl from opposite ends. A green is about seventy +feet square with closely cropped grass. Four players form a "rink" and +are named "leader," "second," "third," and "skip" or captain. The +position from which the balls are delivered is called the "footer." It +is usually a piece of cloth or canvas three feet square. + + +LAWN BOWLING + +This game is similar in every respect to indoor bowling except that no +regular alley is used. A net for a backstop is necessary. The pins +are set upon a flat surface on a lawn and the players endeavour to +knock down as many pins as possible in three attempts. The scoring is +the same as in indoor bowling. To knock down all ten pins with one +ball is called a "strike," in two attempts it is a "spare." In the +score, the strike counts ten for the player and in addition also +whatever he gets on the next two balls. Likewise he will count ten for +a spare, but only what he gets on one ball for a bonus. As a +consequence the maximum or perfect score in bowling is 300, which is a +series of ten strikes and two more attempts in which he knocks down +all the pins. In lawn bowling the scores are very low as compared with +the indoor game, where good players will often average close to 200 on +alleys where they are accustomed to bowl. Lawn bowling is a different +game from lawn bowls, which is described in a preceding paragraph. + + +LAWN HOCKEY + +This game is played on a field a little smaller than a football field, +being 110 yards long and from 50 to 60 yards wide. The ball used is an +ordinary cricket ball. The goals are two upright posts 12 feet apart +and with a crossbar 7 feet from the ground. Eleven men on a side +constitute a full team, but the game may be played with a fewer +number. The positions are known as three forwards, five rushes, two +backs or guards, and the goal tender. + +The object of the game is very simple, being to drive the ball between +your opponents' goals. The ordinary ice hockey stick will be +satisfactory to play with. The principal thing to remember in lawn +hockey is not to commit a "foul," the penalty for which is a "free +hit" at the ball by your opponents. It is a foul to raise the stick +above the shoulders in making a stroke, to kick the ball (except for +the goal tender), to play with the back of the stick, to hit the ball +other than from right to left, and any form of rough play such as +tripping, pushing, kicking, or striking. + +Lawn hockey is an excellent game and is really the old game of +"shinney" or "shinty" played scientifically and with definite rules. + + +LAWN SKITTLES + +From a stout pole which is firmly fixed in the ground a heavy ball is +suspended by means of a rope fastened to the top of the pole. Two flat +pieces of stone or concrete are placed on opposite sides of the pole. +The game is played with nine-pins, which are set up on one stone, the +player standing on the other and endeavouring by hurling the ball to +strike down a maximum number of pins. Usually he has three chances and +the number of pins knocked down constitutes his score. + + +LAWN TENNIS (SEE CHAPTER ON TENNIS) + +A game of ball played on a level piece of ground, called a court, by +two, three, or four persons. When two play the game is called +"singles," and when four play it is called "doubles." The game is +played with a rubber ball, and rackets made by stringing gut on a +wooden frame. The dimensions of a tennis court are 36 by 78 feet. In +addition to this, space must be allowed for the players to run back, +and it is customary to lay out a court at least 50 by 100 feet to give +plenty of playing space. The court is divided into various lines, +either by means of lime applied with a brush or by tapes. Midway +between the two rear lines and in the centre of the court a net is +stretched, supported by posts. + +In playing one of the players has the serve--that is, he attempts to +strike the ball so that it will go over the net and into a specified +space on the opposite side of the net. His opponent then attempts to +return the serve--that is, to strike the ball either on the fly or +the first bound and knock it back over the net somewhere within the +playing space as determined by the lines. In this way the ball is +volleyed or knocked back and forth until one of the players fails +either to return it over the net or into the required space. To fail +in this counts his opponents a point. Four points constitute a game +except where both sides have obtained three points, in which case one +side to win must secure two points in succession. + +The score is not counted as 1, 2, 3, and 4, but 15, 30, 40, game. When +both sides are at 40 it is called "deuce." At this point a lead of two +is necessary to win. The side winning one of the two points at this +stage is said to have the "advantage," or, as it is expressed, +"vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether it is the side +of the server or his opponents, the server's score always being called +first. + +A set of tennis consists of enough games to permit one side to win +six, or if both are at five games won, to win two games over their +opponents. + + +LAST TAG + +There are a great many games of "tag" that are familiar to boys and +girls. One of the common games is "last tag," which simply means that +a boy tags another and makes him "it" before leaving the party on his +way home. It is the common boys' method of saying "good-bye" when +leaving school for home. The principal rule of last tag is that there +is "no tagging back." The boy who is "it" must not attempt to tag the +one who tagged him, but must run after some one else. It is a point of +honour with a boy not to be left with "last tag" against him, but he +must try to run some one else down, when he is then immune and can +watch the game in safety, or can leave for home with no blot on his +escutcheon. + + +LUGE-ING + +A form of coasting very much practised in Switzerland at the winter +resorts where the sled used is similar to our American child's sled +with open framework instead of a toboggan or the more modern flexible +flyer which is generally used by boys in America. + + +MARATHON RACE + +A long distance race, held in connection with the Olympic Games and +named from a famous event in Greek history. The accepted Marathon +distance is 26 miles, 385 yards. The race was won at the Olympic +Games held in England in 1908 by John Hayes, an American, in 2 hours +44 minutes 20 2-5 seconds. + + +OLYMPIC GAMES + +The Olympic Games are open to the athletes of the world. The following +events are contested for: + + 60-metre run + 100-metre run + 200-metre run + 400-metre run + 800-metre run + 1500-metre run + 110-metre hurdles + 200-metre hurdles + 400-metre hurdles + 3200-metre steeplechase + 2500-metre steeplechase + 4000-metre steeplechase + Running long jump + Running high jump + Running triple jump + Standing broad jump + Standing high jump + Standing triple jump + Pole vault + Shot put + Discus throwing + Throwing 16-pound hammer + Throwing 56-pound weight + Marathon race + Weight lifting, one hand + Weight lifting, two hands + Dumb-bell competition + Tug-of-war + Team race + Team race 3 miles + Five-mile run + Throwing stone + Throwing javelin + Throwing javelin held in middle + Penthathlon + 1500-metre walk + 3500-metre walk + 10-mile walk + Throwing discus Greek style + + +MARBLES + +There is a large variety of games with marbles and the expressions +used are universal. Boys usually have one shooter made from agate +which they call a "real." To change the position of the shooter is +called "roundings," and to object to this or to any other play is +expressed by the word "fen." The common game of marbles is to make a +rectangular ring and to shoot from a line and endeavour to knock the +marbles or "mibs" of one's opponents out of the square. A similar game +is to place all the mibs in a line in an oval and to roll the shooter +from a distance. The one coming nearest to the oval has "first shot" +and continues to shoot as long as he drives out a marble and "sticks" +in the oval himself. Reals are often supposed to have superior +sticking qualities. Playing marbles "for keeps" is really gambling and +should be discouraged. The knuckle dabster is a small piece of cloth +or leather that boys use to rest the hand on when in the act of +shooting. The best kind of a "dabster" is made from a mole's skin. + + +NAMES OF MARBLES + +The common marbles used by boys everywhere are called mibs, fivers, +commies, migs, megs, alleys, and dubs. A very large marble is a bumbo +and a very small one a peawee. Glass marbles are called crystals and +those made of agate are called reals. The choicest real is supposed +to be green and is called a "mossic" or "moss real." + + +MUMBLETY PEG + +This game is played with a penknife. A piece of turf is usually the +best place to play. Various positions for throwing the knife are tried +by each player, following a regular order of procedure, until he +misses, when the knife is surrendered to the next in turn. When he +receives the knife each player tries the feat at which he failed +before. The last player to accomplish all the feats has the pleasure +of "pulling the peg," The peg consists of a wedge-shaped piece of wood +the length of the knife blade which is driven into the ground by the +back of the knife and must be pulled by the teeth of the unfortunate +one who was last to complete the necessary feats. The winner has the +honour of driving the peg, usually three blows with his eyes open and +three with them closed. If he succeeds in driving it out of sight the +feat is considered especially creditable and the loser is greeted with +the cry, "Root! Root!" which means that he must remove the sod and +earth with his teeth before he can get a grip on the peg top. There +are about twenty-four feats or "figures" to be gone through in a game +of mumblety peg, throwing the knife from various positions both right +and left handed. In each feat the successful result is measured by +having the knife stick into the ground at such an angle so that there +is room for two fingers to be inserted under the end of the handle +without disturbing the knife. + + +ONE OLD CAT + +This is a modified game of baseball that may be played by three or +four. Generally there is only one base to run to, and besides the +batter, pitcher, and catcher the rest of the players are fielders. Any +one catching a fly ball puts the batter out and takes his turn at bat, +or in another modification of the game, when one is put out each +player advances a step nearer to batsman's position, the pitcher going +in to bat, the catcher becoming pitcher, first fielder becoming +catcher, and so on, the batsman becoming "last fielder." + + +PASS IT + +This game may be played on a lawn. Four clothes baskets are required +as well as a variety of objects of various sizes and kinds, such as +spools of thread, pillows, books, matches, balls, pencils, umbrellas, +pins, and so on. Two captains are chosen and each selects a team, +which stands in line facing each other. Two of the baskets are filled +with the various articles and these two baskets are placed at the +right hand of the two captains. The empty baskets are on the opposite +ends of the line. At a signal the captains select an object and pass +it to the next in line. He in turn passes it to his left and finally +it is dropped into the empty basket. If the object should be dropped +in transit it must go back to the captain and be passed down the line +again. Two umpires are desirable, who can report the progress of the +game to their own side as well as keep an eye on their opponents. + + +PELOTA + +A game similar to racquets, sometimes called "Jai-a-li," that is much +played in Spain and in Mexico. The game is played with a narrow +scoop-like wicker basket or racket which is fastened to the wrist. The +players catch the ball in this device and hurl it with terrific force +against the wall of the court. Pelota is a hard, fast game, and +sometimes serious injuries result from playing it. + + +PLUG IN THE RING + +This is the universal game that boys play with tops. A ring six feet +in diameter is described on the ground and each player puts a top +called a "bait" in the centre. The baits are usually tops of little +value. The "plugger," however, is the top used to shoot with and as a +rule is the boy's choicest one. As soon as the players can wind their +tops they stand with their toes on the line and endeavour to strike +one of the baits in such a way as to knock it out of the circle and +still leave their own tops within the circle and spinning. If they +miss, the top must be left spinning until it "dies." If it fails to +roll out of the ring, the owner must place another bait top in the +ring, but if it leaves the circle he may continue shooting. It is +possible to play tops for "keeps," but, like marbles for "keeps," it +should be discouraged, as it is gambling. + + +POLO OR EQUESTRIAN POLO + +A game played on horseback, which originated in Eastern countries and +was first played by the English in India. It has been introduced both +into England and America. Polo is a rich man's game and requires a +great deal of skill in horsemanship as well as nerve. A polo team +consists of four men, each of whom must have a stable of several +horses. These horses, or "polo ponies," are trained carefully, and a +well-trained pony is as essential to good playing as a skilful rider. + +The game is played with a mallet, the head of which is usually ash, +dogwood, or persimmon, and has a handle about 50 inches long. The ball +is either willow or basswood. The principle of the game is similar to +nearly all of the outdoor games played with a ball: that of driving it +into the opponents' goal, meanwhile preventing them from making a +score on one's own goal. + + +POTATO RACE + +In this game as many rows of potatoes are laid as there are players. +They should be placed about five feet apart. The race consists in +picking up all of the potatoes, one at a time, and carrying them to +the starting point, making a separate trip for each potato. At the end +of the line there should be a basket or butter tub to drop them into. +The game is sometimes made more difficult by forcing the contestants +to carry the potatoes on a teaspoon. + + +PRISONER'S BASE + +Two captains select sides. They then mark out on the ground two bases, +or homes. They also mark out two "prisons" near each home base. Then +each side stands in its own home and a player runs out and advances +toward the enemy's home. One of the enemy will then run out and +endeavour to tag him before he can run back to his own base, and one +of his side will try to tag the enemy, the rule being that each in +turn must have left his home after his opponent. If a player is +tagged, he becomes a prisoner of the other side and is put into the +prison. The successful tagger may then return to Ids home without +danger of being tagged. A prisoner may be rescued at any time if one +of his side can elude the opponents and tag him free from prison. The +game ends when all of one side are made prisoners. + + +PUSH BALL + +A game usually played on foot but sometimes on horseback, in which the +object is to push or force a huge ball over the opponents' goal line. +A regulation "push ball" is six feet in diameter and costs three +hundred dollars. + +In push ball almost any number may play, but as weight counts, the +sides should be divided as evenly as possible. + + +QUOITS + +A game played with flattish malleable iron or rubber rings about nine +inches in diameter and convex on the upper side, which the players +endeavour to loss or pitch so that they will encircle a pin or peg +driven into the ground, or to come nearer to this peg than their +opponents. The peg is called a "hob." A certain form of quoits is +played with horseshoes throughout the country districts of America. A +quoit player endeavours to give the quoit such a position in mid-air +that it will not roll but will cut into the ground at the point where +it lands. The game is remotely similar to the ancient Greek game of +throwing the discus. Iron quoits may be purchased for a dollar a set. + +The average weight of the quoits used by experts is from seven to nine +pounds each. Sixty-one points constitute a game. The distance from the +peg shall be either 10, 15 or 18 yards. For a space three feet around +the pin or peg the ground should be clay. In match games, all quoits +that fall outside a radius of 18 inches from the centre of the pin are +"foul," and do not count in the score. + + +RACQUETS OR RACKETS + +One of the numerous court games similar to lawn tennis that is now +finding public favour, but played in a semi-indoor court. A racquet +court is 31 feet 6 inches wide and about 63 feet long. The front wall, +against which the ball is served, has a line 8 or 10 feet from the +floor, above which the ball must strike. The server, as in tennis, +takes his position in a service box with a racket similar to a lawn +tennis racket except that it has a smaller head and a longer handle. + +Either two or four players may play racquets. A game consists of +fifteen "aces," or points. + + +RED LINE + +In this game, also called Red Lion, the goal must be a straight line, +such as the crack in a sidewalk or the edge of a road. The one who is +"it" runs after the rest as in tag, and when he has captured a +prisoner he brings him into the "red line," and the two start out +again hand in hand and another is captured, then three together, and +two pair, and so on until all are prisoners. The first prisoner is +"it" for the next game. + + +ROLEY BOLEY + +This game is also called Roll Ball and Nigger Baby, and is played by +children all over the civilized world. A number of depressions are +hollowed in the ground corresponding to the number of players and a +hole is chosen by each one. A rubber ball is then rolled toward the +holes, and if it lodges in one of them the boy who has claimed that +hole must run in and pick up the ball while the rest scatter. He then +attempts to hit one of the other players with the ball. If he succeeds +a small stone called a "baby" is placed in the hole belonging to the +boy struck. Otherwise the thrower is penalized with a "baby." When any +boy has five babies he must stand against the wall and be a free +target for the rest to throw the ball at. + + +ROQUE + +This game may be called scientific croquet. A roque mallet has a +dogwood head 9-1/2 inches long, with heavy nickel ferrules. Roque +balls are made of a special composition that is both resilient and +practically unbreakable. + +A skilful roque player is able to make shots similar to billiard +shots. The standard roque court is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, with +corner pieces 6 feet long. The playing ground is of clay and should be +as smooth as it is possible to make it. A very light top dressing of +sand is used on the clay. The wickets, or "arches," are driven into +blocks of wood to secure firmness and buried into the ground with the +top of the arch 8 inches above the surface. + +The roque balls are 3-1/4 inches in diameter and the arches only 3-1/2 +wide, which gives an idea of the difficulty of playing this game. To +be an expert requires an accurate eye and a great deal of practice. + +There is a National Roque Association, and an annual championship +tournament is held to determine the champion. The home of roque is in +the New England States. + + +ROWING RECORD + +The best amateur intercollegiate record for the eight-oared race of +four miles is 18 minutes 53-1/5 seconds, made by Cornell, July 2, +1901. + + +RUBICON + +This game may be played with any number of players, and is especially +adapted for a school or lawn game. Two players are chosen as pursuers +and the rest are divided equally and stand two by two facing each +other in two columns. The two pursuers stand at the head of each +column and face each other. When ready they say, "Cross the Rubicon," +and at this signal the rear couple from each line must run forward and +try to reach the rear of the other line. The pursuers must not look +back, but as soon as the runners are abreast of them must try to tag +them before they reach the place of safety. The captured runners +become pursuers, and the one who was "it" takes his or her place at +the rear of the other line. + + +SACK RACING + +A form of sport where the contestants are fastened in sacks with the +hands and feet confined and where they race for a goal by jumping or +hopping along at the greatest possible speed under this handicap. A +sack race should not be considered one of the scientific branches of +sport, but is rather to afford amusement for the spectators. + + +SCOTLAND'S BURNING + +This game is based upon the song of the same name. The players form a +ring, with three judges in the centre. Each player with appropriate +gestures in turn begins the song, + + "_Scotland's burning. Scotland's burning,_ + _Look out! Look out!_ + _Fire! Fire! Fire! Fire!_ + _Pour on water! Pour on water!_" + +The whole party are soon singing, but each four are singing different +words. The object of the judges is to detect some one in the circle +either making gestures that are not appropriate to the words or to be +singing out of order. The penalty is to turn around and sing with the +back to the circle. The three who are facing in last then become +judges. + + +SKIING + +This sport has recently received wide popularity in sections of the +country where the winters make it possible. Skis--or, as they are +sometimes spelled, skee,--are a pair of flat runners from five to ten +feet long which are attached to the feet in such a way as to be easily +cast off in case of accident. By means of skis a ski-runner may either +make rapid progress over level snow or may coast down sharp +declivities and make jumps of great extent. + +Skis are usually made of ash and the standard lengths are from six to +eight feet. They cost from five to seven dollars a pair. In skiing it +is customary to use a pair of steel-shod poles with leather wrist +straps, but in ski-running or coasting the use of poles is very +dangerous. + + +SPANISH FLY + +In this game of leap frog various tricks are attempted by the leader, +as in the game of "stump master." Each of the boys following is +expected to do as the leader or to drop out and become "down" himself. +"Torchlight" is to jump with one hand only, using the other to wave +his cap as if it were a torch. In "hats on deck" each jumper in turn +is supposed to leave his cap on "down's" back. Naturally the last one +over may have a large pile of hats to clear. If he disturbs any of +them or knocks them off, he is "it." "Hats off" means for each jumper +in turn to take his own hat without knocking off any of the others. In +all games of leap frog it is considered proper for the jumper to +direct "down" to give him the kind of a "back" he desires. +Consequently he will say high or low back, depending upon whether he +wishes "down" to stand almost upright or to bend close to the ground. + + +SQUASH + +This game is similar to racquets, but is less violent or severe on a +player. It is played in a court 31 feet 6 inches wide. The front wall +must be 16 feet high. The service line above which the ball must +strike on the serve is 6 feet from the floor. Below this line and 2 +feet from the floor is the "tell tale," above which the ball must +strike in play. A squash racket is similar to a tennis racket, but +slightly smaller. + +In squash, a game is "fifteen up." At the score of 13 a player may +"set the score" back to 3 or 5, after which the player first winning +either 3 or 5 points, or aces, as they are called, is the winner. The +object of this is to endeavour to overcome the advantage that the +server may have. + +In a regulation squash court the spectators' gallery is above the +walls of the court, and the game is played in the pit below the +gallery. + + +STUMP MASTER + +In this game one of the players is chosen master. It is usually the +one who first suggests the game by saying. "Let's play stump master." +He then leads the line of players, going through various "stumps," or, +as we should call them now, "stunts," such as climbing fences and +trees, turning somersaults, crawling through narrow places, or +whatever will be difficult for the rest to copy. The game is capable +of all sorts of variations. + + +SUCKERS + +This can scarcely be called a game, but the use of the sucker is so +familiar to most boys that a description of it is surely not out of +place in this chapter. A piece of sole leather is used, three or four +inches square. It is cut into a circle and the edges carefully pared +thin. A hole is made in the centre and a piece of string or top twine +is knotted and run through the hole. The sucker is then soaked in +water until it is soft and pliable. The object of the sucker is to +lift stones or bricks with it. This, too, is of especial interest in +New England towns, where there are brick sidewalks. The sucker is +pressed firmly on a brick by means of the foot, and it will be found +to adhere to it with sufficient force to lift it clear of the ground. + + +TETHER BALL + +The same as tether tennis, which see. + + +TETHER TENNIS + +This game has been developed out of lawn tennis. A wooden pole +extending 10 feet above the surface is placed in a vertical position +and firmly imbedded in the ground. The pole must be 7-1/2 inches in +circumference at the ground and may taper to the top. Six feet above +the ground a black band 2 inches wide is painted around the pole. The +court is a smooth piece of sod or clay similar to a tennis court, but +a piece of ground 20 feet square is sufficient. + +At the base of the pole a circle is described with a 3-foot radius. A +line 20 feet long bisects this circle, and 6 feet from the pole on +each side are two crosses, which are known as service crosses. + +An ordinary tennis ball is used which has been fitted with a +tight-fitting linen cover. The ball is fastened to the pole by means +of a piece of heavy braided line. Ordinary heavy fish line will do. +The ball should hang 7-1/2 feet from the top of the pole or 2-1/2 feet +from the ground. Regulation tennis rackets are used. + +The game consists in endeavouring to wind the ball and string around +the pole above the black mark in a direction previously determined. +The opponent meanwhile tries to prevent this and to wind the ball in +the opposite direction by striking it as one would volley in tennis. + +Each player must keep in his own court. The points are scored as +"fouls." Eleven games constitute a set. A game is won when the string +is completely wound around the pole above the black mark. The penalty +for a foul, such as stepping outside of one's court, allowing the +string to wind around the handle of the racket or around the pole +below the black mark, provides for a free hit by one's opponent. + + +THREE-LEGGED RACING + +A race in which the contestants are paired off by being strapped +together at the ankles and thighs. Remarkable speed can be obtained by +practice under this handicap. There are definite rules to govern +three-legged races, and official harness may be bought from sporting +goods outfitters. As a race, however, it is like sack racing, to be +classed among the sports designed to afford amusement rather than as a +display of skill. + + +TUB RACING + +These races are often held in shallow lakes. Each contestant sits in a +wash tub, and by using his hands as paddles endeavours to paddle the +course first. As a wash tub is not a particularly seaworthy craft, and +spills are of frequent occurrence, it is well for the tub racers also +to know how to swim. + + +VOLLEY BALL + +This game is extremely simple and may be played by any number of +players, provided that there is space and that the sides are evenly +divided. The best dimensions for a volley ball court are 25 feet wide +and 50 feet long, but any square space evenly divided into two courts +will do. The game consists of twenty-one points. + +The ball is made of white leather and inflated with a rubber bladder. +A net divides the two courts and is 7 feet high. The standard volley +ball is 27 inches in circumference and weighs between 9 and 12 ounces. + +The whole object of the game is to pass the ball back and forth over +the net without permitting it to touch the floor or to bound. In this +way it somewhat resembles both tennis and hand ball. + +Volley ball is an excellent game for gymnasiums and has the decided +advantage of permitting almost any number to play. + + +WARNING + +The "warner" takes his position at a space called "home" and the rest +of the players stand some distance from him. He then clasps his hands +and runs out, trying to tag an opponent with his clasped hands. This +would be practically impossible except that the players endeavour to +make him unclasp his hands by pulling at his arms and drawing +temptingly near him. As soon as he has tagged a victim he runs for +home as fast as possible. If he himself is tagged before he reaches +home he is out, and the tagger becomes "warner." If both the warner +and the one tagged reach home safely they clasp hands, and finally the +line contains all the players but one, who has the honour of being +warner for the next game. The game receives its name from the call, +"Warning!" which the warner gives three times before leaving home. + + +WASHINGTON + +In this game a player stands blindfolded and another player comes up +and taps him. The one who is "it" then gives a penalty, such as "climb +a tree or run to the corner and back," and then tries to guess who it +was that tapped him. The one tapped must answer some question so that +he may be recognized by his voice or laugh. If "it" is correct in his +guess, the player must do as directed, but if his guess is wrong he +must do it himself. The result of this game is that the blindfolded +player will measure the severity of his "forfeits," or "penalties," to +his certainty of guessing correctly the name of the player. + + +WATER POLO + +This game is played in a swimming pool. A white ball made of rubber +fabric is used. The ball must be between 7 and 8 inches in diameter. +The goals are spaces 4 feet long and 12 inches wide at each end of the +tank and placed 18 inches above the water line. Six men on a side +constitute a team. + +It is a game in which skill in swimming is absolutely essential. It is +also a very rough game. The player endeavours to score goals by +swimming with the ball, and his opponents are privileged to tackle him +and to force him under water or in other ways to attempt to secure the +ball from him. Meanwhile the other players are blocking off opponents, +and in general the game resembles a football game in its rudiments. + + +WATER RACE + +In this game the contestants run a race carrying a glass or tin cup +full of water on top of the head, which must not be touched by the +hands. The one finishing first with a minimum loss of water from his +cup is the winner. + + +WICKET POLO + +A game played by two teams of four players each. The ball used is a +regulation polo ball. A wicket polo surface is 44 feet square, in +which sticks or wickets are set up. The object of the game is to +knock down the wickets of one's opponents by a batted ball and to +prevent them from displacing our own. A crooked stick 4 feet in length +and a little over an inch in diameter is used. Each player has a fixed +position on the field or surface. + + +WOLF AND SHEEP + +In this game "it" is the wolf. The sheep choose a shepherd to guard +them. The wolf then secures a hiding place and the sheep and shepherd +leave the fold and endeavour to locate him. When this is done the +shepherd cries, "I spy a wolf!" and every one stands while he counts +ten. Then the sheep and shepherd scatter for the fold, and if tagged +before they reach it the first becomes wolf for the next game. + + +WOOD TAG + +In this class are also "iron tag," "stone tag," and "tree tag." They +are all simply the game of tag with the additional rule that when a +player is in contact with iron, stone, trees, wood, and so on he is +safe from being tagged by the one who is "it." The game of "squat tag" +is similar, except that to be safe the one pursued must squat quickly +on the ground before "it" catches him. In cross tag, "it" must select +a victim and continue to run after him until some one runs ahead and +crosses his path, when "it," who may be breathless by this time, must +abandon his victim for a fresh one, who may soon be relieved and so on +until some one is tagged, or "it" is exhausted. + + +The Country Life Press, Garden City, N.Y. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES*** + + +******* This file should be named 16316-8.txt or 16316-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Miller</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + line-height: 1.5em; + } + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 6em;} + + ul { list-style: none; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + pre {font-size: 8pt; + line-height: 1em; } + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Outdoor Sports and Games, by Claude H. Miller</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Outdoor Sports and Games</p> +<p>Author: Claude H. Miller</p> +<p>Release Date: July 16, 2005 [eBook #16316]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Karen Dalrymple,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<a name="Boy_Camp" id="Boy_Camp"></a><a href="images/p001.jpg"> +<img src="images/p001_thumb.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="A Boys' Camp" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">A Boys' Camp</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3><i>The Library of Work and Play</i></h3> + +<h1>OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES</h1> + +<h2>BY CLAUDE H. MILLER, PH.B.</h2> + + +<div class="center">GARDEN CITY<br /> +NEW YORK<br /> +DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY<br /> +1911</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;"> +<a href="images/title.jpg"><img src="images/title_thumb.jpg" width="261" height="396" alt="Title Page" title="" /></a> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<a href="#I"><b>I. Introductory</b></a> + +<blockquote>The human body a perfect machine—How to keep well—Outdoor +sleeping—Exercise and play—Smoking—Walking. +</blockquote> + +<a href="#II"><b>II. The Boy Scouts of America</b></a> + +<blockquote>Headquarters—Purpose—Scout Law—How to form a +patrol of Scouts—Organization of a troop—Practical activities +for Scouts—A Scout camp—Model Programme of +Sir R.S.S. Baden-Powell Scout camp.</blockquote> + +<a href='#III'><b>III. Camps and Camping</b></a> + +<blockquote>How to select the best place to pitch a tent—A brush +bed—The best kind of a tent—How to make the camp +fire—What to do when it rains—Fresh air and good +food—The brush leanto and how to make it.</blockquote> + +<a href='#IV'><b>IV. Camp Cooking</b></a> + +<blockquote>How to make the camp fire range—Bread bakers—Cooking +utensils—The grub list—Simple camp recipes.</blockquote> + +<a href='#V'><b>V. Woodcraft</b></a> + +<blockquote>The use of an axe and hatchet—Best woods for special +purposes—What to do when you are lost—Nature's +compasses.</blockquote> + +<a href='#VI'><b>VI. Use of Fire-arms</b></a> + +<blockquote>Importance of early training—Why a gun is better than +a rifle—How to become a good shot.</blockquote> + +<a href='#VII'><b>VII. Fishing</b></a> + +<blockquote>Proper tackle for all purposes—How to catch bait—The +fly fisherman—General fishing rules.</blockquote> + +<a href='#VIII'><b>VIII. Nature Study</b></a> + +<blockquote>What is a true naturalist?—How to start a collection—Moth +collecting—The herbarium.</blockquote> + +<a href='#IX'><b>IX. Water Life</b></a> + +<blockquote>The water telescope—How to manage an aquarium—Our +insect friends and enemies—The observation beehive.</blockquote> + +<a href='#X'><b>X. The Care of Pets</b></a> + +<blockquote>Cats—Boxes for song birds—How to attract the birds—Tame +crows—The pigeon fancier—Ornamental land +and water fowl—Rabbits, guinea pigs, rats and mice—How +to build coops—General rules for the care of pets—The dog.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XI'><b>XI. The Care of Chickens</b></a> + +<blockquote>The best breed—Good and bad points of incubators—What +to feed small chicks—A model chicken house.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XII'><b>XII. Winter Sports</b></a> + +<blockquote>What to wear—Skating—Skiing—Snowshoeing—Hockey.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XIII'><b>XIII. Horsemanship</b></a> + +<blockquote>How to become a good rider—The care of horses—Saddles.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XIV'><b>XIV. How to Swim and to Canoe</b></a> + +<blockquote>The racing strokes—Paddling and sailing canoes.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XV'><b>XV. Baseball</b></a> + +<blockquote>How to organize a team and to select the players—The +various positions—Curve pitching.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XVI'><b>XVI. How to Play Football</b></a> + +<blockquote>The various positions and how to select men for them—Team +work and signals—The rules.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XVII'><b>XVII. Lawn Tennis</b></a> + +<blockquote>How to make and mark a court—Clay and sod courts—The +proper grip of the racket—Golf—The strokes and +equipment.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XVIII'><b>XVIII. Photography</b></a> + +<blockquote>The selection of a camera—Snapshots vs. real pictures—How +to make a photograph from start to finish.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XIX'><b>XIX. Outdoor Sports for Girls</b></a> + +<blockquote>What to wear—Confidence—Horseback +riding—Tennis—Golf—Camping.</blockquote> + +<a href='#XX'><b>XX. One Hundred Outdoor Games</b></a> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<p> +<a href='#Boy_Camp'>A Boy's Camp</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#May_Day'>A Child's May-day Party</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Fishing'>Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood that Holds Our Interest Through Life</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Moth'>The Moth Collector and His Outfit</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Ski'>The Exciting Sport of Ski-running</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Swimming'>Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Canoe'>In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Streams a Pole is Used in Place of the Paddle</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Tennis'>Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play</a><br /> +<br /> +<a href='#Golf'>How an Expert Plays Golf</a></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3> + +<blockquote>The human body a perfect machine—How to keep well—Outdoor +sleeping—Exercise and play—Smoking—Walking</blockquote> + + +<p>Suppose you should wake up Christmas morning and find yourself to be +the owner of a bicycle. It is a brand-new wheel and everything is in +perfect working order. The bearings are well oiled, the nickel is +bright and shiny and it is all tuned up and ready for use. If you are +a careful, sensible boy you can have fun with it for a long time until +finally, like the "One Hoss Shay" in the poem, it wears out and goes +to pieces all at once. On the other hand, if you are careless or +indifferent or lazy you may allow the machine to get out of order or +to become rusty from disuse, or perhaps when a nut works loose you +neglect it and have a breakdown on the road, or you may forget to oil +the bearings and in a short time they begin to squeak and wear. If you +are another kind of a boy, you may be careful enough about oiling and +cleaning the wheel, but you may also be reckless and head—strong and +will jump over curbstones and gutters or ride it over rough roads at a +dangerous rate of speed, and in this way shorten its life by abuse +just as the careless boy may by neglect.</p> + +<p>It is just so with the human body which, after all, is a machine too, +and, more than that, it is the most wonderful and perfect machine in +the world. With care it should last many years. With abuse or neglect +it may very soon wear out. The boy who neglects his health is like the +boy who allows the bearings on his wheel to become dry or the metal +parts rusty. The chief difference is that when the bicycle wears out +or breaks down we may replace the parts or even buy another machine, +but when our health is injured, money will not restore it.</p> + +<p>In order to keep well we must observe certain rules of health. By +exercise we keep the working parts in good order. If we are lazy or +indolent we are like the bicycle that is allowed to go to pieces from +lack of use. If we are reckless and foolhardy we may injure some part +of the delicate machinery from excessive exercise or strain.</p> + +<p>Play is the most natural thing in the world but we must use judgment +in our play. A boy or girl who is not allowed to play or who is +restrained by too anxious parents is unhappy indeed. Nearly all +animals play. We know, for instance, that puppies, kittens, and lambs +are playful. It is a perfectly natural instinct. By proper play we +build up our bodies and train our minds. The healthy man never gets +too old to play. He may not care to play marbles or roll hoops, but he +will find his pleasure in some game or sport like tennis, golf, +horseback riding, camping, fishing or hunting.</p> + +<p>In this book we shall talk about some forms of play and recreation +that are not strictly confined to children, but which we may still +enjoy even after we have become grown men and women. We shall also +talk about some children's games that some of the older readers may +have outgrown. While we play we keep our minds occupied by the sport, +and at the same time we exercise our muscles and feed our lungs and +our bodies with oxygen.</p> + +<p>It is unfortunate that in school or college athletics those who need +exercise the most are often those who are physically unfitted to play +on the school teams. In other words, we select our runners and jumpers +and football players from among the stronger boys, while the weaker +ones really need the benefit of the sport. Every boy should take part +in school games when possible even if he is not as swift or as strong +as some other boys.</p> + +<p>It is very unmanly of one boy to make fun of another because he is +weak or clumsy or unskilful. After all, the thing that counts and the +thing that is most creditable is to make the most of our opportunities +whatever they may be. If an undersized or timid boy becomes stronger +or more brave because he joins in games and sports, he deserves a +hundred times more credit than the big, strong boy whom nature has +given a sturdy frame and good lungs and who makes a place on the +school team without any real effort.</p> + +<p>If we live a natural, open-air life we shall have but little need of +doctors or medicine. Many of our grandmothers' notions on how to keep +well have changed in recent years. Old-fashioned remedies made from +roots and herbs have been almost completely replaced by better habits +of life and common-sense ideas. We used to believe that night air was +largely responsible for fevers and colds. Doctors now say that one of +the surest ways to keep well is to live and sleep in the open air. In +many modern houses the whole family is provided with outside sleeping +porches with absolutely no protection from the outside air but the +roof. I have followed the practice of sleeping in the open air for +some time, and in midwinter without discomfort have had the +temperature of my sleeping porch fall to six degrees below zero. Of +course it is foolish for any one to sleep exposed to rain or snow or +to think that there is any benefit to be derived from being cold or +uncomfortable. The whole idea of open-air sleeping is to breathe pure, +fresh air in place of the atmosphere of a house which, under the best +conditions, is full of dust and germs. If we become outdoor sleepers, +coughs and colds will be almost unknown. General Sherman once wrote a +letter in which he said that he did not have a case of cold in his +entire army and he attributed it to the fact that his soldiers slept +and lived in the open air.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 411px;"> +<a name="May_Day" id="May_Day"></a><a href="images/p002.jpg"> +<img src="images/p002_thumb.jpg" width="411" height="269" alt="A Child's May Day Party" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">A Child's May Day Party<br /> +<small>(Photograph by Mary H. Northend)</small></span> +</div> + +<p>One can almost tell a man who sleeps in the open by looking at him. +His eye is clear and his cheek ruddy. There is no surer way to become +well and strong than to become accustomed to this practice. Then you +can laugh at the doctor and throw the medicine bottles away. In +stating this I know that many parents will not agree with me, and will +feel that to advise a boy to sleep in the open when the weather is +stormy or extremely cold is almost like inviting him to his death. It +is a fact just the same that every one would be healthier and happier +if they followed this practice. In a few years I expect to see outdoor +sleeping the rule rather than the exception. Progressive doctors are +already agreed on this method of sleeping for sick people. In some +hospitals even delicate babies are given open-air treatment in +midwinter as a cure for pneumonia. My own experience is that in the +two years that I have been an outdoor sleeper, with the snow drifts +sometimes covering the foot of the bed, with the wintry winds howling +about my head in a northeaster, I have been absolutely free from any +trace of coughs or colds. Thousands of others will give the same +testimony. According to old-fashioned ideas such things would give me +my "death of cold." It rarely happens that one begins the practice of +sleeping out without becoming a firm believer in it.</p> + +<p>One of the children of a friend in Connecticut who had just built a +beautiful home was taken ill, and the doctor recommended that the +child's bed be moved out on the porch. This was in December. The +father also had his own bed moved out to keep the baby company. My +friend told me that after the first night he felt like a changed man. +He awoke after a refreshing sleep and felt better than he had in +years. The whole family soon followed and all the beautiful bedrooms +in the house were deserted. The baby got well and stayed well and the +doctor's visits are few and far between in that household.</p> + +<p>By all means sleep in the open if you can. Of course one must have +ample protection from the weather, such as a porch or piazza with a +screen or shelter to the north and west. A warm room in which to dress +and undress is also absolutely necessary. If your rest is disturbed by +cold, as it will probably be until you become accustomed to it and +learn the tricks of the outdoor sleeper, you simply need more covers. +In winter, the bed should be made up with light summer blankets in +place of sheets, which would become very cold. Use, as a night cap, an +old sweater or skating cap. A good costume consists of a flannel +shirt, woollen drawers, and heavy, lumberman's stockings. With such an +outfit and plenty of covers, one can sleep out on the coldest night +and never awaken until the winter's sun comes peeping over the hill to +tell him that it is time to get up.</p> + +<p>Besides fresh air, another important thing in keeping well is to eat +slowly and to chew your food thoroughly. Boys and girls often develop +a habit of rapid eating because they are anxious to get back to play +or to school. Slow eating is largely a matter of habit as well, and +while it may seem hard at first it will soon become second nature to +us. Remember to chew your food thoroughly. The stomach has no teeth. +We have all heard of Mr. Horace Fletcher, that wonderful old man who +made himself young again by chewing his food.</p> + +<p>There is no fun in life unless we are well, and a sensible boy should +realize that his parents' interest in him is for his own benefit. It +may seem hard sometimes to be obliged to do without things that we +want, but as a rule the judgment of the older people is better than +our own. A growing boy will often eat too much candy or too many sweet +things and then suffer from his lack of judgment. To fill our stomachs +with indigestible food is just as foolish as it would be to put sand +in the bearings of our wheel, or to interfere with the delicate +adjustment of our watch until it refuses to keep time.</p> + +<p>While we play, our muscles are developed, our lungs filled with fresh +air and the whole body is made stronger and more vigorous. Some boys +play too hard. Over-exertion will sometimes cause a strain on the +delicate machinery of the body that will be very serious in after +life. The heart is especially subject to the dangers of overstrain in +growing boys. We are not all equally strong, and it is no discredit to +a boy that he cannot run as far or lift as much as some of his +playmates or companions. You all remember the fable of the frog who +tried to make himself as big as the ox and finally burst. The idea of +exercise is not to try to excel every one in what you do, but to do +your best without over-exertion. If a boy has a rugged frame and well +developed muscles, it is perfectly natural that he should be superior +in most sports to a boy that is delicate or undersized.</p> + +<p>To be in good physical condition and to laugh at the doctor we must +keep out of doors as much as possible. Gymnasium work of course will +help us to build up our strength and develop our muscles, but skill in +various acrobatics and gymnastic tricks does not give the clear eye +and ruddy cheek of the person whose life is in the open air. Outdoor +sports, like tennis, baseball, and horseback riding are far superior +to chestweights or Indian clubs as a means of obtaining normal +permanent development.</p> + +<p>Parents who criticize school or college athletics often forget that +the observance of the strict rules of training required from every +member of a team is the very best way to keep a boy healthy in mind +and body.</p> + +<p>Tobacco and alcohol are absolutely prohibited, the kind of food eaten +and the hours for retiring are compulsory, and a boy is taught not +only to train his muscles but to discipline his mind. Before a +candidate is allowed to take active part in the sport for which he is +training he must be "in condition," as it is called.</p> + +<p>There are a great many rules of health that will help any one to keep +well, but the best rule of all is to live a common-sense life and not +to think too much about ourselves. Systematic exercises taken daily +with setting up motions are very good unless we allow them to become +irksome. All indoor exercise should be practised with as much fresh +air in the room as possible. It is an excellent plan to face an open +window if we practise morning and evening gymnastics.</p> + +<p>There are many exercises that can be performed with no apparatus +whatever. In all exercises we should practise deep regular breathing +until it becomes a habit with us. Most people acquire a faulty habit +of breathing and only use a small part of their total lung capacity. +Learn to take deep breaths while in the fresh air. After a while it +will become a habit.</p> + +<p>Just how much muscle a boy should have will depend upon his physical +make-up. The gymnasium director in one of our largest colleges, who +has spent his whole life in exercise, is a small, slender man whose +muscles are not at all prominent and yet they are like steel wires. +He has made a life-long study of himself and has developed every +muscle in his body. From his appearance he would not be considered a +strong man and yet some of the younger athletes weighing fifty pounds +more than he, have, in wrestling and feats of strength, found that the +man with the largest muscles is not always the best man.</p> + +<p>There is one question that every growing boy will have to look +squarely in the face and to decide for himself. It is the question of +smoking. There is absolutely no question but that smoking is injurious +for any one, and in the case of boys who are not yet fully grown +positively dangerous. Ask any cigarette smoker you know and he will +tell you <i>not to smoke</i>. If you ask him why he does not take his own +advice he will possibly explain how the habit has fastened its grip on +him, just as the slimy tentacles of some devil fish will wind +themselves about a victim struggling in the water, until he is no +longer able to escape. A boy may begin to smoke in a spirit of fun or +possibly because he thinks it is manly, but more often it is because +the "other fellers" are trying it too.</p> + +<p>My teacher once gave our school an object lesson in habits which is +worth repeating. He called one of the boys to the platform and wound a +tiny piece of thread around the boy's wrists. He then told him to +break it, which the boy did very easily. The teacher continued to wind +more thread until he had so many strands that the boy could break them +only with a great effort and finally he could not break them at all. +His hands were tied. Just so it is with a habit. The first, second, or +tenth time may be easy to break, but we shall finally get so many tiny +threads that our hands are tied. We have acquired a habit. Don't be a +fool. Don't smoke cigarettes.</p> + +<p>Walking is one of the most healthful forms of exercise. It may seem +unnecessary to devote much space to a subject that every one thinks +they know all about, but the fact is that, with trolley cars, +automobiles, and horses, a great many persons have almost lost the +ability to walk any distance. An excellent rule to follow if you are +going anywhere is this: If you have the time, and the distance is not +too great, walk. In recent years it has been the practice of a number +of prominent business and professional men who get but little outdoor +exercise to walk to and from their offices every day, rain or shine. +In this way elderly men will average from seven to ten miles a day and +thus keep in good condition with no other exercise.</p> + +<p>It is very easy to cultivate the street car habit, and some boys feel +that they must ride to and from school even if it is only a few blocks +or squares. We have all read of the old men who are walking across the +country from New York to California and back again and maintaining an +average of forty miles a day. There is not a horse in the world that +would have the endurance to go half the distance in the same time and +keep it up day after day. For the first week or ten days the horse +would be far ahead but, like the fable of the hare and the tortoise, +after a while the tortoise would pass the hare and get in first.</p> + +<p>In walking for pleasure, avoid a rambling, purposeless style. Decide +where you are going and go. Walk out in the country if possible and on +roads where the automobiles will not endanger your life or blow clouds +of dust in your face. Never mind the weather. One rarely takes cold +while in motion. To walk comfortably we should wear loose clothing and +old shoes. Walking just for the sake of exercise can easily become a +tiresome occupation, but the active mind can always see something of +interest, such as wild flowers, gardens, and all the various sides of +nature study in the country, and people, houses and life in the city.</p> + +<p>A tramping vacation of several days furnishes a fine opportunity to +see new scenes and to live economically, but near a city you may have +difficulty in persuading the farm-wife where you stop that you are not +a tramp who will burn the house in the night. If you intend to live by +the wayside, the surest way to inspire confidence is to show in +advance that you have money to pay for your accommodations. Also try +to avoid looking like a tramp, which is quite different from looking +like a tramper.</p> + +<p>There seems to be a great difference of opinion on the question of how +fast one can walk. The popular idea is "four miles an hour" but any +one who has tried to cover a mile every fifteen minutes will testify +that such a rate of speed is more like a race than a walk and that it +will require great physical exertion to maintain it for any +considerable distance. An eighteen or twenty-mile walk is about all +the average boy should attempt in a day, and this is allowing the full +day for the task from early morning until sunset.</p> + +<p>Short and frequent rests are much better than long stops, which have a +tendency to stiffen the muscles. The walker on a long tramp must pay +especial attention to the care of his feet. They should be bathed +frequently in cold water to which a little alum has been added. A +rough place or crease in the stocking will sometimes cause a very +painful blister.</p> + +<p>Mountain climbing is a very interesting branch of walking. It is +sometimes very dangerous as well and in such cases should only be +attempted under the guidance of some one familiar with the +neighbourhood. For rough climbing our shoes should be provided with +iron hob nails. Steel nails often become very slippery and will cause +a bad fall on rocks.</p> + +<p>Cross-country running and hare and hound chases are much more common +in England than in America. Our runners as a rule excel in the sprints +and short dashes, although in the recent Olympic sports we have shown +that our trained athletes are the equal of the world in nearly all +branches of sport.</p> + +<p>In many of the English schools it is a regular part of the school work +for the teacher to organize hare and hound chases. The hares are given +a start of several minutes and leave a trail by means of bits of paper +or confetti, which they carry in a bag. In this kind of running the +object to be sought is not so much speed as endurance. An easy dog +trot with deep regular breathing will soon give us our second wind, +when we can keep on for a long distance.</p> + +<p>After any kind of physical exertion, especially when we are in a +perspiration, care must be exercised not to become chilled suddenly. A +rub down with a rough towel will help to prevent soreness and stiff +muscles. The lameness that follows any kind of unusual exercise is an +indication that certain muscles have been brought into use that are +out of condition. A trained athlete does not experience this soreness +unless he has unduly exerted himself, and the easiest way to get over +it is to do more of the same kind of work until we are in condition.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II</h2> + +<h3>THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA</h3> + +<blockquote>Headquarters—Purpose—Scout law—How to form a patrol of +scouts—Organization of a troop—Practical activities for scouts—A +scout camp—Model programme of a Sir R.S.S. Baden-Powell scout camp</blockquote> + + +<p>The Boy Scout movement that has recently been introduced both in +England and America with such wonderful success is so closely related +to nearly all branches of outdoor recreation and to the things that +boys are interested in that this book would be incomplete without +mention of the object and purposes of this organization. It is a +splendid movement for the making of better citizens, and it cannot be +too highly recommended.</p> + +<p>The Boy Scouts of America is a permanent organization, and it has its +headquarters at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. From the central +office, patrols and troops are being formed all over the United +States. Any information with reference to the movement may be +obtained by applying to this office.</p> + +<p>Through the courtesy of the managing secretary, Mr. John L. Alexander, +certain facts are presented concerning the organization, which are +obtained from their published literature, for which due credit is +hereby given.</p> + +<p>The Boy Scouts is an organization the purpose of which is +character-building for boys between the ages of twelve and eighteen. +It is an effort to get boys to appreciate the things about them and to +train them in self-reliance, manhood, and good citizenship. It is +"peace-scouting" these boys engage in, living as much as possible out +of doors; camping, hiking and learning the secrets of the woods and +fields. The movement is not essentially military, but the military +virtues of discipline, obedience, neatness and order are scout +virtues. Endurance, self-reliance, self-control and an effort to help +some one else are scout objectives. Every activity that lends itself +to these aims is good scoutcraft.</p> + +<p>The Boy Scouts were started in England by Gen. Sir Robert +Baden-Powell. He was impressed with the fact that 46 per cent. of the +boys of England were growing up without any knowledge of useful +occupations, and wanted to do something that would help the boy to +become a useful citizen. He emphatically stated that his intention was +not the making of soldiers. In his work. General Baden-Powell has +touched the boy's life in all its interests and broadened a boy's +outlook by the widest sort of activities. In two and a half years over +half a million Boy Scouts have been enrolled, and twenty thousand of +these have been in parade at one time in London.</p> + +<p>The scout idea has sprung up spontaneously all over America. In +Canadian cities the Boy Scouts number thousands. In the United States, +towns and cities are being swept by the idea. Gangs of boys are to be +seen on every hand, doing their best at scoutcraft, "doing a good turn +every day to some one," and getting fun out of it. Prominent business +men and educators are behind the movement.</p> + +<p>The aim of the Boy Scouts is to supplement the various existing +educational agencies, and to promote the ability in boys to do things +for themselves and others. The method is summed up in the term +"scoutcraft" and is a combination of observation, deduction and +handiness—or the ability to do. Scoutcraft consists of "First Aid," +Life Saving, Tracking, Signalling, Cycling, Nature Study, Seamanship +and other instruction. This is accomplished in games and team play and +in pleasure, not work, for the boy. The only equipment it needs is the +out-of-doors, a group of boys and a leader.</p> + +<p>Before he becomes a scout, a boy must take the scouts' oath thus:</p> + +<p>"On my honour, I promise that I will do my best, 1. To do my duty to +God and my country. 2. To help other people at all times. 3. To obey +the scout law."</p> + +<p>When taking this oath the scout will stand holding his right hand +raised level with his shoulder, palm to the front, thumb resting on +the nail of the little finger, and the other three fingers upright +pointing upward. This the scouts' salute and secret sign.</p> + +<p>When the hand is raised shoulder high it is called "the half salute."</p> + +<p>When raised to the forehead it is called "the full salute."</p> + +<p>The three fingers held up (like the three points on the scouts' badge) +remind him of his three promises in the scouts' oath.</p> + +<p>There are three classes of scouts. A boy on joining the Boy Scouts +must pass a test in the following points before taking the oath:</p> + +<p>Know the scouts' laws and signs and the salute.</p> + +<p>Know the composition of the national flag and the right way to fly it.</p> + +<p>Tie four of the following knots: Reef, sheet bend, clove hitch, +bowline, middleman's, fisherman's, sheep-shank.</p> + +<p>He then takes the scouts' oath and is enrolled as a tenderfoot and is +entitled to wear the buttonhole badge.</p> + + +<h4>A SECOND-CLASS SCOUT</h4> + +<p>Before being awarded a second-class scout's badge, a boy must pass the +following tests:</p> + +<p>1. Have at least one month's service as a tenderfoot.</p> + +<p>2. Elementary first aid bandaging.</p> + +<p>3. Signalling. Elementary knowledge of semaphore or Morse alphabet.</p> + +<p>4. Track half a mile in twenty-five minutes, or if in a town describe +satisfactorily the contents of one store window out of four, observed +for one minute each.</p> + +<p>5. Go a mile in twelve minutes at "scouts' pace."</p> + +<p>6. Lay and light a fire using not more than two matches.</p> + +<p>7. Cook a quarter of a pound of meat and two potatoes without cooking +utensils other than the regulation billy.</p> + +<p>8. Have at least twenty-five cents in the savings bank.</p> + +<p>9. Know the sixteen principal points of the compass.</p> + + +<h4>FIRST-CLASS SCOUT</h4> + +<p>Before being awarded a first-class scout's badge, a scout must pass +the following test in addition to the tests laid down for a +second-class scout:</p> + +<p>1. Swim fifty yards. (This may be omitted where the doctor certifies +that bathing is dangerous to the boy's health).</p> + +<p>2. Must have at least fifty cents in the savings bank.</p> + +<p>3. Signalling. Send and receive a message either in semaphore or +Morse, sixteen letters per minute.</p> + +<p>4. Go on foot or row a boat alone to a point seven miles away and +return again, or if conveyed by any vehicle or animal go a distance of +fifteen miles and back and write a short report on it. It is +preferable that he should take two days over it.</p> + +<p>5. Describe or show the proper means for saving life in case of two of +the following accidents: Fire, drowning, runaway carriage, sewer gas, +ice breaking, or bandage an injured patient or revive an apparently +drowned person.</p> + +<p>6. Cook satisfactorily two of the following dishes as may be directed: +Porridge, bacon, hunter's stew; or skin and cook a rabbit or pluck and +cook a bird. Also "make a damper" of half a pound of flour or a +"twist" baked on a thick stick.</p> + +<p>7. Read a map correctly and draw an intelligent rough sketch map. +Point out a compass direction without the help of a compass.</p> + +<p>8. Use an axe for felling or trimming light timber: or as an +alternative produce an article of carpentry or joinery or metal work, +made by himself satisfactorily.</p> + +<p>9. Judge distance, size, numbers and height within 25 per cent. error.</p> + +<p>10. Bring a tenderfoot trained by himself in the points required of a +tenderfoot.</p> + + +<h4>THE SCOUTS' LAW</h4> + +<p>1. A scout's honour is to be trusted. If a scout were to break his +honour by telling a lie, or by not carrying out an order exactly, when +trusted on his honour to do so, he may be directed to hand over his +scouts' badge and never to wear it again. He may also be directed to +cease to be a scout.</p> + +<p>2. A scout is loyal to his country, his officers, his parents and his +employers. He must stick to them through thick and thin against any +one who is their enemy or who even talks badly about them.</p> + +<p>3. A scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. He must be +prepared at any time to save life or to help injured persons, and he +must try his best to do a good turn to somebody every day.</p> + +<p>4. A scout is a friend to all and a brother to every other scout, no +matter to what social class the other belongs.</p> + +<p>5. A scout is courteous, especially to women, children, old people, +invalids, and cripples. And he must never take a reward for being +courteous.</p> + +<p>6. A scout is a friend to animals. Killing an animal for food is +allowable.</p> + +<p>7. A scout obeys orders of his parents, patrol leader, or scout master +without question.</p> + +<p>8. A scout smiles and whistles under all circumstances.</p> + +<p>9. A scout is thrifty and saves every penny he can and puts it into +the bank.</p> + +<p>The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. A troop consists of +three or more patrols. The scout master may begin with one patrol. He +must have a deep interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have +the ability to lead and command the boys' respect and obedience, and +possess some knowledge of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on +scoutcraft. The good scout master will discover experts for the +various activities.</p> + +<p>To organize a patrol, get together seven or more boys, explain to them +the aims of the Boy Scouts, have them elect a leader and corporal from +their own number and take the scout oath as tenderfeet. To organize a +local committee, call together the leading men of a town or city, +teachers, business men, professional men, and all who are interested +in the proper training of boys, for a committee to superintend the +development of the scout movement.</p> + +<p>There are a number of divisions to scouting depending upon the place +where the boys live and upon their opportunities. For instance, to +obtain:</p> + +<p><i>An Ambulance Badge:</i> A scout must know: The fireman's lift. How to +drag an insensible man with ropes. How to improvise a stretcher. How +to fling a life-line. The position of main arteries. How to stop +bleeding from vein or artery, internal or external. How to improvise +splints and to diagnose and bind fractured limb. The Schafer method of +artificial respiration. How to deal with choking, burning, poison, +grit in eye, sprains and bruises, as the examiners may require. +Generally the laws of health and sanitation as given in "Scouting for +Boys," including dangers of smoking, in continence, want of +ventilation, and lack of cleanliness.</p> + +<p><i>Aviator:</i> A scout must have a knowledge of the theory of æroplanes, +ball balloons and dirigibles, and must have made a working model of an +æroplane or dirigible that will fly at least twenty-five yards. He +must also have a knowledge of the engines used for æroplanes and +dirigibles.</p> + +<p><i>Bee-farmer:</i> A scout must have a practical knowledge of swarming, +hiving, hives, and general apiculture, including a knowledge of the +use of artificial combs, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Blacksmith:</i> A scout must be able to upset and weld a one-inch iron +rod, make a horseshoe, know how to tire a wheel, use a sledge hammer +and forge, shoe a horse correctly, and rough-shod a horse.</p> + +<p><i>Bugler:</i> A scout must be able to sound properly on the bugle the +Scouts' Rally and the following army calls: Alarm, charge, orderlies +(ord. corpls.), orders, warning for parade, quarter bugle, fall in, +dismiss, rations, first and second dinner calls (men's), reveille, +last post, lights out.</p> + +<p><i>Carpenter:</i> A scout must be able to shoot and glue a four-foot +straight joint, make a housing, tenon and mortise, and halved joint, +grind and set a chisel and plane iron, make a 3 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in., by +1 ft. by 6 ft. dovetailed locked box, or a table or chair.</p> + +<p><i>Clerk:</i> A scout must have the following qualifications: Good +handwriting and hand printing. Ability to use typewriting machine. +Ability to write a letter from memory on the subject given verbally +five minutes previously. Knowledge of simple bookkeeping. Or, as +alternative to typewriting, write in shorthand from dictation at +twenty words a minute as minimum.</p> + +<p><i>Cook:</i> A scout must be able to light a fire and make a cook-place +with a few bricks or logs; cook the following dishes: Irish stew, +vegetables, omelet, rice pudding, or any dishes which the examiner may +consider equivalent; make tea, coffee, or cocoa; mix dough and bake +bread in oven; or a "damper" or "twist" (round steak) at a camp fire; +carve properly, and hand plates and dishes correctly to people at +table.</p> + +<p><i>Cyclist:</i> A scout must sign a certificate that he owns a bicycle in +good working order, which he is willing to use in the scouts' service +if called upon at any time in case of emergency. He must be able to +ride his bicycle satisfactorily, and repair punctures, etc. He must +be able to read a map, and repeat correctly a verbal message. On +ceasing to own a bicycle the scout must be required to hand back his +badge.</p> + +<p><i>Dairyman:</i> A scout must understand: Management of dairy cattle; be +able to milk, make butter and cheese; understand sterilization of +milk, safe use of preservatives, care of dairy utensils and +appliances.</p> + +<p><i>Electrician:</i> A scout must have a knowledge of method of rescue and +resuscitation of persons insensible from shock. Be able to make a +simple electro-magnet, have elementary knowledge of action of simple +battery cells, and the working of electric bells and telephone. +Understand and be able to remedy fused wire, and to repair broken +electric connections.</p> + +<p><i>Engineer:</i> A scout must have a general idea of the working of motor +cars and steam locomotives, marines, internal combustion and electric +engines. He must also know the names of the principal parts and their +functions; how to start, drive, feed, stop, and lubricate any one of +them chosen by the candidate.</p> + +<p><i>Farmer:</i> A scout must have a practical knowledge of ploughing, +cultivating, drilling, hedging and draining. He must also have a +working knowledge of farm machinery, hay-making, reaping, heading and +stacking, and a general acquaintance with the routine seasonal work on +a farm, including the care of cattle, horses, sheep and pigs.</p> + +<p><i>Fireman:</i> A scout must know how to give the alarm to inhabitants, +police, etc. How to enter burning buildings. How to prevent spread of +fire. Use of hose, unrolling, joining up, hydrants, use of nozzle, +etc. The use of escape, ladders, and shutes; improvising ropes, +jumping sheets, etc. The fireman's lift, how to drag patient, how to +work in fumes, etc. The use of fire extinguishers. How to rescue +animals. How to salve property, climb and pass buckets. "Scrum" to +keep back crowd.</p> + +<p><i>First Aid to Animals:</i> A scout must have a general knowledge of the +anatomy of domestic and farm animals, and be able to describe +treatment and symptoms of the following: Wounds, fractures and +sprains, exhaustion, choking, lameness. He must understand shoeing and +shoes, and must be able to give a drench for colic.</p> + +<p><i>Gardener:</i> A scout must dig a piece of ground not less than twelve +feet square, know the names of a dozen plants pointed out in an +ordinary garden, understand what is meant by pruning, grafting and +manuring, plant and grow successfully six kinds of vegetables or +flowers from seeds or cuttings, cut and make a walking stick, or cut +grass with scythe under supervision.</p> + +<p><i>Handyman:</i> A scout must be able to paint a door or bath, whitewash a +ceiling, repair gas fittings, tap washers, sash lines, window and door +fastenings, replace gas mantles and electric light bulbs, hang +pictures and curtains, repair blinds, fix curtain and portiere rods, +blind fixtures, lay carpets, mend clothing and upholstery, do small +furniture and china repairs, and sharpen knives.</p> + +<p><i>Horseman:</i> A scout must know how to ride at all paces, and to jump an +ordinary fence on horseback. How to saddle and bridle a horse +correctly. How to harness a horse correctly in single or double +harness, and to drive. How to water and feed, and to what amount. How +to groom his horse properly. The evil of bearing and hame reins and +ill-fitting saddlery. Principal causes and remedies of lameness.</p> + +<p><i>Interpreter:</i> A scout must be able to carry on a simple conversation, +write a simple letter on subject given by examiner, read and translate +a passage from a book or newspaper, in either Esperanto or any +language that is not that of his own country.</p> + +<p><i>Leather Worker:</i> A scout must have a knowledge of tanning and +curing, and either (a) be able to sole and heel a pair of boots, sewn +or nailed, and generally repair boots and shoes: or (b) be able to +dress a saddle, repair traces, stirrup leathers, etc., and know the +various parts of harness.</p> + +<p><i>Marksman:</i> A scout must pass the following tests for miniature rifle +shooting from any position: N.R.A. Standard Target to be used. Twenty +rounds to be fired at 15 or 25 yards. Highest possible, 100 points. A +scout gaining 60 points or over to be classified as marksman. Scoring: +Bull's-eye, 5 points; inner, 4 points; magpie, 3 points; outer 2 +points. Also: Judge distance on unknown ground: Five distances under +300 yards, 5 between 300 and 600 yards, with not more than an error of +25 per cent. on the average.</p> + +<p><i>Master-at-arms:</i> A scout must attain proficiency in two out of the +following subjects: Single-stick, quarter-staff, fencing, boxing, +jiu-jitsu and wrestling.</p> + +<p><i>Missioner:</i> The qualifications are: A general elementary knowledge of +sick-nursing; invalid cookery, sick-room attendance, bed-making, and +ventilation. Ability to help aged and infirm.</p> + +<p><i>Musician:</i> A scout must be able to play a musical instrument +correctly other than triangle, and to read simple music. Or to play +properly any kind of musical toy, such as a penny whistle, +mouth-organ, etc., and sing a song.</p> + +<p><i>Pathfinder:</i> It is necessary to know every lane, by-path, and short +cut for a distance of at least two miles in every direction around the +local scouts' headquarters in the country, or for one mile if in a +town, and to have a general knowledge of the district within a +five-mile radius of his local headquarters, so as to be able to guide +people at any time, by day or night. To know the general direction of +the principal neighbouring towns for a distance of twenty-five miles, +and to be able to give strangers clear directions how to get to them. +To know, in the country, in the two-mile radius, generally, how many +hayricks, strawricks, wagons, horses, cattle, sheep and pigs there are +on the different neighbouring farms; or, in a town, to know in a +half-mile radius what livery stabling, corn chandlers, forage +merchants, bakers, butchers, there are. In town or country to know +where are the police stations, hospitals, doctors, telegraph, +telephone offices, fire engines, turncocks, blacksmiths and +job-masters or factories, where over a dozen horses are kept. To know +something of the history of the place, or of any old buildings, such +as the church, or other edifice. As much as possible of the above +information is to be entered on a large scale map.</p> + +<p><i>Photographer:</i> A scout must have a knowledge of the theory and use of +lenses, and the construction of cameras, action of developers. He must +take, develop and print twelve separate subjects, three interiors, +three portraits, three landscapes and three instantaneous photographs.</p> + +<p><i>Pioneer:</i> A scout must have extra efficiency in pioneering in the +following tests, or suitable equivalents: Fell a nine-inch tree or +scaffolding pole neatly and quickly. Tie eight kinds of knots quickly +in the dark or blindfolded. Lash spars properly together for +scaffolding. Build model bridge or derrick. Make a camp kitchen. Build +a hut of one kind or another suitable for three occupants.</p> + +<p><i>Piper:</i> A scout must be able to play a march and a reel on the pipes, +to dance the sword-dance, and must wear kilt and Highland dress.</p> + +<p><i>Plumber:</i> A scout must be able to make wiped and brazed joints, to +cut and fix a window pane, repair a burst pipe, mend a ball or faucet +tap, and understand the ordinary hot and cold water system of a house.</p> + +<p><i>Poultry Farmer:</i> A scout must have a good knowledge of incubators, +brooders, sanitary fowl-houses and coops and runs; also of rearing, +feeding, killing, and dressing birds for market; also he must be able +to pack birds and eggs for market.</p> + +<p><i>Printer:</i> A scout must know the names of different types and paper +sizes. Be able to compose by hand or machine, understand the use of +hand or power printing machines. He must also print a handbill set up +by himself.</p> + +<p><i>Seaman:</i> A scout must be able to tie eight knots rapidly in the dark +or blindfolded. Splice ropes, fling a rope coil. Row and punt a boat +single-handed, and punt with pole, or scull it over the stern. Steer a +boat rowed by others. Bring the boat properly alongside and make it +fast. Box the compass. Read a chart. State direction by the stars and +sun. Swim fifty yards with trousers, socks, and shirt on. Climb a rope +or pole of fifteen feet, or, as alternative, dance the hornpipe +correctly. Sew and darn a shirt and trousers. Understand the general +working of steam and hydraulic winches, and have a knowledge of +weather wisdom and knowledge of tides.</p> + +<p><i>Signaller:</i> A scout must pass tests in both sending and receiving in +semaphore and Morse signalling by flag, not fewer than twenty-four +letters per minute. He must be able to give and read signals by +sound. To make correct smoke and flame signals with fires. To show the +proper method of signalling with the staff.</p> + +<p><i>Stalker:</i> A scout must take a series of twenty photographs of wild +animals or birds from life, and develop and print them. Or, +alternately, he must make a collection of sixty species of wild +flowers, ferns, or grasses, dried and mounted in a book and correctly +named. Or, alternately, he must make coloured drawings of twenty +flowers, ferns or grasses, or twelve sketches from life of animals and +birds. Original sketches, as well as the finished pictures, to be +submitted. Or, alternately he must be able to name sixty different +kinds of animals, insects, reptiles, or birds in a museum or +zoological garden, or from unnamed coloured plates, and give +particulars of the lives, habits, appearance and markings of twenty of +them.</p> + +<p><i>Starman:</i> A scout must have a general knowledge of the nature and +movements of the stars. He must be able to point out and name six +principal constellations. Find the north by means of other stars than +the Pole Star in case of that star being obscured by clouds, etc., and +tell the hour of the night by the stars or moon. He must have a +general knowledge of the positions and movements of the earth, sun +and moon, and of tides, eclipses, meteors, comets, sun spots, planets.</p> + +<p><i>Surveyor:</i> A scout must map correctly, from the country itself, the +main features of a half a mile of road, with 440 yards each side, to a +scale of two feet to the mile, and afterward re-draw same map from +memory. Measure the heights of a tree, telegraph pole and church +steeple, describing method adopted. Measure width of a river, and +distance apart of two objects a known distance away and +unapproachable. Be able to measure a gradient, contours, conventional +signs of ordnance survey and scales.</p> + +<p><i>Swimming and Life Saving:</i> A scout must be able to dive and swim +fifty yards with clothes on (shirt, trousers, socks as minimum). Able +to fling and use life-line or life-buoy. Able to demonstrate two ways +of rescue of drowning person, and revival of apparently drowned.</p> + + +<h4>THE PATROL</h4> + +<p>The simplest way to form a patrol of scouts is to call together a +small group of boys over twelve years of age. A simple recital of the +things that scouts do, with perhaps an opportunity to look over the +Manual, will be enough to launch the organization. The selection of a +patrol leader will then follow, and the scouting can begin. It is well +not to attempt too much at the start. Get the boys to start work to +pass the requirements for the tenderfoot.</p> + +<p><i>The Patrol Leader:</i> Each patrol should have a patrol +leader—preferably a boy. The choice of this leader has much to do +with the success of the patrol. He should be a recognized leader among +the boys in the group. Do not hesitate to entrust him with details. +Let him feel that he is your right-hand man. Ask his opinion on +matters pertaining to the patrol. Make him feel that the success of +the organization depends largely upon him, being careful, of course, +not to overdo it. You will find that this attitude will enlist the +hearty cooperation of the boy and you will find him an untiring +worker, with the ability to bind the boys closer together than you +could ever hope to do alone.</p> + + +<h4>POINTS OF INTEREST</h4> + +<p>1. Scouting does not consist in wearing a khaki suit or a lot of +decorations. It is in doing the things that are required for the +tenderfoot, second-class and first-class scout badges and the badges +of merit.</p> + +<p>2. Scouts do not wish any one to buy things for them. They buy their +own equipment and pay their own way.</p> + +<p>3. Scouts do their best to keep the scout oath and law.</p> + +<p>4. The glory of scouting is "<i>to do a good turn to some one every day +without reward</i>."</p> + +<p>5. Scouts regard the rights of others, and do not trespass on the +property or feelings of others.</p> + +<p>6. Scouting means obedience and discipline. The boy who can't obey +will never command.</p> + +<p>7. Scouts are always busy and getting fun out of it—at work, at +school, at home, at play. <i>Be a good scout.</i></p> + + +<h4>HOW TO ORGANIZE A TROOP</h4> + +<p><i>First:</i> Write to Headquarters, which is at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York +City, for a scout master's certificate.</p> + +<p><i>Second:</i> Either combine three or more patrols or having one patrol, +appoint several patrol leaders and enlist boys for the new patrols.</p> + +<p><i>Third:</i> The minimum number of patrols in a troop is three, and the +maximum the number a scout master can <i>rightly</i> handle. Care should be +taken not to organize for the sake of a big showing.</p> + +<p><i>Hints on starting:</i> In actually starting a troop, it has been found +better to start in a small way. Begin by one or two leader-men making +a careful study of "Scouting for Boys" and as soon as the main ideas +have been grasped, get together a small number of boys, and go through +with them the initial stages step by step, until the boys bubble over +with scouting ideals, and until the notion of a fancy uniform and +games in the country have given place to a definite desire to qualify +for manhood and citizenship. These boys will make the nucleus round +which to form a troop, and should pass on their training and +enthusiasm to the boys who are enlisting under them. It has been found +better to obtain <i>distinctly older fellows for patrol leaders:</i> the +scout masters should invariably be men who feel the great +responsibility of having boys under their charge, and the possibility +of leading the boys from the moment when they enlist in the scouts to +the time they pass out again to be fully fledged men.</p> + +<p><i>Finances:</i> The finances necessary to run a troop of scouts should be +met by the scouts themselves. It is a main principle of scouting to +teach the boys to be self-reliant, and anything which will militate +against the constant sending round of the hat will be a national +good.</p> + +<p><i>The Scout Master:</i> The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. +The scout master may begin with one patrol. He must have a deep +interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have the ability to lead +and command the boys' respect and obedience and possess some knowledge +of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on scoutcraft. The good +scout master will discover experts for the various activities. +Applications for scout masters' certificates may be made at the +Headquarters, 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City.</p> + +<p>From the outset, the scout master must have the interest of each boy +at heart. He must not play favourites with any of the boys in his +patrol or troop. While there are sure to be boys in the group who will +develop more rapidly than others, and whose keenness will be sure to +call forth the admiration of the scout master, he should not permit +himself to be "carried away" by the achievements of these "star boys" +to such an extent that he will neglect the less aggressive boy. The +latter boy is the one who needs your attention most, and your interest +in him must be genuine. Every effort he makes, no matter how poor it +may be, should be commended just as heartily as the better +accomplishments of the more handy boy.</p> + + +<h4>PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR SCOUTS</h4> + +<p>1. <i>Scoutcraft:</i> Boy Scouts' organization, scout laws, discipline, +scouts' secret signs, badges, etc.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Campaigning:</i> Camp life and resourcefulness. Hut and mat making. +Knots. Fire lighting. Cooking. Boat management. Judging distances, +heights and numbers. Swimming. Cycling. Finding the way.</p> + + +<h4>SIGN POSTS</h4> + +<p>1. Do not have in the same patrol boys of great disparity in ages. For +instance, the boy of twelve should not be in the same group with the +sixteen-year-old boy, if it can possibly be avoided. You must remember +that in most cases the things that appeal to the younger boy will have +no attraction for the older boy.</p> + +<p>2. Do not enroll boys under twelve. If you do you are certain to lose +your older boy. The movement is distinctly for boys of the adolescent +period and is designed to help them to rightly catch the spirit of +helpfulness.</p> + +<p>3. Do not try to do everything yourself. Try to remember that the +boys are always willing and anxious to take hold. Let the boys +understand that the whole proposition is theirs. It is what they make +it. Your contract with them should be largely of a big brother nature.</p> + +<p>4. Do not burden nor weary the boys with excessive military drills and +tactics. The movement is not a military one. The military virtues of +obedience, neatness, order, endurance and erect, alert bearing, +however, are scout virtues. Use everything that develops boys. This is +good scoutcraft.</p> + +<p>5. Do not confine the activities of the patrols to things of one +character. Touch every activity as far as possible. Do not omit +anything. Get the proper agencies to cooperate with you for these +ends—a military man for signalling; a naturalist for woodcraft; a +physician for first aid, etc.</p> + +<p>6. Do not permit the boys to fail in the proper keeping of the scout +oath and law.</p> + +<p>7. Never fail to keep an engagement with your patrol or troop. If +something should delay your coming or should you find yourself unable +to keep an appointment with them, be sure to notify the patrol leaders +beforehand. It might be well to require the same of the boys.</p> + +<p>8. A real danger point is the failure of a scout master to visit the +boys in their homes. Knowing the boys' parents means much, and their +cooperation will be much heartier when they know the man to whose care +they entrust their boy, after he has discussed with them the real +purpose of the scout movement.</p> + +<p>9. Do not hesitate to give a boy a hard task, but not an impossible +one. A boy likes to do hard things.</p> + +<p>10. Do not attempt right at the start to give the boy every bit of +detail regarding the activities of the troop. Work out the plans with +the boys from time to time, always reserving some things of interest +for the next meeting. Your attempt to give them everything at one time +will cause the whole proposition to assume the nature of a task +instead of pleasurable education, as was originally intended.</p> + +<p>11. Hold frequent tests for advancement to the classes of scouthood. +Get your fellows to really win their badges.</p> + +<p>12. As a scout master use good judgment. If there are other scout +masters in your town, or a scout council or local committee, cooperate +with these. To be a scout master, you must have the spirit of '76, +but be sure to work with others. The boys will benefit by the lesson.</p> + + +<h4>THE SCOUTS' CAMP</h4> + +<p>To go camping should mean more than merely living under canvas away +from the piles of brick and stone that make up our cities. To be in +the open air, to breathe pure oxygen, to sleep upon "a bed of boughs +beside the trail," to look at the camp fire and the stars, and to hear +the whisper of the trees—all of this is good. But the camp offers a +better opportunity than this. It offers the finest method for a boy's +education. Between twelve and eighteen years the interests of a boy +are general ones, and reach from the catching of tadpoles and minnows +to finding God in the stars. His interests are the general mass +interests that are so abundant in nature, the activities that give the +country boy such an advantage for the real enjoyment of life over the +city lad. Two weeks or two months in camp, they are too valuable to be +wasted in loafing, cigarette smoking, card playing or shooting craps. +To make a camp a profitable thing there must needs be instruction; not +formal but <i>informal</i> instruction. Scouting, nature study, scout law, +camp cooking, signalling, pioneering, path finding, sign reading, +stalking for camera purposes, knowledge of animals and plants, first +aid, life saving, manual work (making things), hygiene, sex +instruction, star gazing, discipline, knowing the rocks and trees, and +the ability to do for one's self, in order that a boy may grow strong, +self-reliant, and helpful. This is a partial list of the subject in +the camp curricula.</p> + +<p>A model scout camp programme is given here. It takes eight days to +carry it out, but there is material enough to run ten times the number +of days specified.</p> + + +<h4>A SIR R.S.S. BADEN-POWELL SCOUT CAMP MODEL PROGRAMME</h4> + +<p><i>First Day:</i> Preliminary work: settling into camp, formation of +patrols, distribution of duties, orders, etc.</p> + +<p><i>Second Day:</i> Campaigning: camp resourcefulness, hut and mat making, +knots, fire lighting, cooking, health and sanitation, endurance, +finding way in strange country, and boat management.</p> + +<p><i>Third Day:</i> Observation: noticing and memorizing details far and +near, landmarks, tracking, deducing meaning from tracks and signs, and +training the eyesight.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth Day:</i> Woodcraft: study of animals, birds, plants and stars; +stalking animals, noticing people, reading their character and +condition, and thereby gaining their sympathy.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth Day:</i> Chivalry: honour, code of knights, unselfishness, +courage, charity and thrift; loyalty to God, country, parents and +employers, or officers; practical chivalry to women; the obligation to +do a "good turn" daily, and how to do it.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth Day:</i> Saving life: from fire, drowning, sewer gas, runaway +horses, panic, street accidents, improvised apparatus, and first aid.</p> + +<p><i>Seventh Day:</i> Patriotism: national geography, the history and deeds +that won our world power, the navy and army, flags, medals, duties of +a citizen, marksmanship, helping the police.</p> + +<p><i>Eighth Day:</i> A summary of the whole course: sports comprising games +and competitive practices in all subjects of the course.</p> + + +<h4>CAMP ROUTINES</h4> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Camp Routines"> +<tr><td align='right'>6.30</td><td align='center'>a.m.</td><td align='left'>Turn out, bathe, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Breakfast</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Air bedding in sun if possible</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Scouting games and practice</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Swimming</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12.00</td><td align='center'>m.</td><td align='left'>Dinner</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1.000</td><td align='center'>p.m.</td><td align='left'>Talk by leader</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Water games, etc.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6.00</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Supper</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7.30</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>Evening council around camp fire</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Order of business:</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Opening council</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Roll-call</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Record of last council</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Report of scouts</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Left-over business</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Complaints</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Honours</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> New scouts</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> New business</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Challenges</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Social doings, songs, dances, stories</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align='left'> Closing council (devotional services when desired)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='center'>p.m.</td><td align='left'>Lights out.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The father of scouting for boys in America, and in fact the +inspiration for the movement in England under Lieut-Gen. Sir Robert +S.S. Baden-Powell, K.C.B., is Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton, the +distinguished naturalist and nature student.</p> + +<p>The official handbook of the organization may be obtained from +Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, N.Y., the publishers of this +book, or from the national headquarters of The Boy Scouts of America.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III</h2> + +<h3>CAMPS AND CAMPING</h3> + +<blockquote>How to select the best place and to pitch the tent—A brush bed—The +best kind of a tent—How to make the camp fire—What to do when it +rains—Fresh air and good food—The brush leanto and how to make it</blockquote> + + +<p>Going camping is the best fun in the world if we know how to do it. +Every healthy boy and girl if given an opportunity should enjoy living +outdoors for a week or two and playing at being an Indian. There is +more to camping however than "roughing it" or seeing how much hardship +we can bear. A good camper always makes himself just as comfortable as +he can under the circumstances. The saying that "an army travels on +its stomach" means that a soldier can not make long marches or fight +hard unless he has good food. The surest sign of a "tenderfoot" is the +boy who makes fun of you because you try to have a soft dry bed while +he prefers to sleep on the ground under the mistaken idea that it is +manly or brave. He will usually spoil a trip in the woods for every +one in the party.</p> + +<p>Another poor kind of a camper pitches his tent so that his bed gets +wet and his food spoiled on the first rainy day, and then sits around +cold and hungry trying hard to think that he is having fun, to keep +from getting homesick. This kind of a boy "locks the door after the +horse is stolen." If we go camping we must know how to prevent the +unpleasant things from happening. We must always be ready for wind and +rain, heat and cold. A camping party should make their plans a long +time ahead in order to get their equipment ready. Careful lists should +be made of what we think we shall need. After we are out in the woods, +there will be no chance to run around the corner to the grocer's to +supply what we have forgotten. If it is forgotten, we must simply make +the best of it and not allow it to spoil our trip.</p> + +<p>It is surprising how many things that we think are almost necessary to +life we can get along without if we are obliged to. The true woodsman +knows how to turn to his use a thousand of nature's gifts and to make +himself comfortable, while you and I might stand terrified and +miserable under the same conditions.</p> + +<p>Daniel Boone, the great wilderness traveller, could go out alone in +the untracked forest with nothing but his rifle, his axe and a small +pack on his back and by a knowledge of the stars, the rivers, the +trees and the wild animals, he could go for weeks travelling hundreds +of miles, building his bed and his leanto out of the evergreen boughs, +lighting his fire with his flint and steel, shooting game for his food +and dressing and curing their skins for his clothing and in a thousand +ways supplying his needs from nature's storehouse. The school of the +woods never sends out graduates. We may learn something new every day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/056.png" width="500" height="270" alt="With a head shelter and a sleeping bag he can keep dry +and warm" title="" /> +<span class="caption">With a head shelter and a sleeping bag he can keep dry +and warm</span> +</div> + +<p>The average city boy or girl does not have an opportunity to become a +skilled master of woodcraft, but because we cannot learn it all is no +reason why we should not learn something. The best way to learn it is +in the woods themselves and not out of books.</p> + +<p>A party of four boys makes a good number for a camping trip. They will +probably agree better than two or three. They can do much of the camp +work in pairs. No one need to be left alone to look after the camp +while the others go fishing or hunting or to some nearby town for the +mail or for supplies. There is no reason why four boys of fifteen who +are resourceful and careful cannot spend a week or two in the woods in +perfect safety and come back home sounder in mind and body than when +they left. It is always better to take along some one who has "camped +out" before. If he cannot be found, then make your plans, decide what +you will do and how you will do it, take a few cooking lessons from +mother or the cook—if the latter is good-natured—and go anyway. +First elect a leader, not because he is any more important than the +rest but because if some one goes ahead and gives directions, the life +in camp will run much more smoothly and every one will have a better +time.</p> + +<p>If it is your first experience in camping, you had better go somewhere +near home. The best place is one that can be reached by wagon. If we +have to carry our supplies on our backs or in a canoe, the amount we +can take will be much less. After you have had some experience near +home you can safely try the other way. Where you go is of +comparatively little importance. Near every large city there is some +lake or river where you can find a good camping site. Campers always +have more fun if they are near some water, but if such a place is not +easily found near where you live, go into the woods. Try to get away +from towns or villages. The wilder the place is, the better.</p> + +<p>You had better make sure of your camping ground before you go by +writing a letter to the owner of the land. It isn't much fun after we +have pitched the tent and made everything shipshape to have some angry +landowner come along and order us off because we are trespassers.</p> + +<p>In selecting a place to camp, there are several very important things +to look out for.</p> + +<p>1. Be sure you are near a supply of drinking water. A spring or a +brook is best, but even the lake or river will do if the water is pure +and clean. The water at the bottom of a lake is always much colder and +cleaner than the surface water. When I was a boy, I used a simple +device for getting cold water which some of you may like to copy. I +took an old-fashioned jug and fastened a strong string to the handle +and also fastened this string to the cork of the jug as the drawing +shows. The jug was weighted so that it would sink, by means of a piece +of stone tied to the handle. We used to go out to the middle of the +lake where the water was the deepest and lower the jug over the side +of a boat. When it reached bottom we would give the string a sharp tug +and thus pull out the cork. The bubbles coming to the surface showed +us when the jug was full. We then hauled it on board and had clear, +cold, drinking water from a lake that on the surface was warm enough +for swimming.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/059.png" width="168" height="250" alt="The jug by which we obtained pure, cold water" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The jug by which we obtained pure, cold water</span> +</div> + +<p>2. The next important thing in selecting a camp is being near a supply +of firewood. A week in camp will consume an amazing amount of wood, +especially if we have a camp fire at night to sit around and sing and +tell stories before turning in. In most sections there is plenty of +dead wood that we can use for camp fires. This does not mean a lot of +twigs and brush. There is no use trying to go camping unless some one +knows how to use an axe. In another chapter I will tell you something +about the proper use of axes and hatchets. For the present it is +sufficient to say that an excellent place to practise handling an axe +is on the family woodpile. You will thus combine business and +pleasure, and your efforts will be appreciated by your family, which +would not be the case if, like George Washington, you began your +lessons in woodcraft on the favourite cherry tree.</p> + +<p>Almost any kind of wood will burn when it is dry, but it takes +experience to know the kinds of trees that will burn when they are +green. If there is no dry wood in the neighbourhood, and we are +obliged to cut a tree down to get our supply, it is very important to +pitch our camp somewhere near the right kind of a tree and not be +obliged to carry our firewood a long distance. The best "green wood" +for the campers' fire is hickory, although birch is excellent. Hickory +is also the best dry wood. Other trees that will burn well when green +are cedar, white ash, locust or white oak. There are comparatively few +places, however, where dry wood is not available and of course it is +always best to avoid such a place.</p> + +<p>3. The camp site should be in a fairly open spot. Thick woods and +underbrush are either hot or "damp" cool. If you can find a site that +is shaded during the heat of the day so much the better. It is unwise +to pitch the tent under a tree that stands alone on account of +possible danger from lightning. If your tent is shaded by a tree be +sure there are no dead limbs to blow off and wreck it during a storm.</p> + +<p>Be sure that the drainage is good, so that in case of heavy rains, the +water will run off and not flood the camp. It is very important if +your camp is along some river or stream to be high enough to avoid the +danger of sudden floods. This can usually be determined by talking to +some one who knows the country. You can also tell it by studying the +previous high water marks in the trees. In case of floods there are +always some wisps of straw, pieces of brush, etc., caught and held by +the limbs of trees after the water settles back to its former level. +It is a good chance to practise your woodcraft by trying to find them.</p> + +<p>Damp locations are very bad. The higher we can get, the drier it will +be. We avoid both fogs and mosquitoes. Usually there is some prominent +place that will give us a good outlook and where the breezes can reach +us.</p> + +<p>There are both good and bad points in pitching our tent on the site of +a former camp. As long as the former campers have not scoured the +surrounding neighbourhood for firewood nor have left a place littered +up with all sorts of rubbish and garbage to draw flies and vermin, +they may have fixed up things around the camp site to save us work and +to add to our comfort and pleasure. Each case will have to be decided +on its own merits.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/062.png" width="500" height="267" alt="A wall tent" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A wall tent</span> +</div> + +<p>The three important things then are the water supply, the firewood +supply, and good drainage.</p> + +<p>Next in importance to the camp site is the outfit, and the most +important thing is the tent. For a party of four boys on their first +camping trip, the best kind will be a wall tent. A tent, 11 x 14 feet +will be large enough to provide sleeping quarters and to have every +one comfortable. A simple shelter of canvas outside can be provided +as a dining-room but this is more of a luxury than a real necessity.</p> + +<p>Canvas or duck is the common material from which tents are made. The +standard eight-ounce khaki duck used in the United States army will, +for this size tent, cost about twenty dollars. This will include a +fly, which is merely a second roof to the tent. The best material for +tents is balloon silk. It is much more waterproof than canvas and only +weighs a quarter as much. It is also much more expensive. A tent can +be made at home, which is of course the cheaper way. They can also be +hired from previous campers or from some awning maker who is also +usually a tent maker.</p> + +<p>A canvas tent without a fly will leak in a rain storm if the roof is +touched on the inside either by our hands or our clothing. It may be +made partially waterproof by a coating of paraffine which has been +previously dissolved in turpentine. The simplest and at the same time +the warmest tent for an experienced camper who knows the tricks of the +trade is a leanto tent, one with one side entirely open, in front of +which a blazing fire may be kept burning. This is hardly adapted for +boys on their first trip, however.</p> + +<p>Another very good and very simple tent is the "A" tent used in the +army. This looks like a "V" turned upside down. We can pitch it +without the aid of tent poles by simply hanging it be ween two trees +to which a rope has been stretched.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/064.png" width="400" height="259" alt="An "A" tent" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An "A" tent</span> +</div> + +<p>The Hudson Bay tent, trapper's tent, forester's tent, canoe tent, and +a dozen others, including an Indian tepee and wigwam, are all good +tents for special purposes. The pictures show the different styles and +all of them are designed for special uses, either for warmth or +lightness in carrying or ease in pitching. If we go camping in summer +and can have our equipment or "duffle," as the woodsmen call it, +carried by team, the wall tent will be the best one to take.</p> + +<p>Tent pegs can always be cut in the woods, but it is far more +satisfactory to get them ready at home before we leave. If you do cut +your own pegs, select hardwood saplings to make them from and to +further harden the points, char them slightly in a fire. If you spend +a few winter evenings at home making the pegs, it will save you a lot +of time and trouble when you reach the camping ground. The best pegs +are made of iron or steel. This is especially true when the ground +where they are to be driven is hard or rocky, which is usually the +case. Steel tent pins may be bought for six cents apiece or possibly +the local blacksmith will make them for less. They should be a foot +long.</p> + +<p>A sod cloth is a strip of canvas eight or ten inches wide fastened to +the bottom of the tent wall. Its purpose is to keep the wind and rain +from blowing under the tent. After the tent is pitched a ditch should +be dug all around it to catch the rain and carry it away. The earth +that is dug from this trench may be thrown on the sod cloth to hold it +down.</p> + +<p>It is an excellent idea, if you are a beginner, to practise pitching +the tent at home so that you will understand it better when you are in +the woods. Besides this, you can try sleeping out a night or two to +see how you are going to like it.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/066.png" width="300" height="219" alt="A trapper's tent" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A trapper's tent</span> +</div> + +<p>When you reach your camping place, the first step is to clear the +ground of all rubbish, loose stones, sticks and brush to have a clean +floor. Then unpack the tent and fit the pegs of the two upright poles +through the two holes in the ridge pole. Next raise the tent and peg +the guy ropes on the four corners first. A little practice will show +you how to do this. After all the ropes are pegged at a proper +distance from the tent, they should be tightened and the tent made +secure.</p> + +<p>Always plan to have a full four hours of daylight to make your camp +ready. If the drive is a long one and you are obliged to get up very +early in the morning, you will have to do it, that is all. I made my +first camping trip when I was twelve years old. We had just reached +the camping ground, unloaded our kit and sent the team home that +brought us when—bang! over the mountain across the lake from where we +were going to camp, a terrific thunder shower came up and in a few +minutes it was pouring. There was our whole outfit—tent, bedding and +food—getting soaked because, instead of hurrying along during the +day, we had fooled away our time trying to catch fish in wayside +brooks that had never seen a fish and not realizing how important it +is to make haste as well as hay while the sun shines.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/067.png" width="500" height="388" alt="An Indian tepee" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An Indian tepee</span> +</div> + +<p>We quickly pitched the tent, not as it should have been pitched, but +in a heap over the rest of our goods to keep out as much water as +possible and then ran for a nearby barn where we spent a cold hungry +night, wetter but wiser. The next day, out came the sun and dried our +things, but if the rain had continued we certainly should have been +obliged to go home or at least to a farmhouse to stay until the +weather cleared. We soon forgot our unpleasant experience but we have +not forgotten the lesson it taught—and that is not to waste time +along the road when there is work to be done at the journey's end.</p> + +<p>Next to a good tent, the most important thing for the camper is a good +bed. It is even more important than good food because if we sleep +well, hunger will furnish the sauce for our grub, but if we spend the +night trying to dodge some root or rock that is boring into our back +and that we hardly felt when we turned in but which grew to an +enormous size in our imagination before morning, we will be half sick +and soon get enough of being an Indian. A canvas cot makes the best +camp bed if it can be taken along conveniently. There is one important +thing to look out for in sleeping on a cot. In my first experience of +the kind, I nearly froze. I kept piling things on me until all my +clothing, and even the camp towels and table-cloth were pressed into +service and was thinking about pulling some dry grass to pile on the +rest of the stuff. Still I shivered until I discovered that the cold +was coming up from underneath because there was nothing to keep it out +but the single thickness of canvas. When I put one of my blankets +under me, I was as warm as toast.</p> + +<p>Very often it is impossible to carry cots on a trip, and that is +where a knowledge of woodcraft comes in. The softest, sweetest, +downiest bed in the world can be made with no other materials but +those which grow in the forest—if we know how. At least the tired +camper will think it is soft and will sleep on it like a top and wake +up refreshed in the morning. Perhaps if we had our choice we would +prefer our own bed at home, but in the woods we do not have this +choice. Most people call this a bed of "pine boughs."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/069.png" width="450" height="103" alt="How the bough bed is made" title="" /> +<span class="caption">How the bough bed is made</span> +</div> + +<p>Why I do not know as it never should be made of pine under any +circumstances. The best wood for the bough bed is balsam. If this does +not grow in the neighbourhood, hemlock, spruce, or even cedar will do. +To make a bough bed properly means a lot of work. The first step is to +cut four straight sticks. The side pieces should be six feet and a +half long and the end pieces three feet and a half. They should be +notched on the ends with an axe and either nailed or tied together +from saplings or from a tree that you have felled. Small balsam boughs +should be broken off with the fingers and laid one on the other until +the whole bed is filled with them. On this, the rubber blanket or +poncho should be spread and the blankets over all. All the boughs +should be shingled with the stems down to keep them in the best +condition. This kind of a bed will require remaking every day.</p> + +<p>A better bed for the boy camper is made as follows: Take a piece of +heavy bed ticking and sew it into a bag about three feet by six feet. +When you reach camp you can make a regular mattress by filling it with +whatever material is most easily found. Dry leaves? grass, hay, even +moss or wet filler can be used if nothing dry can be found, but in +this case the rubber blanket will be an absolute necessity. Of course +it is much better to use some dry material.</p> + +<p>Be sure to have a comfortable bed. No matter what ideas you may have +about cowboys and soldiers rolling up in their blankets and snatching +a few hours' sleep under the stars by lying on the bare ground, a boy +who is used to a good bed at home will never have much fun out of a +camping trip if he tries to sleep on the ground with a rock for his +pillow.</p> + +<p>For a summer camping trip, one blanket is enough. You must learn to +roll up in it. Lie flat on your back and cover the blanket over you. +Then raise up your legs and tuck it under first on one side and then +the other. The rest is easy. This beats trying to "roll up" in it, +actually. The common summer blankets used at home are not much use for +the camper. These are usually all cotton. A camper's blanket should be +all wool. You can buy a standard U.S. Army blanket, size 66 x 84 +inches, for five dollars. They can often be purchased in stores that +deal in second hand army supplies for much less and are just as good +as new except for some slight stain or defect.</p> + +<p>A sleeping bag is expensive but is excellent for cold weather camping. +It is much too hot for the boy camper in summer.</p> + +<p>Do not sleep in your clothing. Unless it is too cold, undress, about +as you do at home. If the blanket feels tickly, it would not be a +great crime, no matter what the tenderfoot says who wanted you to +sleep on the ground, to take along a sheet. I have never done this, +however.</p> + +<p>At the end of this chapter, you will find a list of things to take +with you.</p> + +<p>The camp fire and the cooking fire should be separate. Almost any one +can kindle a fire with dry materials. It takes a woodman to build a +fire when it has been raining and everything is wet. The boy's method +of taking a few newspapers, and a handful of brush or leaves will not +do.</p> + +<p>First look around for an old dead top of a pine or cedar. If you +cannot find one, chop down a cedar tree. Whittle a handful of +splinters and shavings from the dry heart. Try to find the lee side of +a rock or log where the wind and rain do not beat in. First put down +the shavings or some dry birch bark if you can find it, and shelter it +as well as you can from the rain. Pile up some larger splinters of +wood over the kindling material like an Indian's wigwam. Then light it +and give it a chance to get into a good blaze before you pile on any +larger wood and put the whole fire out. It sounds easy but before you +try it in the woods I advise you to select the first rainy day and go +out near home and experiment.</p> + +<p>To make a fire that will burn in front of the tent all night, first +drive two green stakes into the ground at a slant and about five feet +apart. Then lay two big logs one on each side of a stake to serve as +andirons. Build a fire between these logs and pile up a row of logs +above the fire and leaning against the stakes. You may have to brace +the stakes with two others which should have a forked end. When the +lower log burns out the next one will drop down in its place and +unless you have soft, poor wood the fire should burn for ten hours. +With this kind of a fire and with a leanto, it is possible to keep +warm in the woods, on the coldest, night in winter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/073.png" width="500" height="209" alt="The frame for a brush leanto" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The frame for a brush leanto</span> +</div> + +<p>This is the way to build a brush leanto: First cut two sticks and +drive them into the ground. They should have a point on one end and a +fork on the other. Lay a stout pole across the two forks like a gypsy +fire rig. Then lean poles against the crosspiece and finally thatch +the roof with spruce, hemlock or other boughs and pile up boughs for +the sides. A brush camp is only a makeshift arrangement and is never +weather proof. It is simply a temporary shelter which with the +all-night fire burning in front will keep a man from freezing to death +in the woods. Any kind of a tent is better or even a piece of canvas +or a blanket for the roof of the leanto will be better than the roof +of boughs. Be careful not to set the leanto on fire with the sparks +from your camp fire.</p> + +<p>Mosquitoes have probably spoiled more camping trips that any other one +thing. The best tents have mosquito net or cheese cloth fronts which +may be held close to the ground by a stick on the bottom. Perhaps the +easiest way to secure protection is for each boy to take along a few +yards of cotton mosquito netting and by means of curved sticks build a +canopy over his bed.</p> + +<p>A smoky fire called a "smudge" will sometimes keep the pests away from +the neighbourhood of the tent or if we build it in the tent will drive +them out, but the remedy is almost as bad as the disease. As a rule +they will only be troublesome at night and the net over our bed will +enable us to sleep in peace.</p> + +<p>The most common "dope" used in the woods to keep off mosquitoes is +called oil of citronella. It has a very pungent odour that the +mosquitoes do not like and the chances are that you will not like it +either. At the same time it may be a good plan to take a small bottle +along.</p> + +<p>You may safely count on finding mosquitoes, no matter where you go or +what the people tell you who live there. Perhaps they have never tried +sleeping in the woods and do not know. Be sure therefore to take +along some netting or cheese cloth to protect yourself against them.</p> + +<p>Everything that you can do at home to get ready for your camping trip +will add to your pleasure when you get out in the woods. If any part +of your kit needs fixing, fishing rods wound or varnished, your +jackknife ground, your camera fixed, or if your clothing needs any +patches or buttons, do it at home.</p> + +<p>No one ever does half that he plans to on a trip like this unless he +does not plan to do anything. Take along a few books to read for the +rainy days and have them covered with muslin if you ever expect to put +them back into your library.</p> + +<p>If you have been putting off a visit to the dentist, by all means do +it before you get out where there are no dentists. An aching tooth can +spoil a vacation in the woods about as easily as anything I know of.</p> + +<p>As a final word of advice to the beginner in camping, let me tell you +a few things that my own experience has taught me.</p> + +<p>A felt hat is better than a cap as it is sun and rain proof.</p> + +<p>Wear a flannel shirt and take one extra one. You can wash one and wear +the other. Be sure to have a new shirt plenty loose in the neck as +camp washing in cold water will make it shrink. Do not go around in +gymnasium shirts or sleeveless jerseys. One of my companions did this +once and was so terribly sunburned that his whole trip was spoiled.</p> + +<p>Two sets of underwear are plenty, including the one you wear.</p> + +<p>Take along a silk handkerchief to wear around your neck.</p> + +<p>Wear comfortable shoes. A camping trip is a poor place to break in new +hunting boots or shoes.</p> + +<p>Take bandanna handkerchiefs and leave your linen ones at home.</p> + +<p>If you have to choose between a coat and a sweater take the sweater +and leave the coat at home. A coat is out of place in the woods.</p> + +<p>Khaki or canvas trousers are excellent. So are corduroy. An old pair +of woollen trousers are just as good as either.</p> + +<p>A poncho is almost necessary to your comfort. It is merely a rubber or +oilskin piece with a slit in it to put your head through. The right +size is 66 x 90 inches. With it you can keep dry day or night, either +using it as a garment or as a cover. When you are not using it you can +cover it over your bed or food supply.</p> + +<p>Take along a good pocket knife and compass. Better leave the revolver +home. Also always carry a waterproof box of matches.</p> + +<p>You will require some kind of a waterproof "duffle" bag to carry your +personal things—tooth brush, extra clothing, mirror, fishing tackle, +towel, soap, medicine, in fact whatever you think you will need. If it +is your first camping trip you will come home without having had any +use whatever for more than half the things you take. That is the +experience of every one, so do not become discouraged.</p> + +<p>If you camp within reach of a post-office, address some stamped +envelopes to your home in ink before you leave. Then you will have no +excuse for not writing a letter home.</p> + +<p>You can make an excellent pillow by rolling up your trousers. Be sure +to take everything out of the pockets first, including your knife, and +roll them with the top inside so that the buttons or your belt buckle +will not bore into your ear.</p> + +<p>If you fall overboard and come ashore to dry out, stuff your shoes +full of dry grass or old paper to keep them from shrinking. When they +are dry, soften them with tallow or oil. Every one who goes camping at +some time or other gets wet. The only advice I can give you is to get +dry again as soon as possible. As long as you keep moving it will +probably not injure you. Waterproof garments are of little use in the +woods. They are always too warm for summer wear and by holding the +perspiration, are more of an injury than a benefit.</p> + +<p>Never wear rubber boots in the woods or you will surely take cold. +Better have wet feet. The best foot wear is moccasins. If you wear +them see that they are several sizes too large and wear at least two +pairs of heavy woollen stockings with them.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV</h2> + +<h3>CAMP COOKING</h3> + +<blockquote>How to make the camp fire range—Bread bakers—Cooking utensils—The +grub list—Simple camp recipes</blockquote> + + +<p>Most boys, and I regret to say a few girls too, nowadays, seem to +regard a knowledge of cooking as something to be ashamed of. The boy +who expects to do much camping or who ever expects to take care of +himself out in the woods had better get this idea out of his head just +as soon as possible. Cooking in a modern kitchen has been reduced to a +science, but the boy or man who can prepare a good meal with little +but nature's storehouse to draw on and who can make an oven that will +bake bread that is fit to eat, with the nearest range fifty miles +away, has learned something that his mother or sister cannot do and +something that he should be very proud of. Camp cooking is an art and +to become an expert is the principal thing in woodcraft—nothing else +is so important.</p> + +<p>We often hear how good the things taste that have been cooked over the +camp fire. Perhaps a good healthy appetite has something to do with +it, but it is pretty hard even for a hungry boy to relish half-baked, +soggy bread or biscuits that are more suitable for fishing sinkers +than for human food. A party without a good cook is usually ready to +break camp long before the time is up, and they are lucky if the +doctor is not called in as soon as they get home.</p> + +<p>There is really no need for poor food in the woods. Very few woodsmen +are good cooks simply because they will not learn. The camp cook +always has the best fun. Every one is ready to wait on him <i>"if he +will only, please get dinner ready"</i></p> + +<p>One year when I was camping at the head of Moosehead Lake in Maine, I +had a guide to whom I paid three dollars a day. He cooked and I got +the firewood, cleaned the fish and did the chores around camp. His +cooking was so poor that the food I was forced to eat was really +spoiling my trip. One day I suggested that we take turns cooking, and +in place of the black muddy coffee, greasy fish and soggy biscuit, I +made some Johnny cake, boiled a little rice and raisins and baked a +fish for a change instead of frying it. His turn to cook never came +again. He suggested himself that he would be woodchopper and scullion +and let me do the cooking. I readily agreed and found that it was +only half as much work as being the handy man.</p> + +<p>The basis of camp cooking is the fire. It is the surest way to tell +whether the cook knows his business or not. The beginner always starts +with a fire hot enough to roast an ox and just before he begins +cooking piles on more wood. Then when everything is sizzling and +red-hot, including the handles of all his cooking utensils, he is +ready to begin the preparation of the meal. A cloud of smoke follows +him around the fire with every shift of the wind. Occasionally he will +rush in through the smoke to turn the meat or stir the porridge and +rush out again puffing and gasping for breath, his eyes watery and +blinded and his fingers scorched almost like a fireman coming out of a +burning building where he has gone to rescue some child. The chances +are, if this kind of a cook takes hold of the handle of a hot frying +pan, pan and contents will be dumped in a heap into the fire to +further add to the smoke and blaze.</p> + +<p>When the old hand begins to cook, he first takes out of the fire the +unburned pieces and blazing sticks, leaving a bed of glowing coals to +which he can easily add a little wood, if the fire gets low and a +watched pot refuses to boil to his satisfaction. When the fire is +simply a mass of red coals he quietly goes to cooking, and if his fire +has been well made and of the right kind of wood, the embers will +continue to glow and give out heat for an hour.</p> + +<p>Of course, if the cooking consists in boiling water for some purpose, +there is no particular objection to a hot fire, the fire above +described is for broiling, frying and working around generally.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/082.png" width="450" height="364" alt="A type of camp fire that will burn all night" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A type of camp fire that will burn all night</span> +</div> + +<p>There are all sorts of camp fireplaces. The quickest one to build and +one of the best as well, is the "hunter's fire," All you need is an +axe. Take two green logs about six to eight inches thick and five feet +long and lay them six inches apart at one end and about fourteen +inches at the other. Be sure that the logs are straight. It is a good +plan to flatten the surface slightly on one side with the axe to +furnish a better resting place for the pots and pans. If the logs roll +or seem insecure, make a shallow trench to hold them or wedge them +with flat stones. The surest way to hold them in place is to drive +stakes at each end. Build your fire between the logs and build up a +cob house of firewood. Split wood will burn much more quickly than +round sticks. As the blazing embers fall between the logs, keep adding +more wood. Do not get the fire outside of the logs. The object is to +get a bed of glowing coals between them. When you are ready to begin +cooking, take out the smoky, burning pieces and leave a bed of red-hot +coals. If you have no axe and can find no logs, a somewhat similar +fireplace can be built up of flat stones, but be sure that your stone +fireplace will not topple over just at the critical time.</p> + +<p>If you only have your jack-knife, the best fire is a "Gypsy Rig". Cut +two crotched sticks, drive them into the ground and lay a crosspiece +on them just as you would begin to build the leanto described in the +preceding chapter, but of course not so high above the ground. The +kettles and pots can be hung from the crossbar by means of pot hooks, +which are pieces of wood or wire shaped like a letter "S." Even +straight sticks will do with two nails driven into them. These should +be of different lengths to adjust the pots at various heights above +the fire, depending on whether you wish to boil something furiously or +merely to let it simmer. Do not suspend the kettles by running the bar +through them. This is very amateurish. With a gypsy fire, the frying +pan, coffee pot and gridiron will have to be set right on the bed of +coals.</p> + +<p>An arrangement for camp fires that is better and less work than the +logs is obtained by using fire irons, which are two flat pieces of +iron a yard or so long resting on stones and with the fire built +underneath.</p> + +<p>The whole object of either logs or irons is to furnish a secure +resting place for cooking utensils above the fire.</p> + +<p>There are several kinds of ovens used for baking bread and roasting +meat in outdoor life. The simplest way is to prop a frying pan up in +front of the fire. This is not the best way but you will have to do it +if you are travelling light. A reflector, when made of sheet iron or +aluminum is the best camp oven. Tin is not so satisfactory because it +will not reflect the heat equally. Both the top and bottom of the +reflector oven are on a slope and midway between is a steel baking pan +held in place by grooves. This oven can be moved about at will to +regulate the amount of heat and furthermore it can be used in front of +a blazing fire without waiting for a bed of coals. Such a rig can +easily be made by any tinsmith. A very convenient folding reflector +oven can be bought in aluminum for three or four dollars. When not +used for baking, it makes an excellent dishpan.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/085.png" width="350" height="314" alt="A reflector camp oven" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A reflector camp oven</span> +</div> + +<p>The standard camp oven that has been used by generations of pioneers +and campers is the Dutch oven. It is simply an iron pot on short legs +and is provided with a heavy cover. To use it, dig a hole in the +ground large enough to hold it, build a fire and fill the hole with +embers. Then scoop out a place for the pot, cover it over with more +embers and ashes and let the contents bake.</p> + +<p>For the boy who wants to go to the limit in depending on his own +resources, the clay oven is the nearest to real woodcraft. This is +made in the side of a bank by burrowing out a hole, with a smoke +outlet in the rear. A hot fire built inside will bake the clay and +hold it together. To use this oven, build a fire in it and when the +oven is hot, rake out the coals and put in your bread or meat on flat +stones. Close the opening with another stone and keep it closed long +enough to give the oven a chance. This method is not recommended to +beginners who are obliged to eat what they cook, but in the hands of a +real cook, will give splendid results. The reflector oven is the best +for most cases if you can carry it conveniently.</p> + +<p>The kind of a cooking equipment that we take with us on a camping trip +will depend on what we can carry conveniently, how much we are willing +to rough it and what our stock of provisions will be. One thing is +sure—the things that we borrow from home will rarely be fit to +return. In making a raid on the family kitchen, better warn the folks +that they are <i>giving</i> us the pots and pans instead of merely +<i>lending</i> them. Very compact cooking outfits can be bought if one +cares to go to the expense. An aluminum cook kit for four people, so +made that the various articles nest one into the other, can be bought +for fifteen dollars. It weighs only ten pounds and takes up a space +of 10 x 12 inches. Such a kit is very convenient if we move camp +frequently or have to carry our outfit with us, but for the party of +boys going out by team it is not worth the expense. You will need +several tin pails, two iron pots, a miner's coffee pot—all in one +piece including the lip—two frying pans, possibly a double boiler for +oatmeal and other cooked cereals, iron spoon, large knife, vegetable +knife, iron fork and broiler. A number of odds and ends will come in +handy, especially tin plates to put things on. Take no crockery or +glassware. It will be sure to be broken. Do not forget a can opener.</p> + +<p>Camp fire utensils should never be soldered. Either seamless ware or +riveted joints are the only safe kind. Solder is sure to melt over a +hot open fire.</p> + +<p>The personal equipment for each boy should be tin cup, knife, fork, +and spoons, deep tin plate, extra plate and perhaps one extra set of +everything for company if they should happen to drop in. A lot of dish +washing can be avoided if we use paper or wooden plates and burn them +up after the meal.</p> + +<p>The main question is "What shall we take to eat." A list of food or as +it is commonly known "the grub list" is a subject that will have to be +decided by the party themselves. I will give you a list that will +keep four hungry boys from staying hungry for a trip of two weeks and +leave something over to bring home. If the list does not suit you +exactly you can substitute or add other things. It is an excellent +plan for the party to take a few home cooked things to get started on, +a piece of roasted meat, a dish of baked beans, some crullers, cookies +or ginger snaps. We must also consider whether we shall get any fish +or game. If fishing is good, the amount of meat we take can be greatly +cut down.</p> + +<p>This list has been calculated to supply a party who are willing to eat +camp fare and who do not expect to be able to buy bread, milk, eggs or +butter. If you can get these things nearby, then camping is but little +different from eating at home.</p> + + +<h4>GRUB LIST</h4> + +<p>Ten lbs. bacon, half a ham, 4 cans corned beef, 2 lbs. cheese, 3 lbs. +lard, 8 cans condensed milk, 8 lbs. hard tack, 10 packages soda +crackers, 6 packages sweet crackers, 12 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> lbs. of wheat flour, +12 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> lbs. of yellow cornmeal, can baking powder, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> bushel +potatoes, 1 peck onions, 3 lbs. ground coffee, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> lb. tea, sack salt, +7 lbs. granulated sugar, 3 packages prepared griddle cake flour, 4 +packages assorted cereals, including oatmeal, 4 lbs. rice, dried +fruits, canned corn, peas, beans, canned baked beans, salmon, +tomatoes, sweetmeats and whatever else you like.</p> + +<p>Be sure to take along plenty of tin boxes or tight wooden boxes to +keep rain and vermin away from the food. Tell your grocer to pack the +stuff for a camping trip and to put the perishable things in tight +boxes as far as possible.</p> + +<p>If you are going to move camp, have some waterproof bags for the +flour. If you can carry eggs and butter, so much the better. A tin +cracker box buried in the mud along some cold brook or spring makes an +excellent camper's refrigerator especially if it is in the shade. +Never leave the food exposed around camp. As soon as the cook is +through with it let some one put it away in its proper place where the +flies, ants, birds, sun, dust, and rain cannot get at it.</p> + +<p>Always examine food before you cook it. Take nothing for granted. Once +when camping the camp cook for breakfast made a huge pot of a certain +brand of breakfast food. We were all tucking it away as only hungry +boys can, when some one complained that caterpillars were dropping +from the tree into his bowl. We shifted our seats—and ate some more, +and then made the astonishing discovery that the breakfast food was +full of worms. We looked at the package and found that the grocers had +palmed off some stale goods on us and that the box was fairly alive. +We all enjoy the recollection of it more than we did the actual +experience.</p> + +<p>It is impossible in a book of this kind to say very much about how to +cook. That subject alone has filled some very large books. We can +learn some things at home provided that we can duplicate the +conditions in the woods. So many home recipes contain eggs, milk and +butter that they are not much use when we have none of the three. +There is a book in my library entitled "One Hundred Ways to Cook Eggs" +but it would not do a boy much good in the woods unless he had the +eggs. If you ask your mother or the cook to tell you how to raise +bread or make pies and cakes, be sure that you will have the same +ingredients and tools to work with that she has.</p> + +<p>It might be well to learn a few simple things about frying and +boiling, as both of these things can be done even by a beginner over +the camp fire. There are a few general cooking rules that I will +attempt to give you and leave the rest for you to learn from +experience.</p> + +<p>You use bacon in the woods to furnish grease in the frying pan for +the things that are not fat enough themselves to furnish their own +grease.</p> + +<p>Condensed milk if thinned with water makes a good substitute for sweet +milk, after you get used to it.</p> + +<p>To make coffee, allow a tablespoonful of ground coffee to each cup of +water. Better measure both things until you learn just how full of +water to fill the pot to satisfy the wants of your party. Do not boil +coffee furiously. The best way is not to boil it at all but that would +be almost like telling a boy not to go swimming. Better let it simmer +and when you are ready for it, pour in a dash of cold water to settle +the grounds and see that no one shakes the pot afterward to stir up +grounds—and trouble.</p> + +<p>A teaspoonful of tea is enough for two people. This you must not boil +unless you want to tan your stomach. Pour boiling water on the tea and +let it steep.</p> + +<p>Good camp bread can be made from white flour, one cup; salt, one +teaspoonful; sugar, one teaspoonful and baking powder, one +teaspoonful. Wet with water or better with diluted condensed milk. +Pour in a greased pan and bake in the reflector oven until when you +test it by sticking a wooden splinter into it, the splinter will come +out clean without any dough adhering to it.</p> + +<p>If you want to make the kind of bread that has been the standard +ration for campers for hundreds of years you must eat johnny-cake or +pone. It is really plain corn bread. Personally I like it better than +any of the raised breads or prepared flours that are used in the +woods. It should always be eaten hot and always broken by the hands. +To cut it with a knife will make it heavy. The ingredients are simply +one quart of yellow meal, one teaspoonful of salt and three cups—one +and one-half pints—of warm water. Stir until the batter is light and +bake for a short hour. Test it with the wooden splinter the same as +wheat bread. It may be baked in an open fire on a piece of flat wood +or by rolling up balls of it, you can even roast it in the ashes. A +teaspoonful of sugar improves it somewhat and it can be converted into +cake by adding raisins or huckleberries. For your butter, you will use +bacon grease or gravy.</p> + +<p>Indian meal, next to bacon, is the camper's stand-by. In addition to +the johnny-cake, you can boil it up as mush and eat with syrup or +condensed milk and by slicing up the cold mush, if there is any left, +you can fry it next day in a spider.</p> + +<p>The beginner at cooking always makes the mistake of thinking that to +cook properly you must cook fast. The more the grease sputters or the +harder the pot boils, the better. As a rule, rapid boiling of meat +makes it tough. Game and fish should be put on in cold water and after +the water has boiled, be set back and allowed to simmer. Do not throw +away the water you boil meat in. It will make good soup—unless every +one in camp has taken a hand at salting the meat, as is often the +case.</p> + +<p>All green vegetables should be crisp and firm when they are cooked. If +they have been around camp for several days and have lost their +freshness, first soak them in cold water. A piece of pork cooked with +beans and peas will give them a richer flavour. The water that is on +canned vegetables should be poured off before cooking. Canned tomatoes +are an exception to this rule, however.</p> + +<p>Save all the leftovers. If you do not know what else to do with them, +make a stew or soup. You can make soup of almost anything. The Chinese +use birds' nests and the Eskimos can make soup of old shoes. A very +palatable soup can be made from various kinds of vegetables with a few +bones or extract of beef added for body.</p> + +<p>The length of time to cook things is the most troublesome thing to +the beginner. Nearly everything will take longer than you think. +Oatmeal is one of the things that every beginner is apt to burn, hence +the value of the double boiler.</p> + +<p>Rice is one of the best camp foods if well cooked. It can be used in a +great variety of ways like cornmeal. But beware! There is nothing in +the whole list of human food that has quite the swelling power of +rice. Half a teacupful will soon swell up to fill the pot. A +tablespoonful to a person will be an ample allowance and then, unless +you have a good size pot to boil it in, have some one standing by +ready with an extra pan to catch the surplus when it begins to swell.</p> + +<p>There are certain general rules for cooking which may help the +beginner although they are not absolute.</p> + +<p>Mutton, beef, lamb, venison, chicken, and large birds or fish will +require from ten to twenty minutes' cooking for each pound of weight. +The principal value of this is to at least be sure that you need not +test a five-pound chicken after it has been cooking fifteen minutes to +see if it is done.</p> + +<p>Peas, beans, potatoes, corn, onions, rice, turnips, beets, cabbage, +and macaroni should, when boiled, be done in from twenty to thirty +minutes. The surest test is to taste them. They will be burned in +that many seconds, if you allow the water to boil off or put them in +the middle of a smoky fire where they cannot be watched.</p> + +<p>Fried things are the easiest to cook because you can tell when they +are done more easily. Fried food however is always objectionable and +as little of it should be eaten as possible. You are not much of a +camp cook if a frying pan is your only tool.</p> + +<p>A bottle of catsup or some pickles will often give just the right +taste to things that otherwise seem to be lacking in flavour.</p> + +<p>In frying fish, always have the pan piping hot. Test the grease by +dropping in a bread crumb. It should quickly turn brown. "Piping hot" +does not mean smoking or grease on fire. Dry the fish thoroughly with +a towel before putting them into the pan. Then they will be crisp and +flaky instead of grease-soaked. The same rule is true of potatoes. If +you put the latter on brown butcher's paper when they are done, they +will be greatly improved.</p> + +<p>Nearly every camper will start to do things away from home that he +would never think of doing under his own roof. One of these is to +drink great quantities of strong coffee three times a day. If you find +that after you turn in for the night, you are lying awake for a long +time watching the stars and listening to the fish splashing in the +lake or the hoot owl mournfully "too-hooing" far off in the woods, do +not blame your bed or commence to wonder if you are not getting sick. +Just cut out the coffee, that's all.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V</h2> + +<h3>WOODCRAFT</h3> + +<blockquote>The use of an axe and hatchet—Best woods for special purposes—What +to do when you are lost—Nature's compasses</blockquote> + + +<p>The word "woodcraft" simply means skill in anything which pertains to +the woods. The boy who can read and understand nature's signboards, +who knows the names of the various trees and can tell which are best +adapted to certain purposes, what berries and roots are edible, the +habits of game and the best way to trap or capture them, in short the +boy that knows how to get along without the conveniences of +civilization and is self-reliant and manly, is a student of woodcraft. +No one can hope to become a master woodsman. What he learns in one +section may be of little value in some other part of the country.</p> + +<p>A guide from Maine or Canada might be comparatively helpless in +Florida or the Tropics, where the vegetation, wild animal life, and +customs of the woods are entirely different. Most of us are hopeless +tenderfeet anywhere, just like landlubbers on shipboard. The real +masters of woodcraft—Indians, trappers, and guides—are, as a rule, +men who do not even know the meaning of the word "woodcraft."</p> + +<p>Some people think that to know woodcraft, we must take it up with a +teacher, just as we might learn to play golf or tennis. It is quite +different from learning a game. Most of what we learn, we shall have +to teach ourselves. Of course we must profit from the experience and +observation of others, but no man's opinion can take the place of the +evidence of our own eyes. A naturalist once told me that chipmunks +never climb trees. I have seen a chipmunk on a tree so I know that he +is mistaken. As a rule the natives in any section only know enough +woods-lore or natural history to meet their absolute needs. Accurate +observation is, as a rule, rare among country people unless they are +obliged to learn from necessity. Plenty of boys born and raised in the +country are ignorant of the very simplest facts of their daily +experience. They could not give you the names of a dozen local birds +or wildflowers or tell you the difference between a mushroom and a +toadstool to save their lives.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 302px;"> +<img src="images/099.png" width="302" height="500" alt="The wilderness traveller" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The wilderness traveller</span> +</div> + +<p>On the other hand, some country boys who have kept their ears and eyes +open will know more about the wild life of the woods than people who +attempt to write books about it; myself, for example. I have a boy +friend up in Maine who can fell a tree as big around as his body in +ten minutes, and furthermore he can drop it in any direction that he +wants to without leaving it hanging up in the branches of some other +tree or dropping it in a soft place where the logging team cannot +possibly haul it out without miring the horses. The stump will be +almost as clean and flat as a saw-cut. This boy can also build a log +cabin, chink up the cracks with clay and moss and furnish it with +benches and tables that he has made, with no other tools than an axe +and a jackknife. He can make a rope out of a grape-vine or patch a +hole in his birch bark canoe with a piece of bark and a little spruce +gum. He can take you out in the woods and go for miles with never a +thought of getting lost, tell you the names of the different birds and +their calls, what berries are good to eat, where the partridge nests +or the moose feeds, and so on. If you could go around with him for a +month, you would learn more real woodcraft than books could tell you +in a lifetime. And this boy cannot even read or write and probably +never heard the word "woodcraft." His school has been the school of +hard knocks. He knows these things as a matter of course just as you +know your way home from school. His father is a woodchopper and has +taught him to take care of himself.</p> + +<p>If you desire to become a good woodsman, the first and most important +thing is to learn to use an axe. Patent folding hatchets are well +enough in their way, but for real woodchopping an axe is the only +thing. One of four pounds is about the right weight for a beginner. As +it comes from the store, the edge will be far too thick and clumsy to +do good work. First have it carefully ground by an expert and watch +how he does it.</p> + +<p>If I were a country boy I should be more proud of skilful axemanship +than to be pitcher on the village nine. With a good axe, a good rifle, +and a good knife, a man can take care of himself in the woods for +days, and the axe is more important even than the rifle.</p> + +<p>The easiest way to learn to be an axeman is to make the acquaintance +of some woodchopper in your neighbourhood. But let me warn you. Never +ask him to lend you his axe. You would not be friends very long if you +did. You must have one of your own, and let it be like your watch or +your toothbrush, your own personal property.</p> + +<p>A cheap axe is poor economy. The brightest paint and the gaudiest +labels do not always mean the best steel. Your friend the woodchopper +will tell you what kind to buy in your neighbourhood. The handle +should be straight-grained hickory and before buying it you will run +your eye along it to see that the helve is not warped or twisted and +that there are no knots or bad places in it. The hang of an axe is the +way the handle or helve is fitted to the head. An expert woodchopper +is rarely satisfied with the heft of an axe as it comes from the +store. He prefers to hang his own. In fact, most woodchoppers prefer +to make their own axe handles.</p> + +<p>You will need a stone to keep a keen edge on the axe. No one can do +good work with a dull blade, and an edge that has been nicked by +chopping into the ground or hitting a stone is absolutely inexcusable.</p> + +<p>To chop a tree, first be sure that the owner is willing to have it +chopped. Then decide in which direction you wish it to fall. This will +be determined by the kind of ground, closeness of other trees, and the +presence of brush or undergrowth. When a tree has fallen the +woodchopper's work has only begun. He must chop off the branches, cut +and split the main trunk, and either make sawlogs or cordwood lengths. +Hence the importance of obtaining a good lie for the tree.</p> + +<p>Before beginning to chop the tree, cut away all the brush, vines, and +undergrowth around its butt as far as you will swing the axe. This is +very important as many of the accidents with an axe result from +neglect of this precaution. As we swing the axe it may catch on a bush +or branch over our head, which causes a glancing blow and a possible +accident. Be careful not to dull the axe in cutting brush. You can +often do more damage to its edge with undergrowth no thicker than +one's finger than in chopping a tree a foot through. If the brush is +very light, it will often be better to use your jack-knife.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/103a.png" width="196" height="300" alt="The right way to chop a tree—make two notches on +opposite sides" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The right way to chop a tree—make two notches on +opposite sides</span> +</div> + +<p>In cutting a tree, first make two nicks or notches in the bark on the +side to which you wish it to fall and as far apart as half the +diameter of the tree. Then begin to swing the axe slowly and without +trying to bury its head at every blow and prying it loose again, but +with regular strokes first across the grain at the bottom and then in +a slanting direction at the top. The size of the chips you make will +be a measure of your degree of skill. Hold the handle rather loosely +and keep your eye on the place you wish to hit and not on the axe. Do +not work around the tree or girdle it but keep right at the notch you +are making until it is half way through the tree. Do not shift your +feet at every blow or rise up on your toes. This would tire even an +old woodchopper in a short time. See that you do not set yourself too +fast a pace at first. A beginner always starts with too small a notch. +See to it that yours is wide enough in the start.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/103b.png" width="171" height="300" alt="The wrong way—this looks like the work of a beaver" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The wrong way—this looks like the work of a beaver</span> +</div> + +<p>When you have cut about half way through, go to the other side of the +tree and start another notch a little higher than the first one. A +skilled man can chop either right-or left-handed but this is very +difficult for a beginner. If you are naturally right-handed, the +quickest way to learn left-handed wood chopping is to study your usual +position and note where you naturally place your feet and hands. Then +reverse all this and keep at it from the left-handed position until it +becomes second nature to you and you can chop equally well from either +position. This you may learn in a week or you may never learn it. It +is a lot easier to write about than it is to do.</p> + +<p>When the tree begins to creak and show signs of toppling over, give it +a few sharp blows and as it falls jump sideways. Never jump or run +backward. This is one way that men get killed in the woods. A falling +tree will often kick backward like a shot. It will rarely go far to +either side. Of course a falling tree is a source of danger anyway, so +you must always be on your guard.</p> + +<p>If you wish to cut the fallen tree into logs, for a cabin, for +instance, you will often have to jump on top of it and cut between +your feet. This requires skill and for that reason I place a knowledge +of axemanship ahead of anything else in woodcraft except cooking. +With a crosscut saw, we can make better looking logs and with less +work.</p> + +<p>Next to knowing how to chop a tree is knowing what kind of a tree to +chop. Different varieties possess entirely different qualities. The +amateur woodchopper will note a great difference between chopping a +second growth chestnut and a tough old apple tree. We must learn that +some trees, like oak, sugar maple, dogwood, ash, cherry, walnut, +beech, and elm are very hard and that most of the evergreens are soft, +such as spruce, pine, arbor vitae, as well as the poplars and birches. +It is easy to remember that lignum vitae is one of the hardest woods +and arbor vitae one of the softest. Some woods, like cedar, chestnut, +white birch, ash, and white oak, are easy to split, and wild cherry, +sugar maple, hemlock, and sycamore are all but unsplitable. We decide +the kind of a tree to cut by the use to which it is to be put. For the +bottom course of a log cabin, we place logs like cedar, chestnut, or +white oak because we know that they do not rot quickly in contact with +the ground. We always try to get straight logs because we know that it +is all but impossible to build a log house of twisted or crooked ones.</p> + +<p>It is a very common custom for beginners to make camp furniture, +posts, and fences of white birch. This is due to the fact that the +wood is easily worked and gives us very pretty effects. Birch however +is not at all durable and if we expect to use our camp for more than +one season we must expect to replace the birch every year or two. +Rustic furniture made of cedar will last for years and is far superior +to birch.</p> + +<p>Getting lost in the woods may be a very serious thing. If you are a +city boy used to signboards, street corners, and familiar buildings +you may laugh at the country boy who is afraid to go to a big city +because he may get lost, but he knows what being lost means at home +and he fails to realize when he is in a city how easy it is to ask the +nearest policeman or passer-by the way home. Most city boys will be +lost in the woods within five minutes after they leave their camp or +tent. If you have no confidence in yourself and if you are in a +wilderness like the North woods, do not venture very far from home +alone until you are more expert.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to say when we are really lost in the woods. As long +as we think we know the way home we are not lost even if we may be +absolutely wrong in our opinion of the proper direction. In such a +case we may soon find our mistake and get on the right track again. +When we are really lost is when suddenly a haunting fear comes over us +that we do not know the way home. Then we lose our heads as well as +our way and often become like crazy people.</p> + +<p>A sense of direction is a gift or instinct. It is the thing that +enables a carrier pigeon that has been taken, shut up in a basket say +from New York to Chicago, to make a few circles in the air when +liberated and start out for home, and by this sense to fly a thousand +miles without a single familiar landmark to guide him and finally land +at his home loft tired and hungry.</p> + +<p>No human being ever had this power to the same extent as a pigeon, but +some people seem to keep a sense of direction and a knowledge of the +points of compass in a strange place without really making an effort +to do it. One thing is sure. If we are travelling in a strange country +we must always keep our eyes and ears open if we expect to find our +way alone. We must never trust too implicitly in any "sense of +direction."</p> + +<p>Forest travellers are always on the lookout for peculiar landmarks +that they will recognize if they see them again. Oddly shaped trees, +rocks, or stumps, the direction of watercourses and trails, the +position of the sun, all these things will help us to find our way +out of the woods when a less observing traveller who simply tries to +remember the direction he has travelled may become terrified.</p> + +<p>Rules which tell people what to do when they are lost are rarely of +much use, because the act of losing our way brings with it such a +confusion of mind that it would be like printing directions for terror +stricken people who are drowning.</p> + +<p>Suppose, for example, a boy goes camping for a week or two in the +Adirondacks or Maine woods. If he expects to go about alone, his first +step should be to become familiar with the general lay of the land, +the direction of cities, towns, settlements, mountain ranges, lakes, +and rivers in the section where he is going, and especially with the +location of other camps, railroads, lumber camps, and so on in his +immediate neighbourhood, say within a five-mile radius. It is an +excellent plan to take along a sectional map which can usually be +bought of the state geologist. One can by asking questions also learn +many things from the natives.</p> + +<p>Such a boy may start out from his camp, which is on the shore of a +lake, for example, on an afternoon's fishing or hunting trip. If he is +careful he will always consult his compass to keep in mind the general +direction in which he travels. He will also tell his friends at camp +where he expects to go. If he has no compass, he at least knows that +the sun rises in the east and sets in the west and he can easily +remember whether he has travelled toward the setting sun or away from +it. Rules for telling the points of compass by the thickness of the +bark or moss on trees are well enough for story books. They are not of +much value to a man lost in the woods.</p> + +<p>Suddenly, say at four o'clock, this boy decides to "turn around" and +go back to camp. And then the awful feeling comes to him that he +doesn't know which way to turn. The woods take on a strange and +unfamiliar look. He is lost. The harder he tries to decide which way +the camp lies, the worse his confusion becomes. If he would only +collect his thoughts and like the Indian say "Ugh! Indian not lost, +Indian here. Wigwam lost," he probably would soon get his bearings. It +is one thing to lose your way and another to lose your head.</p> + +<p>When you are lost, you are confused, and the only rule to remember is +to sit down on the nearest rock or stump and wait until you get over +being "rattled." Then ask yourself, "How far have I gone since I was +not sure of my way?" and also, "How far am I from camp?" If you have +been out three hours and have walked pretty steadily, you may have +gone five miles. Unless you have travelled in a straight line and at a +rapid pace, the chances are that you are not more than half that +distance. But even two or three miles in strange woods is a long +distance. You may at least be sure that you must not expect to find +camp by rushing about here and there for ten minutes.</p> + +<p>We have all heard how lost people will travel in circles and keep +passing the same place time after time without knowing it. This is +true and many explanations have been attempted. One man says that we +naturally take longer steps with our right leg because it is the +stronger; another thinks that our heart has something to do with it, +and so on. Why we do this no one really knows, but it seems to be a +fact. Therefore, before a lost person starts to hunt for camp, he +should blaze a tree that he can see from any direction. Blazing simply +means cutting the bark and stripping it on all four sides. If you have +no hatchet a knife will do, but be sure to make a blaze that will show +at some distance, not only for your own benefit but to guide a +searching party that may come out to look for you. You can mark an +arrow to point the direction that you are going, or if you have +pencil and notebook even leave a note for your friends telling them +your predicament. This may all seem unnecessary at the time but if you +are really lost, nothing is unnecessary that will help you to find +yourself.</p> + +<p>As you go along give an occasional whack at a tree with your hatchet +to mark the bark or bend over the twigs and underbrush in the +direction of your course. The thicker the undergrowth the more blaze +marks you must make. Haste is not so important as caution. You may go +a number of miles and at the end be deeper in the woods than ever, but +your friends who are looking for you, if they can run across one of +your blazes, will soon find you.</p> + +<p>When you are certain that you will not be able to find your way out +before dark, there is not much use of going any farther. The thing to +do then is to stop and prepare for passing the night in the woods +while it is still daylight. Go up on the highest point of ground, +build a leanto and make your camp-fire. If you have no matches, you +can sometimes start a fire by striking your knife blade with a piece +of flint or quartz, a hard white stone that is common nearly +everywhere. The sparks should fall in some dry tinder or punk and the +little fire coaxed along until you get a blaze. There are many kinds +of tinder used in the woods, dried puff balls, "dotey" or rotten wood +that is not damp, charred cotton cloth, dry moss, and so on. In the +pitch pine country, the best kindlings after we have caught a tiny +blaze are splinters taken from the heart of a decayed pine log. They +are full of resin and will burn like fireworks. The Southerners call +it "light-wood."</p> + +<p>Dry birch bark also makes excellent kindlings. A universal signal of +distress in the woods that is almost like the flag upside down on +shipboard is to build two smoky fires a hundred yards or more apart. +One fire means a camp, two fires means trouble.</p> + +<p>Another signal is two gunshots fired quickly, a pause to count ten and +then a third. Always listen after you have given this signal to see if +it is answered. Give your friends time enough to get the gun loaded at +camp. Always have a signal code arranged and understood by your party +before you attempt to go it alone. You may never need it but if you do +you will need it badly.</p> + +<p>Sometimes we can get our bearings by climbing a tree. Another aid to +determine our direction is this: Usually all the brooks and water +courses near a large lake or river flow into it. If you are sure that +you haven't crossed a ridge or divide, the surest way back home if +camp is on a lake is to follow down the first brook or spring you come +across. It will probably bring you up at the lake, sooner or later.</p> + +<p>On a clear night you can tell the points of compass from the stars. +Whether a boy or girl is a camper or not, they surely ought to know +how to do this. Have some one point out to you the constellation +called the "dipper." It is very conspicuous and when you have once +learned to know it you will always recognize it as an old friend. The +value of the dipper is this: The two stars that form the lower corners +of its imaginary bowl are sometimes called the "north star pointers." +The north star or Polaris, because of its position with reference to +the earth, never seems to move. If you draw an imaginary line through +the two pointers up into the heavens, the first bright star you come +to, which is just a little to the right of this line, is the north +star. It is not very bright or conspicuous like Venus or Mars but it +has pointed the north to sailors over the uncharted seas for hundreds +of years. By all means make the acquaintance of Polaris.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI</h2> + +<h3>THE USE OF FIRE-ARMS</h3> + +<blockquote>Importance of early training—Why a gun is better than a rifle—How to +become a good shot</blockquote> + + +<p>Whether a boy of fifteen should have a gun or a rifle is a question +that parents will have to settle for themselves. There is no question +but that a careful boy who has been taught by some older person how to +handle a gun is more to be trusted than a man who has never learned +the proper use of fire-arms and who takes up the sport of hunting +after he is grown up. Most of the shooting accidents are caused by +inexperienced men who have never been accustomed to guns in their +younger days. Once or twice I have just missed being shot by friends +who had never been hunting before, and who became so excited when they +unexpectedly kicked up a rabbit or walked into a flock of quail that +they fired the gun without knowing whether any of their friends were +in range or not. When a boy is allowed to have a gun it should be a +real one. Air rifles and small calibre guns are all the more +dangerous, because they are often looked upon as toys.</p> + +<p>In handling a gun, always treat it as though it were loaded, no matter +if you <i>know</i> it is empty. By this means it will soon become second +nature to you never to point the gun at any one even carelessly or in +fun. A guide once said to me, "A gun is a dangerous critter without +lock, stock, or barrel, and if a feller ever points one at me I think +he means business."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/115.png" width="500" height="151" alt="A double barrelled hammerless shot-gun" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A double barrelled hammerless shot-gun</span> +</div> + +<p>A gun can never be trusted. Accidents happen so quickly that it is +over before we know it and the terrible damage is done. Sometimes the +trigger will catch on a coat button or a twig, and, bang! an +unexpected discharge takes place and if you were careless just for an +instant, it may cost some one his life. Especial care must be taken in +loading and unloading a gun. It is at this time that a gun is most +likely to go off unexpectedly.</p> + +<p>The best way to learn how to handle a gun is to watch the methods of +an old hand. Never fire a gun when you are standing behind another +person. You may know that you are not aiming at him, but the +concussion of the air near the end of the barrel is terrific, and your +friend may have a split ear drum as a result.</p> + +<p>A shot-gun is better for a boy than a rifle, for the reason that most +real shooting except for big game is done with a shot-gun, and +besides, it takes a lot of practice to shoot well with it. A shot-gun +is not a weapon for play but a real tool. In almost every section of +the country there is some small game to be hunted and there is usually +also an opportunity to practise at clay pigeons.</p> + +<p>No one would think of hunting quail, ducks, or rabbits with a rifle, +and even if you were an excellent rifle shot at a still mark you might +not be able to hit moving game at all. A shot-gun is less dangerous +for the reason that its range is limited to a little over a hundred +yards, while a rifle may carry a mile. A cheap shot-gun is far more +dangerous than a cheap rifle. Until it is possible to buy a good one +it is better to have none at all. A good American-made gun can be +bought for about twenty-five dollars. A gun suitable for its owner +should fit just as his clothing fits him. When a gun is quickly +brought to the shoulder in firing position, there is no time in actual +hunting to shift it around. When you buy a gun, remember that your +canvas or corduroy hunting coat makes more of a bulge at the shoulder +than an ordinary suit and accordingly see that the stock is the proper +length. The "drop" of a gun is the number of inches that the stock +falls below the line of the barrel. If the stock is bent too much you +will shoot under your game. If it is too straight the tendency will be +to shoot over game. The average stock is made to fit most people and +will probably answer most purposes unless you can afford to have a +stock made especially. The principal thing is to do all your +practising with your own gun until it becomes second nature to bring +it up quickly and have the eye find the barrel instantly. A shot-gun +is not aimed in the same way as a rifle. The method of good shots is +rather to keep their eye on the game and when they "feel" that the gun +is pointed right to fire. A skilful shot can tell whether he is +shooting too high or too low just as he pulls the trigger. The brain, +head, and eyes and trigger-finger must all work in harmony or you will +never be a good shot. Never flinch as you shoot. This is a very common +fault of beginners and it is fatal to becoming a marksman.</p> + +<p>The first lesson in handling a gun is to understand perfectly how it +works. If it is a hammerless gun, remember that it is always cocked. +When you open the barrels you cock the gun automatically. For this +reason there is some kind of a safety device provided, which should +always be left at "safe" except at the actual instant of firing. It is +just as easy to learn to push the safety off when you fire as it is to +learn to pull the trigger, if one starts right.</p> + +<p>Never carry your gun with your finger on the trigger. Wait until you +put the gun up as you are ready to shoot. Don't forget the safety. A +great many shots are missed because the hunter forgets whether he has +left it on or off and in his anxiety to hit the game will tug and pull +on the trigger until, just as the game disappears out of range, he +will remember that he did not release it. This shows the importance of +acquiring the proper habit at first.</p> + +<p>It is harder to correct bad habits in handling a gun than to teach the +beginner the proper way at first. On your first lesson in the field, +walk on the left side of your teacher so that your gun will be +pointing away from him. If you come across any game, try to take your +time before you fire. Nearly every one shoots too quickly. As most +shot-gun shooting is what is called snap shooting, there isn't much +time at best, but a good shot will be sure that he has covered his +game before he fires, while a beginner will trust to luck. This will +be the hardest fault to correct. Consequently a beginner should if +possible hunt alone for a while, as the presence of another gun +alongside of him makes him too anxious to get in the first shot, and +gets him into bad habits.</p> + +<p>If your teacher also has a gun, he must assure you that he does not +intend to shoot and then you will try harder to get the game and run +less chance of missing. Always unload a gun before going into a house, +under or over a fence, or in or out of a boat or carriage. If you +leave your gun, even for a minute, unload it. Never rest a loaded gun +against a tree or building. Never pull a gun loaded or empty toward +you by the muzzle. In unloading always point it toward the ground. A +jar will sometimes discharge a gun and very often a discharge will +take place when closing the breech on a tight shell.</p> + +<p>Always be ready for game. In hunting, we never can tell at what +instant it will rise up in front of us. "Be ready" does not mean +having the muscles and nerves constantly on a tension. It is simply +to carry your gun in such a position that you can quickly bring it to +the shoulder at any time. It is a good plan to practise aiming at +various objects as you go along until you gradually overcome your +awkwardness.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to say what makes a good shot with a gun. There is no +question but that practice will make any one a better shot than he +would be without it, but some people are better shots with very little +practice than others with a great deal. One very important thing is to +do your practising under conditions similar to the actual hunting. If +the cover is thick where you hunt, a swamp or brush lot for example, +you will not derive much benefit from practising entirely in the open. +A pigeon trap is an inexpensive way to learn to shoot. Some +experienced hunters will say that practice at clay pigeons does not +help in the field, but at the same time a good brush shot is almost +always a good trap shot and if you can become skilful enough to break +an average of eighteen to twenty clay pigeons out of twenty-five at +sixteen yards rise, you may be sure that you will get your share of +game under actual hunting conditions.</p> + +<p>The most difficult part of bird hunting is to learn to give the game a +start. The average shot-gun will kill quail at sixty yards and duck +at forty. The farther the game is away from us, provided it is within +range, the more the shot will spread. I once saw a half-dozen hunters +fire at a covey of quail that rose in an open field before they had +gone thirty yards and every hunter scored a clean miss. Any one of +these men could bring down his bird under the same conditions nine +times out of ten if he had taken his time. On this occasion when their +guns were empty another hunter who had withheld his fire said, "Are +you all done, boys?" and shot a bird with each barrel at a measured +fifty-eight yards. To kill a bird that another man has shot at is +called "wiping his eye," and it is the chief joy of an old hunter to +do this with a beginner. If you do not want to let the old hunter wipe +your eye, take your time.</p> + +<p>Learn to shoot with your head well up and with both eyes open. When +the game rises, keep your eye on it and at the instant that you see it +on the end of your gun barrel, fire. The greatest joy of hunting is to +see the game appear to tumble off the end of your gun barrel when it +is hit. If there is a doubt as to whose bird it is, and this happens +constantly as two people often shoot at the same time at the same +bird, do not rush in and claim it. Remember you are a gentleman, but +if you are sure that you hit it, at least stand for your rights.</p> + +<p>So much of the pleasure of hunting depends on our companions that we +must be considerate of the feelings of others as well as our own. +Always hunt if possible with experienced hunters. You will not only +have more fun, but you will run much less risk. In rabbit hunting, one +is especially at the mercy of the beginner who fires wildly without +any thought as to whose life he may be endangering, so long as he gets +the rabbit. If you hunt with some one who owns the dogs, be very +careful not to interfere with them by giving commands. As a rule the +owner of a well-trained dog prefers to handle him without any help, +and, while he may not tell you, you may be sure that he will resent it +if you try to make the dog do your bidding when his master is around.</p> + +<p>The pattern of a gun, as it is called, is the number of shot it will +put within a circle at a given distance. As a rule the factory test +pattern will be found on a tag attached to the gun. If not, you can +easily get the pattern yourself. The usual distance for targeting a +new gun is thirty yards, and the standard circle is thirty inches. +Make a circle on the barn door with a piece of chalk and string +fifteen inches long. First drive a nail into the wood and fasten the +string to it with the chalk on the loose end. Then describe and +measure ninety feet from the target. Fire as nearly as you can at the +centre of the circle and count the shot that are inside the chalk +mark. In order not to count the same shot twice mark them off with a +pencil. Perhaps a surer way would be to fire at the door first and in +the centre of the load of shot drive the nail and describe a circle +afterward. The chief advantage of studying the pattern of your gun is +to know just how much it scatters and how far it may be depended upon +to shoot and kill.</p> + +<p>In a choke-bore gun, the end of the barrel is drawn in slightly and +made smaller to keep the shot together. Guns that are used in duck and +goose hunting are usually full choked as most of the shots are long +ones, but for ordinary brush and field shooting a gun that has a full +cylinder right barrel and a modified choke on the left will be the +best for general purposes.</p> + +<p>The best size is 12-bore or gauge. Ten gauge guns are entirely too +heavy for general use and the smaller bores, such as sixteen or even +twenty gauge, while they are very light and dainty, are not a typical +all around gun for a boy who can only afford to have one size. The +smaller bores, however, have become very popular in recent years and +much may be said in their favour.</p> + +<p>The standard length of barrels is either twenty-eight or thirty +inches. The shorter length will probably be just as satisfactory and +makes a much better proportion between the stock and barrels. You can +easily test the amount of choke in a 12-gauge gun. A new ten-cent +piece will just go inside the end of the barrel of a full cylinder gun +and just fail to go into one that has been slightly choked.</p> + +<p>While it is impossible to give any written directions for shooting +that are as valuable as actual practice, the important thing for a +beginner is to get his form right at first, just as in golf or +horseback riding, and then to make up his mind that every shot has got +to count.</p> + +<p>Rifle shooting is entirely different from shot-gun shooting and skill +in one branch of the sport of marksmanship does not mean much in the +other. A boy may be an excellent rifle shot at a stationary target and +still not be able to hit "a flock of barns," as the country boys say, +with a shot-gun. Skill with a rifle is chiefly of value to those who +are interested in military affairs and more rarely to those who are +fortunate enough to have an opportunity for hunting big game. In +settled communities there is a strong feeling against allowing boys to +have rifles. Practically the only game that can be hunted will be our +little friends, the song birds, and no self-respecting boy will shoot +them. A small calibre rifle such as a 22-calibre Flobert will afford +considerable pastime at target practice and is also excellent to hunt +snakes and frogs along some brook or creek, but generally a boy with a +rifle is a public nuisance, and as a rule is liable to arrest in +possessing it. If we fix up a rifle range where there are no dangers +of damage from spent bullets or badly aimed shots it is well enough to +practise with a small rifle.</p> + +<p>A real sporting rifle, such as is used for big game, is a very +dangerous fire-arm and cannot be used with safety anywhere but in an +absolute wilderness or on a target range. Such guns will kill at a +mile and go through a tree a foot or two in diameter; to use such a +weapon in even a sparsely settled section is very dangerous indeed. If +a boy has any chance of going hunting for deer or moose, he will +surely need practice and for this purpose a range will have to be +selected where there is absolutely no danger to any one within a mile +or two. A good practice range is across a lake or river with a bank +of earth or clay to stop the bullets. Big game hunting is done so +frequently from canoes that it is well to get practice from a boat, +both moving and stationary. To shoot successfully from a sitting +position in a canoe is a very difficult feat. Just as with a shot-gun +the universal tendency is to shoot too quickly, with a rifle it is to +shoot too high. The reason is that we hold our head so high up in +looking at our game that we fail to see the rear sight at all. Be sure +your head is low enough to see both sights.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/126.png" width="500" height="122" alt="The modern sporting rifle that will kill at a mile. An +unsafe weapon for boys" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The modern sporting rifle that will kill at a mile. An +unsafe weapon for boys</span> +</div> + +<p>Always hold your breath while you are taking aim. Learn to shoot from +all sorts of positions, lying, sitting, kneeling, and standing. If the +shot is a long one, be sure that your rear sight is properly elevated +for the distance. Most of the shots at big game are stationary shots +and within a hundred yards; consequently accuracy counts for more than +quickness.</p> + +<p>With a magazine or repeating rifle be sure that you have emptied your +magazine before you leave the gun. With a shot-gun there is a +possibility that the "person who didn't know it was loaded" may not +kill his victim outright. With a sporting rifle it is practically sure +death.</p> + +<p>The general rules of care apply to both rifles and shot-guns. Always +clean the gun after you have taken it into the field. This is +necessary whether you have fired the gun or not, as a gun barrel will +always collect a certain amount of dampness. It is an excellent +practice to keep a gun covered with oil or vaseline except when it is +in use. It not only prevents rust, but the grease also discourages +visitors and friends from handling the gun, snapping the trigger, or +otherwise damaging it.</p> + +<p>In this chapter, I have not said anything about revolvers or pistols, +because I do not believe that any sensible boy will care to own one. A +revolver is a constant source of danger owing to its short barrel, and +as it has no practical value except as a weapon of defence, and as +there is a severe penalty for carrying a concealed weapon, I should +not care to recommend any boy to own a revolver.</p> + +<p>The final question whether we may have a gun and what kind it should +be, will depend very largely on the place we live. Any kind of a gun +is very much out of place in cities or towns. The boy who does not +really have an opportunity to use a gun should be too sensible to ask +for one, for surely if we own it we shall constantly want to use it +even at some risk. It will be far better to ask for something we can +use and leave the gun question until the time when we have a real +opportunity.</p> + +<p>Finally we must remember that the one who has the gun in his +possession is rarely the one that is accidentally shot. We should +therefore avoid companions who do own guns and who are careless with +them. No amount of care on our part will prevent some careless boy +friend from risking our lives. The safer way is to stay home.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII</h2> + +<h3>FISHING</h3> + +<blockquote>Proper tackle for all purposes—How to catch bait—The fly +fisherman—General fishing rules</blockquote> + + +<p>Fishing is one sport of boyhood that we never outgrow our love for. +Some of the most enthusiastic fishermen are gray-haired men. We often +hear about the boy with the bent pin and the piece of thread who +catches more fish than the expert fisherman with modern, up-to-date +tackle, but I doubt if it is so. As a rule the better our tackle the +more fish we shall catch. If the country boy catches the most fish, it +is simply because he is better acquainted with the places where the +fish hide or feed. He knows their habits better and the best kind of +bait to use. A lover of fishing should take a personal interest in his +equipment and should desire to have the best he can afford.</p> + +<p>The chief requirement of a successful fisherman is patience. Next to +that is a knowledge of the waters fished in and the habits of the fish +and how to attract them. A man or a boy who will sit all day in the +hot sun waiting for a bite is not always a good fisherman. He must +use common sense as well as patience.</p> + +<p>A game fish may be defined as one that will make a good fight for its +life and that is caught by scientific methods of angling. Almost any +fish will struggle to escape the hook, but generally by game fish we +understand that in fresh water the salmon, bass, or trout family is +referred to. Pickerel and pike are also game fish, but in some +sections they are considered undesirable because they rarely rise to +the fly, which is the most scientific method of fishing.</p> + +<p>A fisherman who is a real sportsman always uses tackle as light as he +can with safety and still have a chance of landing the fish. If the +angler will take his time he can, with skill, tire out and land fish +of almost any size. Tunas and tarpon weighing over a hundred pounds +are caught with a line that is but little thicker than a grocer's +twine, and even sharks and jewfish weighing over five hundred pounds +have been caught in the same way. Sometimes the fight will last all +day, and then it is a question whether the fisherman or the fish will +be exhausted first.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 398px;"> +<a name="Fishing" id="Fishing"></a><a href="images/p003.jpg"> +<img src="images/p003_thumb.jpg" width="398" height="269" alt="Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood That Holds +Our Interest Through Life" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood That Holds +Our Interest Through Life</span> +</div> + +<p>In selecting our tackle, we must always keep in mind the kind of fish +we expect to catch. For general, fresh-water use, except fly +casting, an eight-foot rod weighing seven or eight ounces will fill +most purposes. A fly rod should be a foot longer and at least two +ounces lighter. The best rods are made of split bamboo, but cheap rods +of this material are not worth having. The best cheap rods (i.e., +costing five dollars or less) are either lancewood or steel. See that +your rod has "standing guides" and not movable rings. Most of the wear +comes on the tip, therefore it should if possible be agate lined. A +soft metal tip will have a groove worn in it in a very short time +which will cut the line. The poorest ferrules are nickel-plated. The +best ones are either German silver or brass. To care for a rod +properly, we must keep the windings varnished to prevent them from +becoming unwound. Spar varnish is the best for this purpose but +shellac will answer. In taking a rod apart, never twist it. Give a +sharp pull, and if it refuses to budge, it can sometimes be loosened +by slightly heating the ferrule with a candle. If a ferrule is kept +clean inside, and if the rod is taken apart frequently, there is no +reason why it should stick.</p> + +<p>A multiplying reel holding sixty yards is large enough for most +fishing. The raised pillar reels are the best, one of good quality +costing about four dollars. A cheap reel soon goes to pieces.</p> + +<p>Silk lines are better than linen because greater strength is obtained +with the same thickness. Always dry a line every time it is used, or +it will soon rot and be worthless. The back of a chair is excellent +for this purpose. Never tie a knot in a line that you expect to use +with rod and reel. The knot will always catch in one of the guides +just at the time when you are landing your "biggest" fish.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/133.png" width="500" height="425" alt="Actual sizes of hooks" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Actual sizes of hooks</span> +</div> + +<p>Hooks come in a great variety of shapes and models but there are none +better than the standard "Sproat." It is the general favourite of +fishermen everywhere, although of course the other leading models, +Carlisle, Limerick, Pennell, Aberdeen, Sneck and a number of others +all have their friends.</p> + +<p>A great many fishermen make the mistake of using hooks that are too +large. The hook sizes that are commonly used are numbered from 6/0, +which is the largest, to No. 12, which is a tiny thing about right to +catch minnows. Where we expect to catch fish a pound or two in weight, +the No. 1 size is about right. Such a hook will catch much larger fish +if they happen to come along. I have caught a twelve-pound lake trout +on a No. 4 Sproat hook and the hook did not show that it had bent in +the least.</p> + +<p>Our tackle box should contain an assortment of sizes however. Snelled +hooks are better than ringed hooks and those of blued steel better +than black enamel. No matter how inexpensive the rest of the equipment +is, be sure that your hooks are of good quality. Keep the points +sharp. A tiny bit of oil stone, a file, or a piece of emery cloth are +all good for this purpose. It takes a sharp point to penetrate the +bony jaw of a fish. Always inspect your hook after you have caught it +on a rock or snag.</p> + +<p>Fishing is generally divided into four classes: fly casting, bait +casting, trolling, and still fishing. The average boy is a still +fisherman, which means not only that he must keep still, but that his +bait remains in one place instead of being trolled or cast about. The +usual strings of fish that boys catch, such as perch, sunfish, +bullheads, catfish, and whitefish, are called pan fish. This is not +entirely a correct name as I have seen some catfish that it would take +a pretty big pan to hold. One caught in the Mississippi River weighed +over a hundred pounds.</p> + +<p>Fly casting is the most scientific method of fishing and gives the +greatest pleasure to the fisherman after he has once become an expert. +No matter what method we follow in fishing, we must never try to catch +fish by any method which the laws may prohibit, such as spearing, set +lines, or nets. Each state has its own laws which the fisherman must +learn and obey.</p> + +<p>Worms are the best all around bait for fishing. They are as a rule +easily obtained and may be kept for a long time. The boy's method of +placing them in a tin can with a mixture of mud will soon kill them, +however, especially if the worms are exposed to the sun for a time. A +half-buried soap box makes a very good place to keep a supply of worms +which will be ready for use at any time without the necessity of +digging them. Worms may be fed on the white of a hard-boiled egg, but +if given plenty of room they will usually find enough food in the +soil. By placing worms in sand they will soon scour and turn pink when +they are far more attractive as bait. The large worms, or "night +walkers," can be caught at night with a lantern. These large worms are +best obtained after a rain or on lawns that are sprinkled frequently, +when they will be found moving about on top of the ground but always +with one end in the hole from which they have emerged and into which +they can dart if they are disturbed.</p> + +<p>For big fish, the best bait is minnows. In trolling with them it will +make but little difference whether dead or alive, but for still +fishing the minnows must not only be alive, but, to attract the fish, +lively as well. The regulation minnow bucket consists of one pail +fitted inside of another, the inner one being made of wire mesh to +permit the free circulation of the water. This enables us to change +the water frequently without handling the fish. When we reach a place +where fresh water is obtainable, we simply remove the inner pail, pour +out the stale water from the other pail, and fill it as quickly as +possible. To keep bait alive in warm weather we must change the water +frequently. Another method where fresh water is not available, as on a +long drive, is to aerate it by pouring from one pail to another. It is +an excellent plan to place a piece of ice on top of the minnow pail. +With this arrangement, it will not be necessary to give them fresh +water for a long time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/137.png" width="500" height="448" alt="An excellent device for catching minnows" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An excellent device for catching minnows</span> +</div> + +<p>The simplest way to catch minnows is with a drop net. Take an iron +ring or hoop such as children use and sew to it a bag of cotton +mosquito netting, half as deep as the diameter of the ring. Sew a +weight in the bottom of the net to make it sink readily and fasten it +to a pole. When we reach the place which the minnows frequent, such as +the cove of a lake, we must proceed very cautiously, lowering the net +into the water and then baiting it with bits of bread or meat, a very +little at a time, until we see a school of bait darting here and there +over the net. We must then give a quick lift without any hesitation +and try to catch as many as possible from escaping over the sides. The +minnow bucket should be close at hand to transfer them to and care +must be used not to injure them or allow them to scale themselves in +their efforts to escape. The common method of capturing minnows is to +use a sweep net, but it takes several people to handle one properly +and for our own use the drop net method will probably supply us with +all the bait that we need.</p> + +<p>Fish are very fickle in their tastes. What will be good bait one day +will absolutely fail the next and sometimes even in an hour this same +thing will take place. Why this is so no one has been able to explain +satisfactorily, but that it is a fact no fisherman will deny. We +should therefore have as great a variety of bait in our equipment as +possible. Worms, crawfish, minnows, frogs, grasshoppers, grubs and +helgramites are all good at times in fresh water, as well as various +kinds of artificial baits, spoons, spinners, and rubber lures.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/138.png" width="85" height="250" alt="A trolling spoon" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A trolling spoon</span> +</div> + +<p>Sometimes fish will take very unusual baits. Black bass have been +caught on young bats. The famous old trout in the Beaverkill River in +New York State, which had refused all the ordinary baits and flies +that were offered him for years and that on bright days could be seen +in a pool lying deep down in the water, finally fell a victim to a +young mouse that was tied to the hook with pink silk.</p> + +<p>Fly fishing is the most expert and scientific method of angling. It is +the poetry of fishing. The fly fisherman usually wades in the brook or +stream where he is fishing, although it is sometimes possible to cast +a fly from the bank or a boat. It is useless to go fly fishing while +there is snow water in the brooks but just as soon as the first warm +days of spring come, then fishing is at its best.</p> + +<p>The whole idea of casting a fly is to drop it in the most +likely-looking places and to strike the fish just as soon as he seizes +the hook. To do this we must always have the line under perfect +control, therefore do not attempt to cast a line too great a distance. +If we do not fix the hook into the fish's mouth at the instant that +he seizes the fly, he will very soon find that what he thought was a +nice fat bug or juicy caterpillar is nothing but a bit of wool and +some feathers with a sting in its tail, and he will spit it out before +we can recover our slack line.</p> + +<p>It is a common mistake to use flies that are too large. Ordinary trout +flies are the proper size for bass and the smallest size trout flies +are plenty large enough for trout. There are hundreds of kinds of +flies of various combinations of colours and no one can say which is +the best. This question has been argued by fishermen ever since the +days of Izaak Walton.</p> + +<p>The universal rule of trout and bass fishermen who use a fly is to +select small dark flies for bright days or when the water is very +clear or low and the more brightly coloured ones when the day is dark +or the water dark or turbid. The fly book should contain a varied +assortment to meet these conditions.</p> + +<p>The best lines for fly fishing are made of braided enamelled silk. +Some fly lines are tapered but this is not necessary and is a needless +expense. Twisted lines are much cheaper but very unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>Fly fishing is not only the most scientific and sportsmanlike method +of fishing but it is also the most difficult to acquire skill in. It +is of course possible to catch trout and salmon on other bait than +flies. In fact, there is really no better bait for brook trout than +common fish worms that have been scoured in sand. The use of a fly, +however, is more satisfactory where the pleasure derived in fishing is +more important than the size of the string.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/141.png" width="400" height="199" alt="An artificial fly; used for salmon" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An artificial fly; used for salmon</span> +</div> + +<p>In learning to cast a fly, you can practise at home, either in an open +space or wherever there is room to work the line. It is not necessary +to practise with the actual hooks or flies on the line. Simply tie a +knot in it. Hold the rod lightly but firmly in the right hand. Point +your thumb along the line of the rod and start by pulling out a little +line from the reel with the left hand. With a steady sweep, cast the +end of the line toward some near-by object and with each cast pull out +a little more line until you reach a point when you are handling all +the line you can take care of without effort or without too much of a +sweep on the back cast. You must not allow the line to become +entangled in trees or other obstacles. The wrist does most of the work +in casting. The elbow should be close to the side. If you find that +the line snaps like a whip on the back cast, it is because you start +the forward cast before the line straightens out behind.</p> + +<p>When you can handle twenty-five or thirty feet accurately, you can +safely get ready to go fishing. The most successful fly fishermen use +a short line, but they use it with the utmost accuracy and can make +the flies land within a foot of the place they are aiming at almost +every time. When a trout strikes your fly, you must snub him quickly +or he will surely get away. If the flies you are using do not cause +the fish to rise, and if you are certain that it is not due to your +lack of skill, it will be well to change to some other combination of +colours; but give your first selection a fair trial.</p> + +<p>Bait casting is much easier than fly casting as the weight of the bait +will help to carry out the line. It is the common method of fishing +with minnows, frogs, small spoons and spinners, and other artificial +lures. Some fishermen practise the method of allowing the line to run +from the reel. The principal point in this way of fishing is to stop +the reel by using the thumb as a brake at the instant that the bait +strikes the water. This prevents the reel from spinning and causing +the line to overrun. Neglect of this precaution will cause a very +annoying tangle that is sometimes call a "backlash" but more often +characterized by much harsher names by the impatient fisherman who has +the misfortune to experience it.</p> + +<p>In live bait casting, start with the line reeled to within fifteen +inches of the end of the rod, holding the thumb on the reel spool. +With a rather strong overhead sweep, bring the rod forward. At the +proper instant, which is just as the point of the rod goes over your +head, release the pressure of your thumb and the bait will go forward +as the line runs out rapidly. When the bait lands, reel in slowly and +with various motions try to give to the bait as life-like an +appearance as possible. If you have a strike, allow the fish +sufficient time to obtain a secure hold of the bait and by a sudden +jerk fix the hook in his mouth.</p> + +<p>Bait casting is as a rule a very effective method of catching fish, +especially in shallow lakes and where fly fishing is not practised. In +deep water, trolling or still fishing are usually the best methods of +catching fish and often the only methods that will be successful. +Trolling consists simply in rowing or paddling slowly with the bait or +spoon trailing behind. It is not a scientific way of fishing and +requires but little skill. When the fish strikes, it usually hooks +itself and all that remains is to reel it into the boat and land it. +The conditions on large lakes often make it necessary to follow one of +these methods of trolling or still fishing, especially during the warm +weather when the big fish have left the spawning grounds and are in +deep water. There are trolling devices called spinners that have +several gangs of hooks, sometimes as many as fifteen. No real +fisherman would use such a murderous arrangement which gives the fish +practically no chance at all and in many states their use is properly +prohibited by law. A single hook, or at most a single gang of three +hooks, is all that any one should ever use.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/144.png" width="250" height="195" alt="A raised pillar multiplying reel" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A raised pillar multiplying reel</span> +</div> + +<p>Every boy knows what still fishing is. It is the common method of +baiting our hook, casting it from the shore or from a boat and +waiting for a bite. In still fishing it is customary to use a light +sinker to keep the bait near the bottom and a float or "cork" which +serves the double purpose of keeping the bait away from snags, stones, +or weeds on the bottom and also of showing us when we have a bite. The +more expert still fishermen never use a float, as they prefer to tell +by the pull on the line when a fish has taken the bait.</p> + +<p>A fishing boat should be thoroughly seaworthy and also have plenty of +room. Flat-bottom boats make the best type for fishing, provided that +we do not have to row them far or if the place where we use them is +not subject to sudden squalls or rough water. The middle seat should +contain both a fish well and a minnow box with a dividing partition +and with two hinged lids fitted into the seat. Such a boat can be +built by an ordinary carpenter and should not cost over ten or twelve +dollars. It should be painted every year to keep it in good condition. +Use clear white pine or cedar for the sides. The bottom boards should +not be fitted tightly together but left with cracks fully a half-inch +wide to allow for the swelling of the wood when the boat is launched. +The best oarlocks are fastened to the oars and fit in the sockets with +a long pin. This arrangement permits one to fish alone, and if +trolling to drop the oars quickly and take up the rod without danger +of losing them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/146.png" width="400" height="294" alt="A landing net should be a part of every fisherman's +outfit" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A landing net should be a part of every fisherman's +outfit</span> +</div> + +<p>A landing net should be a part of every fishing outfit. More fish are +lost just as they are about to be lifted from the water than at any +other time. A gaff is used for this same purpose with fish too large +to go into a landing net. A gaff is a large hook without a barb +fastened into a short pole. If you have no net or gaff and have +succeeded in bringing a large fish up alongside the boat, try to reach +under him and get a firm grip in his gills before you lift him on +board. If it is a pickerel, look out for his needle-like teeth.</p> + +<p>The best time to fish is either in the early morning or just before +sundown. During the heated part of the day most game fish stop feeding +and seek the cool, deep places in the lake or river.</p> + +<p>In many states, fishing is prohibited by law until after the fish are +through the spawning season.</p> + +<p>In all kinds of fishing, the rule is to keep as quiet as possible. +Talking does not make so much difference, but any sudden noises in the +water or on the bottom of the boat are especially likely to frighten +the fish.</p> + +<p>Never fish in your own shadow or that of your boat. Try to have the +sun in front of you or at your side.</p> + +<p>Never be in a hurry to land a big fish. Remember that some of the +so-called "big game fish" of the ocean will take all day to land. You +must use skill to tire your fish out or by keeping his gills open to +drown him. The rod and line are not intended as a lever to force the +fish to the landing net but merely as a guide to lead him about and by +his struggles to force him to become exhausted. A very interesting +experiment has demonstrated that a skilful fisherman can with a fly +rod and light line in a very short time tire out a strong swimmer to +which the line has been attached and force him to give up the struggle +and come to the side of a boat.</p> + +<p>Methods of fishing differ so much in different localities that aside +from the ordinary equipment of rods, reels, lines, leaders, and hooks, +the fisherman going to a new locality had better first ascertain what +the general methods of fishing are, or else, if possible, secure his +equipment after he reaches his fishing grounds.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII</h2> + +<h3>NATURE STUDY</h3> + +<blockquote>What is a true naturalist?—How to start a collection—Moth +collecting—The Herbarium</blockquote> + + +<p>There is nothing in the world that will bring more pleasure into the +life of a boy or girl than to cultivate a love for nature. It is one +of the joys of life that is as free as the air we breathe. A nature +student need never be lonely or at a loss for friends or companions. +The birds and the bugs are his acquaintances. Whenever he goes afield +there is something new or interesting to see and to observe. He +finds—</p> + +<blockquote>"——<i>tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones +and good in everything</i>."</blockquote> + +<p>To love nature and her mysteries does not necessarily mean to be some +kind of a queer creature running around with a butterfly net or an +insect box. A true naturalist is simply a man or boy who keeps his +eyes and ears open. He will soon find that nature is ready to tell him +many secrets. After a time, the smell of the woods, the chirp of a +cricket and the rustling of the wind in the pines become his +pleasures.</p> + +<p>The reason that people do not as a rule know more about nature is +simply because their minds are too full of other things. They fail to +cultivate the power of accurate observation, which is the most +important thing of all. A practical start in nature study is to go out +some dewy morning and study the first spider web you come across, +noting how wonderfully this little creature makes a net to catch its +food just as we make nets to catch fish, how the web is braced with +tiny guy ropes to keep the wind from blowing it away in a way similar +to the method an engineer would use in securing a derrick or a tall +chimney. When a fly or bug happens to become entangled in its meshes, +the spider will dart out quickly from its hiding place and if the fly +is making a violent struggle for life will soon spin a ribbon-like web +around it which will hold it secure, just as we might attempt to +secure a prisoner or wild animal that was trying to make its escape, +by binding it with ropes. A spider makes a very interesting pet and +the surest way to overcome the fear that many people have of spiders +is to know more about them.</p> + +<p>There is no need to read big books or listen to dry lectures to study +nature. In any square foot that you may pick out at random in your +lawn you will find something interesting if you will look for it. Some +tiny bug will be crawling around in its little world, not aimlessly +but with some definite purpose in view. To this insect the blades of +grass are almost like mighty trees and the imprint of your heel in the +ground may seem like a valley between mountains. To get an adequate +idea of the myriads of insects that people the fields, we should +select a summer day just as the sun is about to set. The reflection of +its waning rays on their wings will show countless thousands of flying +creatures in places where, if we did not take the trouble to observe, +we might think there were none.</p> + +<p>There is one very important side to nature that must not be +overlooked. It consists in knowing that we shall find a thousand +things that we cannot explain to one that we fully understand. +Education of any kind consists more in knowing when to say "I don't +know and no one else knows either" than to attempt a foolish +explanation of an unexplainable thing.</p> + +<p>If you ask "why a cat has whiskers," or why and how they make a +purring noise when they are pleased and wag their tails when they are +angry, while a dog wags his to show pleasure, the wisest man cannot +answer your question. A teacher once asked a boy about a cat's +whiskers and he said they were to keep her from trying to get her body +through a hole that would not admit her head without touching her +whiskers.</p> + +<p>No one can explain satisfactorily why the sap runs up in a tree and by +some chemical process carries from the earth the right elements to +make leaves, blossoms or fruit. Nature study is not "why?" It is +"how." We all learn in everyday life how a hen will take care of a +brood of chicks or how a bee will go from blossom to blossom to sip +honey. Would it not also be interesting to see how a little bug the +size of a pin head will burrow into the stem of an oak leaf and how +the tree will grow a house around him that will be totally unlike the +rest of the branches or leaves. That is an "oak gall." If you +carefully cut a green one open you will find the bug in the centre or +in the case of a dried one that we often find on the ground, we can +see the tiny hole where he has crawled out.</p> + +<p>Did you ever know that some kinds of ants will wage war on other kinds +and make slaves of the prisoners just as our ancestors did in the +olden times with human beings? Did you ever see a play-ground where +the ants have their recreation just as we have ball fields and +dancing halls? Did you ever hear of a colony of ants keeping a cow? It +is a well-known fact that they do, and they will take their cow out to +pasture and bring it in and milk it and then lock it up for the night +just as you might do if you were a farm boy. The "ants' cow" is a +species of insect called "aphis" that secretes from its food a sweet +kind of fluid called "honey dew."</p> + +<p>The ten thousand things that we can learn in nature could no more be +covered in a chapter in this book than the same space could cover a +history of the world. I have two large books devoted to the discussion +of a single kind of flower, the "orchid." It is estimated that there +are about two hundred thousand kinds of flowers, so for this subject +alone, we should need a bookshelf over a mile long. This is not stated +to discourage any one for of course no one can learn all there is to +know about any subject. Most people are content not to learn anything +or even see anything that is not a part of their daily life.</p> + +<p>The only kind of nature study worth while is systematic. It is not +safe to trust too much to the memory. Keep a diary and record in it +even the most simple things for future reference. All sorts of items +can be written in such a book. As it is your own personal affair, you +need not try to make it a work of literary merit. Have entries such as +these:</p> + +<blockquote><p> +First frost—Oct. 3rd<br /> +<br /> +First snow—3 inches Thanksgiving day<br /> +<br /> +Skating—December 3rd<br /> +<br /> +Weather clear and bright on +Candlemas day, Feb. 2nd and +therefore ground-hog saw his +shadow<br /> +<br /> +Heard crows cawing—Feb. 18th. +Last year—Jan. 26th<br /> +<br /> +Saw first robin—March 14th<br /> +<br /> +Last snow—April 28th<br /> +</p></blockquote> + +<p>There is scarcely anything in nature that is not interesting and in +some way useful. Perhaps you will say "How about a bat?" As a matter +of fact a bat is one of our best friends because he will spend the +whole night catching mosquitoes. But some one will say "he flies into +your hair and is covered with a certain kind of disgusting vermin." +Did you ever know of a bat flying into any one's hair? And as for the +vermin science tells us that they are really his favourite food so it +is unlikely that he would harbour a colony of them very long.</p> + +<p>The subject of snakes is one in which there is more misinformation +than any other common thing. There are only three venomous kinds of +snakes in America. They are the rattlesnake, copperhead and moccasin. +All of them can be distinguished by a deep pit behind the eye, which +gives them the name of "pit vipers." The general impression that puff +adders, pilots, green snakes or water snakes are poisonous is +absolutely wrong, and as for hoop snakes and the snake with a sting in +his tail that all boys have heard about, they are absolutely fairy +tales like "Jack and the Bean Stalk" or "Alice in Wonderland." We have +all heard about black snakes eight or ten feet long that will chase +you and wind themselves around your neck, but of the many hundreds of +black snakes that a well known naturalist has seen he states that he +never saw one that did not do its best to escape if given half a +chance. Why so much misinformation about snakes exists is a mystery.</p> + +<p>Nature study has recently been introduced into schools and it is a +very excellent way to have the interesting things pointed out to us +until our eyes are trained to see for ourselves. The usual methods of +nature study may be roughly divided into, 1. Keeping pets. 2. Bird +study. 3. Insect study. 4. Systematic study of flowers and plants. 5. +Wild animal life. The basis of nature study consists in making +collections. A collection that we have made for ourselves of moths or +flowers, for instance, is far more interesting than a stamp or coin +collection where we buy our specimens. If we go afield and collect for +ourselves, the cost is practically nothing and we have the benefit of +being in the air and sunshine.</p> + +<p>One kind of collecting is absolutely wrong—that of birds' eggs, +nests or even the birds themselves. Our little feathered songsters are +too few now and most states have very severe penalties for killing or +molesting them. A nature student must not be a lawbreaker.</p> + +<p>The outfit for a butterfly or moth collection is very simple and +inexpensive. We shall need an insect net to capture our specimens. +This can be made at home from a piece of stiff wire bent into the +shape of a flattened circle about a foot across. Fasten the ring +securely to a broom handle and make a cheesecloth net the same +diameter as the ring and about two feet deep.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;"> +<img src="images/156.png" width="141" height="250" alt="The cyanide bottle" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The cyanide bottle</span> +</div> + +<p>It is very cruel to run a pin through insects and to allow them slowly +to torture to death. An insect killer that is generally used is called +"the cyanide bottle." Its principle ingredient, cyanide of potassium +is a harmless looking white powder but it is the <i>most deadly poison +in the world</i>. Unless a boy or girl knows fully its terrible danger, +they should never touch it or even breathe its fumes. One of your +parents or the druggist should prepare the cyanide bottle for you and +as long as you do not look into the bottle to watch the struggles of a +dying bug or in any way get any of the contents of the bottle on your +fingers, you are safe.</p> + +<p>Take a wide-mouthed bottle made of clear glass and fit a cork or +rubber stopper to it. Then wash the bottle thoroughly and dry it, +finally polishing the inside with a piece of soft cloth or tissue +paper. Place one ounce of cyanide of potassium into the bottle and +pour in enough dry sawdust to cover the lumps of poison. Then wet some +plaster of paris until it is the consistency of thick cream and +quickly pour it over the sawdust, taking care that it does not run +down the sides or splash against the bottle. Place the bottle on a +level table and very soon the plaster of paris will set and harden +into a solid cake.</p> + +<p>Sufficient fumes from the cyanide will come up through the plaster to +poison the air in the bottle and to kill any living thing that +attempts to breathe it. As you capture your specimens of moths, bugs +or butterflies afield you place them into the bottle, and as soon as +they are dead, you remove them; fold them carefully in stiff paper and +store them in a paper box or a carrying case until you get home. They +should then be mounted on boards or cork sheets, labelled carefully +with the name of the specimen, date and place of capture and any +other facts that you may wish to keep.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/158.png" width="550" height="242" alt="How insects are spread to dry them in a natural +position" title="" /> +<span class="caption">How insects are spread to dry them in a natural +position</span> +</div> + +<p>Considerable skill is required to mount insects properly and in a +life-like position. If they are out of shape you must "spread" them +before they dry out. Spreading consists in holding them in the proper +position by means of tiny bits of glass and pins until they are dry.</p> + +<p>As moths are, as a rule, night-flying creatures the collector will +either obtain them in a larval stage, or will adopt the method of +"sugaring," one of the most fascinating branches of nature study. A +favourable locality is selected, a comparatively open space in +preference to a dense growth, and several trees are baited or sugared +to attract the moths when in search of food. The sugar or bait is made +as follows: Take four pounds of dark brown sugar, one quart of +molasses, a bottle of stale ale or beer, four ounces of Santa Cruz +rum. Mix and heat gradually. After it is cooked for five minutes allow +it to cool and place in Mason jars. The bait will be about the +consistency of thick varnish.</p> + +<p>Just before twilight the bait should be painted on a dozen or more +trees with a strip about three inches wide and three feet long. You +will need a bull's-eye lantern or bicycle lamp and after dark, make +the rounds of your bait and cautiously flash the light on the baited +tree. If you see a moth feeding there, carefully bring the cyanide +bottle up and drop him into it. Under no circumstances, clap the +bottle over the specimen. If you do the neck of the bottle will become +smeared with the bait and the moth would be daubed over and ruined. +You will soon have all the specimens that you can care for at one time +and will be ready to go home and take care of them.</p> + +<p>The moths are among the most beautiful creatures in nature and a +reasonably complete collection of the specimens in your neighbourhood +will be something to be proud of.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 264px;"> +<a name="Moth" id="Moth"></a><a href="images/p004.jpg"> +<img src="images/p004_thumb.jpg" width="264" height="384" alt="The Moth Collector and His Outfit" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">The Moth Collector and His Outfit<br /> +<small>(Photograph by F.W. Stack)</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The plant and flower collector should combine his field work with a +study of botany. Like most subjects in school books, botany may seem +dry and uninteresting but when we learn it for some definite purpose +such as knowing the wild flowers and calling them our friends, we must +accept the few strange words and dry things in the school work as a +little bitter that goes with a great deal of sweet.</p> + +<p>A collection of dried plants is called an herbarium. It is customary +to take the entire plant as a specimen including the roots. Separate +specimens of buds, leaves, flowers and fruit taken at different +seasons of the year will make the collection more complete. Specimens +should be first pressed or flattened between sheets of blotting paper +and then mounted on sheets of white paper either by glue or by strips +of gummed paper.</p> + +<p>After a flower is properly identified, these sheets should be +carefully numbered and labelled and a record kept in a book so that we +can readily find a specimen without unnecessarily handling the +specimen sheets. The sheets should be kept in heavy envelopes of +manila paper and placed in a box just the size to hold them. The +standard or museum size of herbarium sheets is 11 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> x 16 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches. +Specimens of seaweed or leaves can be kept in blank books.</p> + +<p>A typical label for plants or flowers should be as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/162.png" width="500" height="205" alt="Example of Plant Label" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>A boy or girl living in a section where minerals are plentiful, can +make a very interesting collection of stones and mineral substances, +especially crystals. This should be taken up in connection with school +work in chemistry and mineralogy. To determine the names of minerals +is by no means as easy as that of flowers or animals. We shall need to +understand something of blow-pipe analysis. As a rule a high school +pupil can receive a great deal of valuable instruction and aid from +one of his teachers in this work. Mineral specimens should be mounted +on small blocks or spindles using sealing wax to hold them in place.</p> + +<p>There are unlimited possibilities in nature for making collections. +Shells, mosses, ferns, leaves, grasses, seeds, are all interesting and +of value. An observation beehive with a glass front which may be +darkened will show us the wonderful intelligence of these little +creatures. The true spirit of nature study is to learn as much as we +can of her in all of her branches, not to make a specialty of one +thing to the neglect of the rest and above all not to make work of +anything.</p> + +<p>We see some new side to our most common things when we once learn to +look for it. Not one person in ten thousand knows that bean vines and +morning glories will twine around a pole to the right while hop vines +and honeysuckle will go to the left and yet who is there who has not +seen these common vines hundreds of times?</p> + +<p>No one can give as an excuse that he is too busy to study nature. The +busiest men in national affairs have had time for it and surely we +with our little responsibilities and cares can do so too. I once went +fishing with a clergyman and I noticed that he stood for a long time +looking at a pure white water lily with beautiful fragrance that grew +from the blackest and most uninviting looking mud that one could find. +The next Sunday he used this as an illustration for his text. How many +of us ever saw the possibility of a sermon in this common everyday +sight?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX</h2> + +<h3>WATER LIFE</h3> + +<blockquote>The water telescope—How to manage an aquarium—Our insect friends and +enemies—The observation beehive</blockquote> + + +<p>The eggs of so many insects, toads, frogs and other interesting +creatures are laid and hatched in water that a close study of pools, +brooks and small bodies of water will disclose to the nature student +some wonderful stories of animal life. To obtain water specimens for +our collection, we shall need a net somewhat similar to the butterfly +net described in the previous chapter but with a much stronger frame.</p> + +<p>One that I have used for several years was made by the village +blacksmith. The ring or hoop is of quarter-inch round iron, securely +fastened to a stout handle and bent to a shape as shown in the +drawing. To this ring is fastened a regular landing net such as +fishermen use, with an extra bag of cheesecloth to fit inside to +capture insects too small to be held by the meshes of the outside net. +For frogs, turtles, and minnows, the single net is all that is +necessary.</p> + +<p>This device is almost strong enough to use as a shovel. It will scoop +up a netful of mud without bending. This is important as muddy ditches +and sluggish ponds will yield us more specimens than swiftly running +brooks. In addition to the net, the collector will require a small +pail to hold his trophies. A fisherman's minnow bucket is excellent +for this purpose and the water can easily be freshened and the +contents of the pail reached by simply lifting out the inside pail +from the water, which will drain out.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<img src="images/165.png" width="214" height="350" alt="A heavy net is useful to capture aquarium specimens" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A heavy net is useful to capture aquarium specimens</span> +</div> + +<p>To study the animal life under the surface of a clear and shallow +lake, a water telescope is a great aid. It is simply a wooden box a +foot or so long and open at both ends. The inside should be painted +black to prevent cross reflection of light. A square of clear glass +should be fitted into one end and puttied tight to keep out the water. +To use the water telescope, we simply shove the glass end under water +and look into the box. A cloth hood or eye piece to keep out the +outside light will make it more effective. The best way to use a water +telescope is to lie in the bottom of a boat which is drifting about, +and to look through the telescope over the side. As you study the +marvellous animal and plant life that passes along under you like a +panorama, see to it that in your excitement you do not fall overboard +as a boy friend of mine once did.</p> + +<p>The care of an aquarium is a never ending source of interest to the +nature student. If a boy is handy with tools he can build one himself. +It is by no means an easy task however to make a satisfactory +water-tight box with glass sides, and my advice is not to attempt it. +Glass aquaria may be bought so cheaply that it is doubtful if you can +save any money by making one at home. If you care to try it, this is +the way it is usually done:</p> + +<p>Use a piece of seasoned white wood 1 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches thick for the bottom. +If you wish your aquarium to be, say, 16 inches wide and 30 inches +long, this bottom board should be 20 x 34 to give a margin at the +edge. The size of a home-made aquarium can be anything that you +desire. It is customary to allow a gallon of water to each three-inch +gold fish that will inhabit it. By multiplying the three dimensions, +length, width and height of your box and by dividing your result, +which will be in cubic inches, by 231 (the number of cubic inches in a +gallon) you can tell how many gallons of water it will hold. Of course +the rule for gold fish is not absolute. The nature student will +probably have no gold fish at all. They are not nearly so interesting +as our native kinds. Besides nearly all varieties of fresh water fish +will either kill gold fish or if they are too large to kill will at +least make life so miserable for them that to keep them together is +cruelty to animals. If we keep in our aquarium the specimens that we +collect in our neighbourhood, beetles, newts, crawfish, snails, and +tiny sunfish the number may be greatly increased. Overcrowding however +is very bad. The ideal we should strive for is not "how many +specimens" but "how many kinds" we can have in our collection.</p> + +<p>The white wood board should have three or four hardwood cleats screwed +to the bottom to prevent warping. The corner pieces of our glass box +may either be made of sheet copper or heavy tin, or of wood, if we +cannot work in metals. The wooden strips and the bottom board should +have grooves ploughed in them to hold the glass. All the woodwork +should be given several coats of asphalt varnish and to further +waterproof it and as a final coat use some kind of marine copper paint +that is used to coat the bottoms of vessels. Never use the common +white lead and linseed oil paint for an aquarium.</p> + +<p>You can sometimes buy aquarium cement or prepared putty at a "gold +fish" store. This you will need to putty in the glass. If you cannot +buy it, make it yourself from the asphalt varnish and whiting. Be sure +that the paint and putty of an aquarium is thoroughly dry before you +fill it with water.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most satisfactory way to study fish and insect life in +water is to use all glass boxes and globes. So many kinds of fish and +insects are natural enemies, even though they inhabit the same +streams, that they must be kept separate anyway. To put them in the +same aquarium would be like caging up two game roosters. If we were +studying the development of mosquitoes, for instance, from the larvae +or eggs to the fully developed insect, we should not get very far in +our nature study if we put them in an aquarium with fish. A fish will +soon make short work of a hundred mosquito wigglers just as a large +frog will eat the fish, a snake will eat the frog and so on.</p> + +<p>Rectangular glass boxes such as are commonly used for aquaria cost +less than a dollar per gallon capacity. Goldfish globes cost about the +same. White glass round aquaria are much cheaper and those made of +greenish domestic glass are the cheapest of all, a glass tank holding +eight gallons costing but two dollars.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/169.png" width="550" height="333" alt="A self-sustaining or balanced aquarium" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A self-sustaining or balanced aquarium</span> +</div> + +<p>Any transparent vessel capable of holding water, even a Mason jar will +make an aquarium from which a great deal of pleasure may be derived. +The old way of maintaining aquaria in good condition required a great +deal of care and attention. The water had to be changed at least once +a day if running water was not available, and altogether they were so +much trouble that as a rule owners soon tired of them.</p> + +<p>Modern aquaria are totally different. By a proper combination of fish +and growing plants we can almost duplicate the conditions of nature +and strike a balance so that the water need never be changed except +when it becomes foul or to clean the glass.</p> + +<p>These are called "self-sustaining" aquaria and they are the only kind +to have unless we can furnish running water from a public water +supply. Self-sustaining aquaria are very simple and any boy or girl +living near a brook can stock one at no expense whatever.</p> + +<p>The method is as follows: First cover the bottom of the aquarium with +a layer of sand and pebbles to a depth of about two inches. Then plant +in the bottom some aquatic or water plants that you have collected +from a near-by lake. Any kind of water plants will do—the kind of +plants boys always call seaweed, even a thousand miles from the sea. +In collecting the plants, choose small specimens and obtain roots and +all.</p> + +<p>If you can find it, the best plant is fanwort. Other good kinds are +hornwort, water starwort, tape grass, water poppy, milfoil, willow +moss, and floating plants like duckweed. Even if you do not know +these by name they are probably common in your neighbourhood. Fill the +tank with clean water. That taken from a spring or well is better than +cistern water. After two or three days, when the plants seem to be +well rooted, put in your fish. You may keep your aquarium in a light +place, but always keep it out of the sun in summer and away from the +heat of a stove or radiator in winter.</p> + +<p>The nature student will not attempt to stock up his aquarium +immediately. He should always leave room for one more fish or bug. One +year I started with a lone newt and before the summer was over I had +thirteen sunfish, pickerel, bass, minnows, catfish, carp, trout, more +newts, pollywogs or tadpoles, five kinds of frogs, an eel and all +sorts of bugs, waterbeetles and insects. I soon found that one kind of +insect would kill another and that sometimes my specimens would grow +wings over night and fly away. But to learn these things, even at our +own disappointment is "nature study." If we knew it all in advance, we +would not have much use for our experimental aquarium.</p> + +<p>Always keep a few snails and tadpoles, for they are the scavengers and +will eat the refuse stuff and keep the glass free from greenish scum. +Boys and girls are almost sure to overfeed fish. This is a great +mistake. The best standard feed is dried ants' eggs that can be bought +for a few cents a box at any bird and fish store. Do not feed pieces +of bread and meat. Study what their natural food is and if possible +get that for them.</p> + +<p>If your fish seem sickly, give them a five-minute bath in salt water +every day for a week. The kind of an aquarium above described is +intended to fill an entirely different purpose from the usual gold +fish globe. In your excursions you will find all sorts of queer +looking eggs and specimens. Some of the eggs are so tiny that they +look almost like black or white dust on the water. Another kind will +be a mass like a jellyfish with brown dots in it, still others will be +fastened in masses to the under side of a leaf in the water or perhaps +on the bottom. What are they? That is just the question and that is +why you will carefully collect them and take them home to await +developments.</p> + +<p>Always keep an accurate note-book with dates and facts. Also keep a +close watch on your specimens. Sometimes they will hatch and be eaten +by the other bugs before you could read this chapter.</p> + +<p>A nature student will need some part of the house that he may call his +very own. Here he can keep his specimens, his aquarium, his herbarium +and what not. Around the wall he can hang the twigs with their +cocoons, oak galls, last year's wasp and bird nests and other +treasures. He should also have a work table that a little glue or ink +will not injure and a carpet that has no further use in the household. +Usually one corner of the attic or cellar is just the place.</p> + +<p>See to it that you do not make other people uncomfortable in the +pursuit of your hobby. You will find that almost every one is afraid +of bugs and toads and that most people live in a world full of +wonderful things and only see a little beyond the end of their noses.</p> + +<p>There is a very practical side to nature study and the principal way +that we can make it really pay, is to know our friends from our +enemies in the animal and insect world. There are insects that chew, +suck and bore to ruin our orchards and grain crops. They are our +enemies. If we know their life story, where they hide and how they +breed, we can fight them better. For every dollar's worth of crops +that a farmer grows, it is estimated that his insect enemies eat +another dollar's worth. A little bug called the "San José" scale has +nearly ruined the orchards of some of the Eastern states. To fight +him, we must know how he lives. That is nature study. By study we +learn that the hop-toad is our best garden friend. He will spend the +whole night watching for the cutworms that are after our tomato +plants. When we see a woodpecker industriously pecking at the bark of +our apple trees, we know that he is after the larvae of the terrible +codling moth and we call him our friend.</p> + +<p>After we learn that a ladybug lives almost entirely on plant lice and +scale insects, we never kill one again except perhaps to place a +specimen In our collection. Naturalists say that without ladybugs, our +orchards would soon be entirely killed off.</p> + +<p>The dragon fly or mosquito hawk as well as "water tigers," water +striders and many kinds of beetles are the natural enemies of +mosquitoes and as they never harm our crops we should never harm them. +Nearly every living creature has some enemies.</p> + +<p>You have perhaps heard the famous verse of Dean Swift:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"So naturalists observe, a flea<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Has smaller that upon them prey<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And these have smaller still to bite 'em<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And so proceed <i>ad infinitum</i>."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Among our insect friends the leading place belongs either to the honey +bee or the silkworm. As silkworms are not especially successful in +this country and as their principal food, mulberry trees, are not +common, the nature student who cares to study our beneficial insects +had better devote his attention to honey bees. An observation beehive +is simply a glass box or hive instead of a wooden one. When we are not +engaged in studying our bee city, the hive must be covered with a +blanket as bees prefer to work in the dark. A boy or girl living in +the country can also keep bees profitably and thus combine business +with pleasure. A single hive will in a few years produce enough swarms +to give us a good start as "bee farmers."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/175.png" width="450" height="345" alt="An observation beehive" title="" /> +<span class="caption">An observation beehive</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X</h2> + +<h3>THE CARE OF PETS</h3> + +<blockquote>Cats—Boxes for song birds—How to attract the birds—Tame crows—The +pigeon fancier—Ornamental land and water fowl—Rabbits, guinea pigs, +rats and mice—How to build coops—General rules for pets—The dog</blockquote> + + +<p>In this chapter on pets, I regret exceedingly that I cannot say much +in favour of the family cat. Like nearly all children, I was brought +up to love kittens and to admire their playful, cunning ways. When a +kitten becomes a cat my love for it ceases. Cats will do so many mean, +dishonourable things, and will catch so many song birds and so few +rats and mice that it simply has become a question whether we shall +like the song birds or the cat. So many people do like cats that it is +unfair perhaps to condemn the whole race for the misdeeds of a few. If +a cat is carefully watched or if we put a bell on its neck, these +precautions will to a certain extent keep the cat from catching birds, +but most people have something better to do than to act as guardian +for a cat. The fact is that a cat is a stupid animal seldom showing +any real affection or loyalty for its owner and possessing but little +intelligence. It is very difficult to teach a cat even the simplest +tricks. We never know when a cat will turn on its best friend. They +have the "tiger" instinct of treachery. A cat which one minute is +contentedly purring on our lap may sink its claws into us the next.</p> + +<p>The only way to force a cat to catch mice is to keep it half starved. +Then instead of catching mice, it will probably go after birds if +there are any in the neighbourhood. I have shut a cat up in a room +with a mouse and it is doubtful whether the cat or the mouse were the +more frightened. The cat does more damage to the song birds of this +country than any other enemy they have. If kept at home and well fed, +cats sometimes become so fat and stupid that they will not molest +birds but this is due to laziness and not to any good qualities in the +cat. In normal condition they are natural hunters.</p> + +<p>The habits of a cat are unclean, its unearthly cries at night are +extremely disagreeable and altogether it is a nuisance. A famous +naturalist, Shaler, once said "A cat is the only animal that has been +tolerated, esteemed and at times worshipped without having a single +distinctly valuable quality."</p> + +<p>A few years ago a quail had a nest under a rock opposite my house. +Quail raise their young like poultry rather than like robins or wrens +or the other song birds. As soon as the tiny quail chicks are hatched, +the mother takes them around like a hen with a brood of chickens. This +mother quail was my especial care and study. She became so tame that I +could feed her. Finally she hatched out ten tiny brown balls of +feathers. Our cat had been watching her, too, but not from the same +motives and one day the cat came home with the mother quail in her +mouth. She ran under the porch just out of reach and calmly ate it. +The little brood were too small to look out for themselves so of +course they all died or fell an easy victim to other cats. The mother +was probably an easy prey because in guarding the young, a quail will +pretend to have a broken wing and struggle along to attract attention +to her and away from her little ones, who scurry to high grass for +safety. I have never been very friendly to cats since I witnessed this +episode.</p> + +<p>It has been estimated that the average domestic cat kills an average +of one song bird a day during the season when the birds are with us. +In certain sections a cat has been known to destroy six nests of +orioles, thrushes and bobolinks in a single day. The worst offenders +are cats that live around barns and old houses in a half wild +condition. Many people who say they "haven't the heart to kill a cat" +will take it away from home and drop it along the road. A thoughtless +act like this may mean the death of a hundred birds in that +neighbourhood. It takes less heart to kill the cat than to kill the +birds. So much for the cat.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/179.png" width="153" height="250" alt="A bird house" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A bird house</span> +</div> + +<p>Birds make splendid pets, but in keeping them in captivity, we must be +sure that we are not violating the game laws of the state we live in. +Nearly everywhere it is unlawful to keep in cages any native song +birds or those that destroy harmful insects—the so-called +"insectivorous birds." This includes thrushes, wrens, robins, +bluebirds, orioles or, in fact, practically all birds but crows, +blackbirds and kingfishers. It does not cover canaries, parrots, or +any birds that are not native. It is an excellent law and every boy or +girl should act as a special policeman to see that his friends and +companions do not molest either birds or their nests. It is cruel to +cage a wild bird anyway for a cage is nothing but a prison. There is +no law against taming the birds or making friends of them and after +all this is the most satisfactory way.</p> + +<p>If we build houses for the birds to nest in, provide feed for them and +in other ways do what we can to attract them, they will soon learn +that we are their friends. We must study their habits and always avoid +frightening them. Next to a cat, the worst enemies of our song birds +are the English sparrows. A sparrow is always fair game for the boy +with a slingshot or rifle. In many places these sparrows have driven +practically all the other birds out of the neighbourhood, have robbed +their nests and in other ways have shown themselves to be a public +nuisance. Until 1869 there were no sparrows in this country and now +they are more numerous than any other variety of birds, and sooner or +later, the Government will have to take steps to exterminate them or +we shall have no song birds at all.</p> + +<p>The usual size of a bird house is six inches square and about eight +inches high. It should always be made of old weather-beaten boards in +order not to frighten away its prospective tenants by looking like a +trap of some kind. The chances are that the sparrows will be the +first birds to claim a house unless we keep a close watch and drive +them away.</p> + +<p>One way to keep them out is to make the entrance doorway too small for +them to enter. A hole an inch in diameter will admit a wren or +chickadee and bar out a sparrow, but it will also keep out most of the +other birds. The usual doorway should be two inches in diameter. It is +surprising how soon after we build our bird house we find a tiny pair +making their plans to occupy it and to take up housekeeping. Sometimes +this will happen the same day the bird house is set up. Always provide +some nesting material near at hand; linen or cotton thread, +ravellings, tow, hair and excelsior are all good. Of course we must +not attempt to build the nest. No one is skillful enough for that.</p> + +<p>Nearly all of our native birds are migratory, that is they go south +for the winter. The date that we may look for them to return is almost +the same year after year. Some few birds—bluebirds, robins, cedar +birds and song sparrows will stay all winter if it is mild but as a +rule we must not expect the arrival of the feathered songsters until +March. The phoebe bird is about the first one we shall see.</p> + +<p>In April look for the brown thrasher, catbird, wren, barn, eave and +tree swallows, martins, king birds and chipping sparrows. In May the +principal birds of our neighbourhood will return—thrushes, vireos, +tanagers, grosbeaks, bobolinks, orioles. The game birds—quail, +partridge, meadowlarks and pheasants do not migrate as a rule. At +least they do not disappear for a time and then return. When they +leave a neighbourhood, they rarely come back to it.</p> + +<p>All the song birds begin nesting in May. Consequently we should have +our bird houses "ready for occupancy" May 1st. It will take about +twelve days for most birds to hatch their eggs. Some varieties will +hatch three broods in a season, but two is the usual rule.</p> + +<p>We shall require a great deal of patience to tame the wild birds. Some +bird lovers have succeeded in teaching birds to feed from their hands. +A wild bird that is once thoroughly frightened can probably never be +tamed again.</p> + +<p>A crow is a very interesting pet. Crows are especially tamable and may +be allowed full liberty around the dooryard. We must get a young one +from the nest just before it is ready to fly. Crows are great thieves +and are attracted by bright objects. If you have a tame crow, and if +any member of your household misses jewellery or thimbles you had +better look in the crows' nest before you think that burglars have +been around.</p> + +<p>The chief difference between tamed wild animals, such as squirrels, +birds, owls, foxes, crows and so on, and the domesticated animals and +birds, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons and chickens, lies in +the possibility with the latter of modifying nature and breeding for +certain special markings, colours or size. All breeds of chickens from +the little bantams to the enormous Brahmas have been bred from a wild +species of chicken found in India and called the jungle fowl.</p> + +<p>All the great poultry shows held throughout the country annually are +for the purpose of exhibiting the most perfectly marked specimens of +the breeders' skill. This is decided by judges who award prizes. The +competition is sometimes very keen. In barred Plymouth Rock chickens, +for example, there are sometimes a hundred birds entered to compete +for a single prize. The breeders are called fanciers. The principal +breeders of certain animals such as rabbits, pigeons or poultry, form +an association or club and agree to an imaginary type of the animal +called the ideal or "Standard of Perfection."</p> + +<p>For example, the breeders of white fantail pigeons agree that perfect +birds shall be of certain shape and size, with the head resting on the +back just at the base of the tail; the tail should be spread out like +a fan and contain at least twenty-eight feathers. These feathers +should be laced on the ends. The model fantail should have a nervous +jerky motion and never be at rest. Each of these points is given a +certain value on a scale of marking and in judging the birds they are +marked just as you may be in your lessons at school. The fancier tries +to breed a bird that comes the nearest to this model. The prizes are +sometimes of great value.</p> + +<p>There is an enormous list of breeds in nearly all varieties of animals +and poultry. In pigeons alone there are carriers, pouters, tumblers, +baldheads, beards, dragoons, barbs, jacobins, Antwerps, turbits, owls, +orientals, damoscenes, capuchins, fantails, trumpeters, swifts, +Lahores, Burmese, Scandaroons, magpies, nuns, Archangels, runts and so +on.</p> + +<p>These birds are very different in appearance, the pouter, for example, +has the power of inflating his crop until it puffs out in front as +large as a baseball. Jacobins or as they are commonly called, +"ruffle-necks," have an immense ruffle of feathers like a feather boa. +Dragoons have a huge wart on the bill as large as an almond. The +tumblers are so named from their habit of turning backward +somersaults during flight.</p> + +<p>Almost every one who starts keeping domestic pets either soon tires of +the sport or becomes a fancier. The care of common pigeons is a very +simple matter. The principal thing is a good loft or cote for them in +the top of a barn or house. They will practically take care of +themselves and after a few years greatly increase in numbers.</p> + +<p>A model pigeon house for breeding fancy pigeons requires separate +mating boxes, nests and other appliances. It would be impossible to +make much of a success with fancy pigeons if they are allowed their +liberty to fly about and mate at will.</p> + +<p>The best nest boxes for pigeons are rough earthenware pans, eight +inches across, which may be bought cheaply at a bird store. The floor +of the cote should be covered with sawdust or gravel to the depth of +half an inch. Pigeons that are confined should be fed regularly on a +mixture of small grains and cracked corn. They should also be given +cracked oyster shells, grit and charcoal occasionally. A pigeon loft +should be rat proof and clean.</p> + +<p>It is very doubtful whether there is any money in raising pigeons or +squabs for market. Fanciers never sell their output for market +purposes unless it is to get rid of surplus or undesirable stock. A +breeder who is successful in winning prizes with birds of his "strain" +as it is called will find a ready market with other breeders for all +the birds he cares to sell. Prize winning birds sometimes bring a +hundred dollars a pair. It is by no means easy to breed prizewinners +and the chances are that the beginner will be a buyer of stock rather +than a seller.</p> + +<p>Homing pigeons or as they are commonly called, carriers, are not bred +for special markings like fancy pigeons but because of their power and +speed in flight. A carrier has the "homing" instinct more fully +developed than any other animal. In some homing pigeon races, the +birds have made speed records of over a mile a minute for many hours +and have flown over a thousand miles. If a well-bred homing pigeon +fails to return to his home loft it is almost a certainty that he is +either forcibly detained or that he has been killed by hunters or +hawks. Never try to capture a pigeon that may stop for a rest at your +loft. He may be in a race and his owner may be waiting for his return +five hundred miles away when every minute counts in winning a prize.</p> + +<p>Another large class of birds that make fine pets although they are not +strictly in the class of birds bred by the fancier are the ornamental +land and water fowl. The chief objection to these birds as pets is the +expense of buying them. The list of birds in this class is very large. +In swans the leading varieties are mute, American whistling, black +Australian, white Berwick and black-necked swans. The largest class +are the pheasants. They are exceedingly beautiful, especially the +golden, silver, Lady Amherst, Elliott, Reeves, green Japanese, +Swinhoe, English ring neck, Melanotis, and Torquatis pheasants. The +common wild geese are Egyptian, Canadian, white-fronted, Sebastopol, +snow, brant, bar-headed, spin-winged and many others. In ducks, there +are mallards, black, wood, mandarin, blue and green winged teal, +widgeon, redhead, pin-tail, bluebill, gadwell, call and many others. +Beside pheasants, ducks and geese there are also the various storks, +cranes, pea-fowl and herons in the "ornamental fowl" list.</p> + +<p>These are all wild fowl. The commoner varieties will cost from six to +fifteen dollars a pair and the rare ones several hundred. To keep the +semi-wild birds from flying away they are usually pinioned, a process +of taking off the end joint of one wing. The colours of some of the +ornamental fowl are more beautiful than any birds in nature. Pheasants +especially are easily cared for and make interesting pets. They can +be tamed and if kept outdoors they will seldom be subject to disease. +Most of these birds are as easily cared for as chickens.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/188.png" width="450" height="397" alt="A home-made rabbit house" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A home-made rabbit house</span> +</div> + +<p>Rabbits make fine pets for boys and girls. They are clean in their +habits, hardy and gentle. The common kinds are white rabbits with pink +eyes or albinos, and brown rabbits or Belgian hares. With rabbits also +there is a "fancy." The Fur Fanciers' Association recognizes the +following distinct breeds: Belgians, Flemish giants, Dutch marked, +English, Himalayan, silvers, tans, Polish, lops, and Angoras.</p> + +<p>A rabbit hutch or coop is easily built from old packing boxes. One +third of the coop should be darkened and made into a nest, with an +entrance door outside and the rest simply covered with a wire front, +also with a door for cleaning and feeding. The hutch should stand on +legs above ground as rabbits do not thrive well in dampness. They +will, however, live out all winter in a dry place. A box four feet +long and two feet wide will hold a pair of rabbits nicely. Rabbits +will become very tame and may often be allowed full liberty about the +place if there are no dogs to molest them.</p> + +<p>The drawing shows a standard type of rabbit hutch. A boy who is handy +with tools can easily build one. We can always dispose of the increase +in our rabbit family to friends or to dealers.</p> + +<p>Guinea pigs or cavies are similar to rabbits in their requirements. +The chief difference is that guinea pigs cannot stand excessive cold +and will not do well if kept outside in severe winter weather. Rabbits +and cavies will eat almost anything and eat constantly. The usual feed +is hay, clover, wheat, corn, carrots, turnips, cabbage, lettuce, +celery, potato parings, or any green food or grains. Cavies are +especially fond of bread and milk.</p> + +<p>The three classes of cavies are Peruvians or Angoras, with long silky +hair; Abyssinians, with coarse hair in tufts or rosettes, and the +common guinea pig or smooth, cavy. A pair of cavies will cost about +two dollars. A dry airy cellar is a good place to keep them as they +are cleanly in their habits. Neither cavies nor rabbits are especially +intelligent but they do learn to know their master or at least the one +who feeds them. Pet rats and mice are in the same class as rabbits but +they should always have a coop that they will not gnaw out of. There +is even a mouse club. It is in Europe and has over a thousand members.</p> + +<p>An interesting example of skill in breeding is seen in Dutch belted +varieties of cattle, in hogs, rabbits, cavies and mice. In all of +these animals the same markings have been bred by careful crossing and +selection. In all lines of "fancy" it is important to stick to a few +varieties. We shall never make much of a success if we have half a +dozen kinds of chickens, pigeons or rabbits. By far the most important +"fancy" is with chickens, but this subject will be considered in the +chapter on the care of poultry.</p> + +<p>Among other pets are tame squirrels, turtles, snakes, lizards and +toads. A tame gray squirrel makes a splendid pet. After a while we can +give our squirrel full liberty and find him back in his nest at night. +I once had a tame owl but I found that because of his habit of flying +and feeding at night he was a very stupid pet. Besides that his +powerful beak and sharp claws or talons were dangerous. I also once +had a pair of flying squirrels but they also only appear at night and +were consequently uninteresting in the daytime. We must always study +the natural habits of our pets and try to give them coops and food as +much like nature as possible. My flying squirrels were given soft feed +in place of the usual hard-shelled nuts. Consequently their teeth grew +so long that they were a positive deformity. We finally liberated them +but before they could get to a place of safety one of them was caught +and killed by a chicken. The poor little creature was so fat from +overfeeding and lack of exercise that he had all but lost the power of +using his legs.</p> + +<p>Coops for pets may be as elaborate as our pocketbook will allow. The +important things to remember are to construct a coop so that it may be +cleaned easily, and to provide plenty of ventilation. It must also be +dry. Fresh air is as important for animals as for people. The larger +we can make a coop, the better it will be. Be careful not to overfeed +pets. Regular and frequent meals of just what they will eat up clean +is better than an occasional big meal. Rabbits require very little +water. Usually they will obtain enough moisture from the green food +they eat. It is a mistake, however, to think that water will kill +rabbits. Change the straw in the nest boxes frequently. When they make +fur nests do not disturb them.</p> + +<p>For squirrels and other small animals, the coop may be made entirely +of wire except the baseboard, which should be a piece of seasoned +wood. Be sure that there are no sharp wire points or projecting nails +in a coop to injure the animals.</p> + +<p>The whole secret of taming wild creatures is patience. We must try to +show them that we are their friends. The most direct way to an +animal's heart is through his stomach, which is another way of saying +that the owner should personally feed his own pets if he wishes them +to know him.</p> + +<p>There is really no reason why a country boy or girl should have any +caged pets at all. In the city it is different. Perhaps the best pet +for the unnatural conditions of city life is a canary. The real spirit +to develop a love for the little creatures that inhabit our woods and +fields is to feel that they are our friends rather than that they are +prisoners. By all means cultivate the acquaintance of your "small +country neighbours."</p> + + +<h4>THE DOG</h4> + +<p>Every boy should own a dog. He is the friend and companion of our +youth. For a boy to grow up without a dog is to be denied one of the +real joys of life.</p> + +<p>Senator Vest once said: "The one absolute, unselfish friend that a man +can have in this selfish world; the one that never deserts him, the +one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous is his dog. He will +sleep on the cold ground where the wintry winds blow and the snow +drives fiercely if only he can be near his master's side. He will kiss +the hand that has no food to offer, he will guard the sleep of his +pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert he +remains."</p> + +<p>The breed makes but little difference so long as the dog is +intelligent and kind. Mixed breeds and mongrel dogs are often the most +intelligent. A thoroughbred dog will give us more satisfaction +possibly than a mongrel because he will make a better appearance. But +at the same time, he is far more likely to be stolen. There are so +many breeds to select from that it is almost impossible to give much +advice. As a rule, the dog we shall like is the one we can get. The +very heavy dogs such as Saint Bernards, mastiffs and great Danes are +clumsy and will require outside quarters, as they are too bulky to +have in the house. On the other hand the small toy breeds such as +Pomeranians, black and tans and King Charles spaniels and pugs, are +too delicate to be a real boy's dog. A list from which you may safely +select a dog would be bull terriers, Airedale terriers, Scotch +terriers, Irish terriers, cocker spaniels, pointers and setters, +either Irish or English. This is by no means a complete list. I prefer +a setter because my first dog, "Old Ben," was a setter, and he shared +in most of my fun from the earliest recollections that I have. When he +died I lost a true friend. It was the first real sorrow I ever had.</p> + +<p>A dog should not sleep in the same room with his owner, but should +have a warm dry kennel and be taught to regard it as his home.</p> + +<p>Do not make the mistake of overfeeding a dog. He does not need three +meals a day. One is sufficient, about nine in the morning, when he +should have all he wants to eat. If you insist on a second meal give +him a dog biscuit or a bone to gnaw on in the evening.</p> + +<p>Keep your dog free from fleas, in spite of what David Harum says that +"a reasonable amount of fleas is good for a dog, because it keeps him +from brooding over being a dog." A thorough bath with carbolic soap +and water will rid a dog of fleas, but this treatment should be +repeated at weekly intervals to kill the eggs which hatch in the +meantime.</p> + +<p>Fresh insect powder or Scotch snuff if dusted thoroughly in a dog's +coat will cause fleas to leave. This treatment should be done out of +doors. A good plan is to place the dog on a sheet or piece of white +paper and work the powder well into the hair, especially around his +neck and behind the ears. Be careful not to injure his eyes.</p> + +<p>A dog will soon recognize his master, and there is no quicker way to +show that you are his master than to enforce obedience when you +attempt to make him mind. Whether a whipping is necessary depends on +the dog. With most dogs a good scolding will be sufficient. Never whip +a dog when you are angry and never overdo the matter. It is possible +to "break a dog's spirit," which simply means to make him afraid of +you. A dog so frightened is ruined until you regain his confidence, a +very difficult thing to do. Never cuff a dog with your hand. Always +use a whip or switch. Let the whipping be a definite ceremony with a +plain object in view.</p> + +<p>Some dogs will prove to be headstrong and others will try to do +whatever their master wants. There is an amazing difference in dogs +and their intelligence seems to have no limits.</p> + +<p>A dog must never be allowed to annoy our neighbours or friends. One of +the most annoying habits that a dog cultivates is that of running out +and barking at passing carriages or people. A few lessons in +discipline early in life will break him of this habit, but once +acquired it is practically unbreakable.</p> + +<p>Another very annoying habit is that of allowing a dog to put his paws +on us. We may not mind it when we are dressed in old clothes but +friends or callers are possibly not so considerate.</p> + +<p>Nearly every bad habit that a dog learns is usually the fault of the +owner rather than of the dog. The training of a dog should be done as +a puppy. Therefore we must secure our dog as young as possible.</p> + +<p>In training hunting dogs the first step is called "yard-breaking." +With ordinary dogs a thorough course in yard-breaking by teaching the +simple command is all that will be necessary. First of all, teach your +dog to lie down and come to you at call. The usual word for the former +is "charge." A dog can be taught this in a very short time. Take him +by the neck and back, and at the word, force him to lie down. Do not +use any other words, or even pet him. Simply impress on his mind that +when he hears "charge" it means lie down. As a rule a puppy is taught +to come by snapping the fingers or by making a noise with the lips +similar to that by which we urge a horse. It is almost natural to say +"Come here." After a puppy learns to follow us at the command "heel +in" and to run ahead when we say "go on," we must also teach him to +come when we whistle. Most boys can make a whistle with the fingers +sufficiently penetrating to call a dog for a long distance but a small +metal whistle to carry in the pocket is the best way.</p> + +<p>After a dog has acquired the simple lessons of training we shall find +that he learns to understand us and to do our wishes very quickly. +There should be a complete understanding between a dog and his owner. +He will know our ways and we shall know his.</p> + +<p>I have hunted in Virginia with a dog so intelligent that merely by +watching him his master could tell whether he was on the trail of a +rabbit, wild turkey, or deer. For each kind of game he had a different +manner of barking and what is more remarkable, he was a thoroughly +broken quail dog with the best "nose" or scent I have ever known and +of course did not bark under these circumstances. Such a dog would be +a mystery to any one who did not know his ways.</p> + +<p>This dog "Old Doc" would hunt with any one on quail, but if the +hunter did not succeed in killing game the dog would soon show his +disapproval in every way, sulk along behind, and if the poor shooting +continued, finally leave for home. A friend who took him out told me, +"First I missed the birds and then I missed the dog." He had left in +disgust.</p> + +<p>No matter what breed our dog is we shall surely become greatly +attached to him and almost look upon him as a friend rather than as an +animal. A boy should never encourage a dog to fight. It is a cruel, +unmanly thing and one that a real dog lover will never do. Dog +fighting is a form of brutality second only to tying tin cans and +other things to a dog's tail for the "fun" of seeing him run. I once +saw a poor beast lose his tail as a result of this brutal joke. Some +one had tied a string tightly around his tail and the dog ran until +completely exhausted. He then kept out of sight for a few days. In the +meantime the string caused his tail to become fearfully sore and +finally to fall off. Can any one see a joke in this?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI</h2> + +<h3>THE CARE OF CHICKENS</h3> + +<blockquote>The best breed—Good and bad points of incubators—What to feed small +chicks—A model chicken house</blockquote> + + +<p>A pen of chickens gives a boy or girl an opportunity for keeping pets +that have some real value. Whether there is much profit in poultry is +a question, but it is at least certain that the more care you give +them the better they pay. There is but little difference in the +results obtained from the various breeds of chickens, but there is a +great difference in the people who take care of them. It is very +difficult to make poultry pay on a large scale. Nearly every poultry +farm that has started as a business has failed to make a success. The +surest way to make chickens pay is to have only a few. Then the table +scraps and the worms and weed seeds they can pick up will supply them +with practically all their feed and the time you give them need not be +counted as expense.</p> + +<p>There are sixty or seventy distinct breeds of poultry recognized by +expert fanciers and from three to ten colours or varieties in many of +these breeds. New ones are being added constantly. For example, a +breed called Orpingtons was recently introduced from England and now +has ten varieties or colours that are "standard." At the New York +Poultry Show a record price of $2,500 was paid for the prize-winning +hen of this breed. There is a style in chickens as well as in anything +else. A new breed will always have a great many admirers at first, and +great claims will be made for its superior qualities. The poultrymen +who have stock and eggs to sell will secure high prices for their +output. Very soon, however, the real value of a new breed will be +known and it will be on the same basis as the older breeds.</p> + +<p>A beginner had better start with some standard recognized breed and +leave the experimenting to some one else. One thing is certain: +thoroughbreds will pay better than mongrels. Their eggs are of more +uniform size and colour, the stock will be healthy and as a rule weigh +a pound or two more than birds of uncertain breeding. Thoroughbreds do +not cost any more to feed or care for than the mongrels and in every +way are superior.</p> + +<p>Breeds of poultry are usually divided into three separate classes, +depending on the place where the breed originated. They are the +American, Asiatic, and Mediterranean strains. The leading American +breed is the barred Plymouth Rock and for a beginner will probably be +the best to start with.</p> + +<p>Another very excellent American or general purpose breed is the White +Wyandotte. They are especially valuable as broilers, as they make +rapid growth while young. The Leghorns are the leading breed for eggs. +They are "non-sitters" and, being very active, do not become overfat. +Their small size, however, makes them poor table fowls and for this +reason they are not adapted to general use. The Asiatic type, which +includes Brahmas, Langshans, and Cochins, are all clumsy, heavy birds, +which make excellent table fowl but are poor layers and poor foragers. +Brahma roosters will frequently weigh fifteen pounds and can eat corn +from the top of a barrel.</p> + +<p>A beginner should never attempt to keep more than one kind of +chickens. To get a start, we must either buy a pen of birds or buy the +eggs and raise our own stock. The latter method will take a year more +than the former, as the chicks we hatch this year will be our layers a +year later. Sometimes a pen of eight or ten fowls can be bought +reasonably from some one who is selling out. If we buy from a breeder +who is in the business they will cost about five dollars a trio of +two hens and a rooster. The cheapest way is to buy eggs and hatch your +own stock. The usual price for hatching-eggs is one dollar for fifteen +eggs. We can safely count on hatching eight chicks from a setting, of +which four may be pullets. Therefore we must allow fifteen eggs for +each four pullets we intend to keep the next year. The surplus +cockerels can be sold for enough to pay for the cost of the eggs. If +we have good luck we may hatch every egg in a setting and ten of them +may be pullets. On the other hand, we may have only two or three +chicks, which may all prove to be cockerels; so the above calculation +is a fair average. If we start with eggs, we shall have to buy or rent +some broody hens to put on the eggs. A good plan is to arrange with +some farmer in the neighbourhood to take charge of the eggs and to set +his own hens on them. I once made such an arrangement and agreed to +give him all but one of the cockerels that hatched. I was to take all +the pullets. The arrangement was mutually satisfactory and he kept and +fed the chicks until they were able to leave the mother hen—about +eight weeks. It is also possible to buy one-day-old chicks for about +ten or fifteen cents apiece from a poultry dealer, but the safest way +is to hatch your own stock.</p> + +<p>The easiest way to make a large hatch all at one time is with an +incubator. There are a number of very excellent makes advertised in +the farm papers and other magazines and the prices are quite +reasonable. An incubator holding about a hundred eggs will cost ten or +twelve dollars. There are many objections to incubators which we can +learn only from practical experience. We shall not average more than +50 per cent. hatches as a rule. That is to say, for every hundred eggs +we set we must not count on hatching more than fifty chicks. +Incubators are a constant care. The most important objection to an +incubator is that it is against the rules of most fire insurance +companies to allow it to be operated in any building that the +insurance policy covers. If the automatic heat regulator fails to work +and the heat in our incubator runs up too high we may have a fire. At +any rate, we shall lose our entire hatch. The latter is also true if +the lamp goes out and the eggs become too cool. I have made a great +many hatches with incubators of different makes and my experience has +been that we must watch an incubator almost constantly to have success +with it.</p> + +<p>The sure way to hatch chickens is with a broody hen, but at the same +time incubators are perfectly satisfactory if run in a room where the +temperature does not vary much (a cellar is the best place). With an +incubator there is always a temptation to attempt to raise more +chickens than we can care for properly. Overcrowding causes more +trouble than any other one thing. It is better to have a dozen +chickens well cared for than a hundred that are neglected.</p> + +<p>Eggs for incubators will cost about five dollars a hundred. Of course +if they are from prize-winning stock the cost will be several times +this amount. Before placing any eggs in an incubator it should be run +for two days to be sure that the heat regulator is in working order. +The usual temperature for hatching is 103 degrees and the machine +should be regulated for this temperature as it comes from the factory. +Full directions for operating, as well as a thermometer, will come +with the machine and should be studied and understood before we begin +to operate it. As the hatch progresses, the heat will "run up," as it +is called, and we shall need to understand how to regulate the +thermostat to correct this tendency toward an increased temperature. +The eggs in an incubator must be turned twice a day. To be sure that +we do this thoroughly it is customary to mark the eggs before we place +them in the machine. The usual mark is an "X" on one side of the egg +and an "O" on the other written in lead pencil. In placing the eggs in +the trays we start with all the "O" marks up, for instance, and at the +time of the first turning leave all the "X's" visible, alternating +this twice every day.</p> + +<p>In order to operate an incubator successfully, we shall also need a +brooder, which is really an artificial mother. There is a standard +make of brooder costing five dollars that will accommodate fifty +chicks. Brooders are very simple in construction and can be made at +home. A tinsmith will have to make the heating drum. The rest of it is +simply a wooden box with a curtain partition to separate the hot room +from the feeding space. Ventilating holes must be provided for a +supply of fresh air and a box placed at the bottom to prevent a +draught from blowing out the lamp. In a very few days after we place +the chicks in a brooder they should be allowed to go in and out at +will. In a week or two we shall be able to teach them the way in, and +then by lowering the platform to the ground for a runway we can permit +them to run on the ground in an enclosed runway. On rainy days we must +shut them in.</p> + +<p>There is always a temptation to feed chicks too soon after they are +hatched. We should always wait at least twenty-four hours to give them +a chance to become thoroughly dry. The general custom of giving wet +cornmeal for the first feed is wrong. Always feed chicks on dry food +and you will avoid a great deal of sickness. An excellent first food +is hard-boiled egg and corn bread made from cornmeal and water without +salt and thoroughly baked until it may be crumbled. Only feed a little +at a time, but feed often. Five times a day is none too much for +two-week-old chicks.</p> + +<p>One successful poultryman I am acquainted with gives, as the first +feed, dog biscuit crushed. All the small grains are good if they are +cracked so that the chicks can eat them. The standard mixture sold by +poultry men under the name "chick food" is probably the best. It +consists of cracked wheat, rye, and corn, millet seed, pinhead +oatmeal, grit, and oyster shells. Do not feed meat to chicks until +their pin feathers begin to show, when they may have some well-cooked +lean meat, three times a week.</p> + +<p>There is quite an art in setting a hen properly. They always prefer a +dry, dark place. If we are sure that there are no rats around, there +is no better place to set a hen than on the ground. This is as they +sit in nature and it usually seems to be the case that a hen that +steals her nest will bring out more chicks than one that we have +coddled. Eggs that we are saving for hatching should be kept in a cool +place but never allowed to freeze. They should be turned every day +until they are set. Hens' eggs will hatch in about twenty-one days. +The eggs that have failed to hatch at this time may be discarded. When +we move a broody hen we must be sure that she will stay on her new +nest before we give her any eggs. Test her with a china egg or a +doorknob. If she stays on for two nights we may safely give her the +setting. It is always better when convenient to set a hen where she +first makes her nest. If she must be moved, do it at night with as +little disturbance as possible. It is always a good plan to shut in a +sitting hen and let her out once a day for feed and exercise. Do not +worry if in your judgment she remains off the nest too long. The eggs +require cooling to develop the air chamber properly, and as a rule the +hen knows best.</p> + +<p>Young chickens are subject to a great many diseases, but if they are +kept dry and warm, and if they have dry food, most of the troubles may +be avoided. With all poultry, lice are a great pest. Old fowls can +dust themselves and in a measure keep the pest in check, but little +chicks are comparatively helpless. The big gray lice will be found on +a chick's neck near the head. The remedy for this is to grease the +feathers with vaseline on the head and neck. The small white lice can +be controlled by dusting the chicks with insect powder and by keeping +the brooder absolutely clean. A weekly coat of whitewash to which some +carbolic acid has been added will keep lice in check in poultry houses +and is an excellent plan. Hen-hatched chicks are usually more subject +to lice than those hatched In incubators and raised in brooders, as +they become infected from the mother. Some people say that chicks have +lice on them when they are hatched, but this is not so.</p> + +<p>The first two weeks of a chick's life are the important time. If they +are chilled or neglected they never get over it, but will develop into +weaklings. There are many rules and remedies for doctoring sick +chickens, but the best way is to kill them. This is especially so in +cases of roup or colds. The former is a very contagious disease and +unless checked may kill an entire pen of chickens. A man who raises +25,000 chickens annually once told me that "the best medicine for a +sick chicken is the axe."</p> + +<p>A very low fence will hold small chicks from straying away, but it +must be absolutely tight at the bottom, as a very small opening will +allow them to get through. Avoid all corners or places where they can +be caught fast. The mesh of a wire fence must be fine. Ordinary +chicken wire will not do.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/209.png" width="550" height="332" alt="A home-made chicken coop built on the "scratching-shed" +plan" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A home-made chicken coop built on the "scratching-shed" +plan</span> +</div> + +<p>A brooder that will accommodate fifty chicks comfortably for eight +weeks will be entirely too small even for half that number after they +begin to grow. As soon as they can get along without artificial heat, +the chickens should be moved to a colony house and given free range. +They will soon learn to roost and to find their way in and out of +their new home, especially if we move away the old one where they +cannot find it.</p> + +<p>A chicken coop for grown fowls can be of almost any shape, size, or +material, providing that we do not crowd it to more than its proper +capacity. The important thing is to have a coop that is dry, easily +cleaned and with good ventilation, but without cracks to admit +draughts. A roost made of two by four timbers set on edge with the +sharp corners rounded off is better than a round perch. No matter how +many roosts we provide, our chickens will always fight and quarrel to +occupy the top one. Under the roost build a movable board or shelf +which may easily be taken out and cleaned. Place the nest boxes under +this board, close to the ground. One nest for four hens is a fair +allowance. Hens prefer to nest in a dark place if possible. A modern, +up-to-date coop should have a warm, windproof sleeping room and an +outside scratching shed. A sleeping room should be provided with a +window on the south side and reaching nearly to the floor. A hotbed +sash is excellent for this purpose. The runway or yard should be as +large as our purse will permit. In this yard plant a plum tree for +shade. The chickens will keep the plum trees free from the "curculio," +a small beetle which is the principal insect pest of this fruit. This +beetle is sometimes called "the little Turk" because he makes a mark +on a plum that resembles the "star and crescent" of the Turkish flag.</p> + +<p>Whether we can make our poultry pay for the trouble and expense of +keeping them will depend on the question of winter eggs. It is +contrary to the natural habits of chickens to lay in winter, and if +left to themselves they will practically stop laying when they begin +to moult or shed their feathers in the fall, and will not begin again +until the warm days of spring. When eggs are scarce it will be a great +treat to be able to have our own supply instead of paying a high price +at the grocer's.</p> + +<p>The fact that it is possible to get really fresh eggs in midwinter +shows that with the proper care hens will lay. The average farm hen +does not lay more than eighty eggs a year, which is hardly enough to +pay for her feed. On the other hand, at an egg-laying contest held in +Pennsylvania, the prize-winning pen made a record of 290 eggs per year +for each hen. This was all due to better care and proper feed.</p> + +<p>The birds were healthy pullets to begin with, they had warm food and +warm drinking water throughout the winter, their coop was a bright, +clean, dry place with an outside scratching shed. The grain was fed in +a deep litter of straw to make them work to get it and thus to obtain +the necessary exercise to keep down fat. The birds in this contest +were all hatched early in March and were all through the moult before +the cold weather came. Most of the advertised poultry feeds for winter +eggs are a swindle. If we give the birds proper care we shall not +require any drugs. It is an excellent plan to give unthreshed straw to +poultry in winter. They will work to obtain the grain and be kept +busy. The usual quantity of grain for poultry is at the rate of a +quart of corn or wheat to each fifteen hens. A standard winter ration +is the so-called hot bran mash. This is made from wheat bran, clover +meal, and either cut bone or meat scraps. It will be necessary to feed +this in a hopper to avoid waste and it should be given at night just +before the birds go to roost, with the grain ration in the morning, +which will keep them scratching all day. Always keep some grit and +oyster shells where the chickens can get it; also feed a little +charcoal occasionally.</p> + +<p>A dust bath for the hens will be appreciated in winter when the ground +is frozen. Sink a soap box in a corner of the pen and sheltered from +rain or snow and fill it with dry road dust. Have an extra supply to +fill up the box from time to time.</p> + +<p>The best place for a chicken house is on a sandy hillside with a +southern slope. A heavy clay soil with poor drainage is very bad. +Six-foot chicken wire will be high enough to enclose the run. If any +of the chickens persist in flying out we must clip the flight feathers +of their wings (one wing, not both). Do not put a top board on the +run. If a chicken does not see something to fly to, it will seldom +attempt to go over a fence, even if it is quite low.</p> + +<p>It is much better to allow chickens full liberty if they do not ruin +our garden or flower beds or persist in laying in out of the way +places where the eggs cannot be found.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII</h2> + +<h3>WINTER SPORTS</h3> + +<blockquote>What to wear—Skating—Skiing—Snowshoeing—Hockey</blockquote> + + +<p>If one is fortunate enough to live in a part of the country where they +have old-fashioned winters, the possibilities for outdoor sports are +very great and the cold weather may be made the best part of the year +for healthful outdoor exercise. To enjoy winter recreations properly +we must have proper clothing. An ordinary overcoat is very much out of +place, except possibly for sleighing. The regulation costume for +almost any outdoor sport in winter is a warm coat, a heavy sweater, +woollen trousers and stockings, and stout leather shoes. If in +addition we have woollen gloves or mittens and a woollen skating cap +or toque, we shall be enabled to brave the coldest kind of weather, +provided of course that we have warm woollen underwear. Various +modifications in this costume such as high hunting boots, or leggings +and a flannel shirt worn under the sweater are possible. In the far +North, the universal winter footwear is moccasins. We must be careful +not to dress too warmly when we expect to indulge in violent exercise. +Excessive clothing will render us more liable to a sudden check of +perspiration, a consequent closing of the pores and a resulting cold. +Rubber boots or overshoes are very bad if worn constantly. The rubber, +being waterproof, holds in the perspiration and we often find our +stockings damp even when the walking is dry. Rubber boots also make +our feet tender and cause cold feet. Tight shoes are also bad for the +reason that they check circulation. The best footwear for a boy who +lives in the country will be Indian moccasins or shoepacs worn with +several pairs of lumbermen's woollen stockings. Such footwear would +not do for skating, as they have no soles, but for outdoor tramping in +the snow they are just the thing. No leather is thoroughly waterproof +against snow water, but by frequent greasing with mutton tallow, +neatsfoot oil or vaseline, shoes can be kept soft and practically +waterproof as long as the soles and uppers are in good condition.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/215.png" width="250" height="189" alt="A shoepac" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A shoepac</span> +</div> + +<p>In all winter sports, especially in Canada, the custom is to wear +gaily coloured goods. A mackinaw jacket made from the same material as +a blanket, with very prominent stripes or plaids, is often worn. +Closely woven goods are better than a thicker loose weave as they are +lighter, warmer, and more waterproof.</p> + +<p>Chief among winter sports is skating. There is no healthier +recreation, provided that the ice is safe. Even in the coldest weather +with the ice a foot thick or more we must always be sure to be on the +lookout for air-holes or thin places over springs. It is said that ice +an inch thick will hold the weight of a man, but it is better to be +sure than to be sorry, and three or four inches are much safer.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/216.png" width="200" height="59" alt="The club skate model" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The club skate model</span> +</div> + +<p>A few years ago the height of the skater's art was so called "fancy or +figure" skating, but recently the tendency has been for speed rather +than for grace and the old-fashioned club skates have been replaced by +racing or hockey skates with much longer runners. Fancy skating for +prizes is governed by rules just as any other game or sport. The +contestants do not attempt figures of their own invention but strive +to excel in the so-called "compulsory" figures. A fancy skater can +practise from diagrams and directions just as one might practise moves +in a game of chess. In printed directions for fancy skating the +following abbreviations are used for the strokes:</p> + +<blockquote> +R—right<br /> +L—left<br /> +F—forward<br /> +B—backward<br /> +O—outside<br /> +I—inside<br /> +<br /> +T—three<br /> +LP—loop<br /> +B—bracket<br /> +RC—rocker<br /> +C—counter<br /> +</blockquote> + +<p>Supposing the figure to be executed to be the well-known "figure +eight." It would be described as follows:</p> + +<blockquote>R-F-O L-F-O. R-F-I L-F-I. R-B-O L-B-O. R-B-I L-B-I.</blockquote> + +<p>By referring to the above table the skater can easily determine just +what strokes are necessary to produce the figure properly.</p> + +<p>Racing skates should be attached to shoes of special design either by +screws or rivets. The most important thing is to have the blades +carefully ground by an expert. They should be keen enough to cut a +hair. To become a fast skater, practise if possible with an expert. +Have him skate ahead of you and measure your stroke with his. By +keeping your hands clasped behind your back your balance will not only +be greatly improved but your endurance will be doubled. The sprinting +stroke is a direct glide ahead with the foot straight. A trained +skater can go very long distances with very little fatigue but one +must carefully measure his speed to the distance to be travelled. When +you can cover a measured mile in three and one-half minutes you may +consider yourself in the class of fast skaters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/218.png" width="400" height="198" alt="A hockey skate" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A hockey skate</span> +</div> + +<p>Hockey skates are somewhat shorter than racing skates although built +on the same general lines, the standard length being from nine and +one-half to eleven and one-half inches. Hockey is one of the best +winter games either outdoors or in a rink. The game of shinney or +"bandy" as it is called in England has been modified in this country +by substituting a flat piece of rubber weighing a pound called a +"puck" for the india rubber lacrosse ball, which weighs but four +ounces. The best hockey sticks are made of Canadian rock elm.</p> + +<p>The whole idea of hockey is to shoot the puck through your opponents' +goal and to prevent them from shooting it through yours. In practice +almost any number can play hockey and have plenty of exercise. The +less experienced players should when securing the puck always shoot it +as quickly as possible to a more experienced player on their own side +to attempt shooting the goal. Skilful passing is the most important +branch of hockey and consequently good team work is absolutely +essential to success.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/219.png" width="500" height="440" alt="The hockey player's costume" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The hockey player's costume</span> +</div> + +<p>A regulation hockey team consist of seven players called goal, point, +cover point, right centre, left centre, right wing, left wing.</p> + +<p>The position of goal tender is the most difficult to acquire skill in. +He stands directly in front of the goal and is expected to stop the +puck with hands, feet, and body. While the position of goal does not +involve much skating, a goal tender should also be a good skater. His +position requires more nerve and cool-headedness than any other +position on the team because the final responsibility of all goals +scored against his team is up to him. His position is largely a +defensive one and his work at times very severe. The goal keeper must +very rarely leave his position but must depend upon the two other +defensive men the "point" and "cover point" to stop the puck when it +away from the direct line of the goal. The defensive men on a hockey +team should not by any strategy or coaxing on the part of their +opponents allow themselves to leave their own goal unprotected.</p> + +<p>The forwards have most of the work of shooting goals and advancing the +puck. Of course such a man must be very active and a good all round +player. Hockey is a poor game in which to display grand-stand playing. +The player's whole idea should be to shoot the puck so that either he +or some member of his team may score a goal.</p> + +<p>The rules of hockey are comparatively few and simple. The game +consists of two twenty-minute halves with a ten-minute intermission +between. In case of a tie at the end of a game it is customary to +continue until one side secures a majority of the points.</p> + +<p>A standard rink must be at least one hundred and twelve feet long by +fifty-eight feet wide. Nets are six feet wide and four feet high.</p> + +<p>One of the most exciting of winter sports is skate sailing. The same +principles that are applied to sailing a boat are brought into play in +sailing with skates. While considerable skill is necessary to handle a +skate sail well, any one who is a good skater will soon acquire it. +The direction that you go is determined by the angle at which the sail +is held. When you wish to turn around or stop you simply shift its +position until you run dead into the wind. A skate sail should be +light and strong. A limit of five pounds' weight is all that is +necessary. The sail is a very simple device. There are a great many +kinds but one of the simplest is made from a T-shaped frame of bamboo +with a V-shaped piece of canvas or balloon silk sewed or wired to the +frame. The best skate sails are made with a jointed frame like a +fishing rod so that they may be taken apart and easily carried.</p> + +<p>While an expert can handle a sail eight or ten feet wide and twelve +feet high it is better for the beginner to start with one much +smaller. The construction of the sail and the method of holding it are +shown in the diagram.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/222.png" width="550" height="478" alt="A skate sail" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A skate sail</span> +</div> + +<p>Snowshoeing is another winter sport that will furnish a great deal of +pleasure and will enable us to be outdoors when our less fortunate +friends may be cooped up in the house. There are a number of standard +shapes in snowshoes, but probably the "Canadian" model will be found +to be the most satisfactory generally. Snowshoes should be from +twenty-four to forty-four inches long depending on the weight to be +carried. In order to enjoy snowshoeing we must use moccasins. The +proper method of attaching the snowshoes is clearly shown in the +diagrams. The beginner will find that snowshoeing is a very simple art +to acquire, being far less difficult than skating and with far less +danger of having a bad fall.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/223.png" width="400" height="346" alt="Four types of snowshoes" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Four types of snowshoes</span> +</div> + +<p>The sport of "ski-running" or skiing is practised more generally +abroad than in this country. A number of winter resorts owe their +popularity largely to this sport. Skis are simply long flat pieces of +wood fastened or strapped to the shoes. The best type are the so +called "Norway" pattern. Various lengths are used from four to eight +or nine feet long, but for a beginner the shorter ones will be better.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/224a.png" width="400" height="293" alt="To throw the lumberman's hitch, start this way" title="" /> +<span class="caption">To throw the lumberman's hitch, start this way</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/224b.png" width="400" height="297" alt="Then across the toe with both ends and under the loop" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Then across the toe with both ends and under the loop</span> +</div> + +<p>Ski-running is simply coasting down steep inclines on the snow with +the skis used in much the same way as a sled. The longer they are the +greater the speed obtained, but the longer ones are also +correspondingly hard to manage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/225a.png" width="400" height="276" alt="Draw the ends tightly forward to fasten down the toe" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Draw the ends tightly forward to fasten down the toe</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/225b.png" width="400" height="267" alt="Then tie the ends together in a bow knot back of the +heel" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Then tie the ends together in a bow knot back of the +heel</span> +</div> + +<p>In Norway and Sweden skis are made to order just as we might be +measured for suits of clothes. The theory is that the proper length +of ski will be such that the user, can, when standing erect and +reaching above his head, just crook his forefinger over it as it +stands upright. Ski shoes should be strong, with well blocked toes. A +pair of heavy school shoes are just the thing if well made.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/226a.png" width="400" height="287" alt="The straps over the toe remain buckled" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The straps over the toe remain buckled</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/226b.png" width="400" height="274" alt="This is the "thong" hitch but it is not as good as the +lumberman's hitch" title="" /> +<span class="caption">This is the "thong" hitch but it is not as good as the +lumberman's hitch</span> +</div> + +<p>To learn skiing we should select the slope of a hill not very steep +and with no dangerous rocks or snags to run foul of. The best snow +conditions are usually found two or three days after it has fallen. +Fresh snow is too light to offer good skiing and snow with a crust is +also bad. In running with skis on the level ground a long, sweeping +stride is used somewhat after the fashion of skating. The strokes +should be made just as long as possible, and the skis kept close +together. In going up an incline the tendency to slip backward is +overcome by raising the toe of the ski slightly and bringing the heel +down sharply. One foot should be firmly implanted before the other is +moved. In going up a steep hill a zigzag course will be necessary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/227.png" width="550" height="147" alt="Front and side view of a ski" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Front and side view of a ski</span> +</div> + +<p>As an aid in ski-running it is customary to employ a pair of ski +poles, which are fastened to the wrist by leather thongs. They are +usually made of bamboo or other light material with a wicker disk near +the end to keep the pole from sinking into the soft snow. Ski poles +should never be used in attempting a jump, as under these +circumstances they might be very dangerous.</p> + +<p>Ski coasting is the sport that most boys will be interested in. To +make a descent, begin at the top of a hill as one would in coasting +with a sled and lean well forward with the skis parallel and with one +foot slightly ahead of the other. The knees should be bent and the +body rigid. The weight should be borne by the ball of the foot that is +behind. As the start forward begins, the impulse will be to lean back, +but this Impulse must be overcome or you will take a tumble in the +snow as you gain speed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/228.png" width="400" height="62" alt="A ski pole" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A ski pole</span> +</div> + +<p>In jumping with skis an abrupt drop is necessary. For the beginner a +few inches is sufficient. The start is made by coasting down an +incline, and just before the take-off is reached, the runner assumes a +crouching attitude and then straightens up quickly, maintaining an +erect attitude until he is about to land, when, as in jumping, the +knees are bent slightly to break the force of landing. During the +flight the skis should be kept perfectly parallel but drooping +slightly behind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 421px;"> +<a name="Ski" id="Ski"></a><a href="images/p005.jpg"> +<img src="images/p005_thumb.jpg" width="421" height="269" alt="The Exciting Sport of Ski Running" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">The Exciting Sport of Ski Running</span> +</div> + +<p>The various forms of coasting with toboggan sleds and bobsleds are +all well known to boys who live where there are snow and hills. A sled +can be steered either by dragging the foot or by shifting the sled +with the hands. Sleds with flexible runners have recently been +introduced and are a great improvement on the old type.</p> + +<p>One branch of carpenter work that nearly all boys attempt at some time +in their lives is to make a bobsled or double runner, which is a pair +of sleds fastened on either end of a board long enough to hold from +three to twenty or thirty people.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/230.png" width="550" height="204" alt="A bobsled or double runner" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A bobsled or double runner</span> +</div> + +<p>Coasting, especially with a bob, is somewhat dangerous sport, +especially in cities or where the turns are sharp and there is danger +of upsetting. A good bob is broad between the runners and low to the +ground. The drawing shows one that almost any boy can make at little +cost. Various devices are used as brakes on a bob. Most of them are +found to be out of order or frozen when the time comes to use them. A +brake that is made from a piece of iron bent in an angle and fastened +to the side of the runners on the rear sled is the best arrangement to +have. A bobsled should not cost over ten dollars complete with +steering wheel, bell, and necessary iron work, which should be made at +the blacksmith's.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII</h2> + +<h3>HORSEMANSHIP</h3> + +<blockquote>How to become a good rider—The care of a horse—Saddles</blockquote> + + +<p>So many branches of outdoor sport depend on a knowledge of +horsemanship that every boy or girl who has the opportunity should +learn to ride horseback. When once acquired, we shall never forget it. +The first few lessons will make us feel discouraged, because the +jolting and jarring every one receives in learning to ride almost make +it appear that we can never acquire the knack, but remember that even +the cowboy has had to go through the same experience. A beginner +should only ride a gentle horse. In case we do take a tumble, it is +well to take our first lesson on soft ground or in a tanbark ring.</p> + +<p>There are three types of saddles generally used: The English saddle is +simply a leather seat with stirrups, and while it is the most refined +type and the one used for fox hunting and all expert riding in +England, it is not the best kind to learn on. The army saddle and the +Mexican or cowboy saddle with a pommel or box-stirrups are far safer +and less expensive. If you know of a dealer in second-hand army +equipments you can buy a saddle and bridle of excellent material at +less than half the retail price of the stores.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/233.png" width="550" height="275" alt="Mexican saddle, Army saddle, English saddle" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mexican saddle, Army saddle, English saddle</span> +</div> + +<p>Before mounting your horse always examine carefully your saddle and +bridle to see that the girths are tight, that the bridle is properly +buckled, and the stirrups are the proper length. The latter is +sometimes determined by placing the stirrup under the armpits and +touching the saddle with the finger tips. A more accurate way is to +have the straps adjusted after you are in the saddle. A beginner will +prefer a short stirrup, but it is a bad habit to acquire. In mounting, +stand on the left side and place the left foot in the stirrup. Swing +the right leg over the horse and find the right stirrup with the toe +just as quickly as possible. Do not jerk a restless horse or otherwise +betray your excitement if he starts. Let him see by your calmness that +he too should be calm.</p> + +<p>So much depends on the kind of horse you are riding that it will be +difficult to say just how to handle him. A horse that is "bridle wise" +is not guided in the customary way; that is, by pulling on the rein on +the side you wish him to turn as one does in driving. A bridle-wise +horse is guided by pressing the opposite rein against his neck. Such a +horse is much easier to handle on horseback and we should try to teach +our horse this method as soon as possible.</p> + +<p>There is very close understanding between a horse and rider that does +not exist when a horse is driven to a carriage. A horse can be guided +simply by the leg pressure or spur. The proper seat is well back in +the saddle with the toe pointing almost straight ahead. In order to +learn to ride quickly we must overcome any strain or tension of our +muscles and try to be flexible above the waist. In this way we soon +accommodate our own motion to that of the horse. The most difficult +gait to ride is the trot. There are two distinct styles of riding—to +trot in English style of treading the stirrups, which necessitates +rising from the saddle at every step of the horse, and the army style +of simply sitting back in the saddle and taking the jouncing. Either +method will prove very difficult for the beginner. A partial treading +or easing up but not as extreme as the English style will probably be +the best to acquire. So much depends upon the gait of a horse that we +learn to ride some horses in a very few days, and would be several +times as long with some others.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/235.png" width="500" height="408" alt="The wrong way to mount a horse—facing forward" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The wrong way to mount a horse—facing forward</span> +</div> + +<p>A horse that habitually stumbles is very dangerous. We must be sure +our saddle horse is sure footed. In using English stirrups never +permit the foot to go through the stirrup and rest on the ball. The +toes should be in such a position that the stirrups can be kicked off +at an instant's notice in case the horse falls with us.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/236.png" width="500" height="467" alt="The right way to mount—facing toward his tail" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The right way to mount—facing toward his tail</span> +</div> + +<p>In tying a saddle horse in the stable for feeding or rest always +loosen the girth and throw the stirrups over the saddle.</p> + +<p>A saddle horse should always be spoken to gently but firmly. The horse +can tell by your voice when you are afraid of him.</p> + +<p>The canter is the ideal gait. After we once learn it, the motion of a +good saddle horse is almost like a rocking chair and riding becomes +one of the most delightful of outdoor pastimes. The boy who expects to +go on an extended trip in the saddle should learn to care for a horse +himself. A horse should never be fed or watered when he is warm unless +we continue to drive him immediately afterward. Neglect of this +precaution may cause "foundering," which has ruined many a fine horse.</p> + +<p>The art of packing a horse is one which every one in mountain +countries away from railroads should understand. Packing a horse +simply means tying a load over his back. There are a great many +hitches used for this purpose by Western mountaineers, but the +celebrated diamond hitch will answer most purposes.</p> + +<p>Hunting and steeplechasing, leaping fences and ditches, are the +highest art of horsemanship. It is difficult to teach an old horse to +be a hunter, but with a young one you can soon get him to take a low +obstacle or narrow ditch, and by gradually increasing the distance +make a jumper of him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/238.png" width="500" height="483" alt="Jumping fences is the highest art of horsemanship" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Jumping fences is the highest art of horsemanship</span> +</div> + +<p>The popularity of automobiles has caused the present generation +partially to lose interest in horseflesh, but no automobile ever made +will furnish the real bond of friendship which exists between a boy +and his horse, or will be a substitute for the pleasure that comes +from a stiff canter on the back of our friend and companion.</p> + +<p>We do not really need an expensive horse. A typical Western or polo +pony is just the thing for a boy or girl provided that it has no +vicious or undesirable traits such as kicking, bucking, or stumbling, +or is unsound or lame. It is always better if possible to buy a horse +from a reliable dealer or a private owner. There is a great deal of +dishonesty in horse trading and an honest seller who has nothing to +conceal should be willing to grant a fair trial of a week or more.</p> + +<p>To enjoy our horse to the fullest extent we should take entire care of +him ourselves. He should be fed and watered regularly and groomed +every morning until his coat shines. If we neglect a horse and allow +his coat to become rough it is almost as bad as to neglect feeding +him. Never trust the care of your horse too much to another. Even if +you keep him in a public stable or have a man of your own to care for +him, it is well to let them see that you are interested in giving your +horse close personal attention.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV</h2> + +<h3>HOW TO SWIM AND TO CANOE</h3> + +<blockquote>The racing strokes—Paddling and sailing canoes</blockquote> + + +<p>It has been said that the human being is the only animal that does not +know instinctively how to swim without the necessity of being taught. +If we take a dog or a horse or even a mouse and suddenly place it in +the water it will immediately begin to swim, even though it has never +seen a body of water larger than the source from which it obtains its +drink. With a man or boy it is different, for the reason that with all +the other animals the motions necessary to swim are those by which +they walk or run; with a human being it is entirely an acquired +stroke. After one becomes an expert swimmer he will find that he can +keep afloat or at least keep his head above water, which is all there +is to swimming anyway, by almost any kind of a motion. By a little +practice we can learn to swim "no hands," "no feet," "one hand and one +foot," by all sorts of twists and squirms and in fact to propel +ourselves by a simple motion of the toes.</p> + +<p>The first stroke that a self-taught small boy learns is what is +called "dog fashioned." This name accurately describes the stroke, as +it is in reality very similar to the motions by which a dog swims. No +amount of book instruction can teach a person to swim, but a clear +idea of the best general strokes will be of great assistance.</p> + +<p>Swimming is probably the best general exercise among athletic sports. +Practically every important muscle in the body is brought into play, +and measurements show that swimmers have the most uniform muscular +development of any class of athletes. After we learn to swim, the +distance that we are capable of going is largely dependent upon our +physical strength. Almost any man can swim a mile if he begins slowly +and with the same regard for conserving his strength that a runner +would have in attempting a mile run.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Swimming" id="Swimming"></a><a href="images/p006.jpg"> +<img src="images/p006_thumb.jpg" width="415" height="270" alt="Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports<br /> +<small>(Photograph by A.R. Dugmore)</small></span> +</div> + +<p>However skillful one is as a swimmer, a proper respect for the dangers +of the sport should always be present. To take unnecessary risks, such +as swimming alone far beyond reach of help or jumping and diving from +high places into water of uncertain depth is not bravery; it is simply +foolhardiness. A good swimmer is a careful swimmer always. The +beginner must first of all try to overcome his natural fear of the +water. This is much harder to do than to learn the simple motions of +hands or feet that makes us keep afloat and swim. Nothing will help to +give us this confidence more quickly than to take a few lessons from +some one in whom we have confidence and who will above all things not +frighten us and so get us into danger. With a good teacher, a boy +should be able to learn how to swim in two or three lessons. Of course +he will take only a few strokes at first, but those few strokes, which +carry with them self-confidence and which make us feel that swimming +is not so hard an art after all, is really half the battle. After we +are at least sure that we can get to shore somehow, we can take up all +the finished strokes which make a fancy swimmer.</p> + +<p>There are a number of strokes used in swimming and especially in +racing. The common breast stroke is the first one to learn. In this +the swimmer should lie flat on his breast in the water and either be +supported by the hand of his teacher or by an inflated air cushion. +The hands are principally used to maintain the balance and to keep +afloat. The real work should be done with the legs. We learn to use +the hands properly in a very short time, but the beginner always shows +a tendency to forget to kick properly. For this reason swimming +teachers lay great stress on the leg motion and in a measure let the +hands take care of themselves. In swimming the important thing is to +keep our heads above the water, a simple statement, but one that +beginners may take a long time to learn. The impulse is not only to +keep our heads but our shoulders out of the water also, and this is a +feat that even an expert can not accomplish for very long. If we can +allow ourselves to sink low in the water without fear, and if we can +also remember to kick and, above all, to make our strokes slowly and +evenly, we shall very soon learn to swim. I have frequently seen boys +learn to swim in a single afternoon. Another tendency of the beginner +is to hold his breath while swimming. Of course we cannot swim very +far or exert ourselves unless we can breathe. We should take a breath +at each stroke, inhaling though the mouth and exhaling through the +nose, which is just the opposite to the hygienic method of land +breathing. Whatever may be our methods, however, the main thing is not +to forget to breathe, which always results in finishing our five or +ten strokes out of breath and terrified.</p> + +<p>A great deal may be learned about swimming strokes by practice on +land. In fact some swimming teachers always follow the practice of +teaching the pupil ashore how to make the stroke and how to breathe +correctly. A small camp stool or a box will give us the support we +need. The three things to keep in mind are the leg motion and the +taking in of the breath through the mouth as the arms are being drawn +in and exhaling as they are pushed forward. It is better to learn to +swim in salt water, for the reason that it will support the body +better. An additional advantage is that we always feel more refreshed +after a salt-water bath.</p> + +<p>If we take up fast swimming, we must learn one of the various overhand +or overarm strokes. The chief difference between these strokes and the +simple breast stroke is that the arms as well as the legs are used to +propel the body through the water, and this power is applied so +steadily and uniformly that instead of moving by jerks we move with a +continuous motion and at a greater speed. The single overarm is easier +to learn than the double overarm or "trudgeon" stroke. This latter +stroke is very tiring and while undoubtedly faster than any other when +once mastered, it is only used for short sprints. Most of the great +swimmers have developed peculiar strokes of their own, but nearly all +of them have adopted a general style which may be called the "crawl."</p> + +<p>There are many fancy strokes in swimming that one may acquire by +practice, all of which require close attention to form rather than +speed, just as fancy skating is distinguished from racing. One of the +simplest tricks to learn is called "the rolling log." We take a +position just as we would in floating and then exerting the muscles +first of one side and then the other we shall find that we can roll +over and over just as a log might roll. The idea in performing this +trick successfully is not to show any apparent motion of the muscles.</p> + +<p>Swimming on the back is easily learned and is not only a pretty trick +but is very useful in giving us an opportunity to rest on a long swim.</p> + +<p>Diving is also a branch of swimming that requires confidence rather +than lessons. A dive is simply a plunge head first into the water. A +graceful diver plunges with as little splash as possible. It is very +bad form either to bend the knees or to strike on the stomach, the +latter being a kind of dive for which boys have a very expressive +though not elegant name. Somersaults and back dives from a stationary +take-off or from a spring-board are very easily learned. We shall +probably have a few hard splashes until we learn to turn fully over, +but there is not much danger of injury if we are sure of landing in +the water.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/246.png" width="180" height="300" alt="A perfect dive" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A perfect dive</span> +</div> + +<p>Water wings and other artificial supports are very useful for the +beginner until he has mastered the strokes, but all such artificial +devices should be given up just as soon as possible, and, furthermore, +as soon as we can really swim, in order to gain confidence, we should +go beyond our depth, where it will be necessary to swim or drown.</p> + +<p>A swimmer should always know how to assist another to shore in case of +accident. It is not nearly so easy as one who has never tried it might +think. A drowning person will for the time being be panic-stricken and +the first impulse will be to seize us about the neck. Always approach +a drowning person from the rear and support him under an armpit, +meanwhile talking to him and trying to reassure him. Every year we +hear of terrible drowning accidents which might have been avoided if +some one in the party had kept his head and had been able to tell the +others what to do.</p> + +<p>I have placed canoeing and swimming in the same chapter because the +first word in canoeing is never go until you can swim. There is +practically no difference between the shape of the modern canoe and +the shape of the Indian birch bark canoes which were developed by the +savages in America hundreds of years ago. All the ingenuity of white +men has failed to improve on this model. A canoe is one of the most +graceful of water craft and, while it is regarded more in the light of +a plaything by people in cities, it is just as much a necessity to the +guides and trappers of the great Northern country as a pony is to the +cowboy and the plainsman. The canoe is the horse and wagon of the +Maine woodsman and in it he carries his provisions and his family.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/248.png" width="400" height="81" alt="A typical Indian model canoe" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A typical Indian model canoe</span> +</div> + +<p>While a canoe is generally propelled by paddles, a pole is sometimes +necessary to force it upstream, especially in swift water. In many +places the sportsman is forced to carry his canoe around waterfalls +and shallows for several miles. For this reason a canoe must be as +light as possible without too great a sacrifice of strength. The old +styles of canoes made of birch bark, hollow logs, the skins of +animals and so on have practically given way to the canvas-covered +cedar or basswood canoes of the Canadian type.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/249.png" width="400" height="430" alt="A sailing canoe in action" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A sailing canoe in action</span> +</div> + +<p>It will scarcely pay the boy to attempt to make his own canoe, as the +cost of a well-made eighteen-foot canoe of the type used by +professional hunters and trappers is but thirty dollars. With care a +canoe should last its owner ten years. It will be necessary to protect +it from the weather when not in use and frequently give it a coat of +paint or spar varnish.</p> + +<p>Sailing canoes are built after a different model from paddling +canoes. They usually are decked over and simply have a cockpit. They +are also stronger and much heavier. Their use is limited to more open +water than most of the rivers and lakes of Maine and Canada. Cruising +canoes are made safer if watertight air chambers are built in the +ends.</p> + +<p>Even if a canoe turns over it does not sink. Some experts can right a +capsized canoe and clamber in over the side even while swimming in +deep water. The seaworthiness of a canoe depends largely upon its +lines. Some canoes are very cranky and others can stand a lot of +careless usage without capsizing. One thing is true of all, that +accidents occur far more often in getting in and out of a canoe than +in the act of sailing it. It is always unsafe to stand in a canoe or +to lean far out of it to pick lilies or to reach for floating objects.</p> + +<p>Canoes may be propelled by either single or double paddles, but the +former is the sportman's type. It is possible to keep a canoe on a +straight course entirely by paddling on one side and merely shifting +to rest, but the beginner may have some difficulty in acquiring the +knack of doing this, which consists of turning the paddles at the end +of the stroke to make up the amount that the forward stroke deflects +the canoe from a straight course.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"> +<a name="Canoe" id="Canoe"></a><a href="images/p007.jpg"> +<img src="images/p007_thumb.jpg" width="416" height="267" alt="In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Steams a Pole is Used in +Place of the Paddle" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Steams a Pole is Used in +Place of the Paddle<br /> +<small>(Photographs by A.R. Dugmore)</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/252.png" width="400" height="235" alt="A type of sailing canoe" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A type of sailing canoe</span> +</div> + +<p>An open canoe for paddling does not require a rudder. A sailing canoe, +however, will require a rudder, a keel, and a centreboard as well. +Canoe sailing is an exciting and dangerous sport. In order to keep the +canoe from capsizing, a sliding seat or outrigger is used, upon which +the sailor shifts his position to keep the boat on an even keel. The +centreboard is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered by means +of a line.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV</h2> + +<h3>BASEBALL</h3> + +<blockquote>How to organize a team and to select the players—The various +positions—Curve pitching</blockquote> + + +<p>Baseball is called the National Game of America just as cricket is +regarded as the national game in England. The game received its wide +popularity directly after the Civil War by the soldiers who returned +to all parts of the country and introduced the game that they had +learned in camp. Almost every village and town has its ball team, in +which the interest is general. It is not a game for middle-aged men to +play, like golf, but if one has been a ball player in youth the +chances are that he will keep his interest in the game through life. +Baseball is largely a game of skill. It does not afford nearly as much +opportunity for physical exercise as tennis or football, and because +of the professional games it is not always conducted with as high a +regard for sportsmanlike conduct, but it has a firm hold on the +American public, and the winning of a championship series in the +professional leagues is almost a national event.</p> + +<p>Every boy knows that a baseball team consists of nine players, the +positions being pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +and shortstop, which are called the in-field, and right-field, +centre-field, and left-field, which positions are called the +out-field. The umpire has a very important position in baseball, as +his decisions in a close game may result either in defeat or victory +for a team. An umpire should always be some one who knows the rules +thoroughly and who is not too greatly interested in either team. He +should always try to be fair, and having once made a decision be sure +enough of himself to hold to it even if the whole opposing team may +try by "kicking" to cause him to change. Much of the rowdyism in +baseball can be attributed to this cause. A good ball player is first +of all a boy or man who shows himself to be a gentleman under, all +circumstances.</p> + +<p>In baseball, like many games where winning is sometimes the important +thing rather than fair play, the real benefits of the game are lost +sight of in the desire to have a higher score than one's opponents. +Probably the most clean-cut games are played by school and college +teams, which should always be strictly amateur.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/255a.png" width="250" height="185" alt="The in-curve" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The in-curve</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/255b.png" width="250" height="234" alt="The out-curve" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The out-curve</span> +</div> + +<p>The pitcher has the most important position on the team. If by his +skill he is able to deceive the opposing batsmen and cause them to +strike out or to make feeble hits, the rest of the team will have but +little to do except of course to bat when their turn comes and try to +score runs. Baseball has become a very scientific game in recent years +and the sustained interest in it year after year is largely due to the +fact that the regular attendants at a game have learned to understand +and to appreciate the finer points of the game almost as well as the +players themselves. While it might appear to a beginner that the +battery does all the work in a game, as a matter of fact every man on +the nine is supposed to do his part in backing up every play and to be +in the right place at the right time.</p> + +<p>A good pitcher must be able to pitch a curved ball. This art will only +come with constant practice. Until about forty years ago a curve was +unknown. In the old days the number of runs scored in a game was very +high, it being a common thing for a winning team to make twenty to +thirty runs. The rules of baseball are changed frequently and almost +every change has been made with a view to restricting the batsman. As +a consequence, in modern games the scores are very low and sometimes +neither side will score a single run in a tie game of ten or twelve +innings.</p> + +<p>In modern baseball a team that plays together frequently has a +prearranged code of signals that are understood by each member of the +team. It is very important for every player on a side to know whether +the pitcher intends to deliver a high or a low ball or one that may +either be batted well into the out-field or probably be a grounder +that will be taken care of by some one on the in-field. Of course +these things do not always work out as is planned. The pitcher may not +have good control of the ball or pitch wild, the catcher may make a +bad "muff" and let the ball get by him, or what we expect to be a +bunted ball may be a home run, but all of this is part of the sport +and helps to make baseball one of the most interesting and exciting of +games. In any case there is no question that nine boys who are +accustomed to play together and who understand each other's methods of +play and signals will have a better chance of winning a close game +than nine other players who may have a shade the better of it in +individual work but who do not play together.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/256a.png" width="250" height="188" alt="The drop" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The drop</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/256b.png" width="250" height="149" alt="The out-drop" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The out-drop</span> +</div> + +<p>Most games are won or lost in a single instant at a crucial moment +when some one fails to make good, or who, usually in the case of a +pitcher, lets up on his speed or accuracy just at the critical time. +The National Championship of 1908 was decided in favour of Chicago +because one of New York's players in the deciding game of the season +failed to touch second base when the last man was out. The game had +been won by New York except for this mistake, and the result was that +another game was played, which Chicago won before the largest crowd +that probably ever assembled to witness a game of baseball.</p> + +<p>When a baseball team is organized, the first thing to do is to elect a +captain from one of the players, and after this is decided every boy +on the team should give him absolute support and obedience. A team +should also have a manager whose duties are to arrange games with +other teams of the same class, to arrange for the transportation of +players and, in fact, to attend to all the business duties of games +that come outside of actual playing. Usually a boy is chosen for +manager who is not a ball player himself, but who has shown an +interest in the team. The captain should be a boy who first of all +knows the game and who has the respect and cooperation of the other +players. The position that he may play on the team is not so +important, but usually it is better to have some one from the +in-field as captain, as he will be in a better position to keep close +watch on the progress of the game and to give directions to the other +players.</p> + +<p>In case of a disputed point it is better to allow your captain to make +a protest if such is necessary. Observance of this rule will prevent +much of the rowdyism that has characterized the game of baseball. No +boy should ever attempt to win games by unfair tactics. The day of +tripping, spiking, and holding is gone. If you are not able by your +playing to hold up your end on a ball team you had better give up the +game and devote your attention to something that you can do without +being guilty of rowdyism.</p> + +<p>Strict rules of training are not as necessary for baseball players as +for some other branches of sport, because the game is not so strenuous +nor does it involve such sustained physical exertion, but any boy will +make a better ball player as well as a better man if he observes the +rules of training, such as early hours for retiring, simple food, and +regular systematic exercise.</p> + +<p>The battery of a team is an exception to the rule regarding strict +training. Both the pitcher and catcher should be in the best physical +condition. A pitcher who stands up for nine innings is obliged to do +a tremendous amount of work and if he becomes tired or stiff toward +the end of the game he will probably be at the mercy of the opposing +batsmen.</p> + +<p>Usually the pitcher of a team is a boy who is physically strong and +who can stand hard work. The other positions, however, are usually +assigned because of the build of the individual player. The pitcher, +however, may be tall or short, fat or thin, so long as he can pitch.</p> + +<p>The pitcher is the most important member of a ball team. Most of the +work falls to him, and a good pitcher, even with a comparatively weak +team behind him, can sometimes win games where a good team with a weak +pitcher would lose. A good pitcher must first of all have a cool head +and keep his nerve even under the most trying circumstances. He must +also have good control of the ball and be able to pitch it where he +wants it to go. After that he must have a knowledge of curves and know +how by causing the ball to spin in a certain way to cause it to change +its course and thus to deceive the batsman. The art of curving a ball +was discovered in 1867. Before that time all that a pitcher needed was +a straight, swift delivery. The three general classes of curved balls +used to-day are the out-curve, the in-curve, and the drop. There are +also other modifications called "the fade away," "the spitball," and +others. Curve pitching will only come with the hardest kind of +practice.</p> + +<p>In general the spin is given to the ball by a certain use of the +fingers and the method of releasing it. It is necessary to conceal +your intentions from the batsman in preparing to deliver a curve or he +will divine your intention and the effort may be wasted. All curves +are produced by a snap of the wrist at the instant of releasing the +ball. Excellent practice may be had in curving by pitching at a post +from a sixty-foot mark and watching to see the effect of various +twists and snaps. Pitching is extremely hard on the arm and practice +should be very light at first until the muscles become hardened. Even +the best professional pitchers are not worked as a rule oftener than +two or three games a week.</p> + +<p>A good baseball captain always tries to develop several pitchers from +his team. It is of course very desirable to have a "star pitcher" who +can be depended on, but if the star should happen to be ill or to +injure his fingers on a hot liner or for some reason cannot play, +unless there is a substitute, the effect of his absence on his team +will be to demoralize it. For that reason every encouragement should +be given to any boy who wants to try his hand at pitching. If a game +is well in hand it is usually safe to put in a substitute pitcher to +finish it. This is done in college teams for the reason that no amount +of practice is quite like playing in an actual game.</p> + +<p>It may be said to guide the beginner that the method of producing +curves varies greatly with different pitchers, but that in general the +out-curve is produced by grasping the ball with the first and second +fingers and the thumb. The grip for this curve should be tight and the +back of the hand turned downward. The out-curve can be produced either +with a fast ball or a slow one.</p> + +<p>For the in-curve a swinging sidearm motion is used, the ball being +released over the tips of the first two fingers with a snap to set it +spinning. It may also be produced by releasing the ball over all four +fingers.</p> + +<p>The grip of the ball for the drop is very similar to the out-curve, +but in delivery the hand is brought almost directly over the shoulder. +In all curves the pitcher must have extremely sensitive fingers and be +able to control them with almost as much skill as one requires in +playing a piano. We must keep in mind which way we desire the ball to +spin to produce the required curve and then to give it just as much +of this spin as we can without interfering with our accuracy.</p> + +<p>No two pitchers will have the same form or manner of delivery. In +learning to pitch, the main thing is to adopt the delivery that seems +most natural to you without especial regard to form, and with no +unnecessary motions.</p> + +<p>A pitcher must always be on the alert and keep a close watch on the +bases when they are occupied. He must not, however, allow the remarks +of coacher or spectators to cause him to become rattled or confused. +Baseball at best is a noisy game, and a pitcher who is sensitive to +outside remarks or joshing will never be a real success.</p> + +<p>The catcher is usually a short, stocky player with a good reach and a +quick, accurate throw. He is usually the acting general in a game and +signals to the whole team. The principal test of a good catcher is to +be able to make a quick, swift throw to second base without being +obliged to draw his arm fully back. Such a ball is snapped from the +wrist and should be aimed to catch the base runner who is attempting +to steal the base. This play is very common in ball games, and as +there is only a difference of an instant in the time that it takes a +runner to go from first base to second, who starts just as the +pitcher delivers the ball, and the time it takes a pitched ball to be +caught by the catcher and snapped to second, a game may be won or lost +just on this play alone. If the opposing team finds that it can make +second in safety by going down with the pitcher's arm, it will surely +take full advantage of the knowledge. To have a man on second is +disconcerting to the pitcher as well as a difficult man to handle. It +therefore follows that a catcher who cannot throw accurately to the +bases becomes a serious disadvantage to his team. In the old days a +catcher had to be able to catch either with bare hand or with a light +glove, but the modern catcher's mitt, mask, chest-protector, and +shin-guards make the position far safer, and almost any boy who is +quick and has nerve can be trained to become a fairly good catcher so +long as he has a good throw and is a good general.</p> + +<p>The first baseman is usually a tall boy who is active and who can +cover his position both in reaching for high balls and in picking up +grounders. Of course in a baseball score the first baseman will score +the largest number of "put outs," because practically all he is +obliged to do is to cover the base and to catch the ball before the +runner gets there. It is in fielding his position and in pulling down +balls that are thrown wildly that the first baseman can show his +chief skill.</p> + +<p>The positions of second base and shortstop are practically the same, +and these two players should understand each other perfectly and know +just when to cover the base and when to back up the other. Neglect of +this precaution often results in the most stupid errors, which are +discouraging alike to the team and the spectators. Both players should +be quick and active, with an ability to throw both over and under +handed as well as to toss the ball after picking it up on the run. The +shortstop is often the smallest man on a team, due no doubt to the +theory that his work is largely in picking up grounders.</p> + +<p>The shortstop is often led into habits which are commonly known as +"grand-stand plays"; that is, he attempts to make difficult plays or +one-handed stops with an unnecessary display of motions, to bring the +applause of the spectators. No ball player was ever made by playing to +the audience. Good form is not only very desirable but very necessary, +but the main thing in ball playing is to play your part and to forget +that there is such a thing as an audience or applause. If your form is +good so much the better, but if by paying too much attention to it +you miss the ball and score an error, your team may suffer defeat on +account of your pride. The main thing is to get the ball and after +that to to do it as gracefully as possible. One-handed stops are well +enough when you cannot get both hands on the ball, but an error made +in this way is not only the most humiliating kind but also the most +inexcusable.</p> + +<p>It must not be inferred that grand-stand playing is confined to the +shortstop. Any member of the team can be guilty of it. No player, no +matter how good he may be, should be allowed to hold his position on a +team unless he is willing to do his best at all times and unless he +feels that the game is not lost nor won until the last man is out.</p> + +<p>Many experienced players consider that the most difficult position to +play well is third base. This player has to be ready for slow bunts as +well as hard drives; he must cover a lot of ground and try to get +every ball that comes near him. At the same time he must cover his +base to stop the base runner from advancing home. He will be obliged +to stop hot liners with one hand and often while on the run to make an +accurate throw to first base.</p> + +<p>Out-fielders are usually chosen because of their ability to bat as +well as to be quick on their feet and catch fly balls on the run. +Fielders should practise if possible to catch the ball in a throwing +position, so that no unnecessary time may be lost in getting the ball +back to the in-field. Of the three fielding positions, right-field is +by far the most important. He must be sure of ground balls as well as +flies and also, in common with all the fielders, be a good judge of +the batsmen and try to be where the batted ball is going. The +centre-fielder must be especially quick on his feet, as he is expected +to back up both shortstop and second base as well as to run in for +line hits that just go over the in-fielders' heads. The ability to +start quickly when running for a ball can be greatly developed by +practice and will greatly improve the player's game.</p> + +<p>Very often a fly ball will fall in such a position that the +out-fielders will be in doubt who is to take it. The result is usually +a collision, a missed ball and a chorus of groans from the spectators. +The remedy for this is to arrange beforehand for the second baseman to +call out who in the case of a doubtful ball is to take it. All of +these things are part of the finer points of the game and will only +come from practice. A boy who really desires to become proficient in +his position will try to avoid changing from one position to another, +but decide which position he likes to play best or is best fitted for +and try to get all the practice possible. An excellent opportunity +will come from studying the methods of a good player in the same +position, noting carefully what he does on each play, how he backs up +the other players and how he fits in the general plan of team work.</p> + +<p>It is a great advantage to any player to learn as much as he can about +the skill and methods of his opponents. Some men cannot hit a low ball +or a high one, some will flinch when the ball comes close to them, +giving the pitcher a chance to deliver a straight, swift ball over the +inside of the plate, which the umpire will call a strike even though +the batsman devotes all of his energy to getting out of the way.</p> + +<p>A left-handed thrower will seldom make a success as a ball player +except as pitcher or on first base. Left-handed batsmen, however, are +a distinct advantage to a team, as nothing will so disconcert a green +pitcher as to have batsmen standing first on one side of the plate and +then on the other.</p> + +<p>Every boy who plays baseball must know the rules thoroughly to be a +success. It is in this way that advantage of every fair opportunity +can be taken. Nothing is so disheartening to a team as to lose a +closely contested game on a technicality of rules.</p> + +<p>Batting and base running are two departments of the game where one +member of the team is as important as another. A good batsman must +have a quick eye and a quick brain. When he decides to strike at a +ball he must not change his mind and simply swing at it feebly after +it is in the catcher's hands. The best batters are not those who hit +the ball the hardest. Judgment in placing hits is far more important +than trying to knock out a home run every time you are at the bat. You +must remember that the pitcher is studying your batting methods and +you must try just as hard to deceive him as he is trying to deceive +you. Many a game has been won by a man who knew how to wait at the bat +instead of swinging wildly at everything just for fear of having +strikes called.</p> + +<p>When you hit the ball there is only one rule—run. You will very soon +find out whether the ball is fair or foul or whether there is any +chance of making first base. A base runner should never stop trying to +make a base until the ball is in the hands of the baseman. One never +can tell when a ball may be fumbled or muffed.</p> + +<p>A baseball diamond should be a part of a town just as is the public +square or a town hall. The distance between the bases should be ninety +feet and the four base-lines should form a square and all the angles +should be right angles. The three bases should be canvas bags filled +with sawdust and fastened to their positions by pegs that are driven +into the ground. The home plate should if possible be a piece of +whitened rubber. A board securely fastened will do.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;"> +<img src="images/270.png" width="473" height="500" alt="How to lay out a baseball field" title="" /> +<span class="caption">How to lay out a baseball field</span> +</div> + +<p>The pitcher's box should be denoted by a strip of wood or rubber 24 +inches long and 6 inches wide. This and home plate should be buried +so that they are flush with the surface of the field. The pitcher's +box on a full-sized field is exactly 60 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> feet from home plate.</p> + +<p>The standard baseball is the kind used by professional players. It is +covered with horsehide, and is warranted to last an entire game +without ripping or getting out of shape. Baseball bats are made of a +variety of woods, the common materials being ash, willow, and hickory. +A bat must not exceed 2 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches in thickness at its thickest part. +There are a great many shapes and models named after the professional +players who use them. The shape of a bat does not make as much +difference as some poor batters are inclined to think. The +manufacturers of sporting goods make all the accessories for playing +baseball both in men's and boys' sizes. Every ball player should own +his own mitt or glove and become accustomed to it. The same is true of +his bat.</p> + +<p>The art of becoming a good ball player depends largely on the boy +himself. No one plays ball naturally. It all comes with practice, and +it follows that the more practice we can get the better ball players +we shall become. It is a game where a loss of nerve is absolutely +fatal to good work. A player must keep his head no matter how trying +the circumstances may be. Cool-headedness is especially important and +the surest way to develop it is to be just as indifferent to the +criticism of the crowd or your fellow-players, so long as you know +that you have done your best, as you should be to their applause. Just +play the game for all there is in it, and you will be sure to become a +moderately good player even though you may not be a star. In field +practice, when some one is batting out balls to you, try just as hard +to stop and field each ball that comes within reach as you would if +the result of the game depended on it. It is only by this means that +you can hope to become a finished ball player. You can never learn by +lying around in the shade and telling your friends how good you are +going to be in the coming match game.</p> + +<p>A regularly organized ball team should always adopt some club colours +and be provided with uniforms. Very good ones complete with shirt, +pants, stockings, belt, and cap can be purchased of sporting goods +outfitters for two or three dollars a suit (when ordered in lots of +nine or more). They can also sometimes be made more cheaply at home if +mothers and sisters are willing. The shirt should always be lettered +with the name or initials of the team. Baseball shoes are usually +provided with steel plates or leather knobs. Spikes are very dangerous +and should not be permitted. The regulation baseball shoe reaches just +under the instep.</p> + +<p>The rules of baseball are too long and complicated to be published +here. Almost every year many important changes are made to improve the +sport and to make it harder for the batsmen to make runs. All of this +tends to make the game more interesting and to develop it from a +scientific side.</p> + +<p>When a team is playing away from its home grounds the choice of +innings—i.e., who is to bat first—goes to the home team.</p> + +<p>A game consists of nine full innings unless called by rain, darkness +or for some other cause. If five complete innings have been played +when the game stops, the score always stands and the team ahead is +declared the winner. In case of a tie at the end of the game the play +continues until at the completion of a full inning one team is ahead. +That ends the game and the team ahead is the winner.</p> + +<p>In arranging games with visiting teams it is customary to make some +arrangement as to expenses, share of gate receipts or other guarantee. +It is very important in order to avoid unpleasant disputes to have +this matter fully understood and agreed upon by the managers of each +team before the game starts.</p> + +<p>On account of fences, houses, and other obstacles that some baseball +fields have it is customary for the umpire to decide what are called +"ground rules" before the game starts. The principal thing that mars a +good game of ball next to kicking and wrangling is the tendency of the +crowd to get on the field and to interfere with the players. An easy +remedy for this is simply to call the game until the spectators take +their proper places.</p> + +<p>Baseball is a good game if it is properly played. It is unfortunate +that so many amateur games are spoiled because some of the players +lose their tempers in their anxiety to have their wrongs righted. No +matter how good a ball player a boy is he will never get the real +benefit of the game unless he remembers that it is not the one who +loses his temper but "he who ruleth his spirit" that is really +entitled to the respect of his fellows. Make up your mind to abide by +the decision of the umpire just as a soldier obeys the orders of his +superior officer. It is the easiest thing in the world for an umpire +to make a mistake, but he will be far less likely to correct his +errors if nine angry boys are all talking to him at once than if your +captain quietly goes to him with the rules or the facts behind him +and states the case. It is an old saying but none the less true that +"oil catches more flies than vinegar."</p> + +<p>A boy who has developed a healthy interest in baseball while young +will probably never lose it in after life even though his +opportunities to play or even to see a game are few. I once met a +mining man in the interior of Mexico, a hundred miles from a railroad +and in a town where only three people spoke the English language, and +this man had not been to his home town in ten years, but he had +followed his baseball team through the papers all those years and +could tell you more about the players than many a man living in the +town where the team played.</p> + +<p>Such a man is what the newspapers call a "fan," which is an +abbreviation of the word "fanatic." There is no harm in being a +baseball enthusiast, provided that we do not allow it to interfere +with our work or allow our desire to witness games to take the place +of systematic exercise for ourselves.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI</h2> + +<h3>HOW TO PLAY FOOTBALL</h3> + +<blockquote>The various positions and how to select men for them—Team, work and +signals—The rules</blockquote> + + +<p>Football is usually played in the fall of the year because the +exercise that it involves is so violent that to attempt it at any +other time would probably result in injury to the players. The cool, +frosty days of October and November make baseball out of season, and +such weather is ideal for football.</p> + +<p>So much has been said and written about the dangers of football as a +sport that many parents have strong objections to permitting their +sons to play. There is no question that it is a hard game and not +suited to weaklings, but a strong, healthy boy can play football under +proper conditions and with proper training quite as safely as he can +do many other things to which parents raise no objections, such as +wrestling, climbing trees, playing hockey, or even performing +difficult feats of gymnastics or acrobatics in a gymnasium. Every +year there are a number of serious accidents from football, but there +are also injuries from other games, and people are injured who play no +games at all, so it simply is a question whether we are willing to +take the chances of a sprained ankle or broken bone for the love of +one of the best of outdoor sports.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/277.png" width="550" height="210" alt="The lineup" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The lineup</span> +</div> + +<p>The recent changes in rules have made football a much safer game than +it was in the early nineties, when such plays as the "flying wedge" +and line bucking were practically all there was to the game. To any +one who does not understand football it seems as though it were played +with practically no science and with but few rules. As a matter of +fact a well-coached college team will sometimes have sixty or seventy +separate plays each of which has been carefully practised and which +requires each man on the team to do something to help make the play +successful, while on the other hand each man on the opposing team is +doing his best to cause the play to fail. The result to any one not +understanding the game is simply a confused mass of struggling men and +a final tumble with a pile of legs and arms flying about.</p> + +<p>The American game of football called Rugby is a development of the +English game, but the present game is very different from the English +game of soccer or association football, in which kicking predominates +and where a round ball is used instead of the oval-shaped American +football.</p> + +<p>Numerous efforts have been made to introduce the game of soccer into +this country, but the long popularity of the American game and the +strong support that has been given to it by the colleges have +prevented soccer from gaining much of a foothold.</p> + +<p>Football is played by two opposing teams of eleven men each. The +positions are right and left end, right and left tackle, right and +left guard, centre rush, quarter-back, right and left half-backs and +full-back.</p> + +<p>The manner in which they line up is shown in the accompanying +diagram.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/279.png" width="500" height="214" alt="Diagram of football lineup" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>The weight and size of the men on a football team largely govern the +positions where they play. The centre rush and the two guards are +usually the heaviest men on the team, as extra weight in the centre of +the line is important to prevent what is called "bucking the centre." +The two tackles should be strong, stocky players, not too tall, but +still with sufficient weight to enable them to keep their feet in a +mass play and to offer strong resistance to a united attack on their +position. They should also be quick and agile and be able to advance +the ball by rushing when called upon. The two ends must be fleet of +foot and quick, sure tacklers. With the constant changes in football +rules the position of end has become more and more important, until +now a team with weak, slow ends is almost like a baseball team with a +poor pitcher.</p> + +<p>Many people regard the position of quarter-back as the most important +on the team. He is virtually the field captain. A good quarter-back +must be an all around player of the highest order. He must first of +all have a good head and be able to run off the plays of his team +without confusion. He must keep his head under the most trying +circumstances. He must watch for weak places in the opposing team and +direct the play of his men against them. He must offer encouragement +to his own team and be always on the alert to capture a fumbled ball, +stop a runner who has eluded the tacklers or to catch a punt that may +come within his reach. In nearly all the big college games the +quarter-back is one of the star players. The nature of his many duties +is such that he is forced to be a grand-stand player and to be +conspicuous even though he may not desire to. In running back punts +the quarter-back will often be used because he is sure in catching +them, which is a matter of the greatest importance. And all of this +work is required of a man who is usually the smallest, lightest man on +the team and who alongside of the giant guards and centre sometimes +looks like a pigmy. There is no higher honour in football than to be a +good all around quarter-back.</p> + +<p>The half-backs are chosen because of their speed and their ability to +advance the ball and to elude the tackling of the opposing team. They +come in for a very large share of the work and must be boys of +superior strength and agility.</p> + +<p>Next to the quarter-back the player of the greatest importance is +full-back. His duty first of all is to attend to the kicking end of +the game. For that reason he must practise constantly both with punts +and drop kicks and be able to put the ball between the goal-posts from +all angles and distances within reason. A great many games are won by +a good drop kicker making a field goal at a critical time, and such a +man is of the highest value to a team. As drop kicking, like pitching +in baseball, comes largely from practice, the captain or manager of a +team should see to it that any member of his team who shows any +ability at all in this department should be given every opportunity +and encouragement to develop his skill. A good drop kicker can be used +temporarily from almost any position in the line, whether he be guard, +tackle or end. As a rule, however, the full-back is the player who +does most of the kicking. He must also be a good line bucker and be +able to gain the required distance when called upon.</p> + +<p>In general, then, we choose the three centre men because of their +weight, the tackles and ends for speed and ability in tackling, the +quarter-back for his all around ability and his generalship, the +half-backs because of their skill in rushing the ball, and the +full-back for the kicking department. Any man on the team may be +chosen captain. As his work is largely done in practice and in +perfecting plays, unless a team is in the hands of a coach it is +better not to add the duties of captain to the already overburdened +quarter-back. Otherwise he is the logical and ideal man for the +position.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/282.png" width="600" height="343" alt="A football gridiron" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A football gridiron</span> +</div> + +<p>There is no game in which team work is more important than in +football. Eleven boys of moderate ability and comparative light weight +who can execute their plays with skill and precision can beat a team +of heavier boys or superior players who may lack their skill and +organization. In the case of a school team it is almost always +possible to secure the services of a coach from among the graduates. +If such a one has had experience on a college team so much the better.</p> + +<p>A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. At each end are +goal posts set 18 feet 6 inches apart, with a crossbar 10 feet above +the ground. The field is marked off in chalk lines similar to a tennis +court, these lines being 5 yards apart. The centre of the field where +the play starts is 55 yards from either end. It is usually customary +to run lines parallel to the sides of the field, also 5 yards apart, +but as a field is but 160 feet wide the first and last of these lines +are but 5 feet from the side lines instead of 5 yards. The lines on a +football field make a checkerboard effect and have given to the field +the name of "gridiron."</p> + +<p>Football is a game where eleven men try to force the ball back of the +opposing players' goal line by various efforts in running with it or +in kicking, while the opposing team meanwhile, by throwing the runner +or by pushing him back, try to prevent any gain being made. Each team +is allowed a certain number of attempts to make a certain distance +and, if they fail to do this the ball becomes the property of the +other team to make a similar attempt. Each of these attempts is called +a "down," and, according to the rules, after three attempts, if the +runners have failed to gain the required distance, the ball is given +to their opponents. In practice it is customary for a team to kick the +ball on its last down and thus to surrender it just as far from its +own goal line as possible. The distance that must be made in three +downs according to the present rules is ten yards. Sometimes a team +will not kick on its last down because the distance remaining to be +gained is so little that the quarter-back feels sure that one of his +men can make it, but this is an exception. When ten or more yards are +gained the ball becomes at first down again and the team has three +more attempts to make another ten yards figured from where the ball +was finally downed.</p> + +<p>The ultimate object of "rushing the ball," as this play is called, is +to place it on the ground behind the enemy's goal line, which is +called a "touchdown." Sometimes a team will succeed in getting the +ball almost over the goal line and then because of the superior +resistance of its opponents will find that it can advance it no +further. It is then customary for one of the players who has had +practice in drop kicking to attempt to kick what is called a "goal +from the field" or "field goal." This play counts less than a +touchdown in the score, counting but three points, while a touchdown +counts five, but many a game has been won by a field goal.</p> + +<p>Football scores between evenly matched teams who play scientifically +are usually low, one or two scores in a game being all that are made. +It frequently happens that neither side will score, but, unlike +baseball, the game does not continue after the time limit has expired, +but simply becomes a tie game. The game is divided into four periods +of fifteen minutes each. There are resting periods of three minutes +each between the first and second and third and fourth periods, and +fifteen minutes between the second and third periods.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the game the two opposing captains toss up a coin +and the winner of the toss has the choice of goals or of the ball. His +decision will be governed by the position of the sun and the wind +conditions, two very important things in football. After each score +the sides change goals, however; so the choice is not so important +unless the game happens to be scoreless.</p> + +<p>At the first play the ball is placed in the centre of the field and +is kicked off, a man on the opposing team trying to catch it and to +run back as far as possible before he is tackled and the ball +"downed." The next lineup takes place at this point and the game +proceeds until a score is made. After each score the ball is put in +play just as at the beginning of the game.</p> + +<p>The quarter-back calls out a series of numbers and letters called +"signals" before the ball is put into play. These signals will tell +his team what the play is to be, whether a run around end, a kick, or +a mass play on centre, for example. The matter of thorough coaching in +signals is very important and must be practised by the team until it +can tell in an instant just what the play is to be when the play +starts. The centre stoops low and holds the ball in an upright +position on the ground between his feet. The quarter-back is directly +behind him with outstretched hands ready to receive it. After the +signal is given the team must be ready to execute the play, but must +not by look or motion permit its opponents know what the play is to +be. At a touch or word from the quarter-back, the full-back snaps the +ball back and the play starts.</p> + +<p>The position of the men on a team is generally as the diagram shows +but for various plays other formations are used, provided that they +do not violate the rules, which specify just how many men must be in +the lineup and how many are permitted behind the line.</p> + +<p>The first requirement of signals is to have them simple. In the heat +and stress of a game the players will have but little time to figure +out what the play is to be, even though it may all have seemed very +simple on paper.</p> + +<p>To begin a code of signals each position on the team is given a +letter. The eleven positions will require eleven letters and no two +must be alike. It would be possible of course to simply start with the +letter "a" and go to "k," but this system would be too simple and +easily understood by your opponents. A better way is to take a word +easily remembered in which no letter occurs twice, such as +"B-l-a-c-k-h-o-r-s-e-x" or any other combination. "Buy and trade" +"importance," "formidable," and many others are used. The same +principle is used by tradesmen in putting private price marks on their +goods.</p> + +<p>Take the words "buy and trade" for example. Their positions right and +left end, abbreviated (r.e. and l.e.), right and left tackle (r.t. and +l.t.), right and left guard (r.g. and l.g.), centre (c.), +quarter-back (q.), right and left half-backs (r.h. and l.h.), and +full-back (f.b.), would be assigned letters as follows:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/288.png" width="500" height="68" alt="Diagram showing letters mapped to football positions" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>The letters denote not only players but holes in the line, as the +spaces between the players are called. The quarter-back always adds to +his signal a number of other letters or figures which have no meaning, +simply to confuse the opposing players. For example the signal given +is "24-E-N-72-X." The figures 24 and 72 mean nothing, nor does the +"X." The signal says "E will take the ball and go through N," or right +half-back through right guard. Any number of other plays can be +denoted by letters or numbers, for example all punts by figures which +are a multiple of ten, as 10-20, 150-300, and so on.</p> + +<p>The beginner in football should first of all be provided with a +suitable uniform; there is no game in which this is more important. +The game is rough and many and harsh are the jolts we receive; +consequently we must use whatever padding and guards we can to provide +against injury.</p> + +<p>The custom is to wear a tight jersey with elbow pads, a tight-fitting +canvas jacket and well-padded canvas khaki or moleskin trousers. The +appearance of our uniform is of little consequence, as football +players are not noted for the beauty of their costumes. Heavy woollen +stockings and football shoes complete the outfit. The shoes are the +most important part of the uniform. They should lace with eyelets and +be well provided with leather cleats to prevent slipping.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/289.png" width="250" height="295" alt="Football shoes" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Football shoes</span> +</div> + +<p>A beginner at football can gain a lot of valuable points by carefully +watching the practice of his team from the side lines. He is then in a +position when called upon to fill a given position which he may be +trying for, without obliging the coach or captain to give him +instruction in many rudiments which he can just as well learn from +observation. He must also be thoroughly familiar with the rules and +their interpretation. A violation of the rules in football carries +with it a severe penalty for the team, provided of course that the +referee sees it, consequently, a beginner must be especially careful +not to permit his anxiety to make a good showing to result in being +offside when the ball is put in play, interfering with a man about to +make a fair catch or in doing many other things which the excitement +of the game may occasion.</p> + +<p>The moment of putting the ball into play is called a "scrimmage" and +the scrimmage continues until the ball is downed. A ball is "down" +when the runner is brought to a standstill or when he touches the +ground with any part of his body except his hands or feet. At this +point the referee will blow his whistle and a lineup for a new +scrimmage will take place.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/290.png" width="152" height="350" alt="The football uniform" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The football uniform</span> +</div> + +<p>When the ball is kicked, a member of the opposing team who raises his +hand and stands in one spot is entitled to make a catch without +interference, which if successful gives his team a free kick. In a +free kick his opponents may not come within ten yards of where the +ball was caught and some member of his team may kick either a drop +kick, punt or place kick as he sees fit. After a touchdown, which +counts five, a place kick for goal is attempted. If the ball goes +between the goal-posts and above the crossbar it counts one point +additional for the team making the touchdown, or six in all. A score +of one alone cannot be made in football, as the attempt for goal +cannot be made until after a touchdown. This of course does not apply +to a field goal, which may be attempted at any time while the ball is +in possession of the team and which counts three.</p> + +<p>The smallest score is from a "safety," which results when a member of +a team is forced to touch the ball down behind his own goal or is +downed there by the opposing team. This play counts two for his +opponents and is an evidence of weakness of the team. It has the +advantage, however, of permitting the ball to be brought out +twenty-five yards to be put into play.</p> + +<p>The rules of football were practically unchanged for a number of +years, but the game developed so many dangerous features that nearly +all the colleges recently agreed to certain important changes +especially directed to abolishing mass play and line bucking. For that +reason the rules for the present game may be changed considerably +within a few years. A boy taking up football should therefore +acquaint himself with the latest rules governing the sport.</p> + +<p>Football requires careful training, but the best training will come +from actual play itself. In the beginning of the season a period of +ten minutes' hard play is all that a boy should be called upon to do, +unless he is in excellent physical shape. After that the time of +practice should be lengthened until a candidate can go through a game +of two full halves without being exhausted. One reason for many +football injuries is that the players become so completely winded that +the ordinary power of resistance is lost.</p> + +<p>Besides actual play the best training is in taking long runs to +improve the wind, one of the most essential things in football. In the +colleges training for nearly all athletic events is done in this way +and a candidate who cannot go out with his squad and run four or five +miles at a stiff dog trot will have but little chance of making his +team.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XVII" id="XVII"></a>XVII</h2> + +<h3>LAWN TENNIS</h3> + +<blockquote>How to make and mark a tennis court—Clay and sod courts—The proper +grip of the racket—Golf—The strokes and equipment</blockquote> + + +<p>The steady growth in popularity of lawn tennis as well as the splendid +exercise that results from playing this game has given it a sure place +in the field of athletic sports. It is a game that requires a great +deal of skill, and as no one realizes this fact more than those who +are experts, a beginner should not be deterred from playing tennis +simply because he may fear the criticism of the more experienced. The +only way to learn the various strokes and to be able to play a good +game is to practise at every opportunity. It is better to play against +some one who is more skilful than ourselves and who will keep us on +our mettle to make a good showing.</p> + +<p>The eye and the muscles must work automatically and with precision. No +amount of written instructions can give us this skill. The personal +outfit for playing tennis is of course very simple. Every player +should own his racket and become accustomed to it. They cost almost +any price up to eight dollars, which will buy the very best rackets +made. The weight and size of the racket will depend on our strength. +The average weight for a man is about fourteen ounces and for a boy an +ounce or two lighter. A skilful player becomes so accustomed to the +feeling and weight of his own racket that often he will play an +indifferent game if he is forced to use any other.</p> + +<p>The game of lawn tennis was first played on a lawn or grass court, and +many players still prefer this kind of a court, but the difficulty of +obtaining a good sod, and after having obtained it the greater +difficulty of keeping it in good condition, have increased the +popularity of a skinned or clay court, which is always in fair +condition except immediately after a heavy rain. The expense of +maintaining a tennis court is more than most boys or most families +would care to undertake.</p> + +<p>As a rule, tennis courts fall in the same general class with golf +links in that they lend themselves readily to the joint ownership of a +club or school, where the expense falls on a number rather than on an +individual. In a great many places the boys of a town or village have +clubbed together and have obtained permission from some one owning a +piece of vacant ground that is not likely to be sold or improved +within a few years and have built a tennis court on it. This +arrangement helps the appearance of the land, that should be secured +at a very low rental, or none at all if the owner is public spirited +and prefers to see the boys of his town grow up as healthy, athletic +men rather than weaklings who have no place for recreation but in the +village streets, where passing trucks and automobiles will endanger +their lives, or at least cause them to be a nuisance to the public.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/295.png" width="500" height="347" alt="The dimensions of a tennis court" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The dimensions of a tennis court</span> +</div> + +<p>To build a tennis court properly means a lot of work and it should +only be attempted under the direction of some one who understands it. +The things most important are good drainage, good light, and +sufficient room. A double court is 36 feet wide by 72 feet long, but +in tournament games or on courts where experts play it is customary to +have an open space about 60 feet wide by 110 to 120 feet long, to give +the players plenty of room to run back and otherwise to play a fast +game. A court should always be laid out north and south or as near +these points of the compass as possible. In courts running east and +west the sun is sure to be in the eyes of one of the players nearly +all day; this is of course a very serious objection. While it is very +pleasant to play tennis in the shade of a tree or building, a court +should never be located under these conditions if it is possible to +avoid it. A properly placed court should be fully exposed to the sun +all day.</p> + +<p>First of all it will be necessary to decide whether a grass or "dirt" +court is to be built. If the grass is fine and the place where the +court is to be happens to be level, there is little to do but to cut +the sod very short with a lawn-mower and to mark out the court. If, on +the contrary, there is much grading or levelling to be done, a dirt +court will be much cheaper and better in the end, as constant playing +on turf soon wears bare spots. The upkeep of a grass court will be +expensive unless it is feasible to move its position from time to +time.</p> + +<p>Whatever the court is to be, the first question to consider is proper +drainage. If the subsoil is sandy the chances are that the natural +soakage will take care of the surplus water, but on the contrary, if +the court is at the bottom of a hill or in a low place where clay +predominates, it is necessary to provide some means of getting rid of +the surplus water from rainfalls or our court may be a sea of mud just +when it would be most useful to us. To level a court properly we shall +need the services of some one expert with a levelling instrument of +some kind. It is not safe to depend on what seems to be level to our +eye, as our judgment is often influenced by leaning trees, the +horizon, and other natural objects. With a few stakes driven into the +ground, the tops of which are level, we are enabled to stretch lines +which will give us our levels accurately.</p> + +<p>A court should have a slope of a few inches from one end to the other +to carry off water. After the level is determined, all there is to +making a court is to fill in or cut away soil and earth until the +proper level space is obtained. As a rule it is better to dig away for +a court rather than to fill in, as we thus obtain a better bottom and +one that will require but little rolling. In the case of a slope, it +is well so to locate the court that the amount of earth excavated +from one end will be just about sufficient to fill in the other.</p> + +<p>The final surfacing of a court is done by means of clay and sand in +the proportion of about four or five to one, the clay of course being +in excess. To mix clay and sand thoroughly, the former should first be +pulverized thoroughly when dry and the mixture sifted over the court +carefully and evenly. The next step is rolling and wetting, and more +rolling and wetting until finally the whole is allowed to dry and is +ready for play. The slight irregularities and roller ridges that often +appear in a court will soon be worn off by the players' feet, but +playing of course will not change the grade. A new court will be +greatly improved by use, but no one should be allowed on a court +except with rubber-soled shoes. Heeled shoes will soon ruin a court, +and it is bad practice even to allow any one to walk over a court +unless with proper footwear.</p> + +<p>The preliminary levelling of a court can be accomplished with a rake +and a straight-edged board, but after the clay has become packed and +hard it will be necessary to use considerable force in scraping off +the inequalities. A metal cutting edge, such as a hoe or scraper, will +be found useful. A court should be swept with a coarse broom to +distribute the fine material evenly. Another very good sweeper can be +made from a piece of wood about six or eight feet long to which +several thicknesses of bagging have been tacked or fastened. The final +step in making a court consists in marking it out. Most courts are +marked so that they will be suitable either for singles or doubles or +so that either two or four people can play at a time. Where tape +markers are to be used, the proper distances will appear on the tape +without measuring, but if lime is used for marking a careful plotting +will be necessary to secure the proper distances, after which the +corners should be indicated by angle irons, so that the court may be +re-marked at any time without re-measuring.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/299.png" width="550" height="262" alt="A game of doubles in lawn tennis" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A game of doubles in lawn tennis</span> +</div> + +<p>Considerable difficulty is often experienced by beginners in marking +out a court, and, in fact, it is not a simple matter. The first thing +of importance is to determine generally one corner of the court and to +get a base line and a side line at a true right angle of ninety +degrees. The same principle may be employed that is used by builders +and surveyors in "squaring a building," as it is called. You will need +a ten-foot pole with marks for the feet indicated on it in lead +pencil, and in addition to this a few 20-penny spikes and a ball of +stout twine. Drive a nail into the ground where you want one corner of +the court and fasten the line to it; then stretch the line to another +nail to mark either a side line or back line. You will then have one +side and the corner fixed, and the problem is to get another line at +right angles to it. Boys who have studied geometry know that "in a +right-angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum +of the squares of the other two sides." It isn't necessary to +understand this, but it is the principle employed in "squaring." You +next stretch another line and have some one hold it. On the fixed side +line you measure eight feet from the corner nail and mark it with a +piece of twine tied around the line. You also make a six-foot mark on +the line to be at right angles to it, the exact direction of which is +yet to be determined. Both of these measurements must be accurate. +The boy on the end of the loose line moves it until the distance +between the two pieces of twine is exactly the length of your ten-foot +pole. The angle thus formed is exactly ninety degrees, or a right +angle. Having obtained one side and one end, to finish marking is +simply a matter of making the necessary measurements of a court as +shown on the diagram and marking each intersecting point with a nail +driven into the ground.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/301.png" width="500" height="339" alt="How to mark out a tennis court" title="" /> +<span class="caption">How to mark out a tennis court</span> +</div> + +<p>Another way to lay out a court is to drive two stakes or nails into +the ground 27 feet apart. (The line of these stakes should be the +position of the net.) Then take two pieces of twine, one 47 feet 5 +inches long, and the other 39 feet. Fasten one line to each of the +spikes that you have placed 27 feet apart. Where the two lines meet +as they are pulled taut are the true corners of the court, as there +are only four points where they can meet. The various measurements can +then be marked as above by referring to the diagram. It is customary +to mark a double court and to indicate the lines for singles +afterward.</p> + +<p>The game of tennis may be played either by two or four persons, or +sometimes an expert player will stand two beginners. The ball used is +rubber filled with air and covered with white felt and is 2 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches +in diameter. It is necessary to play with two balls, and to save time +in chasing those that go wild it is customary to play with three or +four.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 270px;"> +<a name="Tennis" id="Tennis"></a><a href="images/p008.jpg"> +<img src="images/p008_thumb.jpg" width="270" height="412" alt="Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play</span> +</div> + +<p>One of the players begins by serving. The selection of the court is +usually chosen by lot or by tossing up a racket in a way similar to +tossing a cent. The side of the racket where the woven gut appears is +called "rough," and the other side "smooth." This practice is not to +be recommended, as it injures the racket. It is better to toss a coin. +The game of tennis consists in knocking the ball over the net and into +the court of your opponent, keeping up this volley until one side or +player fails to make the return properly or at all, which scores his +opponent a point. While a game in tennis consists of four points, the +simple numbers from one to four are not used. The points run 15,30, +40, game, when one side makes them all. Or it may be "15-30," "15 +all," and so on, the score of the server being mentioned first. Where +one side has nothing their score is called "love." When one side has +scored four points the game is won—with this exception: When both +sides are tied at 40, or "deuce," as it is called, the winners must +make two points more than their opponents to win. In this way the game +may be continued for a long time as the points are won first by one +side and then by the other. The score at deuce, or "40 all," will be +denoted as "vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether the +server's side or the other wins one of the two points necessary to win +from "deuce." If first one side, then the other, obtains one of these +points the score will be "vantage in" or "out," as the case may be, +and then "deuce" again, until finally when two points clear are made +it is "game." A set of tennis consists in winning six games, but in +this case also there is a peculiar condition. Where each side wins +five games it is necessary in order to win the set to obtain a lead of +two games. The score in games is then denoted just as in a single +game, "deuce" and "vantage" games being played until a majority of two +is won.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/305.png" width="300" height="307" alt="(a) the right and (b) the wrong way to hold a tennis +racket" title="" /> +<span class="caption">(a) the right and (b) the wrong way to hold a tennis +racket</span> +</div> + +<p>To learn the game of tennis, first obtain a proper grip of the racket. +It should always be held firmly and as near the end as possible, the +leather butt being inside the hand. A loose grip will absolutely +prevent a player from becoming expert, as the accuracy and quickness +that are a part of tennis can never be obtained unless we have the +racket under perfect control. The various backhand, high and low +strokes will only come from constant practice. The most important +stroke to master as well as the most difficult is a swift, accurate +service. A player who is otherwise a fair player can easily lose game +after game by not having mastered his service stroke, and thus he +beats himself without any effort on the part of his opponent. The +various "twist" services have almost passed out of use. Even the best +players employ a straight, swift overhand ball. To fail to serve the +ball over the net and in the proper place is called a "fault." The +player has two chances and to fail in both is called "a double fault." +A common mistake is to attempt a swift smash on the first ball, which +may fail half the time, and then to make sure of the second ball by an +easy stroke which a skilful opponent can return almost at will and +thus either extend us to the utmost to return it or else make us fail +altogether. It is better to make sure of the first serve than to +attempt a more difficult serve than our skill will permit.</p> + + +<h4>GOLF</h4> + +<p>The game of golf, while of comparatively recent introduction in this +country, has sprung rapidly into popularity. It is hard to say just +why it should be such a popular game except that it combines a certain +amount of healthful outdoor exercise with an unlimited opportunity for +skill, and in addition to this, unlike the more violent games, it can +be joined in by old as well as young. The proper construction and +maintenance of a golf course is an expensive proposition. A private +course is altogether out of the question except for the very wealthy. +A club in starting with a limited amount of money will find it more +satisfactory to begin with the construction of a nine-hole or even a +six-hole course rather than to attempt a full course of eighteen holes +which will be indifferently constructed or kept up. The average +eighteen-hole course is about three miles long and is built according +to the general lay of the land. A hole in golf consists in the stretch +between the "tee," from which the ball is knocked off, and the +"putting green," where the player "putts" the ball into the "hole"—a +can sunk into the ground which has about the same diameter as a +tomato can. The score consists in the number of strokes required to +make the hole, and of course the player making the fewest number of +strokes is the winner of the hole or match.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 276px;"> +<img src="images/307a.png" width="276" height="473" alt="Addressing" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Addressing</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 325px;"> +<img src="images/307b.png" width="325" height="473" alt="At the top of the swing" title="" /> +<span class="caption">At the top of the swing</span> +</div> + +<div style="width: 650px;"> </div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/308.png" width="350" height="472" alt="Just before the ball is struck" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Just before the ball is struck</span> +</div> + +<p>Golf has but few rules. The secret of playing well consists in being +able to swing the clubs with accuracy and precision. There is no game +where proper form counts for more and none in which more careful +preliminary instruction by an expert is so important. If one can at +the very outset obtain the services of a professional or a skilful +player for a few lessons, it will do far more good than ten times as +many lessons after we have contracted bad habits which will have to be +unlearned.</p> + +<p>The surest way to be a poor golfer is first to think that it is a +sort of "old man's game," or, as one boy said, "a game of knocking a +pill around a ten-acre lot"; then when the chance to play our first +game comes along to do it indifferently, only to learn later that +there is a lot more to the skill of a good player than we ever +realized. Another very common mistake is to buy a complete outfit of +clubs, which a beginner always improperly calls "sticks," before we +really know just what shape and weight of club is best adapted to our +needs.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/310.png" width="162" height="300" alt="A good outfit of clubs for golf" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A good outfit of clubs for golf</span> +</div> + +<p>The common clubs in most players' outfits consist of a driver, +brassie, cleek, iron, and putter. We can add to this list almost +indefinitely if we wish, as there are all sorts of clubs made for +various shots and with various angles. The game of golf consists in +covering a certain fixed course in the fewest number of shots. We +shall have to practise both for distance and accuracy. The first few +shots on a hole of average length will give us an opportunity for +distance. This is especially true of the first shot, or drive, but +after that we make what are known as approach shots—that is to say, +we are approaching the putting green where we complete the hole by +"putting" the ball into the tin cup sunk into the ground. On the green +we shall need to be very careful, as a stroke wasted or poorly played +counts just as much against our score if the ball goes only a few feet +as if we sliced or "foozled" our drive.</p> + +<p>In scoring for golf there are two methods: Either the score of each +hole is taken and the winner of a majority of holes wins the match, or +the total score in counted as in "medal" or "tournament play."</p> + +<p>"Bogie score" is a fictitious score for the course that is supposed to +denote perfect playing without flukes or luck. The mysterious "Colonel +Bogie" is an imaginary player who always makes this score.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;"> +<a name="Golf" id="Golf"></a><a href="images/p009.jpg"> +<img src="images/p009_thumb.jpg" width="267" height="415" alt="How An Expert Plays Golf" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">How An Expert Plays Golf</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XVIII" id="XVIII"></a>XVIII</h2> + +<h3>PHOTOGRAPHY</h3> + +<blockquote>The selection of a camera—Snapshots vs. real pictures—How to make a +photograph from start to finish</blockquote> + + +<p>Aside from our own pleasant recollections, an album of photographs can +be the most satisfactory reminder of the good times we have had on +some vacation or outdoor trip.</p> + +<p>Photography has been made so easy and so inexpensive by modern methods +that every one should have some kind of a camera. Small instruments +capable of taking really excellent pictures within their limits can be +bought for five dollars or even less. Of course we cannot hope often +to obtain pictures that will be really artistic with such a small +outfit, but sometimes the inexpensive cameras will give remarkably +good results.</p> + +<p>Snapshot pictures seem to fill such an important place in our outdoor +life that no vacation or excursion trip seems to be complete unless +some one takes along a camera.</p> + +<p>The modern way of taking pictures, which is simply pressing a button +and sending a film to the professional to "do the rest," including +developing, printing and mounting, is really not photography. Almost +any one can take pictures with a small hand camera. The manufacturers +have perfected instruments so complete for this kind of work that +there is very little for us to do beyond being sure that we have an +unexposed section of film in place and that we have sufficient light +to obtain a picture. Of course we must have the focus right and must +be sure we are pointing at what we wish to take.</p> + +<p>Real photography is quite different from snapshot work. It is a hobby +so fascinating and with such great possibilities that there is +scarcely anything that will give a boy or girl more real pleasure in +life and a better opportunity to be outdoors than to become an expert +outdoor photographer. Unfortunately it is a rather expensive pastime, +but even with a moderate priced instrument we can obtain excellent +results under the right conditions. I have seen a prize-winning +picture in an exhibition that was made with a cigar box, with a +pinhole in one end for a lens.</p> + +<p>Even though one does not care to become an expert photographer, by all +means get a camera and make snapshots. It is quite a common idea for +an amateur to attribute his failures to defects in his material or +outfit. You may be sure when you fail it is your own fault. Dealers in +photographic supplies constantly have complaints from customers about +defective materials, and certainly nine out of every ten of these +cases are simply due to the carelessness of the operator with +perfectly good material.</p> + +<p>It is well for a beginner in photography to start with a simple +snapshot camera. They can be bought for three or four dollars up to +twenty-five. Such cameras are used with films, and simply require the +operator to expose his film in plenty of light and with the proper +attention to the distance that the object to be photographed may be +from the camera. Until we can accurately estimate distances, such as +8, 15, 25 or more feet, it will be far safer to pace off the distance, +remembering that a long step for a boy is about equivalent to three +feet. Some cameras have a universal focus and require no adjusting, +but an adjustable camera will usually give better results.</p> + +<p>Some cameras are so constructed that they may be used either as a hand +machine or on a tripod for view work. They can also be adapted either +to films or plates and be operated with the ground glass for +focussing, or if desired, the focussing scale and view finder may be +used.</p> + +<p>The size of our camera will depend largely upon our purse. The cost of +the camera itself is not the only thing to consider. All the plates +and supplies increase in proportion to the size of our instrument. A +good all around size is 4x5, or if we really wish to become +photographers the 5x7 is a standard. A number of new sizes have +recently been introduced and have proven very satisfactory. Perhaps +the best size for a snapshot camera is 3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> x 5 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub>.</p> + +<p>There are a great many makes of cameras on the market, but even at the +risk of advertising one firm more than another it is only fair to say +that there is really nothing better in pocket snapshot machines than +the kodaks. In view cameras it is different. There are instruments of +a dozen makes any of which will produce excellent results. The tests +to apply in selecting a view camera are its workmanship, compactness, +and the various attachments and conveniences it has. The salesman from +whom you purchase will explain fully just what its possibilities are, +especially if you take some experienced person with you who can ask +questions.</p> + +<p>Suppose you begin photographing with a simple "snapshot" outfit. The +first thing to remember is that there is absolutely no excuse for the +large percentages of failures that beginners have in making pictures, +and which are due solely to their own carelessness and inattention to +simple details. First of all, immediately after making an exposure, be +sure to form the habit of turning the key until a fresh film comes +into place; then you will never be troubled with the question whether +you have exposed the film or not. Every professional photographer who +develops for amateurs handles many films in which some of the +negatives are blank and some are double negatives with two pictures on +one film. This is solely the fault of the photographer, who was never +quite sure and would first make the mistake of exposing a film twice, +then turning the roll without exposing it at all. If you are really in +doubt, it is better to turn the roll to the next number, as you thus +simply lose a film but preserve both negatives; if, on the other hand, +you make a double exposure, you will lose both pictures.</p> + +<p>The snapshot photographer should never take a picture unless he really +wants it and unless he is pretty certain of making a picture. Snapping +here and there without a proper condition of light, focus, or subject +is a very bad habit to contract. Until you can make at least eight +good pictures out of ten you are not a photographer. No average lower +than this should satisfy you. Do not blame the lens for your failures. +In recent years the art of making lenses has advanced wonderfully, and +while the one in your camera may not be an expensive one or capable of +a wide range of use, it is at least adapted to the purpose of your +instrument or you may be sure that the manufacturers would never have +used it.</p> + +<p>We should not consider the snapshot expert who merely presses the +button as a real photographer, even though he obtains fine pictures. +No one deserves this name who does not understand the operations of +the dark room. One who has experienced the wonderful sensation of +working in a faint yellow-ruby light and by the application of certain +mysterious chemicals of seeing a picture gradually come into view on +the creamy surface of a dry plate will never again be satisfied to +push the button and allow some one else "to do the rest." However, if +you do not wish to go into photography extensively you may at least +learn just what limits your hand camera has, and at the end of the +season in place of a lot of ill-timed pictures you can have an album +full of creditable prints for which no apology will be necessary.</p> + +<p>It is quite beyond the limits of this chapter to go into photography +fully, but some of the simple principles may be of use to the boy or +girl who has taken up the subject. The modern snapshot camera even of +small size has great possibilities. With a clear negative we can have +an enlargement made on bromide paper that will be a source of great +satisfaction. The actual making of enlargements is usually beyond the +limits of an amateur's outfit. In this part of photographic work it +will be better to patronize a professional.</p> + +<p>To become an expert photographer and one whose work will be worth +while, we must really make a study of the subject. The modern outfits +and chemicals make it very easy for us if we do our part.</p> + +<p>The basis of successful work is a good lens, which is really the eye +of the camera. In selecting it we should get just as good a one as we +can afford. There are a great many excellent makes of lenses on the +market and even the stock types that are supplied with moderate-priced +cameras are of very good quality. The two distinct types of lenses are +the "rapid rectilinear" and the "anastigmatic," which names refer to +their optical properties in distributing the light. For our purpose +all we need to know is that the higher price we pay the better our +lenses will be, and in addition to this the further fact that the best +kind of results can be obtained by any lens provided that we do not +try to force it to do work for which it is not adapted.</p> + +<p>To understand photography we must first of all get a clear notion of +the use and purpose of the stops, as the various openings or apertures +are called that the lens is provided with. A "fast" lens is one that +will give a sharp picture at a maximum opening, and such lenses are +both the most expensive and the most universal in their application. +Lenses of this class are used in making instantaneous pictures with +very rapid exposures, and for ordinary view or portrait work will +produce no better results than much slower and less expensive types.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the best way to understand photography as an art rather than a +"push the button" pastime is to take up the process of making a +picture step by step. To begin with, the real photographer will use +plates instead of films, as much better pictures usually are possible +by their use. Dry plates come a dozen in a box, usually packed face to +face—that is, with the film or sensitive sides facing. The +plate-holder must be loaded in a dark room or dark closet, with +absolutely no exposure to daylight or any artificial light whatever +except a very faint light from a dark-room lantern, a combination of +ruby and yellow glass or paper. We should always test our dark room +and light by means of a plate before we trust them to actual working +conditions. Take a fresh plate and cover it half with a piece of +cardboard, or if it is in a holder draw the slide half way out and +allow the dark-room light to strike it for five minutes, then develop +the plate just as you would an exposed negative, and if the test plate +shows the effect of the exposure and darkens, we shall need to make +our light safer either by adding a sheet or two of yellow or ruby +paper or we must examine our room carefully to stop up any cracks +where rays of white light may enter. We must remember that a plate +sensitive enough to record instantaneous exposures of 1-500 of a +second must be sensitive to any tiny ray of outside light also. Almost +any room will make a dark room, especially if it is used at night. By +drawing the shades and by doing our work in a far corner of the room +away from outside light we are comparatively safe. Of course an +electric street lamp or other bright light would have to be shut out, +but this can easily be done by pinning up a blanket over the window. +When we have loaded our plate-holders we are ready to make a picture. +Suppose, for example, it is to be a house or a vista of some kind such +as a group of trees or a bit of water: the first thing of importance +is to obtain a point of view that will not only give us the picture we +desire but that will leave out any undesirable features that we do not +care to take. Some cameras are provided with a small view finder for +snapshot work, and this may often be used to get a general idea of +what the picture will be.</p> + +<p>Successful photography consists largely in knowing just what to take +and what to omit. Sometimes an ugly piece of fence or a post will +spoil an otherwise excellent picture. We must also remember that in a +photograph our colours are expressed in black and white, and therefore +a picture that depends on its colour contrast for its beauty, such as +autumn foliage or a sunset, may be disappointing as a photograph.</p> + +<p>When we have decided upon our subject, the next step is to set our +camera in the proper position to permit the plate to take in what we +wish. Usually it will be necessary to shift our position several times +until we find the proper position. The tripod should be firmly set on +the ground and the camera made as level as possible. The camera should +then be focussed with the stop or diaphragm wide open. The fact that +the image is inverted as it appears on the ground glass will at first +be confusing to a beginner, but we soon become accustomed to it and +never give it a thought. Our focussing cloth should be tightly drawn +about the head to keep out as much outside light as possible. At first +we have some difficulty in seeing the image on the ground glass, but +after we learn to look at the glass and not through it we should have +no further trouble in this respect. By moving the lens backward and +forward we finally strike a position where the principal image to be +photographed will appear sharp and clear. The camera is then in focus, +but we shall discover that other objects more in the background or +foreground will appear blurred and confused. Often it is desirable to +have a blurred or "fuzzy" background, but if we desire to bring the +indistinct objects in focus we must "stop down" our lens first by +trying the No. 8 stop, and if this does not accomplish the results the +No. 16, and so on until we get what we wish. As we look at the image +on the ground glass, it will be evident that as we stop down our lens, +the more remote objects are gradually brought into view with a sharp +outline, we shall discover that the image on the ground glass becomes +less and less distinct, which shows very clearly that we are +admitting less light, and the lesson to be learned is that when we +make the exposure we must give a corresponding increase in time as the +amount of light admitted decreases. An exposure that would give a +perfect picture at No. 8 may be very much under-exposed at No. 32 +diaphragm.</p> + +<p>Having focussed our camera and set the stop, we then close the +shutter, insert the plate-holder in the back of the camera and +carefully draw the slide. Omitting to pull the slide is a common +mistake with beginners. We are now ready to decide just what exposure +to give our plate. Rules for exposure are almost useless, but in +general it may be said that the modern plates are lightning fast and +that in bright sunlight at midday the average exposures will not be +over 1-25 of a second. An "exposure meter" will prove to be of great +assistance to a beginner, but such arrangements are not often used by +experts except in doubtful cases. We soon find that we can guess at +average exposures with considerable accuracy, especially if we adopt a +certain brand of plate and become accustomed to its working qualities. +Of course all of these speeds must be indicated on the shutter, and +all we can do is to set our shutter at this point and squeeze the +bulb. Correct judgment in exposure will only come after experience. +In taking interior views or making pictures on dark days we shall be +less likely to make a mistake than in bright sunlight. I have made two +interior views, to one of which I gave ten minutes and the other an +hour, with practically the same result in the negative. An +over-exposed plate is flat, which means that the print will lack +contrast and be unsatisfactory as a photograph.</p> + +<p>After the bulb is squeezed and the exposure made we are ready to +develop our plate and to see what result we have obtained. Of course +in practice we make a number of exposures before we begin to develop. +Some photographers use numbered plate-holders and keep a record of the +pictures, time of day and of exposure, stop and any other items of +interest. We now take the plate-holder in our dark room and prepare +our developer. There are a great many developers on the market and we +can scarcely make a mistake with any of them. Probably the best of all +is "pyro," but the fact that it stains the fingers is a serious +objection to it for amateur use, and almost any other developer, such +as metol, eikonogen or hydroquinon will be better.</p> + +<p>These stock developers usually come in dry salts, which must be +dissolved and mixed. All of this work must be done in the light so we +can see that we are getting the proper proportions and that the +chemicals are thoroughly in solution. The developing trays should be +washed thoroughly and placed conveniently at hand so that we can find +them in the dark. In addition to developers we must have what is +called the "hypo" fixing bath. This is a solution of hyposulphite of +soda, a chemical which is used in development and which renders the +plate no longer sensitive to light, but dissolves that part which has +not been acted upon by the developer. The hypo should be in a tray or +box placed conveniently at hand but not so located that it will be +liable to become mixed with the developer or in any way to splash or +spot the plate. We must always wash the hands thoroughly after +immersing a plate in the hypo before handling a fresh plate, as a very +few drops will ruin a negative.</p> + +<p>After we have prepared the hypo and the developer we are ready to +develop the plate. Place it face side up in the tray and quickly pour +the developer over it, being sure that the solution covers the surface +immediately, to avoid unequal development. While we should not develop +in a strong red or yellow light we can at least place our tray in +such a position that we may watch the process of bringing up the +image out of the creamy surface of the plate. This is the most +fascinating part of photography. First the high lights will appear and +then the shadows, and then after an instant the whole image will come +into view and then begin to fade away. To know at what point +development should stop will only come by experience with negatives of +all sorts of classes. Generally speaking, when the image fades from +view and begins to appear through the film on the glass side we should +wash it quickly and immerse it in the hypo. The "fixing" in hypo will +take probably five minutes and should be continued until the white +coating is thoroughly dissolved. The plate may then be brought safely +to the light and should be washed thoroughly either in running water +for half an hour or in at least twelve changes of fresh water. Care +must be taken not to touch the film side of the plate during +development or fixing, as the gelatine coating becomes very soft and +will show the slightest scratch or abrasion. We must dry the plate +away from dust, sunlight, or artificial heat. After it is dry we are +ready to make a print.</p> + +<p>Photographic printing papers are of two classes—those which are used +in direct sunlight and upon which the image gradually appears, and +those which are similar to plates and which are given a very short +time exposure in artificial light and the picture developed just as we +should a plate. The beginner will probably have more uniform success +with sunlight paper after the simple process of toning and fixing is +learned, although the developing papers are extremely simple to handle +and give better results.</p> + +<p>The final step of trimming and mounting the print is too simple to +require explanation.</p> + +<p>There are a great many things that might be said about photography, +but in a book of this kind only the most simple facts are stated. If +you become a photographer you will soon learn many of the fine points.</p> + +<p>Our negatives should all be kept carefully in labelled envelopes and a +record kept in a book of some kind.</p> + +<p>When we really become expert as a photographer, there are many +opportunities to make our hobby pay. The publishers of nearly all the +magazines experience the greatest difficulty in securing the kind of +pictures they wish to reproduce. This is remarkable when so many +people are taking pictures. If one wishes to sell pictures, it is +important to study the class of materials that the magazines use. +Then, if we can secure good results, we can be almost sure of +disposing of some of our work and, in addition to the money, have the +satisfaction of seeing our pictures published.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XIX" id="XIX"></a>XIX</h2> + +<h3>OUTDOOR SPORTS FOR GIRLS</h3> + +<blockquote>What to wear—Confidence—Horseback riding—Tennis—Golf—Camping +</blockquote> + +<p>A generation ago the girl who joined her brother in his sports would +have been considered a "tom boy," but in recent years girls have +discovered that with comparatively few exceptions they can join in the +sports and recreations of their brothers and in some cases attain a +remarkable degree of skill.</p> + +<p>Girls' schools have done much to spread this idea. A rational outdoor +costume and a desire to be physically well also has helped "the +outdoor girl" to be regarded as the highest type of womanhood. Only +her grandmother sighs over tanned cheeks and muscular arms.</p> + +<p>The girl who is not a good sport is the exception rather than the +rule. Besides, our grandmothers worked at their gardening, which is +out-of-door exercise, and a preventive, as Kipling tells, of the +"hump" we get from having too little to do. He says:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><i>"The cure for this ill is not to sit still,</i><br /></span> +<span class="i2"><i>Or frowst with a book by the fire,</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>But to take a large hoe and a shovel also,</i><br /></span> +<span class="i2"><i>And dig till you gently perspire."</i><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>From a feminine standpoint the first question must be, "What shall I +wear?" There is no need to be handicapped by skirts, at least when +one's exercise is taken in company with a crowd of girls. The bicycle +introduced the bloomer girl and this costume is now generally regarded +as proper for outdoor girls. In camp one should in addition wear a +sailor blouse, and a pair of sneakers, which though rather heating for +the feet are very comfortable and very satisfactory for long tramps +through the woods. The rubber soles give a firm footing on slippery +moss and dead leaves, while high heels might cause a wrenched ankle or +a bad fall. It is perfectly allowable for a girl to wear a +broad-brimmed hat to avoid sunburn, which might be so serious as to +spoil a vacation. A gradually acquired coat of tan is much more +desirable. The hat prevents headaches or sunstroke, neither of which +may be dared with impunity by a delicate girl, unless she wears her +hair on top of her head.</p> + +<p>In regard to hair, which is of great importance to its owner, though +very much of a nuisance after the age when it may be worn boyishly +short, the one word is that it must be fixed to stay without +re-pinning or tucking back at frequent intervals. For bathing, a girl +must either be willing to have her hair well soaked or else to put a +cap on so tightly that it cannot be loosened. To hesitate to try a +dive for fear of getting wet hair spoils much of the sport of +swimming. Each moment of hesitation makes her more convinced that +perhaps, after all, she had better not try that dive, because she +probably would not be able to do it anyway. The lack of confidence is +disastrous. I have known girls who could swim perfectly well in the +shallows but could not keep up at all in water out of their depth. And +yet they have not been touching the bottom in the shallow water, but +they <i>could</i> if they wished. Learning to swim in water that is over +your head is really better, though it is more "scary" at first. If you +do learn in that way you can thereafter look upon the deepest water +with confident scorn.</p> + +<p>Confidence is a necessary possession for the beginner in almost any +sport. It is so much easier to do anything if we are quite positive +that we can. Probably, because you are a girl and are modest, you +will have to assume this attitude, but in horseback riding, for +example, an instant of fear while on the horse's back will "give you +away" to the beast. Since he is as keen as a dog to know when you fear +and dislike him, he will undoubtedly take advantage of it. If you are +quite positive that you can learn to ride and that the horse under you +is harmless, you will keep a firm hold on the reins instead of +clinging to the saddle horn in a panic.</p> + +<p>The trying part of learning to ride is that the first day's experience +is painfully stiffening. This applies to almost any unusual exercise. +But to withdraw on account of that you may as well resign yourself to +taking exercise no more severe than that afforded by a rocking chair. +It does not pay to stop when you are stiff. Sticking to it is the only +way that will train those hitherto unused muscles to perform their +duties with no creaking of the hinges. A good night's rest is the +utmost limit of time that should intervene between each trial.</p> + +<p>A girl has the physical disadvantage of less endurance than a boy, and +she does have to care for herself in that respect, and leave untried +some forms of exercise that would be overexertion for her. A girl may +"paddle her own canoe," of course, without risk of overstraining +herself, but when it comes to moving it from place to place out of the +water, the feather-light canoe of poetry becomes heavy reality. Two +girls can carry a canoe between them for a short distance without much +difficulty, but if one is alone it is far better to drag the canoe +over the ground, which is not particularly hard on it, unless the +ground is rough. The boy's way of carrying it balanced upside down on +his shoulders requires considerable strength.</p> + +<p>Devotees of tennis will claim first place for that among girls' +sports. The amount of practice and quickness of thought and motion +that maybe acquired in a game of tennis is remarkable; the fascination +of the game itself rather than the benefits to be derived from it will +hold the attention. The main trouble is in the learning, which +requires unflagging energy and constant practice. An overmodest +beginner will make the mistake of playing only against her likewise +beginning friends; the result is that she takes a discouragingly long +time finding out how to use her racket properly and never gets a +chance to return a really good serve.</p> + +<p>It is really just as well at some point in your practising to see some +well-trained athlete do the thing you are trying to learn.</p> + +<p>A girl can accomplish a great deal with her brain as well as with her +muscles in athletics. Some one once remarked that he learned to swim +in winter and to skate in summer. He meant that after he had in its +proper season practised skill in the winter sport, his brain, during +the warm months, kept repeating to the muscles those directions until +by the next winter they had a very fair idea of what they had to do, +and responded more quickly and easily. It is rather consoling to think +you do not lose time, but rather progress, between seasons.</p> + +<p>The girl who goes camping with a crowd of boys and girls realizes how +much depends on the mere strength of the boys; at the same time she +herself has an opportunity of showing not only her athletic +proficiency and nerve, but also her superior common sense. She will +really have to leave the heavy work of pitching the tents and chopping +the wood to the boys, but she cannot sit down and fold her hands +meanwhile. She can be collecting materials for the beds of balsam on +which they hope to sleep in comfort, or she may gather chips for the +fire, or she may be helping to unload the wagon or canoes in which +they have come. When the tents are pitched she has a woman's +prerogative of "putting the house in order," and during the time of +camping keeping it so.</p> + +<p>If there is actually a case of nothing for her to do, far better for +her to sit down and keep quiet than to get in the way of the boys and +bother them. A young man who in his first season as a guide in the +Canadian woods took out a party of girls from a summer school on a +camping trip told me that he would never do it again, because they +gave him no relief from a continual rain of questions. A case where +zeal for knowledge outruns discretion.</p> + +<p>After the tents are pitched and the fire made by the boys, it is +plainly up to the girls to get supper. Let us hope they have practised +cooking for some time before they went camping. Every one gets so +desperately hungry in the outdoor life that meals are of first +importance, as tempers are apt to develop unexpectedly if many +failures are turned out. If the girls are good cooks, however, and +wash the dishes after each meal the division of labour will be fair to +all concerned.</p> + +<p>A girl is more or less dependent on her boy friends for instruction in +sports and considerably anxious for their approval. Even if she has a +woman instructor, in nine cases out of ten she requires some kind of +praise from some man before she is satisfied with her performance. +Sister may tell her that she steers her canoe with beautiful +precision, but unless brother remarks carelessly that "the kid +paddles pretty well" she will hesitate to take her canoe in places +where expert paddling is required. When you know that you can do some +things as well as any boy you still have to rest content with the +grudging assurance that "you do pretty well for a girl."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="XX" id="XX"></a>XX</h2> + +<h3>ONE HUNDRED OUTDOOR GAMES</h3> + + +<p>The following games are described in this chapter:</p> + +<ul> +<li>All-around Athletic Championship</li> +<li>Archery</li> +<li>Association Football</li> +<li>Badminton</li> +<li>Balli-callie</li> +<li>Bandy</li> +<li>Baseball</li> +<li>Basket Ball</li> +<li>Bean Bag</li> +<li>Best College Athletic Records</li> +<li>Blind Man's Buff</li> +<li>Boulder On</li> +<li>Bull in the Ring</li> +<li>Call Ball</li> +<li>Cane Rush</li> +<li>Canoe Tilting</li> +<li>Cat, or Cattie</li> +<li>Counting-out Rhymes</li> +<li>Court Tennis</li> +<li>Cricket</li> +<li>Croquet</li> +<li>Curling</li> +<li>Dixie's Land</li> +<li>Duck on the Rock</li> +<li>Equestrian Polo</li> +<li>Fat</li> +<li>Feather Race</li> +<li>Foot-and-a-half</li> +<li>Football</li> +<li>Garden Hockey</li> +<li>Golf</li> +<li>Golf-Croquet</li> +<li>Hab-Enihan</li> +<li>Haley Over</li> +<li>Hand Ball</li> +<li>Hand Polo</li> +<li>Hand Tennis</li> +<li>Hat Ball</li> +<li>Hide and Seek</li> +<li>High Kick</li> +<li>Hockey</li> +<li>Hop Over</li> +<li>Hop Scotch</li> +<li>Hunkety</li> +<li>Hunt the Sheep</li> +<li>Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association of America</li> +<li>I Spy</li> +<li>Jack Fagots</li> +<li>Jai-A-Li</li> +<li>Japanese Fan Ball</li> +<li>Kick the Stick</li> +<li>King of the Castle</li> +<li>Knuckle There</li> +<li>Lacrosse</li> +<li>Lawn Bowls</li> +<li>Lawn Bowling</li> +<li>Lawn Hockey</li> +<li>Lawn Skittles</li> +<li>Lawn Tennis</li> +<li>Last Tag</li> +<li>Luge-ing</li> +<li>Marathon Race</li> +<li>Marbles</li> +<li>Mumblety Peg</li> +<li>Names of Marbles</li> +<li>Nigger Baby</li> +<li>Olympic Games</li> +<li>One Old Cat</li> +<li>Over the Barn</li> +<li>Pass It</li> +<li>Pelota</li> +<li>Plug in the Ring</li> +<li>Polo</li> +<li>Potato Race</li> +<li>Prisoner's Base</li> +<li>Push Ball</li> +<li>Quoits</li> +<li>Racquets or Rackets</li> +<li>Red Line</li> +<li>Red Lion</li> +<li>Roley Boley</li> +<li>Roque</li> +<li>Rowing Record</li> +<li>Rubicon</li> +<li>Sack Racing</li> +<li>Scotland's Burning</li> +<li>Skiing</li> +<li>Soccer</li> +<li>Spanish Fly</li> +<li>Squash</li> +<li>Stump Master</li> +<li>Suckers</li> +<li>Tether Ball</li> +<li>Tether Tennis</li> +<li>Three-Legged Racing</li> +<li>Tub Racing</li> +<li>Volley Ball</li> +<li>Warning</li> +<li>Washington Polo</li> +<li>Water</li> +<li>Water Race</li> +<li>Wicket Polo</li> +<li>Wolf and Sheep</li> +<li>Wood Tag</li> +<li>Yank</li> +</ul> + + +<p>While all the games and sports described in this chapter are not +absolutely confined to outdoors, almost any game in which violent +physical exercise results is better if played in the open air rather +than in a house or gymnasium. In fact, we should only play indoors +when the weather makes it impossible for us to be outside.</p> + +<p>There are very few indoor games that cannot be played in the open air +with proper apparatus or rules. It is also equally true that many of +our outside sports may be played indoors with certain modifications.</p> + + +<h4>ALL-AROUND ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIP</h4> + +<p>This contest was instituted in America in 1884 to give athletes an +opportunity to demonstrate their ability in all-around work. The +contest is rapidly becoming the blue ribbon championship event in +America for track athletes. The following ten events are contested +for:</p> + +<ul> +<li>100-yard dash</li> +<li>High jump</li> +<li>Long jump</li> +<li>Vault</li> +<li>Throwing 16-pound hammer</li> +<li>Putting a 16-pound shot</li> +<li>Throwing 56-pound weight</li> +<li>120-yard hurdle race</li> +<li>Half-mile walk</li> +<li>One-mile run</li> +</ul> + + +<p>The system of scoring in the All-around Championship is complicated. +Each contestant has his score made up independently. The world's best +amateur record is taken as a basis and 1,000 points are allowed for +it. For example, the best record (amateur) for the 100-yard dash is +9 <sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds and for each <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> of a second more than this that the +runner in the All-around Championship contest makes in his trial 42 +points are deducted from this score. The same method is used in all +the events. In the ten events the maximum score where the contestant +equalled every world's record would be 10,000 points. The contest was +won in 1909 by the remarkable score of 7,385 points.</p> + + +<h4>ARCHERY</h4> + +<p>Archery is the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. It is especially +adapted as a lawn game for ladies and gentlemen, but boys and girls +can practise archery and become proficient with bows and arrows just +as the Indians were or the boys in England in the days of Robin Hood. +Of course the invention of gunpowder has practically done away with +the bow and arrow either as a means of warfare or as a weapon to be +used in the chase, but it is still used by savages.</p> + +<p>The modern bow used in archery is made of lancewood or yew and for +men's use is usually 6 feet long and for women and children 6 inches +shorter. The strength or pull necessary to bend the bow, given in +pounds, determines its classification. The arrows for men's use should +be 28 inches long and for women 24 to 25 inches. The target is a +straw-filled canvas disk painted in bright colours. There are usually +five circles and the object in archery, as in shooting with firearms, +is to hit either the centre ring or "bull's-eye" or as near to it as +possible. In scoring, a shot in the inner gold centre counts nine; red +ring, seven; inner white ring, five; black ring, three, and outer +white ring, one. Targets are of various sizes from 18 inches in +diameter to 4 feet, depending on the distance of the range. A common +distance will be from 50 to 100 yards.</p> + +<p>Each archer should have some distinguishing mark or colour on his +arrows. Standard lancewood bows will cost two or three dollars, arrows +from one to two dollars a dozen, and targets from two to five dollars +each, with three dollars extra for the target stand.</p> + +<p>In championship matches in archery the customary range for men is 60 +yards with 96 arrows, and the same number of arrows at 50 yards for +women. A recent match championship was decided for men with 90 hits +and a total score of 458, and for women with 85 hits and a total +score of 441.</p> + + +<h4>ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL OR SOCCER</h4> + +<p>A game similar to Rugby football except that it more closely resembles +what its name implies and kicking predominates. A round, +leather-covered ball is used and the game is considered to be much +safer than our college football. Efforts consequently have been made +to introduce the game into American colleges because of its less +dangerous character. As there is practically no tackling or falling, +the "soccer" uniform does not require the same amount of padding as a +Rugby player's uniform. The game is ordinarily played in running +trousers with a full sleeved shirt and special shoes with leather pegs +or cleats. The stockings are rolled down just below the knee. The +association football goal net into which the ball is kicked is +fastened to the ground and is made of tarred rope. Thus far, the game +has not been very popular in America, although a number of exhibition +match games have recently been played by visiting English teams which +attracted considerable attention. As a game, soccer is fast and +exciting, and splendid opportunities are given for team work; but for +some reason it has not succeeded in displacing our American game of +Rugby, although possibly it is more interesting for the spectator.</p> + + +<h4>BADMINTON</h4> + +<p>An English outdoor game similar to lawn tennis but played with +shuttlecocks. The net is five feet above the ground. The shuttlecock +is a cork in which feathers have been inserted. The shuttlecock is +served and returned as in tennis and either two or four may play. A +badminton court is 30 feet wide and 44 feet long.</p> + + +<h4>BANDY</h4> + +<p>A game very similar to hockey, except that it is played out of doors +instead of in a covered rink and a ball is used in place of a puck or +rubber disk.</p> + +<p>The name "bandy" is sometimes applied also to shinney or shinty and in +England it is also applied to our American game of ice hockey.</p> + + +<h4>BASEBALL</h4> + +<p>The national game of America. (See chapter on baseball.) The game is +played by eighteen persons, nine on a side, called "nines." The +positions are pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +shortstop, right-field, left-field, centre-field. The first six +positions are called the in-field, and the last three, the out-field. +The diamond or field where the game is played is a square plot of +ground with sides ninety feet long. At each corner of the square are +bases called first, second, third and home plate. A game consists of +nine innings, in each of which both teams have an opportunity to bat +the ball and to score runs. The players bat in turn and attempt to +reach the various bases without being put out by their opponents. Each +year the rules are changed in some slight particulars, consequently a +beginner in baseball must be thoroughly familiar with the rules of the +game before attempting to play. The pitcher attempts to pitch the ball +over the home plate to the catcher and the batsman endeavours to hit +it. If the ball after being hit is caught by one of the opposing +players, or if it is thrown to the base to which the batsman is +running before he reaches the base, he is "out." Otherwise he is +"safe" and will try to make the next base. If he completes the circuit +of the four bases without being put out, he scores a run for his team +or nine. When a player makes the entire circuit without being forced +to stop for safety he makes a "home run." A hit which gains him a +single base only is called a "base hit." Similarly if he reaches +second base it is a "two-bagger," and third base, a "three-bagger."</p> + +<p>After three players are put out, the other side has its "innings," and +at the completion of nine full innings the side having scored the +greatest number of runs is the winner. The game of baseball has become +very scientific and the salaries of professional players are almost as +high as those of the highest salaried men in business life.</p> + +<p>The ball used in the game is made of the best all wool yarn with a +horsehide cover and a rubber centre. Baseball bats are usually made of +ash.</p> + + +<h4>BASKET BALL</h4> + +<p>A game of ball which may be played either indoors or out, but which is +especially adapted to in-door play when weather conditions make +out-door sports impossible. Two baskets suspended on wire rings are +placed at the two opposite ends of a room or gymnasium and the players +strive to knock or pass the ball from one to another on their own side +and to throw it so that it will fall into the basket. It is not +permissible to run with the ball as in Rugby football. The ball used +is round, but in other respects resembles the ball used in football. +It is made in four sections of grained English leather and is +inflated by means of a rubber bladder. The players use rubber-soled +shoes with peculiar knobs, ridges, or depressions to prevent slipping. +The conventional uniform is simply a gymnasium shirt, running +trousers, and stockings which are rolled down just below the knees.</p> + +<p>The game of basket ball is especially adapted to women and girls and +consequently it is played very largely in girls' schools and colleges.</p> + +<p>Any level space may be used for basket ball. A convenient size is 40 +by 60 feet. The baskets used for goals are 18 inches in diameter and +are fixed 10 feet above the ground or floor. The official ball weighs +about 18 ounces and is 31 inches in circumference. Five players +constitute a team. The halves are usually twenty minutes, with a +ten-minute intermission for rest.</p> + +<p>It is not permissible to kick, carry or hold the ball. Violation of a +rule constitutes a foul and gives the opponents a free throw for the +basket from a point fifteen feet away. A goal made in play counts two +points and a goal from a foul one point.</p> + + +<h4>BEAN BAGS</h4> + +<p>This game is known to every one by name and yet its simple rules are +often forgotten. A couple of dozen bean bags are made in two colours +of muslin. The players stand in two lines opposite each other and +evenly divided. At the end of the line is a clothes basket. The bags +are placed on two chairs at the opposite end of the line and next to +the two captains. At a signal the captains select a bag and pass it to +the next player, who passes it along until finally it is dropped into +the basket. When all the bags are passed they are then taken out and +passed rapidly back to the starting point. The side whose bags have +gone up and down the line first scores a point. If a bag is dropped in +transit it must be passed back to the captain, who starts it again. +Five points usually constitute a game.</p> + + +<h4>BEST COLLEGE ATHLETIC RECORDS</h4> + +<p>These records have been made in the Intercollegiate contests which are +held annually under the Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association +of America.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'>100-yard dash</td><td align='left'> 9 <sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1896</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>220-yard dash</td><td align='left'> 21 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1896</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>440-yard dash</td><td align='left'> 48 <sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1907</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Half-mile run</td><td align='left'> 1 min. 56 seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1905</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>One-mile run</td><td align='left'> 4 min. 17 <sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1909</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Two-mile run</td><td align='left'> 9 min. 27 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'> made in 1909</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Running broad jump</td><td align='left'> 24 feet 4 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> in.</td><td align='left'>made in 1899</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Running high jump</td><td align='left'> 6 feet 3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> in.</td><td align='left'>made in 1907</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Putting 16-pound shot</td><td align='left'> 46 feet 5 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> in.</td><td align='left'>made in 1907</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Throwing the hammer</td><td align='left'>164 feet 10 in.</td><td align='left'>made in 1902</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pole vault</td><td align='left'> 12 feet 3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> in.</td><td align='left'>made in 1909</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>120-yard high hurdle</td><td align='left'> 15 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'>made in 1908</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>220-yard hurdle</td><td align='left'> 23 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'>made in 1898</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>One-mile walk</td><td align='left'> 6 min. 45 <sup>2</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds</td><td align='left'>made in 1898</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<h4>BLIND MAN'S BUFF</h4> + +<p>This game is played in two ways. In each case one player is +blindfolded and attempts to catch one of the others and to identify +him by feeling. In regular blind man's buff, the players are allowed +to run about at will and sometimes the game is dangerous to the one +blindfolded, but in the game of "Still Pon" the one who is "it" is +turned several times and then announces, "Still Pon no more moving," +and awards a certain number of steps, which may be taken when in +danger of capture. After this number is exhausted the player must +stand perfectly still even though he is caught.</p> + + +<h4>BULL IN THE RING</h4> + +<p>In this game the players form a circle with clasped hands. To be +"bull" is the position of honour. The bull is supposed to be locked in +by various locks of brass, iron, lead, steel, and so on. He endeavours +to break through the ring by catching some of the players off their +guard. He will then run until captured, and the one who catches him +has the position of bull for the next game. In playing, it is +customary for the bull to engage one pair of players in conversation +by asking some question such as "What is your lock made of?" At the +answer, brass, lead, etc., he will then make a sudden rush at some +other part of the ring and try to break through.</p> + + +<h4>CALL BALL</h4> + +<p>In this game a rubber ball is used. One of the players throws it +against a wall and as it strikes calls out the name of another player, +who must catch it on its first bounce. If he does so he in turn then +throws the ball against the wall, but if he misses he recovers it as +quickly as possible while the rest scatter, and calls "stand," at +which signal all the players must stop. He then throws it at whoever +he pleases. If he misses he must place himself against the wall and +each of the others in turn has a free shot at him with the ball.</p> + + +<h4>CANE RUSH</h4> + +<p>This contest is usually held in colleges between the rival freshman +and sophomore classes. A cane is held by some non-contestant and the +two classes endeavour by pulling and pushing and hauling to reach the +cane and to hold their hands on it. At the end of a stated time, the +class or side having the most hands on the cane is declared the +winner. It is a very rough and sometimes dangerous game and in many +colleges has been abolished on account of serious injuries resulting +to some of the contestants.</p> + + +<h4>CANOE TILTING</h4> + +<p>This is a revival of the ancient game of tilting as described in +"Ivanhoe," except that the tilters use canoes instead of horses and +blunt sticks in place of spears and lances. The object is for the +tilter to shove his opponent out of his canoe, meanwhile seeing to it +that the same undesirable fate does not fall to his own lot. In +singles each contestant paddles his own canoe with one end of his pike +pole, but the sport is much greater if each canoe has two occupants, +one to paddle and the other to do the "tilting".</p> + + +<h4>CAT</h4> + +<p>A small block of wood pointed at both ends is used in this game. The +batter strikes it with a light stick and as it flies into the air +attempts to bat it with the stick. If the cat is caught the batter is +out. Otherwise he is entitled to a score equal to the number of jumps +it will take him to reach the place where the cat has fallen. He then +returns to bat again and continues until he is caught out.</p> + + +<h4>COUNTING-OUT RHYMES</h4> + +<p>Almost every section has some favourite counting-out rhyme of its own. +Probably the two most generally used are:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>My mother told me to take this one</i>,"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>and that old classic—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Eeny, meeny, miny, mo.</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Catch a nigger by the toe;</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>If he hollers, let him go.</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Eeny, meeny, miny, mo.</i>"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>This is also varied into</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Ena, mena, mona, mite.</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Pasca, laura, bona, bite.</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Eggs, butter, cheese, bread.</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Stick, stock, stone dead.</i>"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The object of a counting-out rhyme is to determine who is to be "it" +for a game. As each word is pronounced by the counter some one is +pointed at, and at the end of the verse the one last pointed at is +"it."</p> + + +<h4>COURT TENNIS</h4> + +<p>This game, though very similar to rackets and squash, is more +scientific than either. The court is enclosed by four walls. A net +midway down the court divides the "service" side from the "hazard" +side. The rackets used in court tennis have long handles and a large +face. The balls used are the same size as tennis balls, but are +heavier and stronger. In play, the ball rebounds over the court and +many shots are made against the roof. While somewhat similar to lawn +tennis, the rules of court tennis are extremely complicated. The game +is scored just as in lawn tennis, except that instead of calling the +server's score first the marker always announces the score of the +winner of the last stroke.</p> + + +<h4>CRICKET</h4> + +<p>A game of ball which is generally played in England and the British +provinces, but which is not very popular in the United States. There +are two opposite sides or sets of players of eleven men each. At two +points 22 yards apart are placed two wickets 27 inches high and +consisting of three sticks called stumps. As in baseball, one side +takes the field and the other side is at the bat. Two men are at bat +at a time and it is their object to prevent the balls from being +bowled so that they will strike the wickets. To do this a broad bat is +used made of willow with a cane handle, through which are inserted +strips of rubber to give greater spring and driving power. The batsman +will either merely stop the ball with his bat or will attempt to drive +it. When the ball is being fielded the two batsmen exchange wickets, +and each exchange is counted as a run, and is marked to the credit of +the batsman or striker. The batsman is allowed to bat until he is out. +This occurs when the ball strikes the wicket and carries away either a +bail, the top piece, or a stump, one of the three sticks. He is also +out if he knocks down any part of his own wicket or allows the ball to +do it while he is running, or if he interferes with the ball by any +part of his person as it is being thrown, or if one of the opposing +players catches a batted ball before it touches the ground, as in +baseball.</p> + +<p>When ten of the eleven men on a side have been put out it constitutes +an inning, and the side in the field takes its turn at the bat. The +game usually consists of two innings, and at its completion the side +having scored the greater number of runs is the winner. The eleven +positions on a cricket team are called bowler, wicket-keeper, long +stop, slip, point cover-slip, cover-point, mid-off, long-leg, +square-leg, mid-on. The one at bat is, as in baseball, called the +batsman. The two lines between which the batsmen stand while batting +are called "popping creases" and "bowling creases."</p> + + +<h4>CROQUET</h4> + +<p>A game played with wooden balls and mallets, on a flat piece of +ground. The game consists in driving the ball around a circuitous +course through various wire rings called "wickets" and, after striking +a wooden peg or post, returning to the starting place. Any number may +play croquet either independently or on sides. Each player may +continue making shots as long as he either goes through a wicket, hits +the peg or post, or hits the ball of an opponent. In this latter case +he may place his ball against that of his opponent and, holding the +former with his foot, drive his opponent's ball as far as possible +from the croquet ground. He then also has another shot at his wicket.</p> + +<p>A croquet set consists of mallets, balls, wickets, and stakes and may +be bought for two or three dollars. Experts use mallets with much +shorter handles than those in common sets. They are made of either +maple, dogwood, or persimmon. In place of wooden balls, championship +and expert games are often played with balls made of a patented +composition. All croquet implements are usually painted in bright +colours. The game of "roque" is very similar to croquet.</p> + +<p>Croquet can be made more difficult by using narrow arches or wickets. +Hard rubber balls are more satisfactory than wood and also much more +expensive.</p> + +<p>As a rule the colours played in order are red, white, blue and black. +According to the rules any kind of a mallet may be used, depending +upon the individual preference of the player.</p> + + +<h4>CURLING</h4> + +<p>An ancient Scotch game played on the ice, in which the contestants +slide large flat stones, called curling stones, from one point to +another. These points or marks are called "tees." In playing, an +opportunity for skill is shown in knocking an opponent out of the way, +and also in using a broom ahead of the stone as it slides along to +influence its rate of speed.</p> + +<p>At the present time the greatest curling country is Canada. Curling is +one of the few outdoor games that are played without a ball of some +kind.</p> + + +<h4>DIXIE'S LAND</h4> + +<p>This game is also called "Tommy Tiddler's Land." It is a game of tag +in which a certain portion of the playground is marked off as the +"land." The one who is "it" endeavours to catch the others as they +invade his land. When a player is tagged he also becomes "it," and so +on until the game ends because all the invaders are captured. The game +is especially interesting because of the variety of verses and rhymes +used in various parts of the country to taunt the one who is "it" as +they come on his land.</p> + + +<h4>DUCK ON A ROCK</h4> + +<p>This game is also called "Boulder Up." It is not customary to "count +out" to decide it. For this game usually some one suggests, "Let's +play Duck on a Rock," and then every one scurries around to find an +appropriate stone, or "duck." As fast as they are found the fact is +announced by the cry, "My one duck," "My two duck," etc. The last boy +to find a stone is "drake," or "it."</p> + +<p>The drake is larger than the ducks and is placed on an elevated +position such as a boulder. Then from a specified distance ducks +attempt to hit the drake and to knock him from his position. If they +miss they are in danger of being tagged by the drake, as it is his +privilege to tag any player who is not in possession of his duck. If, +however, the drake is knocked from his perch, the ducks have the +privilege of rushing in and recovering their stones, but unless they +do so before the drake replaces his stone on the rock they may be +tagged. The first one tagged becomes "it" and the drake becomes a +duck.</p> + + +<h4>FAT</h4> + +<p>This is the universal game of marbles. It is sometimes called "Yank," +or "Knuckle There." A ring is scratched in the ground a foot or two in +diameter. It is then divided into four parts by two lines drawn +through the diameter. The first step is for each player to "lay a +duck," which in simple language means to enter a marble to be played +for. This is his entrance fee and may be either a "dub," an "alley," a +"crystal," or sometimes a "real," although this is very rare as well +as extravagant. About ten feet from this ring a line is made called a +"taw line." The first player, usually determined as soon as school is +out by his having shouted, "First shot, fat!" stands behind the taw +line and shoots to knock out a marble. If he is successful he +continues shooting; if not he loses his turn and Number 2 shoots. +Number 1 after his first shot from the taw line must then shoot from +wherever his marble lies. If Number 2 can hit Number 1 he has a right +to claim all the marbles that Number 1 has knocked out of the ring. In +this way it is very much to the advantage of each player to leave +himself as far from the taw line as possible.</p> + + +<h4>FEATHER RACE</h4> + +<p>The contestants endeavour to blow a feather over a certain course in +the shortest time. The rule is that the feather must not be touched +with the hands. Out of doors this game is only possible on a very +still day.</p> + + +<h4>FOOT AND A HALF</h4> + +<p>This is a game of "Leap Frog" also called "Par" or "Paw." One of the +boys is chosen "down," who leans over and gives a "back" to the rest, +who follow leader, usually the boy who suggests the game. He will +start making an easy jump at first and over "down's" back, then +gradually increase the distance of the point at which he lands, and +each of those following must clear this line or become "it" +themselves. The leader must also surpass his previous jumps each time +or he becomes "down" himself. In this way the smaller or less agile +boys have a more equal chance with the stronger ones.</p> + + +<h4>FOOTBALL</h4> + +<p>The present game of football as played in American schools and +colleges is a development of the English game of Rugby. There are +twenty-two players, eleven on a side or team. The game is played on a +level field, at each end of which are goal posts through which the +team having the ball in its possession attempts to force or "rush" it, +while their opponents by various means, such as tackling, shoving or +blocking, strive to prevent the ball from being successfully forced +behind the goal line or from being kicked over the crossbar between +the goal-posts. A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. It +is usually marked out with white lines five yards apart, which gives +the field the name of "gridiron." The various positions on a football +team are centre rush, right and left guards, right and left tackles, +right and left ends, quarter-back, right and left half-back, and +full-back. As in baseball, the rules of football are constantly being +changed and the game as played ten or fifteen years ago is very +different from the modern game. The various changes in rules have been +made with a view to making the game less dangerous to the players and +more interesting to the spectator.</p> + +<p>The principal scores in football are the "touchdown" and the "field +goal." In a touchdown the ball is carried by one of the players and +touched on the ground behind the opponents' goal line. In a field +goal, or, as it is often called, "a goal from the field," the ball is +kicked over the crossbar between the goal posts. In a field goal the +player executing it must not kick the ball until after it has touched +the ground. Such a kick is called a "drop kick" as distinguished from +a "punt" where the ball is released from the hands and immediately +kicked before touching the ground. A team in possession of the ball is +allowed a certain number of attempts to advance it the required +distance. Each of these attempts is called a "down." If they fail to +gain the necessary distance, the ball goes to their opponents. It is +customary on the last attempt, or down, to kick the ball so that when +the opposing team obtains possession of it it will be as far as +possible from the goal line toward which they are rushing. In this +play a "punt" is allowed. There are also other scores. A safety is +made when a team is forced to touch the ball down behind its own goal +line.</p> + +<p>The ball used in American football is a long oval case made of leather +and inflated by means of a rubber bag or envelope. The football +player's uniform consists of a heavily padded pair of trousers made of +canvas, moleskin, khaki or other material, a jacket made of the same +material, a tight-fitting jersey with elbow and shoulder pads, heavy +stockings, and cleated shoes. Players will often use other pads, +braces and guards to protect them from injury. Football is usually +played in the fall months after baseball has been discontinued on +account of the cold weather. A full game consists of four +fifteen-minute periods.</p> + + +<h4>GARDEN HOCKEY</h4> + +<p>This game is played between two parallel straight lines, 3 feet 6 +inches apart and marked on the lawn with two strips of tape. At the +opposite two ends of the tape are two goal posts 14 inches apart with +a crossbar. The length of the tapes should be 36 feet when two or +four players engage in the game, and may be extended for a greater +number. The game is played with balls and hockey sticks. The game is +started by placing the ball in the centre of the field. The two +captains then face each other and at a signal strike off. If the ball +is driven outside the tape boundaries it must be returned to the +centre of the field opposite the place where it crossed the line. The +object of the game is to score a goal through your opponents' goal +posts as in ice hockey. If a player steps over the tape into the +playing space he commits a foul. The penalty for a foul is a free hit +for his opponents.</p> + + +<h4>GOLF</h4> + +<p>A game played over an extensive piece of ground which is divided into +certain arbitrary divisions called holes. A golf course is usually +undulating with the holes laid out to afford the greatest possible +variety of play. The ordinary course consists of either nine or +eighteen holes from 100 to 500 yards apart. An ideal course is about +6000 yards long. The holes which mark the termination of a playing +section consist of tin cans 4 inches in diameter sunk into and flush +with the level of the surrounding turf, which is called "the putting +green." The game is played with a gutta-percha ball weighing about +1 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> ounces and with a set of "clubs" of various odd shapes and for +making shots under various conditions. Usually a boy accompanies each +player to carry his clubs. Such boys are called "caddies." The clubs +are peculiarly named and it is optional with each player to have as +many clubs as he desires. Some of the more common ones are called +"driver," "brassie," "cleek," "iron," "mashie," "niblick," "putter," +and "lofting iron."</p> + +<p>The game, which may be played by either two or four players, consists +in endeavouring to drive the ball over the entire course from hole to +hole in the fewest possible number of strokes. At the start a player +takes his position on what is called the "teeing ground" and drives +the ball in the direction of the first hole, the position of which is +shown in the distance by a flag or tin sign with a number. Before +driving he is privileged to place the ball on a tiny mound of earth or +sand which is called a "tee." The players drive in order and then +continue making shots toward the hole until finally they have all +"holed out" by "putting" their balls into the hole, and the lowest +score wins the hole.</p> + +<p>Golf is a game in which form is more essential than physical strength +and which is adapted for elderly people as well as the young. The +wooden clubs are usually made with either dogwood or persimmon heads +and with split hickory handles or shafts. The handles are usually +wound with a leather grip. Golf clubs of good quality will cost from +two to three dollars apiece and a set for most purposes will consist +of four to six clubs. The caddy bag to carry the clubs is made of +canvas or leather and will cost from two dollars up. Standard quality +golf balls will cost about nine dollars a dozen. Almost any +loose-fitting outdoor costume is suitable for playing golf and the +tendency in recent years is to wear long trousers in preference to +what are known as "golf trousers."</p> + +<p>A golf course—sometimes called a "links," from a Scotch word meaning +a flat stretch of ground near the seashore—should be kept in good +condition in order to enjoy the game properly. The leading golf clubs +maintain a large force of men who are constantly cutting the grass, +repairing damages to the turf, and rolling the greens. For this reason +it is a game only adapted to club control unless one is very wealthy +and can afford to maintain private links.</p> + + +<h4>GOLF-CROQUET</h4> + +<p>This game may be played either by two or four persons. Wickets are +placed at irregular distances, and the object of the game is to drive +a wooden ball 2 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches in diameter through these wickets. It may +be played either as "all strokes," in which the total number of +strokes to get through all the wickets is the final score, or as in +golf, "all wickets," in which the score for each wicket is taken +separately, as each hole in golf is played. The mallet used is +somewhat different from a croquet mallet. The handle is longer and a +bevel is made on one end to raise or "loft" the ball as in golf.</p> + +<p>The size of a golf-croquet course will depend upon the field +available. A field 200 yards long will make a good six-wicket course.</p> + + +<h4>HAB-ENIHAN</h4> + +<p>This game is played with smooth stones about the size of a butter +dish. A target is marked on the sand or on any smooth piece of ground, +or if played on the grass the target must be marked with lime similar +to marks on a tennis court. The outside circle of the target should +be six feet in diameter, and every six inches another circle described +with a piece of string and two pegs for a compass.</p> + +<p>The object of the game is to stand at a stated distance from the +"enihan," or target, and to toss the "habs" as in the game of quoits. +The player getting the best score counting from the inside ring or +bull's-eye wins the game.</p> + + +<h4>HALEY OVER</h4> + +<p>The players, equally divided, take positions on opposite sides of a +building such as a barn, so that they can not be seen by their +opponents. A player on one side then throws the ball over the roof and +one of his opponents attempts to catch it and to rush around the +corner of the building and throw it at one of the opposing side. If he +succeeds, the one hit is a prisoner of war and must go over to the +other side. The game continues until all of one side are captured.</p> + + +<h4>HAND BALL</h4> + +<p>A game of ancient Irish origin which is much played by baseball +players and other athletes to keep in good condition during the winter +when most outdoor sports are impossible.</p> + +<p>A regulation hand ball court has a back wall 30 feet high and 50 feet +wide. Each game consists of twenty-one "aces." The ball is 1-7/8 +inches in diameter and weighs 1 <sup>5</sup>/<sub>8</sub> ounces. The ball is served and +returned against the playing wall just as in many of the other indoor +games and is similar in principle to squash and rackets.</p> + + +<h4>HAND POLO</h4> + +<p>A game played with a tennis ball in which two opposing sides of six +players each endeavour to score goals by striking the ball with the +hands. The ball must be struck with the open hand. In play, the +contestants oppose each other by shouldering and bucking and in this +way the game can be made a dangerous one.</p> + +<p>The goal is made into a cage form 3 feet 6 inches square. At the +beginning of the game the ball is placed in the centre of the playing +surface and the players rush for it. The umpire in hand polo is a very +important official and calls all fouls, such as tripping, catching, +holding, kicking, pushing, or throwing an opponent. Three fouls will +count as a goal for the opponents.</p> + + +<h4>HAND TENNIS</h4> + +<p>A game of lawn tennis in which the hand is used in place of a racket. +A hand tennis court is smaller than a regulation tennis court. Its +dimensions are 40 feet long and 16 feet wide. The net is 2 feet high. +The server is called the "hand in" and his opponent the "hand out." A +player first scoring twenty-five points wins the game. A player can +only score when he is the server.</p> + +<p>A foul line is drawn 3 feet on each side of the net, inside of which +play is not allowed. In all essential particulars of the rules the +game is similar to lawn tennis.</p> + + +<h4>HAT BALL</h4> + +<p>This game is very similar to Roley Boley or Nigger Baby except that +hats are used instead of hollows in the ground. The ball is tossed to +the hats and the first boy to get five stones, or "babies," in his hat +has to crawl through the legs of his opponents and submit to the +punishment of being paddled.</p> + + +<h4>HIGH KICK</h4> + +<p>A tin pan or wooden disk is suspended from a frame by means of a +string and the contestants in turn kick it as it is drawn higher and +higher until finally, as in high jumping, it reaches a point where +the survivor alone succeeds in touching it with his toe.</p> + + +<h4>HOCKEY</h4> + +<p>Hockey is usually played on the ice by players on skates, although, +like the old game of shinney, it may be played on any level piece of +ground. The hockey stick is a curved piece of Canadian rock elm with a +flat blade. Instead of a ball the modern game of ice hockey is played +with a rubber disk called a "puck." In hockey, as in many other games, +the whole object is to drive the puck into your opponents' goal and to +prevent them from driving it into yours. Almost any number of boys can +play hockey, but a modern team consists of five players. Hockey skates +are of special construction with long flat blades attached to the +shoes. The standard length of blade is from 14 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> to 15 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches. +They cost from three to six dollars. The hockey player's uniform is a +jersey, either padded trousers or tights, depending upon his position, +and padded shin guards for the goal tenders.</p> + + +<h4>HOP OVER</h4> + +<p>All but one of the players, form a ring standing about two feet apart. +Then by some "counting out" rhyme some one is made "it." He then +takes his place in the centre of the circle, holding a piece of stout +string on the end of which is tied a small weight or a book. He whirls +the string about and tries to strike the feet or ankles of some one in +the circle, who must hop quickly as the string comes near him. If he +fails to "hop over" he becomes "it."</p> + + +<h4>HOP SCOTCH</h4> + +<p>Hop scotch is a game that is played by children all over the world. A +court about 20 feet long and 4 or 5 feet wide is drawn with chalk, +coal, or a piece of soft brick on the sidewalk or scratched with a +pointed stick on a piece of level ground. A line called the "taw line" +is drawn a short distance from the court. The court is divided into +various rectangles, usually eleven divisions, although this varies in +different sections. At the end of the court a half circle is drawn, +variously called the "cat's cradle," "pot," or "plum pudding." The +players decide who is to be first, second, etc., and a flat stone or +piece of broken crockery or sometimes a folded piece of tin is placed +in division No. 1. The stone is called "potsherd." The object of the +game is to hop on one foot and to shoot the potsherd in and out of the +court through the various divisions until they are all played. He +then hops and straddles through the court. Whenever he fails to do the +required thing the next player takes his turn.</p> + + +<h4>HUNT THE SHEEP</h4> + +<p>Two captains are chosen and the players divided into equal sides. One +side stays in the home goal and the other side finds a hiding place. +The captain of the side that is hidden or "out" then goes back to the +other side and they march in a straight line to find the hidden sheep. +When they approach the hiding place their own captain shouts, "Apple!" +which is a warning that danger is near. When he is sure of their +capture or discovery he shouts, "Run, sheep, run!" and all the party +make a dash for the goal.</p> + + +<h4>INTERCOLLEGIATE AMATEUR ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA</h4> + +<p>This association controls the field athletic contests between the +colleges known as the "Intercollegiates."</p> + +<p>It is generally known as the I.C.A.A.A.A. To win a point for one's +college in this contest is the highest honour that a track athlete may +obtain. In these games, which take place annually, the following +thirteen events are contested for:</p> + + +<ul> <li> Mile run </li> +<li> Shotput </li> +<li> 440-yard run </li> +<li> 120-yard hurdles </li> +<li> 100-yard dash </li> +<li> Running high jump </li> +<li> Two-mile run</li> +<li> 880-yard run </li> +<li> 220-yard low hurdles</li> +<li> Pole vault</li> +<li> Broad jump</li> +<li> 220-yard dash</li> +<li> Hammer throw</li></ul> + + +<h4>I SPY</h4> + +<p>This game is sometimes called "Hide and Seek," One of the players is +made "it" by any of the familiar counting-out rhymes. The rest then +secure a hiding place while he counts fifty or one hundred. A certain +tree or fence corner is considered "home." "It" then attempts to spy +his hidden playmates in their hiding places and to run "home" +shouting, "I spy" and their names. If the one discovered can get home +before "it," he does so, shouting, "In free!" with all the breath that +is left in him. The game is especially interesting just at dusk, when +the uncertain light makes the "outs" brave in approaching home without +detection. If "it" succeeds in capturing all the players the first +one caught is "it" for the next game.</p> + + +<h4>JACK FAGOTS</h4> + +<p>This game is the same in principle as Jackstraws except that fagots or +sticks of wood two feet long are used in place of jackstraws. They are +removed from a pile with a crooked stick and must be taken out one at +a time without disturbing the rest. The number of sticks removed +constitutes a player's score. When any stick other than the one he is +trying for is moved he loses his turn. The next player must attempt to +remove the same stick that the other failed on. The game is won by the +player having the greatest number of sticks to his credit.</p> + + +<h4>JAPANESE FAN BALL</h4> + +<p>This game is especially adapted for a lawn party for girls. Either +Japanese fans or the ordinary palm-leaf fans will do for rackets. The +balls are made of paper and should be six or eight inches in diameter +and in various colours. At opposite ends of a space about the size of +a tennis court are erected goal-posts similar to those used in +football, but only six feet above ground. These may be made of light +strips of wood. There is also a similar pair of posts and a crossbar +midway between the goals.</p> + +<p>The game is played by two contestants at a time. Each takes an +opposite end of the court and tosses the ball into the air. Then by +vigorous fanning she endeavours to keep it aloft and to drive it over +the opponent's goal-post. At the middle posts the ball must be +"fanned" under the crossbar. If the ball falls to the ground it may be +picked up on the fan and tossed aloft again, but it must not be +touched by the hands. The winner is the one who first drives the ball +the length of the court and over the crossbar.</p> + + +<h4>KICK THE STICK</h4> + +<p>One player is chosen to be "it" and the rest are given a count of +twenty-five or fifty to hide. A stick is leaned against a tree or wall +and this is the home goal. As soon as the goal keeper can spy one of +the players he runs in and touches the stick and makes a prisoner, who +must come in and stand behind the stick. If one of the free players +can run in and kick the stick before the goal tender touches it, he +frees all the rest and they scurry to a place of hiding before the +stick can again be set up and the count of twenty-five made. As the +object of the game is to free your fellow-prisoners, the free players +will attempt all sorts of ruses to approach the stick without being +seen or to make a dash for it in hope of kicking it ahead of the goal +keeper. The game is over when all the players are captured, and the +first prisoner is "it" for the next game.</p> + + +<h4>KING OF THE CASTLE</h4> + +<p>This can be made a very rough game, as it simply consists in a player +taking a position on a mound or hillock and defying any one to +dislodge him from his position by the taunting words:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>I'm the King of the Castle,</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Get down you cowardly rascal.</i>"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The rest try to shove him from his position and to hold it +successfully against all comers themselves. The game, if played +fairly, simply consists in fair pulls and pushes without grasping +clothing, but if played roughly it is almost a "free-for-all" fight.</p> + + +<h4>LACROSSE</h4> + +<p>A game of ball played by two opposing teams of twelve players each. +The lacrosse field is a level piece of ground with net or wire goals +at each end. The players strive to hurl the ball into their opponents' +goal by means of a lacrosse stick or "crosse." This is a peculiar bent +stick with a shallow gut net at one end. It somewhat resembles a +tennis racket, but is more like a snowshoe with a handle. The game +originated with the Indians and is much played in Canada.</p> + +<p>In playing, the ball must not be touched with the hands, but is hurled +from one player to another by the "lacrosses" until it is possible to +attempt for a goal. It is also passed when a player is in danger of +losing the ball.</p> + +<p>Lacrosse sticks cost from two to five dollars each and are made of +hickory with rawhide strings. The players wear specially padded gloves +to protect the knuckles. The usual uniform for lacrosse is a +tight-fitting jersey and running trousers.</p> + + +<h4>LAWN BOWLS</h4> + +<p>This is a very old game and of great historic importance. The famous +Bowling Green in New York City was named from a small park where the +game was played by New Yorkers before the Revolution. The game is +played with wooden balls five inches in diameter and painted in +various gay colours. Usually lignum vitae is the material used. They +are not perfectly round but either slightly flattened at the poles +into an "oblate spheroid" or made into an oval something like a modern +football. Each player uses two balls, which are numbered. A white +ball, called a "jack ball," is then thrown or placed at the end of the +bowling green or lawn and the players in turn deliver their balls or +"bowl" toward the jack. The whole game consists in placing your ball +as near to the jack as possible and of knocking away the balls of your +opponents. It is also possible to strike the jack and to drive it +nearer to where the balls of your side are lying. When all the players +have bowled, the two balls nearest the jack each count a point for the +side owning it. The game if played by sides is somewhat different from +a two-handed contest. The main point first is to deliver the ball as +near to the jack as possible and then to form a barrier or "guard" +behind it with succeeding balls to block those of your adversaries. +Sometimes the Jack is placed in the middle of the green and the teams +face each other and bowl from opposite ends. A green is about seventy +feet square with closely cropped grass. Four players form a "rink" and +are named "leader," "second," "third," and "skip" or captain. The +position from which the balls are delivered is called the "footer." It +is usually a piece of cloth or canvas three feet square.</p> + + +<h4>LAWN BOWLING</h4> + +<p>This game is similar in every respect to indoor bowling except that no +regular alley is used. A net for a backstop is necessary. The pins +are set upon a flat surface on a lawn and the players endeavour to +knock down as many pins as possible in three attempts. The scoring is +the same as in indoor bowling. To knock down all ten pins with one +ball is called a "strike," in two attempts it is a "spare." In the +score, the strike counts ten for the player and in addition also +whatever he gets on the next two balls. Likewise he will count ten for +a spare, but only what he gets on one ball for a bonus. As a +consequence the maximum or perfect score in bowling is 300, which is a +series of ten strikes and two more attempts in which he knocks down +all the pins. In lawn bowling the scores are very low as compared with +the indoor game, where good players will often average close to 200 on +alleys where they are accustomed to bowl. Lawn bowling is a different +game from lawn bowls, which is described in a preceding paragraph.</p> + + +<h4>LAWN HOCKEY</h4> + +<p>This game is played on a field a little smaller than a football field, +being 110 yards long and from 50 to 60 yards wide. The ball used is an +ordinary cricket ball. The goals are two upright posts 12 feet apart +and with a crossbar 7 feet from the ground. Eleven men on a side +constitute a full team, but the game may be played with a fewer +number. The positions are known as three forwards, five rushes, two +backs or guards, and the goal tender.</p> + +<p>The object of the game is very simple, being to drive the ball between +your opponents' goals. The ordinary ice hockey stick will be +satisfactory to play with. The principal thing to remember in lawn +hockey is not to commit a "foul," the penalty for which is a "free +hit" at the ball by your opponents. It is a foul to raise the stick +above the shoulders in making a stroke, to kick the ball (except for +the goal tender), to play with the back of the stick, to hit the ball +other than from right to left, and any form of rough play such as +tripping, pushing, kicking, or striking.</p> + +<p>Lawn hockey is an excellent game and is really the old game of +"shinney" or "shinty" played scientifically and with definite rules.</p> + + +<h4>LAWN SKITTLES</h4> + +<p>From a stout pole which is firmly fixed in the ground a heavy ball is +suspended by means of a rope fastened to the top of the pole. Two flat +pieces of stone or concrete are placed on opposite sides of the pole. +The game is played with nine-pins, which are set up on one stone, the +player standing on the other and endeavouring by hurling the ball to +strike down a maximum number of pins. Usually he has three chances and +the number of pins knocked down constitutes his score.</p> + + +<h4>LAWN TENNIS (SEE CHAPTER ON TENNIS)</h4> + +<p>A game of ball played on a level piece of ground, called a court, by +two, three, or four persons. When two play the game is called +"singles," and when four play it is called "doubles." The game is +played with a rubber ball, and rackets made by stringing gut on a +wooden frame. The dimensions of a tennis court are 36 by 78 feet. In +addition to this, space must be allowed for the players to run back, +and it is customary to lay out a court at least 50 by 100 feet to give +plenty of playing space. The court is divided into various lines, +either by means of lime applied with a brush or by tapes. Midway +between the two rear lines and in the centre of the court a net is +stretched, supported by posts.</p> + +<p>In playing one of the players has the serve—that is, he attempts to +strike the ball so that it will go over the net and into a specified +space on the opposite side of the net. His opponent then attempts to +return the serve—that is, to strike the ball either on the fly or +the first bound and knock it back over the net somewhere within the +playing space as determined by the lines. In this way the ball is +volleyed or knocked back and forth until one of the players fails +either to return it over the net or into the required space. To fail +in this counts his opponents a point. Four points constitute a game +except where both sides have obtained three points, in which case one +side to win must secure two points in succession.</p> + +<p>The score is not counted as 1, 2, 3, and 4, but 15, 30, 40, game. When +both sides are at 40 it is called "deuce." At this point a lead of two +is necessary to win. The side winning one of the two points at this +stage is said to have the "advantage," or, as it is expressed, +"vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether it is the side +of the server or his opponents, the server's score always being called +first.</p> + +<p>A set of tennis consists of enough games to permit one side to win +six, or if both are at five games won, to win two games over their +opponents.</p> + + +<h4>LAST TAG</h4> + +<p>There are a great many games of "tag" that are familiar to boys and +girls. One of the common games is "last tag," which simply means that +a boy tags another and makes him "it" before leaving the party on his +way home. It is the common boys' method of saying "good-bye" when +leaving school for home. The principal rule of last tag is that there +is "no tagging back." The boy who is "it" must not attempt to tag the +one who tagged him, but must run after some one else. It is a point of +honour with a boy not to be left with "last tag" against him, but he +must try to run some one else down, when he is then immune and can +watch the game in safety, or can leave for home with no blot on his +escutcheon.</p> + + +<h4>LUGE-ING</h4> + +<p>A form of coasting very much practised in Switzerland at the winter +resorts where the sled used is similar to our American child's sled +with open framework instead of a toboggan or the more modern flexible +flyer which is generally used by boys in America.</p> + + +<h4>MARATHON RACE</h4> + +<p>A long distance race, held in connection with the Olympic Games and +named from a famous event in Greek history. The accepted Marathon +distance is 26 miles, 385 yards. The race was won at the Olympic +Games held in England in 1908 by John Hayes, an American, in 2 hours +44 minutes 20 2-5 seconds.</p> + + +<h4>OLYMPIC GAMES</h4> + +<p>The Olympic Games are open to the athletes of the world. The following +events are contested for:</p> + +<ul><li>60-metre run </li> +<li>100-metre run</li> +<li>200-metre run</li> +<li>400-metre run</li> +<li>800-metre run</li> +<li>1500-metre run</li> +<li>110-metre hurdles</li> +<li>200-metre hurdles</li> +<li>400-metre hurdles</li> +<li>3200-metre steeplechase</li> +<li>2500-metre steeplechase</li> +<li>4000-metre steeplechase</li> +<li>Running long jump</li> +<li>Running high jump</li> +<li>Running triple jump</li> +<li>Standing broad jump </li> +<li>Standing high jump</li> +<li>Standing triple jump </li> +<li>Pole vault</li> +<li>Shot put</li> +<li>Discus throwing</li> +<li> Throwing 16-pound hammer </li> +<li> Throwing 56-pound weight</li> +<li> Marathon race</li> +<li> Weight lifting, one hand</li> +<li> Weight lifting, two hands</li> +<li> Dumb-bell competition </li> +<li>Tug-of-war</li> +<li> Team race</li> +<li> Team race 3 miles </li> +<li> Five-mile run</li> +<li> Throwing stone</li> +<li>Throwing javelin </li> +<li>Throwing javelin held in middle </li> +<li>Penthathlon</li> +<li>1500-metre walk</li> +<li>3500-metre walk </li> +<li> 10-mile walk</li> +<li>Throwing discus Greek style</li></ul> + + +<h4>MARBLES</h4> + +<p>There is a large variety of games with marbles and the expressions +used are universal. Boys usually have one shooter made from agate +which they call a "real." To change the position of the shooter is +called "roundings," and to object to this or to any other play is +expressed by the word "fen." The common game of marbles is to make a +rectangular ring and to shoot from a line and endeavour to knock the +marbles or "mibs" of one's opponents out of the square. A similar game +is to place all the mibs in a line in an oval and to roll the shooter +from a distance. The one coming nearest to the oval has "first shot" +and continues to shoot as long as he drives out a marble and "sticks" +in the oval himself. Reals are often supposed to have superior +sticking qualities. Playing marbles "for keeps" is really gambling and +should be discouraged. The knuckle dabster is a small piece of cloth +or leather that boys use to rest the hand on when in the act of +shooting. The best kind of a "dabster" is made from a mole's skin.</p> + + +<h4>NAMES OF MARBLES</h4> + +<p>The common marbles used by boys everywhere are called mibs, fivers, +commies, migs, megs, alleys, and dubs. A very large marble is a bumbo +and a very small one a peawee. Glass marbles are called crystals and +those made of agate are called reals. The choicest real is supposed +to be green and is called a "mossic" or "moss real."</p> + + +<h4>MUMBLETY PEG</h4> + +<p>This game is played with a penknife. A piece of turf is usually the +best place to play. Various positions for throwing the knife are tried +by each player, following a regular order of procedure, until he +misses, when the knife is surrendered to the next in turn. When he +receives the knife each player tries the feat at which he failed +before. The last player to accomplish all the feats has the pleasure +of "pulling the peg," The peg consists of a wedge-shaped piece of wood +the length of the knife blade which is driven into the ground by the +back of the knife and must be pulled by the teeth of the unfortunate +one who was last to complete the necessary feats. The winner has the +honour of driving the peg, usually three blows with his eyes open and +three with them closed. If he succeeds in driving it out of sight the +feat is considered especially creditable and the loser is greeted with +the cry, "Root! Root!" which means that he must remove the sod and +earth with his teeth before he can get a grip on the peg top. There +are about twenty-four feats or "figures" to be gone through in a game +of mumblety peg, throwing the knife from various positions both right +and left handed. In each feat the successful result is measured by +having the knife stick into the ground at such an angle so that there +is room for two fingers to be inserted under the end of the handle +without disturbing the knife.</p> + + +<h4>ONE OLD CAT</h4> + +<p>This is a modified game of baseball that may be played by three or +four. Generally there is only one base to run to, and besides the +batter, pitcher, and catcher the rest of the players are fielders. Any +one catching a fly ball puts the batter out and takes his turn at bat, +or in another modification of the game, when one is put out each +player advances a step nearer to batsman's position, the pitcher going +in to bat, the catcher becoming pitcher, first fielder becoming +catcher, and so on, the batsman becoming "last fielder."</p> + + +<h4>PASS IT</h4> + +<p>This game may be played on a lawn. Four clothes baskets are required +as well as a variety of objects of various sizes and kinds, such as +spools of thread, pillows, books, matches, balls, pencils, umbrellas, +pins, and so on. Two captains are chosen and each selects a team, +which stands in line facing each other. Two of the baskets are filled +with the various articles and these two baskets are placed at the +right hand of the two captains. The empty baskets are on the opposite +ends of the line. At a signal the captains select an object and pass +it to the next in line. He in turn passes it to his left and finally +it is dropped into the empty basket. If the object should be dropped +in transit it must go back to the captain and be passed down the line +again. Two umpires are desirable, who can report the progress of the +game to their own side as well as keep an eye on their opponents.</p> + + +<h4>PELOTA</h4> + +<p>A game similar to racquets, sometimes called "Jai-a-li," that is much +played in Spain and in Mexico. The game is played with a narrow +scoop-like wicker basket or racket which is fastened to the wrist. The +players catch the ball in this device and hurl it with terrific force +against the wall of the court. Pelota is a hard, fast game, and +sometimes serious injuries result from playing it.</p> + + +<h4>PLUG IN THE RING</h4> + +<p>This is the universal game that boys play with tops. A ring six feet +in diameter is described on the ground and each player puts a top +called a "bait" in the centre. The baits are usually tops of little +value. The "plugger," however, is the top used to shoot with and as a +rule is the boy's choicest one. As soon as the players can wind their +tops they stand with their toes on the line and endeavour to strike +one of the baits in such a way as to knock it out of the circle and +still leave their own tops within the circle and spinning. If they +miss, the top must be left spinning until it "dies." If it fails to +roll out of the ring, the owner must place another bait top in the +ring, but if it leaves the circle he may continue shooting. It is +possible to play tops for "keeps," but, like marbles for "keeps," it +should be discouraged, as it is gambling.</p> + + +<h4>POLO OR EQUESTRIAN POLO</h4> + +<p>A game played on horseback, which originated in Eastern countries and +was first played by the English in India. It has been introduced both +into England and America. Polo is a rich man's game and requires a +great deal of skill in horsemanship as well as nerve. A polo team +consists of four men, each of whom must have a stable of several +horses. These horses, or "polo ponies," are trained carefully, and a +well-trained pony is as essential to good playing as a skilful rider.</p> + +<p>The game is played with a mallet, the head of which is usually ash, +dogwood, or persimmon, and has a handle about 50 inches long. The ball +is either willow or basswood. The principle of the game is similar to +nearly all of the outdoor games played with a ball: that of driving it +into the opponents' goal, meanwhile preventing them from making a +score on one's own goal.</p> + + +<h4>POTATO RACE</h4> + +<p>In this game as many rows of potatoes are laid as there are players. +They should be placed about five feet apart. The race consists in +picking up all of the potatoes, one at a time, and carrying them to +the starting point, making a separate trip for each potato. At the end +of the line there should be a basket or butter tub to drop them into. +The game is sometimes made more difficult by forcing the contestants +to carry the potatoes on a teaspoon.</p> + + +<h4>PRISONER'S BASE</h4> + +<p>Two captains select sides. They then mark out on the ground two bases, +or homes. They also mark out two "prisons" near each home base. Then +each side stands in its own home and a player runs out and advances +toward the enemy's home. One of the enemy will then run out and +endeavour to tag him before he can run back to his own base, and one +of his side will try to tag the enemy, the rule being that each in +turn must have left his home after his opponent. If a player is +tagged, he becomes a prisoner of the other side and is put into the +prison. The successful tagger may then return to Ids home without +danger of being tagged. A prisoner may be rescued at any time if one +of his side can elude the opponents and tag him free from prison. The +game ends when all of one side are made prisoners.</p> + + +<h4>PUSH BALL</h4> + +<p>A game usually played on foot but sometimes on horseback, in which the +object is to push or force a huge ball over the opponents' goal line. +A regulation "push ball" is six feet in diameter and costs three +hundred dollars.</p> + +<p>In push ball almost any number may play, but as weight counts, the +sides should be divided as evenly as possible.</p> + + +<h4>QUOITS</h4> + +<p>A game played with flattish malleable iron or rubber rings about nine +inches in diameter and convex on the upper side, which the players +endeavour to loss or pitch so that they will encircle a pin or peg +driven into the ground, or to come nearer to this peg than their +opponents. The peg is called a "hob." A certain form of quoits is +played with horseshoes throughout the country districts of America. A +quoit player endeavours to give the quoit such a position in mid-air +that it will not roll but will cut into the ground at the point where +it lands. The game is remotely similar to the ancient Greek game of +throwing the discus. Iron quoits may be purchased for a dollar a set.</p> + +<p>The average weight of the quoits used by experts is from seven to nine +pounds each. Sixty-one points constitute a game. The distance from the +peg shall be either 10, 15 or 18 yards. For a space three feet around +the pin or peg the ground should be clay. In match games, all quoits +that fall outside a radius of 18 inches from the centre of the pin are +"foul," and do not count in the score.</p> + + +<h4>RACQUETS OR RACKETS</h4> + +<p>One of the numerous court games similar to lawn tennis that is now +finding public favour, but played in a semi-indoor court. A racquet +court is 31 feet 6 inches wide and about 63 feet long. The front wall, +against which the ball is served, has a line 8 or 10 feet from the +floor, above which the ball must strike. The server, as in tennis, +takes his position in a service box with a racket similar to a lawn +tennis racket except that it has a smaller head and a longer handle.</p> + +<p>Either two or four players may play racquets. A game consists of +fifteen "aces," or points.</p> + + +<h4>RED LINE</h4> + +<p>In this game, also called Red Lion, the goal must be a straight line, +such as the crack in a sidewalk or the edge of a road. The one who is +"it" runs after the rest as in tag, and when he has captured a +prisoner he brings him into the "red line," and the two start out +again hand in hand and another is captured, then three together, and +two pair, and so on until all are prisoners. The first prisoner is +"it" for the next game.</p> + + +<h4>ROLEY BOLEY</h4> + +<p>This game is also called Roll Ball and Nigger Baby, and is played by +children all over the civilized world. A number of depressions are +hollowed in the ground corresponding to the number of players and a +hole is chosen by each one. A rubber ball is then rolled toward the +holes, and if it lodges in one of them the boy who has claimed that +hole must run in and pick up the ball while the rest scatter. He then +attempts to hit one of the other players with the ball. If he succeeds +a small stone called a "baby" is placed in the hole belonging to the +boy struck. Otherwise the thrower is penalized with a "baby." When any +boy has five babies he must stand against the wall and be a free +target for the rest to throw the ball at.</p> + + +<h4>ROQUE</h4> + +<p>This game may be called scientific croquet. A roque mallet has a +dogwood head 9 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches long, with heavy nickel ferrules. Roque +balls are made of a special composition that is both resilient and +practically unbreakable.</p> + +<p>A skilful roque player is able to make shots similar to billiard +shots. The standard roque court is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, with +corner pieces 6 feet long. The playing ground is of clay and should be +as smooth as it is possible to make it. A very light top dressing of +sand is used on the clay. The wickets, or "arches," are driven into +blocks of wood to secure firmness and buried into the ground with the +top of the arch 8 inches above the surface.</p> + +<p>The roque balls are 3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub> inches in diameter and the arches only 3 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> +wide, which gives an idea of the difficulty of playing this game. To +be an expert requires an accurate eye and a great deal of practice.</p> + +<p>There is a National Roque Association, and an annual championship +tournament is held to determine the champion. The home of roque is in +the New England States.</p> + + +<h4>ROWING RECORD</h4> + +<p>The best amateur intercollegiate record for the eight-oared race of +four miles is 18 minutes 53 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds, made by Cornell, July 2, +1901.</p> + + +<h4>RUBICON</h4> + +<p>This game may be played with any number of players, and is especially +adapted for a school or lawn game. Two players are chosen as pursuers +and the rest are divided equally and stand two by two facing each +other in two columns. The two pursuers stand at the head of each +column and face each other. When ready they say, "Cross the Rubicon," +and at this signal the rear couple from each line must run forward and +try to reach the rear of the other line. The pursuers must not look +back, but as soon as the runners are abreast of them must try to tag +them before they reach the place of safety. The captured runners +become pursuers, and the one who was "it" takes his or her place at +the rear of the other line.</p> + + +<h4>SACK RACING</h4> + +<p>A form of sport where the contestants are fastened in sacks with the +hands and feet confined and where they race for a goal by jumping or +hopping along at the greatest possible speed under this handicap. A +sack race should not be considered one of the scientific branches of +sport, but is rather to afford amusement for the spectators.</p> + + +<h4>SCOTLAND'S BURNING</h4> + +<p>This game is based upon the song of the same name. The players form a +ring, with three judges in the centre. Each player with appropriate +gestures in turn begins the song,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"<i>Scotland's burning. Scotland's burning,</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Look out! Look out!</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Fire! Fire! Fire! Fire!</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Pour on water! Pour on water!</i>"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The whole party are soon singing, but each four are singing different +words. The object of the judges is to detect some one in the circle +either making gestures that are not appropriate to the words or to be +singing out of order. The penalty is to turn around and sing with the +back to the circle. The three who are facing in last then become +judges.</p> + + +<h4>SKIING</h4> + +<p>This sport has recently received wide popularity in sections of the +country where the winters make it possible. Skis—or, as they are +sometimes spelled, skee,—are a pair of flat runners from five to ten +feet long which are attached to the feet in such a way as to be easily +cast off in case of accident. By means of skis a ski-runner may either +make rapid progress over level snow or may coast down sharp +declivities and make jumps of great extent.</p> + +<p>Skis are usually made of ash and the standard lengths are from six to +eight feet. They cost from five to seven dollars a pair. In skiing it +is customary to use a pair of steel-shod poles with leather wrist +straps, but in ski-running or coasting the use of poles is very +dangerous.</p> + + +<h4>SPANISH FLY</h4> + +<p>In this game of leap frog various tricks are attempted by the leader, +as in the game of "stump master." Each of the boys following is +expected to do as the leader or to drop out and become "down" himself. +"Torchlight" is to jump with one hand only, using the other to wave +his cap as if it were a torch. In "hats on deck" each jumper in turn +is supposed to leave his cap on "down's" back. Naturally the last one +over may have a large pile of hats to clear. If he disturbs any of +them or knocks them off, he is "it." "Hats off" means for each jumper +in turn to take his own hat without knocking off any of the others. In +all games of leap frog it is considered proper for the jumper to +direct "down" to give him the kind of a "back" he desires. +Consequently he will say high or low back, depending upon whether he +wishes "down" to stand almost upright or to bend close to the ground.</p> + + +<h4>SQUASH</h4> + +<p>This game is similar to racquets, but is less violent or severe on a +player. It is played in a court 31 feet 6 inches wide. The front wall +must be 16 feet high. The service line above which the ball must +strike on the serve is 6 feet from the floor. Below this line and 2 +feet from the floor is the "tell tale," above which the ball must +strike in play. A squash racket is similar to a tennis racket, but +slightly smaller.</p> + +<p>In squash, a game is "fifteen up." At the score of 13 a player may +"set the score" back to 3 or 5, after which the player first winning +either 3 or 5 points, or aces, as they are called, is the winner. The +object of this is to endeavour to overcome the advantage that the +server may have.</p> + +<p>In a regulation squash court the spectators' gallery is above the +walls of the court, and the game is played in the pit below the +gallery.</p> + + +<h4>STUMP MASTER</h4> + +<p>In this game one of the players is chosen master. It is usually the +one who first suggests the game by saying. "Let's play stump master." +He then leads the line of players, going through various "stumps," or, +as we should call them now, "stunts," such as climbing fences and +trees, turning somersaults, crawling through narrow places, or +whatever will be difficult for the rest to copy. The game is capable +of all sorts of variations.</p> + + +<h4>SUCKERS</h4> + +<p>This can scarcely be called a game, but the use of the sucker is so +familiar to most boys that a description of it is surely not out of +place in this chapter. A piece of sole leather is used, three or four +inches square. It is cut into a circle and the edges carefully pared +thin. A hole is made in the centre and a piece of string or top twine +is knotted and run through the hole. The sucker is then soaked in +water until it is soft and pliable. The object of the sucker is to +lift stones or bricks with it. This, too, is of especial interest in +New England towns, where there are brick sidewalks. The sucker is +pressed firmly on a brick by means of the foot, and it will be found +to adhere to it with sufficient force to lift it clear of the ground.</p> + + +<h4>TETHER BALL</h4> + +<p>The same as tether tennis, which see.</p> + + +<h4>TETHER TENNIS</h4> + +<p>This game has been developed out of lawn tennis. A wooden pole +extending 10 feet above the surface is placed in a vertical position +and firmly imbedded in the ground. The pole must be 7 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> inches in +circumference at the ground and may taper to the top. Six feet above +the ground a black band 2 inches wide is painted around the pole. The +court is a smooth piece of sod or clay similar to a tennis court, but +a piece of ground 20 feet square is sufficient.</p> + +<p>At the base of the pole a circle is described with a 3-foot radius. A +line 20 feet long bisects this circle, and 6 feet from the pole on +each side are two crosses, which are known as service crosses.</p> + +<p>An ordinary tennis ball is used which has been fitted with a +tight-fitting linen cover. The ball is fastened to the pole by means +of a piece of heavy braided line. Ordinary heavy fish line will do. +The ball should hang 7 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> feet from the top of the pole or 2 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub> feet +from the ground. Regulation tennis rackets are used.</p> + +<p>The game consists in endeavouring to wind the ball and string around +the pole above the black mark in a direction previously determined. +The opponent meanwhile tries to prevent this and to wind the ball in +the opposite direction by striking it as one would volley in tennis.</p> + +<p>Each player must keep in his own court. The points are scored as +"fouls." Eleven games constitute a set. A game is won when the string +is completely wound around the pole above the black mark. The penalty +for a foul, such as stepping outside of one's court, allowing the +string to wind around the handle of the racket or around the pole +below the black mark, provides for a free hit by one's opponent.</p> + + +<h4>THREE-LEGGED RACING</h4> + +<p>A race in which the contestants are paired off by being strapped +together at the ankles and thighs. Remarkable speed can be obtained by +practice under this handicap. There are definite rules to govern +three-legged races, and official harness may be bought from sporting +goods outfitters. As a race, however, it is like sack racing, to be +classed among the sports designed to afford amusement rather than as a +display of skill.</p> + + +<h4>TUB RACING</h4> + +<p>These races are often held in shallow lakes. Each contestant sits in a +wash tub, and by using his hands as paddles endeavours to paddle the +course first. As a wash tub is not a particularly seaworthy craft, and +spills are of frequent occurrence, it is well for the tub racers also +to know how to swim.</p> + + +<h4>VOLLEY BALL</h4> + +<p>This game is extremely simple and may be played by any number of +players, provided that there is space and that the sides are evenly +divided. The best dimensions for a volley ball court are 25 feet wide +and 50 feet long, but any square space evenly divided into two courts +will do. The game consists of twenty-one points.</p> + +<p>The ball is made of white leather and inflated with a rubber bladder. +A net divides the two courts and is 7 feet high. The standard volley +ball is 27 inches in circumference and weighs between 9 and 12 ounces.</p> + +<p>The whole object of the game is to pass the ball back and forth over +the net without permitting it to touch the floor or to bound. In this +way it somewhat resembles both tennis and hand ball.</p> + +<p>Volley ball is an excellent game for gymnasiums and has the decided +advantage of permitting almost any number to play.</p> + + +<h4>WARNING</h4> + +<p>The "warner" takes his position at a space called "home" and the rest +of the players stand some distance from him. He then clasps his hands +and runs out, trying to tag an opponent with his clasped hands. This +would be practically impossible except that the players endeavour to +make him unclasp his hands by pulling at his arms and drawing +temptingly near him. As soon as he has tagged a victim he runs for +home as fast as possible. If he himself is tagged before he reaches +home he is out, and the tagger becomes "warner." If both the warner +and the one tagged reach home safely they clasp hands, and finally the +line contains all the players but one, who has the honour of being +warner for the next game. The game receives its name from the call, +"Warning!" which the warner gives three times before leaving home.</p> + + +<h4>WASHINGTON</h4> + +<p>In this game a player stands blindfolded and another player comes up +and taps him. The one who is "it" then gives a penalty, such as "climb +a tree or run to the corner and back," and then tries to guess who it +was that tapped him. The one tapped must answer some question so that +he may be recognized by his voice or laugh. If "it" is correct in his +guess, the player must do as directed, but if his guess is wrong he +must do it himself. The result of this game is that the blindfolded +player will measure the severity of his "forfeits," or "penalties," to +his certainty of guessing correctly the name of the player.</p> + + +<h4>WATER POLO</h4> + +<p>This game is played in a swimming pool. A white ball made of rubber +fabric is used. The ball must be between 7 and 8 inches in diameter. +The goals are spaces 4 feet long and 12 inches wide at each end of the +tank and placed 18 inches above the water line. Six men on a side +constitute a team.</p> + +<p>It is a game in which skill in swimming is absolutely essential. It is +also a very rough game. The player endeavours to score goals by +swimming with the ball, and his opponents are privileged to tackle him +and to force him under water or in other ways to attempt to secure the +ball from him. Meanwhile the other players are blocking off opponents, +and in general the game resembles a football game in its rudiments.</p> + + +<h4>WATER RACE</h4> + +<p>In this game the contestants run a race carrying a glass or tin cup +full of water on top of the head, which must not be touched by the +hands. The one finishing first with a minimum loss of water from his +cup is the winner.</p> + + +<h4>WICKET POLO</h4> + +<p>A game played by two teams of four players each. The ball used is a +regulation polo ball. A wicket polo surface is 44 feet square, in +which sticks or wickets are set up. The object of the game is to +knock down the wickets of one's opponents by a batted ball and to +prevent them from displacing our own. A crooked stick 4 feet in length +and a little over an inch in diameter is used. Each player has a fixed +position on the field or surface.</p> + + +<h4>WOLF AND SHEEP</h4> + +<p>In this game "it" is the wolf. The sheep choose a shepherd to guard +them. The wolf then secures a hiding place and the sheep and shepherd +leave the fold and endeavour to locate him. When this is done the +shepherd cries, "I spy a wolf!" and every one stands while he counts +ten. Then the sheep and shepherd scatter for the fold, and if tagged +before they reach it the first becomes wolf for the next game.</p> + + +<h4>WOOD TAG</h4> + +<p>In this class are also "iron tag," "stone tag," and "tree tag." They +are all simply the game of tag with the additional rule that when a +player is in contact with iron, stone, trees, wood, and so on he is +safe from being tagged by the one who is "it." The game of "squat tag" +is similar, except that to be safe the one pursued must squat quickly +on the ground before "it" catches him. In cross tag, "it" must select +a victim and continue to run after him until some one runs ahead and +crosses his path, when "it," who may be breathless by this time, must +abandon his victim for a fresh one, who may soon be relieved and so on +until some one is tagged, or "it" is exhausted.</p> + +<hr width="25%" /> + +<h5>THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N.Y.</h5> + +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 16316-h.txt or 16316-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/3/1/16316</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Miller + + + +Release Date: July 16, 2005 [eBook #16316] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES*** + + +E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Karen Dalrymple, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 16316-h.htm or 16316-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316/16316-h/16316-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316/16316-h.zip) + + + + + +The Library of Work and Play + +OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES + +by + +CLAUDE H. MILLER, PH.B. + +Garden City +New York +Doubleday, Page & Company + +1911 + + + + + + + +[Illustration: A Boys' Camp] + + + +[Illustration: Title Page] + + + + +CONTENTS + +I. Introductory + + The human body a perfect machine--How to keep well--Outdoor + sleeping--Exercise and play--Smoking--Walking. + +II. The Boy Scouts of America + + Headquarters--Purpose--Scout Law--How to form a patrol of + Scouts--Organization of a troop--Practical activities for + Scouts--A Scout camp--Model Programme of Sir R.S.S. + Baden-Powell Scout camp. + +III. Camps and Camping + + How to select the best place to pitch a tent--A brush bed--The + best kind of a tent--How to make the camp fire--What to do when + it rains--Fresh air and good food--The brush leanto and how to + make it. + +IV. Camp Cooking + + How to make the camp fire range--Bread bakers--Cooking + utensils--The grub list--Simple camp recipes. + +V. Woodcraft + + The use of an axe and hatchet--Best woods for special + purposes--What to do when you are lost--Nature's compasses. + +VI. Use of Fire-arms + + Importance of early training--Why a gun is better than a + rifle--How to become a good shot. + +VII. Fishing + + Proper tackle for all purposes--How to catch bait--The fly + fisherman--General fishing rules. + +VIII. Nature Study + + What is a true naturalist?--How to start a collection--Moth + collecting--The herbarium. + +IX. Water Life + + The water telescope--How to manage an aquarium--Our insect + friends and enemies--The observation beehive. + +X. The Care of Pets + + Cats--Boxes for song birds--How to attract the birds--Tame + crows--The pigeon fancier--Ornamental land and water + fowl--Rabbits, guinea pigs, rats and mice--How to build + coops--General rules for the care of pets--The dog. + +XI. The Care of Chickens + + The best breed--Good and bad points of incubators--What to feed + small chicks--A model chicken house. + +XII. Winter Sports + + What to wear--Skating--Skiing--Snowshoeing--Hockey. + +XIII. Horsemanship + + How to become a good rider--The care of horses--Saddles. + +XIV. How to Swim and to Canoe + + The racing strokes--Paddling and sailing canoes. + +XV. Baseball + + How to organize a team and to select the players--The various + positions--Curve pitching. + +XVI. How to Play Football + + The various positions and how to select men for them--Team + work and signals--The rules. + +XVII. Lawn Tennis + + How to make and mark a court--Clay and sod courts--The proper + grip of the racket--Golf--The strokes and equipment. + +XVIII. Photography + + The selection of a camera--Snapshots vs. real pictures--How to + make a photograph from start to finish. + +XIX. Outdoor Sports for Girls + + What to wear--Confidence--Horseback riding--Tennis--Golf--Camping. + +XX. One Hundred Outdoor Games + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + A Boy's Camp + + A Child's May-day Party + + Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood + that Holds Our Interest Through Life + + The Moth Collector and His Outfit + + The Exciting Sport of Ski-running + + Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports + + In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Streams + a Pole is Used in Place of the Paddle + + Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play + + How an Expert Plays Golf + + + + +I + +INTRODUCTORY + +The human body a perfect machine--How to keep well--Outdoor +sleeping--Exercise and play--Smoking--Walking + + +Suppose you should wake up Christmas morning and find yourself to be +the owner of a bicycle. It is a brand-new wheel and everything is in +perfect working order. The bearings are well oiled, the nickel is +bright and shiny and it is all tuned up and ready for use. If you are +a careful, sensible boy you can have fun with it for a long time until +finally, like the "One Hoss Shay" in the poem, it wears out and goes +to pieces all at once. On the other hand, if you are careless or +indifferent or lazy you may allow the machine to get out of order or +to become rusty from disuse, or perhaps when a nut works loose you +neglect it and have a breakdown on the road, or you may forget to oil +the bearings and in a short time they begin to squeak and wear. If you +are another kind of a boy, you may be careful enough about oiling and +cleaning the wheel, but you may also be reckless and head--strong and +will jump over curbstones and gutters or ride it over rough roads at a +dangerous rate of speed, and in this way shorten its life by abuse +just as the careless boy may by neglect. + +It is just so with the human body which, after all, is a machine too, +and, more than that, it is the most wonderful and perfect machine in +the world. With care it should last many years. With abuse or neglect +it may very soon wear out. The boy who neglects his health is like the +boy who allows the bearings on his wheel to become dry or the metal +parts rusty. The chief difference is that when the bicycle wears out +or breaks down we may replace the parts or even buy another machine, +but when our health is injured, money will not restore it. + +In order to keep well we must observe certain rules of health. By +exercise we keep the working parts in good order. If we are lazy or +indolent we are like the bicycle that is allowed to go to pieces from +lack of use. If we are reckless and foolhardy we may injure some part +of the delicate machinery from excessive exercise or strain. + +Play is the most natural thing in the world but we must use judgment +in our play. A boy or girl who is not allowed to play or who is +restrained by too anxious parents is unhappy indeed. Nearly all +animals play. We know, for instance, that puppies, kittens, and lambs +are playful. It is a perfectly natural instinct. By proper play we +build up our bodies and train our minds. The healthy man never gets +too old to play. He may not care to play marbles or roll hoops, but he +will find his pleasure in some game or sport like tennis, golf, +horseback riding, camping, fishing or hunting. + +In this book we shall talk about some forms of play and recreation +that are not strictly confined to children, but which we may still +enjoy even after we have become grown men and women. We shall also +talk about some children's games that some of the older readers may +have outgrown. While we play we keep our minds occupied by the sport, +and at the same time we exercise our muscles and feed our lungs and +our bodies with oxygen. + +It is unfortunate that in school or college athletics those who need +exercise the most are often those who are physically unfitted to play +on the school teams. In other words, we select our runners and jumpers +and football players from among the stronger boys, while the weaker +ones really need the benefit of the sport. Every boy should take part +in school games when possible even if he is not as swift or as strong +as some other boys. + +It is very unmanly of one boy to make fun of another because he is +weak or clumsy or unskilful. After all, the thing that counts and the +thing that is most creditable is to make the most of our opportunities +whatever they may be. If an undersized or timid boy becomes stronger +or more brave because he joins in games and sports, he deserves a +hundred times more credit than the big, strong boy whom nature has +given a sturdy frame and good lungs and who makes a place on the +school team without any real effort. + +If we live a natural, open-air life we shall have but little need of +doctors or medicine. Many of our grandmothers' notions on how to keep +well have changed in recent years. Old-fashioned remedies made from +roots and herbs have been almost completely replaced by better habits +of life and common-sense ideas. We used to believe that night air was +largely responsible for fevers and colds. Doctors now say that one of +the surest ways to keep well is to live and sleep in the open air. In +many modern houses the whole family is provided with outside sleeping +porches with absolutely no protection from the outside air but the +roof. I have followed the practice of sleeping in the open air for +some time, and in midwinter without discomfort have had the +temperature of my sleeping porch fall to six degrees below zero. Of +course it is foolish for any one to sleep exposed to rain or snow or +to think that there is any benefit to be derived from being cold or +uncomfortable. The whole idea of open-air sleeping is to breathe pure, +fresh air in place of the atmosphere of a house which, under the best +conditions, is full of dust and germs. If we become outdoor sleepers, +coughs and colds will be almost unknown. General Sherman once wrote a +letter in which he said that he did not have a case of cold in his +entire army and he attributed it to the fact that his soldiers slept +and lived in the open air. + +[Illustration: A Child's May Day Party (Photograph by Mary H. +Northend)] + +One can almost tell a man who sleeps in the open by looking at him. +His eye is clear and his cheek ruddy. There is no surer way to become +well and strong than to become accustomed to this practice. Then you +can laugh at the doctor and throw the medicine bottles away. In +stating this I know that many parents will not agree with me, and will +feel that to advise a boy to sleep in the open when the weather is +stormy or extremely cold is almost like inviting him to his death. It +is a fact just the same that every one would be healthier and happier +if they followed this practice. In a few years I expect to see outdoor +sleeping the rule rather than the exception. Progressive doctors are +already agreed on this method of sleeping for sick people. In some +hospitals even delicate babies are given open-air treatment in +midwinter as a cure for pneumonia. My own experience is that in the +two years that I have been an outdoor sleeper, with the snow drifts +sometimes covering the foot of the bed, with the wintry winds howling +about my head in a northeaster, I have been absolutely free from any +trace of coughs or colds. Thousands of others will give the same +testimony. According to old-fashioned ideas such things would give me +my "death of cold." It rarely happens that one begins the practice of +sleeping out without becoming a firm believer in it. + +One of the children of a friend in Connecticut who had just built a +beautiful home was taken ill, and the doctor recommended that the +child's bed be moved out on the porch. This was in December. The +father also had his own bed moved out to keep the baby company. My +friend told me that after the first night he felt like a changed man. +He awoke after a refreshing sleep and felt better than he had in +years. The whole family soon followed and all the beautiful bedrooms +in the house were deserted. The baby got well and stayed well and the +doctor's visits are few and far between in that household. + +By all means sleep in the open if you can. Of course one must have +ample protection from the weather, such as a porch or piazza with a +screen or shelter to the north and west. A warm room in which to dress +and undress is also absolutely necessary. If your rest is disturbed by +cold, as it will probably be until you become accustomed to it and +learn the tricks of the outdoor sleeper, you simply need more covers. +In winter, the bed should be made up with light summer blankets in +place of sheets, which would become very cold. Use, as a night cap, an +old sweater or skating cap. A good costume consists of a flannel +shirt, woollen drawers, and heavy, lumberman's stockings. With such an +outfit and plenty of covers, one can sleep out on the coldest night +and never awaken until the winter's sun comes peeping over the hill to +tell him that it is time to get up. + +Besides fresh air, another important thing in keeping well is to eat +slowly and to chew your food thoroughly. Boys and girls often develop +a habit of rapid eating because they are anxious to get back to play +or to school. Slow eating is largely a matter of habit as well, and +while it may seem hard at first it will soon become second nature to +us. Remember to chew your food thoroughly. The stomach has no teeth. +We have all heard of Mr. Horace Fletcher, that wonderful old man who +made himself young again by chewing his food. + +There is no fun in life unless we are well, and a sensible boy should +realize that his parents' interest in him is for his own benefit. It +may seem hard sometimes to be obliged to do without things that we +want, but as a rule the judgment of the older people is better than +our own. A growing boy will often eat too much candy or too many sweet +things and then suffer from his lack of judgment. To fill our stomachs +with indigestible food is just as foolish as it would be to put sand +in the bearings of our wheel, or to interfere with the delicate +adjustment of our watch until it refuses to keep time. + +While we play, our muscles are developed, our lungs filled with fresh +air and the whole body is made stronger and more vigorous. Some boys +play too hard. Over-exertion will sometimes cause a strain on the +delicate machinery of the body that will be very serious in after +life. The heart is especially subject to the dangers of overstrain in +growing boys. We are not all equally strong, and it is no discredit to +a boy that he cannot run as far or lift as much as some of his +playmates or companions. You all remember the fable of the frog who +tried to make himself as big as the ox and finally burst. The idea of +exercise is not to try to excel every one in what you do, but to do +your best without over-exertion. If a boy has a rugged frame and well +developed muscles, it is perfectly natural that he should be superior +in most sports to a boy that is delicate or undersized. + +To be in good physical condition and to laugh at the doctor we must +keep out of doors as much as possible. Gymnasium work of course will +help us to build up our strength and develop our muscles, but skill in +various acrobatics and gymnastic tricks does not give the clear eye +and ruddy cheek of the person whose life is in the open air. Outdoor +sports, like tennis, baseball, and horseback riding are far superior +to chestweights or Indian clubs as a means of obtaining normal +permanent development. + +Parents who criticize school or college athletics often forget that +the observance of the strict rules of training required from every +member of a team is the very best way to keep a boy healthy in mind +and body. + +Tobacco and alcohol are absolutely prohibited, the kind of food eaten +and the hours for retiring are compulsory, and a boy is taught not +only to train his muscles but to discipline his mind. Before a +candidate is allowed to take active part in the sport for which he is +training he must be "in condition," as it is called. + +There are a great many rules of health that will help any one to keep +well, but the best rule of all is to live a common-sense life and not +to think too much about ourselves. Systematic exercises taken daily +with setting up motions are very good unless we allow them to become +irksome. All indoor exercise should be practised with as much fresh +air in the room as possible. It is an excellent plan to face an open +window if we practise morning and evening gymnastics. + +There are many exercises that can be performed with no apparatus +whatever. In all exercises we should practise deep regular breathing +until it becomes a habit with us. Most people acquire a faulty habit +of breathing and only use a small part of their total lung capacity. +Learn to take deep breaths while in the fresh air. After a while it +will become a habit. + +Just how much muscle a boy should have will depend upon his physical +make-up. The gymnasium director in one of our largest colleges, who +has spent his whole life in exercise, is a small, slender man whose +muscles are not at all prominent and yet they are like steel wires. +He has made a life-long study of himself and has developed every +muscle in his body. From his appearance he would not be considered a +strong man and yet some of the younger athletes weighing fifty pounds +more than he, have, in wrestling and feats of strength, found that the +man with the largest muscles is not always the best man. + +There is one question that every growing boy will have to look +squarely in the face and to decide for himself. It is the question of +smoking. There is absolutely no question but that smoking is injurious +for any one, and in the case of boys who are not yet fully grown +positively dangerous. Ask any cigarette smoker you know and he will +tell you _not to smoke_. If you ask him why he does not take his own +advice he will possibly explain how the habit has fastened its grip on +him, just as the slimy tentacles of some devil fish will wind +themselves about a victim struggling in the water, until he is no +longer able to escape. A boy may begin to smoke in a spirit of fun or +possibly because he thinks it is manly, but more often it is because +the "other fellers" are trying it too. + +My teacher once gave our school an object lesson in habits which is +worth repeating. He called one of the boys to the platform and wound a +tiny piece of thread around the boy's wrists. He then told him to +break it, which the boy did very easily. The teacher continued to wind +more thread until he had so many strands that the boy could break them +only with a great effort and finally he could not break them at all. +His hands were tied. Just so it is with a habit. The first, second, or +tenth time may be easy to break, but we shall finally get so many tiny +threads that our hands are tied. We have acquired a habit. Don't be a +fool. Don't smoke cigarettes. + +Walking is one of the most healthful forms of exercise. It may seem +unnecessary to devote much space to a subject that every one thinks +they know all about, but the fact is that, with trolley cars, +automobiles, and horses, a great many persons have almost lost the +ability to walk any distance. An excellent rule to follow if you are +going anywhere is this: If you have the time, and the distance is not +too great, walk. In recent years it has been the practice of a number +of prominent business and professional men who get but little outdoor +exercise to walk to and from their offices every day, rain or shine. +In this way elderly men will average from seven to ten miles a day and +thus keep in good condition with no other exercise. + +It is very easy to cultivate the street car habit, and some boys feel +that they must ride to and from school even if it is only a few blocks +or squares. We have all read of the old men who are walking across the +country from New York to California and back again and maintaining an +average of forty miles a day. There is not a horse in the world that +would have the endurance to go half the distance in the same time and +keep it up day after day. For the first week or ten days the horse +would be far ahead but, like the fable of the hare and the tortoise, +after a while the tortoise would pass the hare and get in first. + +In walking for pleasure, avoid a rambling, purposeless style. Decide +where you are going and go. Walk out in the country if possible and on +roads where the automobiles will not endanger your life or blow clouds +of dust in your face. Never mind the weather. One rarely takes cold +while in motion. To walk comfortably we should wear loose clothing and +old shoes. Walking just for the sake of exercise can easily become a +tiresome occupation, but the active mind can always see something of +interest, such as wild flowers, gardens, and all the various sides of +nature study in the country, and people, houses and life in the city. + +A tramping vacation of several days furnishes a fine opportunity to +see new scenes and to live economically, but near a city you may have +difficulty in persuading the farm-wife where you stop that you are not +a tramp who will burn the house in the night. If you intend to live by +the wayside, the surest way to inspire confidence is to show in +advance that you have money to pay for your accommodations. Also try +to avoid looking like a tramp, which is quite different from looking +like a tramper. + +There seems to be a great difference of opinion on the question of how +fast one can walk. The popular idea is "four miles an hour" but any +one who has tried to cover a mile every fifteen minutes will testify +that such a rate of speed is more like a race than a walk and that it +will require great physical exertion to maintain it for any +considerable distance. An eighteen or twenty-mile walk is about all +the average boy should attempt in a day, and this is allowing the full +day for the task from early morning until sunset. + +Short and frequent rests are much better than long stops, which have a +tendency to stiffen the muscles. The walker on a long tramp must pay +especial attention to the care of his feet. They should be bathed +frequently in cold water to which a little alum has been added. A +rough place or crease in the stocking will sometimes cause a very +painful blister. + +Mountain climbing is a very interesting branch of walking. It is +sometimes very dangerous as well and in such cases should only be +attempted under the guidance of some one familiar with the +neighbourhood. For rough climbing our shoes should be provided with +iron hob nails. Steel nails often become very slippery and will cause +a bad fall on rocks. + +Cross-country running and hare and hound chases are much more common +in England than in America. Our runners as a rule excel in the sprints +and short dashes, although in the recent Olympic sports we have shown +that our trained athletes are the equal of the world in nearly all +branches of sport. + +In many of the English schools it is a regular part of the school work +for the teacher to organize hare and hound chases. The hares are given +a start of several minutes and leave a trail by means of bits of paper +or confetti, which they carry in a bag. In this kind of running the +object to be sought is not so much speed as endurance. An easy dog +trot with deep regular breathing will soon give us our second wind, +when we can keep on for a long distance. + +After any kind of physical exertion, especially when we are in a +perspiration, care must be exercised not to become chilled suddenly. A +rub down with a rough towel will help to prevent soreness and stiff +muscles. The lameness that follows any kind of unusual exercise is an +indication that certain muscles have been brought into use that are +out of condition. A trained athlete does not experience this soreness +unless he has unduly exerted himself, and the easiest way to get over +it is to do more of the same kind of work until we are in condition. + + + + +II + +THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA + +Headquarters--Purpose--Scout law--How to form a patrol of +scouts--Organization of a troop--Practical activities for scouts--A +scout camp--Model programme of a Sir R.S.S. Baden-Powell scout camp + + +The Boy Scout movement that has recently been introduced both in +England and America with such wonderful success is so closely related +to nearly all branches of outdoor recreation and to the things that +boys are interested in that this book would be incomplete without +mention of the object and purposes of this organization. It is a +splendid movement for the making of better citizens, and it cannot be +too highly recommended. + +The Boy Scouts of America is a permanent organization, and it has its +headquarters at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. From the central +office, patrols and troops are being formed all over the United +States. Any information with reference to the movement may be +obtained by applying to this office. + +Through the courtesy of the managing secretary, Mr. John L. Alexander, +certain facts are presented concerning the organization, which are +obtained from their published literature, for which due credit is +hereby given. + +The Boy Scouts is an organization the purpose of which is +character-building for boys between the ages of twelve and eighteen. +It is an effort to get boys to appreciate the things about them and to +train them in self-reliance, manhood, and good citizenship. It is +"peace-scouting" these boys engage in, living as much as possible out +of doors; camping, hiking and learning the secrets of the woods and +fields. The movement is not essentially military, but the military +virtues of discipline, obedience, neatness and order are scout +virtues. Endurance, self-reliance, self-control and an effort to help +some one else are scout objectives. Every activity that lends itself +to these aims is good scoutcraft. + +The Boy Scouts were started in England by Gen. Sir Robert +Baden-Powell. He was impressed with the fact that 46 per cent. of the +boys of England were growing up without any knowledge of useful +occupations, and wanted to do something that would help the boy to +become a useful citizen. He emphatically stated that his intention was +not the making of soldiers. In his work. General Baden-Powell has +touched the boy's life in all its interests and broadened a boy's +outlook by the widest sort of activities. In two and a half years over +half a million Boy Scouts have been enrolled, and twenty thousand of +these have been in parade at one time in London. + +The scout idea has sprung up spontaneously all over America. In +Canadian cities the Boy Scouts number thousands. In the United States, +towns and cities are being swept by the idea. Gangs of boys are to be +seen on every hand, doing their best at scoutcraft, "doing a good turn +every day to some one," and getting fun out of it. Prominent business +men and educators are behind the movement. + +The aim of the Boy Scouts is to supplement the various existing +educational agencies, and to promote the ability in boys to do things +for themselves and others. The method is summed up in the term +"scoutcraft" and is a combination of observation, deduction and +handiness--or the ability to do. Scoutcraft consists of "First Aid," +Life Saving, Tracking, Signalling, Cycling, Nature Study, Seamanship +and other instruction. This is accomplished in games and team play and +in pleasure, not work, for the boy. The only equipment it needs is the +out-of-doors, a group of boys and a leader. + +Before he becomes a scout, a boy must take the scouts' oath thus: + +"On my honour, I promise that I will do my best, 1. To do my duty to +God and my country. 2. To help other people at all times. 3. To obey +the scout law." + +When taking this oath the scout will stand holding his right hand +raised level with his shoulder, palm to the front, thumb resting on +the nail of the little finger, and the other three fingers upright +pointing upward. This the scouts' salute and secret sign. + +When the hand is raised shoulder high it is called "the half salute." + +When raised to the forehead it is called "the full salute." + +The three fingers held up (like the three points on the scouts' badge) +remind him of his three promises in the scouts' oath. + +There are three classes of scouts. A boy on joining the Boy Scouts +must pass a test in the following points before taking the oath: + +Know the scouts' laws and signs and the salute. + +Know the composition of the national flag and the right way to fly it. + +Tie four of the following knots: Reef, sheet bend, clove hitch, +bowline, middleman's, fisherman's, sheep-shank. + +He then takes the scouts' oath and is enrolled as a tenderfoot and is +entitled to wear the buttonhole badge. + + +A SECOND-CLASS SCOUT + +Before being awarded a second-class scout's badge, a boy must pass the +following tests: + +1. Have at least one month's service as a tenderfoot. + +2. Elementary first aid bandaging. + +3. Signalling. Elementary knowledge of semaphore or Morse alphabet. + +4. Track half a mile in twenty-five minutes, or if in a town describe +satisfactorily the contents of one store window out of four, observed +for one minute each. + +5. Go a mile in twelve minutes at "scouts' pace." + +6. Lay and light a fire using not more than two matches. + +7. Cook a quarter of a pound of meat and two potatoes without cooking +utensils other than the regulation billy. + +8. Have at least twenty-five cents in the savings bank. + +9. Know the sixteen principal points of the compass. + + +FIRST-CLASS SCOUT + +Before being awarded a first-class scout's badge, a scout must pass +the following test in addition to the tests laid down for a +second-class scout: + +1. Swim fifty yards. (This may be omitted where the doctor certifies +that bathing is dangerous to the boy's health). + +2. Must have at least fifty cents in the savings bank. + +3. Signalling. Send and receive a message either in semaphore or +Morse, sixteen letters per minute. + +4. Go on foot or row a boat alone to a point seven miles away and +return again, or if conveyed by any vehicle or animal go a distance of +fifteen miles and back and write a short report on it. It is +preferable that he should take two days over it. + +5. Describe or show the proper means for saving life in case of two of +the following accidents: Fire, drowning, runaway carriage, sewer gas, +ice breaking, or bandage an injured patient or revive an apparently +drowned person. + +6. Cook satisfactorily two of the following dishes as may be directed: +Porridge, bacon, hunter's stew; or skin and cook a rabbit or pluck and +cook a bird. Also "make a damper" of half a pound of flour or a +"twist" baked on a thick stick. + +7. Read a map correctly and draw an intelligent rough sketch map. +Point out a compass direction without the help of a compass. + +8. Use an axe for felling or trimming light timber: or as an +alternative produce an article of carpentry or joinery or metal work, +made by himself satisfactorily. + +9. Judge distance, size, numbers and height within 25 per cent. error. + +10. Bring a tenderfoot trained by himself in the points required of a +tenderfoot. + + +THE SCOUTS' LAW + +1. A scout's honour is to be trusted. If a scout were to break his +honour by telling a lie, or by not carrying out an order exactly, when +trusted on his honour to do so, he may be directed to hand over his +scouts' badge and never to wear it again. He may also be directed to +cease to be a scout. + +2. A scout is loyal to his country, his officers, his parents and his +employers. He must stick to them through thick and thin against any +one who is their enemy or who even talks badly about them. + +3. A scout's duty is to be useful and to help others. He must be +prepared at any time to save life or to help injured persons, and he +must try his best to do a good turn to somebody every day. + +4. A scout is a friend to all and a brother to every other scout, no +matter to what social class the other belongs. + +5. A scout is courteous, especially to women, children, old people, +invalids, and cripples. And he must never take a reward for being +courteous. + +6. A scout is a friend to animals. Killing an animal for food is +allowable. + +7. A scout obeys orders of his parents, patrol leader, or scout master +without question. + +8. A scout smiles and whistles under all circumstances. + +9. A scout is thrifty and saves every penny he can and puts it into +the bank. + +The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. A troop consists of +three or more patrols. The scout master may begin with one patrol. He +must have a deep interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have +the ability to lead and command the boys' respect and obedience, and +possess some knowledge of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on +scoutcraft. The good scout master will discover experts for the +various activities. + +To organize a patrol, get together seven or more boys, explain to them +the aims of the Boy Scouts, have them elect a leader and corporal from +their own number and take the scout oath as tenderfeet. To organize a +local committee, call together the leading men of a town or city, +teachers, business men, professional men, and all who are interested +in the proper training of boys, for a committee to superintend the +development of the scout movement. + +There are a number of divisions to scouting depending upon the place +where the boys live and upon their opportunities. For instance, to +obtain: + +_An Ambulance Badge_: A scout must know: The fireman's lift. How to +drag an insensible man with ropes. How to improvise a stretcher. How +to fling a life-line. The position of main arteries. How to stop +bleeding from vein or artery, internal or external. How to improvise +splints and to diagnose and bind fractured limb. The Schafer method of +artificial respiration. How to deal with choking, burning, poison, +grit in eye, sprains and bruises, as the examiners may require. +Generally the laws of health and sanitation as given in "Scouting for +Boys," including dangers of smoking, in continence, want of +ventilation, and lack of cleanliness. + +_Aviator_: A scout must have a knowledge of the theory of aeroplanes, +ball balloons and dirigibles, and must have made a working model of an +aeroplane or dirigible that will fly at least twenty-five yards. He +must also have a knowledge of the engines used for aeroplanes and +dirigibles. + +_Bee-farmer_: A scout must have a practical knowledge of swarming, +hiving, hives, and general apiculture, including a knowledge of the +use of artificial combs, etc. + +_Blacksmith_: A scout must be able to upset and weld a one-inch iron +rod, make a horseshoe, know how to tire a wheel, use a sledge hammer +and forge, shoe a horse correctly, and rough-shod a horse. + +_Bugler_: A scout must be able to sound properly on the bugle the +Scouts' Rally and the following army calls: Alarm, charge, orderlies +(ord. corpls.), orders, warning for parade, quarter bugle, fall in, +dismiss, rations, first and second dinner calls (men's), reveille, +last post, lights out. + +_Carpenter_: A scout must be able to shoot and glue a four-foot +straight joint, make a housing, tenon and mortise, and halved joint, +grind and set a chisel and plane iron, make a 3 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in., by +1 ft. by 6 ft. dovetailed locked box, or a table or chair. + +_Clerk_: A scout must have the following qualifications: Good +handwriting and hand printing. Ability to use typewriting machine. +Ability to write a letter from memory on the subject given verbally +five minutes previously. Knowledge of simple bookkeeping. Or, as +alternative to typewriting, write in shorthand from dictation at +twenty words a minute as minimum. + +_Cook_: A scout must be able to light a fire and make a cook-place +with a few bricks or logs; cook the following dishes: Irish stew, +vegetables, omelet, rice pudding, or any dishes which the examiner may +consider equivalent; make tea, coffee, or cocoa; mix dough and bake +bread in oven; or a "damper" or "twist" (round steak) at a camp fire; +carve properly, and hand plates and dishes correctly to people at +table. + +_Cyclist_: A scout must sign a certificate that he owns a bicycle in +good working order, which he is willing to use in the scouts' service +if called upon at any time in case of emergency. He must be able to +ride his bicycle satisfactorily, and repair punctures, etc. He must +be able to read a map, and repeat correctly a verbal message. On +ceasing to own a bicycle the scout must be required to hand back his +badge. + +_Dairyman_: A scout must understand: Management of dairy cattle; be +able to milk, make butter and cheese; understand sterilization of +milk, safe use of preservatives, care of dairy utensils and +appliances. + +_Electrician_: A scout must have a knowledge of method of rescue and +resuscitation of persons insensible from shock. Be able to make a +simple electro-magnet, have elementary knowledge of action of simple +battery cells, and the working of electric bells and telephone. +Understand and be able to remedy fused wire, and to repair broken +electric connections. + +_Engineer_: A scout must have a general idea of the working of motor +cars and steam locomotives, marines, internal combustion and electric +engines. He must also know the names of the principal parts and their +functions; how to start, drive, feed, stop, and lubricate any one of +them chosen by the candidate. + +_Farmer_: A scout must have a practical knowledge of ploughing, +cultivating, drilling, hedging and draining. He must also have a +working knowledge of farm machinery, hay-making, reaping, heading and +stacking, and a general acquaintance with the routine seasonal work on +a farm, including the care of cattle, horses, sheep and pigs. + +_Fireman_: A scout must know how to give the alarm to inhabitants, +police, etc. How to enter burning buildings. How to prevent spread of +fire. Use of hose, unrolling, joining up, hydrants, use of nozzle, +etc. The use of escape, ladders, and shutes; improvising ropes, +jumping sheets, etc. The fireman's lift, how to drag patient, how to +work in fumes, etc. The use of fire extinguishers. How to rescue +animals. How to salve property, climb and pass buckets. "Scrum" to +keep back crowd. + +_First Aid to Animals_: A scout must have a general knowledge of the +anatomy of domestic and farm animals, and be able to describe +treatment and symptoms of the following: Wounds, fractures and +sprains, exhaustion, choking, lameness. He must understand shoeing and +shoes, and must be able to give a drench for colic. + +_Gardener_: A scout must dig a piece of ground not less than twelve +feet square, know the names of a dozen plants pointed out in an +ordinary garden, understand what is meant by pruning, grafting and +manuring, plant and grow successfully six kinds of vegetables or +flowers from seeds or cuttings, cut and make a walking stick, or cut +grass with scythe under supervision. + +_Handyman_: A scout must be able to paint a door or bath, whitewash a +ceiling, repair gas fittings, tap washers, sash lines, window and door +fastenings, replace gas mantles and electric light bulbs, hang +pictures and curtains, repair blinds, fix curtain and portiere rods, +blind fixtures, lay carpets, mend clothing and upholstery, do small +furniture and china repairs, and sharpen knives. + +_Horseman_: A scout must know how to ride at all paces, and to jump an +ordinary fence on horseback. How to saddle and bridle a horse +correctly. How to harness a horse correctly in single or double +harness, and to drive. How to water and feed, and to what amount. How +to groom his horse properly. The evil of bearing and hame reins and +ill-fitting saddlery. Principal causes and remedies of lameness. + +_Interpreter_: A scout must be able to carry on a simple conversation, +write a simple letter on subject given by examiner, read and translate +a passage from a book or newspaper, in either Esperanto or any +language that is not that of his own country. + +_Leather Worker_: A scout must have a knowledge of tanning and +curing, and either (a) be able to sole and heel a pair of boots, sewn +or nailed, and generally repair boots and shoes: or (b) be able to +dress a saddle, repair traces, stirrup leathers, etc., and know the +various parts of harness. + +_Marksman_: A scout must pass the following tests for miniature rifle +shooting from any position: N.R.A. Standard Target to be used. Twenty +rounds to be fired at 15 or 25 yards. Highest possible, 100 points. A +scout gaining 60 points or over to be classified as marksman. Scoring: +Bull's-eye, 5 points; inner, 4 points; magpie, 3 points; outer 2 +points. Also: Judge distance on unknown ground: Five distances under +300 yards, 5 between 300 and 600 yards, with not more than an error of +25 per cent. on the average. + +_Master-at-arms_: A scout must attain proficiency in two out of the +following subjects: Single-stick, quarter-staff, fencing, boxing, +jiu-jitsu and wrestling. + +_Missioner_: The qualifications are: A general elementary knowledge of +sick-nursing; invalid cookery, sick-room attendance, bed-making, and +ventilation. Ability to help aged and infirm. + +_Musician_: A scout must be able to play a musical instrument +correctly other than triangle, and to read simple music. Or to play +properly any kind of musical toy, such as a penny whistle, +mouth-organ, etc., and sing a song. + +_Pathfinder_: It is necessary to know every lane, by-path, and short +cut for a distance of at least two miles in every direction around the +local scouts' headquarters in the country, or for one mile if in a +town, and to have a general knowledge of the district within a +five-mile radius of his local headquarters, so as to be able to guide +people at any time, by day or night. To know the general direction of +the principal neighbouring towns for a distance of twenty-five miles, +and to be able to give strangers clear directions how to get to them. +To know, in the country, in the two-mile radius, generally, how many +hayricks, strawricks, wagons, horses, cattle, sheep and pigs there are +on the different neighbouring farms; or, in a town, to know in a +half-mile radius what livery stabling, corn chandlers, forage +merchants, bakers, butchers, there are. In town or country to know +where are the police stations, hospitals, doctors, telegraph, +telephone offices, fire engines, turncocks, blacksmiths and +job-masters or factories, where over a dozen horses are kept. To know +something of the history of the place, or of any old buildings, such +as the church, or other edifice. As much as possible of the above +information is to be entered on a large scale map. + +_Photographer_: A scout must have a knowledge of the theory and use of +lenses, and the construction of cameras, action of developers. He must +take, develop and print twelve separate subjects, three interiors, +three portraits, three landscapes and three instantaneous photographs. + +_Pioneer_: A scout must have extra efficiency in pioneering in the +following tests, or suitable equivalents: Fell a nine-inch tree or +scaffolding pole neatly and quickly. Tie eight kinds of knots quickly +in the dark or blindfolded. Lash spars properly together for +scaffolding. Build model bridge or derrick. Make a camp kitchen. Build +a hut of one kind or another suitable for three occupants. + +_Piper_: A scout must be able to play a march and a reel on the pipes, +to dance the sword-dance, and must wear kilt and Highland dress. + +_Plumber_: A scout must be able to make wiped and brazed joints, to +cut and fix a window pane, repair a burst pipe, mend a ball or faucet +tap, and understand the ordinary hot and cold water system of a house. + +_Poultry Farmer_: A scout must have a good knowledge of incubators, +brooders, sanitary fowl-houses and coops and runs; also of rearing, +feeding, killing, and dressing birds for market; also he must be able +to pack birds and eggs for market. + +_Printer_: A scout must know the names of different types and paper +sizes. Be able to compose by hand or machine, understand the use of +hand or power printing machines. He must also print a handbill set up +by himself. + +_Seaman_: A scout must be able to tie eight knots rapidly in the dark +or blindfolded. Splice ropes, fling a rope coil. Row and punt a boat +single-handed, and punt with pole, or scull it over the stern. Steer a +boat rowed by others. Bring the boat properly alongside and make it +fast. Box the compass. Read a chart. State direction by the stars and +sun. Swim fifty yards with trousers, socks, and shirt on. Climb a rope +or pole of fifteen feet, or, as alternative, dance the hornpipe +correctly. Sew and darn a shirt and trousers. Understand the general +working of steam and hydraulic winches, and have a knowledge of +weather wisdom and knowledge of tides. + +_Signaller_: A scout must pass tests in both sending and receiving in +semaphore and Morse signalling by flag, not fewer than twenty-four +letters per minute. He must be able to give and read signals by +sound. To make correct smoke and flame signals with fires. To show the +proper method of signalling with the staff. + +_Stalker_: A scout must take a series of twenty photographs of wild +animals or birds from life, and develop and print them. Or, +alternately, he must make a collection of sixty species of wild +flowers, ferns, or grasses, dried and mounted in a book and correctly +named. Or, alternately, he must make coloured drawings of twenty +flowers, ferns or grasses, or twelve sketches from life of animals and +birds. Original sketches, as well as the finished pictures, to be +submitted. Or, alternately he must be able to name sixty different +kinds of animals, insects, reptiles, or birds in a museum or +zoological garden, or from unnamed coloured plates, and give +particulars of the lives, habits, appearance and markings of twenty of +them. + +_Starman_: A scout must have a general knowledge of the nature and +movements of the stars. He must be able to point out and name six +principal constellations. Find the north by means of other stars than +the Pole Star in case of that star being obscured by clouds, etc., and +tell the hour of the night by the stars or moon. He must have a +general knowledge of the positions and movements of the earth, sun +and moon, and of tides, eclipses, meteors, comets, sun spots, planets. + +_Surveyor_: A scout must map correctly, from the country itself, the +main features of a half a mile of road, with 440 yards each side, to a +scale of two feet to the mile, and afterward re-draw same map from +memory. Measure the heights of a tree, telegraph pole and church +steeple, describing method adopted. Measure width of a river, and +distance apart of two objects a known distance away and +unapproachable. Be able to measure a gradient, contours, conventional +signs of ordnance survey and scales. + +_Swimming and Life Saving_: A scout must be able to dive and swim +fifty yards with clothes on (shirt, trousers, socks as minimum). Able +to fling and use life-line or life-buoy. Able to demonstrate two ways +of rescue of drowning person, and revival of apparently drowned. + + +THE PATROL + +The simplest way to form a patrol of scouts is to call together a +small group of boys over twelve years of age. A simple recital of the +things that scouts do, with perhaps an opportunity to look over the +Manual, will be enough to launch the organization. The selection of a +patrol leader will then follow, and the scouting can begin. It is well +not to attempt too much at the start. Get the boys to start work to +pass the requirements for the tenderfoot. + +_The Patrol Leader_: Each patrol should have a patrol +leader--preferably a boy. The choice of this leader has much to do +with the success of the patrol. He should be a recognized leader among +the boys in the group. Do not hesitate to entrust him with details. +Let him feel that he is your right-hand man. Ask his opinion on +matters pertaining to the patrol. Make him feel that the success of +the organization depends largely upon him, being careful, of course, +not to overdo it. You will find that this attitude will enlist the +hearty cooperation of the boy and you will find him an untiring +worker, with the ability to bind the boys closer together than you +could ever hope to do alone. + + +POINTS OF INTEREST + +1. Scouting does not consist in wearing a khaki suit or a lot of +decorations. It is in doing the things that are required for the +tenderfoot, second-class and first-class scout badges and the badges +of merit. + +2. Scouts do not wish any one to buy things for them. They buy their +own equipment and pay their own way. + +3. Scouts do their best to keep the scout oath and law. + +4. The glory of scouting is "_to do a good turn to some one every day +without reward_." + +5. Scouts regard the rights of others, and do not trespass on the +property or feelings of others. + +6. Scouting means obedience and discipline. The boy who can't obey +will never command. + +7. Scouts are always busy and getting fun out of it--at work, at +school, at home, at play. _Be a good scout._ + + +HOW TO ORGANIZE A TROOP + +_First_: Write to Headquarters, which is at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York +City, for a scout master's certificate. + +_Second_: Either combine three or more patrols or having one patrol, +appoint several patrol leaders and enlist boys for the new patrols. + +_Third_: The minimum number of patrols in a troop is three, and the +maximum the number a scout master can _rightly_ handle. Care should be +taken not to organize for the sake of a big showing. + +_Hints on starting_: In actually starting a troop, it has been found +better to start in a small way. Begin by one or two leader-men making +a careful study of "Scouting for Boys" and as soon as the main ideas +have been grasped, get together a small number of boys, and go through +with them the initial stages step by step, until the boys bubble over +with scouting ideals, and until the notion of a fancy uniform and +games in the country have given place to a definite desire to qualify +for manhood and citizenship. These boys will make the nucleus round +which to form a troop, and should pass on their training and +enthusiasm to the boys who are enlisting under them. It has been found +better to obtain _distinctly older fellows for patrol leaders_: the +scout masters should invariably be men who feel the great +responsibility of having boys under their charge, and the possibility +of leading the boys from the moment when they enlist in the scouts to +the time they pass out again to be fully fledged men. + +_Finances_: The finances necessary to run a troop of scouts should be +met by the scouts themselves. It is a main principle of scouting to +teach the boys to be self-reliant, and anything which will militate +against the constant sending round of the hat will be a national +good. + +_The Scout Master_: The scout master is the adult leader of a troop. +The scout master may begin with one patrol. He must have a deep +interest in boys, be genuine in his own life, have the ability to lead +and command the boys' respect and obedience and possess some knowledge +of a boy's ways. He need not be an expert on scoutcraft. The good +scout master will discover experts for the various activities. +Applications for scout masters' certificates may be made at the +Headquarters, 200 Fifth Avenue, New York City. + +From the outset, the scout master must have the interest of each boy +at heart. He must not play favourites with any of the boys in his +patrol or troop. While there are sure to be boys in the group who will +develop more rapidly than others, and whose keenness will be sure to +call forth the admiration of the scout master, he should not permit +himself to be "carried away" by the achievements of these "star boys" +to such an extent that he will neglect the less aggressive boy. The +latter boy is the one who needs your attention most, and your interest +in him must be genuine. Every effort he makes, no matter how poor it +may be, should be commended just as heartily as the better +accomplishments of the more handy boy. + + +PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR SCOUTS + +1. _Scoutcraft_: Boy Scouts' organization, scout laws, discipline, +scouts' secret signs, badges, etc. + +2. _Campaigning_: Camp life and resourcefulness. Hut and mat making. +Knots. Fire lighting. Cooking. Boat management. Judging distances, +heights and numbers. Swimming. Cycling. Finding the way. + + +SIGN POSTS + +1. Do not have in the same patrol boys of great disparity in ages. For +instance, the boy of twelve should not be in the same group with the +sixteen-year-old boy, if it can possibly be avoided. You must remember +that in most cases the things that appeal to the younger boy will have +no attraction for the older boy. + +2. Do not enroll boys under twelve. If you do you are certain to lose +your older boy. The movement is distinctly for boys of the adolescent +period and is designed to help them to rightly catch the spirit of +helpfulness. + +3. Do not try to do everything yourself. Try to remember that the +boys are always willing and anxious to take hold. Let the boys +understand that the whole proposition is theirs. It is what they make +it. Your contract with them should be largely of a big brother nature. + +4. Do not burden nor weary the boys with excessive military drills and +tactics. The movement is not a military one. The military virtues of +obedience, neatness, order, endurance and erect, alert bearing, +however, are scout virtues. Use everything that develops boys. This is +good scoutcraft. + +5. Do not confine the activities of the patrols to things of one +character. Touch every activity as far as possible. Do not omit +anything. Get the proper agencies to cooperate with you for these +ends--a military man for signalling; a naturalist for woodcraft; a +physician for first aid, etc. + +6. Do not permit the boys to fail in the proper keeping of the scout +oath and law. + +7. Never fail to keep an engagement with your patrol or troop. If +something should delay your coming or should you find yourself unable +to keep an appointment with them, be sure to notify the patrol leaders +beforehand. It might be well to require the same of the boys. + +8. A real danger point is the failure of a scout master to visit the +boys in their homes. Knowing the boys' parents means much, and their +cooperation will be much heartier when they know the man to whose care +they entrust their boy, after he has discussed with them the real +purpose of the scout movement. + +9. Do not hesitate to give a boy a hard task, but not an impossible +one. A boy likes to do hard things. + +10. Do not attempt right at the start to give the boy every bit of +detail regarding the activities of the troop. Work out the plans with +the boys from time to time, always reserving some things of interest +for the next meeting. Your attempt to give them everything at one time +will cause the whole proposition to assume the nature of a task +instead of pleasurable education, as was originally intended. + +11. Hold frequent tests for advancement to the classes of scouthood. +Get your fellows to really win their badges. + +12. As a scout master use good judgment. If there are other scout +masters in your town, or a scout council or local committee, cooperate +with these. To be a scout master, you must have the spirit of '76, +but be sure to work with others. The boys will benefit by the lesson. + + +THE SCOUTS' CAMP + +To go camping should mean more than merely living under canvas away +from the piles of brick and stone that make up our cities. To be in +the open air, to breathe pure oxygen, to sleep upon "a bed of boughs +beside the trail," to look at the camp fire and the stars, and to hear +the whisper of the trees--all of this is good. But the camp offers a +better opportunity than this. It offers the finest method for a boy's +education. Between twelve and eighteen years the interests of a boy +are general ones, and reach from the catching of tadpoles and minnows +to finding God in the stars. His interests are the general mass +interests that are so abundant in nature, the activities that give the +country boy such an advantage for the real enjoyment of life over the +city lad. Two weeks or two months in camp, they are too valuable to be +wasted in loafing, cigarette smoking, card playing or shooting craps. +To make a camp a profitable thing there must needs be instruction; not +formal but _informal_ instruction. Scouting, nature study, scout law, +camp cooking, signalling, pioneering, path finding, sign reading, +stalking for camera purposes, knowledge of animals and plants, first +aid, life saving, manual work (making things), hygiene, sex +instruction, star gazing, discipline, knowing the rocks and trees, and +the ability to do for one's self, in order that a boy may grow strong, +self-reliant, and helpful. This is a partial list of the subject in +the camp curricula. + +A model scout camp programme is given here. It takes eight days to +carry it out, but there is material enough to run ten times the number +of days specified. + + +A SIR R.S.S. BADEN-POWELL SCOUT CAMP MODEL PROGRAMME + +_First Day_: Preliminary work: settling into camp, formation of +patrols, distribution of duties, orders, etc. + +_Second Day_: Campaigning: camp resourcefulness, hut and mat making, +knots, fire lighting, cooking, health and sanitation, endurance, +finding way in strange country, and boat management. + +_Third Day_: Observation: noticing and memorizing details far and +near, landmarks, tracking, deducing meaning from tracks and signs, and +training the eyesight. + +_Fourth Day_: Woodcraft: study of animals, birds, plants and stars; +stalking animals, noticing people, reading their character and +condition, and thereby gaining their sympathy. + +_Fifth Day_: Chivalry: honour, code of knights, unselfishness, +courage, charity and thrift; loyalty to God, country, parents and +employers, or officers; practical chivalry to women; the obligation to +do a "good turn" daily, and how to do it. + +_Sixth Day_: Saving life: from fire, drowning, sewer gas, runaway +horses, panic, street accidents, improvised apparatus, and first aid. + +_Seventh Day_: Patriotism: national geography, the history and deeds +that won our world power, the navy and army, flags, medals, duties of +a citizen, marksmanship, helping the police. + +_Eighth Day_: A summary of the whole course: sports comprising games +and competitive practices in all subjects of the course. + + +CAMP ROUTINES + + 6.30 a.m. Turn out, bathe, etc. + 7.00 " Breakfast + 8.00 " Air bedding in sun if possible + 9.00 " Scouting games and practice + 11.00 " Swimming + 12.00 m. Dinner + 1.00 p.m. Talk by leader + 2.00 " Water games, etc. + 6.00 " Supper + 7.30 " Evening council around camp fire + Order of business: + Opening council + Roll-call + Record of last council + Report of scouts + Left-over business + Complaints + Honours + New scouts + New business + Challenges + Social doings, songs, dances, stories + Closing council (devotional services when desired) + 10.00 p.m. Lights out. + +The father of scouting for boys in America, and in fact the +inspiration for the movement in England under Lieut-Gen. Sir Robert +S.S. Baden-Powell, K.C.B., is Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton, the +distinguished naturalist and nature student. + +The official handbook of the organization may be obtained from +Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, N.Y., the publishers of this +book, or from the national headquarters of The Boy Scouts of America. + + + + +III + +CAMPS AND CAMPING + +How to select the best place and to pitch the tent--A brush bed--The +best kind of a tent--How to make the camp fire--What to do when it +rains--Fresh air and good food--The brush leanto and how to make it + + +Going camping is the best fun in the world if we know how to do it. +Every healthy boy and girl if given an opportunity should enjoy living +outdoors for a week or two and playing at being an Indian. There is +more to camping however than "roughing it" or seeing how much hardship +we can bear. A good camper always makes himself just as comfortable as +he can under the circumstances. The saying that "an army travels on +its stomach" means that a soldier can not make long marches or fight +hard unless he has good food. The surest sign of a "tenderfoot" is the +boy who makes fun of you because you try to have a soft dry bed while +he prefers to sleep on the ground under the mistaken idea that it is +manly or brave. He will usually spoil a trip in the woods for every +one in the party. + +Another poor kind of a camper pitches his tent so that his bed gets +wet and his food spoiled on the first rainy day, and then sits around +cold and hungry trying hard to think that he is having fun, to keep +from getting homesick. This kind of a boy "locks the door after the +horse is stolen." If we go camping we must know how to prevent the +unpleasant things from happening. We must always be ready for wind and +rain, heat and cold. A camping party should make their plans a long +time ahead in order to get their equipment ready. Careful lists should +be made of what we think we shall need. After we are out in the woods, +there will be no chance to run around the corner to the grocer's to +supply what we have forgotten. If it is forgotten, we must simply make +the best of it and not allow it to spoil our trip. + +It is surprising how many things that we think are almost necessary to +life we can get along without if we are obliged to. The true woodsman +knows how to turn to his use a thousand of nature's gifts and to make +himself comfortable, while you and I might stand terrified and +miserable under the same conditions. + +Daniel Boone, the great wilderness traveller, could go out alone in +the untracked forest with nothing but his rifle, his axe and a small +pack on his back and by a knowledge of the stars, the rivers, the +trees and the wild animals, he could go for weeks travelling hundreds +of miles, building his bed and his leanto out of the evergreen boughs, +lighting his fire with his flint and steel, shooting game for his food +and dressing and curing their skins for his clothing and in a thousand +ways supplying his needs from nature's storehouse. The school of the +woods never sends out graduates. We may learn something new every day. + +[Illustration: With a head shelter and a sleeping bag he can keep dry +and warm] + +The average city boy or girl does not have an opportunity to become a +skilled master of woodcraft, but because we cannot learn it all is no +reason why we should not learn something. The best way to learn it is +in the woods themselves and not out of books. + +A party of four boys makes a good number for a camping trip. They will +probably agree better than two or three. They can do much of the camp +work in pairs. No one need to be left alone to look after the camp +while the others go fishing or hunting or to some nearby town for the +mail or for supplies. There is no reason why four boys of fifteen who +are resourceful and careful cannot spend a week or two in the woods in +perfect safety and come back home sounder in mind and body than when +they left. It is always better to take along some one who has "camped +out" before. If he cannot be found, then make your plans, decide what +you will do and how you will do it, take a few cooking lessons from +mother or the cook--if the latter is good-natured--and go anyway. +First elect a leader, not because he is any more important than the +rest but because if some one goes ahead and gives directions, the life +in camp will run much more smoothly and every one will have a better +time. + +If it is your first experience in camping, you had better go somewhere +near home. The best place is one that can be reached by wagon. If we +have to carry our supplies on our backs or in a canoe, the amount we +can take will be much less. After you have had some experience near +home you can safely try the other way. Where you go is of +comparatively little importance. Near every large city there is some +lake or river where you can find a good camping site. Campers always +have more fun if they are near some water, but if such a place is not +easily found near where you live, go into the woods. Try to get away +from towns or villages. The wilder the place is, the better. + +You had better make sure of your camping ground before you go by +writing a letter to the owner of the land. It isn't much fun after we +have pitched the tent and made everything shipshape to have some angry +landowner come along and order us off because we are trespassers. + +In selecting a place to camp, there are several very important things +to look out for. + +1. Be sure you are near a supply of drinking water. A spring or a +brook is best, but even the lake or river will do if the water is pure +and clean. The water at the bottom of a lake is always much colder and +cleaner than the surface water. When I was a boy, I used a simple +device for getting cold water which some of you may like to copy. I +took an old-fashioned jug and fastened a strong string to the handle +and also fastened this string to the cork of the jug as the drawing +shows. The jug was weighted so that it would sink, by means of a piece +of stone tied to the handle. We used to go out to the middle of the +lake where the water was the deepest and lower the jug over the side +of a boat. When it reached bottom we would give the string a sharp tug +and thus pull out the cork. The bubbles coming to the surface showed +us when the jug was full. We then hauled it on board and had clear, +cold, drinking water from a lake that on the surface was warm enough +for swimming. + +[Illustration: The jug by which we obtained pure, cold water] + +2. The next important thing in selecting a camp is being near a supply +of firewood. A week in camp will consume an amazing amount of wood, +especially if we have a camp fire at night to sit around and sing and +tell stories before turning in. In most sections there is plenty of +dead wood that we can use for camp fires. This does not mean a lot of +twigs and brush. There is no use trying to go camping unless some one +knows how to use an axe. In another chapter I will tell you something +about the proper use of axes and hatchets. For the present it is +sufficient to say that an excellent place to practise handling an axe +is on the family woodpile. You will thus combine business and +pleasure, and your efforts will be appreciated by your family, which +would not be the case if, like George Washington, you began your +lessons in woodcraft on the favourite cherry tree. + +Almost any kind of wood will burn when it is dry, but it takes +experience to know the kinds of trees that will burn when they are +green. If there is no dry wood in the neighbourhood, and we are +obliged to cut a tree down to get our supply, it is very important to +pitch our camp somewhere near the right kind of a tree and not be +obliged to carry our firewood a long distance. The best "green wood" +for the campers' fire is hickory, although birch is excellent. Hickory +is also the best dry wood. Other trees that will burn well when green +are cedar, white ash, locust or white oak. There are comparatively few +places, however, where dry wood is not available and of course it is +always best to avoid such a place. + +3. The camp site should be in a fairly open spot. Thick woods and +underbrush are either hot or "damp" cool. If you can find a site that +is shaded during the heat of the day so much the better. It is unwise +to pitch the tent under a tree that stands alone on account of +possible danger from lightning. If your tent is shaded by a tree be +sure there are no dead limbs to blow off and wreck it during a storm. + +Be sure that the drainage is good, so that in case of heavy rains, the +water will run off and not flood the camp. It is very important if +your camp is along some river or stream to be high enough to avoid the +danger of sudden floods. This can usually be determined by talking to +some one who knows the country. You can also tell it by studying the +previous high water marks in the trees. In case of floods there are +always some wisps of straw, pieces of brush, etc., caught and held by +the limbs of trees after the water settles back to its former level. +It is a good chance to practise your woodcraft by trying to find them. + +Damp locations are very bad. The higher we can get, the drier it will +be. We avoid both fogs and mosquitoes. Usually there is some prominent +place that will give us a good outlook and where the breezes can reach +us. + +There are both good and bad points in pitching our tent on the site of +a former camp. As long as the former campers have not scoured the +surrounding neighbourhood for firewood nor have left a place littered +up with all sorts of rubbish and garbage to draw flies and vermin, +they may have fixed up things around the camp site to save us work and +to add to our comfort and pleasure. Each case will have to be decided +on its own merits. + +[Illustration: A wall tent] + +The three important things then are the water supply, the firewood +supply, and good drainage. + +Next in importance to the camp site is the outfit, and the most +important thing is the tent. For a party of four boys on their first +camping trip, the best kind will be a wall tent. A tent, 11 x 14 feet +will be large enough to provide sleeping quarters and to have every +one comfortable. A simple shelter of canvas outside can be provided +as a dining-room but this is more of a luxury than a real necessity. + +Canvas or duck is the common material from which tents are made. The +standard eight-ounce khaki duck used in the United States army will, +for this size tent, cost about twenty dollars. This will include a +fly, which is merely a second roof to the tent. The best material for +tents is balloon silk. It is much more waterproof than canvas and only +weighs a quarter as much. It is also much more expensive. A tent can +be made at home, which is of course the cheaper way. They can also be +hired from previous campers or from some awning maker who is also +usually a tent maker. + +A canvas tent without a fly will leak in a rain storm if the roof is +touched on the inside either by our hands or our clothing. It may be +made partially waterproof by a coating of paraffine which has been +previously dissolved in turpentine. The simplest and at the same time +the warmest tent for an experienced camper who knows the tricks of the +trade is a leanto tent, one with one side entirely open, in front of +which a blazing fire may be kept burning. This is hardly adapted for +boys on their first trip, however. + +Another very good and very simple tent is the "A" tent used in the +army. This looks like a "V" turned upside down. We can pitch it +without the aid of tent poles by simply hanging it be ween two trees +to which a rope has been stretched. + +[Illustration: An "A" tent] + +The Hudson Bay tent, trapper's tent, forester's tent, canoe tent, and +a dozen others, including an Indian tepee and wigwam, are all good +tents for special purposes. The pictures show the different styles and +all of them are designed for special uses, either for warmth or +lightness in carrying or ease in pitching. If we go camping in summer +and can have our equipment or "duffle," as the woodsmen call it, +carried by team, the wall tent will be the best one to take. + +Tent pegs can always be cut in the woods, but it is far more +satisfactory to get them ready at home before we leave. If you do cut +your own pegs, select hardwood saplings to make them from and to +further harden the points, char them slightly in a fire. If you spend +a few winter evenings at home making the pegs, it will save you a lot +of time and trouble when you reach the camping ground. The best pegs +are made of iron or steel. This is especially true when the ground +where they are to be driven is hard or rocky, which is usually the +case. Steel tent pins may be bought for six cents apiece or possibly +the local blacksmith will make them for less. They should be a foot +long. + +A sod cloth is a strip of canvas eight or ten inches wide fastened to +the bottom of the tent wall. Its purpose is to keep the wind and rain +from blowing under the tent. After the tent is pitched a ditch should +be dug all around it to catch the rain and carry it away. The earth +that is dug from this trench may be thrown on the sod cloth to hold it +down. + +It is an excellent idea, if you are a beginner, to practise pitching +the tent at home so that you will understand it better when you are in +the woods. Besides this, you can try sleeping out a night or two to +see how you are going to like it. + +[Illustration: A trapper's tent] + +When you reach your camping place, the first step is to clear the +ground of all rubbish, loose stones, sticks and brush to have a clean +floor. Then unpack the tent and fit the pegs of the two upright poles +through the two holes in the ridge pole. Next raise the tent and peg +the guy ropes on the four corners first. A little practice will show +you how to do this. After all the ropes are pegged at a proper +distance from the tent, they should be tightened and the tent made +secure. + +Always plan to have a full four hours of daylight to make your camp +ready. If the drive is a long one and you are obliged to get up very +early in the morning, you will have to do it, that is all. I made my +first camping trip when I was twelve years old. We had just reached +the camping ground, unloaded our kit and sent the team home that +brought us when--bang! over the mountain across the lake from where we +were going to camp, a terrific thunder shower came up and in a few +minutes it was pouring. There was our whole outfit--tent, bedding and +food--getting soaked because, instead of hurrying along during the +day, we had fooled away our time trying to catch fish in wayside +brooks that had never seen a fish and not realizing how important it +is to make haste as well as hay while the sun shines. + +[Illustration: An Indian tepee] + +We quickly pitched the tent, not as it should have been pitched, but +in a heap over the rest of our goods to keep out as much water as +possible and then ran for a nearby barn where we spent a cold hungry +night, wetter but wiser. The next day, out came the sun and dried our +things, but if the rain had continued we certainly should have been +obliged to go home or at least to a farmhouse to stay until the +weather cleared. We soon forgot our unpleasant experience but we have +not forgotten the lesson it taught--and that is not to waste time +along the road when there is work to be done at the journey's end. + +Next to a good tent, the most important thing for the camper is a good +bed. It is even more important than good food because if we sleep +well, hunger will furnish the sauce for our grub, but if we spend the +night trying to dodge some root or rock that is boring into our back +and that we hardly felt when we turned in but which grew to an +enormous size in our imagination before morning, we will be half sick +and soon get enough of being an Indian. A canvas cot makes the best +camp bed if it can be taken along conveniently. There is one important +thing to look out for in sleeping on a cot. In my first experience of +the kind, I nearly froze. I kept piling things on me until all my +clothing, and even the camp towels and table-cloth were pressed into +service and was thinking about pulling some dry grass to pile on the +rest of the stuff. Still I shivered until I discovered that the cold +was coming up from underneath because there was nothing to keep it out +but the single thickness of canvas. When I put one of my blankets +under me, I was as warm as toast. + +Very often it is impossible to carry cots on a trip, and that is +where a knowledge of woodcraft comes in. The softest, sweetest, +downiest bed in the world can be made with no other materials but +those which grow in the forest--if we know how. At least the tired +camper will think it is soft and will sleep on it like a top and wake +up refreshed in the morning. Perhaps if we had our choice we would +prefer our own bed at home, but in the woods we do not have this +choice. Most people call this a bed of "pine boughs." + +[Illustration: How the bough bed is made] + +Why I do not know as it never should be made of pine under any +circumstances. The best wood for the bough bed is balsam. If this does +not grow in the neighbourhood, hemlock, spruce, or even cedar will do. +To make a bough bed properly means a lot of work. The first step is to +cut four straight sticks. The side pieces should be six feet and a +half long and the end pieces three feet and a half. They should be +notched on the ends with an axe and either nailed or tied together +from saplings or from a tree that you have felled. Small balsam boughs +should be broken off with the fingers and laid one on the other until +the whole bed is filled with them. On this, the rubber blanket or +poncho should be spread and the blankets over all. All the boughs +should be shingled with the stems down to keep them in the best +condition. This kind of a bed will require remaking every day. + +A better bed for the boy camper is made as follows: Take a piece of +heavy bed ticking and sew it into a bag about three feet by six feet. +When you reach camp you can make a regular mattress by filling it with +whatever material is most easily found. Dry leaves? grass, hay, even +moss or wet filler can be used if nothing dry can be found, but in +this case the rubber blanket will be an absolute necessity. Of course +it is much better to use some dry material. + +Be sure to have a comfortable bed. No matter what ideas you may have +about cowboys and soldiers rolling up in their blankets and snatching +a few hours' sleep under the stars by lying on the bare ground, a boy +who is used to a good bed at home will never have much fun out of a +camping trip if he tries to sleep on the ground with a rock for his +pillow. + +For a summer camping trip, one blanket is enough. You must learn to +roll up in it. Lie flat on your back and cover the blanket over you. +Then raise up your legs and tuck it under first on one side and then +the other. The rest is easy. This beats trying to "roll up" in it, +actually. The common summer blankets used at home are not much use for +the camper. These are usually all cotton. A camper's blanket should be +all wool. You can buy a standard U.S. Army blanket, size 66 x 84 +inches, for five dollars. They can often be purchased in stores that +deal in second hand army supplies for much less and are just as good +as new except for some slight stain or defect. + +A sleeping bag is expensive but is excellent for cold weather camping. +It is much too hot for the boy camper in summer. + +Do not sleep in your clothing. Unless it is too cold, undress, about +as you do at home. If the blanket feels tickly, it would not be a +great crime, no matter what the tenderfoot says who wanted you to +sleep on the ground, to take along a sheet. I have never done this, +however. + +At the end of this chapter, you will find a list of things to take +with you. + +The camp fire and the cooking fire should be separate. Almost any one +can kindle a fire with dry materials. It takes a woodman to build a +fire when it has been raining and everything is wet. The boy's method +of taking a few newspapers, and a handful of brush or leaves will not +do. + +First look around for an old dead top of a pine or cedar. If you +cannot find one, chop down a cedar tree. Whittle a handful of +splinters and shavings from the dry heart. Try to find the lee side of +a rock or log where the wind and rain do not beat in. First put down +the shavings or some dry birch bark if you can find it, and shelter it +as well as you can from the rain. Pile up some larger splinters of +wood over the kindling material like an Indian's wigwam. Then light it +and give it a chance to get into a good blaze before you pile on any +larger wood and put the whole fire out. It sounds easy but before you +try it in the woods I advise you to select the first rainy day and go +out near home and experiment. + +To make a fire that will burn in front of the tent all night, first +drive two green stakes into the ground at a slant and about five feet +apart. Then lay two big logs one on each side of a stake to serve as +andirons. Build a fire between these logs and pile up a row of logs +above the fire and leaning against the stakes. You may have to brace +the stakes with two others which should have a forked end. When the +lower log burns out the next one will drop down in its place and +unless you have soft, poor wood the fire should burn for ten hours. +With this kind of a fire and with a leanto, it is possible to keep +warm in the woods, on the coldest, night in winter. + +[Illustration: The frame for a brush leanto] + +This is the way to build a brush leanto: First cut two sticks and +drive them into the ground. They should have a point on one end and a +fork on the other. Lay a stout pole across the two forks like a gypsy +fire rig. Then lean poles against the crosspiece and finally thatch +the roof with spruce, hemlock or other boughs and pile up boughs for +the sides. A brush camp is only a makeshift arrangement and is never +weather proof. It is simply a temporary shelter which with the +all-night fire burning in front will keep a man from freezing to death +in the woods. Any kind of a tent is better or even a piece of canvas +or a blanket for the roof of the leanto will be better than the roof +of boughs. Be careful not to set the leanto on fire with the sparks +from your camp fire. + +Mosquitoes have probably spoiled more camping trips that any other one +thing. The best tents have mosquito net or cheese cloth fronts which +may be held close to the ground by a stick on the bottom. Perhaps the +easiest way to secure protection is for each boy to take along a few +yards of cotton mosquito netting and by means of curved sticks build a +canopy over his bed. + +A smoky fire called a "smudge" will sometimes keep the pests away from +the neighbourhood of the tent or if we build it in the tent will drive +them out, but the remedy is almost as bad as the disease. As a rule +they will only be troublesome at night and the net over our bed will +enable us to sleep in peace. + +The most common "dope" used in the woods to keep off mosquitoes is +called oil of citronella. It has a very pungent odour that the +mosquitoes do not like and the chances are that you will not like it +either. At the same time it may be a good plan to take a small bottle +along. + +You may safely count on finding mosquitoes, no matter where you go or +what the people tell you who live there. Perhaps they have never tried +sleeping in the woods and do not know. Be sure therefore to take +along some netting or cheese cloth to protect yourself against them. + +Everything that you can do at home to get ready for your camping trip +will add to your pleasure when you get out in the woods. If any part +of your kit needs fixing, fishing rods wound or varnished, your +jackknife ground, your camera fixed, or if your clothing needs any +patches or buttons, do it at home. + +No one ever does half that he plans to on a trip like this unless he +does not plan to do anything. Take along a few books to read for the +rainy days and have them covered with muslin if you ever expect to put +them back into your library. + +If you have been putting off a visit to the dentist, by all means do +it before you get out where there are no dentists. An aching tooth can +spoil a vacation in the woods about as easily as anything I know of. + +As a final word of advice to the beginner in camping, let me tell you +a few things that my own experience has taught me. + +A felt hat is better than a cap as it is sun and rain proof. + +Wear a flannel shirt and take one extra one. You can wash one and wear +the other. Be sure to have a new shirt plenty loose in the neck as +camp washing in cold water will make it shrink. Do not go around in +gymnasium shirts or sleeveless jerseys. One of my companions did this +once and was so terribly sunburned that his whole trip was spoiled. + +Two sets of underwear are plenty, including the one you wear. + +Take along a silk handkerchief to wear around your neck. + +Wear comfortable shoes. A camping trip is a poor place to break in new +hunting boots or shoes. + +Take bandanna handkerchiefs and leave your linen ones at home. + +If you have to choose between a coat and a sweater take the sweater +and leave the coat at home. A coat is out of place in the woods. + +Khaki or canvas trousers are excellent. So are corduroy. An old pair +of woollen trousers are just as good as either. + +A poncho is almost necessary to your comfort. It is merely a rubber or +oilskin piece with a slit in it to put your head through. The right +size is 66 x 90 inches. With it you can keep dry day or night, either +using it as a garment or as a cover. When you are not using it you can +cover it over your bed or food supply. + +Take along a good pocket knife and compass. Better leave the revolver +home. Also always carry a waterproof box of matches. + +You will require some kind of a waterproof "duffle" bag to carry your +personal things--tooth brush, extra clothing, mirror, fishing tackle, +towel, soap, medicine, in fact whatever you think you will need. If it +is your first camping trip you will come home without having had any +use whatever for more than half the things you take. That is the +experience of every one, so do not become discouraged. + +If you camp within reach of a post-office, address some stamped +envelopes to your home in ink before you leave. Then you will have no +excuse for not writing a letter home. + +You can make an excellent pillow by rolling up your trousers. Be sure +to take everything out of the pockets first, including your knife, and +roll them with the top inside so that the buttons or your belt buckle +will not bore into your ear. + +If you fall overboard and come ashore to dry out, stuff your shoes +full of dry grass or old paper to keep them from shrinking. When they +are dry, soften them with tallow or oil. Every one who goes camping at +some time or other gets wet. The only advice I can give you is to get +dry again as soon as possible. As long as you keep moving it will +probably not injure you. Waterproof garments are of little use in the +woods. They are always too warm for summer wear and by holding the +perspiration, are more of an injury than a benefit. + +Never wear rubber boots in the woods or you will surely take cold. +Better have wet feet. The best foot wear is moccasins. If you wear +them see that they are several sizes too large and wear at least two +pairs of heavy woollen stockings with them. + + + + +IV + +CAMP COOKING + +How to make the camp fire range--Bread bakers--Cooking utensils--The +grub list--Simple camp recipes + + +Most boys, and I regret to say a few girls too, nowadays, seem to +regard a knowledge of cooking as something to be ashamed of. The boy +who expects to do much camping or who ever expects to take care of +himself out in the woods had better get this idea out of his head just +as soon as possible. Cooking in a modern kitchen has been reduced to a +science, but the boy or man who can prepare a good meal with little +but nature's storehouse to draw on and who can make an oven that will +bake bread that is fit to eat, with the nearest range fifty miles +away, has learned something that his mother or sister cannot do and +something that he should be very proud of. Camp cooking is an art and +to become an expert is the principal thing in woodcraft--nothing else +is so important. + +We often hear how good the things taste that have been cooked over the +camp fire. Perhaps a good healthy appetite has something to do with +it, but it is pretty hard even for a hungry boy to relish half-baked, +soggy bread or biscuits that are more suitable for fishing sinkers +than for human food. A party without a good cook is usually ready to +break camp long before the time is up, and they are lucky if the +doctor is not called in as soon as they get home. + +There is really no need for poor food in the woods. Very few woodsmen +are good cooks simply because they will not learn. The camp cook +always has the best fun. Every one is ready to wait on him _"if he +will only, please get dinner ready"_ + +One year when I was camping at the head of Moosehead Lake in Maine, I +had a guide to whom I paid three dollars a day. He cooked and I got +the firewood, cleaned the fish and did the chores around camp. His +cooking was so poor that the food I was forced to eat was really +spoiling my trip. One day I suggested that we take turns cooking, and +in place of the black muddy coffee, greasy fish and soggy biscuit, I +made some Johnny cake, boiled a little rice and raisins and baked a +fish for a change instead of frying it. His turn to cook never came +again. He suggested himself that he would be woodchopper and scullion +and let me do the cooking. I readily agreed and found that it was +only half as much work as being the handy man. + +The basis of camp cooking is the fire. It is the surest way to tell +whether the cook knows his business or not. The beginner always starts +with a fire hot enough to roast an ox and just before he begins +cooking piles on more wood. Then when everything is sizzling and +red-hot, including the handles of all his cooking utensils, he is +ready to begin the preparation of the meal. A cloud of smoke follows +him around the fire with every shift of the wind. Occasionally he will +rush in through the smoke to turn the meat or stir the porridge and +rush out again puffing and gasping for breath, his eyes watery and +blinded and his fingers scorched almost like a fireman coming out of a +burning building where he has gone to rescue some child. The chances +are, if this kind of a cook takes hold of the handle of a hot frying +pan, pan and contents will be dumped in a heap into the fire to +further add to the smoke and blaze. + +When the old hand begins to cook, he first takes out of the fire the +unburned pieces and blazing sticks, leaving a bed of glowing coals to +which he can easily add a little wood, if the fire gets low and a +watched pot refuses to boil to his satisfaction. When the fire is +simply a mass of red coals he quietly goes to cooking, and if his fire +has been well made and of the right kind of wood, the embers will +continue to glow and give out heat for an hour. + +Of course, if the cooking consists in boiling water for some purpose, +there is no particular objection to a hot fire, the fire above +described is for broiling, frying and working around generally. + +[Illustration: A type of camp fire that will burn all night] + +There are all sorts of camp fireplaces. The quickest one to build and +one of the best as well, is the "hunter's fire," All you need is an +axe. Take two green logs about six to eight inches thick and five feet +long and lay them six inches apart at one end and about fourteen +inches at the other. Be sure that the logs are straight. It is a good +plan to flatten the surface slightly on one side with the axe to +furnish a better resting place for the pots and pans. If the logs roll +or seem insecure, make a shallow trench to hold them or wedge them +with flat stones. The surest way to hold them in place is to drive +stakes at each end. Build your fire between the logs and build up a +cob house of firewood. Split wood will burn much more quickly than +round sticks. As the blazing embers fall between the logs, keep adding +more wood. Do not get the fire outside of the logs. The object is to +get a bed of glowing coals between them. When you are ready to begin +cooking, take out the smoky, burning pieces and leave a bed of red-hot +coals. If you have no axe and can find no logs, a somewhat similar +fireplace can be built up of flat stones, but be sure that your stone +fireplace will not topple over just at the critical time. + +If you only have your jack-knife, the best fire is a "Gypsy Rig". Cut +two crotched sticks, drive them into the ground and lay a crosspiece +on them just as you would begin to build the leanto described in the +preceding chapter, but of course not so high above the ground. The +kettles and pots can be hung from the crossbar by means of pot hooks, +which are pieces of wood or wire shaped like a letter "S." Even +straight sticks will do with two nails driven into them. These should +be of different lengths to adjust the pots at various heights above +the fire, depending on whether you wish to boil something furiously or +merely to let it simmer. Do not suspend the kettles by running the bar +through them. This is very amateurish. With a gypsy fire, the frying +pan, coffee pot and gridiron will have to be set right on the bed of +coals. + +An arrangement for camp fires that is better and less work than the +logs is obtained by using fire irons, which are two flat pieces of +iron a yard or so long resting on stones and with the fire built +underneath. + +The whole object of either logs or irons is to furnish a secure +resting place for cooking utensils above the fire. + +There are several kinds of ovens used for baking bread and roasting +meat in outdoor life. The simplest way is to prop a frying pan up in +front of the fire. This is not the best way but you will have to do it +if you are travelling light. A reflector, when made of sheet iron or +aluminum is the best camp oven. Tin is not so satisfactory because it +will not reflect the heat equally. Both the top and bottom of the +reflector oven are on a slope and midway between is a steel baking pan +held in place by grooves. This oven can be moved about at will to +regulate the amount of heat and furthermore it can be used in front of +a blazing fire without waiting for a bed of coals. Such a rig can +easily be made by any tinsmith. A very convenient folding reflector +oven can be bought in aluminum for three or four dollars. When not +used for baking, it makes an excellent dishpan. + +[Illustration: A reflector camp oven] + +The standard camp oven that has been used by generations of pioneers +and campers is the Dutch oven. It is simply an iron pot on short legs +and is provided with a heavy cover. To use it, dig a hole in the +ground large enough to hold it, build a fire and fill the hole with +embers. Then scoop out a place for the pot, cover it over with more +embers and ashes and let the contents bake. + +For the boy who wants to go to the limit in depending on his own +resources, the clay oven is the nearest to real woodcraft. This is +made in the side of a bank by burrowing out a hole, with a smoke +outlet in the rear. A hot fire built inside will bake the clay and +hold it together. To use this oven, build a fire in it and when the +oven is hot, rake out the coals and put in your bread or meat on flat +stones. Close the opening with another stone and keep it closed long +enough to give the oven a chance. This method is not recommended to +beginners who are obliged to eat what they cook, but in the hands of a +real cook, will give splendid results. The reflector oven is the best +for most cases if you can carry it conveniently. + +The kind of a cooking equipment that we take with us on a camping trip +will depend on what we can carry conveniently, how much we are willing +to rough it and what our stock of provisions will be. One thing is +sure--the things that we borrow from home will rarely be fit to +return. In making a raid on the family kitchen, better warn the folks +that they are _giving_ us the pots and pans instead of merely +_lending_ them. Very compact cooking outfits can be bought if one +cares to go to the expense. An aluminum cook kit for four people, so +made that the various articles nest one into the other, can be bought +for fifteen dollars. It weighs only ten pounds and takes up a space +of 10 x 12 inches. Such a kit is very convenient if we move camp +frequently or have to carry our outfit with us, but for the party of +boys going out by team it is not worth the expense. You will need +several tin pails, two iron pots, a miner's coffee pot--all in one +piece including the lip--two frying pans, possibly a double boiler for +oatmeal and other cooked cereals, iron spoon, large knife, vegetable +knife, iron fork and broiler. A number of odds and ends will come in +handy, especially tin plates to put things on. Take no crockery or +glassware. It will be sure to be broken. Do not forget a can opener. + +Camp fire utensils should never be soldered. Either seamless ware or +riveted joints are the only safe kind. Solder is sure to melt over a +hot open fire. + +The personal equipment for each boy should be tin cup, knife, fork, +and spoons, deep tin plate, extra plate and perhaps one extra set of +everything for company if they should happen to drop in. A lot of dish +washing can be avoided if we use paper or wooden plates and burn them +up after the meal. + +The main question is "What shall we take to eat." A list of food or as +it is commonly known "the grub list" is a subject that will have to be +decided by the party themselves. I will give you a list that will +keep four hungry boys from staying hungry for a trip of two weeks and +leave something over to bring home. If the list does not suit you +exactly you can substitute or add other things. It is an excellent +plan for the party to take a few home cooked things to get started on, +a piece of roasted meat, a dish of baked beans, some crullers, cookies +or ginger snaps. We must also consider whether we shall get any fish +or game. If fishing is good, the amount of meat we take can be greatly +cut down. + +This list has been calculated to supply a party who are willing to eat +camp fare and who do not expect to be able to buy bread, milk, eggs or +butter. If you can get these things nearby, then camping is but little +different from eating at home. + + +GRUB LIST + +Ten lbs. bacon, half a ham, 4 cans corned beef, 2 lbs. cheese, 3 lbs. +lard, 8 cans condensed milk, 8 lbs. hard tack, 10 packages soda +crackers, 6 packages sweet crackers, 12-1/2 lbs. of wheat flour, +12-1/2 lbs. of yellow cornmeal, can baking powder, 1/2 bushel +potatoes, 1 peck onions, 3 lbs. ground coffee, 1/2 lb. tea, sack salt, +7 lbs. granulated sugar, 3 packages prepared griddle cake flour, 4 +packages assorted cereals, including oatmeal, 4 lbs. rice, dried +fruits, canned corn, peas, beans, canned baked beans, salmon, +tomatoes, sweetmeats and whatever else you like. + +Be sure to take along plenty of tin boxes or tight wooden boxes to +keep rain and vermin away from the food. Tell your grocer to pack the +stuff for a camping trip and to put the perishable things in tight +boxes as far as possible. + +If you are going to move camp, have some waterproof bags for the +flour. If you can carry eggs and butter, so much the better. A tin +cracker box buried in the mud along some cold brook or spring makes an +excellent camper's refrigerator especially if it is in the shade. +Never leave the food exposed around camp. As soon as the cook is +through with it let some one put it away in its proper place where the +flies, ants, birds, sun, dust, and rain cannot get at it. + +Always examine food before you cook it. Take nothing for granted. Once +when camping the camp cook for breakfast made a huge pot of a certain +brand of breakfast food. We were all tucking it away as only hungry +boys can, when some one complained that caterpillars were dropping +from the tree into his bowl. We shifted our seats--and ate some more, +and then made the astonishing discovery that the breakfast food was +full of worms. We looked at the package and found that the grocers had +palmed off some stale goods on us and that the box was fairly alive. +We all enjoy the recollection of it more than we did the actual +experience. + +It is impossible in a book of this kind to say very much about how to +cook. That subject alone has filled some very large books. We can +learn some things at home provided that we can duplicate the +conditions in the woods. So many home recipes contain eggs, milk and +butter that they are not much use when we have none of the three. +There is a book in my library entitled "One Hundred Ways to Cook Eggs" +but it would not do a boy much good in the woods unless he had the +eggs. If you ask your mother or the cook to tell you how to raise +bread or make pies and cakes, be sure that you will have the same +ingredients and tools to work with that she has. + +It might be well to learn a few simple things about frying and +boiling, as both of these things can be done even by a beginner over +the camp fire. There are a few general cooking rules that I will +attempt to give you and leave the rest for you to learn from +experience. + +You use bacon in the woods to furnish grease in the frying pan for +the things that are not fat enough themselves to furnish their own +grease. + +Condensed milk if thinned with water makes a good substitute for sweet +milk, after you get used to it. + +To make coffee, allow a tablespoonful of ground coffee to each cup of +water. Better measure both things until you learn just how full of +water to fill the pot to satisfy the wants of your party. Do not boil +coffee furiously. The best way is not to boil it at all but that would +be almost like telling a boy not to go swimming. Better let it simmer +and when you are ready for it, pour in a dash of cold water to settle +the grounds and see that no one shakes the pot afterward to stir up +grounds--and trouble. + +A teaspoonful of tea is enough for two people. This you must not boil +unless you want to tan your stomach. Pour boiling water on the tea and +let it steep. + +Good camp bread can be made from white flour, one cup; salt, one +teaspoonful; sugar, one teaspoonful and baking powder, one +teaspoonful. Wet with water or better with diluted condensed milk. +Pour in a greased pan and bake in the reflector oven until when you +test it by sticking a wooden splinter into it, the splinter will come +out clean without any dough adhering to it. + +If you want to make the kind of bread that has been the standard +ration for campers for hundreds of years you must eat johnny-cake or +pone. It is really plain corn bread. Personally I like it better than +any of the raised breads or prepared flours that are used in the +woods. It should always be eaten hot and always broken by the hands. +To cut it with a knife will make it heavy. The ingredients are simply +one quart of yellow meal, one teaspoonful of salt and three cups--one +and one-half pints--of warm water. Stir until the batter is light and +bake for a short hour. Test it with the wooden splinter the same as +wheat bread. It may be baked in an open fire on a piece of flat wood +or by rolling up balls of it, you can even roast it in the ashes. A +teaspoonful of sugar improves it somewhat and it can be converted into +cake by adding raisins or huckleberries. For your butter, you will use +bacon grease or gravy. + +Indian meal, next to bacon, is the camper's stand-by. In addition to +the johnny-cake, you can boil it up as mush and eat with syrup or +condensed milk and by slicing up the cold mush, if there is any left, +you can fry it next day in a spider. + +The beginner at cooking always makes the mistake of thinking that to +cook properly you must cook fast. The more the grease sputters or the +harder the pot boils, the better. As a rule, rapid boiling of meat +makes it tough. Game and fish should be put on in cold water and after +the water has boiled, be set back and allowed to simmer. Do not throw +away the water you boil meat in. It will make good soup--unless every +one in camp has taken a hand at salting the meat, as is often the +case. + +All green vegetables should be crisp and firm when they are cooked. If +they have been around camp for several days and have lost their +freshness, first soak them in cold water. A piece of pork cooked with +beans and peas will give them a richer flavour. The water that is on +canned vegetables should be poured off before cooking. Canned tomatoes +are an exception to this rule, however. + +Save all the leftovers. If you do not know what else to do with them, +make a stew or soup. You can make soup of almost anything. The Chinese +use birds' nests and the Eskimos can make soup of old shoes. A very +palatable soup can be made from various kinds of vegetables with a few +bones or extract of beef added for body. + +The length of time to cook things is the most troublesome thing to +the beginner. Nearly everything will take longer than you think. +Oatmeal is one of the things that every beginner is apt to burn, hence +the value of the double boiler. + +Rice is one of the best camp foods if well cooked. It can be used in a +great variety of ways like cornmeal. But beware! There is nothing in +the whole list of human food that has quite the swelling power of +rice. Half a teacupful will soon swell up to fill the pot. A +tablespoonful to a person will be an ample allowance and then, unless +you have a good size pot to boil it in, have some one standing by +ready with an extra pan to catch the surplus when it begins to swell. + +There are certain general rules for cooking which may help the +beginner although they are not absolute. + +Mutton, beef, lamb, venison, chicken, and large birds or fish will +require from ten to twenty minutes' cooking for each pound of weight. +The principal value of this is to at least be sure that you need not +test a five-pound chicken after it has been cooking fifteen minutes to +see if it is done. + +Peas, beans, potatoes, corn, onions, rice, turnips, beets, cabbage, +and macaroni should, when boiled, be done in from twenty to thirty +minutes. The surest test is to taste them. They will be burned in +that many seconds, if you allow the water to boil off or put them in +the middle of a smoky fire where they cannot be watched. + +Fried things are the easiest to cook because you can tell when they +are done more easily. Fried food however is always objectionable and +as little of it should be eaten as possible. You are not much of a +camp cook if a frying pan is your only tool. + +A bottle of catsup or some pickles will often give just the right +taste to things that otherwise seem to be lacking in flavour. + +In frying fish, always have the pan piping hot. Test the grease by +dropping in a bread crumb. It should quickly turn brown. "Piping hot" +does not mean smoking or grease on fire. Dry the fish thoroughly with +a towel before putting them into the pan. Then they will be crisp and +flaky instead of grease-soaked. The same rule is true of potatoes. If +you put the latter on brown butcher's paper when they are done, they +will be greatly improved. + +Nearly every camper will start to do things away from home that he +would never think of doing under his own roof. One of these is to +drink great quantities of strong coffee three times a day. If you find +that after you turn in for the night, you are lying awake for a long +time watching the stars and listening to the fish splashing in the +lake or the hoot owl mournfully "too-hooing" far off in the woods, do +not blame your bed or commence to wonder if you are not getting sick. +Just cut out the coffee, that's all. + + + + +V + +WOODCRAFT + +The use of an axe and hatchet--Best woods for special purposes--What +to do when you are lost--Nature's compasses + + +The word "woodcraft" simply means skill in anything which pertains to +the woods. The boy who can read and understand nature's signboards, +who knows the names of the various trees and can tell which are best +adapted to certain purposes, what berries and roots are edible, the +habits of game and the best way to trap or capture them, in short the +boy that knows how to get along without the conveniences of +civilization and is self-reliant and manly, is a student of woodcraft. +No one can hope to become a master woodsman. What he learns in one +section may be of little value in some other part of the country. + +A guide from Maine or Canada might be comparatively helpless in +Florida or the Tropics, where the vegetation, wild animal life, and +customs of the woods are entirely different. Most of us are hopeless +tenderfeet anywhere, just like landlubbers on shipboard. The real +masters of woodcraft--Indians, trappers, and guides--are, as a rule, +men who do not even know the meaning of the word "woodcraft." + +Some people think that to know woodcraft, we must take it up with a +teacher, just as we might learn to play golf or tennis. It is quite +different from learning a game. Most of what we learn, we shall have +to teach ourselves. Of course we must profit from the experience and +observation of others, but no man's opinion can take the place of the +evidence of our own eyes. A naturalist once told me that chipmunks +never climb trees. I have seen a chipmunk on a tree so I know that he +is mistaken. As a rule the natives in any section only know enough +woods-lore or natural history to meet their absolute needs. Accurate +observation is, as a rule, rare among country people unless they are +obliged to learn from necessity. Plenty of boys born and raised in the +country are ignorant of the very simplest facts of their daily +experience. They could not give you the names of a dozen local birds +or wildflowers or tell you the difference between a mushroom and a +toadstool to save their lives. + +[Illustration: The wilderness traveller] + +On the other hand, some country boys who have kept their ears and eyes +open will know more about the wild life of the woods than people who +attempt to write books about it; myself, for example. I have a boy +friend up in Maine who can fell a tree as big around as his body in +ten minutes, and furthermore he can drop it in any direction that he +wants to without leaving it hanging up in the branches of some other +tree or dropping it in a soft place where the logging team cannot +possibly haul it out without miring the horses. The stump will be +almost as clean and flat as a saw-cut. This boy can also build a log +cabin, chink up the cracks with clay and moss and furnish it with +benches and tables that he has made, with no other tools than an axe +and a jackknife. He can make a rope out of a grape-vine or patch a +hole in his birch bark canoe with a piece of bark and a little spruce +gum. He can take you out in the woods and go for miles with never a +thought of getting lost, tell you the names of the different birds and +their calls, what berries are good to eat, where the partridge nests +or the moose feeds, and so on. If you could go around with him for a +month, you would learn more real woodcraft than books could tell you +in a lifetime. And this boy cannot even read or write and probably +never heard the word "woodcraft." His school has been the school of +hard knocks. He knows these things as a matter of course just as you +know your way home from school. His father is a woodchopper and has +taught him to take care of himself. + +If you desire to become a good woodsman, the first and most important +thing is to learn to use an axe. Patent folding hatchets are well +enough in their way, but for real woodchopping an axe is the only +thing. One of four pounds is about the right weight for a beginner. As +it comes from the store, the edge will be far too thick and clumsy to +do good work. First have it carefully ground by an expert and watch +how he does it. + +If I were a country boy I should be more proud of skilful axemanship +than to be pitcher on the village nine. With a good axe, a good rifle, +and a good knife, a man can take care of himself in the woods for +days, and the axe is more important even than the rifle. + +The easiest way to learn to be an axeman is to make the acquaintance +of some woodchopper in your neighbourhood. But let me warn you. Never +ask him to lend you his axe. You would not be friends very long if you +did. You must have one of your own, and let it be like your watch or +your toothbrush, your own personal property. + +A cheap axe is poor economy. The brightest paint and the gaudiest +labels do not always mean the best steel. Your friend the woodchopper +will tell you what kind to buy in your neighbourhood. The handle +should be straight-grained hickory and before buying it you will run +your eye along it to see that the helve is not warped or twisted and +that there are no knots or bad places in it. The hang of an axe is the +way the handle or helve is fitted to the head. An expert woodchopper +is rarely satisfied with the heft of an axe as it comes from the +store. He prefers to hang his own. In fact, most woodchoppers prefer +to make their own axe handles. + +You will need a stone to keep a keen edge on the axe. No one can do +good work with a dull blade, and an edge that has been nicked by +chopping into the ground or hitting a stone is absolutely inexcusable. + +To chop a tree, first be sure that the owner is willing to have it +chopped. Then decide in which direction you wish it to fall. This will +be determined by the kind of ground, closeness of other trees, and the +presence of brush or undergrowth. When a tree has fallen the +woodchopper's work has only begun. He must chop off the branches, cut +and split the main trunk, and either make sawlogs or cordwood lengths. +Hence the importance of obtaining a good lie for the tree. + +Before beginning to chop the tree, cut away all the brush, vines, and +undergrowth around its butt as far as you will swing the axe. This is +very important as many of the accidents with an axe result from +neglect of this precaution. As we swing the axe it may catch on a bush +or branch over our head, which causes a glancing blow and a possible +accident. Be careful not to dull the axe in cutting brush. You can +often do more damage to its edge with undergrowth no thicker than +one's finger than in chopping a tree a foot through. If the brush is +very light, it will often be better to use your jack-knife. + +In cutting a tree, first make two nicks or notches in the bark on the +side to which you wish it to fall and as far apart as half the +diameter of the tree. Then begin to swing the axe slowly and without +trying to bury its head at every blow and prying it loose again, but +with regular strokes first across the grain at the bottom and then in +a slanting direction at the top. The size of the chips you make will +be a measure of your degree of skill. Hold the handle rather loosely +and keep your eye on the place you wish to hit and not on the axe. Do +not work around the tree or girdle it but keep right at the notch you +are making until it is half way through the tree. Do not shift your +feet at every blow or rise up on your toes. This would tire even an +old woodchopper in a short time. See that you do not set yourself too +fast a pace at first. A beginner always starts with too small a notch. +See to it that yours is wide enough in the start. + +[Illustration: The right way to chop a tree--make two notches on +opposite sides] + +[Illustration: The wrong way--this looks like the work of a beaver] + +When you have cut about half way through, go to the other side of the +tree and start another notch a little higher than the first one. A +skilled man can chop either right-or left-handed but this is very +difficult for a beginner. If you are naturally right-handed, the +quickest way to learn left-handed wood chopping is to study your usual +position and note where you naturally place your feet and hands. Then +reverse all this and keep at it from the left-handed position until it +becomes second nature to you and you can chop equally well from either +position. This you may learn in a week or you may never learn it. It +is a lot easier to write about than it is to do. + +When the tree begins to creak and show signs of toppling over, give it +a few sharp blows and as it falls jump sideways. Never jump or run +backward. This is one way that men get killed in the woods. A falling +tree will often kick backward like a shot. It will rarely go far to +either side. Of course a falling tree is a source of danger anyway, so +you must always be on your guard. + +If you wish to cut the fallen tree into logs, for a cabin, for +instance, you will often have to jump on top of it and cut between +your feet. This requires skill and for that reason I place a knowledge +of axemanship ahead of anything else in woodcraft except cooking. +With a crosscut saw, we can make better looking logs and with less +work. + +Next to knowing how to chop a tree is knowing what kind of a tree to +chop. Different varieties possess entirely different qualities. The +amateur woodchopper will note a great difference between chopping a +second growth chestnut and a tough old apple tree. We must learn that +some trees, like oak, sugar maple, dogwood, ash, cherry, walnut, +beech, and elm are very hard and that most of the evergreens are soft, +such as spruce, pine, arbor vitae, as well as the poplars and birches. +It is easy to remember that lignum vitae is one of the hardest woods +and arbor vitae one of the softest. Some woods, like cedar, chestnut, +white birch, ash, and white oak, are easy to split, and wild cherry, +sugar maple, hemlock, and sycamore are all but unsplitable. We decide +the kind of a tree to cut by the use to which it is to be put. For the +bottom course of a log cabin, we place logs like cedar, chestnut, or +white oak because we know that they do not rot quickly in contact with +the ground. We always try to get straight logs because we know that it +is all but impossible to build a log house of twisted or crooked ones. + +It is a very common custom for beginners to make camp furniture, +posts, and fences of white birch. This is due to the fact that the +wood is easily worked and gives us very pretty effects. Birch however +is not at all durable and if we expect to use our camp for more than +one season we must expect to replace the birch every year or two. +Rustic furniture made of cedar will last for years and is far superior +to birch. + +Getting lost in the woods may be a very serious thing. If you are a +city boy used to signboards, street corners, and familiar buildings +you may laugh at the country boy who is afraid to go to a big city +because he may get lost, but he knows what being lost means at home +and he fails to realize when he is in a city how easy it is to ask the +nearest policeman or passer-by the way home. Most city boys will be +lost in the woods within five minutes after they leave their camp or +tent. If you have no confidence in yourself and if you are in a +wilderness like the North woods, do not venture very far from home +alone until you are more expert. + +It is difficult to say when we are really lost in the woods. As long +as we think we know the way home we are not lost even if we may be +absolutely wrong in our opinion of the proper direction. In such a +case we may soon find our mistake and get on the right track again. +When we are really lost is when suddenly a haunting fear comes over us +that we do not know the way home. Then we lose our heads as well as +our way and often become like crazy people. + +A sense of direction is a gift or instinct. It is the thing that +enables a carrier pigeon that has been taken, shut up in a basket say +from New York to Chicago, to make a few circles in the air when +liberated and start out for home, and by this sense to fly a thousand +miles without a single familiar landmark to guide him and finally land +at his home loft tired and hungry. + +No human being ever had this power to the same extent as a pigeon, but +some people seem to keep a sense of direction and a knowledge of the +points of compass in a strange place without really making an effort +to do it. One thing is sure. If we are travelling in a strange country +we must always keep our eyes and ears open if we expect to find our +way alone. We must never trust too implicitly in any "sense of +direction." + +Forest travellers are always on the lookout for peculiar landmarks +that they will recognize if they see them again. Oddly shaped trees, +rocks, or stumps, the direction of watercourses and trails, the +position of the sun, all these things will help us to find our way +out of the woods when a less observing traveller who simply tries to +remember the direction he has travelled may become terrified. + +Rules which tell people what to do when they are lost are rarely of +much use, because the act of losing our way brings with it such a +confusion of mind that it would be like printing directions for terror +stricken people who are drowning. + +Suppose, for example, a boy goes camping for a week or two in the +Adirondacks or Maine woods. If he expects to go about alone, his first +step should be to become familiar with the general lay of the land, +the direction of cities, towns, settlements, mountain ranges, lakes, +and rivers in the section where he is going, and especially with the +location of other camps, railroads, lumber camps, and so on in his +immediate neighbourhood, say within a five-mile radius. It is an +excellent plan to take along a sectional map which can usually be +bought of the state geologist. One can by asking questions also learn +many things from the natives. + +Such a boy may start out from his camp, which is on the shore of a +lake, for example, on an afternoon's fishing or hunting trip. If he is +careful he will always consult his compass to keep in mind the general +direction in which he travels. He will also tell his friends at camp +where he expects to go. If he has no compass, he at least knows that +the sun rises in the east and sets in the west and he can easily +remember whether he has travelled toward the setting sun or away from +it. Rules for telling the points of compass by the thickness of the +bark or moss on trees are well enough for story books. They are not of +much value to a man lost in the woods. + +Suddenly, say at four o'clock, this boy decides to "turn around" and +go back to camp. And then the awful feeling comes to him that he +doesn't know which way to turn. The woods take on a strange and +unfamiliar look. He is lost. The harder he tries to decide which way +the camp lies, the worse his confusion becomes. If he would only +collect his thoughts and like the Indian say "Ugh! Indian not lost, +Indian here. Wigwam lost," he probably would soon get his bearings. It +is one thing to lose your way and another to lose your head. + +When you are lost, you are confused, and the only rule to remember is +to sit down on the nearest rock or stump and wait until you get over +being "rattled." Then ask yourself, "How far have I gone since I was +not sure of my way?" and also, "How far am I from camp?" If you have +been out three hours and have walked pretty steadily, you may have +gone five miles. Unless you have travelled in a straight line and at a +rapid pace, the chances are that you are not more than half that +distance. But even two or three miles in strange woods is a long +distance. You may at least be sure that you must not expect to find +camp by rushing about here and there for ten minutes. + +We have all heard how lost people will travel in circles and keep +passing the same place time after time without knowing it. This is +true and many explanations have been attempted. One man says that we +naturally take longer steps with our right leg because it is the +stronger; another thinks that our heart has something to do with it, +and so on. Why we do this no one really knows, but it seems to be a +fact. Therefore, before a lost person starts to hunt for camp, he +should blaze a tree that he can see from any direction. Blazing simply +means cutting the bark and stripping it on all four sides. If you have +no hatchet a knife will do, but be sure to make a blaze that will show +at some distance, not only for your own benefit but to guide a +searching party that may come out to look for you. You can mark an +arrow to point the direction that you are going, or if you have +pencil and notebook even leave a note for your friends telling them +your predicament. This may all seem unnecessary at the time but if you +are really lost, nothing is unnecessary that will help you to find +yourself. + +As you go along give an occasional whack at a tree with your hatchet +to mark the bark or bend over the twigs and underbrush in the +direction of your course. The thicker the undergrowth the more blaze +marks you must make. Haste is not so important as caution. You may go +a number of miles and at the end be deeper in the woods than ever, but +your friends who are looking for you, if they can run across one of +your blazes, will soon find you. + +When you are certain that you will not be able to find your way out +before dark, there is not much use of going any farther. The thing to +do then is to stop and prepare for passing the night in the woods +while it is still daylight. Go up on the highest point of ground, +build a leanto and make your camp-fire. If you have no matches, you +can sometimes start a fire by striking your knife blade with a piece +of flint or quartz, a hard white stone that is common nearly +everywhere. The sparks should fall in some dry tinder or punk and the +little fire coaxed along until you get a blaze. There are many kinds +of tinder used in the woods, dried puff balls, "dotey" or rotten wood +that is not damp, charred cotton cloth, dry moss, and so on. In the +pitch pine country, the best kindlings after we have caught a tiny +blaze are splinters taken from the heart of a decayed pine log. They +are full of resin and will burn like fireworks. The Southerners call +it "light-wood." + +Dry birch bark also makes excellent kindlings. A universal signal of +distress in the woods that is almost like the flag upside down on +shipboard is to build two smoky fires a hundred yards or more apart. +One fire means a camp, two fires means trouble. + +Another signal is two gunshots fired quickly, a pause to count ten and +then a third. Always listen after you have given this signal to see if +it is answered. Give your friends time enough to get the gun loaded at +camp. Always have a signal code arranged and understood by your party +before you attempt to go it alone. You may never need it but if you do +you will need it badly. + +Sometimes we can get our bearings by climbing a tree. Another aid to +determine our direction is this: Usually all the brooks and water +courses near a large lake or river flow into it. If you are sure that +you haven't crossed a ridge or divide, the surest way back home if +camp is on a lake is to follow down the first brook or spring you come +across. It will probably bring you up at the lake, sooner or later. + +On a clear night you can tell the points of compass from the stars. +Whether a boy or girl is a camper or not, they surely ought to know +how to do this. Have some one point out to you the constellation +called the "dipper." It is very conspicuous and when you have once +learned to know it you will always recognize it as an old friend. The +value of the dipper is this: The two stars that form the lower corners +of its imaginary bowl are sometimes called the "north star pointers." +The north star or Polaris, because of its position with reference to +the earth, never seems to move. If you draw an imaginary line through +the two pointers up into the heavens, the first bright star you come +to, which is just a little to the right of this line, is the north +star. It is not very bright or conspicuous like Venus or Mars but it +has pointed the north to sailors over the uncharted seas for hundreds +of years. By all means make the acquaintance of Polaris. + + + + +VI + +THE USE OF FIRE-ARMS + +Importance of early training--Why a gun is better than a rifle--How to +become a good shot + + +Whether a boy of fifteen should have a gun or a rifle is a question +that parents will have to settle for themselves. There is no question +but that a careful boy who has been taught by some older person how to +handle a gun is more to be trusted than a man who has never learned +the proper use of fire-arms and who takes up the sport of hunting +after he is grown up. Most of the shooting accidents are caused by +inexperienced men who have never been accustomed to guns in their +younger days. Once or twice I have just missed being shot by friends +who had never been hunting before, and who became so excited when they +unexpectedly kicked up a rabbit or walked into a flock of quail that +they fired the gun without knowing whether any of their friends were +in range or not. When a boy is allowed to have a gun it should be a +real one. Air rifles and small calibre guns are all the more +dangerous, because they are often looked upon as toys. + +In handling a gun, always treat it as though it were loaded, no matter +if you _know_ it is empty. By this means it will soon become second +nature to you never to point the gun at any one even carelessly or in +fun. A guide once said to me, "A gun is a dangerous critter without +lock, stock, or barrel, and if a feller ever points one at me I think +he means business." + +[Illustration: A double barrelled hammerless shot-gun] + +A gun can never be trusted. Accidents happen so quickly that it is +over before we know it and the terrible damage is done. Sometimes the +trigger will catch on a coat button or a twig, and, bang! an +unexpected discharge takes place and if you were careless just for an +instant, it may cost some one his life. Especial care must be taken in +loading and unloading a gun. It is at this time that a gun is most +likely to go off unexpectedly. + +The best way to learn how to handle a gun is to watch the methods of +an old hand. Never fire a gun when you are standing behind another +person. You may know that you are not aiming at him, but the +concussion of the air near the end of the barrel is terrific, and your +friend may have a split ear drum as a result. + +A shot-gun is better for a boy than a rifle, for the reason that most +real shooting except for big game is done with a shot-gun, and +besides, it takes a lot of practice to shoot well with it. A shot-gun +is not a weapon for play but a real tool. In almost every section of +the country there is some small game to be hunted and there is usually +also an opportunity to practise at clay pigeons. + +No one would think of hunting quail, ducks, or rabbits with a rifle, +and even if you were an excellent rifle shot at a still mark you might +not be able to hit moving game at all. A shot-gun is less dangerous +for the reason that its range is limited to a little over a hundred +yards, while a rifle may carry a mile. A cheap shot-gun is far more +dangerous than a cheap rifle. Until it is possible to buy a good one +it is better to have none at all. A good American-made gun can be +bought for about twenty-five dollars. A gun suitable for its owner +should fit just as his clothing fits him. When a gun is quickly +brought to the shoulder in firing position, there is no time in actual +hunting to shift it around. When you buy a gun, remember that your +canvas or corduroy hunting coat makes more of a bulge at the shoulder +than an ordinary suit and accordingly see that the stock is the proper +length. The "drop" of a gun is the number of inches that the stock +falls below the line of the barrel. If the stock is bent too much you +will shoot under your game. If it is too straight the tendency will be +to shoot over game. The average stock is made to fit most people and +will probably answer most purposes unless you can afford to have a +stock made especially. The principal thing is to do all your +practising with your own gun until it becomes second nature to bring +it up quickly and have the eye find the barrel instantly. A shot-gun +is not aimed in the same way as a rifle. The method of good shots is +rather to keep their eye on the game and when they "feel" that the gun +is pointed right to fire. A skilful shot can tell whether he is +shooting too high or too low just as he pulls the trigger. The brain, +head, and eyes and trigger-finger must all work in harmony or you will +never be a good shot. Never flinch as you shoot. This is a very common +fault of beginners and it is fatal to becoming a marksman. + +The first lesson in handling a gun is to understand perfectly how it +works. If it is a hammerless gun, remember that it is always cocked. +When you open the barrels you cock the gun automatically. For this +reason there is some kind of a safety device provided, which should +always be left at "safe" except at the actual instant of firing. It is +just as easy to learn to push the safety off when you fire as it is to +learn to pull the trigger, if one starts right. + +Never carry your gun with your finger on the trigger. Wait until you +put the gun up as you are ready to shoot. Don't forget the safety. A +great many shots are missed because the hunter forgets whether he has +left it on or off and in his anxiety to hit the game will tug and pull +on the trigger until, just as the game disappears out of range, he +will remember that he did not release it. This shows the importance of +acquiring the proper habit at first. + +It is harder to correct bad habits in handling a gun than to teach the +beginner the proper way at first. On your first lesson in the field, +walk on the left side of your teacher so that your gun will be +pointing away from him. If you come across any game, try to take your +time before you fire. Nearly every one shoots too quickly. As most +shot-gun shooting is what is called snap shooting, there isn't much +time at best, but a good shot will be sure that he has covered his +game before he fires, while a beginner will trust to luck. This will +be the hardest fault to correct. Consequently a beginner should if +possible hunt alone for a while, as the presence of another gun +alongside of him makes him too anxious to get in the first shot, and +gets him into bad habits. + +If your teacher also has a gun, he must assure you that he does not +intend to shoot and then you will try harder to get the game and run +less chance of missing. Always unload a gun before going into a house, +under or over a fence, or in or out of a boat or carriage. If you +leave your gun, even for a minute, unload it. Never rest a loaded gun +against a tree or building. Never pull a gun loaded or empty toward +you by the muzzle. In unloading always point it toward the ground. A +jar will sometimes discharge a gun and very often a discharge will +take place when closing the breech on a tight shell. + +Always be ready for game. In hunting, we never can tell at what +instant it will rise up in front of us. "Be ready" does not mean +having the muscles and nerves constantly on a tension. It is simply +to carry your gun in such a position that you can quickly bring it to +the shoulder at any time. It is a good plan to practise aiming at +various objects as you go along until you gradually overcome your +awkwardness. + +It is difficult to say what makes a good shot with a gun. There is no +question but that practice will make any one a better shot than he +would be without it, but some people are better shots with very little +practice than others with a great deal. One very important thing is to +do your practising under conditions similar to the actual hunting. If +the cover is thick where you hunt, a swamp or brush lot for example, +you will not derive much benefit from practising entirely in the open. +A pigeon trap is an inexpensive way to learn to shoot. Some +experienced hunters will say that practice at clay pigeons does not +help in the field, but at the same time a good brush shot is almost +always a good trap shot and if you can become skilful enough to break +an average of eighteen to twenty clay pigeons out of twenty-five at +sixteen yards rise, you may be sure that you will get your share of +game under actual hunting conditions. + +The most difficult part of bird hunting is to learn to give the game a +start. The average shot-gun will kill quail at sixty yards and duck +at forty. The farther the game is away from us, provided it is within +range, the more the shot will spread. I once saw a half-dozen hunters +fire at a covey of quail that rose in an open field before they had +gone thirty yards and every hunter scored a clean miss. Any one of +these men could bring down his bird under the same conditions nine +times out of ten if he had taken his time. On this occasion when their +guns were empty another hunter who had withheld his fire said, "Are +you all done, boys?" and shot a bird with each barrel at a measured +fifty-eight yards. To kill a bird that another man has shot at is +called "wiping his eye," and it is the chief joy of an old hunter to +do this with a beginner. If you do not want to let the old hunter wipe +your eye, take your time. + +Learn to shoot with your head well up and with both eyes open. When +the game rises, keep your eye on it and at the instant that you see it +on the end of your gun barrel, fire. The greatest joy of hunting is to +see the game appear to tumble off the end of your gun barrel when it +is hit. If there is a doubt as to whose bird it is, and this happens +constantly as two people often shoot at the same time at the same +bird, do not rush in and claim it. Remember you are a gentleman, but +if you are sure that you hit it, at least stand for your rights. + +So much of the pleasure of hunting depends on our companions that we +must be considerate of the feelings of others as well as our own. +Always hunt if possible with experienced hunters. You will not only +have more fun, but you will run much less risk. In rabbit hunting, one +is especially at the mercy of the beginner who fires wildly without +any thought as to whose life he may be endangering, so long as he gets +the rabbit. If you hunt with some one who owns the dogs, be very +careful not to interfere with them by giving commands. As a rule the +owner of a well-trained dog prefers to handle him without any help, +and, while he may not tell you, you may be sure that he will resent it +if you try to make the dog do your bidding when his master is around. + +The pattern of a gun, as it is called, is the number of shot it will +put within a circle at a given distance. As a rule the factory test +pattern will be found on a tag attached to the gun. If not, you can +easily get the pattern yourself. The usual distance for targeting a +new gun is thirty yards, and the standard circle is thirty inches. +Make a circle on the barn door with a piece of chalk and string +fifteen inches long. First drive a nail into the wood and fasten the +string to it with the chalk on the loose end. Then describe and +measure ninety feet from the target. Fire as nearly as you can at the +centre of the circle and count the shot that are inside the chalk +mark. In order not to count the same shot twice mark them off with a +pencil. Perhaps a surer way would be to fire at the door first and in +the centre of the load of shot drive the nail and describe a circle +afterward. The chief advantage of studying the pattern of your gun is +to know just how much it scatters and how far it may be depended upon +to shoot and kill. + +In a choke-bore gun, the end of the barrel is drawn in slightly and +made smaller to keep the shot together. Guns that are used in duck and +goose hunting are usually full choked as most of the shots are long +ones, but for ordinary brush and field shooting a gun that has a full +cylinder right barrel and a modified choke on the left will be the +best for general purposes. + +The best size is 12-bore or gauge. Ten gauge guns are entirely too +heavy for general use and the smaller bores, such as sixteen or even +twenty gauge, while they are very light and dainty, are not a typical +all around gun for a boy who can only afford to have one size. The +smaller bores, however, have become very popular in recent years and +much may be said in their favour. + +The standard length of barrels is either twenty-eight or thirty +inches. The shorter length will probably be just as satisfactory and +makes a much better proportion between the stock and barrels. You can +easily test the amount of choke in a 12-gauge gun. A new ten-cent +piece will just go inside the end of the barrel of a full cylinder gun +and just fail to go into one that has been slightly choked. + +While it is impossible to give any written directions for shooting +that are as valuable as actual practice, the important thing for a +beginner is to get his form right at first, just as in golf or +horseback riding, and then to make up his mind that every shot has got +to count. + +Rifle shooting is entirely different from shot-gun shooting and skill +in one branch of the sport of marksmanship does not mean much in the +other. A boy may be an excellent rifle shot at a stationary target and +still not be able to hit "a flock of barns," as the country boys say, +with a shot-gun. Skill with a rifle is chiefly of value to those who +are interested in military affairs and more rarely to those who are +fortunate enough to have an opportunity for hunting big game. In +settled communities there is a strong feeling against allowing boys to +have rifles. Practically the only game that can be hunted will be our +little friends, the song birds, and no self-respecting boy will shoot +them. A small calibre rifle such as a 22-calibre Flobert will afford +considerable pastime at target practice and is also excellent to hunt +snakes and frogs along some brook or creek, but generally a boy with a +rifle is a public nuisance, and as a rule is liable to arrest in +possessing it. If we fix up a rifle range where there are no dangers +of damage from spent bullets or badly aimed shots it is well enough to +practise with a small rifle. + +A real sporting rifle, such as is used for big game, is a very +dangerous fire-arm and cannot be used with safety anywhere but in an +absolute wilderness or on a target range. Such guns will kill at a +mile and go through a tree a foot or two in diameter; to use such a +weapon in even a sparsely settled section is very dangerous indeed. If +a boy has any chance of going hunting for deer or moose, he will +surely need practice and for this purpose a range will have to be +selected where there is absolutely no danger to any one within a mile +or two. A good practice range is across a lake or river with a bank +of earth or clay to stop the bullets. Big game hunting is done so +frequently from canoes that it is well to get practice from a boat, +both moving and stationary. To shoot successfully from a sitting +position in a canoe is a very difficult feat. Just as with a shot-gun +the universal tendency is to shoot too quickly, with a rifle it is to +shoot too high. The reason is that we hold our head so high up in +looking at our game that we fail to see the rear sight at all. Be sure +your head is low enough to see both sights. + +[Illustration: The modern sporting rifle that will kill at a mile. An +unsafe weapon for boys] + +Always hold your breath while you are taking aim. Learn to shoot from +all sorts of positions, lying, sitting, kneeling, and standing. If the +shot is a long one, be sure that your rear sight is properly elevated +for the distance. Most of the shots at big game are stationary shots +and within a hundred yards; consequently accuracy counts for more than +quickness. + +With a magazine or repeating rifle be sure that you have emptied your +magazine before you leave the gun. With a shot-gun there is a +possibility that the "person who didn't know it was loaded" may not +kill his victim outright. With a sporting rifle it is practically sure +death. + +The general rules of care apply to both rifles and shot-guns. Always +clean the gun after you have taken it into the field. This is +necessary whether you have fired the gun or not, as a gun barrel will +always collect a certain amount of dampness. It is an excellent +practice to keep a gun covered with oil or vaseline except when it is +in use. It not only prevents rust, but the grease also discourages +visitors and friends from handling the gun, snapping the trigger, or +otherwise damaging it. + +In this chapter, I have not said anything about revolvers or pistols, +because I do not believe that any sensible boy will care to own one. A +revolver is a constant source of danger owing to its short barrel, and +as it has no practical value except as a weapon of defence, and as +there is a severe penalty for carrying a concealed weapon, I should +not care to recommend any boy to own a revolver. + +The final question whether we may have a gun and what kind it should +be, will depend very largely on the place we live. Any kind of a gun +is very much out of place in cities or towns. The boy who does not +really have an opportunity to use a gun should be too sensible to ask +for one, for surely if we own it we shall constantly want to use it +even at some risk. It will be far better to ask for something we can +use and leave the gun question until the time when we have a real +opportunity. + +Finally we must remember that the one who has the gun in his +possession is rarely the one that is accidentally shot. We should +therefore avoid companions who do own guns and who are careless with +them. No amount of care on our part will prevent some careless boy +friend from risking our lives. The safer way is to stay home. + + + + +VII + +FISHING + +Proper tackle for all purposes--How to catch bait--The fly +fisherman--General fishing rules + + +Fishing is one sport of boyhood that we never outgrow our love for. +Some of the most enthusiastic fishermen are gray-haired men. We often +hear about the boy with the bent pin and the piece of thread who +catches more fish than the expert fisherman with modern, up-to-date +tackle, but I doubt if it is so. As a rule the better our tackle the +more fish we shall catch. If the country boy catches the most fish, it +is simply because he is better acquainted with the places where the +fish hide or feed. He knows their habits better and the best kind of +bait to use. A lover of fishing should take a personal interest in his +equipment and should desire to have the best he can afford. + +The chief requirement of a successful fisherman is patience. Next to +that is a knowledge of the waters fished in and the habits of the fish +and how to attract them. A man or a boy who will sit all day in the +hot sun waiting for a bite is not always a good fisherman. He must +use common sense as well as patience. + +A game fish may be defined as one that will make a good fight for its +life and that is caught by scientific methods of angling. Almost any +fish will struggle to escape the hook, but generally by game fish we +understand that in fresh water the salmon, bass, or trout family is +referred to. Pickerel and pike are also game fish, but in some +sections they are considered undesirable because they rarely rise to +the fly, which is the most scientific method of fishing. + +A fisherman who is a real sportsman always uses tackle as light as he +can with safety and still have a chance of landing the fish. If the +angler will take his time he can, with skill, tire out and land fish +of almost any size. Tunas and tarpon weighing over a hundred pounds +are caught with a line that is but little thicker than a grocer's +twine, and even sharks and jewfish weighing over five hundred pounds +have been caught in the same way. Sometimes the fight will last all +day, and then it is a question whether the fisherman or the fish will +be exhausted first. + +[Illustration: Fishing is the One Sport of Our Childhood That Holds +Our Interest Through Life] + +In selecting our tackle, we must always keep in mind the kind of fish +we expect to catch. For general, fresh-water use, except fly +casting, an eight-foot rod weighing seven or eight ounces will fill +most purposes. A fly rod should be a foot longer and at least two +ounces lighter. The best rods are made of split bamboo, but cheap rods +of this material are not worth having. The best cheap rods (i.e., +costing five dollars or less) are either lancewood or steel. See that +your rod has "standing guides" and not movable rings. Most of the wear +comes on the tip, therefore it should if possible be agate lined. A +soft metal tip will have a groove worn in it in a very short time +which will cut the line. The poorest ferrules are nickel-plated. The +best ones are either German silver or brass. To care for a rod +properly, we must keep the windings varnished to prevent them from +becoming unwound. Spar varnish is the best for this purpose but +shellac will answer. In taking a rod apart, never twist it. Give a +sharp pull, and if it refuses to budge, it can sometimes be loosened +by slightly heating the ferrule with a candle. If a ferrule is kept +clean inside, and if the rod is taken apart frequently, there is no +reason why it should stick. + +A multiplying reel holding sixty yards is large enough for most +fishing. The raised pillar reels are the best, one of good quality +costing about four dollars. A cheap reel soon goes to pieces. + +Silk lines are better than linen because greater strength is obtained +with the same thickness. Always dry a line every time it is used, or +it will soon rot and be worthless. The back of a chair is excellent +for this purpose. Never tie a knot in a line that you expect to use +with rod and reel. The knot will always catch in one of the guides +just at the time when you are landing your "biggest" fish. + +[Illustration: Actual sizes of hooks] + +Hooks come in a great variety of shapes and models but there are none +better than the standard "Sproat." It is the general favourite of +fishermen everywhere, although of course the other leading models, +Carlisle, Limerick, Pennell, Aberdeen, Sneck and a number of others +all have their friends. + +A great many fishermen make the mistake of using hooks that are too +large. The hook sizes that are commonly used are numbered from 6/0, +which is the largest, to No. 12, which is a tiny thing about right to +catch minnows. Where we expect to catch fish a pound or two in weight, +the No. 1 size is about right. Such a hook will catch much larger fish +if they happen to come along. I have caught a twelve-pound lake trout +on a No. 4 Sproat hook and the hook did not show that it had bent in +the least. + +Our tackle box should contain an assortment of sizes however. Snelled +hooks are better than ringed hooks and those of blued steel better +than black enamel. No matter how inexpensive the rest of the equipment +is, be sure that your hooks are of good quality. Keep the points +sharp. A tiny bit of oil stone, a file, or a piece of emery cloth are +all good for this purpose. It takes a sharp point to penetrate the +bony jaw of a fish. Always inspect your hook after you have caught it +on a rock or snag. + +Fishing is generally divided into four classes: fly casting, bait +casting, trolling, and still fishing. The average boy is a still +fisherman, which means not only that he must keep still, but that his +bait remains in one place instead of being trolled or cast about. The +usual strings of fish that boys catch, such as perch, sunfish, +bullheads, catfish, and whitefish, are called pan fish. This is not +entirely a correct name as I have seen some catfish that it would take +a pretty big pan to hold. One caught in the Mississippi River weighed +over a hundred pounds. + +Fly casting is the most scientific method of fishing and gives the +greatest pleasure to the fisherman after he has once become an expert. +No matter what method we follow in fishing, we must never try to catch +fish by any method which the laws may prohibit, such as spearing, set +lines, or nets. Each state has its own laws which the fisherman must +learn and obey. + +Worms are the best all around bait for fishing. They are as a rule +easily obtained and may be kept for a long time. The boy's method of +placing them in a tin can with a mixture of mud will soon kill them, +however, especially if the worms are exposed to the sun for a time. A +half-buried soap box makes a very good place to keep a supply of worms +which will be ready for use at any time without the necessity of +digging them. Worms may be fed on the white of a hard-boiled egg, but +if given plenty of room they will usually find enough food in the +soil. By placing worms in sand they will soon scour and turn pink when +they are far more attractive as bait. The large worms, or "night +walkers," can be caught at night with a lantern. These large worms are +best obtained after a rain or on lawns that are sprinkled frequently, +when they will be found moving about on top of the ground but always +with one end in the hole from which they have emerged and into which +they can dart if they are disturbed. + +For big fish, the best bait is minnows. In trolling with them it will +make but little difference whether dead or alive, but for still +fishing the minnows must not only be alive, but, to attract the fish, +lively as well. The regulation minnow bucket consists of one pail +fitted inside of another, the inner one being made of wire mesh to +permit the free circulation of the water. This enables us to change +the water frequently without handling the fish. When we reach a place +where fresh water is obtainable, we simply remove the inner pail, pour +out the stale water from the other pail, and fill it as quickly as +possible. To keep bait alive in warm weather we must change the water +frequently. Another method where fresh water is not available, as on a +long drive, is to aerate it by pouring from one pail to another. It is +an excellent plan to place a piece of ice on top of the minnow pail. +With this arrangement, it will not be necessary to give them fresh +water for a long time. + +[Illustration: An excellent device for catching minnows] + +The simplest way to catch minnows is with a drop net. Take an iron +ring or hoop such as children use and sew to it a bag of cotton +mosquito netting, half as deep as the diameter of the ring. Sew a +weight in the bottom of the net to make it sink readily and fasten it +to a pole. When we reach the place which the minnows frequent, such as +the cove of a lake, we must proceed very cautiously, lowering the net +into the water and then baiting it with bits of bread or meat, a very +little at a time, until we see a school of bait darting here and there +over the net. We must then give a quick lift without any hesitation +and try to catch as many as possible from escaping over the sides. The +minnow bucket should be close at hand to transfer them to and care +must be used not to injure them or allow them to scale themselves in +their efforts to escape. The common method of capturing minnows is to +use a sweep net, but it takes several people to handle one properly +and for our own use the drop net method will probably supply us with +all the bait that we need. + +Fish are very fickle in their tastes. What will be good bait one day +will absolutely fail the next and sometimes even in an hour this same +thing will take place. Why this is so no one has been able to explain +satisfactorily, but that it is a fact no fisherman will deny. We +should therefore have as great a variety of bait in our equipment as +possible. Worms, crawfish, minnows, frogs, grasshoppers, grubs and +helgramites are all good at times in fresh water, as well as various +kinds of artificial baits, spoons, spinners, and rubber lures. + +[Illustration: A trolling spoon] + +Sometimes fish will take very unusual baits. Black bass have been +caught on young bats. The famous old trout in the Beaverkill River in +New York State, which had refused all the ordinary baits and flies +that were offered him for years and that on bright days could be seen +in a pool lying deep down in the water, finally fell a victim to a +young mouse that was tied to the hook with pink silk. + +Fly fishing is the most expert and scientific method of angling. It is +the poetry of fishing. The fly fisherman usually wades in the brook or +stream where he is fishing, although it is sometimes possible to cast +a fly from the bank or a boat. It is useless to go fly fishing while +there is snow water in the brooks but just as soon as the first warm +days of spring come, then fishing is at its best. + +The whole idea of casting a fly is to drop it in the most +likely-looking places and to strike the fish just as soon as he seizes +the hook. To do this we must always have the line under perfect +control, therefore do not attempt to cast a line too great a distance. +If we do not fix the hook into the fish's mouth at the instant that +he seizes the fly, he will very soon find that what he thought was a +nice fat bug or juicy caterpillar is nothing but a bit of wool and +some feathers with a sting in its tail, and he will spit it out before +we can recover our slack line. + +It is a common mistake to use flies that are too large. Ordinary trout +flies are the proper size for bass and the smallest size trout flies +are plenty large enough for trout. There are hundreds of kinds of +flies of various combinations of colours and no one can say which is +the best. This question has been argued by fishermen ever since the +days of Izaak Walton. + +The universal rule of trout and bass fishermen who use a fly is to +select small dark flies for bright days or when the water is very +clear or low and the more brightly coloured ones when the day is dark +or the water dark or turbid. The fly book should contain a varied +assortment to meet these conditions. + +The best lines for fly fishing are made of braided enamelled silk. +Some fly lines are tapered but this is not necessary and is a needless +expense. Twisted lines are much cheaper but very unsatisfactory. + +Fly fishing is not only the most scientific and sportsmanlike method +of fishing but it is also the most difficult to acquire skill in. It +is of course possible to catch trout and salmon on other bait than +flies. In fact, there is really no better bait for brook trout than +common fish worms that have been scoured in sand. The use of a fly, +however, is more satisfactory where the pleasure derived in fishing is +more important than the size of the string. + +[Illustration: An artificial fly; used for salmon] + +In learning to cast a fly, you can practise at home, either in an open +space or wherever there is room to work the line. It is not necessary +to practise with the actual hooks or flies on the line. Simply tie a +knot in it. Hold the rod lightly but firmly in the right hand. Point +your thumb along the line of the rod and start by pulling out a little +line from the reel with the left hand. With a steady sweep, cast the +end of the line toward some near-by object and with each cast pull out +a little more line until you reach a point when you are handling all +the line you can take care of without effort or without too much of a +sweep on the back cast. You must not allow the line to become +entangled in trees or other obstacles. The wrist does most of the work +in casting. The elbow should be close to the side. If you find that +the line snaps like a whip on the back cast, it is because you start +the forward cast before the line straightens out behind. + +When you can handle twenty-five or thirty feet accurately, you can +safely get ready to go fishing. The most successful fly fishermen use +a short line, but they use it with the utmost accuracy and can make +the flies land within a foot of the place they are aiming at almost +every time. When a trout strikes your fly, you must snub him quickly +or he will surely get away. If the flies you are using do not cause +the fish to rise, and if you are certain that it is not due to your +lack of skill, it will be well to change to some other combination of +colours; but give your first selection a fair trial. + +Bait casting is much easier than fly casting as the weight of the bait +will help to carry out the line. It is the common method of fishing +with minnows, frogs, small spoons and spinners, and other artificial +lures. Some fishermen practise the method of allowing the line to run +from the reel. The principal point in this way of fishing is to stop +the reel by using the thumb as a brake at the instant that the bait +strikes the water. This prevents the reel from spinning and causing +the line to overrun. Neglect of this precaution will cause a very +annoying tangle that is sometimes call a "backlash" but more often +characterized by much harsher names by the impatient fisherman who has +the misfortune to experience it. + +In live bait casting, start with the line reeled to within fifteen +inches of the end of the rod, holding the thumb on the reel spool. +With a rather strong overhead sweep, bring the rod forward. At the +proper instant, which is just as the point of the rod goes over your +head, release the pressure of your thumb and the bait will go forward +as the line runs out rapidly. When the bait lands, reel in slowly and +with various motions try to give to the bait as life-like an +appearance as possible. If you have a strike, allow the fish +sufficient time to obtain a secure hold of the bait and by a sudden +jerk fix the hook in his mouth. + +Bait casting is as a rule a very effective method of catching fish, +especially in shallow lakes and where fly fishing is not practised. In +deep water, trolling or still fishing are usually the best methods of +catching fish and often the only methods that will be successful. +Trolling consists simply in rowing or paddling slowly with the bait or +spoon trailing behind. It is not a scientific way of fishing and +requires but little skill. When the fish strikes, it usually hooks +itself and all that remains is to reel it into the boat and land it. +The conditions on large lakes often make it necessary to follow one of +these methods of trolling or still fishing, especially during the warm +weather when the big fish have left the spawning grounds and are in +deep water. There are trolling devices called spinners that have +several gangs of hooks, sometimes as many as fifteen. No real +fisherman would use such a murderous arrangement which gives the fish +practically no chance at all and in many states their use is properly +prohibited by law. A single hook, or at most a single gang of three +hooks, is all that any one should ever use. + +[Illustration: A raised pillar multiplying reel] + +Every boy knows what still fishing is. It is the common method of +baiting our hook, casting it from the shore or from a boat and +waiting for a bite. In still fishing it is customary to use a light +sinker to keep the bait near the bottom and a float or "cork" which +serves the double purpose of keeping the bait away from snags, stones, +or weeds on the bottom and also of showing us when we have a bite. The +more expert still fishermen never use a float, as they prefer to tell +by the pull on the line when a fish has taken the bait. + +A fishing boat should be thoroughly seaworthy and also have plenty of +room. Flat-bottom boats make the best type for fishing, provided that +we do not have to row them far or if the place where we use them is +not subject to sudden squalls or rough water. The middle seat should +contain both a fish well and a minnow box with a dividing partition +and with two hinged lids fitted into the seat. Such a boat can be +built by an ordinary carpenter and should not cost over ten or twelve +dollars. It should be painted every year to keep it in good condition. +Use clear white pine or cedar for the sides. The bottom boards should +not be fitted tightly together but left with cracks fully a half-inch +wide to allow for the swelling of the wood when the boat is launched. +The best oarlocks are fastened to the oars and fit in the sockets with +a long pin. This arrangement permits one to fish alone, and if +trolling to drop the oars quickly and take up the rod without danger +of losing them. + +[Illustration: A landing net should be a part of every fisherman's +outfit] + +A landing net should be a part of every fishing outfit. More fish are +lost just as they are about to be lifted from the water than at any +other time. A gaff is used for this same purpose with fish too large +to go into a landing net. A gaff is a large hook without a barb +fastened into a short pole. If you have no net or gaff and have +succeeded in bringing a large fish up alongside the boat, try to reach +under him and get a firm grip in his gills before you lift him on +board. If it is a pickerel, look out for his needle-like teeth. + +The best time to fish is either in the early morning or just before +sundown. During the heated part of the day most game fish stop feeding +and seek the cool, deep places in the lake or river. + +In many states, fishing is prohibited by law until after the fish are +through the spawning season. + +In all kinds of fishing, the rule is to keep as quiet as possible. +Talking does not make so much difference, but any sudden noises in the +water or on the bottom of the boat are especially likely to frighten +the fish. + +Never fish in your own shadow or that of your boat. Try to have the +sun in front of you or at your side. + +Never be in a hurry to land a big fish. Remember that some of the +so-called "big game fish" of the ocean will take all day to land. You +must use skill to tire your fish out or by keeping his gills open to +drown him. The rod and line are not intended as a lever to force the +fish to the landing net but merely as a guide to lead him about and by +his struggles to force him to become exhausted. A very interesting +experiment has demonstrated that a skilful fisherman can with a fly +rod and light line in a very short time tire out a strong swimmer to +which the line has been attached and force him to give up the struggle +and come to the side of a boat. + +Methods of fishing differ so much in different localities that aside +from the ordinary equipment of rods, reels, lines, leaders, and hooks, +the fisherman going to a new locality had better first ascertain what +the general methods of fishing are, or else, if possible, secure his +equipment after he reaches his fishing grounds. + + + + +VIII + +NATURE STUDY + +What is a true naturalist?--How to start a collection--Moth +collecting--The Herbarium + + +There is nothing in the world that will bring more pleasure into the +life of a boy or girl than to cultivate a love for nature. It is one +of the joys of life that is as free as the air we breathe. A nature +student need never be lonely or at a loss for friends or companions. +The birds and the bugs are his acquaintances. Whenever he goes afield +there is something new or interesting to see and to observe. He +finds-- + +"----_tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones +and good in everything_." + +To love nature and her mysteries does not necessarily mean to be some +kind of a queer creature running around with a butterfly net or an +insect box. A true naturalist is simply a man or boy who keeps his +eyes and ears open. He will soon find that nature is ready to tell him +many secrets. After a time, the smell of the woods, the chirp of a +cricket and the rustling of the wind in the pines become his +pleasures. + +The reason that people do not as a rule know more about nature is +simply because their minds are too full of other things. They fail to +cultivate the power of accurate observation, which is the most +important thing of all. A practical start in nature study is to go out +some dewy morning and study the first spider web you come across, +noting how wonderfully this little creature makes a net to catch its +food just as we make nets to catch fish, how the web is braced with +tiny guy ropes to keep the wind from blowing it away in a way similar +to the method an engineer would use in securing a derrick or a tall +chimney. When a fly or bug happens to become entangled in its meshes, +the spider will dart out quickly from its hiding place and if the fly +is making a violent struggle for life will soon spin a ribbon-like web +around it which will hold it secure, just as we might attempt to +secure a prisoner or wild animal that was trying to make its escape, +by binding it with ropes. A spider makes a very interesting pet and +the surest way to overcome the fear that many people have of spiders +is to know more about them. + +There is no need to read big books or listen to dry lectures to study +nature. In any square foot that you may pick out at random in your +lawn you will find something interesting if you will look for it. Some +tiny bug will be crawling around in its little world, not aimlessly +but with some definite purpose in view. To this insect the blades of +grass are almost like mighty trees and the imprint of your heel in the +ground may seem like a valley between mountains. To get an adequate +idea of the myriads of insects that people the fields, we should +select a summer day just as the sun is about to set. The reflection of +its waning rays on their wings will show countless thousands of flying +creatures in places where, if we did not take the trouble to observe, +we might think there were none. + +There is one very important side to nature that must not be +overlooked. It consists in knowing that we shall find a thousand +things that we cannot explain to one that we fully understand. +Education of any kind consists more in knowing when to say "I don't +know and no one else knows either" than to attempt a foolish +explanation of an unexplainable thing. + +If you ask "why a cat has whiskers," or why and how they make a +purring noise when they are pleased and wag their tails when they are +angry, while a dog wags his to show pleasure, the wisest man cannot +answer your question. A teacher once asked a boy about a cat's +whiskers and he said they were to keep her from trying to get her body +through a hole that would not admit her head without touching her +whiskers. + +No one can explain satisfactorily why the sap runs up in a tree and by +some chemical process carries from the earth the right elements to +make leaves, blossoms or fruit. Nature study is not "why?" It is +"how." We all learn in everyday life how a hen will take care of a +brood of chicks or how a bee will go from blossom to blossom to sip +honey. Would it not also be interesting to see how a little bug the +size of a pin head will burrow into the stem of an oak leaf and how +the tree will grow a house around him that will be totally unlike the +rest of the branches or leaves. That is an "oak gall." If you +carefully cut a green one open you will find the bug in the centre or +in the case of a dried one that we often find on the ground, we can +see the tiny hole where he has crawled out. + +Did you ever know that some kinds of ants will wage war on other kinds +and make slaves of the prisoners just as our ancestors did in the +olden times with human beings? Did you ever see a play-ground where +the ants have their recreation just as we have ball fields and +dancing halls? Did you ever hear of a colony of ants keeping a cow? It +is a well-known fact that they do, and they will take their cow out to +pasture and bring it in and milk it and then lock it up for the night +just as you might do if you were a farm boy. The "ants' cow" is a +species of insect called "aphis" that secretes from its food a sweet +kind of fluid called "honey dew." + +The ten thousand things that we can learn in nature could no more be +covered in a chapter in this book than the same space could cover a +history of the world. I have two large books devoted to the discussion +of a single kind of flower, the "orchid." It is estimated that there +are about two hundred thousand kinds of flowers, so for this subject +alone, we should need a bookshelf over a mile long. This is not stated +to discourage any one for of course no one can learn all there is to +know about any subject. Most people are content not to learn anything +or even see anything that is not a part of their daily life. + +The only kind of nature study worth while is systematic. It is not +safe to trust too much to the memory. Keep a diary and record in it +even the most simple things for future reference. All sorts of items +can be written in such a book. As it is your own personal affair, you +need not try to make it a work of literary merit. Have entries such as +these: + + First frost--Oct. 3rd + + First snow--3 inches Thanksgiving day + + Skating--December 3rd + + Weather clear and bright on Candlemas day, Feb. 2nd and + therefore ground-hog saw his shadow + + Heard crows cawing--Feb. 18th. Last year--Jan. 26th + + Saw first robin--March 14th + + Last snow--April 28th + +There is scarcely anything in nature that is not interesting and in +some way useful. Perhaps you will say "How about a bat?" As a matter +of fact a bat is one of our best friends because he will spend the +whole night catching mosquitoes. But some one will say "he flies into +your hair and is covered with a certain kind of disgusting vermin." +Did you ever know of a bat flying into any one's hair? And as for the +vermin science tells us that they are really his favourite food so it +is unlikely that he would harbour a colony of them very long. + +The subject of snakes is one in which there is more misinformation +than any other common thing. There are only three venomous kinds of +snakes in America. They are the rattlesnake, copperhead and moccasin. +All of them can be distinguished by a deep pit behind the eye, which +gives them the name of "pit vipers." The general impression that puff +adders, pilots, green snakes or water snakes are poisonous is +absolutely wrong, and as for hoop snakes and the snake with a sting in +his tail that all boys have heard about, they are absolutely fairy +tales like "Jack and the Bean Stalk" or "Alice in Wonderland." We have +all heard about black snakes eight or ten feet long that will chase +you and wind themselves around your neck, but of the many hundreds of +black snakes that a well known naturalist has seen he states that he +never saw one that did not do its best to escape if given half a +chance. Why so much misinformation about snakes exists is a mystery. + +Nature study has recently been introduced into schools and it is a +very excellent way to have the interesting things pointed out to us +until our eyes are trained to see for ourselves. The usual methods of +nature study may be roughly divided into, 1. Keeping pets. 2. Bird +study. 3. Insect study. 4. Systematic study of flowers and plants. 5. +Wild animal life. The basis of nature study consists in making +collections. A collection that we have made for ourselves of moths or +flowers, for instance, is far more interesting than a stamp or coin +collection where we buy our specimens. If we go afield and collect for +ourselves, the cost is practically nothing and we have the benefit of +being in the air and sunshine. + +One kind of collecting is absolutely wrong--that of birds' eggs, +nests or even the birds themselves. Our little feathered songsters are +too few now and most states have very severe penalties for killing or +molesting them. A nature student must not be a lawbreaker. + +The outfit for a butterfly or moth collection is very simple and +inexpensive. We shall need an insect net to capture our specimens. +This can be made at home from a piece of stiff wire bent into the +shape of a flattened circle about a foot across. Fasten the ring +securely to a broom handle and make a cheesecloth net the same +diameter as the ring and about two feet deep. + +[Illustration: The cyanide bottle] + +It is very cruel to run a pin through insects and to allow them slowly +to torture to death. An insect killer that is generally used is called +"the cyanide bottle." Its principle ingredient, cyanide of potassium +is a harmless looking white powder but it is the _most deadly poison +in the world_. Unless a boy or girl knows fully its terrible danger, +they should never touch it or even breathe its fumes. One of your +parents or the druggist should prepare the cyanide bottle for you and +as long as you do not look into the bottle to watch the struggles of a +dying bug or in any way get any of the contents of the bottle on your +fingers, you are safe. + +Take a wide-mouthed bottle made of clear glass and fit a cork or +rubber stopper to it. Then wash the bottle thoroughly and dry it, +finally polishing the inside with a piece of soft cloth or tissue +paper. Place one ounce of cyanide of potassium into the bottle and +pour in enough dry sawdust to cover the lumps of poison. Then wet some +plaster of paris until it is the consistency of thick cream and +quickly pour it over the sawdust, taking care that it does not run +down the sides or splash against the bottle. Place the bottle on a +level table and very soon the plaster of paris will set and harden +into a solid cake. + +Sufficient fumes from the cyanide will come up through the plaster to +poison the air in the bottle and to kill any living thing that +attempts to breathe it. As you capture your specimens of moths, bugs +or butterflies afield you place them into the bottle, and as soon as +they are dead, you remove them; fold them carefully in stiff paper and +store them in a paper box or a carrying case until you get home. They +should then be mounted on boards or cork sheets, labelled carefully +with the name of the specimen, date and place of capture and any +other facts that you may wish to keep. + +[Illustration: How insects are spread to dry them in a natural +position] + +Considerable skill is required to mount insects properly and in a +life-like position. If they are out of shape you must "spread" them +before they dry out. Spreading consists in holding them in the proper +position by means of tiny bits of glass and pins until they are dry. + +As moths are, as a rule, night-flying creatures the collector will +either obtain them in a larval stage, or will adopt the method of +"sugaring," one of the most fascinating branches of nature study. A +favourable locality is selected, a comparatively open space in +preference to a dense growth, and several trees are baited or sugared +to attract the moths when in search of food. The sugar or bait is made +as follows: Take four pounds of dark brown sugar, one quart of +molasses, a bottle of stale ale or beer, four ounces of Santa Cruz +rum. Mix and heat gradually. After it is cooked for five minutes allow +it to cool and place in Mason jars. The bait will be about the +consistency of thick varnish. + +Just before twilight the bait should be painted on a dozen or more +trees with a strip about three inches wide and three feet long. You +will need a bull's-eye lantern or bicycle lamp and after dark, make +the rounds of your bait and cautiously flash the light on the baited +tree. If you see a moth feeding there, carefully bring the cyanide +bottle up and drop him into it. Under no circumstances, clap the +bottle over the specimen. If you do the neck of the bottle will become +smeared with the bait and the moth would be daubed over and ruined. +You will soon have all the specimens that you can care for at one time +and will be ready to go home and take care of them. + +The moths are among the most beautiful creatures in nature and a +reasonably complete collection of the specimens in your neighbourhood +will be something to be proud of. + +[Illustration: The Moth Collector and His Outfit (Photograph by +F.W. Stack)] + +The plant and flower collector should combine his field work with a +study of botany. Like most subjects in school books, botany may seem +dry and uninteresting but when we learn it for some definite purpose +such as knowing the wild flowers and calling them our friends, we must +accept the few strange words and dry things in the school work as a +little bitter that goes with a great deal of sweet. + +A collection of dried plants is called an herbarium. It is customary +to take the entire plant as a specimen including the roots. Separate +specimens of buds, leaves, flowers and fruit taken at different +seasons of the year will make the collection more complete. Specimens +should be first pressed or flattened between sheets of blotting paper +and then mounted on sheets of white paper either by glue or by strips +of gummed paper. + +After a flower is properly identified, these sheets should be +carefully numbered and labelled and a record kept in a book so that we +can readily find a specimen without unnecessarily handling the +specimen sheets. The sheets should be kept in heavy envelopes of +manila paper and placed in a box just the size to hold them. The +standard or museum size of herbarium sheets is 11-1/2 x 16-1/2 inches. +Specimens of seaweed or leaves can be kept in blank books. + +A typical label for plants or flowers should be as follows: + + Common names Yellow adder's tongue Date collected, May 16th, 1908 + Dog tooth violet + Botanical name Erythronium Americanum REMARKS: John Burroughs + Family Lilies suggests that the name + Where found Rockaway Valley near be changed either to + Beaver Brook fawn lily because its + leaves look like a spotted + fawn or trout lily + because they always + appear at trout fishing + season. + +A boy or girl living in a section where minerals are plentiful, can +make a very interesting collection of stones and mineral substances, +especially crystals. This should be taken up in connection with school +work in chemistry and mineralogy. To determine the names of minerals +is by no means as easy as that of flowers or animals. We shall need to +understand something of blow-pipe analysis. As a rule a high school +pupil can receive a great deal of valuable instruction and aid from +one of his teachers in this work. Mineral specimens should be mounted +on small blocks or spindles using sealing wax to hold them in place. + +There are unlimited possibilities in nature for making collections. +Shells, mosses, ferns, leaves, grasses, seeds, are all interesting and +of value. An observation beehive with a glass front which may be +darkened will show us the wonderful intelligence of these little +creatures. The true spirit of nature study is to learn as much as we +can of her in all of her branches, not to make a specialty of one +thing to the neglect of the rest and above all not to make work of +anything. + +We see some new side to our most common things when we once learn to +look for it. Not one person in ten thousand knows that bean vines and +morning glories will twine around a pole to the right while hop vines +and honeysuckle will go to the left and yet who is there who has not +seen these common vines hundreds of times? + +No one can give as an excuse that he is too busy to study nature. The +busiest men in national affairs have had time for it and surely we +with our little responsibilities and cares can do so too. I once went +fishing with a clergyman and I noticed that he stood for a long time +looking at a pure white water lily with beautiful fragrance that grew +from the blackest and most uninviting looking mud that one could find. +The next Sunday he used this as an illustration for his text. How many +of us ever saw the possibility of a sermon in this common everyday +sight? + + + + +IX + +WATER LIFE + +The water telescope--How to manage an aquarium--Our insect friends and +enemies--The observation beehive + + +The eggs of so many insects, toads, frogs and other interesting +creatures are laid and hatched in water that a close study of pools, +brooks and small bodies of water will disclose to the nature student +some wonderful stories of animal life. To obtain water specimens for +our collection, we shall need a net somewhat similar to the butterfly +net described in the previous chapter but with a much stronger frame. + +One that I have used for several years was made by the village +blacksmith. The ring or hoop is of quarter-inch round iron, securely +fastened to a stout handle and bent to a shape as shown in the +drawing. To this ring is fastened a regular landing net such as +fishermen use, with an extra bag of cheesecloth to fit inside to +capture insects too small to be held by the meshes of the outside net. +For frogs, turtles, and minnows, the single net is all that is +necessary. + +This device is almost strong enough to use as a shovel. It will scoop +up a netful of mud without bending. This is important as muddy ditches +and sluggish ponds will yield us more specimens than swiftly running +brooks. In addition to the net, the collector will require a small +pail to hold his trophies. A fisherman's minnow bucket is excellent +for this purpose and the water can easily be freshened and the +contents of the pail reached by simply lifting out the inside pail +from the water, which will drain out. + +[Illustration: A heavy net is useful to capture aquarium specimens] + +To study the animal life under the surface of a clear and shallow +lake, a water telescope is a great aid. It is simply a wooden box a +foot or so long and open at both ends. The inside should be painted +black to prevent cross reflection of light. A square of clear glass +should be fitted into one end and puttied tight to keep out the water. +To use the water telescope, we simply shove the glass end under water +and look into the box. A cloth hood or eye piece to keep out the +outside light will make it more effective. The best way to use a water +telescope is to lie in the bottom of a boat which is drifting about, +and to look through the telescope over the side. As you study the +marvellous animal and plant life that passes along under you like a +panorama, see to it that in your excitement you do not fall overboard +as a boy friend of mine once did. + +The care of an aquarium is a never ending source of interest to the +nature student. If a boy is handy with tools he can build one himself. +It is by no means an easy task however to make a satisfactory +water-tight box with glass sides, and my advice is not to attempt it. +Glass aquaria may be bought so cheaply that it is doubtful if you can +save any money by making one at home. If you care to try it, this is +the way it is usually done: + +Use a piece of seasoned white wood 1-1/4 inches thick for the bottom. +If you wish your aquarium to be, say, 16 inches wide and 30 inches +long, this bottom board should be 20 x 34 to give a margin at the +edge. The size of a home-made aquarium can be anything that you +desire. It is customary to allow a gallon of water to each three-inch +gold fish that will inhabit it. By multiplying the three dimensions, +length, width and height of your box and by dividing your result, +which will be in cubic inches, by 231 (the number of cubic inches in a +gallon) you can tell how many gallons of water it will hold. Of course +the rule for gold fish is not absolute. The nature student will +probably have no gold fish at all. They are not nearly so interesting +as our native kinds. Besides nearly all varieties of fresh water fish +will either kill gold fish or if they are too large to kill will at +least make life so miserable for them that to keep them together is +cruelty to animals. If we keep in our aquarium the specimens that we +collect in our neighbourhood, beetles, newts, crawfish, snails, and +tiny sunfish the number may be greatly increased. Overcrowding however +is very bad. The ideal we should strive for is not "how many +specimens" but "how many kinds" we can have in our collection. + +The white wood board should have three or four hardwood cleats screwed +to the bottom to prevent warping. The corner pieces of our glass box +may either be made of sheet copper or heavy tin, or of wood, if we +cannot work in metals. The wooden strips and the bottom board should +have grooves ploughed in them to hold the glass. All the woodwork +should be given several coats of asphalt varnish and to further +waterproof it and as a final coat use some kind of marine copper paint +that is used to coat the bottoms of vessels. Never use the common +white lead and linseed oil paint for an aquarium. + +You can sometimes buy aquarium cement or prepared putty at a "gold +fish" store. This you will need to putty in the glass. If you cannot +buy it, make it yourself from the asphalt varnish and whiting. Be sure +that the paint and putty of an aquarium is thoroughly dry before you +fill it with water. + +Perhaps the most satisfactory way to study fish and insect life in +water is to use all glass boxes and globes. So many kinds of fish and +insects are natural enemies, even though they inhabit the same +streams, that they must be kept separate anyway. To put them in the +same aquarium would be like caging up two game roosters. If we were +studying the development of mosquitoes, for instance, from the larvae +or eggs to the fully developed insect, we should not get very far in +our nature study if we put them in an aquarium with fish. A fish will +soon make short work of a hundred mosquito wigglers just as a large +frog will eat the fish, a snake will eat the frog and so on. + +Rectangular glass boxes such as are commonly used for aquaria cost +less than a dollar per gallon capacity. Goldfish globes cost about the +same. White glass round aquaria are much cheaper and those made of +greenish domestic glass are the cheapest of all, a glass tank holding +eight gallons costing but two dollars. + +[Illustration: A self-sustaining or balanced aquarium] + +Any transparent vessel capable of holding water, even a Mason jar will +make an aquarium from which a great deal of pleasure may be derived. +The old way of maintaining aquaria in good condition required a great +deal of care and attention. The water had to be changed at least once +a day if running water was not available, and altogether they were so +much trouble that as a rule owners soon tired of them. + +Modern aquaria are totally different. By a proper combination of fish +and growing plants we can almost duplicate the conditions of nature +and strike a balance so that the water need never be changed except +when it becomes foul or to clean the glass. + +These are called "self-sustaining" aquaria and they are the only kind +to have unless we can furnish running water from a public water +supply. Self-sustaining aquaria are very simple and any boy or girl +living near a brook can stock one at no expense whatever. + +The method is as follows: First cover the bottom of the aquarium with +a layer of sand and pebbles to a depth of about two inches. Then plant +in the bottom some aquatic or water plants that you have collected +from a near-by lake. Any kind of water plants will do--the kind of +plants boys always call seaweed, even a thousand miles from the sea. +In collecting the plants, choose small specimens and obtain roots and +all. + +If you can find it, the best plant is fanwort. Other good kinds are +hornwort, water starwort, tape grass, water poppy, milfoil, willow +moss, and floating plants like duckweed. Even if you do not know +these by name they are probably common in your neighbourhood. Fill the +tank with clean water. That taken from a spring or well is better than +cistern water. After two or three days, when the plants seem to be +well rooted, put in your fish. You may keep your aquarium in a light +place, but always keep it out of the sun in summer and away from the +heat of a stove or radiator in winter. + +The nature student will not attempt to stock up his aquarium +immediately. He should always leave room for one more fish or bug. One +year I started with a lone newt and before the summer was over I had +thirteen sunfish, pickerel, bass, minnows, catfish, carp, trout, more +newts, pollywogs or tadpoles, five kinds of frogs, an eel and all +sorts of bugs, waterbeetles and insects. I soon found that one kind of +insect would kill another and that sometimes my specimens would grow +wings over night and fly away. But to learn these things, even at our +own disappointment is "nature study." If we knew it all in advance, we +would not have much use for our experimental aquarium. + +Always keep a few snails and tadpoles, for they are the scavengers and +will eat the refuse stuff and keep the glass free from greenish scum. +Boys and girls are almost sure to overfeed fish. This is a great +mistake. The best standard feed is dried ants' eggs that can be bought +for a few cents a box at any bird and fish store. Do not feed pieces +of bread and meat. Study what their natural food is and if possible +get that for them. + +If your fish seem sickly, give them a five-minute bath in salt water +every day for a week. The kind of an aquarium above described is +intended to fill an entirely different purpose from the usual gold +fish globe. In your excursions you will find all sorts of queer +looking eggs and specimens. Some of the eggs are so tiny that they +look almost like black or white dust on the water. Another kind will +be a mass like a jellyfish with brown dots in it, still others will be +fastened in masses to the under side of a leaf in the water or perhaps +on the bottom. What are they? That is just the question and that is +why you will carefully collect them and take them home to await +developments. + +Always keep an accurate note-book with dates and facts. Also keep a +close watch on your specimens. Sometimes they will hatch and be eaten +by the other bugs before you could read this chapter. + +A nature student will need some part of the house that he may call his +very own. Here he can keep his specimens, his aquarium, his herbarium +and what not. Around the wall he can hang the twigs with their +cocoons, oak galls, last year's wasp and bird nests and other +treasures. He should also have a work table that a little glue or ink +will not injure and a carpet that has no further use in the household. +Usually one corner of the attic or cellar is just the place. + +See to it that you do not make other people uncomfortable in the +pursuit of your hobby. You will find that almost every one is afraid +of bugs and toads and that most people live in a world full of +wonderful things and only see a little beyond the end of their noses. + +There is a very practical side to nature study and the principal way +that we can make it really pay, is to know our friends from our +enemies in the animal and insect world. There are insects that chew, +suck and bore to ruin our orchards and grain crops. They are our +enemies. If we know their life story, where they hide and how they +breed, we can fight them better. For every dollar's worth of crops +that a farmer grows, it is estimated that his insect enemies eat +another dollar's worth. A little bug called the "San Jose" scale has +nearly ruined the orchards of some of the Eastern states. To fight +him, we must know how he lives. That is nature study. By study we +learn that the hop-toad is our best garden friend. He will spend the +whole night watching for the cutworms that are after our tomato +plants. When we see a woodpecker industriously pecking at the bark of +our apple trees, we know that he is after the larvae of the terrible +codling moth and we call him our friend. + +After we learn that a ladybug lives almost entirely on plant lice and +scale insects, we never kill one again except perhaps to place a +specimen In our collection. Naturalists say that without ladybugs, our +orchards would soon be entirely killed off. + +The dragon fly or mosquito hawk as well as "water tigers," water +striders and many kinds of beetles are the natural enemies of +mosquitoes and as they never harm our crops we should never harm them. +Nearly every living creature has some enemies. + +You have perhaps heard the famous verse of Dean Swift: + + "So naturalists observe, a flea + Has smaller that upon them prey + And these have smaller still to bite 'em + And so proceed _ad infinitum_." + +[Illustration: An observation beehive] + +Among our insect friends the leading place belongs either to the honey +bee or the silkworm. As silkworms are not especially successful in +this country and as their principal food, mulberry trees, are not +common, the nature student who cares to study our beneficial insects +had better devote his attention to honey bees. An observation beehive +is simply a glass box or hive instead of a wooden one. When we are not +engaged in studying our bee city, the hive must be covered with a +blanket as bees prefer to work in the dark. A boy or girl living in +the country can also keep bees profitably and thus combine business +with pleasure. A single hive will in a few years produce enough swarms +to give us a good start as "bee farmers." + + + + +X + +THE CARE OF PETS + +Cats--Boxes for song birds--How to attract the birds--Tame crows--The +pigeon fancier--Ornamental land and water fowl--Rabbits, guinea pigs, +rats and mice--How to build coops--General rules for pets--The dog + + +In this chapter on pets, I regret exceedingly that I cannot say much +in favour of the family cat. Like nearly all children, I was brought +up to love kittens and to admire their playful, cunning ways. When a +kitten becomes a cat my love for it ceases. Cats will do so many mean, +dishonourable things, and will catch so many song birds and so few +rats and mice that it simply has become a question whether we shall +like the song birds or the cat. So many people do like cats that it is +unfair perhaps to condemn the whole race for the misdeeds of a few. If +a cat is carefully watched or if we put a bell on its neck, these +precautions will to a certain extent keep the cat from catching birds, +but most people have something better to do than to act as guardian +for a cat. The fact is that a cat is a stupid animal seldom showing +any real affection or loyalty for its owner and possessing but little +intelligence. It is very difficult to teach a cat even the simplest +tricks. We never know when a cat will turn on its best friend. They +have the "tiger" instinct of treachery. A cat which one minute is +contentedly purring on our lap may sink its claws into us the next. + +The only way to force a cat to catch mice is to keep it half starved. +Then instead of catching mice, it will probably go after birds if +there are any in the neighbourhood. I have shut a cat up in a room +with a mouse and it is doubtful whether the cat or the mouse were the +more frightened. The cat does more damage to the song birds of this +country than any other enemy they have. If kept at home and well fed, +cats sometimes become so fat and stupid that they will not molest +birds but this is due to laziness and not to any good qualities in the +cat. In normal condition they are natural hunters. + +The habits of a cat are unclean, its unearthly cries at night are +extremely disagreeable and altogether it is a nuisance. A famous +naturalist, Shaler, once said "A cat is the only animal that has been +tolerated, esteemed and at times worshipped without having a single +distinctly valuable quality." + +A few years ago a quail had a nest under a rock opposite my house. +Quail raise their young like poultry rather than like robins or wrens +or the other song birds. As soon as the tiny quail chicks are hatched, +the mother takes them around like a hen with a brood of chickens. This +mother quail was my especial care and study. She became so tame that I +could feed her. Finally she hatched out ten tiny brown balls of +feathers. Our cat had been watching her, too, but not from the same +motives and one day the cat came home with the mother quail in her +mouth. She ran under the porch just out of reach and calmly ate it. +The little brood were too small to look out for themselves so of +course they all died or fell an easy victim to other cats. The mother +was probably an easy prey because in guarding the young, a quail will +pretend to have a broken wing and struggle along to attract attention +to her and away from her little ones, who scurry to high grass for +safety. I have never been very friendly to cats since I witnessed this +episode. + +It has been estimated that the average domestic cat kills an average +of one song bird a day during the season when the birds are with us. +In certain sections a cat has been known to destroy six nests of +orioles, thrushes and bobolinks in a single day. The worst offenders +are cats that live around barns and old houses in a half wild +condition. Many people who say they "haven't the heart to kill a cat" +will take it away from home and drop it along the road. A thoughtless +act like this may mean the death of a hundred birds in that +neighbourhood. It takes less heart to kill the cat than to kill the +birds. So much for the cat. + +[Illustration: A bird house] + +Birds make splendid pets, but in keeping them in captivity, we must be +sure that we are not violating the game laws of the state we live in. +Nearly everywhere it is unlawful to keep in cages any native song +birds or those that destroy harmful insects--the so-called +"insectivorous birds." This includes thrushes, wrens, robins, +bluebirds, orioles or, in fact, practically all birds but crows, +blackbirds and kingfishers. It does not cover canaries, parrots, or +any birds that are not native. It is an excellent law and every boy or +girl should act as a special policeman to see that his friends and +companions do not molest either birds or their nests. It is cruel to +cage a wild bird anyway for a cage is nothing but a prison. There is +no law against taming the birds or making friends of them and after +all this is the most satisfactory way. + +If we build houses for the birds to nest in, provide feed for them and +in other ways do what we can to attract them, they will soon learn +that we are their friends. We must study their habits and always avoid +frightening them. Next to a cat, the worst enemies of our song birds +are the English sparrows. A sparrow is always fair game for the boy +with a slingshot or rifle. In many places these sparrows have driven +practically all the other birds out of the neighbourhood, have robbed +their nests and in other ways have shown themselves to be a public +nuisance. Until 1869 there were no sparrows in this country and now +they are more numerous than any other variety of birds, and sooner or +later, the Government will have to take steps to exterminate them or +we shall have no song birds at all. + +The usual size of a bird house is six inches square and about eight +inches high. It should always be made of old weather-beaten boards in +order not to frighten away its prospective tenants by looking like a +trap of some kind. The chances are that the sparrows will be the +first birds to claim a house unless we keep a close watch and drive +them away. + +One way to keep them out is to make the entrance doorway too small for +them to enter. A hole an inch in diameter will admit a wren or +chickadee and bar out a sparrow, but it will also keep out most of the +other birds. The usual doorway should be two inches in diameter. It is +surprising how soon after we build our bird house we find a tiny pair +making their plans to occupy it and to take up housekeeping. Sometimes +this will happen the same day the bird house is set up. Always provide +some nesting material near at hand; linen or cotton thread, +ravellings, tow, hair and excelsior are all good. Of course we must +not attempt to build the nest. No one is skillful enough for that. + +Nearly all of our native birds are migratory, that is they go south +for the winter. The date that we may look for them to return is almost +the same year after year. Some few birds--bluebirds, robins, cedar +birds and song sparrows will stay all winter if it is mild but as a +rule we must not expect the arrival of the feathered songsters until +March. The phoebe bird is about the first one we shall see. + +In April look for the brown thrasher, catbird, wren, barn, eave and +tree swallows, martins, king birds and chipping sparrows. In May the +principal birds of our neighbourhood will return--thrushes, vireos, +tanagers, grosbeaks, bobolinks, orioles. The game birds--quail, +partridge, meadowlarks and pheasants do not migrate as a rule. At +least they do not disappear for a time and then return. When they +leave a neighbourhood, they rarely come back to it. + +All the song birds begin nesting in May. Consequently we should have +our bird houses "ready for occupancy" May 1st. It will take about +twelve days for most birds to hatch their eggs. Some varieties will +hatch three broods in a season, but two is the usual rule. + +We shall require a great deal of patience to tame the wild birds. Some +bird lovers have succeeded in teaching birds to feed from their hands. +A wild bird that is once thoroughly frightened can probably never be +tamed again. + +A crow is a very interesting pet. Crows are especially tamable and may +be allowed full liberty around the dooryard. We must get a young one +from the nest just before it is ready to fly. Crows are great thieves +and are attracted by bright objects. If you have a tame crow, and if +any member of your household misses jewellery or thimbles you had +better look in the crows' nest before you think that burglars have +been around. + +The chief difference between tamed wild animals, such as squirrels, +birds, owls, foxes, crows and so on, and the domesticated animals and +birds, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons and chickens, lies in +the possibility with the latter of modifying nature and breeding for +certain special markings, colours or size. All breeds of chickens from +the little bantams to the enormous Brahmas have been bred from a wild +species of chicken found in India and called the jungle fowl. + +All the great poultry shows held throughout the country annually are +for the purpose of exhibiting the most perfectly marked specimens of +the breeders' skill. This is decided by judges who award prizes. The +competition is sometimes very keen. In barred Plymouth Rock chickens, +for example, there are sometimes a hundred birds entered to compete +for a single prize. The breeders are called fanciers. The principal +breeders of certain animals such as rabbits, pigeons or poultry, form +an association or club and agree to an imaginary type of the animal +called the ideal or "Standard of Perfection." + +For example, the breeders of white fantail pigeons agree that perfect +birds shall be of certain shape and size, with the head resting on the +back just at the base of the tail; the tail should be spread out like +a fan and contain at least twenty-eight feathers. These feathers +should be laced on the ends. The model fantail should have a nervous +jerky motion and never be at rest. Each of these points is given a +certain value on a scale of marking and in judging the birds they are +marked just as you may be in your lessons at school. The fancier tries +to breed a bird that comes the nearest to this model. The prizes are +sometimes of great value. + +There is an enormous list of breeds in nearly all varieties of animals +and poultry. In pigeons alone there are carriers, pouters, tumblers, +baldheads, beards, dragoons, barbs, jacobins, Antwerps, turbits, owls, +orientals, damoscenes, capuchins, fantails, trumpeters, swifts, +Lahores, Burmese, Scandaroons, magpies, nuns, Archangels, runts and so +on. + +These birds are very different in appearance, the pouter, for example, +has the power of inflating his crop until it puffs out in front as +large as a baseball. Jacobins or as they are commonly called, +"ruffle-necks," have an immense ruffle of feathers like a feather boa. +Dragoons have a huge wart on the bill as large as an almond. The +tumblers are so named from their habit of turning backward +somersaults during flight. + +Almost every one who starts keeping domestic pets either soon tires of +the sport or becomes a fancier. The care of common pigeons is a very +simple matter. The principal thing is a good loft or cote for them in +the top of a barn or house. They will practically take care of +themselves and after a few years greatly increase in numbers. + +A model pigeon house for breeding fancy pigeons requires separate +mating boxes, nests and other appliances. It would be impossible to +make much of a success with fancy pigeons if they are allowed their +liberty to fly about and mate at will. + +The best nest boxes for pigeons are rough earthenware pans, eight +inches across, which may be bought cheaply at a bird store. The floor +of the cote should be covered with sawdust or gravel to the depth of +half an inch. Pigeons that are confined should be fed regularly on a +mixture of small grains and cracked corn. They should also be given +cracked oyster shells, grit and charcoal occasionally. A pigeon loft +should be rat proof and clean. + +It is very doubtful whether there is any money in raising pigeons or +squabs for market. Fanciers never sell their output for market +purposes unless it is to get rid of surplus or undesirable stock. A +breeder who is successful in winning prizes with birds of his "strain" +as it is called will find a ready market with other breeders for all +the birds he cares to sell. Prize winning birds sometimes bring a +hundred dollars a pair. It is by no means easy to breed prizewinners +and the chances are that the beginner will be a buyer of stock rather +than a seller. + +Homing pigeons or as they are commonly called, carriers, are not bred +for special markings like fancy pigeons but because of their power and +speed in flight. A carrier has the "homing" instinct more fully +developed than any other animal. In some homing pigeon races, the +birds have made speed records of over a mile a minute for many hours +and have flown over a thousand miles. If a well-bred homing pigeon +fails to return to his home loft it is almost a certainty that he is +either forcibly detained or that he has been killed by hunters or +hawks. Never try to capture a pigeon that may stop for a rest at your +loft. He may be in a race and his owner may be waiting for his return +five hundred miles away when every minute counts in winning a prize. + +Another large class of birds that make fine pets although they are not +strictly in the class of birds bred by the fancier are the ornamental +land and water fowl. The chief objection to these birds as pets is the +expense of buying them. The list of birds in this class is very large. +In swans the leading varieties are mute, American whistling, black +Australian, white Berwick and black-necked swans. The largest class +are the pheasants. They are exceedingly beautiful, especially the +golden, silver, Lady Amherst, Elliott, Reeves, green Japanese, +Swinhoe, English ring neck, Melanotis, and Torquatis pheasants. The +common wild geese are Egyptian, Canadian, white-fronted, Sebastopol, +snow, brant, bar-headed, spin-winged and many others. In ducks, there +are mallards, black, wood, mandarin, blue and green winged teal, +widgeon, redhead, pin-tail, bluebill, gadwell, call and many others. +Beside pheasants, ducks and geese there are also the various storks, +cranes, pea-fowl and herons in the "ornamental fowl" list. + +These are all wild fowl. The commoner varieties will cost from six to +fifteen dollars a pair and the rare ones several hundred. To keep the +semi-wild birds from flying away they are usually pinioned, a process +of taking off the end joint of one wing. The colours of some of the +ornamental fowl are more beautiful than any birds in nature. Pheasants +especially are easily cared for and make interesting pets. They can +be tamed and if kept outdoors they will seldom be subject to disease. +Most of these birds are as easily cared for as chickens. + +[Illustration: A home-made rabbit house] + +Rabbits make fine pets for boys and girls. They are clean in their +habits, hardy and gentle. The common kinds are white rabbits with pink +eyes or albinos, and brown rabbits or Belgian hares. With rabbits also +there is a "fancy." The Fur Fanciers' Association recognizes the +following distinct breeds: Belgians, Flemish giants, Dutch marked, +English, Himalayan, silvers, tans, Polish, lops, and Angoras. + +A rabbit hutch or coop is easily built from old packing boxes. One +third of the coop should be darkened and made into a nest, with an +entrance door outside and the rest simply covered with a wire front, +also with a door for cleaning and feeding. The hutch should stand on +legs above ground as rabbits do not thrive well in dampness. They +will, however, live out all winter in a dry place. A box four feet +long and two feet wide will hold a pair of rabbits nicely. Rabbits +will become very tame and may often be allowed full liberty about the +place if there are no dogs to molest them. + +The drawing shows a standard type of rabbit hutch. A boy who is handy +with tools can easily build one. We can always dispose of the increase +in our rabbit family to friends or to dealers. + +Guinea pigs or cavies are similar to rabbits in their requirements. +The chief difference is that guinea pigs cannot stand excessive cold +and will not do well if kept outside in severe winter weather. Rabbits +and cavies will eat almost anything and eat constantly. The usual feed +is hay, clover, wheat, corn, carrots, turnips, cabbage, lettuce, +celery, potato parings, or any green food or grains. Cavies are +especially fond of bread and milk. + +The three classes of cavies are Peruvians or Angoras, with long silky +hair; Abyssinians, with coarse hair in tufts or rosettes, and the +common guinea pig or smooth, cavy. A pair of cavies will cost about +two dollars. A dry airy cellar is a good place to keep them as they +are cleanly in their habits. Neither cavies nor rabbits are especially +intelligent but they do learn to know their master or at least the one +who feeds them. Pet rats and mice are in the same class as rabbits but +they should always have a coop that they will not gnaw out of. There +is even a mouse club. It is in Europe and has over a thousand members. + +An interesting example of skill in breeding is seen in Dutch belted +varieties of cattle, in hogs, rabbits, cavies and mice. In all of +these animals the same markings have been bred by careful crossing and +selection. In all lines of "fancy" it is important to stick to a few +varieties. We shall never make much of a success if we have half a +dozen kinds of chickens, pigeons or rabbits. By far the most important +"fancy" is with chickens, but this subject will be considered in the +chapter on the care of poultry. + +Among other pets are tame squirrels, turtles, snakes, lizards and +toads. A tame gray squirrel makes a splendid pet. After a while we can +give our squirrel full liberty and find him back in his nest at night. +I once had a tame owl but I found that because of his habit of flying +and feeding at night he was a very stupid pet. Besides that his +powerful beak and sharp claws or talons were dangerous. I also once +had a pair of flying squirrels but they also only appear at night and +were consequently uninteresting in the daytime. We must always study +the natural habits of our pets and try to give them coops and food as +much like nature as possible. My flying squirrels were given soft feed +in place of the usual hard-shelled nuts. Consequently their teeth grew +so long that they were a positive deformity. We finally liberated them +but before they could get to a place of safety one of them was caught +and killed by a chicken. The poor little creature was so fat from +overfeeding and lack of exercise that he had all but lost the power of +using his legs. + +Coops for pets may be as elaborate as our pocketbook will allow. The +important things to remember are to construct a coop so that it may be +cleaned easily, and to provide plenty of ventilation. It must also be +dry. Fresh air is as important for animals as for people. The larger +we can make a coop, the better it will be. Be careful not to overfeed +pets. Regular and frequent meals of just what they will eat up clean +is better than an occasional big meal. Rabbits require very little +water. Usually they will obtain enough moisture from the green food +they eat. It is a mistake, however, to think that water will kill +rabbits. Change the straw in the nest boxes frequently. When they make +fur nests do not disturb them. + +For squirrels and other small animals, the coop may be made entirely +of wire except the baseboard, which should be a piece of seasoned +wood. Be sure that there are no sharp wire points or projecting nails +in a coop to injure the animals. + +The whole secret of taming wild creatures is patience. We must try to +show them that we are their friends. The most direct way to an +animal's heart is through his stomach, which is another way of saying +that the owner should personally feed his own pets if he wishes them +to know him. + +There is really no reason why a country boy or girl should have any +caged pets at all. In the city it is different. Perhaps the best pet +for the unnatural conditions of city life is a canary. The real spirit +to develop a love for the little creatures that inhabit our woods and +fields is to feel that they are our friends rather than that they are +prisoners. By all means cultivate the acquaintance of your "small +country neighbours." + + +THE DOG + +Every boy should own a dog. He is the friend and companion of our +youth. For a boy to grow up without a dog is to be denied one of the +real joys of life. + +Senator Vest once said: "The one absolute, unselfish friend that a man +can have in this selfish world; the one that never deserts him, the +one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous is his dog. He will +sleep on the cold ground where the wintry winds blow and the snow +drives fiercely if only he can be near his master's side. He will kiss +the hand that has no food to offer, he will guard the sleep of his +pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert he +remains." + +The breed makes but little difference so long as the dog is +intelligent and kind. Mixed breeds and mongrel dogs are often the most +intelligent. A thoroughbred dog will give us more satisfaction +possibly than a mongrel because he will make a better appearance. But +at the same time, he is far more likely to be stolen. There are so +many breeds to select from that it is almost impossible to give much +advice. As a rule, the dog we shall like is the one we can get. The +very heavy dogs such as Saint Bernards, mastiffs and great Danes are +clumsy and will require outside quarters, as they are too bulky to +have in the house. On the other hand the small toy breeds such as +Pomeranians, black and tans and King Charles spaniels and pugs, are +too delicate to be a real boy's dog. A list from which you may safely +select a dog would be bull terriers, Airedale terriers, Scotch +terriers, Irish terriers, cocker spaniels, pointers and setters, +either Irish or English. This is by no means a complete list. I prefer +a setter because my first dog, "Old Ben," was a setter, and he shared +in most of my fun from the earliest recollections that I have. When he +died I lost a true friend. It was the first real sorrow I ever had. + +A dog should not sleep in the same room with his owner, but should +have a warm dry kennel and be taught to regard it as his home. + +Do not make the mistake of overfeeding a dog. He does not need three +meals a day. One is sufficient, about nine in the morning, when he +should have all he wants to eat. If you insist on a second meal give +him a dog biscuit or a bone to gnaw on in the evening. + +Keep your dog free from fleas, in spite of what David Harum says that +"a reasonable amount of fleas is good for a dog, because it keeps him +from brooding over being a dog." A thorough bath with carbolic soap +and water will rid a dog of fleas, but this treatment should be +repeated at weekly intervals to kill the eggs which hatch in the +meantime. + +Fresh insect powder or Scotch snuff if dusted thoroughly in a dog's +coat will cause fleas to leave. This treatment should be done out of +doors. A good plan is to place the dog on a sheet or piece of white +paper and work the powder well into the hair, especially around his +neck and behind the ears. Be careful not to injure his eyes. + +A dog will soon recognize his master, and there is no quicker way to +show that you are his master than to enforce obedience when you +attempt to make him mind. Whether a whipping is necessary depends on +the dog. With most dogs a good scolding will be sufficient. Never whip +a dog when you are angry and never overdo the matter. It is possible +to "break a dog's spirit," which simply means to make him afraid of +you. A dog so frightened is ruined until you regain his confidence, a +very difficult thing to do. Never cuff a dog with your hand. Always +use a whip or switch. Let the whipping be a definite ceremony with a +plain object in view. + +Some dogs will prove to be headstrong and others will try to do +whatever their master wants. There is an amazing difference in dogs +and their intelligence seems to have no limits. + +A dog must never be allowed to annoy our neighbours or friends. One of +the most annoying habits that a dog cultivates is that of running out +and barking at passing carriages or people. A few lessons in +discipline early in life will break him of this habit, but once +acquired it is practically unbreakable. + +Another very annoying habit is that of allowing a dog to put his paws +on us. We may not mind it when we are dressed in old clothes but +friends or callers are possibly not so considerate. + +Nearly every bad habit that a dog learns is usually the fault of the +owner rather than of the dog. The training of a dog should be done as +a puppy. Therefore we must secure our dog as young as possible. + +In training hunting dogs the first step is called "yard-breaking." +With ordinary dogs a thorough course in yard-breaking by teaching the +simple command is all that will be necessary. First of all, teach your +dog to lie down and come to you at call. The usual word for the former +is "charge." A dog can be taught this in a very short time. Take him +by the neck and back, and at the word, force him to lie down. Do not +use any other words, or even pet him. Simply impress on his mind that +when he hears "charge" it means lie down. As a rule a puppy is taught +to come by snapping the fingers or by making a noise with the lips +similar to that by which we urge a horse. It is almost natural to say +"Come here." After a puppy learns to follow us at the command "heel +in" and to run ahead when we say "go on," we must also teach him to +come when we whistle. Most boys can make a whistle with the fingers +sufficiently penetrating to call a dog for a long distance but a small +metal whistle to carry in the pocket is the best way. + +After a dog has acquired the simple lessons of training we shall find +that he learns to understand us and to do our wishes very quickly. +There should be a complete understanding between a dog and his owner. +He will know our ways and we shall know his. + +I have hunted in Virginia with a dog so intelligent that merely by +watching him his master could tell whether he was on the trail of a +rabbit, wild turkey, or deer. For each kind of game he had a different +manner of barking and what is more remarkable, he was a thoroughly +broken quail dog with the best "nose" or scent I have ever known and +of course did not bark under these circumstances. Such a dog would be +a mystery to any one who did not know his ways. + +This dog "Old Doc" would hunt with any one on quail, but if the +hunter did not succeed in killing game the dog would soon show his +disapproval in every way, sulk along behind, and if the poor shooting +continued, finally leave for home. A friend who took him out told me, +"First I missed the birds and then I missed the dog." He had left in +disgust. + +No matter what breed our dog is we shall surely become greatly +attached to him and almost look upon him as a friend rather than as an +animal. A boy should never encourage a dog to fight. It is a cruel, +unmanly thing and one that a real dog lover will never do. Dog +fighting is a form of brutality second only to tying tin cans and +other things to a dog's tail for the "fun" of seeing him run. I once +saw a poor beast lose his tail as a result of this brutal joke. Some +one had tied a string tightly around his tail and the dog ran until +completely exhausted. He then kept out of sight for a few days. In the +meantime the string caused his tail to become fearfully sore and +finally to fall off. Can any one see a joke in this? + + + + +XI + +THE CARE OF CHICKENS + +The best breed--Good and bad points of incubators--What to feed small +chicks--A model chicken house + + +A pen of chickens gives a boy or girl an opportunity for keeping pets +that have some real value. Whether there is much profit in poultry is +a question, but it is at least certain that the more care you give +them the better they pay. There is but little difference in the +results obtained from the various breeds of chickens, but there is a +great difference in the people who take care of them. It is very +difficult to make poultry pay on a large scale. Nearly every poultry +farm that has started as a business has failed to make a success. The +surest way to make chickens pay is to have only a few. Then the table +scraps and the worms and weed seeds they can pick up will supply them +with practically all their feed and the time you give them need not be +counted as expense. + +There are sixty or seventy distinct breeds of poultry recognized by +expert fanciers and from three to ten colours or varieties in many of +these breeds. New ones are being added constantly. For example, a +breed called Orpingtons was recently introduced from England and now +has ten varieties or colours that are "standard." At the New York +Poultry Show a record price of $2,500 was paid for the prize-winning +hen of this breed. There is a style in chickens as well as in anything +else. A new breed will always have a great many admirers at first, and +great claims will be made for its superior qualities. The poultrymen +who have stock and eggs to sell will secure high prices for their +output. Very soon, however, the real value of a new breed will be +known and it will be on the same basis as the older breeds. + +A beginner had better start with some standard recognized breed and +leave the experimenting to some one else. One thing is certain: +thoroughbreds will pay better than mongrels. Their eggs are of more +uniform size and colour, the stock will be healthy and as a rule weigh +a pound or two more than birds of uncertain breeding. Thoroughbreds do +not cost any more to feed or care for than the mongrels and in every +way are superior. + +Breeds of poultry are usually divided into three separate classes, +depending on the place where the breed originated. They are the +American, Asiatic, and Mediterranean strains. The leading American +breed is the barred Plymouth Rock and for a beginner will probably be +the best to start with. + +Another very excellent American or general purpose breed is the White +Wyandotte. They are especially valuable as broilers, as they make +rapid growth while young. The Leghorns are the leading breed for eggs. +They are "non-sitters" and, being very active, do not become overfat. +Their small size, however, makes them poor table fowls and for this +reason they are not adapted to general use. The Asiatic type, which +includes Brahmas, Langshans, and Cochins, are all clumsy, heavy birds, +which make excellent table fowl but are poor layers and poor foragers. +Brahma roosters will frequently weigh fifteen pounds and can eat corn +from the top of a barrel. + +A beginner should never attempt to keep more than one kind of +chickens. To get a start, we must either buy a pen of birds or buy the +eggs and raise our own stock. The latter method will take a year more +than the former, as the chicks we hatch this year will be our layers a +year later. Sometimes a pen of eight or ten fowls can be bought +reasonably from some one who is selling out. If we buy from a breeder +who is in the business they will cost about five dollars a trio of +two hens and a rooster. The cheapest way is to buy eggs and hatch your +own stock. The usual price for hatching-eggs is one dollar for fifteen +eggs. We can safely count on hatching eight chicks from a setting, of +which four may be pullets. Therefore we must allow fifteen eggs for +each four pullets we intend to keep the next year. The surplus +cockerels can be sold for enough to pay for the cost of the eggs. If +we have good luck we may hatch every egg in a setting and ten of them +may be pullets. On the other hand, we may have only two or three +chicks, which may all prove to be cockerels; so the above calculation +is a fair average. If we start with eggs, we shall have to buy or rent +some broody hens to put on the eggs. A good plan is to arrange with +some farmer in the neighbourhood to take charge of the eggs and to set +his own hens on them. I once made such an arrangement and agreed to +give him all but one of the cockerels that hatched. I was to take all +the pullets. The arrangement was mutually satisfactory and he kept and +fed the chicks until they were able to leave the mother hen--about +eight weeks. It is also possible to buy one-day-old chicks for about +ten or fifteen cents apiece from a poultry dealer, but the safest way +is to hatch your own stock. + +The easiest way to make a large hatch all at one time is with an +incubator. There are a number of very excellent makes advertised in +the farm papers and other magazines and the prices are quite +reasonable. An incubator holding about a hundred eggs will cost ten or +twelve dollars. There are many objections to incubators which we can +learn only from practical experience. We shall not average more than +50 per cent. hatches as a rule. That is to say, for every hundred eggs +we set we must not count on hatching more than fifty chicks. +Incubators are a constant care. The most important objection to an +incubator is that it is against the rules of most fire insurance +companies to allow it to be operated in any building that the +insurance policy covers. If the automatic heat regulator fails to work +and the heat in our incubator runs up too high we may have a fire. At +any rate, we shall lose our entire hatch. The latter is also true if +the lamp goes out and the eggs become too cool. I have made a great +many hatches with incubators of different makes and my experience has +been that we must watch an incubator almost constantly to have success +with it. + +The sure way to hatch chickens is with a broody hen, but at the same +time incubators are perfectly satisfactory if run in a room where the +temperature does not vary much (a cellar is the best place). With an +incubator there is always a temptation to attempt to raise more +chickens than we can care for properly. Overcrowding causes more +trouble than any other one thing. It is better to have a dozen +chickens well cared for than a hundred that are neglected. + +Eggs for incubators will cost about five dollars a hundred. Of course +if they are from prize-winning stock the cost will be several times +this amount. Before placing any eggs in an incubator it should be run +for two days to be sure that the heat regulator is in working order. +The usual temperature for hatching is 103 degrees and the machine +should be regulated for this temperature as it comes from the factory. +Full directions for operating, as well as a thermometer, will come +with the machine and should be studied and understood before we begin +to operate it. As the hatch progresses, the heat will "run up," as it +is called, and we shall need to understand how to regulate the +thermostat to correct this tendency toward an increased temperature. +The eggs in an incubator must be turned twice a day. To be sure that +we do this thoroughly it is customary to mark the eggs before we place +them in the machine. The usual mark is an "X" on one side of the egg +and an "O" on the other written in lead pencil. In placing the eggs in +the trays we start with all the "O" marks up, for instance, and at the +time of the first turning leave all the "X's" visible, alternating +this twice every day. + +In order to operate an incubator successfully, we shall also need a +brooder, which is really an artificial mother. There is a standard +make of brooder costing five dollars that will accommodate fifty +chicks. Brooders are very simple in construction and can be made at +home. A tinsmith will have to make the heating drum. The rest of it is +simply a wooden box with a curtain partition to separate the hot room +from the feeding space. Ventilating holes must be provided for a +supply of fresh air and a box placed at the bottom to prevent a +draught from blowing out the lamp. In a very few days after we place +the chicks in a brooder they should be allowed to go in and out at +will. In a week or two we shall be able to teach them the way in, and +then by lowering the platform to the ground for a runway we can permit +them to run on the ground in an enclosed runway. On rainy days we must +shut them in. + +There is always a temptation to feed chicks too soon after they are +hatched. We should always wait at least twenty-four hours to give them +a chance to become thoroughly dry. The general custom of giving wet +cornmeal for the first feed is wrong. Always feed chicks on dry food +and you will avoid a great deal of sickness. An excellent first food +is hard-boiled egg and corn bread made from cornmeal and water without +salt and thoroughly baked until it may be crumbled. Only feed a little +at a time, but feed often. Five times a day is none too much for +two-week-old chicks. + +One successful poultryman I am acquainted with gives, as the first +feed, dog biscuit crushed. All the small grains are good if they are +cracked so that the chicks can eat them. The standard mixture sold by +poultry men under the name "chick food" is probably the best. It +consists of cracked wheat, rye, and corn, millet seed, pinhead +oatmeal, grit, and oyster shells. Do not feed meat to chicks until +their pin feathers begin to show, when they may have some well-cooked +lean meat, three times a week. + +There is quite an art in setting a hen properly. They always prefer a +dry, dark place. If we are sure that there are no rats around, there +is no better place to set a hen than on the ground. This is as they +sit in nature and it usually seems to be the case that a hen that +steals her nest will bring out more chicks than one that we have +coddled. Eggs that we are saving for hatching should be kept in a cool +place but never allowed to freeze. They should be turned every day +until they are set. Hens' eggs will hatch in about twenty-one days. +The eggs that have failed to hatch at this time may be discarded. When +we move a broody hen we must be sure that she will stay on her new +nest before we give her any eggs. Test her with a china egg or a +doorknob. If she stays on for two nights we may safely give her the +setting. It is always better when convenient to set a hen where she +first makes her nest. If she must be moved, do it at night with as +little disturbance as possible. It is always a good plan to shut in a +sitting hen and let her out once a day for feed and exercise. Do not +worry if in your judgment she remains off the nest too long. The eggs +require cooling to develop the air chamber properly, and as a rule the +hen knows best. + +Young chickens are subject to a great many diseases, but if they are +kept dry and warm, and if they have dry food, most of the troubles may +be avoided. With all poultry, lice are a great pest. Old fowls can +dust themselves and in a measure keep the pest in check, but little +chicks are comparatively helpless. The big gray lice will be found on +a chick's neck near the head. The remedy for this is to grease the +feathers with vaseline on the head and neck. The small white lice can +be controlled by dusting the chicks with insect powder and by keeping +the brooder absolutely clean. A weekly coat of whitewash to which some +carbolic acid has been added will keep lice in check in poultry houses +and is an excellent plan. Hen-hatched chicks are usually more subject +to lice than those hatched In incubators and raised in brooders, as +they become infected from the mother. Some people say that chicks have +lice on them when they are hatched, but this is not so. + +The first two weeks of a chick's life are the important time. If they +are chilled or neglected they never get over it, but will develop into +weaklings. There are many rules and remedies for doctoring sick +chickens, but the best way is to kill them. This is especially so in +cases of roup or colds. The former is a very contagious disease and +unless checked may kill an entire pen of chickens. A man who raises +25,000 chickens annually once told me that "the best medicine for a +sick chicken is the axe." + +A very low fence will hold small chicks from straying away, but it +must be absolutely tight at the bottom, as a very small opening will +allow them to get through. Avoid all corners or places where they can +be caught fast. The mesh of a wire fence must be fine. Ordinary +chicken wire will not do. + +[Illustration: A home-made chicken coop built on the "scratching-shed" +plan] + +A brooder that will accommodate fifty chicks comfortably for eight +weeks will be entirely too small even for half that number after they +begin to grow. As soon as they can get along without artificial heat, +the chickens should be moved to a colony house and given free range. +They will soon learn to roost and to find their way in and out of +their new home, especially if we move away the old one where they +cannot find it. + +A chicken coop for grown fowls can be of almost any shape, size, or +material, providing that we do not crowd it to more than its proper +capacity. The important thing is to have a coop that is dry, easily +cleaned and with good ventilation, but without cracks to admit +draughts. A roost made of two by four timbers set on edge with the +sharp corners rounded off is better than a round perch. No matter how +many roosts we provide, our chickens will always fight and quarrel to +occupy the top one. Under the roost build a movable board or shelf +which may easily be taken out and cleaned. Place the nest boxes under +this board, close to the ground. One nest for four hens is a fair +allowance. Hens prefer to nest in a dark place if possible. A modern, +up-to-date coop should have a warm, windproof sleeping room and an +outside scratching shed. A sleeping room should be provided with a +window on the south side and reaching nearly to the floor. A hotbed +sash is excellent for this purpose. The runway or yard should be as +large as our purse will permit. In this yard plant a plum tree for +shade. The chickens will keep the plum trees free from the "curculio," +a small beetle which is the principal insect pest of this fruit. This +beetle is sometimes called "the little Turk" because he makes a mark +on a plum that resembles the "star and crescent" of the Turkish flag. + +Whether we can make our poultry pay for the trouble and expense of +keeping them will depend on the question of winter eggs. It is +contrary to the natural habits of chickens to lay in winter, and if +left to themselves they will practically stop laying when they begin +to moult or shed their feathers in the fall, and will not begin again +until the warm days of spring. When eggs are scarce it will be a great +treat to be able to have our own supply instead of paying a high price +at the grocer's. + +The fact that it is possible to get really fresh eggs in midwinter +shows that with the proper care hens will lay. The average farm hen +does not lay more than eighty eggs a year, which is hardly enough to +pay for her feed. On the other hand, at an egg-laying contest held in +Pennsylvania, the prize-winning pen made a record of 290 eggs per year +for each hen. This was all due to better care and proper feed. + +The birds were healthy pullets to begin with, they had warm food and +warm drinking water throughout the winter, their coop was a bright, +clean, dry place with an outside scratching shed. The grain was fed in +a deep litter of straw to make them work to get it and thus to obtain +the necessary exercise to keep down fat. The birds in this contest +were all hatched early in March and were all through the moult before +the cold weather came. Most of the advertised poultry feeds for winter +eggs are a swindle. If we give the birds proper care we shall not +require any drugs. It is an excellent plan to give unthreshed straw to +poultry in winter. They will work to obtain the grain and be kept +busy. The usual quantity of grain for poultry is at the rate of a +quart of corn or wheat to each fifteen hens. A standard winter ration +is the so-called hot bran mash. This is made from wheat bran, clover +meal, and either cut bone or meat scraps. It will be necessary to feed +this in a hopper to avoid waste and it should be given at night just +before the birds go to roost, with the grain ration in the morning, +which will keep them scratching all day. Always keep some grit and +oyster shells where the chickens can get it; also feed a little +charcoal occasionally. + +A dust bath for the hens will be appreciated in winter when the ground +is frozen. Sink a soap box in a corner of the pen and sheltered from +rain or snow and fill it with dry road dust. Have an extra supply to +fill up the box from time to time. + +The best place for a chicken house is on a sandy hillside with a +southern slope. A heavy clay soil with poor drainage is very bad. +Six-foot chicken wire will be high enough to enclose the run. If any +of the chickens persist in flying out we must clip the flight feathers +of their wings (one wing, not both). Do not put a top board on the +run. If a chicken does not see something to fly to, it will seldom +attempt to go over a fence, even if it is quite low. + +It is much better to allow chickens full liberty if they do not ruin +our garden or flower beds or persist in laying in out of the way +places where the eggs cannot be found. + + + + +XII + +WINTER SPORTS + +What to wear--Skating--Skiing--Snowshoeing--Hockey + + +If one is fortunate enough to live in a part of the country where they +have old-fashioned winters, the possibilities for outdoor sports are +very great and the cold weather may be made the best part of the year +for healthful outdoor exercise. To enjoy winter recreations properly +we must have proper clothing. An ordinary overcoat is very much out of +place, except possibly for sleighing. The regulation costume for +almost any outdoor sport in winter is a warm coat, a heavy sweater, +woollen trousers and stockings, and stout leather shoes. If in +addition we have woollen gloves or mittens and a woollen skating cap +or toque, we shall be enabled to brave the coldest kind of weather, +provided of course that we have warm woollen underwear. Various +modifications in this costume such as high hunting boots, or leggings +and a flannel shirt worn under the sweater are possible. In the far +North, the universal winter footwear is moccasins. We must be careful +not to dress too warmly when we expect to indulge in violent exercise. +Excessive clothing will render us more liable to a sudden check of +perspiration, a consequent closing of the pores and a resulting cold. +Rubber boots or overshoes are very bad if worn constantly. The rubber, +being waterproof, holds in the perspiration and we often find our +stockings damp even when the walking is dry. Rubber boots also make +our feet tender and cause cold feet. Tight shoes are also bad for the +reason that they check circulation. The best footwear for a boy who +lives in the country will be Indian moccasins or shoepacs worn with +several pairs of lumbermen's woollen stockings. Such footwear would +not do for skating, as they have no soles, but for outdoor tramping in +the snow they are just the thing. No leather is thoroughly waterproof +against snow water, but by frequent greasing with mutton tallow, +neatsfoot oil or vaseline, shoes can be kept soft and practically +waterproof as long as the soles and uppers are in good condition. + +[Illustration: A shoepac] + +In all winter sports, especially in Canada, the custom is to wear +gaily coloured goods. A mackinaw jacket made from the same material as +a blanket, with very prominent stripes or plaids, is often worn. +Closely woven goods are better than a thicker loose weave as they are +lighter, warmer, and more waterproof. + +Chief among winter sports is skating. There is no healthier +recreation, provided that the ice is safe. Even in the coldest weather +with the ice a foot thick or more we must always be sure to be on the +lookout for air-holes or thin places over springs. It is said that ice +an inch thick will hold the weight of a man, but it is better to be +sure than to be sorry, and three or four inches are much safer. + +[Illustration: The club skate model] + +A few years ago the height of the skater's art was so called "fancy or +figure" skating, but recently the tendency has been for speed rather +than for grace and the old-fashioned club skates have been replaced by +racing or hockey skates with much longer runners. Fancy skating for +prizes is governed by rules just as any other game or sport. The +contestants do not attempt figures of their own invention but strive +to excel in the so-called "compulsory" figures. A fancy skater can +practise from diagrams and directions just as one might practise moves +in a game of chess. In printed directions for fancy skating the +following abbreviations are used for the strokes: + + R--right + L--left + F--forward + B--backward + O--outside + I--inside + + T--three + LP--loop + B--bracket + RC--rocker + C--counter + +Supposing the figure to be executed to be the well-known "figure +eight." It would be described as follows: + +R-F-O L-F-O. R-F-I L-F-I. R-B-O L-B-O. R-B-I L-B-I. + +By referring to the above table the skater can easily determine just +what strokes are necessary to produce the figure properly. + +Racing skates should be attached to shoes of special design either by +screws or rivets. The most important thing is to have the blades +carefully ground by an expert. They should be keen enough to cut a +hair. To become a fast skater, practise if possible with an expert. +Have him skate ahead of you and measure your stroke with his. By +keeping your hands clasped behind your back your balance will not only +be greatly improved but your endurance will be doubled. The sprinting +stroke is a direct glide ahead with the foot straight. A trained +skater can go very long distances with very little fatigue but one +must carefully measure his speed to the distance to be travelled. When +you can cover a measured mile in three and one-half minutes you may +consider yourself in the class of fast skaters. + +[Illustration: A hockey skate] + +Hockey skates are somewhat shorter than racing skates although built +on the same general lines, the standard length being from nine and +one-half to eleven and one-half inches. Hockey is one of the best +winter games either outdoors or in a rink. The game of shinney or +"bandy" as it is called in England has been modified in this country +by substituting a flat piece of rubber weighing a pound called a +"puck" for the india rubber lacrosse ball, which weighs but four +ounces. The best hockey sticks are made of Canadian rock elm. + +The whole idea of hockey is to shoot the puck through your opponents' +goal and to prevent them from shooting it through yours. In practice +almost any number can play hockey and have plenty of exercise. The +less experienced players should when securing the puck always shoot it +as quickly as possible to a more experienced player on their own side +to attempt shooting the goal. Skilful passing is the most important +branch of hockey and consequently good team work is absolutely +essential to success. + +[Illustration: The hockey player's costume] + +A regulation hockey team consist of seven players called goal, point, +cover point, right centre, left centre, right wing, left wing. + +The position of goal tender is the most difficult to acquire skill in. +He stands directly in front of the goal and is expected to stop the +puck with hands, feet, and body. While the position of goal does not +involve much skating, a goal tender should also be a good skater. His +position requires more nerve and cool-headedness than any other +position on the team because the final responsibility of all goals +scored against his team is up to him. His position is largely a +defensive one and his work at times very severe. The goal keeper must +very rarely leave his position but must depend upon the two other +defensive men the "point" and "cover point" to stop the puck when it +away from the direct line of the goal. The defensive men on a hockey +team should not by any strategy or coaxing on the part of their +opponents allow themselves to leave their own goal unprotected. + +The forwards have most of the work of shooting goals and advancing the +puck. Of course such a man must be very active and a good all round +player. Hockey is a poor game in which to display grand-stand playing. +The player's whole idea should be to shoot the puck so that either he +or some member of his team may score a goal. + +The rules of hockey are comparatively few and simple. The game +consists of two twenty-minute halves with a ten-minute intermission +between. In case of a tie at the end of a game it is customary to +continue until one side secures a majority of the points. + +A standard rink must be at least one hundred and twelve feet long by +fifty-eight feet wide. Nets are six feet wide and four feet high. + +One of the most exciting of winter sports is skate sailing. The same +principles that are applied to sailing a boat are brought into play in +sailing with skates. While considerable skill is necessary to handle a +skate sail well, any one who is a good skater will soon acquire it. +The direction that you go is determined by the angle at which the sail +is held. When you wish to turn around or stop you simply shift its +position until you run dead into the wind. A skate sail should be +light and strong. A limit of five pounds' weight is all that is +necessary. The sail is a very simple device. There are a great many +kinds but one of the simplest is made from a T-shaped frame of bamboo +with a V-shaped piece of canvas or balloon silk sewed or wired to the +frame. The best skate sails are made with a jointed frame like a +fishing rod so that they may be taken apart and easily carried. + +While an expert can handle a sail eight or ten feet wide and twelve +feet high it is better for the beginner to start with one much +smaller. The construction of the sail and the method of holding it are +shown in the diagram. + +[Illustration: A skate sail] + +Snowshoeing is another winter sport that will furnish a great deal of +pleasure and will enable us to be outdoors when our less fortunate +friends may be cooped up in the house. There are a number of standard +shapes in snowshoes, but probably the "Canadian" model will be found +to be the most satisfactory generally. Snowshoes should be from +twenty-four to forty-four inches long depending on the weight to be +carried. In order to enjoy snowshoeing we must use moccasins. The +proper method of attaching the snowshoes is clearly shown in the +diagrams. The beginner will find that snowshoeing is a very simple art +to acquire, being far less difficult than skating and with far less +danger of having a bad fall. + +[Illustration: Four types of snowshoes] + +The sport of "ski-running" or skiing is practised more generally +abroad than in this country. A number of winter resorts owe their +popularity largely to this sport. Skis are simply long flat pieces of +wood fastened or strapped to the shoes. The best type are the so +called "Norway" pattern. Various lengths are used from four to eight +or nine feet long, but for a beginner the shorter ones will be better. + +[Illustration: To throw the lumberman's hitch, start this way] + +[Illustration: Then across the toe with both ends and under the loop] + +Ski-running is simply coasting down steep inclines on the snow with +the skis used in much the same way as a sled. The longer they are the +greater the speed obtained, but the longer ones are also +correspondingly hard to manage. + +[Illustration: Draw the ends tightly forward to fasten down the toe] + +[Illustration: Then tie the ends together in a bow knot back of the +heel] + +In Norway and Sweden skis are made to order just as we might be +measured for suits of clothes. The theory is that the proper length +of ski will be such that the user, can, when standing erect and +reaching above his head, just crook his forefinger over it as it +stands upright. Ski shoes should be strong, with well blocked toes. A +pair of heavy school shoes are just the thing if well made. + +[Illustration: The straps over the toe remain buckled] + +[Illustration: This is the "thong" hitch but it is not as good as the +lumberman's hitch] + +To learn skiing we should select the slope of a hill not very steep +and with no dangerous rocks or snags to run foul of. The best snow +conditions are usually found two or three days after it has fallen. +Fresh snow is too light to offer good skiing and snow with a crust is +also bad. In running with skis on the level ground a long, sweeping +stride is used somewhat after the fashion of skating. The strokes +should be made just as long as possible, and the skis kept close +together. In going up an incline the tendency to slip backward is +overcome by raising the toe of the ski slightly and bringing the heel +down sharply. One foot should be firmly implanted before the other is +moved. In going up a steep hill a zigzag course will be necessary. + +[Illustration: Front and side view of a ski] + +As an aid in ski-running it is customary to employ a pair of ski +poles, which are fastened to the wrist by leather thongs. They are +usually made of bamboo or other light material with a wicker disk near +the end to keep the pole from sinking into the soft snow. Ski poles +should never be used in attempting a jump, as under these +circumstances they might be very dangerous. + +Ski coasting is the sport that most boys will be interested in. To +make a descent, begin at the top of a hill as one would in coasting +with a sled and lean well forward with the skis parallel and with one +foot slightly ahead of the other. The knees should be bent and the +body rigid. The weight should be borne by the ball of the foot that is +behind. As the start forward begins, the impulse will be to lean back, +but this Impulse must be overcome or you will take a tumble in the +snow as you gain speed. + +[Illustration: A ski pole] + +In jumping with skis an abrupt drop is necessary. For the beginner a +few inches is sufficient. The start is made by coasting down an +incline, and just before the take-off is reached, the runner assumes a +crouching attitude and then straightens up quickly, maintaining an +erect attitude until he is about to land, when, as in jumping, the +knees are bent slightly to break the force of landing. During the +flight the skis should be kept perfectly parallel but drooping +slightly behind. + +[Illustration: The Exciting Sport of Ski Running] + +The various forms of coasting with toboggan sleds and bobsleds are +all well known to boys who live where there are snow and hills. A sled +can be steered either by dragging the foot or by shifting the sled +with the hands. Sleds with flexible runners have recently been +introduced and are a great improvement on the old type. + +One branch of carpenter work that nearly all boys attempt at some time +in their lives is to make a bobsled or double runner, which is a pair +of sleds fastened on either end of a board long enough to hold from +three to twenty or thirty people. + +[Illustration: A bobsled or double runner] + +Coasting, especially with a bob, is somewhat dangerous sport, +especially in cities or where the turns are sharp and there is danger +of upsetting. A good bob is broad between the runners and low to the +ground. The drawing shows one that almost any boy can make at little +cost. Various devices are used as brakes on a bob. Most of them are +found to be out of order or frozen when the time comes to use them. A +brake that is made from a piece of iron bent in an angle and fastened +to the side of the runners on the rear sled is the best arrangement to +have. A bobsled should not cost over ten dollars complete with +steering wheel, bell, and necessary iron work, which should be made at +the blacksmith's. + + + + +XIII + +HORSEMANSHIP + +How to become a good rider--The care of a horse--Saddles + + +So many branches of outdoor sport depend on a knowledge of +horsemanship that every boy or girl who has the opportunity should +learn to ride horseback. When once acquired, we shall never forget it. +The first few lessons will make us feel discouraged, because the +jolting and jarring every one receives in learning to ride almost make +it appear that we can never acquire the knack, but remember that even +the cowboy has had to go through the same experience. A beginner +should only ride a gentle horse. In case we do take a tumble, it is +well to take our first lesson on soft ground or in a tanbark ring. + +There are three types of saddles generally used: The English saddle is +simply a leather seat with stirrups, and while it is the most refined +type and the one used for fox hunting and all expert riding in +England, it is not the best kind to learn on. The army saddle and the +Mexican or cowboy saddle with a pommel or box-stirrups are far safer +and less expensive. If you know of a dealer in second-hand army +equipments you can buy a saddle and bridle of excellent material at +less than half the retail price of the stores. + +[Illustration: Mexican saddle, Army saddle, English saddle] + +Before mounting your horse always examine carefully your saddle and +bridle to see that the girths are tight, that the bridle is properly +buckled, and the stirrups are the proper length. The latter is +sometimes determined by placing the stirrup under the armpits and +touching the saddle with the finger tips. A more accurate way is to +have the straps adjusted after you are in the saddle. A beginner will +prefer a short stirrup, but it is a bad habit to acquire. In mounting, +stand on the left side and place the left foot in the stirrup. Swing +the right leg over the horse and find the right stirrup with the toe +just as quickly as possible. Do not jerk a restless horse or otherwise +betray your excitement if he starts. Let him see by your calmness that +he too should be calm. + +So much depends on the kind of horse you are riding that it will be +difficult to say just how to handle him. A horse that is "bridle wise" +is not guided in the customary way; that is, by pulling on the rein on +the side you wish him to turn as one does in driving. A bridle-wise +horse is guided by pressing the opposite rein against his neck. Such a +horse is much easier to handle on horseback and we should try to teach +our horse this method as soon as possible. + +There is very close understanding between a horse and rider that does +not exist when a horse is driven to a carriage. A horse can be guided +simply by the leg pressure or spur. The proper seat is well back in +the saddle with the toe pointing almost straight ahead. In order to +learn to ride quickly we must overcome any strain or tension of our +muscles and try to be flexible above the waist. In this way we soon +accommodate our own motion to that of the horse. The most difficult +gait to ride is the trot. There are two distinct styles of riding--to +trot in English style of treading the stirrups, which necessitates +rising from the saddle at every step of the horse, and the army style +of simply sitting back in the saddle and taking the jouncing. Either +method will prove very difficult for the beginner. A partial treading +or easing up but not as extreme as the English style will probably be +the best to acquire. So much depends upon the gait of a horse that we +learn to ride some horses in a very few days, and would be several +times as long with some others. + +[Illustration: The wrong way to mount a horse--facing forward] + +A horse that habitually stumbles is very dangerous. We must be sure +our saddle horse is sure footed. In using English stirrups never +permit the foot to go through the stirrup and rest on the ball. The +toes should be in such a position that the stirrups can be kicked off +at an instant's notice in case the horse falls with us. + +[Illustration: The right way to mount--facing toward his tail] + +In tying a saddle horse in the stable for feeding or rest always +loosen the girth and throw the stirrups over the saddle. + +A saddle horse should always be spoken to gently but firmly. The horse +can tell by your voice when you are afraid of him. + +The canter is the ideal gait. After we once learn it, the motion of a +good saddle horse is almost like a rocking chair and riding becomes +one of the most delightful of outdoor pastimes. The boy who expects to +go on an extended trip in the saddle should learn to care for a horse +himself. A horse should never be fed or watered when he is warm unless +we continue to drive him immediately afterward. Neglect of this +precaution may cause "foundering," which has ruined many a fine horse. + +The art of packing a horse is one which every one in mountain +countries away from railroads should understand. Packing a horse +simply means tying a load over his back. There are a great many +hitches used for this purpose by Western mountaineers, but the +celebrated diamond hitch will answer most purposes. + +Hunting and steeplechasing, leaping fences and ditches, are the +highest art of horsemanship. It is difficult to teach an old horse to +be a hunter, but with a young one you can soon get him to take a low +obstacle or narrow ditch, and by gradually increasing the distance +make a jumper of him. + +[Illustration: Jumping fences is the highest art of horsemanship] + +The popularity of automobiles has caused the present generation +partially to lose interest in horseflesh, but no automobile ever made +will furnish the real bond of friendship which exists between a boy +and his horse, or will be a substitute for the pleasure that comes +from a stiff canter on the back of our friend and companion. + +We do not really need an expensive horse. A typical Western or polo +pony is just the thing for a boy or girl provided that it has no +vicious or undesirable traits such as kicking, bucking, or stumbling, +or is unsound or lame. It is always better if possible to buy a horse +from a reliable dealer or a private owner. There is a great deal of +dishonesty in horse trading and an honest seller who has nothing to +conceal should be willing to grant a fair trial of a week or more. + +To enjoy our horse to the fullest extent we should take entire care of +him ourselves. He should be fed and watered regularly and groomed +every morning until his coat shines. If we neglect a horse and allow +his coat to become rough it is almost as bad as to neglect feeding +him. Never trust the care of your horse too much to another. Even if +you keep him in a public stable or have a man of your own to care for +him, it is well to let them see that you are interested in giving your +horse close personal attention. + + + + +XIV + +HOW TO SWIM AND TO CANOE + +The racing strokes--Paddling and sailing canoes + + +It has been said that the human being is the only animal that does not +know instinctively how to swim without the necessity of being taught. +If we take a dog or a horse or even a mouse and suddenly place it in +the water it will immediately begin to swim, even though it has never +seen a body of water larger than the source from which it obtains its +drink. With a man or boy it is different, for the reason that with all +the other animals the motions necessary to swim are those by which +they walk or run; with a human being it is entirely an acquired +stroke. After one becomes an expert swimmer he will find that he can +keep afloat or at least keep his head above water, which is all there +is to swimming anyway, by almost any kind of a motion. By a little +practice we can learn to swim "no hands," "no feet," "one hand and one +foot," by all sorts of twists and squirms and in fact to propel +ourselves by a simple motion of the toes. + +The first stroke that a self-taught small boy learns is what is +called "dog fashioned." This name accurately describes the stroke, as +it is in reality very similar to the motions by which a dog swims. No +amount of book instruction can teach a person to swim, but a clear +idea of the best general strokes will be of great assistance. + +Swimming is probably the best general exercise among athletic sports. +Practically every important muscle in the body is brought into play, +and measurements show that swimmers have the most uniform muscular +development of any class of athletes. After we learn to swim, the +distance that we are capable of going is largely dependent upon our +physical strength. Almost any man can swim a mile if he begins slowly +and with the same regard for conserving his strength that a runner +would have in attempting a mile run. + +[Illustration: Swimming is One of the Best Outdoor Sports (Photograph +by A.R. Dugmore)] + +However skillful one is as a swimmer, a proper respect for the dangers +of the sport should always be present. To take unnecessary risks, such +as swimming alone far beyond reach of help or jumping and diving from +high places into water of uncertain depth is not bravery; it is simply +foolhardiness. A good swimmer is a careful swimmer always. The +beginner must first of all try to overcome his natural fear of the +water. This is much harder to do than to learn the simple motions of +hands or feet that makes us keep afloat and swim. Nothing will help to +give us this confidence more quickly than to take a few lessons from +some one in whom we have confidence and who will above all things not +frighten us and so get us into danger. With a good teacher, a boy +should be able to learn how to swim in two or three lessons. Of course +he will take only a few strokes at first, but those few strokes, which +carry with them self-confidence and which make us feel that swimming +is not so hard an art after all, is really half the battle. After we +are at least sure that we can get to shore somehow, we can take up all +the finished strokes which make a fancy swimmer. + +There are a number of strokes used in swimming and especially in +racing. The common breast stroke is the first one to learn. In this +the swimmer should lie flat on his breast in the water and either be +supported by the hand of his teacher or by an inflated air cushion. +The hands are principally used to maintain the balance and to keep +afloat. The real work should be done with the legs. We learn to use +the hands properly in a very short time, but the beginner always shows +a tendency to forget to kick properly. For this reason swimming +teachers lay great stress on the leg motion and in a measure let the +hands take care of themselves. In swimming the important thing is to +keep our heads above the water, a simple statement, but one that +beginners may take a long time to learn. The impulse is not only to +keep our heads but our shoulders out of the water also, and this is a +feat that even an expert can not accomplish for very long. If we can +allow ourselves to sink low in the water without fear, and if we can +also remember to kick and, above all, to make our strokes slowly and +evenly, we shall very soon learn to swim. I have frequently seen boys +learn to swim in a single afternoon. Another tendency of the beginner +is to hold his breath while swimming. Of course we cannot swim very +far or exert ourselves unless we can breathe. We should take a breath +at each stroke, inhaling though the mouth and exhaling through the +nose, which is just the opposite to the hygienic method of land +breathing. Whatever may be our methods, however, the main thing is not +to forget to breathe, which always results in finishing our five or +ten strokes out of breath and terrified. + +A great deal may be learned about swimming strokes by practice on +land. In fact some swimming teachers always follow the practice of +teaching the pupil ashore how to make the stroke and how to breathe +correctly. A small camp stool or a box will give us the support we +need. The three things to keep in mind are the leg motion and the +taking in of the breath through the mouth as the arms are being drawn +in and exhaling as they are pushed forward. It is better to learn to +swim in salt water, for the reason that it will support the body +better. An additional advantage is that we always feel more refreshed +after a salt-water bath. + +If we take up fast swimming, we must learn one of the various overhand +or overarm strokes. The chief difference between these strokes and the +simple breast stroke is that the arms as well as the legs are used to +propel the body through the water, and this power is applied so +steadily and uniformly that instead of moving by jerks we move with a +continuous motion and at a greater speed. The single overarm is easier +to learn than the double overarm or "trudgeon" stroke. This latter +stroke is very tiring and while undoubtedly faster than any other when +once mastered, it is only used for short sprints. Most of the great +swimmers have developed peculiar strokes of their own, but nearly all +of them have adopted a general style which may be called the "crawl." + +There are many fancy strokes in swimming that one may acquire by +practice, all of which require close attention to form rather than +speed, just as fancy skating is distinguished from racing. One of the +simplest tricks to learn is called "the rolling log." We take a +position just as we would in floating and then exerting the muscles +first of one side and then the other we shall find that we can roll +over and over just as a log might roll. The idea in performing this +trick successfully is not to show any apparent motion of the muscles. + +Swimming on the back is easily learned and is not only a pretty trick +but is very useful in giving us an opportunity to rest on a long swim. + +Diving is also a branch of swimming that requires confidence rather +than lessons. A dive is simply a plunge head first into the water. A +graceful diver plunges with as little splash as possible. It is very +bad form either to bend the knees or to strike on the stomach, the +latter being a kind of dive for which boys have a very expressive +though not elegant name. Somersaults and back dives from a stationary +take-off or from a spring-board are very easily learned. We shall +probably have a few hard splashes until we learn to turn fully over, +but there is not much danger of injury if we are sure of landing in +the water. + +[Illustration: A perfect dive] + +Water wings and other artificial supports are very useful for the +beginner until he has mastered the strokes, but all such artificial +devices should be given up just as soon as possible, and, furthermore, +as soon as we can really swim, in order to gain confidence, we should +go beyond our depth, where it will be necessary to swim or drown. + +A swimmer should always know how to assist another to shore in case of +accident. It is not nearly so easy as one who has never tried it might +think. A drowning person will for the time being be panic-stricken and +the first impulse will be to seize us about the neck. Always approach +a drowning person from the rear and support him under an armpit, +meanwhile talking to him and trying to reassure him. Every year we +hear of terrible drowning accidents which might have been avoided if +some one in the party had kept his head and had been able to tell the +others what to do. + +I have placed canoeing and swimming in the same chapter because the +first word in canoeing is never go until you can swim. There is +practically no difference between the shape of the modern canoe and +the shape of the Indian birch bark canoes which were developed by the +savages in America hundreds of years ago. All the ingenuity of white +men has failed to improve on this model. A canoe is one of the most +graceful of water craft and, while it is regarded more in the light of +a plaything by people in cities, it is just as much a necessity to the +guides and trappers of the great Northern country as a pony is to the +cowboy and the plainsman. The canoe is the horse and wagon of the +Maine woodsman and in it he carries his provisions and his family. + +[Illustration: A typical Indian model canoe] + +While a canoe is generally propelled by paddles, a pole is sometimes +necessary to force it upstream, especially in swift water. In many +places the sportsman is forced to carry his canoe around waterfalls +and shallows for several miles. For this reason a canoe must be as +light as possible without too great a sacrifice of strength. The old +styles of canoes made of birch bark, hollow logs, the skins of +animals and so on have practically given way to the canvas-covered +cedar or basswood canoes of the Canadian type. + +[Illustration: A sailing canoe in action] + +It will scarcely pay the boy to attempt to make his own canoe, as the +cost of a well-made eighteen-foot canoe of the type used by +professional hunters and trappers is but thirty dollars. With care a +canoe should last its owner ten years. It will be necessary to protect +it from the weather when not in use and frequently give it a coat of +paint or spar varnish. + +Sailing canoes are built after a different model from paddling +canoes. They usually are decked over and simply have a cockpit. They +are also stronger and much heavier. Their use is limited to more open +water than most of the rivers and lakes of Maine and Canada. Cruising +canoes are made safer if watertight air chambers are built in the +ends. + +Even if a canoe turns over it does not sink. Some experts can right a +capsized canoe and clamber in over the side even while swimming in +deep water. The seaworthiness of a canoe depends largely upon its +lines. Some canoes are very cranky and others can stand a lot of +careless usage without capsizing. One thing is true of all, that +accidents occur far more often in getting in and out of a canoe than +in the act of sailing it. It is always unsafe to stand in a canoe or +to lean far out of it to pick lilies or to reach for floating objects. + +Canoes may be propelled by either single or double paddles, but the +former is the sportman's type. It is possible to keep a canoe on a +straight course entirely by paddling on one side and merely shifting +to rest, but the beginner may have some difficulty in acquiring the +knack of doing this, which consists of turning the paddles at the end +of the stroke to make up the amount that the forward stroke deflects +the canoe from a straight course. + +[Illustration: In Canoeing Against the Current in Swift Steams a Pole +is Used in Place of the Paddle (Photographs by A.R. Dugmore)] + +[Illustration: A type of sailing canoe] + +An open canoe for paddling does not require a rudder. A sailing canoe, +however, will require a rudder, a keel, and a centreboard as well. +Canoe sailing is an exciting and dangerous sport. In order to keep the +canoe from capsizing, a sliding seat or outrigger is used, upon which +the sailor shifts his position to keep the boat on an even keel. The +centreboard is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered by means +of a line. + + + + +XV + +BASEBALL + +How to organize a team and to select the players--The various +positions--Curve pitching + + +Baseball is called the National Game of America just as cricket is +regarded as the national game in England. The game received its wide +popularity directly after the Civil War by the soldiers who returned +to all parts of the country and introduced the game that they had +learned in camp. Almost every village and town has its ball team, in +which the interest is general. It is not a game for middle-aged men to +play, like golf, but if one has been a ball player in youth the +chances are that he will keep his interest in the game through life. +Baseball is largely a game of skill. It does not afford nearly as much +opportunity for physical exercise as tennis or football, and because +of the professional games it is not always conducted with as high a +regard for sportsmanlike conduct, but it has a firm hold on the +American public, and the winning of a championship series in the +professional leagues is almost a national event. + +Every boy knows that a baseball team consists of nine players, the +positions being pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +and shortstop, which are called the in-field, and right-field, +centre-field, and left-field, which positions are called the +out-field. The umpire has a very important position in baseball, as +his decisions in a close game may result either in defeat or victory +for a team. An umpire should always be some one who knows the rules +thoroughly and who is not too greatly interested in either team. He +should always try to be fair, and having once made a decision be sure +enough of himself to hold to it even if the whole opposing team may +try by "kicking" to cause him to change. Much of the rowdyism in +baseball can be attributed to this cause. A good ball player is first +of all a boy or man who shows himself to be a gentleman under, all +circumstances. + +In baseball, like many games where winning is sometimes the important +thing rather than fair play, the real benefits of the game are lost +sight of in the desire to have a higher score than one's opponents. +Probably the most clean-cut games are played by school and college +teams, which should always be strictly amateur. + +The pitcher has the most important position on the team. If by his +skill he is able to deceive the opposing batsmen and cause them to +strike out or to make feeble hits, the rest of the team will have but +little to do except of course to bat when their turn comes and try to +score runs. Baseball has become a very scientific game in recent years +and the sustained interest in it year after year is largely due to the +fact that the regular attendants at a game have learned to understand +and to appreciate the finer points of the game almost as well as the +players themselves. While it might appear to a beginner that the +battery does all the work in a game, as a matter of fact every man on +the nine is supposed to do his part in backing up every play and to be +in the right place at the right time. + +[Illustration: The in-curve] + +[Illustration: The out-curve] + +A good pitcher must be able to pitch a curved ball. This art will only +come with constant practice. Until about forty years ago a curve was +unknown. In the old days the number of runs scored in a game was very +high, it being a common thing for a winning team to make twenty to +thirty runs. The rules of baseball are changed frequently and almost +every change has been made with a view to restricting the batsman. As +a consequence, in modern games the scores are very low and sometimes +neither side will score a single run in a tie game of ten or twelve +innings. + +[Illustration: The drop] + +[Illustration: The out-drop] + +In modern baseball a team that plays together frequently has a +prearranged code of signals that are understood by each member of the +team. It is very important for every player on a side to know whether +the pitcher intends to deliver a high or a low ball or one that may +either be batted well into the out-field or probably be a grounder +that will be taken care of by some one on the in-field. Of course +these things do not always work out as is planned. The pitcher may not +have good control of the ball or pitch wild, the catcher may make a +bad "muff" and let the ball get by him, or what we expect to be a +bunted ball may be a home run, but all of this is part of the sport +and helps to make baseball one of the most interesting and exciting of +games. In any case there is no question that nine boys who are +accustomed to play together and who understand each other's methods of +play and signals will have a better chance of winning a close game +than nine other players who may have a shade the better of it in +individual work but who do not play together. + +Most games are won or lost in a single instant at a crucial moment +when some one fails to make good, or who, usually in the case of a +pitcher, lets up on his speed or accuracy just at the critical time. +The National Championship of 1908 was decided in favour of Chicago +because one of New York's players in the deciding game of the season +failed to touch second base when the last man was out. The game had +been won by New York except for this mistake, and the result was that +another game was played, which Chicago won before the largest crowd +that probably ever assembled to witness a game of baseball. + +When a baseball team is organized, the first thing to do is to elect a +captain from one of the players, and after this is decided every boy +on the team should give him absolute support and obedience. A team +should also have a manager whose duties are to arrange games with +other teams of the same class, to arrange for the transportation of +players and, in fact, to attend to all the business duties of games +that come outside of actual playing. Usually a boy is chosen for +manager who is not a ball player himself, but who has shown an +interest in the team. The captain should be a boy who first of all +knows the game and who has the respect and cooperation of the other +players. The position that he may play on the team is not so +important, but usually it is better to have some one from the +in-field as captain, as he will be in a better position to keep close +watch on the progress of the game and to give directions to the other +players. + +In case of a disputed point it is better to allow your captain to make +a protest if such is necessary. Observance of this rule will prevent +much of the rowdyism that has characterized the game of baseball. No +boy should ever attempt to win games by unfair tactics. The day of +tripping, spiking, and holding is gone. If you are not able by your +playing to hold up your end on a ball team you had better give up the +game and devote your attention to something that you can do without +being guilty of rowdyism. + +Strict rules of training are not as necessary for baseball players as +for some other branches of sport, because the game is not so strenuous +nor does it involve such sustained physical exertion, but any boy will +make a better ball player as well as a better man if he observes the +rules of training, such as early hours for retiring, simple food, and +regular systematic exercise. + +The battery of a team is an exception to the rule regarding strict +training. Both the pitcher and catcher should be in the best physical +condition. A pitcher who stands up for nine innings is obliged to do +a tremendous amount of work and if he becomes tired or stiff toward +the end of the game he will probably be at the mercy of the opposing +batsmen. + +Usually the pitcher of a team is a boy who is physically strong and +who can stand hard work. The other positions, however, are usually +assigned because of the build of the individual player. The pitcher, +however, may be tall or short, fat or thin, so long as he can pitch. + +The pitcher is the most important member of a ball team. Most of the +work falls to him, and a good pitcher, even with a comparatively weak +team behind him, can sometimes win games where a good team with a weak +pitcher would lose. A good pitcher must first of all have a cool head +and keep his nerve even under the most trying circumstances. He must +also have good control of the ball and be able to pitch it where he +wants it to go. After that he must have a knowledge of curves and know +how by causing the ball to spin in a certain way to cause it to change +its course and thus to deceive the batsman. The art of curving a ball +was discovered in 1867. Before that time all that a pitcher needed was +a straight, swift delivery. The three general classes of curved balls +used to-day are the out-curve, the in-curve, and the drop. There are +also other modifications called "the fade away," "the spitball," and +others. Curve pitching will only come with the hardest kind of +practice. + +In general the spin is given to the ball by a certain use of the +fingers and the method of releasing it. It is necessary to conceal +your intentions from the batsman in preparing to deliver a curve or he +will divine your intention and the effort may be wasted. All curves +are produced by a snap of the wrist at the instant of releasing the +ball. Excellent practice may be had in curving by pitching at a post +from a sixty-foot mark and watching to see the effect of various +twists and snaps. Pitching is extremely hard on the arm and practice +should be very light at first until the muscles become hardened. Even +the best professional pitchers are not worked as a rule oftener than +two or three games a week. + +A good baseball captain always tries to develop several pitchers from +his team. It is of course very desirable to have a "star pitcher" who +can be depended on, but if the star should happen to be ill or to +injure his fingers on a hot liner or for some reason cannot play, +unless there is a substitute, the effect of his absence on his team +will be to demoralize it. For that reason every encouragement should +be given to any boy who wants to try his hand at pitching. If a game +is well in hand it is usually safe to put in a substitute pitcher to +finish it. This is done in college teams for the reason that no amount +of practice is quite like playing in an actual game. + +It may be said to guide the beginner that the method of producing +curves varies greatly with different pitchers, but that in general the +out-curve is produced by grasping the ball with the first and second +fingers and the thumb. The grip for this curve should be tight and the +back of the hand turned downward. The out-curve can be produced either +with a fast ball or a slow one. + +For the in-curve a swinging sidearm motion is used, the ball being +released over the tips of the first two fingers with a snap to set it +spinning. It may also be produced by releasing the ball over all four +fingers. + +The grip of the ball for the drop is very similar to the out-curve, +but in delivery the hand is brought almost directly over the shoulder. +In all curves the pitcher must have extremely sensitive fingers and be +able to control them with almost as much skill as one requires in +playing a piano. We must keep in mind which way we desire the ball to +spin to produce the required curve and then to give it just as much +of this spin as we can without interfering with our accuracy. + +No two pitchers will have the same form or manner of delivery. In +learning to pitch, the main thing is to adopt the delivery that seems +most natural to you without especial regard to form, and with no +unnecessary motions. + +A pitcher must always be on the alert and keep a close watch on the +bases when they are occupied. He must not, however, allow the remarks +of coacher or spectators to cause him to become rattled or confused. +Baseball at best is a noisy game, and a pitcher who is sensitive to +outside remarks or joshing will never be a real success. + +The catcher is usually a short, stocky player with a good reach and a +quick, accurate throw. He is usually the acting general in a game and +signals to the whole team. The principal test of a good catcher is to +be able to make a quick, swift throw to second base without being +obliged to draw his arm fully back. Such a ball is snapped from the +wrist and should be aimed to catch the base runner who is attempting +to steal the base. This play is very common in ball games, and as +there is only a difference of an instant in the time that it takes a +runner to go from first base to second, who starts just as the +pitcher delivers the ball, and the time it takes a pitched ball to be +caught by the catcher and snapped to second, a game may be won or lost +just on this play alone. If the opposing team finds that it can make +second in safety by going down with the pitcher's arm, it will surely +take full advantage of the knowledge. To have a man on second is +disconcerting to the pitcher as well as a difficult man to handle. It +therefore follows that a catcher who cannot throw accurately to the +bases becomes a serious disadvantage to his team. In the old days a +catcher had to be able to catch either with bare hand or with a light +glove, but the modern catcher's mitt, mask, chest-protector, and +shin-guards make the position far safer, and almost any boy who is +quick and has nerve can be trained to become a fairly good catcher so +long as he has a good throw and is a good general. + +The first baseman is usually a tall boy who is active and who can +cover his position both in reaching for high balls and in picking up +grounders. Of course in a baseball score the first baseman will score +the largest number of "put outs," because practically all he is +obliged to do is to cover the base and to catch the ball before the +runner gets there. It is in fielding his position and in pulling down +balls that are thrown wildly that the first baseman can show his +chief skill. + +The positions of second base and shortstop are practically the same, +and these two players should understand each other perfectly and know +just when to cover the base and when to back up the other. Neglect of +this precaution often results in the most stupid errors, which are +discouraging alike to the team and the spectators. Both players should +be quick and active, with an ability to throw both over and under +handed as well as to toss the ball after picking it up on the run. The +shortstop is often the smallest man on a team, due no doubt to the +theory that his work is largely in picking up grounders. + +The shortstop is often led into habits which are commonly known as +"grand-stand plays"; that is, he attempts to make difficult plays or +one-handed stops with an unnecessary display of motions, to bring the +applause of the spectators. No ball player was ever made by playing to +the audience. Good form is not only very desirable but very necessary, +but the main thing in ball playing is to play your part and to forget +that there is such a thing as an audience or applause. If your form is +good so much the better, but if by paying too much attention to it +you miss the ball and score an error, your team may suffer defeat on +account of your pride. The main thing is to get the ball and after +that to to do it as gracefully as possible. One-handed stops are well +enough when you cannot get both hands on the ball, but an error made +in this way is not only the most humiliating kind but also the most +inexcusable. + +It must not be inferred that grand-stand playing is confined to the +shortstop. Any member of the team can be guilty of it. No player, no +matter how good he may be, should be allowed to hold his position on a +team unless he is willing to do his best at all times and unless he +feels that the game is not lost nor won until the last man is out. + +Many experienced players consider that the most difficult position to +play well is third base. This player has to be ready for slow bunts as +well as hard drives; he must cover a lot of ground and try to get +every ball that comes near him. At the same time he must cover his +base to stop the base runner from advancing home. He will be obliged +to stop hot liners with one hand and often while on the run to make an +accurate throw to first base. + +Out-fielders are usually chosen because of their ability to bat as +well as to be quick on their feet and catch fly balls on the run. +Fielders should practise if possible to catch the ball in a throwing +position, so that no unnecessary time may be lost in getting the ball +back to the in-field. Of the three fielding positions, right-field is +by far the most important. He must be sure of ground balls as well as +flies and also, in common with all the fielders, be a good judge of +the batsmen and try to be where the batted ball is going. The +centre-fielder must be especially quick on his feet, as he is expected +to back up both shortstop and second base as well as to run in for +line hits that just go over the in-fielders' heads. The ability to +start quickly when running for a ball can be greatly developed by +practice and will greatly improve the player's game. + +Very often a fly ball will fall in such a position that the +out-fielders will be in doubt who is to take it. The result is usually +a collision, a missed ball and a chorus of groans from the spectators. +The remedy for this is to arrange beforehand for the second baseman to +call out who in the case of a doubtful ball is to take it. All of +these things are part of the finer points of the game and will only +come from practice. A boy who really desires to become proficient in +his position will try to avoid changing from one position to another, +but decide which position he likes to play best or is best fitted for +and try to get all the practice possible. An excellent opportunity +will come from studying the methods of a good player in the same +position, noting carefully what he does on each play, how he backs up +the other players and how he fits in the general plan of team work. + +It is a great advantage to any player to learn as much as he can about +the skill and methods of his opponents. Some men cannot hit a low ball +or a high one, some will flinch when the ball comes close to them, +giving the pitcher a chance to deliver a straight, swift ball over the +inside of the plate, which the umpire will call a strike even though +the batsman devotes all of his energy to getting out of the way. + +A left-handed thrower will seldom make a success as a ball player +except as pitcher or on first base. Left-handed batsmen, however, are +a distinct advantage to a team, as nothing will so disconcert a green +pitcher as to have batsmen standing first on one side of the plate and +then on the other. + +Every boy who plays baseball must know the rules thoroughly to be a +success. It is in this way that advantage of every fair opportunity +can be taken. Nothing is so disheartening to a team as to lose a +closely contested game on a technicality of rules. + +Batting and base running are two departments of the game where one +member of the team is as important as another. A good batsman must +have a quick eye and a quick brain. When he decides to strike at a +ball he must not change his mind and simply swing at it feebly after +it is in the catcher's hands. The best batters are not those who hit +the ball the hardest. Judgment in placing hits is far more important +than trying to knock out a home run every time you are at the bat. You +must remember that the pitcher is studying your batting methods and +you must try just as hard to deceive him as he is trying to deceive +you. Many a game has been won by a man who knew how to wait at the bat +instead of swinging wildly at everything just for fear of having +strikes called. + +When you hit the ball there is only one rule--run. You will very soon +find out whether the ball is fair or foul or whether there is any +chance of making first base. A base runner should never stop trying to +make a base until the ball is in the hands of the baseman. One never +can tell when a ball may be fumbled or muffed. + +A baseball diamond should be a part of a town just as is the public +square or a town hall. The distance between the bases should be ninety +feet and the four base-lines should form a square and all the angles +should be right angles. The three bases should be canvas bags filled +with sawdust and fastened to their positions by pegs that are driven +into the ground. The home plate should if possible be a piece of +whitened rubber. A board securely fastened will do. + +[Illustration: How to lay out a baseball field] + +The pitcher's box should be denoted by a strip of wood or rubber 24 +inches long and 6 inches wide. This and home plate should be buried +so that they are flush with the surface of the field. The pitcher's +box on a full-sized field is exactly 60-1/2 feet from home plate. + +The standard baseball is the kind used by professional players. It is +covered with horsehide, and is warranted to last an entire game +without ripping or getting out of shape. Baseball bats are made of a +variety of woods, the common materials being ash, willow, and hickory. +A bat must not exceed 2-3/4 inches in thickness at its thickest part. +There are a great many shapes and models named after the professional +players who use them. The shape of a bat does not make as much +difference as some poor batters are inclined to think. The +manufacturers of sporting goods make all the accessories for playing +baseball both in men's and boys' sizes. Every ball player should own +his own mitt or glove and become accustomed to it. The same is true of +his bat. + +The art of becoming a good ball player depends largely on the boy +himself. No one plays ball naturally. It all comes with practice, and +it follows that the more practice we can get the better ball players +we shall become. It is a game where a loss of nerve is absolutely +fatal to good work. A player must keep his head no matter how trying +the circumstances may be. Cool-headedness is especially important and +the surest way to develop it is to be just as indifferent to the +criticism of the crowd or your fellow-players, so long as you know +that you have done your best, as you should be to their applause. Just +play the game for all there is in it, and you will be sure to become a +moderately good player even though you may not be a star. In field +practice, when some one is batting out balls to you, try just as hard +to stop and field each ball that comes within reach as you would if +the result of the game depended on it. It is only by this means that +you can hope to become a finished ball player. You can never learn by +lying around in the shade and telling your friends how good you are +going to be in the coming match game. + +A regularly organized ball team should always adopt some club colours +and be provided with uniforms. Very good ones complete with shirt, +pants, stockings, belt, and cap can be purchased of sporting goods +outfitters for two or three dollars a suit (when ordered in lots of +nine or more). They can also sometimes be made more cheaply at home if +mothers and sisters are willing. The shirt should always be lettered +with the name or initials of the team. Baseball shoes are usually +provided with steel plates or leather knobs. Spikes are very dangerous +and should not be permitted. The regulation baseball shoe reaches just +under the instep. + +The rules of baseball are too long and complicated to be published +here. Almost every year many important changes are made to improve the +sport and to make it harder for the batsmen to make runs. All of this +tends to make the game more interesting and to develop it from a +scientific side. + +When a team is playing away from its home grounds the choice of +innings--i.e., who is to bat first--goes to the home team. + +A game consists of nine full innings unless called by rain, darkness +or for some other cause. If five complete innings have been played +when the game stops, the score always stands and the team ahead is +declared the winner. In case of a tie at the end of the game the play +continues until at the completion of a full inning one team is ahead. +That ends the game and the team ahead is the winner. + +In arranging games with visiting teams it is customary to make some +arrangement as to expenses, share of gate receipts or other guarantee. +It is very important in order to avoid unpleasant disputes to have +this matter fully understood and agreed upon by the managers of each +team before the game starts. + +On account of fences, houses, and other obstacles that some baseball +fields have it is customary for the umpire to decide what are called +"ground rules" before the game starts. The principal thing that mars a +good game of ball next to kicking and wrangling is the tendency of the +crowd to get on the field and to interfere with the players. An easy +remedy for this is simply to call the game until the spectators take +their proper places. + +Baseball is a good game if it is properly played. It is unfortunate +that so many amateur games are spoiled because some of the players +lose their tempers in their anxiety to have their wrongs righted. No +matter how good a ball player a boy is he will never get the real +benefit of the game unless he remembers that it is not the one who +loses his temper but "he who ruleth his spirit" that is really +entitled to the respect of his fellows. Make up your mind to abide by +the decision of the umpire just as a soldier obeys the orders of his +superior officer. It is the easiest thing in the world for an umpire +to make a mistake, but he will be far less likely to correct his +errors if nine angry boys are all talking to him at once than if your +captain quietly goes to him with the rules or the facts behind him +and states the case. It is an old saying but none the less true that +"oil catches more flies than vinegar." + +A boy who has developed a healthy interest in baseball while young +will probably never lose it in after life even though his +opportunities to play or even to see a game are few. I once met a +mining man in the interior of Mexico, a hundred miles from a railroad +and in a town where only three people spoke the English language, and +this man had not been to his home town in ten years, but he had +followed his baseball team through the papers all those years and +could tell you more about the players than many a man living in the +town where the team played. + +Such a man is what the newspapers call a "fan," which is an +abbreviation of the word "fanatic." There is no harm in being a +baseball enthusiast, provided that we do not allow it to interfere +with our work or allow our desire to witness games to take the place +of systematic exercise for ourselves. + + + + +XVI + +HOW TO PLAY FOOTBALL + +The various positions and how to select men for them--Team, work and +signals--The rules + + +Football is usually played in the fall of the year because the +exercise that it involves is so violent that to attempt it at any +other time would probably result in injury to the players. The cool, +frosty days of October and November make baseball out of season, and +such weather is ideal for football. + +So much has been said and written about the dangers of football as a +sport that many parents have strong objections to permitting their +sons to play. There is no question that it is a hard game and not +suited to weaklings, but a strong, healthy boy can play football under +proper conditions and with proper training quite as safely as he can +do many other things to which parents raise no objections, such as +wrestling, climbing trees, playing hockey, or even performing +difficult feats of gymnastics or acrobatics in a gymnasium. Every +year there are a number of serious accidents from football, but there +are also injuries from other games, and people are injured who play no +games at all, so it simply is a question whether we are willing to +take the chances of a sprained ankle or broken bone for the love of +one of the best of outdoor sports. + +[Illustration: The lineup] + +The recent changes in rules have made football a much safer game than +it was in the early nineties, when such plays as the "flying wedge" +and line bucking were practically all there was to the game. To any +one who does not understand football it seems as though it were played +with practically no science and with but few rules. As a matter of +fact a well-coached college team will sometimes have sixty or seventy +separate plays each of which has been carefully practised and which +requires each man on the team to do something to help make the play +successful, while on the other hand each man on the opposing team is +doing his best to cause the play to fail. The result to any one not +understanding the game is simply a confused mass of struggling men and +a final tumble with a pile of legs and arms flying about. + +The American game of football called Rugby is a development of the +English game, but the present game is very different from the English +game of soccer or association football, in which kicking predominates +and where a round ball is used instead of the oval-shaped American +football. + +Numerous efforts have been made to introduce the game of soccer into +this country, but the long popularity of the American game and the +strong support that has been given to it by the colleges have +prevented soccer from gaining much of a foothold. + +Football is played by two opposing teams of eleven men each. The +positions are right and left end, right and left tackle, right and +left guard, centre rush, quarter-back, right and left half-backs and +full-back. + +The manner in which they line up is shown in the accompanying +diagram. + + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. + + 0 + q. + + 0 0 + l.h.-b. r.h.-b. + + 0 + f-b. + +The weight and size of the men on a football team largely govern the +positions where they play. The centre rush and the two guards are +usually the heaviest men on the team, as extra weight in the centre of +the line is important to prevent what is called "bucking the centre." +The two tackles should be strong, stocky players, not too tall, but +still with sufficient weight to enable them to keep their feet in a +mass play and to offer strong resistance to a united attack on their +position. They should also be quick and agile and be able to advance +the ball by rushing when called upon. The two ends must be fleet of +foot and quick, sure tacklers. With the constant changes in football +rules the position of end has become more and more important, until +now a team with weak, slow ends is almost like a baseball team with a +poor pitcher. + +Many people regard the position of quarter-back as the most important +on the team. He is virtually the field captain. A good quarter-back +must be an all around player of the highest order. He must first of +all have a good head and be able to run off the plays of his team +without confusion. He must keep his head under the most trying +circumstances. He must watch for weak places in the opposing team and +direct the play of his men against them. He must offer encouragement +to his own team and be always on the alert to capture a fumbled ball, +stop a runner who has eluded the tacklers or to catch a punt that may +come within his reach. In nearly all the big college games the +quarter-back is one of the star players. The nature of his many duties +is such that he is forced to be a grand-stand player and to be +conspicuous even though he may not desire to. In running back punts +the quarter-back will often be used because he is sure in catching +them, which is a matter of the greatest importance. And all of this +work is required of a man who is usually the smallest, lightest man on +the team and who alongside of the giant guards and centre sometimes +looks like a pigmy. There is no higher honour in football than to be a +good all around quarter-back. + +The half-backs are chosen because of their speed and their ability to +advance the ball and to elude the tackling of the opposing team. They +come in for a very large share of the work and must be boys of +superior strength and agility. + +Next to the quarter-back the player of the greatest importance is +full-back. His duty first of all is to attend to the kicking end of +the game. For that reason he must practise constantly both with punts +and drop kicks and be able to put the ball between the goal-posts from +all angles and distances within reason. A great many games are won by +a good drop kicker making a field goal at a critical time, and such a +man is of the highest value to a team. As drop kicking, like pitching +in baseball, comes largely from practice, the captain or manager of a +team should see to it that any member of his team who shows any +ability at all in this department should be given every opportunity +and encouragement to develop his skill. A good drop kicker can be used +temporarily from almost any position in the line, whether he be guard, +tackle or end. As a rule, however, the full-back is the player who +does most of the kicking. He must also be a good line bucker and be +able to gain the required distance when called upon. + +In general, then, we choose the three centre men because of their +weight, the tackles and ends for speed and ability in tackling, the +quarter-back for his all around ability and his generalship, the +half-backs because of their skill in rushing the ball, and the +full-back for the kicking department. Any man on the team may be +chosen captain. As his work is largely done in practice and in +perfecting plays, unless a team is in the hands of a coach it is +better not to add the duties of captain to the already overburdened +quarter-back. Otherwise he is the logical and ideal man for the +position. + +[Illustration: A football gridiron] + +There is no game in which team work is more important than in +football. Eleven boys of moderate ability and comparative light weight +who can execute their plays with skill and precision can beat a team +of heavier boys or superior players who may lack their skill and +organization. In the case of a school team it is almost always +possible to secure the services of a coach from among the graduates. +If such a one has had experience on a college team so much the better. + +A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. At each end are +goal posts set 18 feet 6 inches apart, with a crossbar 10 feet above +the ground. The field is marked off in chalk lines similar to a tennis +court, these lines being 5 yards apart. The centre of the field where +the play starts is 55 yards from either end. It is usually customary +to run lines parallel to the sides of the field, also 5 yards apart, +but as a field is but 160 feet wide the first and last of these lines +are but 5 feet from the side lines instead of 5 yards. The lines on a +football field make a checkerboard effect and have given to the field +the name of "gridiron." + +Football is a game where eleven men try to force the ball back of the +opposing players' goal line by various efforts in running with it or +in kicking, while the opposing team meanwhile, by throwing the runner +or by pushing him back, try to prevent any gain being made. Each team +is allowed a certain number of attempts to make a certain distance +and, if they fail to do this the ball becomes the property of the +other team to make a similar attempt. Each of these attempts is called +a "down," and, according to the rules, after three attempts, if the +runners have failed to gain the required distance, the ball is given +to their opponents. In practice it is customary for a team to kick the +ball on its last down and thus to surrender it just as far from its +own goal line as possible. The distance that must be made in three +downs according to the present rules is ten yards. Sometimes a team +will not kick on its last down because the distance remaining to be +gained is so little that the quarter-back feels sure that one of his +men can make it, but this is an exception. When ten or more yards are +gained the ball becomes at first down again and the team has three +more attempts to make another ten yards figured from where the ball +was finally downed. + +The ultimate object of "rushing the ball," as this play is called, is +to place it on the ground behind the enemy's goal line, which is +called a "touchdown." Sometimes a team will succeed in getting the +ball almost over the goal line and then because of the superior +resistance of its opponents will find that it can advance it no +further. It is then customary for one of the players who has had +practice in drop kicking to attempt to kick what is called a "goal +from the field" or "field goal." This play counts less than a +touchdown in the score, counting but three points, while a touchdown +counts five, but many a game has been won by a field goal. + +Football scores between evenly matched teams who play scientifically +are usually low, one or two scores in a game being all that are made. +It frequently happens that neither side will score, but, unlike +baseball, the game does not continue after the time limit has expired, +but simply becomes a tie game. The game is divided into four periods +of fifteen minutes each. There are resting periods of three minutes +each between the first and second and third and fourth periods, and +fifteen minutes between the second and third periods. + +At the beginning of the game the two opposing captains toss up a coin +and the winner of the toss has the choice of goals or of the ball. His +decision will be governed by the position of the sun and the wind +conditions, two very important things in football. After each score +the sides change goals, however; so the choice is not so important +unless the game happens to be scoreless. + +At the first play the ball is placed in the centre of the field and +is kicked off, a man on the opposing team trying to catch it and to +run back as far as possible before he is tackled and the ball +"downed." The next lineup takes place at this point and the game +proceeds until a score is made. After each score the ball is put in +play just as at the beginning of the game. + +The quarter-back calls out a series of numbers and letters called +"signals" before the ball is put into play. These signals will tell +his team what the play is to be, whether a run around end, a kick, or +a mass play on centre, for example. The matter of thorough coaching in +signals is very important and must be practised by the team until it +can tell in an instant just what the play is to be when the play +starts. The centre stoops low and holds the ball in an upright +position on the ground between his feet. The quarter-back is directly +behind him with outstretched hands ready to receive it. After the +signal is given the team must be ready to execute the play, but must +not by look or motion permit its opponents know what the play is to +be. At a touch or word from the quarter-back, the full-back snaps the +ball back and the play starts. + +The position of the men on a team is generally as the diagram shows +but for various plays other formations are used, provided that they +do not violate the rules, which specify just how many men must be in +the lineup and how many are permitted behind the line. + +The first requirement of signals is to have them simple. In the heat +and stress of a game the players will have but little time to figure +out what the play is to be, even though it may all have seemed very +simple on paper. + +To begin a code of signals each position on the team is given a +letter. The eleven positions will require eleven letters and no two +must be alike. It would be possible of course to simply start with the +letter "a" and go to "k," but this system would be too simple and +easily understood by your opponents. A better way is to take a word +easily remembered in which no letter occurs twice, such as +"B-l-a-c-k-h-o-r-s-e-x" or any other combination. "Buy and trade" +"importance," "formidable," and many others are used. The same +principle is used by tradesmen in putting private price marks on their +goods. + +Take the words "buy and trade" for example. Their positions right and +left end, abbreviated (r.e. and l.e.), right and left tackle (r.t. and +l.t.), right and left guard (r.g. and l.g.), centre (c.), +quarter-back (q.), right and left half-backs (r.h. and l.h.), and +full-back (f.b.), would be assigned letters as follows: + + l.e. l.t. l.g. c. r.g. r.t. r.e. q. l.h. f.b. r.h. + _B U Y A N D T R A D E_ + +The letters denote not only players but holes in the line, as the +spaces between the players are called. The quarter-back always adds to +his signal a number of other letters or figures which have no meaning, +simply to confuse the opposing players. For example the signal given +is "24-E-N-72-X." The figures 24 and 72 mean nothing, nor does the +"X." The signal says "E will take the ball and go through N," or right +half-back through right guard. Any number of other plays can be +denoted by letters or numbers, for example all punts by figures which +are a multiple of ten, as 10-20, 150-300, and so on. + +The beginner in football should first of all be provided with a +suitable uniform; there is no game in which this is more important. +The game is rough and many and harsh are the jolts we receive; +consequently we must use whatever padding and guards we can to provide +against injury. + +The custom is to wear a tight jersey with elbow pads, a tight-fitting +canvas jacket and well-padded canvas khaki or moleskin trousers. The +appearance of our uniform is of little consequence, as football +players are not noted for the beauty of their costumes. Heavy woollen +stockings and football shoes complete the outfit. The shoes are the +most important part of the uniform. They should lace with eyelets and +be well provided with leather cleats to prevent slipping. + +[Illustration: Football shoes] + +A beginner at football can gain a lot of valuable points by carefully +watching the practice of his team from the side lines. He is then in a +position when called upon to fill a given position which he may be +trying for, without obliging the coach or captain to give him +instruction in many rudiments which he can just as well learn from +observation. He must also be thoroughly familiar with the rules and +their interpretation. A violation of the rules in football carries +with it a severe penalty for the team, provided of course that the +referee sees it, consequently, a beginner must be especially careful +not to permit his anxiety to make a good showing to result in being +offside when the ball is put in play, interfering with a man about to +make a fair catch or in doing many other things which the excitement +of the game may occasion. + +The moment of putting the ball into play is called a "scrimmage" and +the scrimmage continues until the ball is downed. A ball is "down" +when the runner is brought to a standstill or when he touches the +ground with any part of his body except his hands or feet. At this +point the referee will blow his whistle and a lineup for a new +scrimmage will take place. + +[Illustration: The football uniform] + +When the ball is kicked, a member of the opposing team who raises his +hand and stands in one spot is entitled to make a catch without +interference, which if successful gives his team a free kick. In a +free kick his opponents may not come within ten yards of where the +ball was caught and some member of his team may kick either a drop +kick, punt or place kick as he sees fit. After a touchdown, which +counts five, a place kick for goal is attempted. If the ball goes +between the goal-posts and above the crossbar it counts one point +additional for the team making the touchdown, or six in all. A score +of one alone cannot be made in football, as the attempt for goal +cannot be made until after a touchdown. This of course does not apply +to a field goal, which may be attempted at any time while the ball is +in possession of the team and which counts three. + +The smallest score is from a "safety," which results when a member of +a team is forced to touch the ball down behind his own goal or is +downed there by the opposing team. This play counts two for his +opponents and is an evidence of weakness of the team. It has the +advantage, however, of permitting the ball to be brought out +twenty-five yards to be put into play. + +The rules of football were practically unchanged for a number of +years, but the game developed so many dangerous features that nearly +all the colleges recently agreed to certain important changes +especially directed to abolishing mass play and line bucking. For that +reason the rules for the present game may be changed considerably +within a few years. A boy taking up football should therefore +acquaint himself with the latest rules governing the sport. + +Football requires careful training, but the best training will come +from actual play itself. In the beginning of the season a period of +ten minutes' hard play is all that a boy should be called upon to do, +unless he is in excellent physical shape. After that the time of +practice should be lengthened until a candidate can go through a game +of two full halves without being exhausted. One reason for many +football injuries is that the players become so completely winded that +the ordinary power of resistance is lost. + +Besides actual play the best training is in taking long runs to +improve the wind, one of the most essential things in football. In the +colleges training for nearly all athletic events is done in this way +and a candidate who cannot go out with his squad and run four or five +miles at a stiff dog trot will have but little chance of making his +team. + + + + +XVII + +LAWN TENNIS + +How to make and mark a tennis court--Clay and sod courts--The proper +grip of the racket--Golf--The strokes and equipment + + +The steady growth in popularity of lawn tennis as well as the splendid +exercise that results from playing this game has given it a sure place +in the field of athletic sports. It is a game that requires a great +deal of skill, and as no one realizes this fact more than those who +are experts, a beginner should not be deterred from playing tennis +simply because he may fear the criticism of the more experienced. The +only way to learn the various strokes and to be able to play a good +game is to practise at every opportunity. It is better to play against +some one who is more skilful than ourselves and who will keep us on +our mettle to make a good showing. + +The eye and the muscles must work automatically and with precision. No +amount of written instructions can give us this skill. The personal +outfit for playing tennis is of course very simple. Every player +should own his racket and become accustomed to it. They cost almost +any price up to eight dollars, which will buy the very best rackets +made. The weight and size of the racket will depend on our strength. +The average weight for a man is about fourteen ounces and for a boy an +ounce or two lighter. A skilful player becomes so accustomed to the +feeling and weight of his own racket that often he will play an +indifferent game if he is forced to use any other. + +The game of lawn tennis was first played on a lawn or grass court, and +many players still prefer this kind of a court, but the difficulty of +obtaining a good sod, and after having obtained it the greater +difficulty of keeping it in good condition, have increased the +popularity of a skinned or clay court, which is always in fair +condition except immediately after a heavy rain. The expense of +maintaining a tennis court is more than most boys or most families +would care to undertake. + +As a rule, tennis courts fall in the same general class with golf +links in that they lend themselves readily to the joint ownership of a +club or school, where the expense falls on a number rather than on an +individual. In a great many places the boys of a town or village have +clubbed together and have obtained permission from some one owning a +piece of vacant ground that is not likely to be sold or improved +within a few years and have built a tennis court on it. This +arrangement helps the appearance of the land, that should be secured +at a very low rental, or none at all if the owner is public spirited +and prefers to see the boys of his town grow up as healthy, athletic +men rather than weaklings who have no place for recreation but in the +village streets, where passing trucks and automobiles will endanger +their lives, or at least cause them to be a nuisance to the public. + +[Illustration: The dimensions of a tennis court] + +To build a tennis court properly means a lot of work and it should +only be attempted under the direction of some one who understands it. +The things most important are good drainage, good light, and +sufficient room. A double court is 36 feet wide by 72 feet long, but +in tournament games or on courts where experts play it is customary to +have an open space about 60 feet wide by 110 to 120 feet long, to give +the players plenty of room to run back and otherwise to play a fast +game. A court should always be laid out north and south or as near +these points of the compass as possible. In courts running east and +west the sun is sure to be in the eyes of one of the players nearly +all day; this is of course a very serious objection. While it is very +pleasant to play tennis in the shade of a tree or building, a court +should never be located under these conditions if it is possible to +avoid it. A properly placed court should be fully exposed to the sun +all day. + +First of all it will be necessary to decide whether a grass or "dirt" +court is to be built. If the grass is fine and the place where the +court is to be happens to be level, there is little to do but to cut +the sod very short with a lawn-mower and to mark out the court. If, on +the contrary, there is much grading or levelling to be done, a dirt +court will be much cheaper and better in the end, as constant playing +on turf soon wears bare spots. The upkeep of a grass court will be +expensive unless it is feasible to move its position from time to +time. + +Whatever the court is to be, the first question to consider is proper +drainage. If the subsoil is sandy the chances are that the natural +soakage will take care of the surplus water, but on the contrary, if +the court is at the bottom of a hill or in a low place where clay +predominates, it is necessary to provide some means of getting rid of +the surplus water from rainfalls or our court may be a sea of mud just +when it would be most useful to us. To level a court properly we shall +need the services of some one expert with a levelling instrument of +some kind. It is not safe to depend on what seems to be level to our +eye, as our judgment is often influenced by leaning trees, the +horizon, and other natural objects. With a few stakes driven into the +ground, the tops of which are level, we are enabled to stretch lines +which will give us our levels accurately. + +A court should have a slope of a few inches from one end to the other +to carry off water. After the level is determined, all there is to +making a court is to fill in or cut away soil and earth until the +proper level space is obtained. As a rule it is better to dig away for +a court rather than to fill in, as we thus obtain a better bottom and +one that will require but little rolling. In the case of a slope, it +is well so to locate the court that the amount of earth excavated +from one end will be just about sufficient to fill in the other. + +The final surfacing of a court is done by means of clay and sand in +the proportion of about four or five to one, the clay of course being +in excess. To mix clay and sand thoroughly, the former should first be +pulverized thoroughly when dry and the mixture sifted over the court +carefully and evenly. The next step is rolling and wetting, and more +rolling and wetting until finally the whole is allowed to dry and is +ready for play. The slight irregularities and roller ridges that often +appear in a court will soon be worn off by the players' feet, but +playing of course will not change the grade. A new court will be +greatly improved by use, but no one should be allowed on a court +except with rubber-soled shoes. Heeled shoes will soon ruin a court, +and it is bad practice even to allow any one to walk over a court +unless with proper footwear. + +The preliminary levelling of a court can be accomplished with a rake +and a straight-edged board, but after the clay has become packed and +hard it will be necessary to use considerable force in scraping off +the inequalities. A metal cutting edge, such as a hoe or scraper, will +be found useful. A court should be swept with a coarse broom to +distribute the fine material evenly. Another very good sweeper can be +made from a piece of wood about six or eight feet long to which +several thicknesses of bagging have been tacked or fastened. The final +step in making a court consists in marking it out. Most courts are +marked so that they will be suitable either for singles or doubles or +so that either two or four people can play at a time. Where tape +markers are to be used, the proper distances will appear on the tape +without measuring, but if lime is used for marking a careful plotting +will be necessary to secure the proper distances, after which the +corners should be indicated by angle irons, so that the court may be +re-marked at any time without re-measuring. + +[Illustration: A game of doubles in lawn tennis] + +Considerable difficulty is often experienced by beginners in marking +out a court, and, in fact, it is not a simple matter. The first thing +of importance is to determine generally one corner of the court and to +get a base line and a side line at a true right angle of ninety +degrees. The same principle may be employed that is used by builders +and surveyors in "squaring a building," as it is called. You will need +a ten-foot pole with marks for the feet indicated on it in lead +pencil, and in addition to this a few 20-penny spikes and a ball of +stout twine. Drive a nail into the ground where you want one corner of +the court and fasten the line to it; then stretch the line to another +nail to mark either a side line or back line. You will then have one +side and the corner fixed, and the problem is to get another line at +right angles to it. Boys who have studied geometry know that "in a +right-angle triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum +of the squares of the other two sides." It isn't necessary to +understand this, but it is the principle employed in "squaring." You +next stretch another line and have some one hold it. On the fixed side +line you measure eight feet from the corner nail and mark it with a +piece of twine tied around the line. You also make a six-foot mark on +the line to be at right angles to it, the exact direction of which is +yet to be determined. Both of these measurements must be accurate. +The boy on the end of the loose line moves it until the distance +between the two pieces of twine is exactly the length of your ten-foot +pole. The angle thus formed is exactly ninety degrees, or a right +angle. Having obtained one side and one end, to finish marking is +simply a matter of making the necessary measurements of a court as +shown on the diagram and marking each intersecting point with a nail +driven into the ground. + +[Illustration: How to mark out a tennis court] + +Another way to lay out a court is to drive two stakes or nails into +the ground 27 feet apart. (The line of these stakes should be the +position of the net.) Then take two pieces of twine, one 47 feet 5 +inches long, and the other 39 feet. Fasten one line to each of the +spikes that you have placed 27 feet apart. Where the two lines meet +as they are pulled taut are the true corners of the court, as there +are only four points where they can meet. The various measurements can +then be marked as above by referring to the diagram. It is customary +to mark a double court and to indicate the lines for singles +afterward. + +The game of tennis may be played either by two or four persons, or +sometimes an expert player will stand two beginners. The ball used is +rubber filled with air and covered with white felt and is 2-1/2 inches +in diameter. It is necessary to play with two balls, and to save time +in chasing those that go wild it is customary to play with three or +four. + +One of the players begins by serving. The selection of the court is +usually chosen by lot or by tossing up a racket in a way similar to +tossing a cent. The side of the racket where the woven gut appears is +called "rough," and the other side "smooth." This practice is not to +be recommended, as it injures the racket. It is better to toss a coin. +The game of tennis consists in knocking the ball over the net and into +the court of your opponent, keeping up this volley until one side or +player fails to make the return properly or at all, which scores his +opponent a point. While a game in tennis consists of four points, the +simple numbers from one to four are not used. The points run 15,30, +40, game, when one side makes them all. Or it may be "15-30," "15 +all," and so on, the score of the server being mentioned first. Where +one side has nothing their score is called "love." When one side has +scored four points the game is won--with this exception: When both +sides are tied at 40, or "deuce," as it is called, the winners must +make two points more than their opponents to win. In this way the game +may be continued for a long time as the points are won first by one +side and then by the other. The score at deuce, or "40 all," will be +denoted as "vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether the +server's side or the other wins one of the two points necessary to win +from "deuce." If first one side, then the other, obtains one of these +points the score will be "vantage in" or "out," as the case may be, +and then "deuce" again, until finally when two points clear are made +it is "game." A set of tennis consists in winning six games, but in +this case also there is a peculiar condition. Where each side wins +five games it is necessary in order to win the set to obtain a lead of +two games. The score in games is then denoted just as in a single +game, "deuce" and "vantage" games being played until a majority of two +is won. + +[Illustration: Photographs of Tennis Strokes Taken in Actual Play] + +[Illustration: (a) the right and (b) the wrong way to hold a tennis +racket] + +To learn the game of tennis, first obtain a proper grip of the racket. +It should always be held firmly and as near the end as possible, the +leather butt being inside the hand. A loose grip will absolutely +prevent a player from becoming expert, as the accuracy and quickness +that are a part of tennis can never be obtained unless we have the +racket under perfect control. The various backhand, high and low +strokes will only come from constant practice. The most important +stroke to master as well as the most difficult is a swift, accurate +service. A player who is otherwise a fair player can easily lose game +after game by not having mastered his service stroke, and thus he +beats himself without any effort on the part of his opponent. The +various "twist" services have almost passed out of use. Even the best +players employ a straight, swift overhand ball. To fail to serve the +ball over the net and in the proper place is called a "fault." The +player has two chances and to fail in both is called "a double fault." +A common mistake is to attempt a swift smash on the first ball, which +may fail half the time, and then to make sure of the second ball by an +easy stroke which a skilful opponent can return almost at will and +thus either extend us to the utmost to return it or else make us fail +altogether. It is better to make sure of the first serve than to +attempt a more difficult serve than our skill will permit. + + +GOLF + +The game of golf, while of comparatively recent introduction in this +country, has sprung rapidly into popularity. It is hard to say just +why it should be such a popular game except that it combines a certain +amount of healthful outdoor exercise with an unlimited opportunity for +skill, and in addition to this, unlike the more violent games, it can +be joined in by old as well as young. The proper construction and +maintenance of a golf course is an expensive proposition. A private +course is altogether out of the question except for the very wealthy. +A club in starting with a limited amount of money will find it more +satisfactory to begin with the construction of a nine-hole or even a +six-hole course rather than to attempt a full course of eighteen holes +which will be indifferently constructed or kept up. The average +eighteen-hole course is about three miles long and is built according +to the general lay of the land. A hole in golf consists in the stretch +between the "tee," from which the ball is knocked off, and the +"putting green," where the player "putts" the ball into the "hole"--a +can sunk into the ground which has about the same diameter as a +tomato can. The score consists in the number of strokes required to +make the hole, and of course the player making the fewest number of +strokes is the winner of the hole or match. + +[Illustration: Addressing] + +[Illustration: At the top of the swing] + +[Illustration: Just before the ball is struck] + +Golf has but few rules. The secret of playing well consists in being +able to swing the clubs with accuracy and precision. There is no game +where proper form counts for more and none in which more careful +preliminary instruction by an expert is so important. If one can at +the very outset obtain the services of a professional or a skilful +player for a few lessons, it will do far more good than ten times as +many lessons after we have contracted bad habits which will have to be +unlearned. + +[Illustration: How An Expert Plays Golf] + +The surest way to be a poor golfer is first to think that it is a +sort of "old man's game," or, as one boy said, "a game of knocking a +pill around a ten-acre lot"; then when the chance to play our first +game comes along to do it indifferently, only to learn later that +there is a lot more to the skill of a good player than we ever +realized. Another very common mistake is to buy a complete outfit of +clubs, which a beginner always improperly calls "sticks," before we +really know just what shape and weight of club is best adapted to our +needs. + +[Illustration: A good outfit of clubs for golf] + +The common clubs in most players' outfits consist of a driver, +brassie, cleek, iron, and putter. We can add to this list almost +indefinitely if we wish, as there are all sorts of clubs made for +various shots and with various angles. The game of golf consists in +covering a certain fixed course in the fewest number of shots. We +shall have to practise both for distance and accuracy. The first few +shots on a hole of average length will give us an opportunity for +distance. This is especially true of the first shot, or drive, but +after that we make what are known as approach shots--that is to say, +we are approaching the putting green where we complete the hole by +"putting" the ball into the tin cup sunk into the ground. On the green +we shall need to be very careful, as a stroke wasted or poorly played +counts just as much against our score if the ball goes only a few feet +as if we sliced or "foozled" our drive. + +In scoring for golf there are two methods: Either the score of each +hole is taken and the winner of a majority of holes wins the match, or +the total score in counted as in "medal" or "tournament play." + +"Bogie score" is a fictitious score for the course that is supposed to +denote perfect playing without flukes or luck. The mysterious "Colonel +Bogie" is an imaginary player who always makes this score. + + + + +XVIII + +PHOTOGRAPHY + +The selection of a camera--Snapshots vs. real pictures--How to make a +photograph from start to finish + + +Aside from our own pleasant recollections, an album of photographs can +be the most satisfactory reminder of the good times we have had on +some vacation or outdoor trip. + +Photography has been made so easy and so inexpensive by modern methods +that every one should have some kind of a camera. Small instruments +capable of taking really excellent pictures within their limits can be +bought for five dollars or even less. Of course we cannot hope often +to obtain pictures that will be really artistic with such a small +outfit, but sometimes the inexpensive cameras will give remarkably +good results. + +Snapshot pictures seem to fill such an important place in our outdoor +life that no vacation or excursion trip seems to be complete unless +some one takes along a camera. + +The modern way of taking pictures, which is simply pressing a button +and sending a film to the professional to "do the rest," including +developing, printing and mounting, is really not photography. Almost +any one can take pictures with a small hand camera. The manufacturers +have perfected instruments so complete for this kind of work that +there is very little for us to do beyond being sure that we have an +unexposed section of film in place and that we have sufficient light +to obtain a picture. Of course we must have the focus right and must +be sure we are pointing at what we wish to take. + +Real photography is quite different from snapshot work. It is a hobby +so fascinating and with such great possibilities that there is +scarcely anything that will give a boy or girl more real pleasure in +life and a better opportunity to be outdoors than to become an expert +outdoor photographer. Unfortunately it is a rather expensive pastime, +but even with a moderate priced instrument we can obtain excellent +results under the right conditions. I have seen a prize-winning +picture in an exhibition that was made with a cigar box, with a +pinhole in one end for a lens. + +Even though one does not care to become an expert photographer, by all +means get a camera and make snapshots. It is quite a common idea for +an amateur to attribute his failures to defects in his material or +outfit. You may be sure when you fail it is your own fault. Dealers in +photographic supplies constantly have complaints from customers about +defective materials, and certainly nine out of every ten of these +cases are simply due to the carelessness of the operator with +perfectly good material. + +It is well for a beginner in photography to start with a simple +snapshot camera. They can be bought for three or four dollars up to +twenty-five. Such cameras are used with films, and simply require the +operator to expose his film in plenty of light and with the proper +attention to the distance that the object to be photographed may be +from the camera. Until we can accurately estimate distances, such as +8, 15, 25 or more feet, it will be far safer to pace off the distance, +remembering that a long step for a boy is about equivalent to three +feet. Some cameras have a universal focus and require no adjusting, +but an adjustable camera will usually give better results. + +Some cameras are so constructed that they may be used either as a hand +machine or on a tripod for view work. They can also be adapted either +to films or plates and be operated with the ground glass for +focussing, or if desired, the focussing scale and view finder may be +used. + +The size of our camera will depend largely upon our purse. The cost of +the camera itself is not the only thing to consider. All the plates +and supplies increase in proportion to the size of our instrument. A +good all around size is 4x5, or if we really wish to become +photographers the 5x7 is a standard. A number of new sizes have +recently been introduced and have proven very satisfactory. Perhaps +the best size for a snapshot camera is 3-1/4 x 5-1/2. + +There are a great many makes of cameras on the market, but even at the +risk of advertising one firm more than another it is only fair to say +that there is really nothing better in pocket snapshot machines than +the kodaks. In view cameras it is different. There are instruments of +a dozen makes any of which will produce excellent results. The tests +to apply in selecting a view camera are its workmanship, compactness, +and the various attachments and conveniences it has. The salesman from +whom you purchase will explain fully just what its possibilities are, +especially if you take some experienced person with you who can ask +questions. + +Suppose you begin photographing with a simple "snapshot" outfit. The +first thing to remember is that there is absolutely no excuse for the +large percentages of failures that beginners have in making pictures, +and which are due solely to their own carelessness and inattention to +simple details. First of all, immediately after making an exposure, be +sure to form the habit of turning the key until a fresh film comes +into place; then you will never be troubled with the question whether +you have exposed the film or not. Every professional photographer who +develops for amateurs handles many films in which some of the +negatives are blank and some are double negatives with two pictures on +one film. This is solely the fault of the photographer, who was never +quite sure and would first make the mistake of exposing a film twice, +then turning the roll without exposing it at all. If you are really in +doubt, it is better to turn the roll to the next number, as you thus +simply lose a film but preserve both negatives; if, on the other hand, +you make a double exposure, you will lose both pictures. + +The snapshot photographer should never take a picture unless he really +wants it and unless he is pretty certain of making a picture. Snapping +here and there without a proper condition of light, focus, or subject +is a very bad habit to contract. Until you can make at least eight +good pictures out of ten you are not a photographer. No average lower +than this should satisfy you. Do not blame the lens for your failures. +In recent years the art of making lenses has advanced wonderfully, and +while the one in your camera may not be an expensive one or capable of +a wide range of use, it is at least adapted to the purpose of your +instrument or you may be sure that the manufacturers would never have +used it. + +We should not consider the snapshot expert who merely presses the +button as a real photographer, even though he obtains fine pictures. +No one deserves this name who does not understand the operations of +the dark room. One who has experienced the wonderful sensation of +working in a faint yellow-ruby light and by the application of certain +mysterious chemicals of seeing a picture gradually come into view on +the creamy surface of a dry plate will never again be satisfied to +push the button and allow some one else "to do the rest." However, if +you do not wish to go into photography extensively you may at least +learn just what limits your hand camera has, and at the end of the +season in place of a lot of ill-timed pictures you can have an album +full of creditable prints for which no apology will be necessary. + +It is quite beyond the limits of this chapter to go into photography +fully, but some of the simple principles may be of use to the boy or +girl who has taken up the subject. The modern snapshot camera even of +small size has great possibilities. With a clear negative we can have +an enlargement made on bromide paper that will be a source of great +satisfaction. The actual making of enlargements is usually beyond the +limits of an amateur's outfit. In this part of photographic work it +will be better to patronize a professional. + +To become an expert photographer and one whose work will be worth +while, we must really make a study of the subject. The modern outfits +and chemicals make it very easy for us if we do our part. + +The basis of successful work is a good lens, which is really the eye +of the camera. In selecting it we should get just as good a one as we +can afford. There are a great many excellent makes of lenses on the +market and even the stock types that are supplied with moderate-priced +cameras are of very good quality. The two distinct types of lenses are +the "rapid rectilinear" and the "anastigmatic," which names refer to +their optical properties in distributing the light. For our purpose +all we need to know is that the higher price we pay the better our +lenses will be, and in addition to this the further fact that the best +kind of results can be obtained by any lens provided that we do not +try to force it to do work for which it is not adapted. + +To understand photography we must first of all get a clear notion of +the use and purpose of the stops, as the various openings or apertures +are called that the lens is provided with. A "fast" lens is one that +will give a sharp picture at a maximum opening, and such lenses are +both the most expensive and the most universal in their application. +Lenses of this class are used in making instantaneous pictures with +very rapid exposures, and for ordinary view or portrait work will +produce no better results than much slower and less expensive types. + +Perhaps the best way to understand photography as an art rather than a +"push the button" pastime is to take up the process of making a +picture step by step. To begin with, the real photographer will use +plates instead of films, as much better pictures usually are possible +by their use. Dry plates come a dozen in a box, usually packed face to +face--that is, with the film or sensitive sides facing. The +plate-holder must be loaded in a dark room or dark closet, with +absolutely no exposure to daylight or any artificial light whatever +except a very faint light from a dark-room lantern, a combination of +ruby and yellow glass or paper. We should always test our dark room +and light by means of a plate before we trust them to actual working +conditions. Take a fresh plate and cover it half with a piece of +cardboard, or if it is in a holder draw the slide half way out and +allow the dark-room light to strike it for five minutes, then develop +the plate just as you would an exposed negative, and if the test plate +shows the effect of the exposure and darkens, we shall need to make +our light safer either by adding a sheet or two of yellow or ruby +paper or we must examine our room carefully to stop up any cracks +where rays of white light may enter. We must remember that a plate +sensitive enough to record instantaneous exposures of 1-500 of a +second must be sensitive to any tiny ray of outside light also. Almost +any room will make a dark room, especially if it is used at night. By +drawing the shades and by doing our work in a far corner of the room +away from outside light we are comparatively safe. Of course an +electric street lamp or other bright light would have to be shut out, +but this can easily be done by pinning up a blanket over the window. +When we have loaded our plate-holders we are ready to make a picture. +Suppose, for example, it is to be a house or a vista of some kind such +as a group of trees or a bit of water: the first thing of importance +is to obtain a point of view that will not only give us the picture we +desire but that will leave out any undesirable features that we do not +care to take. Some cameras are provided with a small view finder for +snapshot work, and this may often be used to get a general idea of +what the picture will be. + +Successful photography consists largely in knowing just what to take +and what to omit. Sometimes an ugly piece of fence or a post will +spoil an otherwise excellent picture. We must also remember that in a +photograph our colours are expressed in black and white, and therefore +a picture that depends on its colour contrast for its beauty, such as +autumn foliage or a sunset, may be disappointing as a photograph. + +When we have decided upon our subject, the next step is to set our +camera in the proper position to permit the plate to take in what we +wish. Usually it will be necessary to shift our position several times +until we find the proper position. The tripod should be firmly set on +the ground and the camera made as level as possible. The camera should +then be focussed with the stop or diaphragm wide open. The fact that +the image is inverted as it appears on the ground glass will at first +be confusing to a beginner, but we soon become accustomed to it and +never give it a thought. Our focussing cloth should be tightly drawn +about the head to keep out as much outside light as possible. At first +we have some difficulty in seeing the image on the ground glass, but +after we learn to look at the glass and not through it we should have +no further trouble in this respect. By moving the lens backward and +forward we finally strike a position where the principal image to be +photographed will appear sharp and clear. The camera is then in focus, +but we shall discover that other objects more in the background or +foreground will appear blurred and confused. Often it is desirable to +have a blurred or "fuzzy" background, but if we desire to bring the +indistinct objects in focus we must "stop down" our lens first by +trying the No. 8 stop, and if this does not accomplish the results the +No. 16, and so on until we get what we wish. As we look at the image +on the ground glass, it will be evident that as we stop down our lens, +the more remote objects are gradually brought into view with a sharp +outline, we shall discover that the image on the ground glass becomes +less and less distinct, which shows very clearly that we are +admitting less light, and the lesson to be learned is that when we +make the exposure we must give a corresponding increase in time as the +amount of light admitted decreases. An exposure that would give a +perfect picture at No. 8 may be very much under-exposed at No. 32 +diaphragm. + +Having focussed our camera and set the stop, we then close the +shutter, insert the plate-holder in the back of the camera and +carefully draw the slide. Omitting to pull the slide is a common +mistake with beginners. We are now ready to decide just what exposure +to give our plate. Rules for exposure are almost useless, but in +general it may be said that the modern plates are lightning fast and +that in bright sunlight at midday the average exposures will not be +over 1-25 of a second. An "exposure meter" will prove to be of great +assistance to a beginner, but such arrangements are not often used by +experts except in doubtful cases. We soon find that we can guess at +average exposures with considerable accuracy, especially if we adopt a +certain brand of plate and become accustomed to its working qualities. +Of course all of these speeds must be indicated on the shutter, and +all we can do is to set our shutter at this point and squeeze the +bulb. Correct judgment in exposure will only come after experience. +In taking interior views or making pictures on dark days we shall be +less likely to make a mistake than in bright sunlight. I have made two +interior views, to one of which I gave ten minutes and the other an +hour, with practically the same result in the negative. An +over-exposed plate is flat, which means that the print will lack +contrast and be unsatisfactory as a photograph. + +After the bulb is squeezed and the exposure made we are ready to +develop our plate and to see what result we have obtained. Of course +in practice we make a number of exposures before we begin to develop. +Some photographers use numbered plate-holders and keep a record of the +pictures, time of day and of exposure, stop and any other items of +interest. We now take the plate-holder in our dark room and prepare +our developer. There are a great many developers on the market and we +can scarcely make a mistake with any of them. Probably the best of all +is "pyro," but the fact that it stains the fingers is a serious +objection to it for amateur use, and almost any other developer, such +as metol, eikonogen or hydroquinon will be better. + +These stock developers usually come in dry salts, which must be +dissolved and mixed. All of this work must be done in the light so we +can see that we are getting the proper proportions and that the +chemicals are thoroughly in solution. The developing trays should be +washed thoroughly and placed conveniently at hand so that we can find +them in the dark. In addition to developers we must have what is +called the "hypo" fixing bath. This is a solution of hyposulphite of +soda, a chemical which is used in development and which renders the +plate no longer sensitive to light, but dissolves that part which has +not been acted upon by the developer. The hypo should be in a tray or +box placed conveniently at hand but not so located that it will be +liable to become mixed with the developer or in any way to splash or +spot the plate. We must always wash the hands thoroughly after +immersing a plate in the hypo before handling a fresh plate, as a very +few drops will ruin a negative. + +After we have prepared the hypo and the developer we are ready to +develop the plate. Place it face side up in the tray and quickly pour +the developer over it, being sure that the solution covers the surface +immediately, to avoid unequal development. While we should not develop +in a strong red or yellow light we can at least place our tray in +such a position that we may watch the process of bringing up the +image out of the creamy surface of the plate. This is the most +fascinating part of photography. First the high lights will appear and +then the shadows, and then after an instant the whole image will come +into view and then begin to fade away. To know at what point +development should stop will only come by experience with negatives of +all sorts of classes. Generally speaking, when the image fades from +view and begins to appear through the film on the glass side we should +wash it quickly and immerse it in the hypo. The "fixing" in hypo will +take probably five minutes and should be continued until the white +coating is thoroughly dissolved. The plate may then be brought safely +to the light and should be washed thoroughly either in running water +for half an hour or in at least twelve changes of fresh water. Care +must be taken not to touch the film side of the plate during +development or fixing, as the gelatine coating becomes very soft and +will show the slightest scratch or abrasion. We must dry the plate +away from dust, sunlight, or artificial heat. After it is dry we are +ready to make a print. + +Photographic printing papers are of two classes--those which are used +in direct sunlight and upon which the image gradually appears, and +those which are similar to plates and which are given a very short +time exposure in artificial light and the picture developed just as we +should a plate. The beginner will probably have more uniform success +with sunlight paper after the simple process of toning and fixing is +learned, although the developing papers are extremely simple to handle +and give better results. + +The final step of trimming and mounting the print is too simple to +require explanation. + +There are a great many things that might be said about photography, +but in a book of this kind only the most simple facts are stated. If +you become a photographer you will soon learn many of the fine points. + +Our negatives should all be kept carefully in labelled envelopes and a +record kept in a book of some kind. + +When we really become expert as a photographer, there are many +opportunities to make our hobby pay. The publishers of nearly all the +magazines experience the greatest difficulty in securing the kind of +pictures they wish to reproduce. This is remarkable when so many +people are taking pictures. If one wishes to sell pictures, it is +important to study the class of materials that the magazines use. +Then, if we can secure good results, we can be almost sure of +disposing of some of our work and, in addition to the money, have the +satisfaction of seeing our pictures published. + + + + +XIX + +OUTDOOR SPORTS FOR GIRLS + +What to wear--Confidence--Horseback riding--Tennis--Golf--Camping + + +A generation ago the girl who joined her brother in his sports would +have been considered a "tom boy," but in recent years girls have +discovered that with comparatively few exceptions they can join in the +sports and recreations of their brothers and in some cases attain a +remarkable degree of skill. + +Girls' schools have done much to spread this idea. A rational outdoor +costume and a desire to be physically well also has helped "the +outdoor girl" to be regarded as the highest type of womanhood. Only +her grandmother sighs over tanned cheeks and muscular arms. + +The girl who is not a good sport is the exception rather than the +rule. Besides, our grandmothers worked at their gardening, which is +out-of-door exercise, and a preventive, as Kipling tells, of the +"hump" we get from having too little to do. He says: + + _"The cure for this ill is not to sit still, + Or frowst with a book by the fire, + But to take a large hoe and a shovel also, + And dig till you gently perspire."_ + +From a feminine standpoint the first question must be, "What shall I +wear?" There is no need to be handicapped by skirts, at least when +one's exercise is taken in company with a crowd of girls. The bicycle +introduced the bloomer girl and this costume is now generally regarded +as proper for outdoor girls. In camp one should in addition wear a +sailor blouse, and a pair of sneakers, which though rather heating for +the feet are very comfortable and very satisfactory for long tramps +through the woods. The rubber soles give a firm footing on slippery +moss and dead leaves, while high heels might cause a wrenched ankle or +a bad fall. It is perfectly allowable for a girl to wear a +broad-brimmed hat to avoid sunburn, which might be so serious as to +spoil a vacation. A gradually acquired coat of tan is much more +desirable. The hat prevents headaches or sunstroke, neither of which +may be dared with impunity by a delicate girl, unless she wears her +hair on top of her head. + +In regard to hair, which is of great importance to its owner, though +very much of a nuisance after the age when it may be worn boyishly +short, the one word is that it must be fixed to stay without +re-pinning or tucking back at frequent intervals. For bathing, a girl +must either be willing to have her hair well soaked or else to put a +cap on so tightly that it cannot be loosened. To hesitate to try a +dive for fear of getting wet hair spoils much of the sport of +swimming. Each moment of hesitation makes her more convinced that +perhaps, after all, she had better not try that dive, because she +probably would not be able to do it anyway. The lack of confidence is +disastrous. I have known girls who could swim perfectly well in the +shallows but could not keep up at all in water out of their depth. And +yet they have not been touching the bottom in the shallow water, but +they _could_ if they wished. Learning to swim in water that is over +your head is really better, though it is more "scary" at first. If you +do learn in that way you can thereafter look upon the deepest water +with confident scorn. + +Confidence is a necessary possession for the beginner in almost any +sport. It is so much easier to do anything if we are quite positive +that we can. Probably, because you are a girl and are modest, you +will have to assume this attitude, but in horseback riding, for +example, an instant of fear while on the horse's back will "give you +away" to the beast. Since he is as keen as a dog to know when you fear +and dislike him, he will undoubtedly take advantage of it. If you are +quite positive that you can learn to ride and that the horse under you +is harmless, you will keep a firm hold on the reins instead of +clinging to the saddle horn in a panic. + +The trying part of learning to ride is that the first day's experience +is painfully stiffening. This applies to almost any unusual exercise. +But to withdraw on account of that you may as well resign yourself to +taking exercise no more severe than that afforded by a rocking chair. +It does not pay to stop when you are stiff. Sticking to it is the only +way that will train those hitherto unused muscles to perform their +duties with no creaking of the hinges. A good night's rest is the +utmost limit of time that should intervene between each trial. + +A girl has the physical disadvantage of less endurance than a boy, and +she does have to care for herself in that respect, and leave untried +some forms of exercise that would be overexertion for her. A girl may +"paddle her own canoe," of course, without risk of overstraining +herself, but when it comes to moving it from place to place out of the +water, the feather-light canoe of poetry becomes heavy reality. Two +girls can carry a canoe between them for a short distance without much +difficulty, but if one is alone it is far better to drag the canoe +over the ground, which is not particularly hard on it, unless the +ground is rough. The boy's way of carrying it balanced upside down on +his shoulders requires considerable strength. + +Devotees of tennis will claim first place for that among girls' +sports. The amount of practice and quickness of thought and motion +that maybe acquired in a game of tennis is remarkable; the fascination +of the game itself rather than the benefits to be derived from it will +hold the attention. The main trouble is in the learning, which +requires unflagging energy and constant practice. An overmodest +beginner will make the mistake of playing only against her likewise +beginning friends; the result is that she takes a discouragingly long +time finding out how to use her racket properly and never gets a +chance to return a really good serve. + +It is really just as well at some point in your practising to see some +well-trained athlete do the thing you are trying to learn. + +A girl can accomplish a great deal with her brain as well as with her +muscles in athletics. Some one once remarked that he learned to swim +in winter and to skate in summer. He meant that after he had in its +proper season practised skill in the winter sport, his brain, during +the warm months, kept repeating to the muscles those directions until +by the next winter they had a very fair idea of what they had to do, +and responded more quickly and easily. It is rather consoling to think +you do not lose time, but rather progress, between seasons. + +The girl who goes camping with a crowd of boys and girls realizes how +much depends on the mere strength of the boys; at the same time she +herself has an opportunity of showing not only her athletic +proficiency and nerve, but also her superior common sense. She will +really have to leave the heavy work of pitching the tents and chopping +the wood to the boys, but she cannot sit down and fold her hands +meanwhile. She can be collecting materials for the beds of balsam on +which they hope to sleep in comfort, or she may gather chips for the +fire, or she may be helping to unload the wagon or canoes in which +they have come. When the tents are pitched she has a woman's +prerogative of "putting the house in order," and during the time of +camping keeping it so. + +If there is actually a case of nothing for her to do, far better for +her to sit down and keep quiet than to get in the way of the boys and +bother them. A young man who in his first season as a guide in the +Canadian woods took out a party of girls from a summer school on a +camping trip told me that he would never do it again, because they +gave him no relief from a continual rain of questions. A case where +zeal for knowledge outruns discretion. + +After the tents are pitched and the fire made by the boys, it is +plainly up to the girls to get supper. Let us hope they have practised +cooking for some time before they went camping. Every one gets so +desperately hungry in the outdoor life that meals are of first +importance, as tempers are apt to develop unexpectedly if many +failures are turned out. If the girls are good cooks, however, and +wash the dishes after each meal the division of labour will be fair to +all concerned. + +A girl is more or less dependent on her boy friends for instruction in +sports and considerably anxious for their approval. Even if she has a +woman instructor, in nine cases out of ten she requires some kind of +praise from some man before she is satisfied with her performance. +Sister may tell her that she steers her canoe with beautiful +precision, but unless brother remarks carelessly that "the kid +paddles pretty well" she will hesitate to take her canoe in places +where expert paddling is required. When you know that you can do some +things as well as any boy you still have to rest content with the +grudging assurance that "you do pretty well for a girl." + + + + +XX + +ONE HUNDRED OUTDOOR GAMES + + +The following games are described in this chapter: + + All-around Athletic Championship + Archery + Association Football + Badminton + Balli-callie + Bandy + Baseball + Basket Ball + Bean Bag + Best College Athletic Records + Blind Man's Buff + Boulder On + Bull in the Ring + Call Ball + Cane Rush + Canoe Tilting + Cat, or Cattie + Counting-out Rhymes + Court Tennis + Cricket + Croquet + Curling + Dixie's Land + Duck on the Rock + Equestrian Polo + Fat + Feather Race + Foot-and-a-half + Football + Garden Hockey + Golf + Golf-Croquet + Hab-Enihan + Haley Over + Hand Ball + Hand Polo + Hand Tennis + Hat Ball + Hide and Seek + High Kick + Hockey + Hop Over + Hop Scotch + Hunkety + Hunt the Sheep + Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association of America + I Spy + Jack Fagots + Jai-A-Li + Japanese Fan Ball + Kick the Stick + King of the Castle + Knuckle There + Lacrosse + Lawn Bowls + Lawn Bowling + Lawn Hockey + Lawn Skittles + Lawn Tennis + Last Tag + Luge-ing + Marathon Race + Marbles + Mumblety Peg + Names of Marbles + Nigger Baby + Olympic Games + One Old Cat + Over the Barn + Pass It + Pelota + Plug in the Ring + Polo + Potato Race + Prisoner's Base + Push Ball + Quoits + Racquets or Rackets + Red Line + Red Lion + Roley Boley + Roque + Rowing Record + Rubicon + Sack Racing + Scotland's Burning + Skiing + Soccer + Spanish Fly + Squash + Stump Master + Suckers + Tether Ball + Tether Tennis + Three-Legged Racing + Tub Racing + Volley Ball + Warning + Washington Polo + Water + Water Race + Wicket Polo + Wolf and Sheep + Wood Tag + Yank + +While all the games and sports described in this chapter are not +absolutely confined to outdoors, almost any game in which violent +physical exercise results is better if played in the open air rather +than in a house or gymnasium. In fact, we should only play indoors +when the weather makes it impossible for us to be outside. + +There are very few indoor games that cannot be played in the open air +with proper apparatus or rules. It is also equally true that many of +our outside sports may be played indoors with certain modifications. + + +ALL-AROUND ATHLETIC CHAMPIONSHIP + +This contest was instituted in America in 1884 to give athletes an +opportunity to demonstrate their ability in all-around work. The +contest is rapidly becoming the blue ribbon championship event in +America for track athletes. The following ten events are contested +for: + + 100-yard dash + High jump + Long jump + Vault + Throwing 16-pound hammer + Putting a 16-pound shot + Throwing 56-pound weight + 120-yard hurdle race + Half-mile walk + One-mile run + +The system of scoring in the All-around Championship is complicated. +Each contestant has his score made up independently. The world's best +amateur record is taken as a basis and 1,000 points are allowed for +it. For example, the best record (amateur) for the 100-yard dash is +9-4/5 seconds and for each 1/5 of a second more than this that the +runner in the All-around Championship contest makes in his trial 42 +points are deducted from this score. The same method is used in all +the events. In the ten events the maximum score where the contestant +equalled every world's record would be 10,000 points. The contest was +won in 1909 by the remarkable score of 7,385 points. + + +ARCHERY + +Archery is the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. It is especially +adapted as a lawn game for ladies and gentlemen, but boys and girls +can practise archery and become proficient with bows and arrows just +as the Indians were or the boys in England in the days of Robin Hood. +Of course the invention of gunpowder has practically done away with +the bow and arrow either as a means of warfare or as a weapon to be +used in the chase, but it is still used by savages. + +The modern bow used in archery is made of lancewood or yew and for +men's use is usually 6 feet long and for women and children 6 inches +shorter. The strength or pull necessary to bend the bow, given in +pounds, determines its classification. The arrows for men's use should +be 28 inches long and for women 24 to 25 inches. The target is a +straw-filled canvas disk painted in bright colours. There are usually +five circles and the object in archery, as in shooting with firearms, +is to hit either the centre ring or "bull's-eye" or as near to it as +possible. In scoring, a shot in the inner gold centre counts nine; red +ring, seven; inner white ring, five; black ring, three, and outer +white ring, one. Targets are of various sizes from 18 inches in +diameter to 4 feet, depending on the distance of the range. A common +distance will be from 50 to 100 yards. + +Each archer should have some distinguishing mark or colour on his +arrows. Standard lancewood bows will cost two or three dollars, arrows +from one to two dollars a dozen, and targets from two to five dollars +each, with three dollars extra for the target stand. + +In championship matches in archery the customary range for men is 60 +yards with 96 arrows, and the same number of arrows at 50 yards for +women. A recent match championship was decided for men with 90 hits +and a total score of 458, and for women with 85 hits and a total +score of 441. + + +ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL OR SOCCER + +A game similar to Rugby football except that it more closely resembles +what its name implies and kicking predominates. A round, +leather-covered ball is used and the game is considered to be much +safer than our college football. Efforts consequently have been made +to introduce the game into American colleges because of its less +dangerous character. As there is practically no tackling or falling, +the "soccer" uniform does not require the same amount of padding as a +Rugby player's uniform. The game is ordinarily played in running +trousers with a full sleeved shirt and special shoes with leather pegs +or cleats. The stockings are rolled down just below the knee. The +association football goal net into which the ball is kicked is +fastened to the ground and is made of tarred rope. Thus far, the game +has not been very popular in America, although a number of exhibition +match games have recently been played by visiting English teams which +attracted considerable attention. As a game, soccer is fast and +exciting, and splendid opportunities are given for team work; but for +some reason it has not succeeded in displacing our American game of +Rugby, although possibly it is more interesting for the spectator. + + +BADMINTON + +An English outdoor game similar to lawn tennis but played with +shuttlecocks. The net is five feet above the ground. The shuttlecock +is a cork in which feathers have been inserted. The shuttlecock is +served and returned as in tennis and either two or four may play. A +badminton court is 30 feet wide and 44 feet long. + + +BANDY + +A game very similar to hockey, except that it is played out of doors +instead of in a covered rink and a ball is used in place of a puck or +rubber disk. + +The name "bandy" is sometimes applied also to shinney or shinty and in +England it is also applied to our American game of ice hockey. + + +BASEBALL + +The national game of America. (See chapter on baseball.) The game is +played by eighteen persons, nine on a side, called "nines." The +positions are pitcher, catcher, first base, second base, third base, +shortstop, right-field, left-field, centre-field. The first six +positions are called the in-field, and the last three, the out-field. +The diamond or field where the game is played is a square plot of +ground with sides ninety feet long. At each corner of the square are +bases called first, second, third and home plate. A game consists of +nine innings, in each of which both teams have an opportunity to bat +the ball and to score runs. The players bat in turn and attempt to +reach the various bases without being put out by their opponents. Each +year the rules are changed in some slight particulars, consequently a +beginner in baseball must be thoroughly familiar with the rules of the +game before attempting to play. The pitcher attempts to pitch the ball +over the home plate to the catcher and the batsman endeavours to hit +it. If the ball after being hit is caught by one of the opposing +players, or if it is thrown to the base to which the batsman is +running before he reaches the base, he is "out." Otherwise he is +"safe" and will try to make the next base. If he completes the circuit +of the four bases without being put out, he scores a run for his team +or nine. When a player makes the entire circuit without being forced +to stop for safety he makes a "home run." A hit which gains him a +single base only is called a "base hit." Similarly if he reaches +second base it is a "two-bagger," and third base, a "three-bagger." + +After three players are put out, the other side has its "innings," and +at the completion of nine full innings the side having scored the +greatest number of runs is the winner. The game of baseball has become +very scientific and the salaries of professional players are almost as +high as those of the highest salaried men in business life. + +The ball used in the game is made of the best all wool yarn with a +horsehide cover and a rubber centre. Baseball bats are usually made of +ash. + + +BASKET BALL + +A game of ball which may be played either indoors or out, but which is +especially adapted to in-door play when weather conditions make +out-door sports impossible. Two baskets suspended on wire rings are +placed at the two opposite ends of a room or gymnasium and the players +strive to knock or pass the ball from one to another on their own side +and to throw it so that it will fall into the basket. It is not +permissible to run with the ball as in Rugby football. The ball used +is round, but in other respects resembles the ball used in football. +It is made in four sections of grained English leather and is +inflated by means of a rubber bladder. The players use rubber-soled +shoes with peculiar knobs, ridges, or depressions to prevent slipping. +The conventional uniform is simply a gymnasium shirt, running +trousers, and stockings which are rolled down just below the knees. + +The game of basket ball is especially adapted to women and girls and +consequently it is played very largely in girls' schools and colleges. + +Any level space may be used for basket ball. A convenient size is 40 +by 60 feet. The baskets used for goals are 18 inches in diameter and +are fixed 10 feet above the ground or floor. The official ball weighs +about 18 ounces and is 31 inches in circumference. Five players +constitute a team. The halves are usually twenty minutes, with a +ten-minute intermission for rest. + +It is not permissible to kick, carry or hold the ball. Violation of a +rule constitutes a foul and gives the opponents a free throw for the +basket from a point fifteen feet away. A goal made in play counts two +points and a goal from a foul one point. + + +BEAN BAGS + +This game is known to every one by name and yet its simple rules are +often forgotten. A couple of dozen bean bags are made in two colours +of muslin. The players stand in two lines opposite each other and +evenly divided. At the end of the line is a clothes basket. The bags +are placed on two chairs at the opposite end of the line and next to +the two captains. At a signal the captains select a bag and pass it to +the next player, who passes it along until finally it is dropped into +the basket. When all the bags are passed they are then taken out and +passed rapidly back to the starting point. The side whose bags have +gone up and down the line first scores a point. If a bag is dropped in +transit it must be passed back to the captain, who starts it again. +Five points usually constitute a game. + + +BEST COLLEGE ATHLETIC RECORDS + +These records have been made in the Intercollegiate contests which are +held annually under the Intercollegiate Amateur Athletic Association +of America. + + 100-yard dash 9-4/5 seconds made in 1896 + 220-yard dash 21-1/5 seconds made in 1896 + 440-yard dash 48-4/5 seconds made in 1907 + Half-mile run 1 min. 56 seconds made in 1905 + One-mile run 4 min. 17-4/5 seconds made in 1909 + Two-mile run 9 min. 27-3/5 seconds made in 1909 + Running broad jump 24 feet 4-1/2 in. made in 1899 + Running high jump 6 feet 3-1/4 in. made in 1907 + Putting 16-pound shot 46 feet 5-1/2 in. made in 1907 + Throwing the hammer 164 feet 10 in. made in 1902 + Pole vault 12 feet 3-1/4 in. made in 1909 + 120-yard high hurdle 15-1/5 seconds made in 1908 + 220-yard hurdle 23-3/5 seconds made in 1898 + One-mile walk 6 min. 45-2/5 seconds made in 1898 + + +BLIND MAN'S BUFF + +This game is played in two ways. In each case one player is +blindfolded and attempts to catch one of the others and to identify +him by feeling. In regular blind man's buff, the players are allowed +to run about at will and sometimes the game is dangerous to the one +blindfolded, but in the game of "Still Pon" the one who is "it" is +turned several times and then announces, "Still Pon no more moving," +and awards a certain number of steps, which may be taken when in +danger of capture. After this number is exhausted the player must +stand perfectly still even though he is caught. + + +BULL IN THE RING + +In this game the players form a circle with clasped hands. To be +"bull" is the position of honour. The bull is supposed to be locked in +by various locks of brass, iron, lead, steel, and so on. He endeavours +to break through the ring by catching some of the players off their +guard. He will then run until captured, and the one who catches him +has the position of bull for the next game. In playing, it is +customary for the bull to engage one pair of players in conversation +by asking some question such as "What is your lock made of?" At the +answer, brass, lead, etc., he will then make a sudden rush at some +other part of the ring and try to break through. + + +CALL BALL + +In this game a rubber ball is used. One of the players throws it +against a wall and as it strikes calls out the name of another player, +who must catch it on its first bounce. If he does so he in turn then +throws the ball against the wall, but if he misses he recovers it as +quickly as possible while the rest scatter, and calls "stand," at +which signal all the players must stop. He then throws it at whoever +he pleases. If he misses he must place himself against the wall and +each of the others in turn has a free shot at him with the ball. + + +CANE RUSH + +This contest is usually held in colleges between the rival freshman +and sophomore classes. A cane is held by some non-contestant and the +two classes endeavour by pulling and pushing and hauling to reach the +cane and to hold their hands on it. At the end of a stated time, the +class or side having the most hands on the cane is declared the +winner. It is a very rough and sometimes dangerous game and in many +colleges has been abolished on account of serious injuries resulting +to some of the contestants. + + +CANOE TILTING + +This is a revival of the ancient game of tilting as described in +"Ivanhoe," except that the tilters use canoes instead of horses and +blunt sticks in place of spears and lances. The object is for the +tilter to shove his opponent out of his canoe, meanwhile seeing to it +that the same undesirable fate does not fall to his own lot. In +singles each contestant paddles his own canoe with one end of his pike +pole, but the sport is much greater if each canoe has two occupants, +one to paddle and the other to do the "tilting". + + +CAT + +A small block of wood pointed at both ends is used in this game. The +batter strikes it with a light stick and as it flies into the air +attempts to bat it with the stick. If the cat is caught the batter is +out. Otherwise he is entitled to a score equal to the number of jumps +it will take him to reach the place where the cat has fallen. He then +returns to bat again and continues until he is caught out. + + +COUNTING-OUT RHYMES + +Almost every section has some favourite counting-out rhyme of its own. +Probably the two most generally used are: + + "_My mother told me to take this one_," + +and that old classic-- + + "_Eeny, meeny, miny, mo._ + _Catch a nigger by the toe;_ + _If he hollers, let him go._ + _Eeny, meeny, miny, mo._" + +This is also varied into + + "_Ena, mena, mona, mite._ + _Pasca, laura, bona, bite._ + _Eggs, butter, cheese, bread._ + _Stick, stock, stone dead._" + +The object of a counting-out rhyme is to determine who is to be "it" +for a game. As each word is pronounced by the counter some one is +pointed at, and at the end of the verse the one last pointed at is +"it." + + +COURT TENNIS + +This game, though very similar to rackets and squash, is more +scientific than either. The court is enclosed by four walls. A net +midway down the court divides the "service" side from the "hazard" +side. The rackets used in court tennis have long handles and a large +face. The balls used are the same size as tennis balls, but are +heavier and stronger. In play, the ball rebounds over the court and +many shots are made against the roof. While somewhat similar to lawn +tennis, the rules of court tennis are extremely complicated. The game +is scored just as in lawn tennis, except that instead of calling the +server's score first the marker always announces the score of the +winner of the last stroke. + + +CRICKET + +A game of ball which is generally played in England and the British +provinces, but which is not very popular in the United States. There +are two opposite sides or sets of players of eleven men each. At two +points 22 yards apart are placed two wickets 27 inches high and +consisting of three sticks called stumps. As in baseball, one side +takes the field and the other side is at the bat. Two men are at bat +at a time and it is their object to prevent the balls from being +bowled so that they will strike the wickets. To do this a broad bat is +used made of willow with a cane handle, through which are inserted +strips of rubber to give greater spring and driving power. The batsman +will either merely stop the ball with his bat or will attempt to drive +it. When the ball is being fielded the two batsmen exchange wickets, +and each exchange is counted as a run, and is marked to the credit of +the batsman or striker. The batsman is allowed to bat until he is out. +This occurs when the ball strikes the wicket and carries away either a +bail, the top piece, or a stump, one of the three sticks. He is also +out if he knocks down any part of his own wicket or allows the ball to +do it while he is running, or if he interferes with the ball by any +part of his person as it is being thrown, or if one of the opposing +players catches a batted ball before it touches the ground, as in +baseball. + +When ten of the eleven men on a side have been put out it constitutes +an inning, and the side in the field takes its turn at the bat. The +game usually consists of two innings, and at its completion the side +having scored the greater number of runs is the winner. The eleven +positions on a cricket team are called bowler, wicket-keeper, long +stop, slip, point cover-slip, cover-point, mid-off, long-leg, +square-leg, mid-on. The one at bat is, as in baseball, called the +batsman. The two lines between which the batsmen stand while batting +are called "popping creases" and "bowling creases." + + +CROQUET + +A game played with wooden balls and mallets, on a flat piece of +ground. The game consists in driving the ball around a circuitous +course through various wire rings called "wickets" and, after striking +a wooden peg or post, returning to the starting place. Any number may +play croquet either independently or on sides. Each player may +continue making shots as long as he either goes through a wicket, hits +the peg or post, or hits the ball of an opponent. In this latter case +he may place his ball against that of his opponent and, holding the +former with his foot, drive his opponent's ball as far as possible +from the croquet ground. He then also has another shot at his wicket. + +A croquet set consists of mallets, balls, wickets, and stakes and may +be bought for two or three dollars. Experts use mallets with much +shorter handles than those in common sets. They are made of either +maple, dogwood, or persimmon. In place of wooden balls, championship +and expert games are often played with balls made of a patented +composition. All croquet implements are usually painted in bright +colours. The game of "roque" is very similar to croquet. + +Croquet can be made more difficult by using narrow arches or wickets. +Hard rubber balls are more satisfactory than wood and also much more +expensive. + +As a rule the colours played in order are red, white, blue and black. +According to the rules any kind of a mallet may be used, depending +upon the individual preference of the player. + + +CURLING + +An ancient Scotch game played on the ice, in which the contestants +slide large flat stones, called curling stones, from one point to +another. These points or marks are called "tees." In playing, an +opportunity for skill is shown in knocking an opponent out of the way, +and also in using a broom ahead of the stone as it slides along to +influence its rate of speed. + +At the present time the greatest curling country is Canada. Curling is +one of the few outdoor games that are played without a ball of some +kind. + + +DIXIE'S LAND + +This game is also called "Tommy Tiddler's Land." It is a game of tag +in which a certain portion of the playground is marked off as the +"land." The one who is "it" endeavours to catch the others as they +invade his land. When a player is tagged he also becomes "it," and so +on until the game ends because all the invaders are captured. The game +is especially interesting because of the variety of verses and rhymes +used in various parts of the country to taunt the one who is "it" as +they come on his land. + + +DUCK ON A ROCK + +This game is also called "Boulder Up." It is not customary to "count +out" to decide it. For this game usually some one suggests, "Let's +play Duck on a Rock," and then every one scurries around to find an +appropriate stone, or "duck." As fast as they are found the fact is +announced by the cry, "My one duck," "My two duck," etc. The last boy +to find a stone is "drake," or "it." + +The drake is larger than the ducks and is placed on an elevated +position such as a boulder. Then from a specified distance ducks +attempt to hit the drake and to knock him from his position. If they +miss they are in danger of being tagged by the drake, as it is his +privilege to tag any player who is not in possession of his duck. If, +however, the drake is knocked from his perch, the ducks have the +privilege of rushing in and recovering their stones, but unless they +do so before the drake replaces his stone on the rock they may be +tagged. The first one tagged becomes "it" and the drake becomes a +duck. + + +FAT + +This is the universal game of marbles. It is sometimes called "Yank," +or "Knuckle There." A ring is scratched in the ground a foot or two in +diameter. It is then divided into four parts by two lines drawn +through the diameter. The first step is for each player to "lay a +duck," which in simple language means to enter a marble to be played +for. This is his entrance fee and may be either a "dub," an "alley," a +"crystal," or sometimes a "real," although this is very rare as well +as extravagant. About ten feet from this ring a line is made called a +"taw line." The first player, usually determined as soon as school is +out by his having shouted, "First shot, fat!" stands behind the taw +line and shoots to knock out a marble. If he is successful he +continues shooting; if not he loses his turn and Number 2 shoots. +Number 1 after his first shot from the taw line must then shoot from +wherever his marble lies. If Number 2 can hit Number 1 he has a right +to claim all the marbles that Number 1 has knocked out of the ring. In +this way it is very much to the advantage of each player to leave +himself as far from the taw line as possible. + + +FEATHER RACE + +The contestants endeavour to blow a feather over a certain course in +the shortest time. The rule is that the feather must not be touched +with the hands. Out of doors this game is only possible on a very +still day. + + +FOOT AND A HALF + +This is a game of "Leap Frog" also called "Par" or "Paw." One of the +boys is chosen "down," who leans over and gives a "back" to the rest, +who follow leader, usually the boy who suggests the game. He will +start making an easy jump at first and over "down's" back, then +gradually increase the distance of the point at which he lands, and +each of those following must clear this line or become "it" +themselves. The leader must also surpass his previous jumps each time +or he becomes "down" himself. In this way the smaller or less agile +boys have a more equal chance with the stronger ones. + + +FOOTBALL + +The present game of football as played in American schools and +colleges is a development of the English game of Rugby. There are +twenty-two players, eleven on a side or team. The game is played on a +level field, at each end of which are goal posts through which the +team having the ball in its possession attempts to force or "rush" it, +while their opponents by various means, such as tackling, shoving or +blocking, strive to prevent the ball from being successfully forced +behind the goal line or from being kicked over the crossbar between +the goal-posts. A football field is 330 feet long by 160 feet wide. It +is usually marked out with white lines five yards apart, which gives +the field the name of "gridiron." The various positions on a football +team are centre rush, right and left guards, right and left tackles, +right and left ends, quarter-back, right and left half-back, and +full-back. As in baseball, the rules of football are constantly being +changed and the game as played ten or fifteen years ago is very +different from the modern game. The various changes in rules have been +made with a view to making the game less dangerous to the players and +more interesting to the spectator. + +The principal scores in football are the "touchdown" and the "field +goal." In a touchdown the ball is carried by one of the players and +touched on the ground behind the opponents' goal line. In a field +goal, or, as it is often called, "a goal from the field," the ball is +kicked over the crossbar between the goal posts. In a field goal the +player executing it must not kick the ball until after it has touched +the ground. Such a kick is called a "drop kick" as distinguished from +a "punt" where the ball is released from the hands and immediately +kicked before touching the ground. A team in possession of the ball is +allowed a certain number of attempts to advance it the required +distance. Each of these attempts is called a "down." If they fail to +gain the necessary distance, the ball goes to their opponents. It is +customary on the last attempt, or down, to kick the ball so that when +the opposing team obtains possession of it it will be as far as +possible from the goal line toward which they are rushing. In this +play a "punt" is allowed. There are also other scores. A safety is +made when a team is forced to touch the ball down behind its own goal +line. + +The ball used in American football is a long oval case made of leather +and inflated by means of a rubber bag or envelope. The football +player's uniform consists of a heavily padded pair of trousers made of +canvas, moleskin, khaki or other material, a jacket made of the same +material, a tight-fitting jersey with elbow and shoulder pads, heavy +stockings, and cleated shoes. Players will often use other pads, +braces and guards to protect them from injury. Football is usually +played in the fall months after baseball has been discontinued on +account of the cold weather. A full game consists of four +fifteen-minute periods. + + +GARDEN HOCKEY + +This game is played between two parallel straight lines, 3 feet 6 +inches apart and marked on the lawn with two strips of tape. At the +opposite two ends of the tape are two goal posts 14 inches apart with +a crossbar. The length of the tapes should be 36 feet when two or +four players engage in the game, and may be extended for a greater +number. The game is played with balls and hockey sticks. The game is +started by placing the ball in the centre of the field. The two +captains then face each other and at a signal strike off. If the ball +is driven outside the tape boundaries it must be returned to the +centre of the field opposite the place where it crossed the line. The +object of the game is to score a goal through your opponents' goal +posts as in ice hockey. If a player steps over the tape into the +playing space he commits a foul. The penalty for a foul is a free hit +for his opponents. + + +GOLF + +A game played over an extensive piece of ground which is divided into +certain arbitrary divisions called holes. A golf course is usually +undulating with the holes laid out to afford the greatest possible +variety of play. The ordinary course consists of either nine or +eighteen holes from 100 to 500 yards apart. An ideal course is about +6000 yards long. The holes which mark the termination of a playing +section consist of tin cans 4 inches in diameter sunk into and flush +with the level of the surrounding turf, which is called "the putting +green." The game is played with a gutta-percha ball weighing about +1-3/4 ounces and with a set of "clubs" of various odd shapes and for +making shots under various conditions. Usually a boy accompanies each +player to carry his clubs. Such boys are called "caddies." The clubs +are peculiarly named and it is optional with each player to have as +many clubs as he desires. Some of the more common ones are called +"driver," "brassie," "cleek," "iron," "mashie," "niblick," "putter," +and "lofting iron." + +The game, which may be played by either two or four players, consists +in endeavouring to drive the ball over the entire course from hole to +hole in the fewest possible number of strokes. At the start a player +takes his position on what is called the "teeing ground" and drives +the ball in the direction of the first hole, the position of which is +shown in the distance by a flag or tin sign with a number. Before +driving he is privileged to place the ball on a tiny mound of earth or +sand which is called a "tee." The players drive in order and then +continue making shots toward the hole until finally they have all +"holed out" by "putting" their balls into the hole, and the lowest +score wins the hole. + +Golf is a game in which form is more essential than physical strength +and which is adapted for elderly people as well as the young. The +wooden clubs are usually made with either dogwood or persimmon heads +and with split hickory handles or shafts. The handles are usually +wound with a leather grip. Golf clubs of good quality will cost from +two to three dollars apiece and a set for most purposes will consist +of four to six clubs. The caddy bag to carry the clubs is made of +canvas or leather and will cost from two dollars up. Standard quality +golf balls will cost about nine dollars a dozen. Almost any +loose-fitting outdoor costume is suitable for playing golf and the +tendency in recent years is to wear long trousers in preference to +what are known as "golf trousers." + +A golf course--sometimes called a "links," from a Scotch word meaning +a flat stretch of ground near the seashore--should be kept in good +condition in order to enjoy the game properly. The leading golf clubs +maintain a large force of men who are constantly cutting the grass, +repairing damages to the turf, and rolling the greens. For this reason +it is a game only adapted to club control unless one is very wealthy +and can afford to maintain private links. + + +GOLF-CROQUET + +This game may be played either by two or four persons. Wickets are +placed at irregular distances, and the object of the game is to drive +a wooden ball 2-3/4 inches in diameter through these wickets. It may +be played either as "all strokes," in which the total number of +strokes to get through all the wickets is the final score, or as in +golf, "all wickets," in which the score for each wicket is taken +separately, as each hole in golf is played. The mallet used is +somewhat different from a croquet mallet. The handle is longer and a +bevel is made on one end to raise or "loft" the ball as in golf. + +The size of a golf-croquet course will depend upon the field +available. A field 200 yards long will make a good six-wicket course. + + +HAB-ENIHAN + +This game is played with smooth stones about the size of a butter +dish. A target is marked on the sand or on any smooth piece of ground, +or if played on the grass the target must be marked with lime similar +to marks on a tennis court. The outside circle of the target should +be six feet in diameter, and every six inches another circle described +with a piece of string and two pegs for a compass. + +The object of the game is to stand at a stated distance from the +"enihan," or target, and to toss the "habs" as in the game of quoits. +The player getting the best score counting from the inside ring or +bull's-eye wins the game. + + +HALEY OVER + +The players, equally divided, take positions on opposite sides of a +building such as a barn, so that they can not be seen by their +opponents. A player on one side then throws the ball over the roof and +one of his opponents attempts to catch it and to rush around the +corner of the building and throw it at one of the opposing side. If he +succeeds, the one hit is a prisoner of war and must go over to the +other side. The game continues until all of one side are captured. + + +HAND BALL + +A game of ancient Irish origin which is much played by baseball +players and other athletes to keep in good condition during the winter +when most outdoor sports are impossible. + +A regulation hand ball court has a back wall 30 feet high and 50 feet +wide. Each game consists of twenty-one "aces." The ball is 1-7/8 +inches in diameter and weighs 1-5/8 ounces. The ball is served and +returned against the playing wall just as in many of the other indoor +games and is similar in principle to squash and rackets. + + +HAND POLO + +A game played with a tennis ball in which two opposing sides of six +players each endeavour to score goals by striking the ball with the +hands. The ball must be struck with the open hand. In play, the +contestants oppose each other by shouldering and bucking and in this +way the game can be made a dangerous one. + +The goal is made into a cage form 3 feet 6 inches square. At the +beginning of the game the ball is placed in the centre of the playing +surface and the players rush for it. The umpire in hand polo is a very +important official and calls all fouls, such as tripping, catching, +holding, kicking, pushing, or throwing an opponent. Three fouls will +count as a goal for the opponents. + + +HAND TENNIS + +A game of lawn tennis in which the hand is used in place of a racket. +A hand tennis court is smaller than a regulation tennis court. Its +dimensions are 40 feet long and 16 feet wide. The net is 2 feet high. +The server is called the "hand in" and his opponent the "hand out." A +player first scoring twenty-five points wins the game. A player can +only score when he is the server. + +A foul line is drawn 3 feet on each side of the net, inside of which +play is not allowed. In all essential particulars of the rules the +game is similar to lawn tennis. + + +HAT BALL + +This game is very similar to Roley Boley or Nigger Baby except that +hats are used instead of hollows in the ground. The ball is tossed to +the hats and the first boy to get five stones, or "babies," in his hat +has to crawl through the legs of his opponents and submit to the +punishment of being paddled. + + +HIGH KICK + +A tin pan or wooden disk is suspended from a frame by means of a +string and the contestants in turn kick it as it is drawn higher and +higher until finally, as in high jumping, it reaches a point where +the survivor alone succeeds in touching it with his toe. + + +HOCKEY + +Hockey is usually played on the ice by players on skates, although, +like the old game of shinney, it may be played on any level piece of +ground. The hockey stick is a curved piece of Canadian rock elm with a +flat blade. Instead of a ball the modern game of ice hockey is played +with a rubber disk called a "puck." In hockey, as in many other games, +the whole object is to drive the puck into your opponents' goal and to +prevent them from driving it into yours. Almost any number of boys can +play hockey, but a modern team consists of five players. Hockey skates +are of special construction with long flat blades attached to the +shoes. The standard length of blade is from 14-1/2 to 15-1/2 inches. +They cost from three to six dollars. The hockey player's uniform is a +jersey, either padded trousers or tights, depending upon his position, +and padded shin guards for the goal tenders. + + +HOP OVER + +All but one of the players, form a ring standing about two feet apart. +Then by some "counting out" rhyme some one is made "it." He then +takes his place in the centre of the circle, holding a piece of stout +string on the end of which is tied a small weight or a book. He whirls +the string about and tries to strike the feet or ankles of some one in +the circle, who must hop quickly as the string comes near him. If he +fails to "hop over" he becomes "it." + + +HOP SCOTCH + +Hop scotch is a game that is played by children all over the world. A +court about 20 feet long and 4 or 5 feet wide is drawn with chalk, +coal, or a piece of soft brick on the sidewalk or scratched with a +pointed stick on a piece of level ground. A line called the "taw line" +is drawn a short distance from the court. The court is divided into +various rectangles, usually eleven divisions, although this varies in +different sections. At the end of the court a half circle is drawn, +variously called the "cat's cradle," "pot," or "plum pudding." The +players decide who is to be first, second, etc., and a flat stone or +piece of broken crockery or sometimes a folded piece of tin is placed +in division No. 1. The stone is called "potsherd." The object of the +game is to hop on one foot and to shoot the potsherd in and out of the +court through the various divisions until they are all played. He +then hops and straddles through the court. Whenever he fails to do the +required thing the next player takes his turn. + + +HUNT THE SHEEP + +Two captains are chosen and the players divided into equal sides. One +side stays in the home goal and the other side finds a hiding place. +The captain of the side that is hidden or "out" then goes back to the +other side and they march in a straight line to find the hidden sheep. +When they approach the hiding place their own captain shouts, "Apple!" +which is a warning that danger is near. When he is sure of their +capture or discovery he shouts, "Run, sheep, run!" and all the party +make a dash for the goal. + + +INTERCOLLEGIATE AMATEUR ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA + +This association controls the field athletic contests between the +colleges known as the "Intercollegiates." + +It is generally known as the I.C.A.A.A.A. To win a point for one's +college in this contest is the highest honour that a track athlete may +obtain. In these games, which take place annually, the following +thirteen events are contested for: + + Mile run + Shotput + 440-yard run + 120-yard hurdles + 100-yard dash + Running high jump + Two-mile run + 880-yard run + 220-yard low hurdles + Pole vault + Broad jump + 220-yard dash + Hammer throw + + +I SPY + +This game is sometimes called "Hide and Seek," One of the players is +made "it" by any of the familiar counting-out rhymes. The rest then +secure a hiding place while he counts fifty or one hundred. A certain +tree or fence corner is considered "home." "It" then attempts to spy +his hidden playmates in their hiding places and to run "home" +shouting, "I spy" and their names. If the one discovered can get home +before "it," he does so, shouting, "In free!" with all the breath that +is left in him. The game is especially interesting just at dusk, when +the uncertain light makes the "outs" brave in approaching home without +detection. If "it" succeeds in capturing all the players the first +one caught is "it" for the next game. + + +JACK FAGOTS + +This game is the same in principle as Jackstraws except that fagots or +sticks of wood two feet long are used in place of jackstraws. They are +removed from a pile with a crooked stick and must be taken out one at +a time without disturbing the rest. The number of sticks removed +constitutes a player's score. When any stick other than the one he is +trying for is moved he loses his turn. The next player must attempt to +remove the same stick that the other failed on. The game is won by the +player having the greatest number of sticks to his credit. + + +JAPANESE FAN BALL + +This game is especially adapted for a lawn party for girls. Either +Japanese fans or the ordinary palm-leaf fans will do for rackets. The +balls are made of paper and should be six or eight inches in diameter +and in various colours. At opposite ends of a space about the size of +a tennis court are erected goal-posts similar to those used in +football, but only six feet above ground. These may be made of light +strips of wood. There is also a similar pair of posts and a crossbar +midway between the goals. + +The game is played by two contestants at a time. Each takes an +opposite end of the court and tosses the ball into the air. Then by +vigorous fanning she endeavours to keep it aloft and to drive it over +the opponent's goal-post. At the middle posts the ball must be +"fanned" under the crossbar. If the ball falls to the ground it may be +picked up on the fan and tossed aloft again, but it must not be +touched by the hands. The winner is the one who first drives the ball +the length of the court and over the crossbar. + + +KICK THE STICK + +One player is chosen to be "it" and the rest are given a count of +twenty-five or fifty to hide. A stick is leaned against a tree or wall +and this is the home goal. As soon as the goal keeper can spy one of +the players he runs in and touches the stick and makes a prisoner, who +must come in and stand behind the stick. If one of the free players +can run in and kick the stick before the goal tender touches it, he +frees all the rest and they scurry to a place of hiding before the +stick can again be set up and the count of twenty-five made. As the +object of the game is to free your fellow-prisoners, the free players +will attempt all sorts of ruses to approach the stick without being +seen or to make a dash for it in hope of kicking it ahead of the goal +keeper. The game is over when all the players are captured, and the +first prisoner is "it" for the next game. + + +KING OF THE CASTLE + +This can be made a very rough game, as it simply consists in a player +taking a position on a mound or hillock and defying any one to +dislodge him from his position by the taunting words: + + "_I'm the King of the Castle,_ + _Get down you cowardly rascal._" + +The rest try to shove him from his position and to hold it +successfully against all comers themselves. The game, if played +fairly, simply consists in fair pulls and pushes without grasping +clothing, but if played roughly it is almost a "free-for-all" fight. + + +LACROSSE + +A game of ball played by two opposing teams of twelve players each. +The lacrosse field is a level piece of ground with net or wire goals +at each end. The players strive to hurl the ball into their opponents' +goal by means of a lacrosse stick or "crosse." This is a peculiar bent +stick with a shallow gut net at one end. It somewhat resembles a +tennis racket, but is more like a snowshoe with a handle. The game +originated with the Indians and is much played in Canada. + +In playing, the ball must not be touched with the hands, but is hurled +from one player to another by the "lacrosses" until it is possible to +attempt for a goal. It is also passed when a player is in danger of +losing the ball. + +Lacrosse sticks cost from two to five dollars each and are made of +hickory with rawhide strings. The players wear specially padded gloves +to protect the knuckles. The usual uniform for lacrosse is a +tight-fitting jersey and running trousers. + + +LAWN BOWLS + +This is a very old game and of great historic importance. The famous +Bowling Green in New York City was named from a small park where the +game was played by New Yorkers before the Revolution. The game is +played with wooden balls five inches in diameter and painted in +various gay colours. Usually lignum vitae is the material used. They +are not perfectly round but either slightly flattened at the poles +into an "oblate spheroid" or made into an oval something like a modern +football. Each player uses two balls, which are numbered. A white +ball, called a "jack ball," is then thrown or placed at the end of the +bowling green or lawn and the players in turn deliver their balls or +"bowl" toward the jack. The whole game consists in placing your ball +as near to the jack as possible and of knocking away the balls of your +opponents. It is also possible to strike the jack and to drive it +nearer to where the balls of your side are lying. When all the players +have bowled, the two balls nearest the jack each count a point for the +side owning it. The game if played by sides is somewhat different from +a two-handed contest. The main point first is to deliver the ball as +near to the jack as possible and then to form a barrier or "guard" +behind it with succeeding balls to block those of your adversaries. +Sometimes the Jack is placed in the middle of the green and the teams +face each other and bowl from opposite ends. A green is about seventy +feet square with closely cropped grass. Four players form a "rink" and +are named "leader," "second," "third," and "skip" or captain. The +position from which the balls are delivered is called the "footer." It +is usually a piece of cloth or canvas three feet square. + + +LAWN BOWLING + +This game is similar in every respect to indoor bowling except that no +regular alley is used. A net for a backstop is necessary. The pins +are set upon a flat surface on a lawn and the players endeavour to +knock down as many pins as possible in three attempts. The scoring is +the same as in indoor bowling. To knock down all ten pins with one +ball is called a "strike," in two attempts it is a "spare." In the +score, the strike counts ten for the player and in addition also +whatever he gets on the next two balls. Likewise he will count ten for +a spare, but only what he gets on one ball for a bonus. As a +consequence the maximum or perfect score in bowling is 300, which is a +series of ten strikes and two more attempts in which he knocks down +all the pins. In lawn bowling the scores are very low as compared with +the indoor game, where good players will often average close to 200 on +alleys where they are accustomed to bowl. Lawn bowling is a different +game from lawn bowls, which is described in a preceding paragraph. + + +LAWN HOCKEY + +This game is played on a field a little smaller than a football field, +being 110 yards long and from 50 to 60 yards wide. The ball used is an +ordinary cricket ball. The goals are two upright posts 12 feet apart +and with a crossbar 7 feet from the ground. Eleven men on a side +constitute a full team, but the game may be played with a fewer +number. The positions are known as three forwards, five rushes, two +backs or guards, and the goal tender. + +The object of the game is very simple, being to drive the ball between +your opponents' goals. The ordinary ice hockey stick will be +satisfactory to play with. The principal thing to remember in lawn +hockey is not to commit a "foul," the penalty for which is a "free +hit" at the ball by your opponents. It is a foul to raise the stick +above the shoulders in making a stroke, to kick the ball (except for +the goal tender), to play with the back of the stick, to hit the ball +other than from right to left, and any form of rough play such as +tripping, pushing, kicking, or striking. + +Lawn hockey is an excellent game and is really the old game of +"shinney" or "shinty" played scientifically and with definite rules. + + +LAWN SKITTLES + +From a stout pole which is firmly fixed in the ground a heavy ball is +suspended by means of a rope fastened to the top of the pole. Two flat +pieces of stone or concrete are placed on opposite sides of the pole. +The game is played with nine-pins, which are set up on one stone, the +player standing on the other and endeavouring by hurling the ball to +strike down a maximum number of pins. Usually he has three chances and +the number of pins knocked down constitutes his score. + + +LAWN TENNIS (SEE CHAPTER ON TENNIS) + +A game of ball played on a level piece of ground, called a court, by +two, three, or four persons. When two play the game is called +"singles," and when four play it is called "doubles." The game is +played with a rubber ball, and rackets made by stringing gut on a +wooden frame. The dimensions of a tennis court are 36 by 78 feet. In +addition to this, space must be allowed for the players to run back, +and it is customary to lay out a court at least 50 by 100 feet to give +plenty of playing space. The court is divided into various lines, +either by means of lime applied with a brush or by tapes. Midway +between the two rear lines and in the centre of the court a net is +stretched, supported by posts. + +In playing one of the players has the serve--that is, he attempts to +strike the ball so that it will go over the net and into a specified +space on the opposite side of the net. His opponent then attempts to +return the serve--that is, to strike the ball either on the fly or +the first bound and knock it back over the net somewhere within the +playing space as determined by the lines. In this way the ball is +volleyed or knocked back and forth until one of the players fails +either to return it over the net or into the required space. To fail +in this counts his opponents a point. Four points constitute a game +except where both sides have obtained three points, in which case one +side to win must secure two points in succession. + +The score is not counted as 1, 2, 3, and 4, but 15, 30, 40, game. When +both sides are at 40 it is called "deuce." At this point a lead of two +is necessary to win. The side winning one of the two points at this +stage is said to have the "advantage," or, as it is expressed, +"vantage in" or "vantage out," depending upon whether it is the side +of the server or his opponents, the server's score always being called +first. + +A set of tennis consists of enough games to permit one side to win +six, or if both are at five games won, to win two games over their +opponents. + + +LAST TAG + +There are a great many games of "tag" that are familiar to boys and +girls. One of the common games is "last tag," which simply means that +a boy tags another and makes him "it" before leaving the party on his +way home. It is the common boys' method of saying "good-bye" when +leaving school for home. The principal rule of last tag is that there +is "no tagging back." The boy who is "it" must not attempt to tag the +one who tagged him, but must run after some one else. It is a point of +honour with a boy not to be left with "last tag" against him, but he +must try to run some one else down, when he is then immune and can +watch the game in safety, or can leave for home with no blot on his +escutcheon. + + +LUGE-ING + +A form of coasting very much practised in Switzerland at the winter +resorts where the sled used is similar to our American child's sled +with open framework instead of a toboggan or the more modern flexible +flyer which is generally used by boys in America. + + +MARATHON RACE + +A long distance race, held in connection with the Olympic Games and +named from a famous event in Greek history. The accepted Marathon +distance is 26 miles, 385 yards. The race was won at the Olympic +Games held in England in 1908 by John Hayes, an American, in 2 hours +44 minutes 20 2-5 seconds. + + +OLYMPIC GAMES + +The Olympic Games are open to the athletes of the world. The following +events are contested for: + + 60-metre run + 100-metre run + 200-metre run + 400-metre run + 800-metre run + 1500-metre run + 110-metre hurdles + 200-metre hurdles + 400-metre hurdles + 3200-metre steeplechase + 2500-metre steeplechase + 4000-metre steeplechase + Running long jump + Running high jump + Running triple jump + Standing broad jump + Standing high jump + Standing triple jump + Pole vault + Shot put + Discus throwing + Throwing 16-pound hammer + Throwing 56-pound weight + Marathon race + Weight lifting, one hand + Weight lifting, two hands + Dumb-bell competition + Tug-of-war + Team race + Team race 3 miles + Five-mile run + Throwing stone + Throwing javelin + Throwing javelin held in middle + Penthathlon + 1500-metre walk + 3500-metre walk + 10-mile walk + Throwing discus Greek style + + +MARBLES + +There is a large variety of games with marbles and the expressions +used are universal. Boys usually have one shooter made from agate +which they call a "real." To change the position of the shooter is +called "roundings," and to object to this or to any other play is +expressed by the word "fen." The common game of marbles is to make a +rectangular ring and to shoot from a line and endeavour to knock the +marbles or "mibs" of one's opponents out of the square. A similar game +is to place all the mibs in a line in an oval and to roll the shooter +from a distance. The one coming nearest to the oval has "first shot" +and continues to shoot as long as he drives out a marble and "sticks" +in the oval himself. Reals are often supposed to have superior +sticking qualities. Playing marbles "for keeps" is really gambling and +should be discouraged. The knuckle dabster is a small piece of cloth +or leather that boys use to rest the hand on when in the act of +shooting. The best kind of a "dabster" is made from a mole's skin. + + +NAMES OF MARBLES + +The common marbles used by boys everywhere are called mibs, fivers, +commies, migs, megs, alleys, and dubs. A very large marble is a bumbo +and a very small one a peawee. Glass marbles are called crystals and +those made of agate are called reals. The choicest real is supposed +to be green and is called a "mossic" or "moss real." + + +MUMBLETY PEG + +This game is played with a penknife. A piece of turf is usually the +best place to play. Various positions for throwing the knife are tried +by each player, following a regular order of procedure, until he +misses, when the knife is surrendered to the next in turn. When he +receives the knife each player tries the feat at which he failed +before. The last player to accomplish all the feats has the pleasure +of "pulling the peg," The peg consists of a wedge-shaped piece of wood +the length of the knife blade which is driven into the ground by the +back of the knife and must be pulled by the teeth of the unfortunate +one who was last to complete the necessary feats. The winner has the +honour of driving the peg, usually three blows with his eyes open and +three with them closed. If he succeeds in driving it out of sight the +feat is considered especially creditable and the loser is greeted with +the cry, "Root! Root!" which means that he must remove the sod and +earth with his teeth before he can get a grip on the peg top. There +are about twenty-four feats or "figures" to be gone through in a game +of mumblety peg, throwing the knife from various positions both right +and left handed. In each feat the successful result is measured by +having the knife stick into the ground at such an angle so that there +is room for two fingers to be inserted under the end of the handle +without disturbing the knife. + + +ONE OLD CAT + +This is a modified game of baseball that may be played by three or +four. Generally there is only one base to run to, and besides the +batter, pitcher, and catcher the rest of the players are fielders. Any +one catching a fly ball puts the batter out and takes his turn at bat, +or in another modification of the game, when one is put out each +player advances a step nearer to batsman's position, the pitcher going +in to bat, the catcher becoming pitcher, first fielder becoming +catcher, and so on, the batsman becoming "last fielder." + + +PASS IT + +This game may be played on a lawn. Four clothes baskets are required +as well as a variety of objects of various sizes and kinds, such as +spools of thread, pillows, books, matches, balls, pencils, umbrellas, +pins, and so on. Two captains are chosen and each selects a team, +which stands in line facing each other. Two of the baskets are filled +with the various articles and these two baskets are placed at the +right hand of the two captains. The empty baskets are on the opposite +ends of the line. At a signal the captains select an object and pass +it to the next in line. He in turn passes it to his left and finally +it is dropped into the empty basket. If the object should be dropped +in transit it must go back to the captain and be passed down the line +again. Two umpires are desirable, who can report the progress of the +game to their own side as well as keep an eye on their opponents. + + +PELOTA + +A game similar to racquets, sometimes called "Jai-a-li," that is much +played in Spain and in Mexico. The game is played with a narrow +scoop-like wicker basket or racket which is fastened to the wrist. The +players catch the ball in this device and hurl it with terrific force +against the wall of the court. Pelota is a hard, fast game, and +sometimes serious injuries result from playing it. + + +PLUG IN THE RING + +This is the universal game that boys play with tops. A ring six feet +in diameter is described on the ground and each player puts a top +called a "bait" in the centre. The baits are usually tops of little +value. The "plugger," however, is the top used to shoot with and as a +rule is the boy's choicest one. As soon as the players can wind their +tops they stand with their toes on the line and endeavour to strike +one of the baits in such a way as to knock it out of the circle and +still leave their own tops within the circle and spinning. If they +miss, the top must be left spinning until it "dies." If it fails to +roll out of the ring, the owner must place another bait top in the +ring, but if it leaves the circle he may continue shooting. It is +possible to play tops for "keeps," but, like marbles for "keeps," it +should be discouraged, as it is gambling. + + +POLO OR EQUESTRIAN POLO + +A game played on horseback, which originated in Eastern countries and +was first played by the English in India. It has been introduced both +into England and America. Polo is a rich man's game and requires a +great deal of skill in horsemanship as well as nerve. A polo team +consists of four men, each of whom must have a stable of several +horses. These horses, or "polo ponies," are trained carefully, and a +well-trained pony is as essential to good playing as a skilful rider. + +The game is played with a mallet, the head of which is usually ash, +dogwood, or persimmon, and has a handle about 50 inches long. The ball +is either willow or basswood. The principle of the game is similar to +nearly all of the outdoor games played with a ball: that of driving it +into the opponents' goal, meanwhile preventing them from making a +score on one's own goal. + + +POTATO RACE + +In this game as many rows of potatoes are laid as there are players. +They should be placed about five feet apart. The race consists in +picking up all of the potatoes, one at a time, and carrying them to +the starting point, making a separate trip for each potato. At the end +of the line there should be a basket or butter tub to drop them into. +The game is sometimes made more difficult by forcing the contestants +to carry the potatoes on a teaspoon. + + +PRISONER'S BASE + +Two captains select sides. They then mark out on the ground two bases, +or homes. They also mark out two "prisons" near each home base. Then +each side stands in its own home and a player runs out and advances +toward the enemy's home. One of the enemy will then run out and +endeavour to tag him before he can run back to his own base, and one +of his side will try to tag the enemy, the rule being that each in +turn must have left his home after his opponent. If a player is +tagged, he becomes a prisoner of the other side and is put into the +prison. The successful tagger may then return to Ids home without +danger of being tagged. A prisoner may be rescued at any time if one +of his side can elude the opponents and tag him free from prison. The +game ends when all of one side are made prisoners. + + +PUSH BALL + +A game usually played on foot but sometimes on horseback, in which the +object is to push or force a huge ball over the opponents' goal line. +A regulation "push ball" is six feet in diameter and costs three +hundred dollars. + +In push ball almost any number may play, but as weight counts, the +sides should be divided as evenly as possible. + + +QUOITS + +A game played with flattish malleable iron or rubber rings about nine +inches in diameter and convex on the upper side, which the players +endeavour to loss or pitch so that they will encircle a pin or peg +driven into the ground, or to come nearer to this peg than their +opponents. The peg is called a "hob." A certain form of quoits is +played with horseshoes throughout the country districts of America. A +quoit player endeavours to give the quoit such a position in mid-air +that it will not roll but will cut into the ground at the point where +it lands. The game is remotely similar to the ancient Greek game of +throwing the discus. Iron quoits may be purchased for a dollar a set. + +The average weight of the quoits used by experts is from seven to nine +pounds each. Sixty-one points constitute a game. The distance from the +peg shall be either 10, 15 or 18 yards. For a space three feet around +the pin or peg the ground should be clay. In match games, all quoits +that fall outside a radius of 18 inches from the centre of the pin are +"foul," and do not count in the score. + + +RACQUETS OR RACKETS + +One of the numerous court games similar to lawn tennis that is now +finding public favour, but played in a semi-indoor court. A racquet +court is 31 feet 6 inches wide and about 63 feet long. The front wall, +against which the ball is served, has a line 8 or 10 feet from the +floor, above which the ball must strike. The server, as in tennis, +takes his position in a service box with a racket similar to a lawn +tennis racket except that it has a smaller head and a longer handle. + +Either two or four players may play racquets. A game consists of +fifteen "aces," or points. + + +RED LINE + +In this game, also called Red Lion, the goal must be a straight line, +such as the crack in a sidewalk or the edge of a road. The one who is +"it" runs after the rest as in tag, and when he has captured a +prisoner he brings him into the "red line," and the two start out +again hand in hand and another is captured, then three together, and +two pair, and so on until all are prisoners. The first prisoner is +"it" for the next game. + + +ROLEY BOLEY + +This game is also called Roll Ball and Nigger Baby, and is played by +children all over the civilized world. A number of depressions are +hollowed in the ground corresponding to the number of players and a +hole is chosen by each one. A rubber ball is then rolled toward the +holes, and if it lodges in one of them the boy who has claimed that +hole must run in and pick up the ball while the rest scatter. He then +attempts to hit one of the other players with the ball. If he succeeds +a small stone called a "baby" is placed in the hole belonging to the +boy struck. Otherwise the thrower is penalized with a "baby." When any +boy has five babies he must stand against the wall and be a free +target for the rest to throw the ball at. + + +ROQUE + +This game may be called scientific croquet. A roque mallet has a +dogwood head 9-1/2 inches long, with heavy nickel ferrules. Roque +balls are made of a special composition that is both resilient and +practically unbreakable. + +A skilful roque player is able to make shots similar to billiard +shots. The standard roque court is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, with +corner pieces 6 feet long. The playing ground is of clay and should be +as smooth as it is possible to make it. A very light top dressing of +sand is used on the clay. The wickets, or "arches," are driven into +blocks of wood to secure firmness and buried into the ground with the +top of the arch 8 inches above the surface. + +The roque balls are 3-1/4 inches in diameter and the arches only 3-1/2 +wide, which gives an idea of the difficulty of playing this game. To +be an expert requires an accurate eye and a great deal of practice. + +There is a National Roque Association, and an annual championship +tournament is held to determine the champion. The home of roque is in +the New England States. + + +ROWING RECORD + +The best amateur intercollegiate record for the eight-oared race of +four miles is 18 minutes 53-1/5 seconds, made by Cornell, July 2, +1901. + + +RUBICON + +This game may be played with any number of players, and is especially +adapted for a school or lawn game. Two players are chosen as pursuers +and the rest are divided equally and stand two by two facing each +other in two columns. The two pursuers stand at the head of each +column and face each other. When ready they say, "Cross the Rubicon," +and at this signal the rear couple from each line must run forward and +try to reach the rear of the other line. The pursuers must not look +back, but as soon as the runners are abreast of them must try to tag +them before they reach the place of safety. The captured runners +become pursuers, and the one who was "it" takes his or her place at +the rear of the other line. + + +SACK RACING + +A form of sport where the contestants are fastened in sacks with the +hands and feet confined and where they race for a goal by jumping or +hopping along at the greatest possible speed under this handicap. A +sack race should not be considered one of the scientific branches of +sport, but is rather to afford amusement for the spectators. + + +SCOTLAND'S BURNING + +This game is based upon the song of the same name. The players form a +ring, with three judges in the centre. Each player with appropriate +gestures in turn begins the song, + + "_Scotland's burning. Scotland's burning,_ + _Look out! Look out!_ + _Fire! Fire! Fire! Fire!_ + _Pour on water! Pour on water!_" + +The whole party are soon singing, but each four are singing different +words. The object of the judges is to detect some one in the circle +either making gestures that are not appropriate to the words or to be +singing out of order. The penalty is to turn around and sing with the +back to the circle. The three who are facing in last then become +judges. + + +SKIING + +This sport has recently received wide popularity in sections of the +country where the winters make it possible. Skis--or, as they are +sometimes spelled, skee,--are a pair of flat runners from five to ten +feet long which are attached to the feet in such a way as to be easily +cast off in case of accident. By means of skis a ski-runner may either +make rapid progress over level snow or may coast down sharp +declivities and make jumps of great extent. + +Skis are usually made of ash and the standard lengths are from six to +eight feet. They cost from five to seven dollars a pair. In skiing it +is customary to use a pair of steel-shod poles with leather wrist +straps, but in ski-running or coasting the use of poles is very +dangerous. + + +SPANISH FLY + +In this game of leap frog various tricks are attempted by the leader, +as in the game of "stump master." Each of the boys following is +expected to do as the leader or to drop out and become "down" himself. +"Torchlight" is to jump with one hand only, using the other to wave +his cap as if it were a torch. In "hats on deck" each jumper in turn +is supposed to leave his cap on "down's" back. Naturally the last one +over may have a large pile of hats to clear. If he disturbs any of +them or knocks them off, he is "it." "Hats off" means for each jumper +in turn to take his own hat without knocking off any of the others. In +all games of leap frog it is considered proper for the jumper to +direct "down" to give him the kind of a "back" he desires. +Consequently he will say high or low back, depending upon whether he +wishes "down" to stand almost upright or to bend close to the ground. + + +SQUASH + +This game is similar to racquets, but is less violent or severe on a +player. It is played in a court 31 feet 6 inches wide. The front wall +must be 16 feet high. The service line above which the ball must +strike on the serve is 6 feet from the floor. Below this line and 2 +feet from the floor is the "tell tale," above which the ball must +strike in play. A squash racket is similar to a tennis racket, but +slightly smaller. + +In squash, a game is "fifteen up." At the score of 13 a player may +"set the score" back to 3 or 5, after which the player first winning +either 3 or 5 points, or aces, as they are called, is the winner. The +object of this is to endeavour to overcome the advantage that the +server may have. + +In a regulation squash court the spectators' gallery is above the +walls of the court, and the game is played in the pit below the +gallery. + + +STUMP MASTER + +In this game one of the players is chosen master. It is usually the +one who first suggests the game by saying. "Let's play stump master." +He then leads the line of players, going through various "stumps," or, +as we should call them now, "stunts," such as climbing fences and +trees, turning somersaults, crawling through narrow places, or +whatever will be difficult for the rest to copy. The game is capable +of all sorts of variations. + + +SUCKERS + +This can scarcely be called a game, but the use of the sucker is so +familiar to most boys that a description of it is surely not out of +place in this chapter. A piece of sole leather is used, three or four +inches square. It is cut into a circle and the edges carefully pared +thin. A hole is made in the centre and a piece of string or top twine +is knotted and run through the hole. The sucker is then soaked in +water until it is soft and pliable. The object of the sucker is to +lift stones or bricks with it. This, too, is of especial interest in +New England towns, where there are brick sidewalks. The sucker is +pressed firmly on a brick by means of the foot, and it will be found +to adhere to it with sufficient force to lift it clear of the ground. + + +TETHER BALL + +The same as tether tennis, which see. + + +TETHER TENNIS + +This game has been developed out of lawn tennis. A wooden pole +extending 10 feet above the surface is placed in a vertical position +and firmly imbedded in the ground. The pole must be 7-1/2 inches in +circumference at the ground and may taper to the top. Six feet above +the ground a black band 2 inches wide is painted around the pole. The +court is a smooth piece of sod or clay similar to a tennis court, but +a piece of ground 20 feet square is sufficient. + +At the base of the pole a circle is described with a 3-foot radius. A +line 20 feet long bisects this circle, and 6 feet from the pole on +each side are two crosses, which are known as service crosses. + +An ordinary tennis ball is used which has been fitted with a +tight-fitting linen cover. The ball is fastened to the pole by means +of a piece of heavy braided line. Ordinary heavy fish line will do. +The ball should hang 7-1/2 feet from the top of the pole or 2-1/2 feet +from the ground. Regulation tennis rackets are used. + +The game consists in endeavouring to wind the ball and string around +the pole above the black mark in a direction previously determined. +The opponent meanwhile tries to prevent this and to wind the ball in +the opposite direction by striking it as one would volley in tennis. + +Each player must keep in his own court. The points are scored as +"fouls." Eleven games constitute a set. A game is won when the string +is completely wound around the pole above the black mark. The penalty +for a foul, such as stepping outside of one's court, allowing the +string to wind around the handle of the racket or around the pole +below the black mark, provides for a free hit by one's opponent. + + +THREE-LEGGED RACING + +A race in which the contestants are paired off by being strapped +together at the ankles and thighs. Remarkable speed can be obtained by +practice under this handicap. There are definite rules to govern +three-legged races, and official harness may be bought from sporting +goods outfitters. As a race, however, it is like sack racing, to be +classed among the sports designed to afford amusement rather than as a +display of skill. + + +TUB RACING + +These races are often held in shallow lakes. Each contestant sits in a +wash tub, and by using his hands as paddles endeavours to paddle the +course first. As a wash tub is not a particularly seaworthy craft, and +spills are of frequent occurrence, it is well for the tub racers also +to know how to swim. + + +VOLLEY BALL + +This game is extremely simple and may be played by any number of +players, provided that there is space and that the sides are evenly +divided. The best dimensions for a volley ball court are 25 feet wide +and 50 feet long, but any square space evenly divided into two courts +will do. The game consists of twenty-one points. + +The ball is made of white leather and inflated with a rubber bladder. +A net divides the two courts and is 7 feet high. The standard volley +ball is 27 inches in circumference and weighs between 9 and 12 ounces. + +The whole object of the game is to pass the ball back and forth over +the net without permitting it to touch the floor or to bound. In this +way it somewhat resembles both tennis and hand ball. + +Volley ball is an excellent game for gymnasiums and has the decided +advantage of permitting almost any number to play. + + +WARNING + +The "warner" takes his position at a space called "home" and the rest +of the players stand some distance from him. He then clasps his hands +and runs out, trying to tag an opponent with his clasped hands. This +would be practically impossible except that the players endeavour to +make him unclasp his hands by pulling at his arms and drawing +temptingly near him. As soon as he has tagged a victim he runs for +home as fast as possible. If he himself is tagged before he reaches +home he is out, and the tagger becomes "warner." If both the warner +and the one tagged reach home safely they clasp hands, and finally the +line contains all the players but one, who has the honour of being +warner for the next game. The game receives its name from the call, +"Warning!" which the warner gives three times before leaving home. + + +WASHINGTON + +In this game a player stands blindfolded and another player comes up +and taps him. The one who is "it" then gives a penalty, such as "climb +a tree or run to the corner and back," and then tries to guess who it +was that tapped him. The one tapped must answer some question so that +he may be recognized by his voice or laugh. If "it" is correct in his +guess, the player must do as directed, but if his guess is wrong he +must do it himself. The result of this game is that the blindfolded +player will measure the severity of his "forfeits," or "penalties," to +his certainty of guessing correctly the name of the player. + + +WATER POLO + +This game is played in a swimming pool. A white ball made of rubber +fabric is used. The ball must be between 7 and 8 inches in diameter. +The goals are spaces 4 feet long and 12 inches wide at each end of the +tank and placed 18 inches above the water line. Six men on a side +constitute a team. + +It is a game in which skill in swimming is absolutely essential. It is +also a very rough game. The player endeavours to score goals by +swimming with the ball, and his opponents are privileged to tackle him +and to force him under water or in other ways to attempt to secure the +ball from him. Meanwhile the other players are blocking off opponents, +and in general the game resembles a football game in its rudiments. + + +WATER RACE + +In this game the contestants run a race carrying a glass or tin cup +full of water on top of the head, which must not be touched by the +hands. The one finishing first with a minimum loss of water from his +cup is the winner. + + +WICKET POLO + +A game played by two teams of four players each. The ball used is a +regulation polo ball. A wicket polo surface is 44 feet square, in +which sticks or wickets are set up. The object of the game is to +knock down the wickets of one's opponents by a batted ball and to +prevent them from displacing our own. A crooked stick 4 feet in length +and a little over an inch in diameter is used. Each player has a fixed +position on the field or surface. + + +WOLF AND SHEEP + +In this game "it" is the wolf. The sheep choose a shepherd to guard +them. The wolf then secures a hiding place and the sheep and shepherd +leave the fold and endeavour to locate him. When this is done the +shepherd cries, "I spy a wolf!" and every one stands while he counts +ten. Then the sheep and shepherd scatter for the fold, and if tagged +before they reach it the first becomes wolf for the next game. + + +WOOD TAG + +In this class are also "iron tag," "stone tag," and "tree tag." They +are all simply the game of tag with the additional rule that when a +player is in contact with iron, stone, trees, wood, and so on he is +safe from being tagged by the one who is "it." The game of "squat tag" +is similar, except that to be safe the one pursued must squat quickly +on the ground before "it" catches him. In cross tag, "it" must select +a victim and continue to run after him until some one runs ahead and +crosses his path, when "it," who may be breathless by this time, must +abandon his victim for a fresh one, who may soon be relieved and so on +until some one is tagged, or "it" is exhausted. + + +The Country Life Press, Garden City, N.Y. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTDOOR SPORTS AND GAMES*** + + +******* This file should be named 16316.txt or 16316.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/3/1/16316 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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