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+Project Gutenberg's The Psychology of Management, by L. M. Gilbreth
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Psychology of Management
+ The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and
+ Installing Methods of Least Waste
+
+Author: L. M. Gilbreth
+
+Release Date: July 10, 2005 [EBook #16256]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Tom Roch and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ THE PSYCHOLOGY
+ OF
+ MANAGEMENT
+
+
+
+ THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+ NEW YORK * BOSTON * CHICAGO * DALLAS
+ ATLANTA * SAN FRANCISCO
+
+
+ MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+ LONDON * BOMBAY * CALCUTTA
+ MELBOURNE
+
+
+ THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+ TORONTO
+
+
+
+
+ THE PSYCHOLOGY
+ OF
+ MANAGEMENT
+
+ _The Function of the Mind in Determining,
+ Teaching and Installing Methods
+ of Least Waste_
+
+
+ BY
+ L.M. GILBRETH, PH.D.
+
+
+
+
+ New York
+ THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+ 1921
+
+
+
+
+
+ 1914,
+ BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+ ----------
+
+ Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1914
+
+
+
+
+ TO MY
+ FATHER AND MOTHER
+
+
+
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAPTER I PAGE
+
+DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY
+ OF MANAGEMENT ............................................. 1
+
+ Definition of Psychology of Management--Importance of
+ the Subject--Purpose of this Book--Definition of
+ Management--The Three Types of Management--Possible
+ Psychological Studies of Management--Plan of Psychological
+ Study Here Used--Underlying Ideas or Divisions of
+ Scientific Management--Outline of Method of
+ Investigation--Conclusions to be Reached.
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+INDIVIDUALITY ............................................... 21
+
+ Definition of Individuality--Place of Individuality in
+ Psychology--Individuality Under Traditional
+ Management--Individuality Under Transitory
+ Management--Individuality Under Scientific
+ Management--Selection of Workers--Separating
+ Output--Recording Output Separately--Individual
+ Tasks--Individual Instruction Cards--Individual
+ Teaching--Individual Incentives--Individual
+ Welfare--Summary: (a) Effect of Individuality upon Work;
+ (b) Effect of Individuality upon Worker.
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+FUNCTIONALIZATION ........................................... 52
+
+ Definition of Functionalization--Psychological Use of
+ Functionalization--Functionalization in Traditional
+ Management--Functionalization Under Transitory
+ Management--Functionalization Under Scientific
+ Management--Separating the Planning From the
+ Performing--Functionalized Foremanship--The Function of
+ Order of Work and Route Clerk--The Function of Instruction
+ Card Clerk--The Function of Time and Cost Clerk--The
+ Function of Disciplinarian--The Function of Gang Boss--The
+ Function of Speed Boss--The Function of Repair Boss--The
+ Function of Inspector--Functionalizing the
+ Worker--Functionalizing the Work Itself--Summary: (a)
+ Effect of Functionalization upon the Work; (b) Effect of
+ Functionalization upon the Worker.
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+MEASUREMENT ................................................. 90
+
+ Definition of Measurement--Importance of Measurement in
+ Psychology--Relation of Measurement in Psychology to
+ Measurement in Management--Importance of Measurement in
+ Management--Measurement in Traditional
+ Management--Measurement in Transitory
+ Management--Measurement in Scientific
+ Management--Qualifications of the Observer--Methods of
+ Observation--Definitions of Motion Study and Time
+ Study--Methods of Motion Study and Time Study--Summary:
+ (a) Effect of Measurement on the Work; (b) Effect of
+ Measurement on the Worker; (c) Future Results to be
+ Expected; (d) First Step Toward Obtaining These Results.
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ...................................... 123
+
+ Definition of Analysis--Definition of Synthesis--Use of
+ Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology--Importance of
+ Analysis and Synthesis in Management--Place in Traditional
+ Management--Place in Transitory Management--Place in
+ Scientific Management--The Work of the
+ Analyst--Determining Factor in Amount of Analysis--Field
+ of Psychology in Analysis--Qualifications of an
+ Analyst--Worker's Interest in Analysis--The Work of the
+ Synthesist--Results of Synthesist's Work--The
+ Task--Discussion of the Name "Task"--Definition of "Task"
+ in Scientific Management--Field of Application of the Task
+ Idea--Qualifications of the Synthesist--Summary: (a)
+ Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Work; (b) Effect
+ of Analysis and Synthesis on the Worker.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+STANDARDIZATION ............................................. 139
+
+ Definition of Standardization--Relation of the Standard
+ to the Task and the Incentive--Relation of the Standard to
+ Psychology--Purpose of Standardization--Standardization
+ Under Traditional Management--Standardization Under
+ Transitory Management--Value of Systems--Standardization
+ Under Scientific Management--Relation of Standard to
+ Measurement--Scope of Standardization Under Scientific
+ Management--Permanence of Results--Needs of
+ Standardization Likened to Needs in Field of
+ Spelling--Standard Nomenclature--Advantages of Mnemonic
+ Symbols--Standard Phraseology--The Standard Man--Standard
+ Means of Conveying Information--Definition of the
+ Instruction Card--Detailed Description of the Instruction
+ Card--Value of Standard Surroundings--Necessity for Proper
+ Placing of the Worker--Standard Equipment--Standard Tools
+ and Devices--Standard Clothing--Standard Methods--Rest
+ from Fatigue--Standardization of Work with
+ Animals--Standard Quality--Standard "Method of
+ Attack"--Summary: (a) Effect of Standardization on the
+ Work; (b) Effect of Standardization on the Worker; (c)
+ Progress of Standardization Assured.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES ...................................... 183
+
+ Definition of Record--Records Under Traditional
+ Management--Records Under Transitory Management--Records
+ Under Scientific Management--Criterion of Records--Records
+ of Work and Workers--Records of Initiative--Records of
+ Good Behavior--Records of Achievement--Records of
+ "Exceptions"--Posting of Records--Summary of Results of
+ Records to Work and Worker--Definition of
+ Programme--Programmes Under Traditional
+ Management--Programmes Under Transitory
+ Management--Programmes Under Scientific
+ Management--Programmes and Routing--Possibility of
+ Prophecy Under Scientific Management--Summary of Results
+ of Programmes to Work and Worker--Relation Between Records
+ and Programmes--Types of Records and
+ Programmes--Interrelation of Types--Illustrations of
+ Complexity of Relations--Possibilities of Eliminating
+ Waste--Derivation of the Programme--Summary: (a) Effect of
+ Relations Between Records and Programmes on the Work; (b)
+ Effect on the Worker.
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+TEACHING .................................................... 208
+
+ Definition of Teaching--Teaching Under Traditional
+ Management--Faults Due to Lack of Standards--Teaching
+ Under Transitory Management--Teaching Under Scientific
+ Management--Importance of Teaching--Conforming of Teaching
+ to Psychological Laws--Conservation of Valuable Elements
+ of Traditional and Transitory Management--Scope of
+ Teaching--Source of Teaching--Methods of
+ Teaching--Instruction Cards as Teachers--Systems as
+ Teachers--Drawings, Charts, Plans and
+ Photographs--Functional Foremen as Teachers--Object
+ Lessons as Teachers--Training the Senses--Forming Good
+ Habits--Importance of Teaching Right Motions
+ First--Stimulating Attention--Forming
+ Associations--Educating the Memory--Cultivating the
+ Imagination--Developing the Judgment--Utilizing
+ Suggestion--Utilizing Native Reactions--Developing the
+ Will--Adaptability of Teaching--Provision of Places for
+ Teaching--Measurement of Teaching--Relation of Teaching to
+ Academic Training and Vocational Guidance--Summary: (a)
+ Result of Teaching in the Work; (b) Result of Teaching to
+ the Worker; (c) Results to be Expected in the Future.
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+INCENTIVES .................................................. 271
+
+ Definition of Incentive--Importance of
+ Incentives--Direct and Indirect Incentives--Definition of
+ Reward--Definition of Punishment--Nature of Direct
+ Incentives--The Reward Under Traditional Management--The
+ Punishment Under Traditional Management--The Direct
+ Incentive Under Traditional Management--Incentives Under
+ Transitory Management--Rewards Under Scientific
+ Management--Promotion and Pay--Relation of Wages and
+ Bonus--Day Work--Piece Work--Task Wage--Gain
+ Sharing--Premium Plan--Profit Sharing--Differential Rate
+ Piece--Task Work with a Bonus--Differential Bonus--Three
+ Rate--Three Rate with Increased Rate--Other
+ Rewards--Negative and Positive Punishments--Fines and
+ Their Disposal--Assignment to Less Pleasant
+ Work--Discharge and Its Elimination--Use of Direct
+ Incentives--Summary: (a) Effect of Incentives upon the
+ Work; (b) Effect of Incentives upon the Worker.
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+WELFARE ..................................................... 311
+
+ Definition of Welfare--"Welfare" and "Welfare
+ Work"--Welfare Under Traditional Management--Welfare Work
+ Under Traditional Management--Welfare Under Transitory
+ Management--Welfare Work Under Transitory
+ Management--Welfare Under Scientific Management--Physical
+ Improvement--Mental Development--Moral
+ Development--Interrelation of Physical, Mental and Moral
+ Development--Welfare Work Under Scientific
+ Management--Summary: (a) Result of Welfare to the Work;
+ (b) Result of Welfare to the Worker.
+
+INDEX ....................................................... 333
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF
+
+ DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT.--The Psychology of
+Management, as here used, means,--the effect of the mind that is
+directing work upon that work which is directed, and the effect of
+this undirected and directed work upon the mind of the worker.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT.--Before defining the terms that will
+be used more in detail, and outlining the method of treatment to be
+followed, it is well to consider the importance of the subject
+matter of this book, for upon the reader's interest in the subject,
+and his desire, from the outset, to follow what is said, and to
+respond to it, rests a large part of the value of this book.
+
+ VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY.--First of all, then, what is there in the
+subject of psychology to demand the attention of the manager?
+
+ Psychology, in the popular phrase, is "the study of the mind."
+It has for years been included in the training of all teachers, and
+has been one of the first steps for the student of philosophy; but
+it has not, usually, been included among the studies of the young
+scientific or engineering student, or of any students in other lines
+than Philosophy and Education. This, not because its value as a
+"culture subject" was not understood, but because the course of the
+average student is so crowded with technical preparation necessary
+to his life work, and because the practical value of psychology has
+not been recognized. It is well recognized that the teacher must
+understand the working of the mind in order best to impart his
+information in that way that will enable the student to grasp it
+most readily. It was not recognized that every man going out into
+the world needs all the knowledge that he can get as to the working
+of the human mind in order not only to give but to receive
+information with the least waste and expenditure of energy, nor was
+it recognized that in the industrial, as well as the academic world,
+almost every man is a teacher.
+
+ VALUE OF MANAGEMENT.--The second question demanding attention
+is;--Of what value is the study of management?
+
+ The study of management has been omitted from the student's
+training until comparatively recently, for a very different reason
+than was psychology. It was never doubted that a knowledge of
+management would be of great value to anyone and everyone, and many
+were the queer schemes for obtaining that knowledge after
+graduation. It was doubted that management could be studied
+otherwise than by observation and practice.[1] Few teachers, if any,
+believed in the existence, or possibility, of a teaching science of
+management. Management was assumed by many to be an art, by even
+more it was thought to be a divinely bestowed gift or talent, rather
+than an acquired accomplishment. It was common belief that one could
+learn to manage only by going out on the work and watching other
+managers, or by trying to manage, and not by studying about
+management in a class room or in a text book; that watching a good
+manager might help one, but no one could hope really to succeed who
+had not "the knack born in him."
+
+ With the advent of "Scientific Management," and its
+demonstration that the best management is founded on laws that have
+been determined, and can be taught, the study of management in the
+class room as well as on the work became possible and actual.[2]
+
+ VALUE OF PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT.--Third, we must consider the
+value of the study of the psychology of management.[3]
+
+ This question, like the one that precedes it, is answered by
+Scientific Management. It has demonstrated that the emphasis in
+successful management lies on the _man_, not on the _work_; that
+efficiency is best secured by placing the emphasis on the man, and
+modifying the equipment, materials and methods to make the most of
+the man. It has, further, recognized that the man's mind is a
+controlling factor in his efficiency, and has, by teaching, enabled
+the man to make the most of his powers.[4] In order to understand
+this teaching element that is such a large part of management, a
+knowledge of psychology is imperative; and this study of psychology,
+as it applies to the work of the manager or the managed, is exactly
+what the "psychology of management" is.
+
+ FIVE INDICATIONS OF THIS VALUE.--In order to realize the
+importance of the psychology of management it is necessary to
+consider the following five points:--
+
+ 1. Management is a life study of every man who works with other
+men. He must either manage, or be managed, or both; in any case, he
+can never work to best advantage until he understands both the
+psychological and managerial laws by which he governs or is governed.
+
+ 2. A knowledge of the underlying laws of management is the most
+important asset that one can carry with him into his life work, even
+though he will never manage any but himself. It is useful,
+practical, commercially valuable.
+
+ 3. This knowledge is to be had _now_. The men who have it are
+ready and glad to impart it to all who are interested and who will
+pass it on.[5] The text books are at hand now. The opportunities for
+practical experience in Scientific Management will meet all demands
+as fast as they are made.
+
+ 4. The psychology of, that is, the mind's place in management is
+only one part, element or variable of management; one of numerous,
+almost numberless, variables.
+
+ 5. It is a division well fitted to occupy the attention of the
+beginner, as well as the more experienced, because it is a most
+excellent place to start the study of management. A careful study of
+the relations of psychology to management should develop in the
+student a method of attack in learning his selected life work that
+should help him to grasp quickly the orderly array of facts that the
+other variables, as treated by the great managers, bring to him.
+
+ PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK.--It is scarcely necessary to mention that
+this book can hope to do little more than arouse an interest in the
+subject and point the way to the detailed books where such an
+interest can be more deeply aroused and more fully satisfied.
+
+ WHAT THIS BOOK WILL NOT DO.--It is not the purpose of this book
+to give an exhaustive treatment of psychology. Neither is it
+possible in this book to attempt to give a detailed account of
+management in general, or of the Taylor plan of "Scientific
+Management" so-called, in particular. All of the literature on the
+subject has been carefully studied and reviewed for the purpose of
+writing this book,--not only what is in print, but considerable that
+is as yet in manuscript. No statement has been made that is not
+along the line of the accepted thought and standardized practice of
+the authorities. The foot notes have been prepared with great care.
+By reading the references there given one can verify statements in
+the text, and can also, if he desires, inform himself at length on
+any branch of the subject that especially interests him.
+
+ WHAT THIS BOOK WILL DO.--This book aims not so much to
+instruct as to arouse an interest in its subject, and to point
+the way whence instruction comes. If it can serve as an
+introduction to psychology and to management, can suggest the
+relation of these two fields of inquiries and can ultimately
+enroll its readers as investigators in a resultant great field of
+inquiry, it will have accomplished its aim.
+
+ DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT.--To discuss this subject more
+in detail--
+
+ First: What is "Management"?
+
+ "Management," as defined by the Century Dictionary, is "the
+art of managing by direction or regulation."
+
+ Successful management of the old type was an art based on no
+measurement. Scientific Management is an art based upon a
+science,--upon laws deducted from measurement. Management continues
+to be what it has always been,--the _art_ of directing activity.
+
+ CHANGE IN THE ACCEPTED MEANING.--"Management," until recent
+years, and the emphasis placed on Scientific Management was
+undoubtedly associated, in the average mind, with the _managing_
+part of the organization only, neglecting that vital part--the best
+interests of the managed, almost entirely. Since we have come to
+realize that management signifies the relationship between the
+managing and the managed in doing work, a new realization of its
+importance has come about.[6]
+
+ INADEQUACY OF THE TERMS USED.--It is unfortunate that the
+English language is so poor in synonyms in this field that the same
+word must have two such different and conflicting meanings, for,
+though the new definition of management be accepted, the "Fringe" of
+associations that belong to the old are apt to remain.[7] The
+thoughts of "knack, aptitude, tact, adroitness,"--not to speak of
+the less desirable "Brute Force," "shrewdness, subtlety, cunning,
+artifice, deceit, duplicity," of the older idea of management remain
+in the background of the mind and make it difficult, even when one
+is convinced that management is a science, to think and act as if
+it were.
+
+ It must be noticed and constantly remembered that one of the
+greatest difficulties to overcome in studying management and its
+development is the meaning of the terms used. It is most
+unfortunate that the new ideas have been forced to content
+themselves with old forms as best they may.
+
+ PSYCHOLOGICAL INTEREST OF THE TERMS.--Psychology could ask no
+more interesting subject than a study of the mental processes that
+lie back of many of these terms. It is most unfortunate for the
+obtaining of clearness, that new terms were not invented for the new
+ideas. There is, however, an excellent reason for using the old
+terms. By their use it is emphasized that the new thought is a
+logical outgrowth of the old, and experience has proved that this
+close relationship to established ideas is a powerful argument for
+the new science; but such terms as "task," "foreman," "speed boss,"
+"piece-rate" and "bonus," as used in the science of management,
+suffer from misunderstanding caused by old and now false
+associations. Furthermore, in order to compare old and new
+interpretations of the ideas of management, the older terms of
+management should have their traditional meanings only. The two sets
+of meanings are a source of endless confusion, unwarranted
+prejudice, and worse. This is well recognized by the authorities
+on Management.
+
+ THE THREE TYPES OF MANAGEMENT.--We note this inadequacy of
+terms again when we discuss the various _types_ of Management.
+
+ We may divide all management into three types--
+ (1) Traditional
+ (2) Transitory
+ (3) Scientific, or measured functional.[8]
+
+ Traditional Management, the first, has been variously called
+"Military," "Driver," the "Marquis of Queensberry type," "Initiative
+and Incentive Management," as well as "Traditional" management.
+
+ DEFINITION OF THE FIRST TYPE.--In the first type, the power of
+managing lies, theoretically at least, in the hands of one man, a
+capable "all-around" manager. The line of authority and of
+responsibility is clear, fixed and single. Each man comes in direct
+contact with but one man above him. A man may or may not manage more
+than one man beneath him, but, however this may be, he is managed by
+but one man above him.
+
+ PREFERABLE NAME FOR THE FIRST TYPE.--The names "Traditional," or
+"Initiative and Incentive," are the preferable titles for this form
+of management. It is true they lack in specificness, but the other
+names, while aiming to be descriptive, really emphasize one feature
+only, and in some cases with unfortunate results.
+
+ THE NAME "MILITARY" INADVISABLE.--The direct line of authority
+suggested the name "Military,"[9] and at the time of the adoption of
+that name it was probably appropriate as well as complimentary.[10]
+Appropriate in the respect referred to only, for the old type of
+management varied so widely in its manifestations that the
+comparison to the procedure of the Army was most inaccurate.
+"Military" has always been a synonym for "systematized", "orderly,"
+"definite," while the old type of management was more often quite
+the opposite of the meaning of all these terms. The term "Military
+Management" though often used in an uncomplimentary sense would,
+today, if understood, be more complimentary than ever it was in the
+past. The introduction of various features of Scientific Management
+into the Army and Navy,--and such features are being incorporated
+steadily and constantly,--is raising the standard of management
+there to a high degree. This but renders the name "Military"
+Management for the old type more inaccurate and misleading.
+
+ It is plain that the stirring associations of the word
+"military" make its use for the old type, by advocates of the old
+type, a weapon against Scientific Management that only the careful
+thinker can turn aside.
+
+ THE NAMES "DRIVER" AND "MARQUIS OF QUEENSBERRY"
+UNFORTUNATE.--The name "Driver" suggests an opposition between the
+managers and the men, an opposition which the term "Marquis of
+Queensberry" emphasizes. This term "Marquis of Queensberry" has been
+given to that management which is thought of as a mental and
+physical contest, waged "according to the rules of the game." These
+two names are most valuable pictorially, or in furnishing oratorical
+material. They are constant reminders of the constant desire of the
+managers to get all the work that is possible out of the men, but
+they are scarcely descriptive in any satisfactory sense, and the
+visions they summon, while they are perhaps definite, are certainly,
+for the inexperienced in management, inaccurate. In other words,
+they usually lead to imagination rather than to perception.
+
+ THE NAME "INITIATIVE AND INCENTIVE" AUTHORITATIVE.--The term
+"Initiative and Incentive" is used by Dr. Taylor, and is fully
+described by him.[11] The words themselves suggest, truly, that he
+gives the old form of management its due. He does more than this. He
+points out in his definition of the terms the likenesses between the
+old and new forms.
+
+ THE NAME "TRADITIONAL" BRIEF AND DESCRIPTIVE.--The only excuses
+for the term "Traditional," since Dr. Taylor's term is available,
+are its brevity and its descriptiveness. The fact that it is
+indefinite is really no fault in it, as the subject it describes is
+equally indefinite. The "fringe"[12] of this word is especially
+good. It calls up ideas of information handed down from generation
+to generation orally, the only way of teaching under the old type of
+management. It recalls the idea of the inaccurate perpetuation of
+unthinking custom, and the "myth" element always present in
+tradition,--again undeniable accusations against the old type of
+management. The fundamental idea of the tradition, that it is
+_oral_, is the essence of the difference of the old type of
+management from science, or even system, which must be written.
+
+ It is not necessary to make more definite here the content of
+this oldest type of management, rather being satisfied with the
+extent, and accepting for working use the name "Traditional" with
+the generally accepted definition of that name.
+
+ DEFINITION OF THE SECOND TYPE OF MANAGEMENT.--The second type of
+management is called "Interim" or "Transitory" management. It
+includes all management that is consciously passing into Scientific
+Management and embraces all stages, from management that has
+incorporated one scientifically derived principle, to management
+that has adopted all but one such principle.
+
+ PREFERABLE NAME FOR SECOND TYPE OF MANAGEMENT.--Perhaps the name
+"Transitory" is slightly preferable in that, though the element of
+temporariness is present in both words, it is more strongly
+emphasized in the latter. The usual habit of associating with it the
+ideas of "fleeting, evanescent, ephemeral, momentary, short-lived,"
+may have an influence on hastening the completion of the installing
+of Scientific Management.
+
+ DEFINITION OF THE THIRD TYPE OF MANAGEMENT.--The third form of
+management is called "Ultimate," "measured Functional," or
+"Scientific," management, and might also be called,--but for the
+objection of Dr. Taylor, the "Taylor Plan of Management." This
+differs from the first two types mentioned in that it is a definite
+plan of management synthesized from scientific analysis of the data
+of management. In other words, Scientific Management is that
+management which is a science, i.e., which operates according to
+known, formulated, and applied laws.[13]
+
+ PREFERABLE NAME OF THE THIRD TYPE OF MANAGEMENT.--The name
+"Ultimate" has, especially to the person operating under the
+transitory stage, all the charm and inspiration of a goal. It has
+all the incentives to accomplishment of a clearly circumscribed
+task. Its very definiteness makes it seem possible of attainment. It
+is a great satisfaction to one who, during a lifetime of managing
+effort, has tried one offered improvement after another to be
+convinced that he has found the right road at last. The name is,
+perhaps, of greatest value in attracting the attention of the
+uninformed and, as the possibilities of the subject can fulfill the
+most exacting demands, the attention once secured can be held.
+
+ The name "measured functional" is the most descriptive, but
+demands the most explanation. The principle of functionalization is
+one of the underlying, fundamental principles of Scientific
+Management. It is not as necessary to stop to define it here, as it
+is necessary to discuss the definition, the principle, and the
+underlying psychology, at length later.
+
+ The name "scientific" while in some respects not as appropriate
+as are any of the other names, has already received the stamp of
+popular approval. In derivation it is beyond criticism. It also
+describes exactly, as has been said, the difference between the
+older forms of management and the new. Even its "fringe" of
+association is, or at least was when first used, all that could be
+desired; but the name is, unfortunately, occasionally used
+indiscriminately for any sort of system and for schemes of operation
+that are not based on time study. It has gradually become identified
+more or less closely with
+
+ 1. the Taylor Plan of Management
+ 2. what we have defined as the "Transitory" plan of
+ management
+ 3. management which not only is not striving to be
+ scientific, but which confounds "science" with "system."
+ Both its advocates and opponents have been guilty of
+ misuse of the word. Still, in spite of this, the very fact
+ that the word has had a wide use, that it has become
+ habitual to think of the new type of management as
+ "Scientific," makes its choice advisable. We shall use it,
+ but restrict its content. With us "Scientific Management"
+ is used to mean the complete Taylor plan of management,
+ with no modifications and no deviations.
+
+ We may summarize by saying that:
+
+ 1. the popular name is Scientific Management,
+ 2. the inspiring name is Ultimate management,
+ 3. the descriptive name is measured Functional management,
+ 4. the distinctive name is the Taylor Plan of Management.
+
+ For the purpose of this book, Scientific Management is, then,
+the most appropriate name. Through its use, the reader is enabled to
+utilize all his associations, and through his study he is able to
+restrict and order the content of the term.
+
+ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE THREE TYPES OF MANAGEMENT.--From the
+foregoing definitions and descriptions it will be clear that the
+three types of management are closely related. Three of the names
+given bring out this relationship most clearly. These are
+Traditional (i.e., Primitive), Interim, and Ultimate. These show,
+also, that the relationship is genetic, i.e., that the second form
+grows out of the first, but passes through to the third. The growth
+is evolutional.
+
+ Under the first type, or in the first stage of management, the
+laws or principles underlying right management are usually unknown,
+hence disregarded.
+
+ In the second stage, the laws are known and installed as fast as
+functional foremen can be taught their new duties and the
+resistances of human nature can be overcome.[14]
+
+ In the third stage the managing is operated in accordance with
+the recognized laws of management.
+
+ PSYCHOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS RELATIONSHIP.--The importance
+of the knowledge and of the desire for it can scarcely be
+overestimated. This again makes plain the value of the psychological
+study of management.
+
+ POSSIBLE PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF MANAGEMENT.--In making this
+psychological study of management, it would be possible to take up
+the three types as defined above, separately and in order, and to
+discuss the place of the mind in each, at length; but such a
+method would not only result in needless repetition, but also in
+most difficult comparisons when final results were to be deduced
+and formulated.
+
+ It would, again, be possible to take up the various elements or
+divisions of psychological study as determined by a consensus of
+psychologists, and to illustrate each in turn from the three types
+of management; but the results from any such method would be apt
+to seem unrelated and impractical, i.e., it would be a lengthy
+process to get results that would be of immediate, practical use
+in managing.
+
+ PLAN OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY USED HERE.--It has, therefore,
+seemed best to base the discussion that is to follow upon arbitrary
+divisions of scientific management, that is--
+
+ 1. To enumerate the underlying principles on which scientific
+ management rests.
+ 2. To show in how far the other two types of management vary
+ from Scientific Management.
+ 3. To discuss the psychological aspect of each principle.
+
+ ADVANTAGES OF THIS PLAN OF STUDY.--In this way the reader can
+gain an idea of
+
+ 1. The relation of Scientific Management to the other types
+ of management.
+ 2. The structure of Scientific Management.
+ 3. The relation between the various elements of Scientific
+ Management.
+ 4. The psychology of management in general, and of the three
+ types of management in particular.
+
+ UNDERLYING IDEAS AND DIVISIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--These
+underlying ideas are grouped under nine divisions, as follows:--
+
+ 1. Individuality.
+ 2. Functionalization.
+ 3. Measurement.
+ 4. Analysis and Synthesis.
+ 5. Standardization.
+ 6. Records and Programmes.
+ 7. Teaching.
+ 8. Incentives.
+ 9. Welfare.
+
+ It is here only necessary to enumerate these divisions. Each
+will be made the subject of a chapter.
+
+ DERIVATION OF THESE DIVISIONS.--These divisions lay no claim to
+being anything but underlying ideas of Scientific Management, that
+embrace varying numbers of established elements that can easily be
+subjected to the scrutiny of psychological investigation.
+
+ The discussion will be as little technical as is possible, will
+take nothing for granted and will cite references at every step.
+This is a new field of investigation, and the utmost care is
+necessary to avoid generalizing from insufficient data.
+
+ DERIVATION OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--There has been much
+speculation as to the age and origin of Scientific Management. The
+results of this are interesting, but are not of enough practical
+value to be repeated here. Many ideas of Scientific Management can
+be traced back, more or less clearly and directly, to thinkers of
+the past; but the Science of Management, as such, was discovered,
+and the deduction of its laws, or "principles," made possible when
+Dr. Frederick W. Taylor discovered and applied Time Study. Having
+discovered this, he constructed from it and the other fundamental
+principles a complete whole.
+
+ Mr. George Iles in that most interesting and instructive of
+books, "Inventors at Work,"[15] has pointed out the importance, to
+development in any line of progress or science, of measuring devices
+and methods. Contemporaneous with, or previous to, the discovery of
+the device or method, must come the discovery or determination of
+the most profitable unit of measurement which will, of itself, best
+show the variations in efficiency from class. When Dr. Taylor
+discovered units of measurement for determining, _prior to
+performance_, the amount of any kind of work that a worker could do
+and the amount of rest he must have during the performance of that
+work, then, and not until then, did management become a science. On
+this hangs the science of management.[16]
+
+ OUTLINE OF METHOD OF INVESTIGATION.--In the discussion of each
+of the nine divisions of Scientific Management, the following topics
+must be treated:
+
+ 1. Definition of the division and its underlying idea.
+ 2. Appearance and importance of the idea in Traditional and
+ Transitory Management.
+ 3. Appearance and importance of the idea in Scientific
+ Management.
+ 4. Elements of Scientific Management which show the effects
+ of the idea.
+ 5. Results of the idea upon work and workers.
+
+ These topics will be discussed in such order as the particular
+division investigated demands. The psychological significance of the
+appearance or non-appearance of the idea, and of the effect of the
+idea, will be noted. The results will be summarized at the close of
+each chapter, in order to furnish data for drawing conclusions at
+the close of the discussion.
+
+ CONCLUSIONS TO BE REACHED.--These conclusions will include
+the following:--
+
+ 1. "Scientific Management" is a science.
+ 2. It alone, of the Three Types of Management, is a science.
+ 3. Contrary to a widespread belief that Scientific Management
+ kills individuality, it is built on the basic principle of
+ recognition of the individual, not only as an economic
+ unit but also as a personality, with all the
+ idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person.
+ 4. Scientific Management fosters individuality by
+ functionalizing work.
+ 5. Measurement, in Scientific Management, is of ultimate
+ units of subdivision.
+ 6. These measured ultimate units are combined into methods of
+ least waste.
+ 7. Standardization under Scientific Management applies to all
+ elements.
+ 8. The accurate records of Scientific Management make
+ accurate programmes possible of fulfillment.
+ 9. Through the teaching of Scientific Management the
+ management is unified and made self-perpetuating.
+ 10. The method of teaching of Scientific Management is a
+ distinct and valuable contribution to Education.
+ 11. Incentives under Scientific Management not only stimulate
+ but benefit the worker.
+ 12. It is for the ultimate as well as immediate welfare of
+ the worker to work under Scientific Management.
+ 13. Scientific Management is applicable to all fields of
+ activity, and to mental as well as physical work.
+ 14. Scientific Management is applicable to self-management as
+ well as to managing others.
+ 15. It teaches men to cooeperate with the management as well
+ as to manage.
+ 16. It is a device capable of use by all.
+ 17. The psychological element of Scientific Management is the
+ most important element.
+ 18. Because Scientific Management is psychologically right it
+ is the ultimate form of management.
+ 19. This psychological study of Scientific Management
+ emphasizes especially the teaching features.
+ 20. Scientific Management simultaneously
+
+ a. increases output and wages and lowers costs.
+ b. eliminates waste.
+ c. turns unskilled labor into skilled.
+ d. provides a system of self-perpetuating welfare.
+ e. reduces the cost of living.
+ f. bridges the gap between the college trained and
+ the apprenticeship trained worker.
+ g. forces capital and labor to cooeperate and to
+ promote industrial peace.
+
+
+CHAPTER I FOOTNOTES: ===============================================
+
+ 1. Charles Babbage, _Economy of Manufacturers._ Preface, p. v.
+ 2. Halbert P. Gillette, Paper No. 1, American Society of
+ Engineering Contractors.
+ 3. Gillette and Dana, _Cost Keeping and Management_, p. 5.
+ 4. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 98.
+ 5. F.W. Taylor, _Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 144.
+ 6. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 16, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper
+ No. 1003.
+ 7. William James, _Psychology_, Vol. I, p. 258.
+ 8. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_, Chap. 1.
+ 9. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, _Bulletin No. 5 of the Carnegie
+ Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_, p. 17.
+10. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 234, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper
+ No. 1003.
+11. F.W. Taylor, _Principles of Scientific Management_, pp. 33-38.
+12. The idea called to mind by the use of a given word.--_Ed._
+13. Henry R. Towne, Introduction to _Shop Management_. (Harper &
+ Bros.)
+14. F.W. Taylor, _Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 123.
+ (Harper & Bros.)
+15. Doubleday, Page & Co.
+16. F.W. Taylor, _Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 137.
+ (Harper & Bros.)
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF INDIVIDUALITY.--"An individual is a single thing,
+a being that is, or is regarded as, a unit. An individual is opposed
+to a crowd. Individual action is opposed to associate action.
+Individual interests are opposed to common or community interests."
+These definitions give us some idea of the extent of individuality.
+Individuality is a particular or distinctive characteristic of an
+individual; "that quality or aggregate of qualities which
+distinguishes one person or thing from another, idiosyncrasy." This
+indicates the content.
+
+ For our purpose, we may define the study of individuality
+as a consideration of the individual as a unit with special
+characteristics. That it is a _unit_ signifies that it is one of
+many and that it has likeness to the many. That it has _special
+characteristics_ shows that it is one of many, but different from
+the many. This consideration of individuality emphasizes both the
+common element and the diverging characteristics.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY AS TREATED IN THIS CHAPTER.--The recognition of
+individuality is the subject of this chapter. The utilization of
+this individuality in its deviation from class, is the subject of
+the chapter that follows, Functionalization.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY AS CONSIDERED BY PSYCHOLOGY.--Psychology has not
+always emphasized the importance of the individual as a unit for
+study. Prof. Ladd's definition of psychology, quoted and endorsed by
+Prof. James, is "the description and explanation of states of
+consciousness, as such."[1] "By states of consciousness," says
+James, "are meant such things as sensation, desires, emotions,
+cognitions, reasonings, decisions, volitions, and the like." This
+puts the emphasis on such divisions of consciousness as,
+"attention," "interest," and "will."
+
+ With the day of experimental psychology has come the importance
+of the individual self as a subject of study,[2] and psychology has
+come to be defined, as Calkins defines it, as a "science of the self
+as conscious."[3]
+
+ We hear much in the talk of today of the "psychology of the
+crowd," the "psychology of the mob," and the "psychology of the
+type," etc., but the mind that is being measured, and from whose
+measurements the laws are being deduced and formulated is, at the
+present the _individual_ mind.[4]
+
+ The psychology which interested itself particularly in studying
+such divisions of mental activity as attention, will, habit, etc.,
+emphasizes more particularly the likenesses of minds. It is
+necessary to understand thoroughly all of these likenesses before
+one can be sure what the differences, or idiosyncrasies, are, and
+how important they are, because, while the likenesses furnish the
+background, it is the differences that are most often actually
+utilized by management. These must be determined in order to compute
+and set the proper individual task for the given man from standard
+data of the standard, or first-class man.
+
+ In any study of the individual, the following facts must
+be noted:--
+
+ 1. The importance of the study of the individual, and the
+ comparatively small amount of work that has as yet been
+ done in that field.
+ 2. The difficulty of the study, and the necessity for great
+ care, not only in the study itself, but in deducing laws
+ from it.
+ 3. The necessity of considering any one individual trait as
+ modified by all the other traits of the individual.
+ 4. The importance of the individual as distinct from the
+ type.
+
+ Many students are so interested in studying types and deducing
+laws which apply to types in general, that they lose sight of the
+fact that the individual is the basis of the study,--that
+individuality is that for which they must seek and for which they
+must constantly account. As Sully says, we must not emphasize
+"_typical developments_ in a new individual," at the expense of
+"typical development _in a new individual_."[5] It is the fact that
+the development occurs in an individual, and not that the
+development is typical, that we should emphasize.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY SELDOM RECOGNIZED UNDER TRADITIONAL
+MANAGEMENT.--Under Traditional Management there was little or no
+systematized method for the recognition of individuality or
+individual fitness.[6] The worker usually was, in the mind of the
+manager, one of a crowd, his only distinguishing mark being the
+amount of work which he was capable of performing.
+
+ SELECTING WORKERS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--In selecting
+men to do work, there was little or no attempt to study the
+individuals who applied for work. The matter of selection was more
+of a process of "guess work" than of exact measurement, and the
+highest form of test was considered to be that of having the man
+actually tried out by being given a chance at the work itself. There
+was not only a great waste of time on the work, because men unfitted
+to it could not turn it out so successfully, but there also was a
+waste of the worker, and many times a positive injury to the worker,
+by his being put at work which he was unfitted either to perform, to
+work at continuously, or both.
+
+ In the most progressive type of Traditional Management there was
+usually a feeling, however, that if the labor market offered even
+temporarily a greater supply than the work in hand demanded, it was
+wise to choose those men to do the work who were best fitted for it,
+or who were willing to work for less wages. It is surprising to find
+in the traditional type, even up to the present day, how often men
+were selected for their strength and physique, rather than for any
+special capabilities fitting them for working in, or at, the
+particular line of work to be done.
+
+ OUTPUT SELDOM SEPARATED UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Under
+Traditional Management especially on day work the output of the men
+was not usually separated, nor was the output recorded separately,
+as can be done even with the work of gangs.
+
+ FEW INDIVIDUAL TASKS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Seldom, if
+ever, was an individual task set for a worker on day work, or piece
+work, and even if one were set, it was not scientifically
+determined. The men were simply set to work alone or in gangs, _as
+the work demanded_, and if the foreman was overworked or lazy,
+allowed to take practically their own time to do the work. If, on
+the other hand, the foreman was a "good driver," the men might be
+pushed to their utmost limit of their individual undirected speed,
+regardless of their welfare.
+
+ LITTLE INDIVIDUAL TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Not
+having a clear idea either of the present fitness and the future
+possibilities of the worker, or the requirements of the work, no
+intelligent attempt could be made at efficient individual teaching.
+What teaching was done was in the form of directions for all,
+concerning the work in general, the directions being given by an
+overworked foreman, the holding of whose position often depended
+more upon whether his employer made money than upon the way his men
+were taught, or worked.
+
+ SELDOM AN INDIVIDUAL REWARD UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--As a
+typical example of disregard of individuality, the worker in the
+household may be cited, and especially the "general housework girl."
+Selected with no knowledge of her capabilities, and with little or
+no scientific or even systematized knowledge of the work that she is
+expected to do, there is little or no thought of a prescribed and
+definite task, no teaching specially adapted to the individual needs
+of the taught, and no reward in proportion to efficiency.
+
+ CAUSE OF THESE LACKS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--The fault
+lies not in any desire of the managers to do poor or wasteful work,
+or to treat their workers unfairly,--but in a lack of knowledge and
+of accurate methods for obtaining, conserving and transmitting
+knowledge. Under Traditional Management no one individual knows
+precisely what is to be done. Such management seldom knows how work
+could best be done;--never knows how much work each individual can
+do.[7] Understanding neither work nor workers, it can not adjust the
+one to the other so as to obtain least waste. Having no conception
+of the importance of accurate measurement, it has no thought of the
+individual as a unit.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY RECOGNIZED UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.--
+Recognition of individuality is one of the principles first apparent
+under Transitory Management.
+
+ This is apt to demonstrate itself first of all in causing the
+outputs of the workers to "show up" separately, rewarding these
+separated outputs, and rewarding each worker for his individual
+output.
+
+ BENEFITS OF THIS RECOGNITION.--The benefits of introducing these
+features first are that the worker, (1) seeing his individual
+output, is stimulated to measure it, and (2) receiving compensation
+in accordance with his output, is satisfied; and (3) observing that
+records are necessary to determine the amount of output and pay, is
+glad to have accurate measurement and the other features of
+Scientific Management introduced.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY A FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management the individual is the unit
+to be measured. Functionalization is based upon utilizing the
+particular powers and special abilities of each man. Measurement is
+of the individual man and his work. Analysis and synthesis build up
+methods by which the individual can best do his work. Standards are
+of the work of an individual, a standard man, and the task is always
+for an individual, being that percentage of the standard man's task
+that the particular individual can do. Records are of individuals,
+and are made in order to show and reward individual effort. Specific
+individuals are taught those things that they, individually,
+require. Incentives are individual both in the cases of rewards and
+punishments, and, finally, it is the welfare of the individual
+worker that is considered, without the sacrifice of any for the good
+of the whole.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY CONSIDERED IN SELECTING WORKERS.--Under Scientific
+Management individuality is considered in selecting workers as it
+could not be under either of the other two forms of management. This
+for several reasons:
+
+ 1. The work is more specialized, hence requires more
+ carefully selected men.
+ 2. With standardized methods comes a knowledge to the
+ managers of the qualifications of the "standard men" who
+ can best do the work and continuously thrive.
+ 3. Motion study, in its investigation of the worker, supplies
+ a list of variations in workers that can be utilized in
+ selecting men.[8]
+
+ VARIABLES OF THE WORKER.--This list now includes at least 50 or
+60 variables, and shows the possible elements which may demand
+consideration. When it is remembered that the individual selected
+may need a large or small proportion of most of the variables in
+order to do his particular work most successfully, and that every
+single one of these variables, as related to the others, may, in
+some way affect his output and his welfare in doing his assigned
+work, the importance of taking account of individuality in selection
+is apparent.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NEEDS SUPPORT IN STUDYING WORKERS.--The
+best of management is by no means at its ultimate stage in practice
+in this field. This, not because of a lack in the laws of
+management, but because, so far, Scientific Management has not
+received proper support from other lines of activity.
+
+ PRESENT LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OF APPLICANTS.--At present, the men
+who apply to the Industries for positions have no scientifically
+determined idea of their own capabilities, neither has there been
+any effort in the training or experience of most of those who apply
+for work for the first time to show them how fit they really are to
+do the work which they wish to do.
+
+ SUPPLEMENTS DEMANDED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Before the
+worker can be scientifically selected so that his individuality can
+be appreciated, Scientific Management must be supplemented in
+two ways:--
+
+ 1. By psychological and physiological study of workers under
+ it. By such study of the effect of various kinds of
+ standardized work upon the mind and body, standard
+ requirements for men who desire to do the work can be
+ made.
+ 2. By scientific study of the worker made before he comes
+ into the Industries, the results of which shall show his
+ capabilities and possibilities.[9]
+
+ WHENCE THIS HELP MUST COME.--This study must be made
+
+ a. In the Vocational Guidance Work.
+ b. In the Academic Work,
+
+and in both fields psychological and physiological
+investigations are called for.
+
+ WORK OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE BUREAUS.--Vocational Guidance
+Bureaus are, at present, doing a wonderful work in their line. This
+work divides itself into two parts:
+
+ 1. Determining the capabilities of the boy, that is, seeing
+ what he is, by nature and training, best fitted to do.
+ 2. Determining the possibilities of his securing work in the
+ line where he is best fitted to work, that is, studying
+ the industrial opportunities that offer, and the "welfare"
+ of the worker under each, using the word welfare in the
+ broadest sense, of general wellbeing, mental, physical,
+ moral and financial.
+
+ WORK OF ACADEMIC WORLD.--The Academic World is also, wherever it
+is progressive, attempting to study the student, and to develop him
+so that he can be the most efficient individual. Progressive
+educators realize that schools and colleges must stand or fall, as
+efficient, as the men they train become successful or unsuccessful
+in their vocations, as well as in their personal culture.
+
+ NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY IN ALL FIELDS.--In both these
+complementary lines of activity, as in Scientific Management itself,
+the need for psychological study is evident.[10] Through it, only,
+can scientific progress come. Here is emphasized again the
+importance of measurement. Through accurate measurement of the mind
+and the body only can individuality be recognized, conserved and
+developed as it should be.
+
+ PREPAREDNESS OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.--Experimental
+psychology has instruments of precision with which to measure and
+test the minds and bodies brought to it, and its leading exponents
+are so broadening the scope of its activities that it is ready and
+glad to plan for investigations.
+
+ METHOD OF SELECTION UNDER ULTIMATE MANAGEMENT.--Under Ultimate
+Management, the minds of the workers,--and of the managers
+too,--will have been studied, and the results recorded from earliest
+childhood. This record, made by trained investigators, will enable
+vocational guidance directors to tell the child what he is fitted to
+be, and thus to help the schools and colleges to know how best to
+train him, that is to say, to provide what he will need to know to
+do his life work, and also those cultural studies that his
+vocational work may lack, and that may be required to build out his
+best development as an individual.
+
+ It is not always recognized that even the student who can afford
+to postpone his technical training until he has completed a general
+culture course, requires that his culture course be carefully
+planned. Not only must he choose those general courses that will
+serve as a foundation for his special study, and that will broaden
+and enrich his study, but also he must be provided with a
+counter-balance,--with interests that his special work might never
+arouse in him. Thus the field of Scientific Management can be
+narrowed to determining and preparing standard plans for standard
+specialized men, and selecting men to fill these places from
+competent applicants.
+
+ What part of the specialized training needed by the special work
+shall be given in schools and what in the industries themselves can
+be determined later. The "twin apprentice" plan offers one solution
+of the problem that has proved satisfactory in many places. The
+psychological study should determine through which agency knowledge
+can best come at any particular stage of mental growth.
+
+ EFFECT ON WORKERS OF SUCH SELECTION.--As will be shown at
+greater length under "Incentives," Scientific Management aims in
+every way to encourage initiative. The outline here given as to how
+men must, ultimately, under Scientific Management, be selected
+serves to show that, far from being "made machines of," men are
+selected to reach that special place where their individuality can
+be recognized and rewarded to the greatest extent.
+
+ SELECTION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO-DAY.--At the present
+day, the most that Scientific Management can do, in the average
+case, is to determine the type of men needed for any particular kind
+of work, and then to select that man who seems, from such
+observations as can be made, best to conform to the type. The
+accurate knowledge of the requirements of the work, and the
+knowledge of variables of the worker make even a cursory observation
+more rich in results than it would otherwise be. Even such an
+apparently obvious observation, as that the very fact that a man
+claims that he can do the work implies desire and will on his part
+to do it that may overcome many natural lacks,--even this is an
+advance in recognizing individuality.
+
+ EFFECT OF THIS SELECTION.--The result of this scientific
+selection of the workman is not only better work, but also, and more
+important from the psychological side, the development of his
+individuality. It is not always recognized that the work itself is a
+great educator, and that acute cleverness in the line of work to
+which he is fitted comes to the worker.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY DEVELOPED BY SEPARATING OUTPUTS.--Under Scientific
+Management the work of each man is arranged either so that his
+output shows up separately and on the individual records, or, if the
+Work is such that it seems best to do it in gangs, the output can
+often be so recorded that the individual's output can be computed
+from the records.
+
+ PURPOSE OF SEPARATING OUTPUTS.--The primary purpose of
+separating the output is to see what the man can do, to record this,
+and to reward the man according to his work, but this separating of
+output has also an individual result, which is even more important
+than the result aimed at, and that is the development of
+individuality.
+
+ Under Traditional Management and the usual "day work," much of
+the work is done by gangs and is observed or recorded as of gangs.
+Only now and then, when the work of some particular individual shows
+up decidedly better or worse than that of his fellows, and when the
+foreman or superintendent, or other onlooker, happens to observe
+this is the individual appreciated, and then only in the most
+inexact, unsystematic manner.
+
+ Under Scientific Management, making individual output show up
+separately allows of individual recording, tasks, teaching and
+rewards.
+
+ EFFECT ON ATHLETIC CONTESTS.--Also, with this separation of the
+work of the individual under Scientific Management comes the
+possibility of a real, scientific, "athletic contest." This athletic
+contest, which proves itself so successful in Traditional
+Management, even when the men are grouped as gangs and their work is
+not recorded or thought of separately, proves itself quite as
+efficient or more efficient under Scientific Management, when the
+work of the man shows up separately. It might be objected that the
+old gang spirit, or it might be called "team" spirit, would
+disappear with the separation of the work. This is not so, as will
+be noted by a comparison to a baseball team, where each man has his
+separate place and his separate work and where his work shows up
+separately with separate records, such as "batting average" and
+"fielding average." Team spirit is the result of being grouped
+together against a common opponent, and it will be the same in any
+sort of work when the men are so grouped, or given to understand
+that they belong on the same side.
+
+ The following twelve rules for an Athletic Contest under
+Transitory System are quoted as exemplifying the benefits which
+accrue to Individuality.
+
+ 1. Men must have square deal.
+ 2. Conditions must be similar.
+ 3. Men must be properly spaced and placed.
+ 4. Output must show up separately.
+ 5. Men must be properly started.
+ 6. Causes for delay must be eliminated.
+ 7. Pace maker must be provided.
+ 8. Time for rest must be provided.
+ 9. Individual scores must be kept and posted.
+ 10. "Audience" must be provided.
+ 11. Rewards must be prompt and provided for all
+ good scores--not for winners only.
+ 12. Appreciation must be shown.[11]
+
+ This list shows the effects of many fundamental principles of
+Scientific Management,--but we note particularly here that over half
+the rules demand that outputs be separated as a prerequisite.
+
+ None of the benefits of the Athletic Contest are lost under
+Scientific Management. The only restrictions placed are that the men
+shall not be grouped according to any distinction that would cause
+hatred or ill feeling, that the results shall be ultimately
+beneficial to the workers themselves, and that all high scores shall
+win high prizes.
+
+ As will be brought out later under "Incentives," no competition
+is approved under Scientific Management which speeds up the men
+uselessly, or which brings any ill feeling between the men or any
+feeling that the weaker ones have not a fair chance. All of these
+things are contrary to Scientific Management, as well as contrary to
+common sense, for it goes without saying that no man is capable of
+doing his best work permanently if he is worried by the idea that he
+will not receive the square deal, that someone stronger than he will
+be allowed to cheat or to domineer over him, or that he will be
+speeded up to such an extent that while his work will increase for
+one day, the next day his work will fall down because of the effect
+of the fatigue of the day before.
+
+ The field of the contests is widened, as separating of the work
+of the individual not only allows for competition between
+individuals, but for the competition of the individual with his own
+records. This competition is not only a great, constant and helpful
+incentive to every worker, but it is also an excellent means of
+developing individuality.
+
+ ADVANTAGES TO MANAGERS OF SEPARATING OUTPUT.--The advantages to
+the managers of separating the work are that there is a chance to
+know exactly who is making the high output, and that the spirit of
+competition which prevails when men compare their outputs to their
+own former records or others, leads to increased effort.
+
+ ADVANTAGES TO WORKERS OF SEPARATING OUTPUT.--As for advantages
+to the men:
+
+ By separation of the individual work, not only is the man's work
+itself shown, but at the same time the work of all other people is
+separated, cut away and put aside, and he can locate the man who is
+delaying him by, for example, not keeping him supplied with
+materials. The man has not only an opportunity to concentrate, but
+every possible incentive to exercise his will and his desire to do
+things. His attention is concentrated on the fact that he as an
+individual is expected to do his very best. He has the moral
+stimulus of responsibility. He has the emotional stimulus of
+competition. He has the mental stimulus of definiteness. He has,
+most valuable of all, a chance to be an entity rather than one of an
+undiscriminated gang. This chance to be an individual, or
+personality, is in great contradistinction to the popular opinion of
+Scientific Management, which thinks it turns men into machines. A
+very simple example of the effect of the worker's seeing his output
+show up separately in response to and in proportion to his effort
+and skill is that of boys in the lumber producing districts chopping
+edgings for fire wood. Here the chopping is so comparatively light
+that the output increased very rapidly, and the boy delights to "see
+his pile of fire wood grow."
+
+ With the separation of the work comes not only the opportunity
+for the men to see their own work, but also to see that of others,
+and there comes with this the spirit of imitation, or the spirit of
+friendly opposition, either of which, while valuable in itself is
+even more valuable as the by-product of being a life-giving thought,
+and of putting life into the work such as there never could be when
+the men were working together, more or less objectless, because they
+could not see plainly either what they were doing themselves, or
+what others were doing.
+
+ Separation of the output of the men gives them the greatest
+opportunity to develop. It gives them a chance to concentrate their
+attention at the work on which they are, because it is not necessary
+for them to waste any time to find out what that work is. Their work
+stands out by itself; they can put their whole minds to that work;
+they can become interested in that work and its outcome, and they
+can be positive that what they have done will be appreciated and
+recognized, and that it will have a good effect, with no possibility
+of evil effect, upon their chance for work and their chance for pay
+and promotion in the future. Definiteness of the boundaries, then,
+is not only good management in that it shows up the work and that it
+allows each man to see, and each man over him, or observing him to
+see exactly what has been done,--it has also an excellent effect
+upon the worker's mind.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY DEVELOPED BY RECORDING OUTPUT SEPARATELY.--The
+spirit of individuality is brought out still more clearly by the
+fact that under Scientific Management, output is recorded
+separately. This recording of the outputs separately is, usually,
+and very successfully, one of the first features installed in
+Transitory Management, and a feature very seldom introduced, even
+unconscious of its worth, in day work under Traditional Management.
+It is one of the great disadvantages of many kinds of work,
+especially in this day, that the worker does only a small part of
+the finished article and that he has a feeling that what he does is
+not identified permanently with the success of the completed whole.
+We may note that one of the great unsatisfying features to such arts
+as acting and music, is that no matter how wonderful the performer's
+efforts, there was no permanent record of them; that the work of the
+day dies with the day. He can expect to live only in the minds and
+hearts of the hearers, in the accounts of spectators, or in
+histories of the stage.
+
+ It is, therefore, not strange that the world's best actors and
+singers are now grasping the opportunity to make their best efforts
+permanent through the instrumentality of the motion picture films
+and the talking machine records. This same feeling, minus the glow
+of enthusiasm that at least attends the actor during the work, is
+present in more or less degree in the mind of the worker.
+
+ RECORDS MAKE WORK SEEM WORTH WHILE.--With the feeling that his
+work is recorded comes the feeling that the work is really worth
+while, for even if the work itself does not last, the records of it
+are such as can go on.
+
+ RECORDS GIVE INDIVIDUALS A FEELING OF PERMANENCE.--With recorded
+individual output comes also the feeling of permanence, of credit
+for good performance. This desire for permanence shows itself all
+through the work of men in Traditional Management, for example--in
+the stone cutter's art where the man who had successfully dressed
+the stone from the rough block was delighted to put his own
+individual mark on it, even though he knew that that mark probably
+would seldom, if ever, be noticed again by anyone after the stone
+was set in the wall. It is an underlying trait of the human mind
+to desire this permanence of record of successful effort, and
+fulfilling and utilizing this desire is a great gain of Scientific
+Management.
+
+ MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF WORKER THROUGH RECORDS.--It is not only
+for his satisfaction that the worker should see his records and
+realize that his work has permanence, but also for comparison of his
+work not only with his own record, but with the work of others. The
+value of these comparisons, not only to the management but to the
+worker himself, must not be underestimated. The worker gains mental
+development and physical skill by studying these comparisons.
+
+ ADVANTAGES TO WORKER OF MAKING HIS OWN RECORDS.--These
+possibilities of mental development are still further increased when
+the man makes his own records. This leads to closer attention, to
+more interest in the work, and to a realization of the man as to
+what the record really means, and what value it represents. Though
+even a record that is made for him and is posted where he can see it
+will probably result in a difference in his pay envelope, no such
+progress is likely to occur as when the man makes his own record,
+and must be conscious every moment of the time exactly where he
+stands.
+
+ POSSIBILITIES OF MAKING INDIVIDUAL RECORDS.--Records of
+individual efficiency are comparatively easy to make when output is
+separated. But even when work must be done by gangs or teams of men,
+there is provision made in Scientific Management for recording this
+gang work in such a way that either the output or the efficiency, or
+both, of each man shows up separately. This may be done in several
+ways, such as, for example, by recording the total time of delays
+avoidable and unavoidable, caused by each man, and from this
+computing individual records. This method of recording is
+psychologically right, because the recording of the delay will serve
+as a warning to the man, and as a spur to him not to cause delay to
+others again.
+
+ The forcefulness of the "don't" and the "never" have been
+investigated by education. Undoubtedly the "do" is far stronger, but
+in this particular case the command deduced from the records of
+delay to others is, necessarily, in the negative form, and a study
+of the psychological results proves most instructive.
+
+ BENEFITS TO MANAGERS OF INDIVIDUAL RECORDS.--The value of the
+training to the foremen, to the superintendents and to the managers
+higher up, who study these records, as well as to the timekeepers,
+recorders and clerks in the Time and Cost Department who make the
+records, is obvious. There is not only the possibility of
+appreciating and rewarding the worker, and thus stimulating him to
+further activity, there is also, especially in the Transitory stage,
+when men are to be chosen on whom to make Time Study observations,
+an excellent chance to compare various methods of doing work and
+their results.
+
+ INCENTIVES WITH INDIVIDUAL RECORDS.--The greatest value of
+recorded outputs is in the appreciation of the work of the
+individual that becomes possible. First of all, appreciation by the
+management, which to the worker must be the most important of all,
+as it means to him a greater chance for promotion and for more pay.
+This promotion and additional pay are amply provided for by
+Scientific Management, as will be shown later in discussing
+Incentives and Welfare.
+
+ Not only is the work appreciated by the management and by the
+man himself, but also the work becomes possible of appreciation by
+others. The form of the record as used in Scientific Management, and
+as introduced early in the transitory stage, makes it possible for
+many beside those working on the job, if they take the pains to
+consult the records, which are best posted in a conspicuous place on
+the work, to know and appreciate what the worker is doing. This can
+be best illustrated, perhaps, by various methods of recording output
+on contracting work,--out-of-door work.
+
+ The flag flown by the successful contestants in the athletic
+contests, showing which gang or which individual has made the
+largest output during the day previous, allows everyone who passes
+to appreciate the attainment of that particular worker, or that
+group of workers. The photographs of the "high priced men," copies
+of which may be given to the workers themselves, allow the worker to
+carry home a record and thus impress his family with what he has
+done. Too often the family is unable by themselves to understand the
+value of the worker's work, or to appreciate the effect of his home
+life, food, and rest conditions upon his life work, and this entire
+strong element of interest of the worker's family in his work is
+often lost.
+
+ RELATION OF INDIVIDUAL RECORDS TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN
+GENERAL.--Any study of Records of an individual's work again makes
+clear that no one topic of Scientific Management can be properly
+noted without a consideration of all other elements. The fact that
+under Scientific Management the record with which the man most
+surely and constantly competes is his own, as provided for by the
+individual instruction card and the individual task; the fact that
+under Scientific Management the man need be in no fear of losing his
+job if he does his best; the fact that Scientific Management is
+founded on the "square deal";--all of these facts must be kept
+constantly in mind when considering the advantages of recording
+individual output, for they all have a strong psychological effect
+on the man's mind. It is important to remember that not only does
+Scientific Management provide for certain directions and thoughts
+entering the man's mind, but that it also eliminates other thoughts
+which would surely have a tendency to retard his work. The result is
+output far exceeding what is usually possible under Traditional
+Management, because drawbacks are removed and impetuses added.
+
+ The outcome of the records, and their related elements in other
+branches of Scientific Management, is to arouse interest. Interest
+arouses abnormally concentrated attention, and this in turn is the
+cause of genius. This again answers the argument of those who claim
+that Scientific Management kills individuality and turns the worker
+into a machine.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL TASK UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Individuality is
+also taken into consideration when preparing the task. This task
+would always be for an individual, even in the case of the gang
+instruction card. It usually recognizes individuality, in that,--
+
+ 1. It is prepared for one individual only, when possible.
+ 2. It is prepared for the particular individual who is
+ to do it.
+
+ The working time, as will be shown later, is based upon time
+study observations on a standard man, but when a task is assigned
+for a certain individual, that proportion of the work of the
+standard or first class man is assigned to that particular given man
+who is actually to do it, which he is able to do. It is fundamental
+that the task must be such that the man who is actually put at it,
+when he obeys orders and works steadily, can do it; that is, the
+task must be achievable, and achievable without such effort as would
+do mental or physical injury to the worker. This not only gives the
+individual the proper amount of work to do, recognizes his
+particular capabilities and is particularly adapted to him, but it
+also eliminates all dread on the score of his not being appreciated,
+in that the worker knows that if he achieves or exceeds his task he
+will not only receive the wage for it, but will continue to receive
+that wage, or more, for like achievement. The rate is not cut. Under
+the "three-rate with increased rate system," which experience has
+shown to be a most advanced plan for compensating workmen, the
+worker receives one bonus for exactness as to methods, that is, he
+receives one bonus if he does the task exactly as he is instructed
+to do it as to methods; and a second bonus, or extra bonus, if he
+completes his task in the allotted time. This not only assures
+adequate pay to the man who is slow, but a good imitator, but also
+to the man who, perhaps, is not such a good imitator, and must put
+attention on the quality rather than the quantity of his performance.
+
+ INDIVIDUALITY EMPHASIZED BY INSTRUCTION CARD.--This individual
+task is embodied in an individual instruction card.
+
+ In all work where it is possible to do so, the worker is given
+an individual instruction card, even though his operations and rest
+periods are also determined by a gang instruction card. This card
+not only tells the man what he is to do, how he can best do it, and
+the time that it is supposed to take him to do it,--but it bears
+also the signature of the man who made it. This in order that if the
+worker cannot fulfill the requirements of the card he may lose no
+time in determining who is to give him the necessary instructions or
+help that will result in his earning his large wages. More than
+this, he must call for help from his assigned teachers, as is stated
+in large type on a typical Instruction Card as follows: "When
+instructions cannot be carried out, foreman must at once report to
+man who signed this card."
+
+ The signature of the man who made the card not only develops his
+sense of individuality and responsibility, but helps create a
+feeling of inter-responsibility between the workers in various parts
+of the organization.
+
+ THE GANG INSTRUCTION CARD.--A gang instruction card is used for
+such work only as must be done by a group of men all engaged at the
+work at once, or who are working at a dependent sequence of
+operations, or both. This card contains but those portions of the
+instructions for each man which refer to those elements which must
+be completed before a following element, to be done by the next man
+in the sequence, can be completed. Because of the nature of the
+work, the gang instruction card must be put in the hands of a
+leader, or foreman, whether or not it is also in the hands of each
+of the individuals. The amount of work which can be required as a
+set task for each individual member of the gang, the allowance for
+rest for overcoming fatigue, the time that the rest periods must
+occur, and the proper pay, are fully stated on the Individual
+Instruction Cards.
+
+ METHODS OF TEACHING FOSTER INDIVIDUALITY.--As will be shown at
+length in the Chapter on Teaching, under Scientific Management
+teaching is not only general, by "Systems," "Standing Orders," or
+"Standard Practice," but also specific. Specialized teachers,
+called, unfortunately for the emphasis desired to be put on
+teaching, "functional foremen," help the individual worker to
+overcome his peculiar difficulties.
+
+ This teaching not only allows every worker to supplement his
+deficiencies of disposition or experience, but the teachers' places
+give opportunities for those who have a talent for imparting
+knowledge to utilize and develop it.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE AND WELFARE.--Finally, individual incentive
+and individual welfare are not only both present, but interdependent.
+Desire for individual success, which might lead a worker to respond
+to the incentive till he held back perhaps the work of others,
+is held in balance by interdependence of bonuses. This will be
+explained in full in the Chapters on Incentives and Welfare.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULT OF IDEA OF INDIVIDUALITY UPON WORK.--To recapitulate;--
+Under Traditional Management, because of its frequent neglect of the
+idea of individuality, work is often unsystematized, and high output
+is usually the result of "speeding up" only, with constant danger of
+a falling off in quality overbalancing men and injury to men and
+machinery.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, as outputs are separated,
+separately recorded, and as the idea of Individuality is embodied in
+selecting men, setting tasks, the instruction cards, periods of
+rest, teaching, incentives and welfare, output increases without
+undue pressure on the worker.
+
+ Under Scientific Management--with various elements which embody
+individuality fully developed, output increases, to the welfare
+of worker, manager, employer and consumer and with no falling off
+in quality.
+
+ EFFECT UPON THE WORKER.--The question of the effect upon the
+worker of emphasis laid upon individuality, can perhaps best be
+answered by asking and answering the following questions:--
+
+ 1. When, where, how, and how much is individuality
+ considered?
+ 2. What consideration is given to the relation of the mind to
+ the body of the individual?
+ 3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration of
+ individual and class?
+ 4. In how far is the individual the unit?
+ 5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies?
+ 6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing about
+ development, that is, broadening, deepening and making
+ the individual more progressive?
+
+ EXTENT OF CONSIDERATION OF INDIVIDUALITY.--1. Under Traditional
+Management consideration of individuality is seldom present, but
+those best forms of Traditional Management that are successful are
+so because it is present. This is not usually recognized, but
+investigation shows that the successful manager, or foreman, or
+boss, or superintendent succeeds either because of his own
+individuality or because he brings out to good advantage the
+individual possibilities of his men. The most successful workers
+under Traditional Management are those who are allowed to be
+individuals and to follow out their individual bents of greatest
+efficiency, instead of being crowded down to become mere members of
+gangs, with no chance to think, to do, or to be anything but parts
+of the gang.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, and most fully under Scientific
+Management, the spirit of individuality, far from being crowded out,
+is a basic principle, and everything possible is done to encourage
+the desire to be a personality.
+
+ RELATION OF MIND TO BODY.--Under Traditional Management, where
+men worked in the same employ for a long time, much consideration
+was given to the relation of the mind to the body. It was realized
+that men must not be speeded up beyond what they could do
+healthfully; they must have good sleeping quarters and good, savory
+and appetizing food to eat and not be fatigued unnecessarily, if
+they were to become successful workers. More than this,
+philanthropic employers often attempted to supply many kinds of
+comfort and amusement.
+
+ Under Transitory Management the physical and mental welfare are
+provided for more systematically.
+
+ Under Scientific Management consideration of the mind and body
+of the workman, and his health, and all that that includes, is a
+subject for scientific study and for scientific administration. As
+shown later, it eliminates all discussion and troubles of so-called
+"welfare work," because the interests of the employer and the worker
+become identical and everything that is done becomes the concern
+of both.
+
+ Scientific Management realizes that the condition of the body
+effects every possible mental process. It is one of the great
+advantages of a study of the psychology of management that the
+subject absolutely demands from the start, and insists in every
+stage of the work, on this relationship of the body to the mind, and
+of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the worker to his work.
+
+ It is almost impossible, in management, to separate the subject
+of the worker from that of his work, or to think of the worker as
+not working except in such a sense as "ceasing-from-work,"
+"about-to-work," "resting to overcome fatigue of work," or "resting
+during periods of unavoidable delays." The relation of the worker to
+his work is constantly in the mind of the manager. It is for this
+reason that not only does management owe much to psychology, but
+that psychology, as applied to any line of study, will, ultimately,
+be recognized as owing much to the science of management.
+
+ RELATIVE EMPHASIS ON INDIVIDUAL AND CLASS.--Under Traditional
+Management the gang, or the class, usually receives the chief
+emphasis. If the individual developed, as he undoubtedly did, in
+many kinds of mechanical work, especially in small organizations, it
+was more or less because it was not possible for the managers to
+organize the various individuals into classes or gangs. In the
+transitory stage the emphasis is shifting. Under Scientific
+Management the emphasis is most decidedly and emphatically upon the
+individual as the unit to be managed, as has been shown.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL AS THE UNIT.--Under Traditional Management the
+individual was seldom the unit. Under Transitory Management the
+individual is the unit, but there is not much emphasis in the early
+stages placed upon his peculiarities and personalities. Under
+Scientific Management the unit is always the individual, and the
+utilizing and strengthening of his personal traits, special ability
+and skill is a dominating feature.
+
+ EMPHASIS ON IDIOSYNCRASIES.--Under Traditional Management there
+is either no consideration given to idiosyncrasies, or too wide a
+latitude is allowed. In cases where no consideration is given, there
+is often either a pride in the managers in "treating all men alike,"
+though they might respond better to different handling, or else the
+individual is undirected and his personality manifests itself in all
+sorts of unguided directions, many of which must necessarily be
+wasteful, unproductive, or incomplete in development. Under
+Scientific Management, functionalization, as will be shown, provides
+for the utilization of all idiosyncrasies and efficient deviations
+from class, and promotion is so planned that a man may develop along
+the line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is encouraged and
+developed constantly.
+
+ DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALITY.--The development of individuality
+is more sure under Scientific Management than it is under either of
+the other two forms of management, (a) because this development is
+recognized to be a benefit to the worker and to the employer and (b)
+because this development as a part of a definite plan is provided
+for and perfected scientifically.
+
+
+CHAPTER II FOOTNOTES: ==============================================
+
+ 1. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 1.
+ 2. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 34.
+ 3. Mary Whiton Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 1.
+ 4. James Sully, _Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 14.
+ 5. James Sully, _Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 577.
+ 6. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 52.
+ 7. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.)
+ 8. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 7.
+ 9. L.B. Blan, _A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation_,
+ p. 89.
+10. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, pp. 38-39.
+11. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_, Chap. III.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZATION
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONALIZATION.--A function, says the Century
+Dictionary, is--"The fulfilment or discharge of a set duty or
+requirement, exercise of a faculty or office, or power of acting,
+faculty,--that power of acting in a specific way which appertains to
+a thing by virtue of its special constitution; that mode of action
+or operation which is proper to any organ, faculty, office
+structure, etc. (This is the most usual signification of the term)."
+
+ "Functionalization" is not given in the Century Dictionary. The
+nearest to it to be found there is "Functionality," which is defined
+as--"The state of having or being a function." Functionalization as
+here used means--the state of being divided into functions, or being
+functionalized. "Functionalize" is given in the Century Dictionary,
+defined as "to assign some office or function to"--the note being
+made that it is rare. "Functionalize" may not be the best word that
+could be used in this connection, but there seems to be no other
+word in the English language which contains its full meaning,
+therefore we will use the word here in the sense of assigning work
+according to capacity or faculty. A faculty means--"A specific
+power, mental or physical; a special capacity for any particular
+kind of action or affection; natural capability."
+
+ PSYCHOLOGICAL USE OF FUNCTIONALIZATION.--The word "Function" is
+in constant use by modern psychologists, especially by those who
+believe that--"Psychology is the science of the self in relation to
+environment,"[1] or that "Psychology is a scientific account of our
+mental processes."[2] Sully defines a function as "a psychologically
+simple process,"[3] and compares its elementariness to a muscular
+contraction as an element of a step in walking.
+
+ In investigating the principle of Functionalization as embodied
+in various forms of Management, we must note that, while Management
+can, and does under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize
+_work_ as far as possible, it will be impossible to come to ultimate
+results until a psychological study of the requirement of the
+work _from_ the worker, and results of the work _on_ the worker
+is made.[4]
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZATION IN MANAGEMENT.--"Functional Management"
+consists, to quote Dr. Taylor, "in so directing the work of
+management that each man from the assistant superintendent down
+shall have as few functions as possible to perform. If practicable,
+the work of each man in the management should be confined to the
+performance of a single leading function."[5]
+
+ A study of functionalization as applied to management must
+answer the following questions:
+
+ 1. How is the work divided?
+ 2. How are the workers assigned to the work?
+ 3. What are the results to the work?
+ 4. What are the results to the worker?
+
+ TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT SELDOM FUNCTIONALIZES.--Under Traditional
+Management the principle of Functionalization was seldom applied or
+understood. Even when the manager tried to separate planning from
+performing, or so to divide the work that each worker could utilize
+his special ability, there were no permanently beneficial results,
+because there was no standard method of division.
+
+ THE WORK OF THE FOREMAN NOT PROPERLY DIVIDED.--The work of a
+foreman was not divided, but the well rounded man, as Dr. Taylor
+says,[6] was supposed to have
+
+ 1. Brain
+ 2. Education
+ 3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity or strength
+ 4. Tact
+ 5. Energy
+ 6. Grit
+ 7. Honesty
+ 8. Judgment, or common sense
+ 9. Good health.
+
+ Dr. Taylor says--"Plenty of men who possess only three of the
+above qualities can be hired at any time for laborer's wages. Add
+four of these qualities together, and you get a higher priced man.
+The man combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to find,
+and those with 6, 7 and 8 are almost impossible to get."
+
+ Yet, under Traditional Management these general qualities and
+many points of specific training were demanded of the foreman. Dr.
+Taylor has enumerated the qualifications or the duties of a gang
+boss in charge of lathes or planers.[7] Careful reading of this
+enumeration will show most plainly that the demands made were almost
+impossible of fulfillment.[8]
+
+ Another list which is interesting is found in "Cost Reducing
+System," a long list of the duties of the Ideal Superintendent or
+foreman in construction work.[9]
+
+
+ QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF
+ FIRST CLASS FOREMAN
+
+ A first class foreman must have:
+ bodily
+ strength
+ brains
+ common sense
+ education
+ energy
+ good health
+ good judgment
+ grit
+ manual dexterity
+ special knowledge
+ tact
+ technical knowledge.
+
+ He must be:
+ able to concentrate his mind upon small things
+ able to read drawings readily
+ able to visualize the work at every stage of its progress,
+ and even before it begins
+ a master of detail
+ honest
+ master of at least one trade.
+
+ His duties consist of:
+ considering broad policies.
+ considering new applicants for important positions.
+ considering the character and fitness of the men.
+ determining a proper day's work.
+ determining costs.
+ determining the method of compensation.
+ determining the sequence of events for the best results.
+ disciplining the men.
+ dividing the men into gangs for speed contests.
+ fixing piece and day rates.
+ getting rid of inferior men.
+ handling relations with the unions.
+ hiring good men.
+ installing such methods and devices as will detect dishonesty.
+ instructing the workman.
+ keeping the time and disciplining those who are late or absent.
+ laying out work.
+ looking ahead to see that there are men enough for future work.
+ looking ahead to see that there is enough future work for the men.
+ making profits.
+ measuring each man's effort fairly.
+ obtaining good results in quality.
+ paying the men on days when they are discharged.
+ paying the men on pay day.
+ preventing soldiering.
+ readjusting wages.
+ retaining good men.
+ seeing that all men are honest.
+ seeing that men are shifted promptly when breakdowns occur.
+ seeing that repairs are made promptly before breakdowns occur,
+ seeing that repairs are made promptly after breakdowns occur.
+ seeing that the most suitable man is allotted to each part
+ of the work.
+ seeing that the work is not slighted.
+ setting piece work prices.
+ setting rates.
+ setting tasks.
+ supervising timekeeping.
+ teaching the apprentices.
+ teaching the improvers.
+ teaching the learners.
+
+ In studying these lists we note--
+
+ 1. That the position will be best filled by a very high and
+ rare type of man.
+ 2. That the man is forced to use every atom of all of his
+ powers and at the same time to waste his energies in doing much
+ unimportant pay reducing routine work, some of which could be
+ done by clerks.
+ 3. That in many cases the work assigned for him to do calls
+ for qualifications which are diametrically opposed to each other.
+ 4. That psychology tells us that a man fitted to perform some
+ of these duties would probably be mentally ill fitted for
+ performing others in the best possible way that they could be
+ performed.
+
+ WORK NOT WELL DONE.--Not only does the foreman under Traditional
+Management do a great deal of work which can be done by cheaper men,
+but he also wastes his time on clerical work in which he is not a
+specialist, and, therefore, which he does not do as well as the work
+can be done by a cheaper man, and this takes more of his time than
+he ought to devote to it. The result is that the work is not done as
+well as it can and should be done.
+
+ A most perfect illustration of a common form of Traditional
+Management is the old story of the foreman, who, in making his
+rounds of the various parts of the work, comes to the deep hole
+being excavated for a foundation pier and says hurriedly--"How many
+of yez is there in the hole?" "Seven." "The half of yez come up."
+
+ The theoretical defects of the old type of management often seen
+before the advent of the trained engineer on the work include:--
+
+ 1. lack of planning ahead.
+ 2. an overworked foreman.
+ 3. no functionalizing of the work.
+ 4. no standards of individual efficiency.
+ 5. unmeasured individual outputs.
+ 6. no standard methods.
+ 7. no attempt at teaching.
+ 8. inaccurate directions.
+ 9. lack of athletic contests.
+ 10. no high pay for extra efficiency.
+ 11. poor investigation of workers' special capabilities.
+
+ In spite of the fact that under unfunctionalized management the
+foreman has far more to do than he can expect to do well, the
+average foreman thinks that he belongs to a class above his
+position. This is partly because the position is so unstandardized
+that it arouses a sense of unrest, and partly because he has to
+spend much of his time at low priced functions.
+
+ Under the feeling of enmity, or at least, of opposition, which
+often exists, openly or secretly, between the average Traditional
+Management and men, the foreman must ally himself with one side or
+the other. If he joins with the men, he must countenance the
+soldiering, which they find necessary in order to maintain their
+rates of wages. Thus the output of the shop will seldom increase and
+his chance for appreciation and promotion by the management will
+probably be slight and slow. His position as boss, combined with
+that of ally of the men, is awkward.
+
+ If he allies himself to the management, he must usually become a
+driver of the men, if he wishes to increase output. This condition
+will never be agreeable to him unless he has an oversupply of brute
+instincts.
+
+ THE WORKERS NOT BEST UTILIZED.--Under the best types of
+Traditional Management we do find more or less spasmodic attempts at
+the functionalization of the worker. When there was any particular
+kind of work to be done, the worker who seemed to the manager to be
+the best fitted, was set at that kind of work. For example--if there
+was a particularly heavy piece of work he might say--"Let A do it
+because he is strong." If there was a particularly fine piece of
+work to be done he might say--"Let B do it because he is specially
+skilled." If there was a piece of work to be done which required
+originality, he might say--"Let C do it for the reason that he is
+inventive and resourceful;" but, in most cases, when the particular
+job on hand was finished, the worker selected to do it returned to
+other classes of work, and such special fitness or capability as he
+had, was seldom systematically utilized, or automatically assigned
+to his special function, neither was such experience as he had
+gained systematically conserved. Moreover, no such study of the work
+to be done had been made as would prove that the assignment of that
+particular worker to the work was right. The psychology of this was
+entirely wrong,--not only had no such study of the general and
+particular characteristics, traits, faculties, and talents of the
+man been made as would prove that he was the right man to be
+assigned, but the mere fact that he possessed one quality necessary
+for the work, if he really did possess it, was no sign that the
+other qualities which he possessed might not make him the wrong man
+to be chosen. Even if the man did happen to be assigned to work for
+which he was particularly suited, unless provision were made to keep
+him at such work only, to keep him well supplied with work, to allow
+time for rest, and to provide proper pay, he could not utilize his
+capabilities to the fullest extent.
+
+ TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONALIZES.--Under Transitory
+Management, management becomes gradually more and more functionalized.
+With separated outputs and separate records, the worker's
+capabilities become apparent, and he can be assigned to the
+standardized positions which gradually evolve. Every recognition of
+individuality carries with it a corresponding functionalization of
+men and work.
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZATION A FUNDAMENTAL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--With
+Scientific Management comes the realization that with close study
+and with functionalization only, can that provision and assignment
+of the work which is best for both work and worker be obtained. The
+principle is applied to every part of management, and results in
+
+ 1. separating the planning from the performing.
+ 2. functionalizing foremen.
+ 3. functionalizing workers.
+ 4. assigning competent workers to fitting work.
+
+ SEPARATING THE PLANNING FROM THE PERFORMING.--The emphasis on
+separating the planning from the performing in Scientific Management
+cannot be over-estimated. It is a part of Dr. Taylor's fourth
+principle of Scientific Management, "Almost equal division of the
+work and the responsibility between the management and the
+workmen."[10] The greatest outputs can be achieved to the greatest
+benefit to managers and men when the work is divided, the management
+undertaking that part of the work that it is best fitted to do, the
+workmen performing that part which they are best fitted to do.
+
+ THE WORK OF THE PLANNING DEPARTMENT.--It has been determined by
+actual experience that the line of division most agreeable to the
+managers and the workmen and most productive of cooeperation by both,
+as well as most efficient in producing low costs, is that which
+separates the planning from the performing. Under Scientific
+Management the Planning Department relieves the man of determining--
+
+ 1. what work is to be done.
+ 2. sequence in which it is to be done.
+ 3. method by which it shall be done.
+ 4. where it shall be done.
+ 5. which men shall do it.
+ 6. time that it shall take.
+ 7. exact quality of product.
+ 8. quantity of additional pay that shall be given for doing it.
+
+ WORK OF THE WORKERS.--The men are simply given standard tasks to
+do, with teachers to help them, and a standard wage according to
+performance as a reward. There are but three things expected
+of them:--
+
+ 1. cooeperation with the management in obtaining the prescribed
+ work, method and quality.
+ 2. the exercise of their ingenuity in making improvements
+ after they have learned the standard prescribed practice.
+ 3. the fitting of themselves for higher pay and promotion.
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZED FOREMANSHIP.--The work that, under Scientific
+Management, is usually done by one man, the Foreman, is subdivided
+into eight or more functions. These functions are assigned to the
+following functional foremen:[11]
+
+ Planning Department
+ 1. Order of work and route man
+ 2. Instruction card man
+ 3. Cost and time clerk
+ 4. Disciplinarian
+
+ Performing Department
+ 5. Gang boss
+ 6. Speed boss
+ 7. Repair boss
+ 8. Inspector
+
+ Each of the above functions may be in charge of a separate man,
+or one man may be in charge of several functions, or several men may
+do the work of one function; the work being divided between them in
+some cases by further functionalizing it,--and in others by
+separating it into similar parts. Which of these conditions is most
+effective depends on the size of the job, or the nature of the job
+to be done. The important question is, not the number of men doing
+the planning, but the fact that every foreman, so far as is
+possible, is assigned to the special kind of work that he is best
+fitted to do with the greatest elimination of unnecessary waste.
+
+ CHANGES IN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FOREMAN.--A Foreman, under
+Scientific Management, must have three qualifications. He must be
+
+ 1. a specialist at the work that he is to do.
+ 2. a good observer, able to note minute variations of method,
+ work, and efficiency.
+ 3. a good teacher.
+
+ A comparison of these qualifications with those of the foreman
+under Traditional Management, will show as important changes,--
+
+ 1. the particular place in the field of knowledge in which
+ the foreman must specialize.
+ 2. the change in the type of criticism expected from the
+ foreman.
+ 3. the far greater emphasis placed on duties as a teacher.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF THE TEACHING FEATURE IN FUNCTIONAL FOREMANSHIP.--
+The teaching feature of management,--the most important feature of
+Scientific Management,--will be discussed in the Chapter on
+Teaching. Only so much is included here as shows its derivation from
+the principle of functionalization, and its underlying importance.
+
+ Functionalization means specialization. This results in
+cooeperation between foremen, between foremen and workers, and
+between workers. By "co-operate" is here meant not only "to work
+together," but also "to work together to promote the object." This
+cooeperation persists not only because it is demanded by the work,
+but also because it is insured by the inter-dependent bonuses.
+
+ Functionalization under Scientific Management separates planning
+from performing. This means that the specialists who plan must teach
+the specialist who performs, this being the way in which they
+co-operate to the greatest personal advantage to all.
+
+ BASIS OF DIVISION INTO FUNCTIONS.--Under Scientific Management
+divisions are made on the basis of underlying ideas. Functions are
+not classified as they are embodied in particular men, but men are
+classified as they embody particular functions. This allows of
+standardization, through which alone can progress and evolution come
+quickest. It is comparatively easy and simple to standardize a
+function. Being a "set duty," it can be fixed, studied and
+simplified. It is extremely difficult and complex to standardize an
+individual. This standardizing of the function, however, in no wise
+stunts individuality. On the contrary, it gives each individual a
+chance to utilize his particular faculty for obtaining the greatest
+efficiency, pleasure and profit. This is well illustrated in the
+case of specialization in baseball, for excellence as a pitcher does
+not stunt the player as a catcher.
+
+ Functions may be subdivided as far as the nature of the work
+demands. Note here, again, that it is the relative complexity or
+simplicity of the nature of the work that is to be done that
+determines the degree of its functionalization, not the number of
+men employed at the work.
+
+ Note, also, that with every subdivision of functions comes
+greater opportunity for specialization, hence for individual
+development.
+
+ PLACE OF OPERATION OF THE FUNCTIONS.--Four functions of the
+eight find their place in the planning department. The other four
+are out on the work. That is to say,--the men who represent four
+functions work almost entirely in the planning room, while the men
+who represent the other four functions work mostly among the
+workers. This division is, however, largely a matter of convenience.
+Three of the first four groups of men communicate with the workers
+mostly in writing and are seldom engaged as observers, except in
+obtaining data for the creation of standards, while the fourth is
+often in the planning room. The last four usually communicate with
+the men orally, and must observe and teach the worker constantly.
+
+ In the descriptions that follow, each function is represented
+as embodied in one man, this aiding simplicity and clearness in
+description.
+
+ THE ORDER OF WORK AND ROUTE CLERK.--The Order of Work and Route
+Clerk lays out the exact path of each piece of work, and determines
+the sequence of events of moving and a general outline of
+performance.[12] With the requirements of the work in mind, the most
+efficient day's work for each worker is determined. The paths and
+sequences of transportation are outlined by means of route charts
+and route sheets showing graphical and detailed directions, which
+are the means by which the foremen of the other functions are
+enabled to cooeperate with other foremen and with the workers.
+
+ The work of this function requires a practical man, of the
+successful foreman type, experienced in the class of work to be
+executed, who is also familiar with the theories of Scientific
+Management in general, and the work of the other foremen in
+particular, and who has the faculty of visualization and well
+developed constructive imagination. He must also have at his command
+in systematic form, and available for immediate use, records of
+previous experience.
+
+ THE INSTRUCTION CARD CLERK.--The Instruction Card Clerk prepares
+written directions for the workers as to what methods should be used
+in doing the work, the sequence of performance of the elements of
+the method, the speeds and action of the accompanying machinery, the
+time that each element should take for its performance, the time
+allowed for rest for overcoming fatigue caused by its performance,
+and the total elapsed time allowed for performing all of the work on
+the instruction card in order to obtain the unusually high
+additional wages as a reward for his skill and cooeperation.
+
+ The work of this function requires the best available (but not
+necessarily the fastest), practical experienced man in the trade
+described, who also has had sufficient experience in motion study
+and time study to enable him to write down the best known method for
+doing the work described, and also prophesying the correct time that
+the work and rest from its resulting fatigue will take. He must
+supplement the instruction card with such sketches, drawings and
+photographs as will best assist the worker to visualize his work
+before and during its performance.
+
+ FUNCTION OF TIME AND COST CLERK.--The work done by the Time and
+Cost Clerk calls for accuracy and a love of statistical detail. It
+will help him if he knows the trades with which he is cooeperating,
+but such knowledge is not absolutely essential. He will be promoted
+fastest who has a knowledge of the theory of management, coupled
+with the theory and practice of statistics and accountancy, for the
+true costs must include knowledge of costs of materials, and the
+distribution of the overhead burden of running expenses and selling.
+
+ FUNCTION OF THE DISCIPLINARIAN.--The function of the
+Disciplinarian must be discussed at length, both because of the
+psychological effect upon the men of the manner of the discipline
+and of the disciplinarian, and because of the fact that the
+disciplinarian is the functional foreman of the four in the planning
+department who comes in most personal contact with the workers, as
+well as all of the other foremen, and the Superintendent.
+
+ It is important to note, in the discussion that is to follow,
+not only how disciplining is transformed as management develops
+progressively, but also that the intimate acquaintance of
+discipliner with disciplined is not done away with, but rather
+supplemented by the standardizing which is the outcome of Scientific
+Management.
+
+ The defects of methods of disciplining under Traditional
+Management are remedied, but here, as always, Scientific Management
+retains and develops that which is good. This because the good in
+the older forms conformed, unconsciously, to the underlying laws.
+
+ DEFECTS OF DISCIPLINING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Under
+Traditional Management, the disciplining is done by the foreman;
+that is, the punishment is meted out by the man who has charge of
+all activities of the men under him. This is actually, in practice
+and in theory, psychologically wrong. If there is one man who should
+be in a state of mind that would enable him to judge dispassionately,
+it is the disciplinarian. The man to be disciplined is usually
+guilty of one of six offenses:
+
+ 1. an offense against an employe of a grade above him.
+ 2. an offense against an employe of the same grade.
+ 3. an offense against an employe of a grade below him.
+ 4. falling short in the quality of his work.
+ 5. falling short in the quantity of his work.
+ 6. an offense against the system (disobeying orders), falling
+ down on schedule, or intentionally not cooeperating.
+
+ The employe over him, or the foreman, to whom he is supposed to
+have done some injustice, would be in no state of mind to judge as
+to the man's culpability. In the case of an offense against an
+employe of the same grade, the best that the injured employe could
+do would be to appeal to his foreman, who oftentimes is not an
+unprejudiced judge, and the multiplicity of whose duties give him
+little time to give attention to the subject of disciplining.
+
+ If the offense is against quantity or quality of work, again the
+old fashioned foreman, for lack of time, and for lack of training
+and proper standards of measurement, will find it almost impossible
+to know how guilty the man is, and what form of punishment and
+what amount of punishment or loss of opportunity for progress will
+be appropriate.
+
+ CHANGES IN DISCIPLINARIAN'S FUNCTION UNDER SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--All this is changed under Scientific Management. The
+disciplinarian is a specially appointed functional foreman, and has
+few other duties except those that are directly or indirectly
+connected with disciplining. He is in touch with the requirements of
+the work, because he is in the Planning Department; he is in touch
+with the employment bureau, and knows which men should be employed;
+he has a determining voice in deciding elementary rate fixing and
+should always be consulted before wages are changed or a
+reassignment of duties is determined. All of these are great
+advantages to him in deciding justly and appropriately punishments
+and promotion, not for the workers alone but also for the foremen
+and the managers.
+
+ DUTIES OF THE DISCIPLINARIAN.--The Disciplinarian keeps a record
+of each man's virtues and defects; he is in position to know all
+about the man; where he comes from; what his natural and acquired
+qualifications are; what his good points, possibilities and special
+fitness are; what his wages are, and his need for them. All that it
+is possible for the managers to know of the men is to be
+concentrated in this disciplinarian. He is, in practice, more the
+counsel and advocate of the worker than an unsympathetic judge, as
+is indicated by the fact that his chief function is that of
+"diplomat" and "peacemaker." His greatest duty is to see that the
+"square deal" is meted out without fear or favor to employer or
+to employe.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN DISCIPLINING.--Not only does the
+position of disciplinarian under Scientific Management answer the
+psychological requirements for such a function, but also the holder
+of the position of disciplinarian must understand psychology and
+apply, at least unconsciously, and preferably consciously, the known
+laws of psychology, if he wishes to be successful.
+
+ The disciplinarian must consider not only what the man has done
+and the relation of this act of his to his other acts; he must also
+investigate the cause and the motive of the act, for on the cause
+and motive, in reality, depends more than on the act itself. He must
+probe into the physical condition of the man, as related to his
+mental acts. He must note the effect of the same kind of discipline
+under different conditions; for example, he must note that, on
+certain types of people, disciplining in the presence of other
+people has a most derogatory effect, just as rewards before people
+may have a most advantageous effect. Upon others, discipline that is
+meted out in the presence of other people is the only sort of
+discipline which has the desired effect. The sensitiveness of the
+person to be disciplined, the necessity for sharp discipline, and
+for that particular sort of discipline which may require the element
+of shame in it, must all be considered. He must be able to discover
+and note whether the discipline should be meted out to a ringleader,
+and whether the other employes, supposed to be blameworthy, are
+really only guilty in acquiescing, or in failing to report one who
+has really furnished the initiative. He must differentiate acts
+which are the result of following a ringleader blindly from the
+concerted acts of disobedience of a crowd, for the "mob spirit" is
+always an element to be estimated and separately handled.
+
+ INADEQUACY OF TERMS IN DISCIPLINING.--The words "disciplinarian"
+and "punishment" are most unfortunate. The "Disciplinarian" would be
+far better called the "peacemaker," and the "punishment" by some
+such word as the "adjustment." It is _not_ the duty of the
+disciplinarian to "take out anybody's grudge" against a man; it _is_
+his duty to adjust disagreements. He must remember constantly that
+his discipline must be of such a nature that the result will be for
+the permanent best interests of the one disciplined, his co-workers,
+his associates and his family.
+
+ The aim is, not to put the man down, but to keep him up to his
+standard, as will be shown later in a chapter on Incentives. If the
+punishment is in the form of a fine, it must not in any way return
+to the coffers of the management. The fines collected--even those
+fines collected from the individuals composing the management,
+should go in some form to the benefit of the men themselves, such,
+for example, as contributions to a workman's sick benefit fund or to
+general entertainment at the annual outing of employes. In practice,
+the disciplinarian is rather the friend of the worker than of the
+employer, if the two interests can possibly be separated. Again
+"penalty" is a bad word to use. Any words used in this connection
+should preferably have had taken from them any feeling that personal
+prejudice affects the discipline. It is the nature of the offense
+itself which should prescribe what the outcome of it shall be.
+
+ The position of disciplinarian requires a man who has a keen
+sense of justice, who has had such experience as to enable him to
+smooth out difficulties until all are in a frame of mind where they
+can look upon their own acts and the acts of others calmly. He must
+be able so to administer his duties that each decision inspires the
+realization that he acted to the best of his knowledge and belief.
+He must be one who is fearless, and has no tendency to have
+favorites. He must have a clear knowledge of the theories and
+principles of Scientific Management, in order that he can fill the
+position of enforcer of its laws.
+
+ THE GANG BOSS.--The duties of The Gang Boss are to see that the
+worker has plenty of work ahead, to see that everything that he will
+need with which to do the work is at hand, and to see that the work
+is actually "set," or placed and performed correctly. This position
+calls for a practical demonstrator, who must himself be able and
+willing actually to prepare and help on the work. It calls
+particularly for a man with teaching ability, with special emphasis
+on ability to teach, with great exactness, the prescribed method and
+to follow the orders of the planning department implicitly.
+
+ THE SPEED BOSS.--The speed boss is responsible for the methods
+of doing work with machinery. He has charge of overseeing the work,
+and teaching the worker, during the entire time that the work is
+being done. He must be prepared constantly to demonstrate at any
+time not only _how_ the work is done, but also that it can be done
+in the specified time called for in order to earn the bonus. This
+position calls for a man who is able, personally, to carry out the
+detailed written orders of the instruction card in regard to speeds,
+feeds, cuts, methods of operation, quality and quantity.
+
+ He must be proficient at the art of imparting his knowledge to
+other workmen, and at the same time be able to secure the prescribed
+outputs and quantities. He need not be the fastest worker in the
+shop, but he should be one of the most intelligent workers and best
+teachers, with a keen desire to cooeperate, both with the workers and
+with the other foremen.
+
+ THE REPAIR BOSS.--The repair boss has charge of the plant and
+its maintenance. He must have a natural love of order and of
+cleanliness, and a systematic type of mind. This position calls for
+a man with an experience that will enable him to detect liability of
+breakdowns before they actually occur. He must be resourceful in
+repairing unexpected breakdowns in an emergency, and be able at all
+times to carry out literally the directions given on the instruction
+cards of the Planning Department for cleaning, maintaining, and
+repairing the machines.
+
+ THE INSPECTOR.--The function of inspector under scientific or
+the Taylor plan of management is most important, especially in
+connection with the "first inspection." During the manufacture of
+the first piece and after it is finished the inspector passes and
+reports upon it before the worker proceeds with the other pieces.
+Here the worker gets a return in person for each successive act on
+the first piece he makes under a new instruction card, or, if he is
+a new worker, under an old instruction card. Ambiguity of
+instructions, if present, is thus eliminated, and wrong actions or
+results are corrected before much damage to material has been done
+and before much time and effort are wasted. The first erroneous
+cycles of work are not repeated, and the worker is promptly shown
+exactly how efficiently he has succeeded in determining the
+requirements of his instructions.
+
+ The inspector is responsible for the quality of the work. He
+fulfills the requirements of Schloss, who says, in speaking of the
+danger, under some managements, that the foreman will sacrifice
+quality to speed, if he gets a bonus for quantity of output,--"The
+best safeguard against this serious danger would be found in the
+appointment of a distinct staff of inspectors whose duty it should
+be to ascertain, as the work proceeds, that the stipulated standards
+of excellence are at all times scrupulously maintained." This
+position of inspector requires an observant man who naturally is
+inclined to give constructive rather than destructive-criticism. He
+should be a man who can cooeperate with the workman and foreman to
+rescue condemned or damaged material with the least expenditure of
+time, effort and expense.
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZING THE WORKER.--Under Scientific Management,
+the worker as well as the foreman, is a specialist. This he
+becomes by being relieved of everything that he is not best fitted
+to do, and allowed to concentrate upon doing, according to exact
+and scientifically derived methods, that work at which he is
+an expert.[13]
+
+ RELIEVING THE WORKER OF THE PLANNING.--The planning is taken
+away from the worker, not because it is something too choice, sacred
+or entertaining for him to do, or something which the managers
+desire to do themselves, but because it is best, for the workers
+themselves as well as the work, that the planning be done by
+specialists at planning. If he is expert enough to plan, the worker
+will be promoted to the planning department. In the meantime, he is
+working under the best plan that experts can devise.
+
+ MASTER PLANNING A LIFE STUDY.--The best planner is he who,--
+other things being equal,--is the most ingenious, the most
+experienced and the best observer. It is an art to observe; it
+requires persistent attention. The longer and the more the observer
+observes, the more details, and variables affecting details, he
+observes. The untrained observer could not expect to compete with
+one of special natural talent who has also been trained. It is not
+every man who is fitted by nature to observe closely, hence to plan.
+To observe is a condition precedent to visualizing. Practice in
+visualizing makes for increasing the faculty of constructive
+imagination. He with the best constructive imagination is the
+master planner.
+
+ The art of observing is founded on a study of fundamental
+elements. In order that planning may be done best, previous to
+starting work, the entire sequence of operations must be laid out,
+so that the ideas of value of every element of every subdivision of
+the process of working may be corrected to act most efficiently in
+relation with each and all of the subsequent parts and events that
+are to follow. This planning forwards and backwards demands an
+equipment of time study, motion study and micro-motion study records
+such as can be used economically only when all the planning is done
+in one place, with one set of records. The planner must be able to
+see and control the whole problem in all of its aspects.
+
+ For example,--the use that is to be made of the work after it is
+completed may entirely change the methods best used in doing it.
+Thus, the face of a brick wall that is to be plastered does not
+require and should not have the usual excellence of nicely ruled
+joints required on a face that is not to be plastered. In fact, the
+roughest, raggedest joints will be that quality of wall that will
+make the plaster adhere the best.
+
+ As an example of professional observation and investigation with
+which no untrained observer could compete, we cite the epoch making
+work of Dr. Taylor in determining the most efficient speeds, feeds,
+cuts and shape of tools to use for the least wastefulness in cutting
+metals.[14]
+
+ Dr. Taylor, an unusually brilliant man, at the end of twenty-six
+years, working with the best scientists, engineers, experimenters,
+and workmen, after an expenditure of literally hundreds of thousands
+of dollars, was able to determine and write down a method for
+cutting metals many times less wasteful in time than was ever known
+before; but the data from the experiments was so complex and
+involved that a considerable knowledge of higher mathematics had to
+be used to apply the data. Furthermore, the data was in such form
+that it took longer to use the knowledge contained therein than it
+did to do the work on any given piece of metal cutting. After
+gathering this knowledge, Dr. Taylor, with his assistants, first Mr.
+Gantt and finally Mr. Barth, reduced it to such a form that now it
+can be used in a matter of a few seconds or minutes. This was done
+by making slide rules.[15] Today workers have this knowledge in a
+form that any machinist can use with a little instruction. As a
+result, Dr. Taylor's observations have revolutionized the design of
+metal cutting machinery and the metal cutting industry, and the data
+he collected is used in every metal cutting planning department.
+
+ Furthermore, as a by-product to his observations and
+investigations, he discovered the Taylor-White process of making
+high speed steel, which revolutionized the steel tool industry. No
+untrained workman could expect ever to compete with such work as
+this in obtaining results for most efficient planning and at the
+same time perform his ordinary work.
+
+ WASTEFULNESS OF INDIVIDUAL PLANNING.--Even if it were possible
+so to arrange the work of every worker that he could be in close
+proximity to the equipment for planning and could be given the
+training needed, individual planning for "small lots" with no
+systematized standardization of planning-results would be an
+economic waste that would cause an unnecessary hardship on the
+worker, the employer and the ultimate consumer. Individual planning
+could not fit the broad scheme of planning, and at best would cause
+delays and confusion, and make an incentive to plan for the
+individual self, instead of planning for the greatest good of the
+greatest number.
+
+ Again, even if it were possible to plan best by individual
+planning, there is a further waste in changing from one kind of work
+to another. This waste is so great and so obvious that it was
+noticed and recognized by the earliest manufacturers and economists.
+
+ HARDSHIP TO THE WORKER OF INDIVIDUAL PLANNING.--To obtain the
+most wages and profits there must be the most savings to divide.
+These cannot be obtained when each man plans for himself (except in
+the home trades), because all large modern operations have the
+quantity of output dependent upon the amount of blockades, stoppages
+and interferences caused by dependent sequences. It is not,
+therefore, possible to obtain the most profit or most wages by
+individual planning. Planning is a general function, and the only
+way to obtain the best results is by organized planning, and by
+seeing that no planning is done for one worker without proper
+consideration of its bearing and effect upon any or all the other
+men's outputs.
+
+ THE MAN WHO DESIRES TO BE A PLANNER CAN BE ONE.--If the worker
+is the sort of a man who can observe and plan, or who desires to
+plan, even though he is not at first employed in the planning
+department, he is sure to get there finally, as the system provides
+that each man shall go where he is best fitted. Positions in
+planning departments are hard to fill, because of the scarcity of
+men equipped to do this work. The difficulty of teaching men to
+become highly efficient planners is one of the reasons for the slow
+advance of the general adoption of Scientific Management.
+
+ THE MAN WHO DISLIKES PLANNING CAN BE RELIEVED.--It must not be
+forgotten that many people dislike the planning responsibility in
+connection with their work. For such, relief from planning makes the
+performance of the planned work more interesting and desirable.
+
+ PROVISION FOR PLANNING BY ALL UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Much
+has been said about the worker's "God-given rights to think," and
+about the necessity for providing every worker with an opportunity
+to think.
+
+ Scientific Management provides the fullest opportunities for
+every man to think, to exercise his mental faculties, and to plan
+
+ 1. in doing the work itself, as will be shown at length in
+ chapters that follow.
+ 2. outside of the regular working hours, but in connection
+ with promotion in his regular work.
+
+ Scientific Management provides always, and most emphatically,
+that the man shall have hours free from his work in such a state
+that he will not be too fatigued to do anything. Furthermore, if he
+work as directed, his number of working hours per day will be so
+reduced that he will have more time each day for his chosen form of
+mental stimulus and improvement.
+
+ Our friend John Brashear is a most excellent example of what one
+can do in after hours away from his work. He was a laborer in a
+steel mill. His duties were not such as resemble in any way planning
+or research work, yet he became one of the world's most prominent
+astronomical thinkers and an Honorary member of the American Society
+of Mechanical Engineers, because he had the desire to be a student.
+Under Scientific Management such a desire receives added impetus
+from the method of attack provided for through its teaching.
+
+ FUNCTIONALIZING THE WORK ITSELF.--The work of each part of the
+planning and performing departments may be functionalized, or
+subdivided, as the result of motion study and time study. The
+elementary timed units are combined or synthesized into tasks, made
+to fit the capabilities of specialized workers. It is then necessary
+to:--
+
+ 1. List the duties and requirements of the work.
+ 2. Decide whether the place can be best handled as one, or
+ subdivided into several further subdivisions, or functions,
+ or even sub-functions, for two or more function specialists.
+
+ For the sake of analysis, all work may be considered as of
+one of two classes:--
+
+ 1. the short time job.
+ 2. the long time job.
+
+ These two divisions are handled differently, as follows:
+
+ THE SHORT TIME JOB.--On the short time job that probably will
+never be repeated, there is little opportunity and no economic
+reason for specially training a man for its performance. The
+available man best suited to do the work with little or no help
+should be chosen to do it. The suitability of the man for the work
+should be determined only by applying simple tests, or, if even
+these will cause costly delay or more expense than the work
+warrants, the man who appears suitable and who most desires the
+opportunity to do the work can be assigned to it.
+
+ If the job is connected with a new art, a man whose habits will
+help him can be chosen.
+
+ For example:--in selecting a man to fly, it has been found
+advantageous to give a trick bicycle rider the preference.
+
+ There is no other reason why the man for the short job should
+not be fitted as well to his work as the man for the long job,
+except the all-important reason of cost for special preparation. Any
+expense for study of the workers must be borne ultimately both by
+worker and management, and it is undesirable to both that expense
+should be incurred which will not be ultimately repaid.
+
+ THE LONG TIME JOB.--The long time job allows of teaching,
+therefore applicants for it may be carefully studied. Usually that
+man should be chosen who, with all the natural qualifications and
+capabilities for the job, except practical skill, requires the most
+teaching to raise him from the lower plane to that highest mental
+and manual plane which he is able to fill successfully continuously.
+In this way each man will be developed into a worker of great value
+to the management and to himself.
+
+ The man who is capable and already skilled at some work is thus
+available for a still higher job, for which he can be taught. Thus
+the long job affords the greatest opportunity for promotion. The
+long job justifies the expenditure of money, effort and time by
+management and men, and is the ideal field for the application of
+scientific selection and functionalization.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ EFFECT OF FUNCTIONALIZATION UPON THE WORK.--Under Traditional
+Management, there was little or no definite functionalization. If
+the quantity of output did increase, as the result of putting a man
+at that work for which he seemed best fitted, there was seldom
+provision made for seeing that the quality of product was maintained
+by a method of constructive inspection that prevented downward
+deviations from standard quality, instead of condemning large
+quantities of the finished product.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, the Department of Inspection is one
+of the first Functions installed. This assures maintained quality,
+and provides that all increase in output shall be actual gain.
+
+ Under Scientific Management, functionalization results in
+increased quantity of output,[16] with maintained and usually
+increased quality.[17] This results in decreased cost. The cost is
+sufficiently lower to allow of increased wages to the employes, a
+further profit to the employer, and a maintained, or lowered,
+selling price. This means a benefit to the consumer.
+
+ It may be objected that costs cannot be lowered, because of the
+number of so-called "non-producers" provided for by Scientific
+Management.
+
+ In answer to this it may be said that there are no non-producers
+under Scientific Management. Corresponding work that, under
+Scientific Management, is done in the planning department must all
+be done somewhere, in a less systematic manner, even under
+Traditional Management.[18] The planning department, simply does
+this work more efficiently,--with less waste. Moreover, much work of
+the planning department, being founded on elementary units, is
+available for constant use. Here results an enormous saving by the
+conservation and utilization of planning effort.
+
+ Also, standard methods are more apt to result in standard
+quality, and with less occasion for rejecting output that is below
+the requisite standards than is the case under Traditional
+Management.
+
+ EFFECT OF FUNCTIONALIZATION UPON THE WORKER.--Under Traditional
+Management, even if the worker often becomes functionalized, he
+seldom has assurance that he will be able to reap the harvest from
+remaining so, and even so, neither data nor teaching are provided to
+enable him to fulfill his function most successfully.
+
+ Under Transitory Management the worker becomes more and more
+functionalized, as the results of motion study and time study make
+clear the advantages of specializing the worker.
+
+ EFFECTS UPON THE SCIENTIFICALLY MANAGED WORKER.--Under
+Scientific Management the effects of Functionalization are so
+universal and so far reaching that it is necessary to enumerate them
+in detail.
+
+ WORKER RELIEVED OF EVERYTHING BUT HIS SPECIAL FUNCTIONS.--
+Functionalization, in providing that every man is assigned a special
+function, also provides that he be called upon to do work in that
+function only, relieving him of all other work and responsibility.
+Realization of this elimination has a psychological effect on action
+and habits of thinking.[19]
+
+ PLACES ARE PROVIDED FOR SPECIALISTS.--Functionalization utilizes
+men with decided bents, and allows each man to occupy that place for
+which he is fitted.[20] Assignment to functions is done according to
+the capabilities and desires of those who are to fill them.
+
+ SPECIALIZING IS ENCOURAGED.--It is most important to remember
+that the man with any special talent or talents, individuality or
+special fitness is much more likely, under Scientific Management, to
+obtain and retain the place that he is fitted for than he ever could
+have been under Traditional Management, for, while many fairly
+efficient men can be found who can fill a general position, a man
+with the marked desirable trait necessary to fill a distinct
+position requiring that trait, will be one of few, and will have his
+place waiting for him.
+
+ ONE-TALENT MEN UTILIZED--.With Functionalization, men who lack
+qualifications for the position which they may, at the start,
+endeavor to fill, may be transferred to other positions, where the
+qualities they lack are not required. If a man has one talent,
+Scientific Management provides a place where that can be utilized.
+
+ For example:--
+
+ Men who cannot produce the prescribed output constantly, are
+placed on other work. The slow, unskilled worker who has difficulty
+to learn, may be put upon work requiring less skill, or where speed
+is not required so much as watchfulness and faithfulness. The worker
+who is slow, but exceptionally skilled, has the opportunity to rise
+to the position of the functional foreman, especially in the
+planning department, where knowledge, experience and resourcefulness,
+and especially ability to teach, are much more desired than
+speed and endurance. Thus there are places provided, below and
+above, that can utilize all kinds of abilities.
+
+ "ALL ROUND" MEN ARE UTILIZED.--The exceptional man who possesses
+executive ability in all lines, and balance between them all, is the
+ideal man for a manager, and his special "all round" ability would
+be wasted in any position below that of a manager.
+
+ STABILITY PROVIDED FOR.--Every man is maintained in his place by
+his interresponsibility with other men. If he is a worker, every
+man's work is held to standard quality by the inspector, while the
+requirements and rewards of his function are kept before him by the
+instruction card man, rate fixer and the disciplinarian.
+
+ PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT PROVIDED FOR.--Functionalization
+provides for promotion by showing every man not only the clearly
+circumscribed place where he is to work, but also by showing him the
+definite place above him to which he may be promoted and its path,
+and by teaching him how he can fill it. This allows him to develop
+the possibilities of his best self by using and specially training
+those talents which are most marked in him.
+
+ Functional Foremanship allows many more people, to become
+foremen, and to develop the will and judgment which foremanship
+implies.
+
+ MEN IN THE ORGANIZATION PREFERRED TO OUTSIDERS.--Men in the
+organization are preferable to outsiders as functional foremen and
+for promotion. Not only does a worker's knowledge of his work help
+him to become more efficient when he is promoted to the position of
+foreman,--but his efficiency as a teacher is also increased by the
+fact that he knows and understands the workers whom he is there
+to teach.
+
+ ALL MEN ARE PUSHED UP.--Scientific Management raises every man
+as high as he is capable of being raised. It does not speed him up,
+but pushes him up to the highest notch which he can fill. Actual
+practice has shown that there is a greater demand for efficient men
+in the planning department than there is supply; also, that men in
+the planning department who fit themselves for higher work can be
+readily promoted to positions of greater responsibility, either
+inside or outside the organization.
+
+ YEARS OF PRODUCTIVITY PROLONGED.--Under Functionalization the
+number of years of productivity of all, workers and foremen alike,
+are increased. The specialty to which the man is assigned is his
+natural specialty, thus his possible and profitable working years
+are prolonged, because he is at that work for which he is naturally
+fitted.
+
+ Moreover, the work of teaching is one at which the teacher
+becomes more clever and more valuable as time goes on, the
+functional foreman has that much more chance to become valuable as
+years go by.
+
+ CHANGE IN THE WORKER'S MENTAL ATTITUDE.--The work under
+functionalization is such as to arouse the worker's attention and to
+hold his interest.[21] But the most important and valuable change in
+the worker's feelings is the change in his attitude towards the
+foremen and the employer. From "natural enemies" as sometimes
+considered under typical Traditional Management, these all now
+become friends, with the common aim, cooeperation, for the purpose of
+increasing output and wages, and lowering costs. This change of
+feeling results in an appreciation of the value of teaching, and
+also in promoting industrial peace.
+
+
+CHAPTER III FOOTNOTES: =============================================
+
+ 1. Mary Whiton Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 273.
+ 2. Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 1.
+ 3. _Ibid._, p. 54.
+ 4. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 35.
+ 5. Gillette and Dana, _Cost Keeping and Management Engineering_,
+ p. 1.
+ 6. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 221. Harper Ed., p. 96.
+ 7. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 221-231. Harper Ed.,
+ pp. 96-98.
+ 8. Compare H.L. Gantt, No. 1002, A.S.M.E., para. 9.
+ 9. Compare H.P. Gillette, _Cost Analysis Engineering_, pp. 1-2.
+10. F.W. Taylor, _Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 37.
+11. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 245. Harper Ed., p. 104.
+12. For excellent example of special routing see: Charles Day,
+ _Industrial Plants_, chap. VII.
+13. C. Babbage, _Economy of Manufacturers_. p. 172. "The constant
+ repetition of the same process necessarily produces in the
+ workman a degree of excellence and rapidity in his particular
+ department, which is never possessed by a person who is obliged
+ to execute many different processes."
+14. F.W. Taylor, _On the Art of Cutting Metals_, Paper No. 1119,
+ A.S.M.E.
+15. C.G. Barth, _Slide Rules for Machine Shops and Taylor System_.
+ Paper No. 1010, A.S.M.E.
+16. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 19.
+17. Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, p. 2. "The greatest improvement
+ in the productive powers of labor, and the greater part of the
+ skill, dexterity, and judgment, with which it is anywhere
+ directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the
+ division of labor." Also p. 4.
+18. H.K. Hathaway, _The Value of "Non-Producers" in Manufacturing
+ Plants. Machinery_, Nov., 1906, p. 134.
+19. Gillette and Dana, _Cost Keeping and Management Engineering_,
+ p. 11.
+20. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, _Bulletin No. 5, Carnegie Foundation for
+ the Advancement of Teaching_, p. 15.
+21. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 120.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ MEASUREMENT
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT.--"Measurement," according to the
+Century Dictionary,--"is the act of measuring," and to measure
+is--"to ascertain the length, extent, dimensions, quantity or
+capacity of, by comparison with a standard; ascertain or determine a
+quantity by exact observation," or, again, "to estimate or determine
+the relative extent, greatness or value of, appraise by comparison
+with something else."
+
+ MEASUREMENT IMPORTANT IN PSYCHOLOGY.--Measurement has always
+been of importance in psychology; but it is only with the
+development of experimental psychology and its special apparatus,
+that methods of accurate measurements are available which make
+possible the measurement of extremely short periods of time, or
+measurements "quick as thought," These enable us to measure the
+variations of different workers as to their abilities and their
+mental and physical fatigue;[1] to study mental processes at
+different stages of mental and physical growth; to compare different
+people under the same conditions, and the same person under
+different conditions; to determine the personal coefficient of
+different workers, specialists and foremen, and to formulate
+resultant standards. As in all other branches of science, the
+progress comes with the development of measurement.
+
+ METHODS OF MEASUREMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY.--No student of management,
+and of measurement in the field of management, can afford not to
+study, carefully and at length, methods of measurement under
+psychology. This, for at least two most important reasons, which
+will actually improve him as a measurer, i.e.--
+
+ 1. The student will discover, in the books on experimental
+psychology and in the "Psychological Review," a marvelous array of
+results of scientific laboratory experiments in psychology, which
+will be of immediate use to him in his work.
+
+ 2. He will receive priceless instruction in methods of
+measuring. No where better than in the field of psychology, can one
+learn to realize the importance of measurements, the necessity for
+determination of elements for study, and the necessity for accurate
+apparatus and accuracy in observation.
+
+ Prof. George M. Stratton, in his book "Experimental Psychology
+and Culture,"--says "In mental measurements, therefore, there is no
+pretense of taking the mind's measure as a whole, nor is there
+usually any immediate intention of testing even some special faculty
+or capacity of the individual. What is aimed at is the measurement
+of a limited event in consciousness, such as a particular perception
+or feeling. The experiments are addressed, of course, not to the
+weight or size of such phenomena, but usually to their duration and
+intensity."[2]
+
+ The emphasis laid on a study of elements is further shown in the
+same book by the following,--"The actual laboratory work in
+time-measurement, however, has been narrowed down to determining,
+not the time in general that is occupied by some mental action, but
+rather the shortest possible time in which a particular operation,
+like discrimination or choice or association or recognition, can be
+performed under the simplest and most favorable circumstances.[3]
+The experimental results here are something like speed or racing
+records, made under the best conditions of track and training. A
+delicate chronograph or chronoscope is used, which marks the time in
+thousandths of a second."
+
+ MEASUREMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY RELATED TO MEASUREMENT IN
+MANAGEMENT.--Measurement in psychology is of importance to
+measurement in management not only as a source of information and
+instruction, but also as a justification and support. Scientific
+Management has suffered from being called absurd, impractical,
+impossible, over-exact, because of the emphasis which it lays on
+measurement. Yet, to the psychologist, all present measurement in
+Scientific Management must appear coarse, inaccurate and of
+immediate and passing value only. With the knowledge that
+psychologists endorse accurate measurement, and will cooeperate in
+discovering elements for study, instruments of precision and methods
+of investigation, the investigator in industrial fields must persist
+in his work with a new interest and confidence.[4]
+
+ Scientific Management cannot hope to furnish psychology with
+either data or methods of measurement. It can and does, however,
+open a new field for study to experimental psychology, and shows
+itself willing to furnish the actual working difficulties or
+problems, to do the preliminary investigation, and to utilize
+results as fast as they can be obtained.
+
+ PSYCHOLOGISTS APPRECIATE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The
+appreciation which psychologists have shown of work done by
+Scientific Management must be not only a matter of gratification,
+but of inspiration to all workers in Scientific Management.
+
+ So, also, must the new divisions of the Index to the
+Psychological Review relating to Activity and Fatigue, and the work
+being so extensively done in these lines by French, German, Italian
+and other nations, as well as by English and American psychologists.
+
+ MEASUREMENT IMPORTANT IN MANAGEMENT.--The study of individuality
+and of functionalization have made plain the necessity of
+measurement for successful management. Measurement furnishes the
+means for obtaining that accurate knowledge upon which the science
+of management rests, as do all sciences--exact and inexact.[5]
+Through measurement, methods of less waste are determined, standards
+are made possible, and management becomes a science, as it derives
+standards, and progressively makes and improves them, and the
+comparisons from them, accurate.
+
+ PROBLEM OF MEASUREMENT IN MANAGEMENT--One of the important
+problems of measurement in management is determining how many hours
+should constitute the working day in each different kind of work and
+at what gait the men can work for greatest output and continuously
+thrive. The solution of this problem involves the study of the men,
+the work, and the methods, which study must become more and more
+specialized; but the underlying aim is to determine standards and
+individual capacity as exactly as is possible.[6]
+
+ CAPACITY.--There are at least four views of a worker's
+capacity.
+
+ 1. What he thinks his capacity is.
+ 2. What his associates think his capacity is.
+ 3. What those over him think his capacity is.
+ 4. What accurate measurement determines his
+ actual capacity to be.
+
+ IGNORANCE OF REAL CAPACITY.--Dr. Taylor has emphasized the fact
+that the average workman does not know either his true efficiency or
+his true capacity.[7] The experience of others has also gone to show
+that even the skilled workman has little or inaccurate knowledge of
+the amount of output that a good worker can achieve at his chosen
+vocation in a given time.[8]
+
+ For example,--until a bricklayer has seen his output counted for
+several days, he has little idea of how many bricks he can lay, or
+has laid, in a day.[9]
+
+ The average manager is usually even more ignorant of the
+capacity of the workers than are the men themselves.[10] This is
+because of the prevalence of, and the actual necessity for the
+worker's best interest, under some forms of management, of
+"soldiering." Even when the manager realizes that soldiering is
+going on, he has no way, especially under ordinary management, of
+determining its extent.
+
+ LITTLE MEASUREMENT IN TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Under Traditional
+Management there was little measurement of a man's capacity. The
+emphasis was entirely on the results. There was, it is true, in
+everything beyond the most elementary of Traditional Management, a
+measurement of the result. The manager did know, at the end of
+certain periods of time, how much work had been done, and how much
+it had cost him. This was a very important thing for him to know. If
+his cost ran too high, and his output fell too low, he investigated.
+If he found a defect, he tried to remedy it; but much time had to be
+wasted in this investigation, because often he had no idea where to
+start in to look for the defects. The result of the defects was
+usually the cause for the inquiry as to their presence.
+
+ He might investigate the men, he might investigate the methods,
+he might investigate the equipment, he might investigate the
+surroundings, and so on,--and very often in the mind of the
+Traditional manager, there was not even this most elementary
+division. If things went wrong he simply knew,--"Something is wrong
+somewhere," and it was the work of the foremen to find out where the
+place was, or so to speed up the men that the output should be
+increased and the cost lowered. Whether the defects were really
+remedied, or simply concealed by temporarily speeding up, was not
+seriously questioned.
+
+ Moreover, until measuring devices are secured, the only standard
+is what someone thinks about things, and the pity of it is that even
+this condition does not remain staple.
+
+ TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT REALIZES VALUE OF MEASUREMENT.--One of the
+first improvements introduced when Traditional Management gives
+place to the Transitory stage is the measurement of the separated
+output of individual workers. These outputs are measured and
+recorded. The records for extra high outputs are presented to the
+worker promptly, so that he may have a keen idea constantly of the
+relation of effort to output, while the fatigue and the effort of
+doing the work is still fresh in his mind.
+
+ The psychology of the prompt reward will be considered later at
+length, but it cannot be emphasized too often that the prompter the
+reward, the greater the stimulus. The reward will become associated
+with the fatigue in such a way that the worker will really get, at
+the time, more satisfaction out of his fatigue than he will
+discomfort; at the least, any dissatisfaction over his fatigue will
+be eliminated, by the constant and first thought of the reward which
+he has gotten through his efforts.
+
+ This record of efficiency is often so presented to the workers
+that they get an excellent idea of the numerical measure of their
+efficiency and its trend. This is best done by a graphical chart.
+
+ The records of the outputs of others on the same kind of work
+done concurrently, or a corresponding record on work done
+previously, will show the relative efficiency of any worker as
+compared with the rest. These standards of comparison are a strong
+incentive and, if they are shown at the time that such work is done,
+they also become so closely associated not only with the mental but
+the bodily feeling of the man that the next time the work is
+repeated, the thoughts that the same effort will probably bring
+greater results, and that it has done so in the past with others,
+will be immediately present in the mind.
+
+ MEASUREMENT IS BASIC UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under
+Scientific Management measurement is basic. Measurement is of the
+work, of outputs, of the methods, the tools, and of the worker, with
+the individual as a unit, and motion study, time study and
+micro-motion study and the chrono-cyclegraph as the methods of
+measurement.
+
+ Measurement is a most necessary adjunct to selecting the workers
+and the managers and to assigning them to the proper functions and
+work. They cannot be selected to the greatest advantage and set to
+functionalized work until--
+
+ (a) the unit of measurement that will of itself
+ tend to reduce costs has been determined.
+ (b) methods of measurement have been determined.
+ (c) measurement has been applied.
+ (d) standards for measurement have been derived.
+ (e) devices for cheapening the cost of measuring
+ have been installed.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MEASUREMENT DETERMINES THE TASK.--An
+important aim of measurement under Scientific Management is to
+determine the Task, or the standard amount of any kind of work that
+a first class man can do in a certain period of time. The "standard
+amount" is the largest amount that a first class man can do and
+continuously thrive.
+
+ The "first-class" man is the man who can eventually become best
+fitted, by means of natural and acquired capabilities, to do the
+work. The "certain period of time" is that which best suits the work
+and the man's thriving under the work. The amount of time allowed
+for a task consists of three parts--
+
+ 1. time actually spent at work.
+ 2. time for rest for overcoming fatigue.
+ 3. time for overcoming delays.
+
+ Measurement must determine what percentage of the task time is
+to be spent at work and what at rest, and must also determine
+whether the rest period should all follow the completed work, or
+should be divided into parts, these parts to follow certain cycles
+through the entire work period.
+
+ The method of constructing the task is discussed under two
+chapters that follow, Analysis and Synthesis, and Standardization.
+Here we note only that the task is built up of elementary units
+measured by motion study, time study, and micro-motion study.
+
+ When this standard task has been determined the worker's
+efficiency can be measured by his performance of, or by the amount
+that he exceeds, the task.
+
+ QUALIFICATIONS OF THE OBSERVER OR MEASURER.--The position of
+observer, or as he has well been called, "trade revolutionizer,"
+should be filled by a man specially selected for the position on
+account of his special natural fitness and previous experience. He
+also should be specially trained for his work. As in all other
+classes of work, the original selection of the man is of vital
+importance. The natural qualities of the successful hunter,
+fisherman, detective, reporter and woodsman for observation of
+minute details are extremely desirable. It is only by having
+intimate knowledge of such experiences as Agassiz had with his
+pupils, or with untrained "observers" of the trade, that one can
+realize the lack of powers of observation of detail in the average
+human being.
+
+ Other natural qualifications required to an efficient observer
+are that of being
+
+ (a) an "eye worker";
+ (b) able to concentrate attention for unusually
+ long periods;
+ (c) able to get every thought out of a simple
+ written sentence;
+ (d) keenly interested in his work;
+ (e) accurate;
+ (f) possessed of infinite patience;
+ (g) an enthusiastic photographer.
+
+ The measurer or observer should, preferably, have the intimate
+knowledge that comes from personal experience of the work to be
+observed, although such a man is often difficult if not impossible
+to obtain.
+
+ The position of observer illustrates another of the many
+opportunities of the workmen for promotion from the ranks to higher
+positions when they are capable of holding the promotion. Naturally,
+other things being equal, no man is so well acquainted with the work
+to be observed as he who has actually done it himself, and if he
+have also the qualifications of the worker at the work, which
+should, in the future, surely be determined by study of him and by
+vocational guidance, he will be able to go at once from his position
+in the ranks to that of observer, or time study man.
+
+ The observer must also familiarize himself with the literature
+regarding motion study and time study, and must form the habit of
+recording systematically the minutest details observable.
+
+ The effect upon the man making the observation of knowing that
+his data, even though at the time they may seem unimportant, can be
+used for the deduction of vital laws, is plain. He naturally feels
+that he is a part of a permanent scheme, and is ready and willing to
+put his best activity into the work. The benefits accruing from this
+fact have been so well recognized in making United States surveys
+and charts, that the practice has been to have the name of the man
+in charge of the work printed on them.
+
+ ANYONE INTERESTED MAY BECOME AN OBSERVER.--A review of the
+mental equipment needed by a measurer, or observer, will show that
+much may be done toward training oneself for such a position by
+practice. Much pleasure as well as profit can be obtained by
+acquiring the habit of observation, both in the regular working and
+in the non-working hours. Vocational Guidance Bureaus should see
+that this habit of observation is cultivated, not only for the
+aesthetic pleasure which it gives, but also for its permanent
+usefulness.
+
+ UNBIASED OBSERVATION NECESSARY.--In order to take observations
+properly, the investigator should be absolutely impartial,
+unprejudiced, and unbiased by any preconceived notions. Otherwise,
+he will be likely to think that a certain thing ought to happen. Or
+he may have a keen desire to obtain a certain result to conform to a
+pet theory. In other words, the observer must be of a very stable
+disposition. He must not be carried away by his observations.
+
+ The elimination of any charting by the man who makes the
+observations, or at least its postponement until all observations
+are made, will tend to decrease the dangers of unconscious effect of
+what he considers the probable curve of the observations should be.
+
+ As has been well said, watching the curve to be charted before
+all of the data have been obtained develops a distinct theory in the
+mind of the investigator and is apt to "bend the curve" or, at
+least, to develop a feeling that if any new, or special, data do not
+agree with the tendency of the curve--so much the worse for the
+reputation of the data for reliability.
+
+ OBSERVED WORKER SHOULD REALIZE THE PURPOSE OF THE
+MEASUREMENT.--The observed worker should be made to realize the
+purpose and importance of the measurement. The observing should
+always be done with his full knowledge and hearty cooeperation. He
+will attain much improvement by intelligent cooeperation with the
+observer, and may, in turn, be able to be promoted to observing if
+he is interested enough to study and prepare himself after hours.
+
+ WORKER SHOULD NEVER BE OBSERVED SURREPTITIOUSLY.--No worker
+should ever be observed, timed and studied surreptitiously. In the
+first place, if the worker does not know that he is being observed,
+he cannot cooeperate with the observer to see that the methods
+observed are methods of least waste. Therefore the motion study and
+time study records that result will not be fundamental standards in
+any case and will probably be worthless.
+
+ In the second place, if the worker discovers that he is being
+observed secretly, he will feel that he is being spied upon and is
+not being treated fairly. The stop watch has too long been
+associated with the idea of "taking the last drop of blood from the
+worker." Secret observations will tend strongly to lend credence to
+this idea. Even should the worker thus observed not think that he
+was being watched in order to force him, at a later time, to make
+higher outputs, after he has once learned that he is being watched
+secretly, his attention will constantly be distracted by the thought
+that perhaps he is being studied and timed again. He will be
+constantly on the alert to see possible observers. This may result
+in "speeding him up," but the speed will not be a legitimate speed,
+that results to his good as well as to that of his employer.
+
+ Worst of all, he will lose confidence in the "squareness" of his
+employer. Hence he will fail to co-operate, and one of the greatest
+advantages of Scientific Management will thus be lost.
+
+ It is a great advantage of micro-motion study that it demands
+cooeperation of the man studied, and that its results are open to
+study by all.
+
+ AN EXPERT BEST WORKER TO OBSERVE.--The best worker to observe
+for time study is he who is so skilled that he can perform a cycle
+of prescribed standard motions automatically, without mental
+concentration. This enables him to devote his entire mental activity
+to deviating the one desired variable from the accepted cycle
+of motions.
+
+ The difficulty in motion study and time study is not so often to
+vary the variable being observed and studied, as it is to maintain
+the other variables constant. Neither skill nor appreciation of what
+is wanted is enough alone. The worker who is to be measured
+successfully must
+
+ 1. have the required skill.
+ 2. understand the theory of what is being done.
+ 3. be willing to cooeperate.
+
+ EVERYONE SHOULD BE TRAINED IN BEING MEASURED.--Accurate
+measurement of individuals, in actual practice, brings out the fact
+that lamentably few persons are accustomed to be, or can readily be,
+measured. It has been a great drawback to the advance of Scientific
+Management that the moment a measurer of any kind is put on the
+work, either a device to measure output or a man to measure or to
+time reactions, motions, or output, the majority of the workers
+become suspicious. Being unaccustomed to being measured, they think,
+as is usually the case with things to which we are unaccustomed,
+that there is something harmful to them in it. This feeling makes
+necessary much explanation which in reality should not be needed.
+
+ The remedy for this condition is a proper training in youth.
+A boy brought up with the fundamental idea of the importance of
+measurement to all modern science, for all progress, accustomed to
+being measured, understanding the "why" of the measuring, and the
+results from it, will not hesitate or object, when he comes to the
+work, to being measured in order that he may be put where it is best
+for himself, as well as for the work, that he be put.
+
+ The importance of human measurement to vocational guidance and
+to the training of the young for life work has never been properly
+realized. Few people understand the importance of psychological
+experiment as a factor in scientific vocational guidance. For this
+alone, it will probably in time be a general custom to record and
+keep as close track as possible of the psychological measurements of
+the child during the period of education, vocational guidance and
+apprenticeship. Not only this, but he also should be accustomed to
+being measured, physically and psychologically, from his first
+years, just as he is now accustomed to being weighed.
+
+ The child should be taught to measure himself, his faculties,
+his reactions, his capabilities as compared with his former self and
+as compared with the capabilities of others. It is most important
+that the child should form a habit not only of measuring, but of
+being measured.
+
+ MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY ARE THE METHOD OF MEASUREMENT UNDER
+SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management, much measuring
+is done by motion study and time study, which measure the relative
+efficiency of various men, of various methods, or of various kinds
+of equipment, surroundings, tools, etc. Their most important use is
+as measuring devices of the men. They have great psychological value
+in that they are founded on the "square deal" and the men know this
+from the start. Being operated under laws, they are used the same
+way on all sorts of work and on all men. As soon as the men really
+understand this fact, and realize
+
+ 1. that the results are applied to all men equally;
+ 2. that all get an ample compensation for what
+ they do;
+ 3. that under them general welfare is considered;
+ the objections to such study will vanish.
+
+ MOTION STUDY IS DETERMINING METHODS OF LEAST WASTE.--Motion
+Study is the dividing of the elements of the work into the most
+fundamental subdivisions possible; studying these fundamental units
+separately and in relation to one another; and from these studied,
+chosen units, when timed, building up methods of least waste.
+
+ TIME STUDY IS DETERMINING STANDARD UNIT TIMES.--Time study
+consists of timing the elements of the best method known, and, from
+these elementary unit times, synthesizing a standard time in which a
+standard man can do a certain piece of work in accordance with the
+finally accepted method.
+
+ Micro-motion study is timing sub-divisions, or elements of
+motions by carrying out the principles of motion study to a greater
+degree of accuracy by means of a motion picture camera, a clock that
+will record different times of day in each picture of a moving
+picture film together with a cross sectioned background and other
+devices for assisting in measuring the relative efficiency and
+wastefulness of motions. It also is the cheapest, quickest and more
+accurate method of recording indisputable time study records. It has
+the further advantage of being most useful in assisting the
+instruction card man to devise methods of least waste.[11]
+
+ MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY MEASURE INDIVIDUAL EFFICIENCY.--
+Motion Study and Time Study measure individual capacity or
+efficiency by providing data from which standards can be made. These
+standards made, the degree to which the individual approaches or
+exceeds the standard can be determined.
+
+ MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY MEASURE METHODS.--Motion Study and
+Time Study are devices for measuring methods. By their use, old
+methods are "tried out," once and for all, and their relative value
+in efficiency, determined. By their use, also, new methods are
+"tried out." This is most important under Scientific Management.
+
+ Any new method suggested can be tested in a short time. Such
+elements of it as have already been tested, can be valued at the
+start, the new elements introduced can be motion studied and time
+studied, and waste eliminated to as great an extent as possible,
+with no loss of time or thought.
+
+ Under Scientific Management, the men who understand what motion
+study and time study mean, know that their suggested methods will be
+tested, not only fairly, but so effectively that they, and everyone
+else, can know at once exactly the worth of their suggestions.
+
+ COMPARISON OF METHODS FOSTERS INVENTION.--The value of such
+comparative study can be seen at a glance. When one such method
+after another is tried out, not only can one tell quickly what a new
+method is worth, but can also determine what it is worth compared to
+all others which have been considered. This is because the study is
+a study of elements, primarily, and not of methods as a whole. Not
+only can suggested methods be estimated, but also new methods which
+have never been suggested will become apparent themselves through
+this study. Common elements, being at once classified and set aside,
+the new ones will make themselves prominent, and better methods for
+doing work will suggest themselves, especially to the inventive mind.
+
+ BOOKS OF PRELIMINARY DATA NEEDED.--In order that this
+investigation may be best fostered, not only must books of standards
+be published, but also books of preliminary data, which other
+workers may attack if they desire, and where they can find common
+elements. Such books of preliminary data are needed on all
+subjects.[12]
+
+ MOTION STUDY AND TIME STUDY MEASURE EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS.--Time
+and motion study are measuring devices for ascertaining relative
+merits of different kinds of equipment, surroundings and tools.
+Through them, the exact capacities of equipment or of a tool or
+machine can be discovered at once, and also the relative value in
+efficiency. Also motion study and time study determine exactly how a
+tool or a piece of equipment can best be used.
+
+ In "On The Art of Cutting Metals" Dr. Taylor explains the effect
+of such study on determining the amount of time that tools should be
+used, the speed at which they should be used, the feed, and so
+on.[13] This paper exemplifies more thoroughly than does anything
+else ever written the value of Time Study, and the scientific manner
+in which it is applied.
+
+ THE SCOPE OF TIME AND MOTION STUDY IS UNLIMITED.--It is a great
+misfortune that the worker does not understand, as he should, that
+motion study and time study apply not only to his work, but also to
+the work of the managers. In order to get results from the start,
+and paying results, it often happens that the work of the worker is
+the first to be so studied, but when Scientific Management is in
+full operation, the work of the managers is studied exactly to the
+same extent, and set down exactly as accurately, as the work of the
+worker himself. The worker should understand this from the start,
+that he may become ready and willing to cooeperate.
+
+ DETAILED RECORDS NECESSARY.--Motion study and time study records
+must go into the greatest detail possible. If the observations are
+hasty, misdirected or incomplete they may be quite unusable and
+necessitate going through the expensive process of observation all
+over again. Dr. Taylor has stated that during his earlier
+experiences he was obliged to throw away a large quantity of time
+study data, because they were not in sufficient detail and not
+recorded completely enough to enable him to use them after a lapse
+of a long period from the time of their first use. No system of time
+study, and no individual piece of time study, can be considered a
+success unless by its use at any time, when new, or after a lapse of
+years, an accurate prediction of the amount of work a man can do can
+be made.
+
+ All results attained should invariably be preserved, whether
+they appear at the moment to be useful or valuable or not. In time
+study in the past it has been found, as in the investigations of all
+other sciences, that apparently unimportant details of today are of
+vital importance years after, as a necessary step to attain, or
+further proof of a discovery. This was exemplified in the case of
+the shoveling experiment of Dr. Taylor. The laws came from what was
+considered the unimportant portion of the data. There is little so
+unimportant that time and motion study would not be valuable. Just
+as it is a great help to the teacher to know the family history of
+the student, so it is to the one who has to use time and motion
+study data to know all possible of the hereditary traits,
+environment and habits of the worker who was observed.
+
+ SPECIALIZED STUDY IMPERATIVE.--As an illustration of the field
+for specialized investigation which motion study and time study
+present, we may take the subject of fatigue. Motion Study and Time
+Study aim to show,
+
+ 1. the least fatiguing method of getting least waste.
+ 2. the length of time required for a worker to do a
+ certain thing.
+ 3. the amount of rest and the time of rest required to
+ overcome fatigue.
+
+ Dr. Taylor spent years in determining the percentage of rest
+that should be allowed in several of the trades, beginning with
+those where the making of output demands weight hanging on the arms;
+but there is still a great amount of investigation that could be
+done to advantage to determine the most advisable percentage of rest
+in the working day of different lengths of hours. Such investigation
+would probably show that many of our trades could do the same amount
+of work in fewer hours, if the quantity and time of rest periods
+were scientifically determined.
+
+ Again, there is a question of the length of each rest period. It
+has been proven that in many classes of work, and especially in
+those where the work is interrupted periodically by reason of its
+peculiar nature, or by reason of inefficient performance in one of
+the same sequence of dependent operations, alternate working and
+resting periods are best. There is to be considered in this
+connection, however, the recognized disadvantage of reconcentrating
+the attention after these rest periods. Another thing to be
+considered is that the rate of output does not decline from the
+beginning of the day, but rather the high point of the curve
+representing rate of production is at a time somewhat later than at
+the starting point. The period before the point of maximum
+efficiency is known as "warming up" among ball players, and is well
+recognized in all athletic sports.
+
+ As for the point of minimum efficiency, or of greatest fatigue,
+this varies for "morning workers," and "night workers." This
+exemplifies yet another variable.
+
+ The minuteness of the sub-fields that demand observation, is
+shown by an entry in the Psychological Index: "1202. Benedict, F.G.
+"Studies in Body--Temperature." 1. Influence of the Inversion of the
+Daily Routine; the Temperature of Night Workers."[14]
+
+ SELECTION OF BEST UNIT OF MEASUREMENT NECESSARY AND IMPORTANT.--
+Selecting the unit of measurement that will of itself reduce costs
+is a most important element in obtaining maximum efficiency.[15]
+This is seldom realized.[16] Where possible, several units of
+measurements should be used to check each other.[17] One alone may
+be misleading, or put an incentive on the workers to give an
+undesirable result.
+
+ The rule is,--always select that unit of output that will, of
+itself, cause a reduction in costs.
+
+ For example:--In measuring the output of a concrete gang,
+counting cement bags provides an incentive to use more cement than
+the instruction card calls for. Counting the batches of concrete
+dumped out of the mixer, provides an incentive to use rather smaller
+quantities of broken stone and sand than the proportions call
+for,--and, furthermore, does not put the incentive on the men to
+spill no concrete in transportation, neither does it put an
+incentive to use more lumps for Cyclopean concrete.
+
+ Measuring the quantity actually placed in the forms puts no
+incentive to watch bulging forms closely.
+
+ While measuring outputs by all these different units of
+measurements would be valuable to check up accuracy of proportions,
+accuracy of stores account, and output records, the most important
+unit of measurement for selection would be, "cubic feet of forms
+filled," the general dimensions to be taken from the latest revised
+engineer's drawings.
+
+ NECESSITY FOR CHECKING ERRORS.--Dr. Stratton says,--"No
+measurements, whether they be psychic or physical, are exact beyond
+a certain point, and the art of using them consists largely in
+checks and counter checks, and in knowing how far the measurement is
+reliable and where the doubtful zone begins."[18]
+
+ Capt. Metcalfe says,--"Errors of observation may be divided into
+two general classes; the instrumental and those due to the personal
+bias of the observer; the former referring to the standard itself,
+and the latter to the application of the standard and the record of
+the measurement."[19]
+
+ The concrete illustration given above is an example of careful
+checking up. Under Scientific Management so many, and such careful
+records are kept that detecting errors becomes part of the daily
+routine.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS OF MEASUREMENT TO THE WORK.--Under Traditional
+Management, even the crudest measurement of output and cost usually
+resulted in an increase in output. But there was no accuracy of
+measurement of individual efficiency, nor was there provision made
+to conserve results and make them permanently useful.
+
+ Under Transitory Management and measurement of individual
+output, output increased and rewards for the higher output kept up
+the standard.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT BETTER METHODS AND BETTER WORK
+RESULTS.--Under Scientific Measurement, measurement of the work
+itself determines
+
+ 1. what kind of workers are needed.
+ 2. how many workers are needed.
+ 3. how best to use them.
+
+Motion Study and Time Study measurement,--
+
+ 1. divide the work into units.
+ 2. measure each unit.
+ 3. study the variables, or elements, one at a time.
+ 4. furnish resulting timed elements to the synthesizer
+ of methods of least waste.
+
+ ACCURATE MEASURING DEVICES PREVENT BREAKDOWNS AND
+ACCIDENTS.--The accurate measuring devices which accomplish
+measurement under Scientific Management prevent breakdowns and
+accidents to life and limb.
+
+ For example.--
+
+ 1. The maintained tension on a belt bears a close relation to
+ its delay periods.
+ 2. The speed of a buzz planer determines its liability to
+ shoot out pieces of wood to the injury of its operator,
+ or to injure bystanders.
+
+ Scientific Management, by determining and standardizing methods
+and equipment both, provides for uninterrupted output.
+
+ EFFECT ON THE WORKER.--Under Traditional Management there is not
+enough accurate measurement done to make its effect on the worker of
+much value.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, as soon as individual outputs are
+measured, the worker takes more interest in his work, and endeavors
+to increase his output.
+
+ Under Scientific Management measurement of the worker tells
+
+ 1. what the workers are capable of doing.
+ 2. what function it will be best to assign them to and to
+ cultivate in them.
+
+ WASTE ELIMINATED BY ACCURATE MEASUREMENT.--This accurate
+measurement increases the worker's efficiency in that it enables him
+to eliminate waste. "Cut and try" methods are eliminated. There is
+no need to test a dozen methods, a dozen men, a dozen systems of
+routing, or various kinds of equipment more than once,--that one
+time when they are scientifically tried out and measured. This
+accurate measurement also eliminates disputes between manager and
+worker as to what the latter's efficiency is.
+
+ EFFICIENCY MEASURED BY TIME AND MOTION STUDY.--Time and
+Motion Study.
+
+ (a) measure the man by his work; that is, by the results
+ of his activities;
+ (b) measure him by his methods;
+ (c) measure him by his capacity to learn;
+ (d) measure him by his capacity to teach.
+
+ Now measurement by result alone is very stimulating to
+increasing activities, especially when it shows, as it does under
+Scientific Management, the relative results of various people doing
+the same kind of work. But it does not, itself, show the worker
+_how_ to obtain greater results without putting on more speed or
+using up more activities. But when the worker's methods are
+measured, he begins to see, for himself, exactly why and where he
+has failed.
+
+ Scientific Management provides for him to be taught, and the
+fact that he sees through the measurements exactly what he needs to
+be taught will make him glad to have the teacher come and show him
+how to do better. Through this teaching, its results, and the speed
+with which the results come, the workers and the managers can see
+how fast the worker is capable of learning, and, at the same time,
+the worker, the teacher and the managers can see in how far the
+foreman is capable of instructing.
+
+ FINAL OUTCOME BENEFICIAL TO MANAGERS AND MEN.--Through
+measurement in Scientific Management, managers acquire--
+
+ 1. ability to select men, methods, equipment, etc.;
+ 2. ability to assign men to the work which they should do, to
+ prescribe the method which they shall use, and to reward
+ them for their output suitably;
+ 3. ability to predict. On this ability to predict rests the
+ possibility of making calendars, chronological charts and
+ schedules, and of planning determining sequence of events, etc.,
+ which will be discussed at length later.
+
+ Ability to predict allows the managers to state "premature
+truths," which the records show to be truths when the work has
+been done.
+
+ It must not be forgotten that the managers are enabled not only
+to predict what the men, equipment, machinery, etc., will do, but
+what they can do themselves.
+
+ THE EFFECT ON THE MEN IS THAT THE WORKER CO-OPERATES.--1. The
+worker's interest is held. The men know that the methods they are
+using are the best. The exact measurements of efficiency of the
+learner,--and under Scientific Management a man never ceases to be a
+learner,--give him a continued interest in his work. It is
+impossible to hold the attention of the intelligent worker to a
+method or process that he does not believe to> be the most efficient
+and least wasteful.
+
+ Motion study and time study are the most efficient measuring
+device of the relative qualities of differing methods. They furnish
+definite and exact proof to the worker as to the excellence of the
+method that he is told to use. When he is convinced, lack of
+interest due to his doubts and dissatisfaction is removed.
+
+ 2. The worker's judgment is appealed to. The method that he uses
+is the outcome of cooeperation between him and the management. His
+own judgment assures him that it is the best, up to that time, that
+they, working together, have been able to discover.
+
+ 3. The worker's reasoning powers are developed. Continuous
+judging of records of efficiency develops high class, well developed
+reasoning powers.
+
+ 4. The worker fits his task, therefore there is no need of
+adjustment, and his attitude toward his work is right.
+
+ 5. There is elimination of soldiering, both natural and
+systematic.[20]
+
+ ALL KNOWLEDGE BECOMES THE KNOWLEDGE OF ALL.--Two outcomes may be
+confidently expected in the future, as they are already becoming
+apparent where-ever Scientific Management is being introduced:
+
+ 1. The worker will become more and more willing to impart his
+knowledge to others. When the worker realizes that passing on his
+trade secrets will not cause him to lose his position or, by raising
+up a crowd of competitors, lower his wages, but will, on the
+contrary, increase his wages and chances of promotion, he is ready
+and willing to have his excellent methods standardized.
+
+ Desire to keep one's own secret, or one's own method a secret is
+a very natural one. It stimulates interest, it stimulates pride. It
+is only when, as in Scientific Management, the possessor of such a
+secret may receive just compensation, recognition and honor for his
+skill, and receive a position where he can become an appreciated
+teacher of others that he is, or should be, willing to give up this
+secret. Scientific Management, however, provides this opportunity
+for him to teach, provides that he receives credit for what he has
+done, and receive that publicity and fame which is his due, and
+which will give him the same stimulus to work which the knowledge
+that he had a secret skill gave him in the past.
+
+ One method of securing this publicity is by naming the device or
+method after its inventor. This has been found to be successful not
+only in satisfying the inventor, but in stimulating others to invent.
+
+ MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL EFFICIENCY WILL BE ENDORSED BY
+ALL.--2. The worker will, ultimately, realize that it is for the
+good of all, as well as for himself, that individual efficiency be
+measured and rewarded.
+
+ It has been advanced as an argument against measurement that it
+discriminates against the "weaker brother," who should have a right
+to obtain the same pay as the stronger, for the reason that he has
+equal needs for this pay to maintain life and for the support of
+his family.
+
+ Putting aside at the moment the emotional side of this argument,
+which is undoubtedly a strong side and a side worthy of
+consideration, with much truth in it, and looking solely at the
+logical side,--it cannot do the "weaker" brother any good in the
+long run, and it does the world much harm, to have his work
+overestimated. The day is coming, when the world will demand that
+the quantity of the day's work shall be measured as accurately where
+one sells labor, as where one sells sugar or flour. Then, pretending
+that one's output is greater than it really is will be classed with
+"divers weights and divers measures," with their false standards.
+The day will come when the public will insist that the "weaker
+brother's" output be measured to determine just how weak he is, and
+whether it is weakness, unfitness for that particular job, or
+laziness that is the cause of his output being low. When he reaches
+a certain degree of weakness, he will be assisted with a definite
+measured quantity of assistance. Thus the "weaker brother" may be
+readily distinguished from the lazy, strong brother, and the brother
+who is working at the wrong job. Measurement should certainly be
+insisted on, in order to determine whether these strong brothers are
+doing their full share, or whether they are causing the weaker
+brothers to over-exert themselves.
+
+ No one who has investigated the subject properly can doubt that
+it will be better for the world in general to have each man's
+output, weak and strong, properly measured and estimated regardless
+of whether the weak and strong are or are not paid the same wages.
+The reason why the unions have had to insist that the work shall not
+be measured and that the weaker brother's weakness shall not be
+realized is, that in the industrial world the only brotherhood that
+was recognized was the brotherhood between the workers, there being
+a distinct antagonism between the worker and the manager and little
+or no brotherhood of the public at large. When Scientific Management
+does away, as it surely will, with this antagonism, by reason of the
+cooeperation which is its fundamental idea, then the workers will
+show themselves glad to be measured.
+
+ As for the "weaker" brother idea, it is a natural result of such
+ill treatment. It has become such a far-reaching emotion that even
+Scientific Management, with its remedy for many ills, cannot expect
+in a moment, or in a few years, to alter the emotional bias of the
+multitudes of people who have held it for good and sufficient
+reasons for generations.
+
+ THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD CONSERVE MEASUREMENT DATA.--The one thing
+which can permanently alter this feeling forms the natural
+conclusion to this chapter. That is, measurements in general and
+motion study and time study in particular must become a matter of
+government investigation. When the government has taken over the
+investigation and established a bureau where such data as Scientific
+Management discovers is collected and kept on file for all who will
+to use, then the possessor of the secret will feel that it can
+safely place the welfare of its "weaker brothers" in the hands of a
+body which is founded and operates on the idea of the "square deal."
+
+ APPRECIATION OF TIME STUDY BY WORKERS THE FIRST STEP.--The first
+step of the workers in this direction must be the appreciation of
+time study, for on time study hangs the entire subject of Scientific
+Management. It is this great discovery by Dr. Taylor that makes the
+elimination of waste possible. It has come to stay. Many labor
+leaders are opposed to it, but the wise thing for them to do is to
+study, foster and cultivate it. They cannot stop its progress. There
+is no thing that can stop it. The modern managers will obtain it,
+and the only way to prevent it from being used by unscrupulous
+managers is for the workman also to learn the facts of time study.
+It is of the utmost importance to the workers of the country, for
+their own protection, that they be as familiar with time study data
+as the managers are. Time study is the foundation and frame work of
+rate setting and fixing, and certainly the subject of rate fixing is
+the most important subject there is to the workmen, whether they are
+working on day work, piece work, premium, differential rate piece,
+task with bonus, or three-rate system.
+
+ Dr. Taylor has proved by time study that many of the customary
+working days are too long, that the same amount of output can be
+achieved in fewer hours per day. Time study affords the means for
+the only scientific proof that many trades fatigue the workers
+beyond their endurance and strength. Time study is the one means by
+which the workers can prove the real facts of their unfortunate
+condition under the Traditional plan of management.
+
+ The workers of the country should be the very ones that should
+insist upon the government taking the matter in hand for scientific
+investigation. Knowledge is power,--a rule with no exception, and
+the knowledge of scientific time study would prepare the workers of
+any trade, and would provide their intelligent leaders with data for
+accurate decisions for legislation and other steps for their best
+interests. The national bodies should hire experts to represent them
+and to cooeperate with the government bureau in applying science to
+their life work.
+
+ The day is fast approaching when makers of machinery will have
+the best method of operating their machines micro-motion studied and
+cyclegraphed and description of methods of operation in accordance
+with such records will be everywhere considered as a part of the
+"makers' directions for using."
+
+ Furthermore associations of manufacturers will establish
+laboratories for determining methods of least waste by means of
+motion study, time study and micro-motion study, and the findings of
+such laboratories will be put in standardized shape for use by all
+its members. The trend today shows that soon there will be hundreds
+of books of time study tables. The government must sooner or later
+save the waste resulting from this useless duplication of efforts.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV FOOTNOTES: ==============================================
+
+ 1. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems,_ p. 34.
+ 2. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Its Bearing upon
+ Culture_, p. 37.
+ 3. _Ibid_., p. 38.
+ 4. For apparatus for psychological experiment see Stratton, p. 38,
+ p. 171, p. 265.
+ 5. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits,_ p. 15.
+ 6. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, _The Carnegie Foundation
+ for the Advancement of Teaching,_ p. 7.
+ 7. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management,_ para. 29. Harper Ed., p. 25.
+ 8. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 928, A.S.M.E., para. 6.
+ 9. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_.
+10. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 61. Harper Ed., p. 33.
+11. _Industrial Engineering_, Jan., 1913.
+12. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, pp. 398-391. Harper Ed., p. 179.
+ Compare, U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture No. 208. _The Influence of
+ Muscular and Mental Work on Metabolism_.
+13. President's Annual Address, Dec., 1906. Vol. 28, Transactions
+ A.S.M.E.
+14. _American Journal of Physiology_, 1904, XI, pp. 145-170.
+15. R.T. Dana, For Construction Service Co., _Handbook of Steam
+ Shovel Work_, p. 161. H.P. Gillette, Vol. I, p. 71, A.S.E.C.
+16. F.W. Taylor, Vol. 28, A.S.M.E., Paper 1119, para. 68.
+17. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 37.
+18. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 59.
+19. Henry Metcalfe, _Cost of Manufactures_.
+20. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 46. Harper Ed., p. 30.
+ F.W. Taylor, _A Piece Rate System_, Paper 647, A.S.M.E.,
+ para. 22.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF ANALYSIS.--"Analysis," says the Century Dictionary
+is "the resolution or separation of anything which is compound, as a
+conception, a sentence, a material substance or an event, into its
+constituent elements or into its causes;" that is to say, analysis
+is the division of the thing under consideration into its definite
+cause, and into its definite parts or elements, and the explanation
+of the principle upon which such division is made.[1]
+
+ DEFINITION OF SYNTHESIS.--"Synthesis" is, "a putting of two or
+more things together; composition; specifically, the combination of
+separate elements of objects of thought into a whole, as of simple
+into compound or complex conceptions, and individual propositions
+into a system."
+
+ USE OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS BY PSYCHOLOGY.--Analysis is
+defined by Sully as follows: "Analysis" is "taking apart more
+complex processes in order to single out for special inspection
+their several constituent processes."
+
+ He divides elements of thought activity into two
+
+ "(a) analysis: abstraction
+ (b) synthesis: comparison."
+
+ Speaking of the latter, he says, "The clear explicit detachment
+in thought of the common elements which comparison secures allows of
+a new reconstructive synthesis of things as made up of particular
+groupings of a number of general qualities."
+
+ PLACE OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS IN MANAGEMENT.--Any study of
+management which aims to prove that management may be, and under
+Scientific Management is, a science, must investigate its use of
+analysis and of synthesis.[2] Upon the degree and perfection of the
+analysis depends the permanent value and usefulness of the knowledge
+gained. Upon the synthesis, and what it includes and excludes,
+depends the efficiency of the results deduced.
+
+ LITTLE ANALYSIS OR SYNTHESIS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--
+Under Traditional Management analysis and synthesis are so seldom
+present as to be negligible. Success or failure are seldom if ever
+so studied and measured that the causes are well understood.
+Therefore, no standards for future work that are of any value can be
+established. It need only be added that one reason why Traditional
+Management makes so little progress is because it makes no analyses
+that are of permanent value. What data it has are available for
+immediate use only. Practically every man who does the work must
+"start at the beginning," for himself. If this is often true of
+entire methods, it is even more true of elements of methods. As
+elements are not studied and recorded separately, they are not
+recognized when they appear again, and the resultant waste is
+appalling. This waste is inevitable with the lack of cooeperation
+under Traditional Management and the fact that each worker plans the
+greater part of his work for himself.
+
+ ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS APPEAR LATE IN TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.--
+Division of output appears early in Transitory Management, but it is
+usually not until a late stage that motion study and time study are
+conducted so successfully that scientifically determined and timed
+elements can be constructed into standards. As everything that is
+attempted in the line of analysis and synthesis under Transitory
+Management is done scientifically under Scientific Management, we
+may avoid repetition by considering Scientific Management at once.
+
+ RELATION OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO
+MEASUREMENT AND STANDARDIZATION.--Analysis considers the subject
+that is to be measured,--be it individual action or output of any
+kind,--and divides it into such a number of parts, and parts of such
+a nature, as will best suit the purpose for which the measurement is
+taken. When these subdivisions have been measured, synthesis
+combines them into a whole.[3] Under Scientific Management, through
+the measurements used, synthesis is a combination of those elements
+which are necessary only, and which have been proven to be most
+efficient. The result of the synthesis is standardized, and used
+until a more accurate standard displaces it.
+
+ Under Scientific Management analysis and synthesis are methods
+of determining standards from available knowledge. Measurement
+furnishes the means.
+
+ ANALYST'S WORK IS DIVISION.--It is the duty of the analyst to
+divide the work that he is set to study into the minutest divisions
+possible. What is possible is determined by the time and money that
+can be set aside for the investigation.
+
+ THE NATURE OF THE WORK MUST DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF ANALYSIS
+PRACTICABLE.--In determining the amount of time and money required,
+it is necessary to consider--
+
+ 1. the cost of the work if done with no special study.
+ 2. how many times the work is likely to be repeated.
+ 3. how many elements that it contains are likely to be
+ similar to elements in work that has already been studied.
+ 4. how many new elements that it contains are likely to be
+ available in subsequent work.
+ 5. the probable cost of the work after it has been studied--
+ (a) the cost of doing it.
+ (b) the cost of the investigation.
+ 6. The loss, if any, from delaying the work until after it
+ has been studied.
+ 7. the availability of trained observers and measurers,
+ analysts and synthesists.
+ 8. the available money for carrying on the investigations.
+
+ These questions at least must be answered before it is possible
+to decide whether study shall be made or not, and to what degree it
+can be carried.
+
+ COST THE DETERMINING FACTOR.--It is obvious that in all
+observation in the industrial world cost must be the principal
+determining feature. Once the cost can be estimated, and the amount
+of money that can be allowed for the investigation determined, it is
+possible at least to approximate satisfactory answers to the other
+questions. How closely the answers approximate depends largely on
+the skill and experience of the analyst.
+
+ The greater number of times the work is to be repeated, the less
+the ultimate cost. The more elements contained similar to elements
+already determined, the less the additional cost, and the less the
+time necessary. The more elements contained that can be used again,
+even in different work, the less the ultimate cost. The better
+trained the analyst, the less the immediate or additional cost
+and time.
+
+ Much depends on the amount of previous data at hand when the
+investigation is being made, and on the skill and speed of the
+analyst in using these data.
+
+ PROCESS OF DIVISION UNENDING.--In practice, the process of
+division continues as long as it can show itself to be a method for
+cost reducing. Work may be divided into processes: each process into
+subdivisions; each subdivision into cycles; each cycle into
+elements; each element into time units; each time unit into
+motions,--and so on, indefinitely, toward the "indivisible
+minimum."[4]
+
+ MEASURING MAY TAKE PLACE AT ANY STAGE.--At any of these stages
+of division the results may be taken as final for the purpose of the
+study,--and the operations, or final divisions of the work at that
+stage, may be measured.
+
+ To obtain results with the least expenditure of time, the
+operations must be subjected to motion study before they are timed
+as well as after. This motion study can be accurate and of permanent
+value only in so far as the divisions are final. The resulting
+improved operations are then ready to be timed.
+
+ ULTIMATE ANALYSIS THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY.--When the analyst has
+proceeded as far as he can in dividing the work into prime factors
+the problem continues in the field of psychology. Here the
+opportunities for securing further data become almost limitless.
+
+ ULTIMATE ANALYSIS JUSTIFIABLE.--It is the justification for
+analysis to approach the ultimate as nearly as possible, that the
+smaller and more difficult of measurement the division is, the more
+often it will appear in various combinations of elements. The
+permanence and exactness of the result vary with the effort for
+obtaining it.
+
+ QUALIFICATIONS OF AN ANALYST.--To be most successful, an analyst
+should have ingenuity, patience, and that love of dividing a process
+into its component parts and studying each separate part that
+characterizes the analytic mind. The analyst must be capable of
+doing accurate work, and orderly work.
+
+ To get the most pleasure and profit from his work he should
+realize that his great, underlying purpose is to relieve the worker
+of unnecessary fatigue, to shorten his work period per day, and to
+increase the number of his days and years of higher earning power.
+With this realization will come an added interest in his subject.
+
+ WORKER SHOULD UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS.--It is not
+enough that the worker should understand the methods of measurement.
+He can get most from the resultant standards and will most
+efficiently cooeperate if he understands the division into elements
+to be studied.
+
+ SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE TRAINING.--Much of the training in
+analysis in the schools comes at such a late period of the course
+that the average industrial worker must miss a large part of it.
+This is a defect in school training that should be remedied. Even
+very young children soon are capable of, and greatly enjoy, dividing
+a process into elements. If the worker be taught, in his
+preparations, and in the work itself, to divide what he does into
+its elements, he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but will
+be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and to cooeperate
+better in the processes of measurement.
+
+ THE SYNTHESIST'S WORK IS SELECTION AND ADDITION.--The synthesist
+studies the individual results of the analyst's work, and their
+inter-relation, and determines which of these should be combined,
+and in what manner, for the most economic result. His duty is to
+construct that combination of the elements which will be most
+efficient.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF SELECTION MUST BE EMPHASIZED.--If synthesis in
+Scientific Management were nothing more than combining all the
+elements that result from analysis into a whole, it would be
+valuable. Any process studied analytically will be performed more
+intelligently, even if there is no change in the method.
+
+ But the most important part of the synthesist's work is the
+actual elimination of elements which are useless, and the combination
+of the remaining elements in such a way, or sequence, or schedule,
+that a far better method than the one analyzed will result.
+
+ We may take an example from Bricklaying.[5] In "Stringing
+Mortar Method, on the Filling Tiers before the Days of the
+Pack-on-the-Wall-Method"--the division, which was into operations
+only, showed eighteen operations and eighteen motions for every
+brick that was laid. Study and synthesis of these elements resulted
+in a method that required only 1 3/4 motions to lay a brick. Over
+half the original motions were found to be useless, hence entirely
+omitted. In several other cases it was found possible to make one
+motion do work for two or four brick, with the same, or less,
+fatigue to the worker.
+
+ RESULT IS THE BASIS FOR THE TASK.--The result of synthesis is
+the basis for the task,--it becomes the standard that shows what
+has actually been done, and what can be expected to be repeated. It
+is important to note the relation between the task and synthesis.
+When it becomes generally understood that the "Task," under
+Scientific Management is neither an ideal which exists simply in the
+imagination, nor an impossibly high estimate of what can be
+expected,--but is actually the sum of observed and timed operations,
+plus a definite and sufficient percentage of allowance for
+overcoming the fatigue,--then much objection to it will cease.
+
+ GENERAL LACK OF KNOWLEDGE THE CHIEF CAUSE OF OBJECTION TO THE
+TASK.--As is the case with most objections to Scientific Management,
+or its elements, ignorance is the chief obstacle to the introduction
+and success of the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to be more or
+less prevalent everywhere among managers as well as workers.
+
+ Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even when the
+workers are ignorant of many of its fundamental principles, but it
+will never make the strides that it should until every man working
+under it, as well as all outside, understand _why_ it is doing as it
+does, as well as _what_ is done.
+
+ This educational campaign could find no better starting point
+than the word "task," and the "task idea."
+
+ THE NAME TASK IS UNFORTUNATE.[6]--The Century Dictionary defines
+"Task" as follows:
+
+ 1. "a tax, an assessment, an impost
+ 2. "labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or amount
+ of labor; work to be done; one's stint; that which duty or
+ necessity imposes; duty or duties collectively
+ 3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study imposed by a
+ teacher
+ 4. "work undertaken,--an undertaking
+ 5. "burdensome employment; toil."
+
+ Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in any way what
+is meant by the task in Scientific Management.
+
+ The ideas included in the other four definitions are most
+unpleasant. The thought of labor; the thought that the labor is
+imposed; the thought that the imposition is definite; that duty
+makes it necessary that it be done; that it is burdensome; that it
+is toilsome: these are most unfortunate ideas and have been
+associated with the word so long in the human mind that it will be a
+matter of years before a new set of associations can be formed which
+will be pleasant, and which will render the word "task" attractive
+and agreeable to the worker and to the public in general.
+
+ NO OTHER ADEQUATE WORD HAS BEEN SUGGESTED.--However, there seems
+to be no better word forthcoming; therefore, one can but follow the
+example of the masters in management, who have accepted this word,
+and have done their best to make it attractive by the way they
+themselves have used it.
+
+ To the writer, the word "stint" is far more attractive and
+more truly descriptive than is "task." Perhaps because of the
+old-fashioned idea that a reward, usually immediate, followed the
+completion of the "stint."
+
+ Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless vary, but it is
+self-evident that the word "task" has already become so firmly
+established in Scientific Management that any attempt to change it
+would result in a confusion. It is far better to concentrate on
+developing a new set of associations for it in as many minds
+as possible.
+
+ DECIDED ADVANTAGE TO THE USE OF THE WORD TASK.--Perhaps in one
+way it is fortunate that the use of the word "task" does coincide
+more or less with the use of that word under Traditional Management.
+Under Traditional Management the task is the work to be done. It may
+be just as well that the same word should be used under Scientific
+Management, in order that both the worker and investigator may
+realize, that, after all _the work that is to be done_ is, in its
+essentials, exactly the same. With this realization from the
+beginning, the mind of the worker or investigator may be the more
+predisposed to note the eliminations of waste and the cutting down
+of time, effort and fatigue under the scientifically derived methods.
+
+ DEFINITION OF TASK AS USED IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The task,
+under Scientific Management, differs from the task under Traditional
+Management in that--
+
+ 1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which the work
+ shall be done are standardized.
+ 2. The method in which the work shall be done is prescribed.
+ 3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically
+ determined.
+ 4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue.
+ 5. The quality of the output is prescribed.
+
+ When to this is added the fact that the method is taught, and
+that the reward is ample, fixed, prompt and assured, the attractive
+features of the task under Scientific Management have been made plain.
+
+ TASK IDEA APPLIES TO WORK OF EVERYONE.--Under Scientific
+Management there is a task for every member of the organization,
+from the head of the management to the worker at the most
+rudimentary work. This is too often not known, or not appreciated by
+the worker, who feels that what is deemed best for him should be
+good for everyone. The mental attitude will never be right till all
+understand that the task idea will increase efficiency when applied
+to any possible kind of work. With the application of the task idea
+to all, will come added cooeperation.
+
+ TASK IDEA APPLIES TO THE WORK OF THE ORGANIZATION.--The work
+which is to be done by the organization should be considered the
+task of the organization, and this organization task is studied
+before individual tasks are set. The methods used in determining
+this organization task are analysis and synthesis, just as in the
+case of the individual task.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL TASKS ARE ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION TASK.--The
+individual tasks are considered as elements of the organization
+task. The problem is, to determine the best arrangement of these
+individual tasks, the best schedule, and routing. The individual
+task may be thought of as something moving, that must be gotten out
+of the way.
+
+ Management has been called largely a matter of transportation.
+It may be "transportation" or moving of materials, revolution of
+parts of fixed machinery, or merely transportation of parts of one's
+body in manual movements;[7] in any case, the laws governing
+transportation apply to all. This view of management is most
+stimulating to the mind. A moving object attracts attention and
+holds interest. Work that is interesting can be accomplished with
+greater speed and less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the methods of
+Scientific Management as the most accurate and efficient in
+transporting the finished output and its "chips"[8] will be a great
+aid towards attaining the best results possible by means of a new
+method of visualizing the problem.
+
+ QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SYNTHESIST.--The synthesist must have a
+constructive mind, for he determines the sequence of events as well
+as the method of attack. He must have the ability to see the
+completed whole which he is trying to make, and to regard the
+elements with which he works not only as units, but in relation to
+each other. He must feel that any combination is influenced not only
+by the elements that go into it, but by the inter-relation between
+these elements. This differs for different combinations as in
+a kaleidoscope.
+
+ THE SYNTHESIST A CONSERVER.--The Synthesist must never be
+thought of as a destructive critic. He is, in reality, a conserver
+of all that is valuable in old methods. Through his work and that of
+the analyst, the valuable elements of traditional methods are
+incorporated into standard methods. These standard methods will,
+doubtless, be improved as time goes on, but the valuable elements
+will be permanently conserved.
+
+ SYNTHESIST AN INVENTOR.--The valuable inventions referred to as
+the result of measurement are the work of the synthetic mind. It
+discovers new, better methods of doing work, and this results in the
+invention of better means, such as tools or equipment.
+
+ For example,--in the field of Bricklaying, the Non-stooping
+Scaffold, the Packet and the Fountain Trowel were not invented until
+the analysis of bricklaying was made, and the synthesis of the
+chosen elements into standard methods made plain the need and
+specifications for new equipment.
+
+ RELATION OF INVENTION TO SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT.--There
+has been much discussion as to the relation of Invention to
+Scientific Management. It has been claimed by many otherwise able
+authorities that many results claimed as due to Scientific
+Management are really the results of new machinery, tools or
+equipment that have been invented.[9] Scientific Management
+certainly can lay no claim to credit for efficiency which comes
+through inventions neither suggested nor determined by it. But the
+inventions from the results of which Scientific Management is said
+to have borrowed credit are usually, like the bricklaying inventions
+cited, not only direct results of Scientific Management, but
+probably would not have sprung from any other source for years
+to come.
+
+ SYNTHESIST A DISCOVERER OF LAWS.--It is the synthetic type of
+mind that discovers the laws. For example--it was Dr. Taylor, with
+the aid of a few of his specially trained co-workers, who discovered
+the following governing laws:
+
+ 1. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work done and
+ the fatigue caused in different kinds of work.
+ 2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue.
+ 3. law of classification of work according to percentage of
+ fatigue caused.
+ 4. laws for making high-speed steel.
+ 5. laws relating to cutting metals.
+ 6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and cut on
+ metals for the greatest output.
+ 7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output that a man
+ can achieve and thrive.
+ 8. laws for determining the selection of the men best suited
+ for the work.
+
+ SYNTHESIST AN ADVISER ON INTRODUCTION OF NEW METHODS.--Having
+constructed the standard tasks or standard methods which are new,
+the synthesist must remember to introduce his new task or method
+with as few new variables as possible. He should so present it that
+all the old knowledge will come out to meet the new, that all the
+brain paths that have already been made will be utilized, and that
+the new path will lead out from paths which are well known and well
+traveled.
+
+ INTRODUCE WITH AS FEW NEW VARIABLES AS POSSIBLE.--The greatest
+speed in learning a new method will be attained by introducing it
+with as few new variables as possible.
+
+ For example,--learning to dictate to a dictaphone. The writer
+found it very difficult, at first, to dictate into the dictaphone,--
+the whirling of the cylinder distracted the eye, the buzzing of the
+motor distracted the ear, the rubber tube leading to the mouth-piece
+was constantly reminding the touch that something new was being
+attempted. At the suggestion of one well versed in Scientific
+Management, the mouth-piece of the dictaphone was propped on the
+desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of the latter. The
+writer then found that as soon as one became interested in the
+dictating and one's attention was concentrated on the thought, one
+was able absolutely to forget the new variable, because it is one
+which is kept constant, and to dictate fluently. The emphasis laid
+on the likeness in thus dictating to the old accustomed act of
+talking through the telephone, seemed to put all other differences
+into the background, and to allow of forming the new and desired
+habit very quickly.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ EFFECT OF ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ON THE WORK.--As the outcome of
+Analysis and Synthesis is Standardization, so the effect of them
+upon work is standard work. Quantity of output can be predicted,
+quality of output is assured.
+
+ EFFECT ON THE WORKER.--The effect of Analysis and Synthesis upon
+the worker is to make him feel that the methods which he is using
+are right, and that, because of this, his work must be of value. The
+more the worker is induced to cooeperate in the determining and the
+combination of elements, the more will he share with the
+investigators the satisfaction in getting permanent results. The
+outcome of this cooeperation will, again, result in more perfect
+future results, and so on, progressively.
+
+
+CHAPTER V FOOTNOTES: ===============================================
+
+ 1. Compare _Mechanical Analysis_. Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete,
+ Plain and Reinforced_, p. 193.
+ 2. H. LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., p. 303.
+ 3. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 35.
+ 4. F.B. Gilbreth, _Cost Reducing System_.
+ 5. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 151.
+ 6. James M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 284.
+ 7. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_.
+ 8. James M. Dodge.
+ 9. London, _Engineering_, Sept. 15, 1911.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ STANDARDIZATION
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF STANDARDIZATION.--Standardization is "the act of
+standardizing, or the state of being standardized." "A standard,"
+according to the Century Dictionary, "is that which is set up as a
+unit of reference; a form, type, example, incidence, or combination
+of conditions accepted as correct and perfect and hence as a basis
+of comparison. A criterion established by custom, public opinion or
+general consent; a model."[1]
+
+ We must note particularly that the standard is a "unit of
+reference," that it is a "basis of comparison," and that it is "a
+model." These three phrases describe the standard in management, and
+are particularly emphasized by the use of the standard in Scientific
+Management.
+
+ STANDARDS DERIVED FROM ACTUAL PRACTICE.--Management derives its
+standards not from theories as to best methods, but from scientific
+study of actual practice.[2] As already shown, the method of
+deriving a standard is--
+
+ 1. to analyze the best practice known into the smallest
+ possible elements,
+ 2. to measure these elements,
+ 3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as standard elements,
+ 4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements into
+ the standard.
+
+ THE STANDARD IS PROGRESSIVE.--A standard remains fixed only
+until a more perfect standard displaces it. The data from which the
+standard was derived may be reviewed because of some error, because
+a further subdivision of the elements studied may prove possible, or
+because improvements in some factor of the work, i.e., the worker,
+material, tools, equipment, etc., may make a new standard desirable.
+
+ The fact that a standard is recognized as not being an ultimate
+standard in no wise detracts from its working value. As Captain
+Metcalfe has said: "Whatever be the standard of measurement, it
+suffices for comparison if it be generally accepted, if it be
+impartially applied, and if the results be fully recorded."[3]
+
+ CHANGE IN THE STANDARD DEMANDS CHANGE IN THE TASK AND IN THE
+INCENTIVE.--Necessarily, with the change in the standard comes a
+change in the task and in the reward. All parts of Scientific
+Management are so closely related that it is impossible to make a
+successful progressive step in one branch without simultaneously
+making all the related progressions in other branches that go
+with it.
+
+ For example,--if the material upon which a standard was based
+caused more care or effort, a smaller task must be set, and wages
+must be proportionately lowered. _Proportionately_, note, for
+determining that change would necessitate a review and a
+redistribution of the cost involved.
+
+ In the same way, if an improvement in equipment necessitated a
+new method, as does the packet in laying brick, a new task would
+become imperative, and a reconsideration of the wage. The wage might
+remain the same, it might go down, it might go up. In actual
+practice, in the case of bricklayers, it has gone up. But the point
+is, it _must_ be restudied. This provides effectually against
+cutting the rate or increasing the task in any unjust manner.
+
+ SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE STANDARD AND THE "JUDGMENT" OF
+PSYCHOLOGY.--There are many points of similarity between the
+"Standard," of management, and the "judgment" of psychology. Sully
+says, in speaking of the judgment,[4]--"This process of judging
+illustrates the two fundamental elements in thought activity, viz.,
+analysis and synthesis." "To judge is clearly to discern and to mark
+off as a special object of thought some connecting relation." "To
+begin with, before we can judge we must have the requisite materials
+for forming a judgment." "In the second place, to judge is to carry
+out a process of reflection on given material." "In addition to
+clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have other perfections. So
+far as our statements accord with known facts, they should be
+adhered to,--at least, till new evidence proves them untrue."
+
+ PSYCHOLOGY A FINAL APPEAL AS TO PERMANENT VALUE OF ANY
+STANDARD.--The standard under management, even under Scientific
+Management, can lay no claim to being perfect. It can never nearly
+approach perfection until the elements are so small that it is
+practicable to test them psychologically and physiologically. The
+time when this can be done in many lines, when the benefit that will
+directly accrue will justify the necessary expenditure, may seem far
+distant, but every analysis of operations, no matter how
+rudimentary, is hastening the day when the underlying, permanently
+valuable elements can be determined and their variations studied.
+
+ COOePERATION WILL HASTEN THE DAY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
+PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDY OF STANDARDS.--Cooeperation in collecting and
+comparing the results of motion study and time study everywhere will
+do much to assist toward more ultimate determination of elements. At
+the present time the problems that management submits to psychology
+are too indefinite and cover too large a field to be attacked
+successfully. Cooeperation between management standardizers
+would mean--
+
+ 1. that all management data would be available to
+ psychologists and physiologists.
+ 2. that such data, being available also to all standardizers,
+ would prevent reduplication of results.
+ 3. that savings would result.
+ 4. that, from a study and comparison of the collected data a
+ trained synthetic mind could build up better standards than
+ could be built from any set of individual data.
+ 5. Savings would result from this.
+ 6. Inventions would also result.
+ 7. Savings would again result from these.
+ 8. All of these various savings could be invested in more
+ intensive study of elements.
+ 9. These more valuable results would again be available to
+ psychologists and physiologists.
+
+ This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, all would benefit
+with little added cost to any. For the results of the psychological
+and physiological study would be available to all, and investigators
+in those lines have shown themselves ready and glad to undertake
+investigations.
+
+ PURPOSE OF STANDARDIZATION.--The purpose of standardizing is the
+same under all types of management; that is, it is the elimination
+of waste.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION FREQUENTLY ATTEMPTED UNDER TRADITIONAL
+MANAGEMENT.--In much progressive Traditional Management there is an
+appreciation of the necessity of standardizing tools and equipment,
+that is to say, of having these on the "duplicate part system," that
+assembling may be done quickly, and repairs made without delay.
+
+ The manager notices some particularly successful man, or method,
+or arrangement of tools, equipment, or the surroundings, and decides
+to have a record made thereof that the success may be repeated.
+These records, if made in sufficient detail, are very valuable. The
+difficulty is that so often the man making the records does not
+observe all the variables. Hence the very elements which caused the
+success may be overlooked entirely.
+
+ VALUE OF STANDARDIZATION NOT APPRECIATED UNDER TRADITIONAL
+MANAGEMENT.--It is surprising, under Traditional Management, to
+note, in many cases, the years that elapse before any need for
+standardization is felt. It is also surprising that, even when some
+standardization has been done, its importance is seldom realized.
+The new standard becomes a matter of course, and the management
+fails to be impressed enough with its benefits to apply the
+principle of standardization to other fields.
+
+ UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT STANDARDIZATION BECOMES CONSTANTLY
+MORE IMPORTANT.--Not until Motion Study and Time Study have been
+introduced can the full benefits of standardization be attained. But
+as soon as the Transitory Stage of Management appears, the
+importance of standardization is realized. This is brought about
+largely through the records of individual outputs, which constantly
+call attention to the necessity of making available to all the
+methods, tools and equipment of the most successful workers.
+
+ RECORDS OF SUCCESSES BECOME MORE PROFITABLE.--The rules which
+embody successful practice become more profitable as the necessity
+for more detailed recording of all the variables becomes possible.
+An appreciation of what scientific motion study and time study will
+ultimately do affects the minds of the management until the workers
+are given directions as to methods to be used, and the incentive of
+extra pay for following directions.
+
+ "SYSTEMS" SHOW AN APPRECIATION OF PSYCHOLOGY.--The "Systems,"
+standing orders or collections of written directions, that are
+evolved at this stage have a permanent value. This is especially
+true when the directions, often called "rules," contain the reason
+for the rule. There is a decided awakening to the importance of
+Psychology in this appeal to the reason of the worker. He is not
+affronted by being forced to follow directions for which he is given
+no reason and which he has no reason to believe have been
+scientifically derived. These rules, in a certain typical case, are
+stated in simple language, some in the form of commands, some in the
+form of suggestions, and are obviously so prepared as to be
+understood and obeyed by the workers with the least possible amount
+of effort, opposition and time. As ample opportunity is given for
+suggestions, the worker's attention and interest are held, and any
+craving he may have for self-expression is gratified.
+
+ SYSTEMS PERMANENTLY USEFUL.--These systems, collections of
+rules, directions or standing orders are useful even when Ultimate
+Management is completely installed--
+
+ 1. for use as records of successful methods which may be
+ scientifically studied for elements.
+ 2. for use by the instruction card clerk in explaining to
+ the men why the rules on the instruction card are given.
+
+ RELATION OF SYSTEMS TO STANDARDS SHOULD BE EMPHASIZED.--The
+worker is too often not made to understand the relation of Systems
+to Standards. The average worker does not object to Systems, because
+he realizes that the System is a collection of his best, least
+wasteful methods of doing work. When he can be convinced that
+standards are only efficient elements of his own methods
+scientifically studied and combined, any opposition to them
+will disappear.
+
+ THE PERSONAL NOTE OF THE "SYSTEM" SHOULD BE PRESERVED.--Perhaps
+one thing that makes the typical "Systems" so attractive is the
+personal note that they contain. Illustrated with pictures of
+successful work that the workers themselves have done, often
+containing pictures of the men themselves that illustrate successful
+methods, with mention of the names of men who have offered valuable
+suggestions or inventions, they make the worker feel his part in
+successful results. They conserve the old spirit of cooeperation
+between the master and his apprentices.
+
+ The conditions of modern industry make it extremely difficult to
+conserve this feeling. Scientific Management is successful not only
+because it makes possible a more effective cooeperation than has ever
+existed since the old "master-and-apprentice" relation died out, but
+also because it conserves in the Systems the interim channel for
+personal communication between the various members of the
+organization.
+
+ SYSTEMS A VALUABLE ASSISTANCE IN TRANSITION TO SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--One great problem which those introducing Scientific
+Management have to face is exactly how to make the worker understand
+the relation of the new type of management to the old. The
+usefulness of the written system in use in most places where it is
+planned to introduce Scientific Management as a means of making the
+worker understand the transition has, perhaps, not been appreciated.
+
+ The development of the standard from the system is easy to
+explain. This being done, all parts of Scientific Management are
+so closely related that their interrelation can be readily made
+apparent.
+
+ It is the worker's right as well as privilege to understand the
+management under which he works, and he only truly cooeperates, with
+his will and judgment as well as with his hands, when he feels that
+his mind is a part of the directing mind.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ELIMINATES WASTE
+SCIENTIFICALLY.--Under Scientific Management the elimination of
+waste by the use of standards becomes a science. Standards are no
+longer based on opinions, as under Traditional Management, but are
+based upon scientific investigation of the elements of experience.
+
+ As James says, in the "Psychology, Briefer Course," page 156,
+paragraph 4,--"It is obvious and palpable that our state of mind is
+never precisely the same. Every thought we have of a given fact is,
+strictly speaking, unique and only bears a resemblance of kind with
+our other thoughts of the same facts. When the identical fact recurs
+we must think of it in a fresh manner, see it under a somewhat
+different angle, apprehend it in different relations from those in
+which it last appeared."
+
+ THE STANDARD THE RESULT OF MEASUREMENT.--It is obvious,
+therefore, that a scientifically derived standard can never be the
+outcome of an opinion. Whenever the opinion returns, the different
+thoughts with which it would be accompanied would so color it as to
+change it, and the standard with it. It is obvious, therefore, that
+a standard must be the result of definite mathematical and other
+measured proof, and not of an opinion, and that the standard must be
+in such physical shape that the subject-matter will always be
+clearly defined, otherwise the ultimate losses resulting from
+dependent sequences of the standard schedule and time-tables would
+be enormous.
+
+ SUCCESSFUL STANDARDIZATION DEMANDS COMPLETE CONFORMITY TO
+STANDARDS.--The laws for establishment of standards; the laws of
+achieving them; the laws for preventing deviations from those paths
+that will permit of their achievement; the dependent sequences
+absolutely necessary to perform the complete whole; these have been
+worked out and given to the world by Dr. Taylor, who recognized, as
+James has said, page 157, that, "a permanently existing 'Idea' which
+makes its appearance before the footlights of consciousness at
+periodic intervals, is as mythological an entity as the Jack of
+Spades." The entire organization from the highest to the lowest must
+conform to these standards. It is out of the question to permit the
+deviations resulting from individual initiative. Individual
+initiative is quite as objectionable in obtaining the best
+results,--that is, high wages and low production cost,--as service
+would be on a railroad if each locomotive engineer were his own
+train despatcher, determining at what time and to what place he
+would go.
+
+ INITIATIVE PROVIDED FOR.--There is a distinct place for
+initiative in Scientific Management, but that place is not outside
+of the planning department, until the planning department's method
+has been proved to be fully understood by achieving it. The
+standards must be made by the men to whom this work is assigned, and
+they must be followed absolutely by the worker. He is willing to
+follow them, under Scientific Management, because he realizes that a
+place for his suggestions is supplied, and that, if his suggestions
+are accepted, they will be incorporated into the new standards which
+must then be followed by all thereafter.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION APPLIES TO THE WORK OF ALL.--It is important to
+note that standardizing is applied to the work of all. This, if
+understood by all, will do away with all question of discrimination
+or the lack of a "square deal." It will make the worker feel ready
+to follow his standard exactly, just as he knows the manager is
+following his. So, also, the worker should be made to realize that
+the very fact that there is a standardization means, under
+Scientific Management, that that applies to every man, and that
+there is no discrimination against him in any possible way.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION CONSERVES AND DEVELOPS INDIVIDUALITY.--
+Standardization conserves individual capacity by doing away with the
+wasteful process of trial and error of the individual workman. It
+develops individuality by allowing the worker to concentrate his
+initiative upon work that has not before been done, and by providing
+incentive and reward for inventions.
+
+ WASTE ELIMINATED IS ELIMINATED PERMANENTLY.--Scientific
+Management not only eliminates waste, but provides that waste shall
+be eliminated for all time in the future.
+
+ The standard once written down, there can be no slipping back
+into the old methods based upon opinions of the facts.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESEMBLES
+STANDARDIZATION OF SPELLING.--The need for standardization has
+already been emphasized, but might further be illustrated by the
+discussions, pro and con, of the question of simplified spelling.
+Before the days of dictionaries, our spelling was not standardized--
+it was the privilege of any good writer to spell much as he desired;
+but the creation of written standards of spelling, that is to say
+the making of dictionaries, fixed the forms of spelling at that
+time, that is, created standards. The Simplified Spelling Board is
+now endeavoring to make some new standards, their action being based
+upon sufficient reasons for making a change, and also for not
+changing the spelling of any word until it is determined that the
+suggested spelling is more advisable than the old spelling.
+
+ Just so, under Scientific Management, the best known standards
+are used continuously until better have been discovered. The
+planning department, consisting of the best men available, whose
+special duty it is to create new standards, acts as does the
+Simplified Spelling Board, as a court of appeals for new standards,
+which must pass this court before they can hope to succeed the old,
+and which must, if they are to be accepted, possess many elements of
+the old and be changed only in such a way that the users can,
+without difficulty, shift to the new use.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOMENCLATURE IS STANDARDIZED.--Under
+Standardization in Scientific Management the standardization of the
+nomenclature, of the names and of the terms used must be noted. The
+effect of this upon the mind is excellent, because the use of a word
+very soon becomes a habit--its associations become fixed. If
+different names are used for the same thing,--that is to say, if
+different names are used indiscriminately, the thing itself becomes
+hazy, in just such a degree as it possesses many names. The use of
+the fixed term, the fixed word, leads to definiteness always. Just
+so, also, the Mnemonic Symbol system in use by Scientific
+Management, leads to swift identification of the subdivision of the
+classification to which it is applied, and to elimination of waste
+in finding and remembering where to find any particular thing or
+piece of information desired. By it may be identified "the various
+articles of manufacture and papers relating to it as well as the
+operations to be performed on each piece and the various charges of
+the establishment."
+
+ MNEMONIC SYMBOLS SAVE TIME AND EFFORT.--These Mnemonic Symbols
+save actual motions and time in speaking and writing, and save time
+in that they are so designed as to be readily remembered. They also
+save time and effort in that the mind accustomed to them works with
+them as collective groups of ideas, without stopping to elaborate
+them into their more detailed form.
+
+ STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY ELIMINATES WASTE.--As typical of the
+savings effected by standardization, we may cite a lineman talking
+to the Central Telephone Office:--
+
+ "John Doe--1234 L. Placing Extension Station," This signified--
+"My name is John Doe, I am telephoning from number 1234, party L.
+I have finished installing an extension station. Where shall I
+go next?"
+
+ In the same way standard signals are remembered best by the man
+who signals and are understood quickest by the man who receives
+them, with a direct increase in speed to the work done.
+
+ STANDARD MAN IS THE MAN UPON WHOM STUDIES ARE MADE.--The
+standard man is the ideal man to observe and with whom to obtain the
+best Motion Study and Time Study data. He is the fastest worker,
+working under the direction of the man best informed in the
+particular trade as to the motions of best present practice, and
+being timed by a Time Study Expert.
+
+ RELATION BETWEEN THE STANDARD MAN, THE FIRST-CLASS MAN, THE
+GIVEN MAN AND THE TASK.--The "first-class man" under Scientific
+Management means the man who is best fitted by nature and by
+training to do the task permanently or until promoted.
+
+ The "given man" is the man who is actually put to work at the
+task, whether or not he is well fitted for its performance.
+
+ The "task" is that percentage of the standard man's achievement
+that the given man to whom the task is to be assigned can do
+continuously and thrive, that he can do easily enough to win his
+bonus without injuring himself, temporarily or permanently, in
+any way.
+
+ WRITING THE STANDARD MEANS FOR CONVEYING INFORMATION.--Under
+Scientific Management, and even in the early stages of Transitory
+Management, writing is the standard means of conveying information.
+
+ All orders, without exception, should be in writing. This
+insures that the "eye workers" get their directions in the most
+impressive form; does away with the need of constant oral
+repetition; eliminates confusion; insures a clear impression in the
+mind of the giver as well as of the receiver of the order as to
+exactly what is wanted; and provides a record of all orders given.
+Putting the instructions in writing in no way precludes utilizing
+the worker's natural aptitude to learn by imitation, for he also
+always has the opportunity to watch and imitate the workings of the
+functional teachers as well as his scientifically taught
+fellow-workers.
+
+ THE INSTRUCTION CARD THE STANDARD METHOD OF CONVEYING
+INSTRUCTIONS AS TO THE TASK.--The records of the work of the
+standard man are contained in data of the Motion Study and Time
+Study department. These records, in the form in which they are to be
+used by the man who is to perform the task, are, for the benefit of
+that man, incorporated in what is known as the instruction card.
+
+ DEFINITION OF THE INSTRUCTION CARD.--The instruction card is a
+set of directions for the man, telling him what he is to do, how he
+is to do it, how long it should take him to do it, and what he will
+receive for doing it, and giving him an opportunity to call for, and
+obtain, assistance the instant that he finds he cannot do it, and
+to report back to the managers as to how he has succeeded in
+the performance.
+
+ The Instruction Card has been called "a self-producer of a
+predetermined product."
+
+ COMPARATIVE DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTION CARDS, UNDER SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--There are three types of Instruction Cards, which may
+be described as follows:
+
+ Type One:--Largely geographical, telling
+ 1. Where to Work.
+ 2. From Whom to Take Orders.
+ 3. What to Do.
+
+ Type Two:--Typical engineer's specification,--telling
+ 1. Results desired.
+ 2. Qualities of Products.
+
+ Type Three:--A list of elementary, step-by-step instructions,
+subdivided into their motions, with time allowed for each timable
+element, preferably for each motion, and a division between
+ 1. Getting ready.
+ 2. Making or constructing.
+ 3. Clearing up. This is the only type used by Scientific
+ Management.
+
+ DIRECTIONS, PAY ALLOWANCE AND TIME ALLOWANCE ESSENTIAL.--
+The Instruction Card under Scientific Management must contain
+directions, and state the pay allowance and time allowance.
+
+ Directions as to how the work shall be done eliminate waste by
+cutting out all wrong methods and prescribing the right method
+exactly.
+
+ The setting of a time in which the work is to be done is a great
+stimulus to the worker, and is also necessary, because upon the
+attainment of this set time depends the ability of the managers to
+pay the bonus to the worker, and also to maintain a schedule, or
+time-table, that will make possible the maintaining of necessary
+conditions for others, in turn, to earn their bonuses. It cannot be
+too often emphasized that the extra wages are paid to the men out of
+the savings, and are absolutely dependent upon the fact of there
+being savings. It is only when the worker does the work within the
+time prescribed, that the managers do save enough to warrant the
+payment of the extra wages that compensate the man for doing the
+stipulated quantity of work.
+
+ The instruction card contains a statement of the wage or bonus
+that will be earned for the complete performance of the task set
+therein, thus furnishing an incentive at the time that the work
+is done.
+
+ STANDARD DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION CARD NECESSARY.--There are many
+reasons for dividing an instruction card in the present standard
+way, namely,--
+
+ (a) to reduce the amount of time study observation
+ necessary to be taken,
+ (b) to reduce the difficulties of synthesizing the time
+ studied element,
+ (c) to locate quickly just where the worker needs help and
+ instruction to enable him to achieve his task,
+ (d) to keep up the interest of the worker by having short
+ time elements with which to measure his relative
+ ability,
+ (e) to present the subject-matter of instruction in such
+ natural subdivisions that resting places are
+ automatically provided that allow the mind to recover
+ from its absorption of each subdivision. This provides
+ definite stopping places between co-related units of
+ instruction holding the attention as a complete unit
+ against distraction, and a complete resting place
+ between subdivisions that permits the mind to relax and
+ wander without losing complete grasp of each unit as
+ a whole.
+
+ DETAILED INSTRUCTION EDUCATIVE.--The greater the perfection of
+the detail of the instruction card, the greater the educative value
+of this plan of management. The educative value of the instruction
+card will be discussed at length under Teaching.
+
+ Those inexperienced in Scientific Management have complained
+that the detail of Instruction Cards and other parts of Scientific
+Management is tiresome. Dr. Taylor has answered such objectors in
+Discussions, and also in his own directions for planning the
+Instruction Card, which are to be found in "Shop Management."
+
+ The advantages of the detailed instruction card are more than
+might appear on the surface. Not only does the man whose attention
+is easily distracted keep to his work better if he is told every
+possible detail, but also the cards when filed can be taken out
+again, and every detail and item of the method reviewed at length
+and revised if necessary.
+
+ The experienced worker who gets to know the instruction by rote
+is not bothered by extreme detail. On the contrary, he grasps it at
+a glance, and focuses his mind upon any new feature and upon the
+speed and exactness of muscular action needed for compliance with
+the card.
+
+ LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION CARD IMPORTANT.--The language in which
+instructions and commands are transmitted on the instruction card is
+of sufficient importance to warrant careful consideration. It would
+be helpful if the instruction card clerk and the man who is to use
+the instruction cards were both masters of English, but this is
+hardly to be expected. The best substitute for such special English
+training is a "System" for the use of the instruction card clerk
+that will give him some outline of English that will by degrees make
+his wording terse, simple and unambiguous.
+
+ He should be impressed with the value of short sentences, and of
+sentences that will require no punctuation other than a period at
+the end. The short sentence is the most important step toward
+brevity, terseness, conciseness and clear thinking.
+
+ The second most important feature is that the instruction card
+clerk always uses the same standard wording for the same
+instructions. Repetition of phrasing is a virtue, and the use of the
+same word for the same thing and the same meaning repeatedly is very
+desirable. The wording, phrasing and sentencing should be standard
+wherever possible.
+
+ STANDARD PHRASING DESIRABLE.--After a short time a phrase or
+sentence that is often repeated will be recognized as quickly as
+will a word or a letter. Men who cannot read and write at all are
+comparatively few. Men who can read and write but little are many.
+It is entirely possible to teach such men standard groupings, which
+they can recognize on the Instruction Card and use in a very
+short time.
+
+ For example,--laborers who do not even know their alphabets will
+learn quickly to read setting marks on cut stone.
+
+ Just as mnemonic symbols save time and effort, so standard
+phrasing aids toward finding out what is to be done, and remembering
+how it is to be done.[5] Both of these can be accomplished if the
+standardization is so complete that directions can be read and
+remembered almost at a glance.[6]
+
+ SPECIFIC TERMS HELPFUL.--To be most effective, directions should
+be in the imperative form, and in specific terms.
+
+ The history and growth of language shows that the language of
+the savage consisted of vague general terms as compared to the
+specific individual terms of the modern language of civilized man.
+There are examples to be seen on every hand to-day where the oral
+language of instructions and orders to proceed, that are given to
+the worker, are still more vague, comparatively, than the language
+between savages.
+
+ SIMILARITY OF FORM AND SHAPE ADVISABLE.--As for the form and
+shape, as Dr. Taylor says, "anything that will transmit ideas by
+sketch or wording will serve as an instruction card." He advises,
+however, taking advantage of the saving in time to be gained by
+having the instruction cards as nearly alike as possible. They may,
+for convenience' sake, vary as to length, but in width, ruling,
+spacing and wording they should be as nearly alike as possible.
+
+ STANDARD SURROUNDINGS VALUABLE.--Standard environment, or
+surroundings, of the worker are valuable for two reasons:
+
+ 1. Because they directly increase output by eliminating
+everything which might distract attention or cause needless fatigue,
+and by assisting in the attainment of more output by having the best
+possible surroundings for greater output.
+
+ 2. Because all surroundings suggest an easy achievement. Knowing
+that everything has been done to make his work possible and easy,
+the worker feels this atmosphere of possibility and ease around him,
+and the suggestive power of this is strong.
+
+ UNNECESSARY FATIGUE SHOULD BE ELIMINATED.--The walls, appliances
+and furniture, and the clothing of the worker should be of that
+color which will rest his eyes from the fatigue of the work. All
+unnecessary noise should be eliminated, and provision should be
+made, where possible, that the workers may enjoy their sleep or
+their rest hours in perfect quiet.
+
+ Records show the value of having quiet reign in and near the
+camp, that the workers may not be disturbed. Even though they are
+not disturbed enough to be waked up, every noise that is registered
+in the brain affects the body, for it is now conceded that the body
+reflects every phase of mental activity.
+
+ ALL MENTAL STATES AFFECT BODILY STATES--Dr. Stratton says: "It
+is now generally accepted that the body reflects every shade of
+psychic operations; that in all manner of mental action there is
+some physical expression."[7] All consciousness is motor "is the
+brief expression of this important truth; every mental state somehow
+runs over into a corresponding bodily state."
+
+ ELIMINATION OF WORRY ASSISTS IN CONCENTRATING ATTENTION.--The
+more fireproof the building, and the more stable the other
+conditions, the greater the efficiency of the inmate. Burglar-proof
+buildings not only actually induce better sleep, in that possible
+intrusions are eliminated, but give a state of mental peace by the
+removal of apprehension. So also, a "germ proof" house is not only
+really more healthful for an inmate, but eliminates worry over
+possible danger of ill health. The mental health of the worker not
+only controls, in a measure, his physical health, but also his
+desire to work. Having no distractions, he can put his mind upon
+that which is given him to do.
+
+ DISTRACTED ATTENTION CAUSES FATIGUE.--The attention of the
+worker is apt to be distracted not only by recognized dangers, such
+as burglars, fires, and disease, but also by other transitory things
+that, involuntarily on his part, take his mind from the work in
+hand. A flickering light distracts the attention and causes fatigue,
+whether we have consciously noticed it or not. Many things are
+recorded by the senses without one's being conscious of them.
+
+ For example, the ceasing of a clock to tick, although we have
+not noticed that it was ticking. Another example is the effect upon
+the pulse or the brain of being spoken to when asleep.
+
+ The flickering lamp of the chronocyclegraph device is much more
+fatiguing than the steady lamp of plain cyclegraphs.
+
+ PROPER PLACING OF WORKERS ELIMINATES DISTRACTED ATTENTION.--
+Workers must be placed so that they do not see intermittently moving
+objects out of the corners of their eyes. In the early history of
+man it was continuously necessary to watch for first evidence of
+things behind one, or at a distance, in order to be safe from an
+enemy. From generations of survival of the most fit there have
+developed human eyes most sensitive to moving objects that are seen
+out of the corner of the eye. Even civilized man has his attention
+distracted quickest, and most, by those moving objects that he sees
+the least distinctly, and furthest to one side from the direction in
+which he is looking.
+
+ The leaf that moves or the grass that trembles may attract the
+attention where seen "out of the corner of the eye" to a point where
+it will even cause a start and a great fear.
+
+ As an example of the distracting effect of moving objects seen
+"out of the corner of the eye," try reading a book facing a window
+in a car where the moving scenery can be seen on each side of the
+book. The flitting object will interrupt one, one cannot get the
+full meaning out of what one is reading--yet if one lays down the
+book and looks directly at the scenery, the mind can concentrate to
+a point where one does not see that moving scenery which is directly
+in front of the eyes.
+
+ There is a great difference in this power of sensitiveness of
+the corners of some workers' eyes from that of others. The first
+move of Scientific Management is to place and arrange all workers,
+as far as is possible, in such a position that nothing to distract
+them will be behind them, and later to see that the eyes of workers
+are tested, that those whose eyes are most sensitive may be placed
+accordingly.
+
+ THIS ELIMINATION MAY TAKE PLACE IN ALL KINDS OF WORK.--The
+necessity of removing all things which will distract the attention
+is as great for the brain worker as for the shop or construction
+worker. All papers that attract the eye, and hence the attention,
+should be cleaned from the desk, everything except that on which the
+worker is working. The capability of being distracted by the
+presence of other things varies in all workers.
+
+ In using the dictaphone, one can do much better work if one is
+in a room where there is little or nothing to distract attention. An
+outline of work ahead, may tempt to study and planning of what is
+ahead, rather than to carrying out the task scheduled for immediate
+performance. The presence of a paper with an outline merely of what
+is being done is found to be a great help, as the eye can rest on
+that, and after a few moments, will become so accustomed to it that
+the whole attention will be given to the dictating.
+
+ BENEFITS OF ELIMINATING "DECISION OF CHOICE."--There is always
+time lost by "decision of choice." The elimination of this is well
+illustrated by the bricks that are piled on the packet, which
+decides for the bricklayer which brick is next, making an obvious
+sequence, hence the saving of time of decision regarding motions,
+also the saving coming from the play for position. Oftentimes a
+handicap of slow mental action can be compensated for, in a measure,
+by planning ahead in great detail. In this way, if the plan is made
+sufficiently in detail, there is absolutely no time possible left to
+be wasted in "decision of choice." The worker goes from one step to
+another, and as these steps are arranged logically, his mind does
+not tend to wander away, but to keep on in an uninterrupted sequence
+to the goal.
+
+ STANDARD EQUIPMENT IMPORTANT.--As for equipment, the phenomena
+of habit are among the most important features of the psychology of
+management and the possibilities of the elimination of unnecessary
+waste resulting from taking advantage of this feature is possible
+only when the equipment, surroundings and methods of the worker are
+standardized. Therefore the insistence upon standardization, even
+down to the smallest things, is vital for achieving the greatest
+output.
+
+ For example,--suppose the keys of the monotype machine, piano or
+typewriter were not located permanently in the same relative
+position. Consider the loss of time in not being able to use habits
+in finding each key. Such an arrangement sounds ridiculous on the
+face of it, yet it is a common practice for many operators,
+especially of monotype machines, to make a complete mental decision
+as to the muscles and fingers with which they will strike the
+desired key.
+
+ Imagine the records of output of a typist who was using a
+different keyboard every day, if there were that many kinds of
+keyboards. It is easy for anyone to conceive the great advantages of
+standard keyboards for such machines, but only those who have made a
+study of output of all kinds of workers can fully realize that
+similar differences in sizes of output are being produced by the
+workers of the country for lack of similar standardization of
+working conditions and equipment.
+
+ UTMOST STANDARDIZATION DOES NOT MAKE "MACHINES" OF THE WORKERS
+OPERATING UNDER IT.--The attention of those who believe that
+standardization makes machines out of the workers themselves, is
+called to the absence of such effect upon the typist as compared
+with the scribe, the monotype and linotype operator as compared with
+the compositor, and the mechanical computing machine operator as
+compared with the arithmetician.
+
+ STANDARD METHODS DEMAND STANDARD TOOLS AND DEVICES.--Habits
+cannot be standardized until the devices and tools used are of
+standard pattern. It is not nearly so essential to have the best
+tools as it is to have standard tools.[8] Experience in the
+hospitals points to the importance of this fact in surgery. Tools
+once adopted as standard should not be changed until the improvement
+or greater efficiency from their use will compensate for the loss
+during the period of "breaking in" the user, that is, of forming new
+habits in order to handle strange tools. As will be brought out more
+fully under "Teaching," good habits are as difficult to break as bad
+ones, the only difference being that one does not usually desire to
+break good ones. Naturally, if a new device is introduced, what was
+an excellent habit for the old device becomes, perhaps, a very bad
+habit for the new device. There must come a time before the
+manipulation of the new device has become a habit when output will
+go down and costs will go up. It is necessary, before introducing
+this device, to investigate whether the ultimate reduction of costs
+will be sufficient to allow for this period of lower production. It
+is not fair, however, to the new device or method really to consider
+its record until the use of it has become such a habit with the
+workers as was the use of the old device.
+
+ No one who has not made a study of cutting tools can realize the
+crying need for standardizing in that field. Dr. Taylor says,
+writing in the Revised "Shop Management" of 1911,--"Hardly a shop
+can be found in which tools made from a dozen different qualities of
+steel are not used side by side, in many cases with little or no
+means of telling one make from another."[9] The effect of the
+slightest variation in the shape or the method of handling the tool
+upon the three dimensions of the work that the tool can do in a
+given time, is astounding.[10] More important, from the
+psychological point of view, is the effect upon the mind of the
+worker of seeing such unstandardized equipment; of having to stop to
+select the particular tool that he desires, and thus having his
+attention distracted from his work; and of knowing that his act of
+judgment in so selecting is of no permanent value, as the next time
+he needs a similar tool he will probably have to reselect.
+
+ STANDARD CLOTHING A CRYING NEED.--There is a great need today
+for standardization in the field of clothing. The idea prevalent
+that wearing apparel is attractive only when it is "different" is
+unfortunate in its influence upon the cost of living. How much more
+unfortunate is it, when it affects the mind of the worker, and leads
+him to look upon standard working clothes with distaste.
+
+ To a careful observer, there is nothing more disheartening than
+a study of workers' clothes, especially the clothes of women
+workers. Too warm clothes where work requiring high temperature is
+done, with no provision for adding needed wraps for the trip home;
+high-heeled shoes where the worker must stand at her task for hours
+at a time; tight waists and ill fitting skirts, where every muscle
+should have free play,--these are but examples of hundreds of places
+where reforms are needed.
+
+ Little or no blame attaches to the worker for this state of
+affairs. Seldom, if ever, does the management attempt to standardize
+working clothes. Moreover, the underlying idea is not made clear
+that such clothes bear no resemblance to the meaningless uniforms
+which are badge and symbol of service. They resemble rather the
+blouse or pinafore of the artist, the outfit of the submarine diver
+or the fireman.
+
+ THE SPORTS PRESENT A FINE EXAMPLE OF THIS.--The greatest advance
+toward standardizing clothing has come in the sports, which, in many
+respects, present admirable object-lessons. In the tennis court, on
+the links, on the gridiron, the diamond, or track, the garment worn
+of itself does not increase fatigue. On the contrary, it is so
+designed as not to interfere with the efficiency of the wearer.
+
+ MANAGEMENT SHOULD PROVIDE CLOTHING STANDARDS.--Under Ultimate
+Management the most efficient clothing for any kind of work will be
+standardized. The expense of such articles of clothing as will add
+to the quantity or quality of output will, directly or indirectly,
+be borne by the management, just as it now bears the expense for
+equipment and tools. These essentials being supplied, and the
+underlying dignity and importance of standardization understood, the
+worker will gladly conform, and supply the minor accessories.
+
+ SUCH STANDARDS MUST APPLY TO ALL.--It is of the utmost
+importance that such standardization, when adopted, should apply to
+the clothing of all, managers as well as employes. When the old
+pride in the "crafts" returns, or when efficiency is as universal in
+the industrial world as it is in the world of sport,--then one may
+look for results.
+
+ EFFECTS OF SUCH STANDARDS ENORMOUS.--The effect which such
+standardized clothing would have on the physical and mental
+well-being of the wearers can scarcely be overestimated. Fatigue
+would be eliminated, and the old "joy in working" might return. Not
+being based upon looks alone,--though the aesthetic appeal should not
+be neglected,--the worker's ability to work more and better with
+greater content of mind would be the criterion. The success of the
+clothing would be scientifically measured, the standards improved,
+and progress itself become standardized.
+
+ STANDARD METHODS ELIMINATE FATIGUE.--There is no doubt in the
+minds of those who have made it a study, that the constant receipt
+of the same kind of impressions, caused by the same kind of
+stimulation of the same terminal sense organs, causes semi-automatic
+response with less resulting fatigue, corresponding to the lessened
+effort. All methods should, therefore, as far as possible, be made
+up of standard elements under standard conditions, with standard
+devices and appliances, and they should be standardized from the
+standpoint of all of our senses as to color, shape, size, weight,
+location, position and surface texture, that the worker may grasp at
+a single thought by means of each or all his senses, that no special
+muscles or other fatiguing processes need be operated to achieve the
+standard result desired.
+
+ MUSCLES THAT TIRE EASILY SHOULD BE SAVED.--It must be remembered
+that all work should be so arranged that the muscle that changes the
+position or shape of the eye or the size of its pupil should not be
+operated except when necessary. Care in planning can oftentimes
+standardize conditions so as to relieve these and other muscles,
+which grow tired easily, or transfer this work to other muscles
+which are not so easily tired.
+
+ Not only do the reactions from such standards require less
+bodily effort, but it also requires less mental effort to work under
+methods that are standardized. Therefore, both directly and
+indirectly, the worker benefits by the standardization.
+
+ REST FROM FATIGUE IS PROVIDED FOR SCIENTIFICALLY.--Scientific
+Management provides and prescribes rest for overcoming fatigue of
+the worker more scientifically and economically than he could
+possibly provide it for himself. Weber's law is that "our power of
+detecting differences between sensations does not depend on the
+absolute amount of difference in the stimuli, but on the relative
+amount."[11] The additional fatigue from handling additional weights
+causes fatigue to increase with the weight, but not in direct
+proportion to the extra weight handled. When the correct weight of
+the unit to be handled has been determined, the additional weight
+will cause fatigue in quantities greater in proportion than the
+extra weight handled.
+
+ REST PERIODS ARRANGED FOR BEST GOOD OF WORK AND WORKER.--If
+possible, rest from fatigue is so arranged as to interfere with work
+the least. The necessary rest periods of the individuals of a gang
+should come at that period of the cycle that does not cause any
+allowance to be made for rest in between the performance of the
+dependent operations of different members of the gang. Such an
+arrangement will enable the worker to keep a sustained interest in
+the work.
+
+ WORK WITH ANIMALS SHOULD BE STANDARDIZED.--The necessity for
+standardizing work with animals has been greatly underestimated,
+although it has been done more or less successfully in systems for
+construction work. For work with horses and carts, the harnesses and
+the carts should be standardized and standards only should be used.
+The instruction card dealing with the action, motions and their
+sequence should be standard to save time in changing teams from the
+full to the empty cart and _vice versa_. While standardized action
+is necessary with men, it is even more necessary for men in
+connection with the work of animals, such as horses, mules and oxen.
+The instruction card for the act of changing of teams from an empty
+cart to a full cart should state the side that the driver gets down
+from his seat to the ground, the sequence in which he unhooks the
+harness and hooks it up again, and the side on which he gets up to
+his seat in the cart. Even the wording of his orders to his horse
+should be standardized.
+
+ While this book will deal with the human mind only, it is in
+order to state that a book could be written to advantage on training
+the horse by means of a standard man-horse language and a standard
+practice of their combined action.
+
+ Animals have not the capacity for forming new habits that they
+have for remembering the sequence of former acts. They have little
+ability to adapt themselves to a sequence of motions caused by
+unexpected conditions, unless those conditions suggest the
+opportunity of revenge, or the necessity of self-preservation, or
+immediate welfare. This is only touched upon here from the man side.
+
+ Naturally, the output earning power of a man working with
+animals depends largely upon the handling of the animal, and the man
+can never attain his full output, or the managers get what they
+might expect to get from the man-horse combination, until the
+psychology of the horse, or mule, or elephant, or whatever animal is
+used, is also studied and combined with the other studies on
+Scientific Management.
+
+ An example of the benefits of standardized work with
+animals:--The standard fire signals in the Fire House cause such
+perfect horse action that fire horses always have a reputation for
+superior intelligence.
+
+ THE WORKER WHO IS BEST SUITED FOR HIS WORK IN THE PERFORMING
+DEPARTMENT IS INCAPABLE OF DISCOVERING THE BEST METHOD.--An
+exaggerated case of the result of leaving the selection of the
+method to the worker is that of the West Indian negro who carried
+the wheelbarrow on his head.[12] This well-known example, though it
+seems impossible and absurd, is no more inefficient than are
+hundreds of methods in use in the industrial world to-day.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT QUALITY IS STANDARDIZED.--Scientific
+Management determines exactly what quality as well as what quantity
+of work is needed, and the method prescribed is that one not only of
+lower costs, but which fits the particular need of the particular
+occasion most accurately.
+
+ Workers are kept under pressure for quality, yet the pressure is
+not irksome, because the worker understands exactly what quality is
+desired, and what variations from exactness are permitted.
+
+ VARIATIONS IN QUALITY OR EXACTNESS INDICATED BY STANDARD
+SIGNS.--All dimensions on the drawings of work have either a letter
+or symbol or plus or minus signs. There is much to be said about the
+effect this has on the worker.
+
+ 1. It gives the worker immediate knowledge of the prescribed
+ quality demanded.
+ 2. He does not have to worry as to the maximum variation that
+ he can make without interfering with his bonus.
+ 3. There is no fear of criticism or discharge for using his
+ own faulty judgment.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HAS A STANDARD "METHOD OF ATTACK."--We
+must note next the standard "method of attack" in Scientific
+Management. It is recognized that sensations are modified by those
+that come before, by those that come simultaneously, and by those
+that follow. The psychic effect of each and every kind of sensation
+depends upon what other sensations have been experienced, are being
+experienced at that time, or will presently be experienced. The
+scientific manager realizes this, and provides for the most
+desirable sequence of sensation; then, having seen, to the best of
+his ability, that the sensation occurs at the time which he desires
+it to occur, he provides for concentration upon that one sensation
+and elimination of all other thoughts or desires.
+
+ Professor Faraday says: "That part of self-education which
+consists in teaching the mind to resist the desires and inclinations
+until they are proved to be right is the most important of all." How
+this is shown under Scientific Management will be shown in "Teaching."
+It is sufficient to say here that the method of attack of
+Scientific Management is to eliminate all possible bodily as well as
+mental exertion,--to cut down motions, to cut down even sensations
+and such mental acts as visualizing. The object is, not so much to
+eliminate these motions and these sensations, and this visualizing
+from the life of the worker, as simply to use up less energy in
+producing the output. This allows the worker an extra supply of
+energy upon which to fall back to produce greater output and to get
+greater wages. If his energy is not all utilized in his working
+hours, then, as will be shown more clearly under "Welfare," there is
+that much more left for him to enjoy in his own leisure time.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULT TO THE WORK.--Under Traditional Management, where
+standards are not established, the worker is constantly delayed by
+the necessity for decision of choice, by the lack of knowing what
+should be chosen, and by a dearth of standard equipment, materials
+and tools from which to choose.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of standards,
+the elimination of delays and the provision for standard
+surroundings and supplies of all kinds, comes increased output of
+the desired quality.
+
+ Under Scientific Management, not only is output increased and
+quality assured, but results of work can be predicted.[13]
+
+ RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--Results from standardization to the
+worker under Traditional and Transitory Management are the same as,
+and are included in, results under Scientific Management.
+
+ STATE OF WORKER'S FEELINGS IMPROVED.--Under Scientific
+Management the state of the employe's feelings is improved by the
+standardization. It is a recognized fact that mental disturbance
+from such causes as fear of losing his job will sometimes have the
+same ill effect upon a workman as does overwork, or insufficient
+rest for overcoming fatigue. It will occasionally wear upon the
+nervous system and the digestive organs. Now Scientific Management
+by standardization removes from the workman this fear of losing his
+job, for the worker knows that if he conforms to the standard
+instructions he certainly will not lose his position unless the
+business as a whole is unsuccessful.
+
+ On the other hand, feelings, such as happiness and contentment,
+and even hearing rhythmic sounds, music, etc., are an aid toward
+increasing output. For the best results, therefore, under Scientific
+Management the worker is furnished with standard conditions; his
+train of ideas is held upon the work in hand without interruption,
+and the working conditions are such that the managers furnish the
+worker with inducements to conform to the standard conditions
+happily.
+
+ WORKER'S RETENTIVE POWER INCREASED.--We note in the second
+place, the increased retentive power of anyone who is working with
+standards. There is great difference between different people of the
+same degree of intelligence as to their ability to memorize certain
+things, especially such as sequences of the elements of a process.
+This lack of retentive power is illustrated particularly well in the
+cases often found where the student has difficulty in learning to
+spell. It is here that the standard instruction card comes into play
+to good effect. Its great detail remedies the defect in memorizing
+of certain otherwise brilliant workers, and its standard form and
+repetition of standard phrases aid the retentive power of the man
+who has a good memory.
+
+ STANDARD ELEMENTS SERVE AS MEMORY DRILLS.--This use of
+standardized elements makes the time elapsing between repetitions
+shorter, for, while it may be a long time before the worker again
+encounters the identical work or method, still, the fact that
+elements are standard means that he will have occasion to repeat
+elements frequently, and that his memory will each time be further
+drilled by these repetitions.
+
+ GANG INSTRUCTION CARD AN AID TO MEMORY.--The gang instruction
+card has been used with good effect at the beginning of unfamiliar
+repetitive cycles of work to train the memory of whole gangs of men
+at once, and to cut down the elapsed time from the time when one
+man's operation is sufficiently completed to permit the next man to
+commence his. It has been found, in the case of setting timbers in
+mill construction for example, that to have one man call out the
+next act in the sequence as fast as the preceding one is finished,
+until all have committed the sequence to memory, will materially
+decrease the time necessary for the entire sequence of elements in a
+cycle of work.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION CARD AN INANIMATE MEMORY.--The
+instruction card supplies a most accurate memory in inanimate form,
+that neither blurs nor distorts with age.
+
+ The ranter against this standard memory is no more sensible than
+a man who would advocate the worker's forgetting the result of his
+best experience, that his mind might be periodically exercised by
+rediscovering the method of least waste anew with each problem.
+
+ Other things being equal, that worker has the longest number of
+years of earning power who remembers the largest number of right
+methods; or at least remembers where to find them described in
+detail; and, conversely, those who have no memory, and know not
+where to look for or to lay their hand on the method of least waste,
+remain at the beginning of their industrial education. "Experience,"
+from an earning standpoint, does not exist when the mind does not
+retain a memory of the method. The instruction card, then, acts as a
+form of transferable memory--it conserves memory. Once it is made,
+it furnishes the earning power without the necessity of the former
+experience having been had more than once.
+
+ Plans, details, free-hand sketches, and two-dimension
+photographs surpass the highest form of mental imagery, and such
+cultivated imagery is undoubtedly a high achievement. There is no
+kind of memory, visualization, nor constructive imagination that can
+equal the stereoscopic or three-dimension photographs that may
+accompany the instruction card for enabling the worker to "see the
+completed work before it is begun." Probably the greatest hindrance
+to development of lower forms of animal life is their inability to
+picture past experiences, and the reason for the intellectual
+strides made by the worker under Scientific Management is the
+development of this faculty.
+
+ A CONSERVER OF INDIVIDUAL MEMORIES.--Many people believe that
+the memory of a person ceases at his death. Whether this is so or
+not, the loss to the world, and particularly the industrial world,
+of not having the instruction card for the passing on of the
+worker's experience to the workers who follow is stupendous and
+incalculable, and this loss, like so many other losses, can be
+eliminated by the process of making written standards.
+
+ MOTOR MEMORY IMPROVED BY STANDARDIZATION.--Not only are the
+retentive powers of the brain improved, but also the brain centers,
+and the muscles, etc., become trained through standardization. With
+standardization a long sequence of muscular motions or operations
+can be noted at a glance, and can be remembered without difficulty.
+
+ STANDARDS PREVENT MEN FROM BECOMING MACHINES.--Those who object
+to the worker taking advantage of these scientifically derived
+standards which aid the memory, can only be compared to such people
+as desire the workers to turn into unthinking animals. Psychologists
+believe that some of the lower animals have no memory. Turning the
+workers into machines which do not in any way utilize thought-saving
+devices is simply putting them but little above the class of these
+lower, memory-less, animals.
+
+ THROUGH STANDARDS THE WORKER'S ATTENTION IS GAINED AT THE
+START.--The general act of attention plays an important part in
+Scientific Management. The insistence upon standardized performance
+requires the utmost attention at the beginning of learning a new
+method of performance. This extra output of mental activity, which
+is always required for accomplishing new methods of work, could not
+be continuously maintained, but after the new method has once been
+learned, its repetition requires less attention, consequently less
+fatigue. The attention of the worker is, therefore, strongly
+demanded at the beginning and when, later, it is not needed except
+for new and unfamiliar work, an opportunity arises for invention and
+mental advancement.
+
+ ATTENTION ALLOWED TO LAPSE AND THEN RECALLED.--Standardization
+shifts the objects of attention and eliminates the need for constant
+concentration. The standardization of processes relieves the worker
+to a marked extent from the extremely fatiguing mental effort of
+unproductive fixed, valueless, and unnecessary attention on the
+stream of consciousness. The repeated elements which form a part
+of all standards reconcentrates the attention if it is allowed
+to lapse.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION ELIMINATES THE SHIFTING VIEWPOINT.--Under
+old-time Traditional Management the way that the man happened to
+feel at the particular time made a great difference, not only in his
+work, but in his relations with other men. The standardization not
+only of the relationship between the men, but of the relationships
+between the foreman, the manager, and the worker, the fact that the
+disciplining is put in the hands of a man who is not biased by his
+personal feelings in his dealings with the men;--all of these things
+mean that the viewpoint of the men as to their work and their
+relationship remains fixed. This standardizing of the viewpoint is
+an enormous help toward increasing output.
+
+ THE COMMON VIEWPOINT IS AN IMPETUS.--There are those who believe
+that the concerted standard process of thought of the many minds
+assists the operation of any one mind. However this may be, there is
+no doubt that the fact that the standard thought is present in all
+minds at one time at least eliminates some cause for discussion and
+leads to unity and consequent success in the work.
+
+ INVENTION IS STIMULATED.--Chances for invention and construction
+are provided by standardization.[14] By having a scientifically
+derived standard method as a starter, the worker can exert much of
+his mental power toward improvement from that point upward, instead
+of being occupied with methods below it and in wasting, perhaps, a
+lifetime in striving to get up to it,[15] this in distinction to the
+old plan, where a worker knew only what he could personally remember
+of what had been handed down by tradition, tradition being the
+memory of society. Under Scientific Management a worker has many
+repetitions of experience, some of which he does not always
+recognize as such. When he does recognize them, he has the power and
+daring for rapid construction that come to those only who "know that
+they know."
+
+ Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, brings that
+power to the worker sooner. The conscious knowledge of familiarity
+of process is an essential for attaining the complete benefits of
+experience.
+
+ Far from making machines out of the men, standardization causes
+a mental state that leads to invention, for the reason that the
+worker's brain is in most intimate contact with the work, and yet
+has not been unnecessarily fatigued by the work itself. No more
+monotonous work could be cited than that of that boy whose sole duty
+was to operate by hand the valve to the engine, yet he invented the
+automatic control of the slide valve used throughout the world
+to-day.
+
+ STANDARDIZATION PREVENTS ACCIDENTS.--The results of
+standardization so far given, concern changes in the worker's mental
+capacity, or attitude. Such changes, and other changes, will be
+discussed from a different viewpoint under "Teaching." As for
+results to the worker's body, one of the most important is the
+elimination of causes for accidents.
+
+ The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing provided for by
+Scientific Management provides against accidents from defects in
+equipment, tools, or material. The fact that instructions are
+written, provides against wrong methods of handling work.[16] The
+concentrated attention caused by standardization, is a safeguard
+against accidents that occur from the worker's carelessness.[17] The
+proper allowance of rest for overcoming fatigue, insures that the
+worker's mind is fresh enough to enable him to comply with
+standards, and, finally, the spirit of cooeperation that underlies
+Scientific Management is an added check against accidents, in that
+everyone is guarding his fellows as well as himself.
+
+ PROGRESS OF STANDARDIZATION ASSURED.--As Scientific Management
+becomes older, progress will be faster, because up to this time
+there has been a hindrance standing in the way of rapid advancement
+of the best standards. This hindrance has been the tendency of
+habits of thought coinciding with former practice. For example, the
+design of concrete building for years followed the habit of thinking
+in terms of brick, or wood, or steel, and then attempting to design
+and construct in reinforced concrete. Again, in the case of the
+motor car, habits of thinking in vehicles drawn by animals for years
+kept the design unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse vehicles.
+As soon as thought was in terms of power vehicles, the efficient
+motor truck of to-day was made, using the power also for power
+loading and power hoisting, as is now done in motor trucks specially
+designed for transporting and handling pianos and safes. So, also,
+while the thought was of traditional practice, standard practice was
+held back. Now that the theories of standardization are well
+understood, standardization and standards in general can advance
+with great rapidity.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI FOOTNOTES: ==============================================
+
+ 1. Compare R.T. Dana and W.L. Sanders, _Rock Drilling_, chap. XVI.
+ 2. The idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of
+ Scientific Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5,
+ of _The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_,
+ p. 6.
+ 3. _Cost of Manufactures_.
+ 4. Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, pp. 290-292.
+ 5. C.B. Going, _Methods of the Sante Fe_, p. 66.
+ 6. For desirability of standard signals see R.T. Dana, _Handbook of
+ Steam Shovel Work_, p. 32.
+ 7. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, pp. 268-269.
+ 8. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management,_ para. 285, Harper Ed.,
+ pp. 123-124.
+ 9. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management,_ revised 1911, pp. 124-125.
+10. F.W. Taylor, _On the Art of Cutting Metals_, A.S.M.E., No. 1119.
+11. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 11.
+12. Mary Whiton Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 65.
+13. C.G. Barth, A.S.M.E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46.
+14. Charles Babbage, _On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures_,
+ Secs. 224-225. Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, Book 1, chap. 1,
+ p. 4.
+15. F.W. Taylor, paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 51; para. 98-100.
+16. F.A. Parkhurst, _Applied Methods of Scientific Management,
+ Industrial Engineering_, Oct. 1911, p. 251.
+17. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., para. 15.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF RECORD.--A record is, according to the Century
+Dictionary--"something set down in writing or delineated for the
+purpose of preserving memory; specifically a register; an authentic
+or official copy of any writing, or an account of any fact and
+proceedings, whether public or private, usually entered in a book
+for preservation; also the book containing such copy or account."[1]
+The synonyms given are "note, chronicle, account, minute, memorandum."
+
+ FEW WRITTEN RECORDS UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--For the
+purposes of this preliminary study of records, emphasis will be laid
+on the fact that the record is written. Under Traditional Management
+there are practically no such labor records. What records are kept
+are more in the nature of "bookkeeping records," as Gillette and
+Dana call them, records "showing debits and credits between
+different accounts." In many cases, under Traditional Management,
+not even such records of profit or loss from an individual piece of
+work were kept, the manager, in extreme cases, oftentimes "keeping
+his books in his head" and having only the vaguest idea of the state
+of his finances.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF RECORDS REALIZED UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT.--As
+has been amply demonstrated in discussing Individuality and
+Standardization, the recognition of the value of records is one of
+the first indications of Transitory Management. Since this stage of
+management has Scientific Management in view as "a mark to come to,"
+the records evolved and used are not discarded by Scientific
+Management, but are simply perfected. Therefore, there is no need to
+discuss these transitory records, except to say that, from the
+start, _quality_ of records is insisted upon before quantity of
+records.
+
+ NO "BOOKKEEPING" RECORDS UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under
+Scientific Management there are no "bookkeeping records" kept of
+costs as such. Instead, there are "time and cost records," so
+called, of the time and efficiency of performance. From these, costs
+can be deduced at any time. Items of cost without relation to their
+causes, on work that is not to be repeated, have little value. Cost
+records, as such, usually represent a needless, useless expenditure
+of time and money. It must be emphasized that Scientific Management
+can in no way be identified with "cost keeping," in the sense that
+is understood to mean aimlessly recording unrelated costs. Under
+Scientific Management costs are an ever-present by-product of the
+system, not a direct product.
+
+ RECORDS MUST LOWER COSTS AND SIMPLIFY WORK.--The quantity of
+records that should be made depends on the amount, diversity and
+state of development of the work done. No record should be made,
+which does not, directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs or in
+some way increase efficiency. The purpose of the records, as of
+Scientific Management in general, is to simplify work. Only when
+this is recognized, can the records made be properly judged.
+Numerous as they may at times seem to be, their number is determined
+absolutely by the satisfactory manner in which they--
+
+ 1. Reduce costs.
+ 2. Simplify work.
+ 3. Increase efficiency.
+
+ RECORDS OF WORK AND WORKERS.--Records may be of the work or of
+the worker[2]--that is to say, of material used, tools used, output
+produced, etc., or of individual efficiency, in one form or another.
+Records of efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and of
+managers, and a record may be made of any man in several capacities;
+for example, a record is kept of a functional foreman in the form of
+the work of the men who are under him, while another record might be
+kept of him as a worker himself; for example, the time being taken
+that it took him to teach others their duties, the time to learn
+what was to be done on any new work, etc.
+
+ RECORDS OF INITIATIVE.--Records of initiative are embodied in
+the Suggestion Card. Even under advanced Traditional Management the
+cards are furnished to the men upon which to write any ideas as to
+improvements. These suggestions are received, and, if accepted,
+are rewarded.
+
+ Under Scientific Management such suggestions become more
+valuable, for, as has been shown, they are based upon standards;
+thus if accepted, they signify not only a real, but a permanent
+improvement. Their greatest value, however, is in the stimulus that
+they furnish to the worker, in the information that they furnish the
+management as to which workers are interested, and in the spirit of
+cooeperation that they foster.
+
+ The worker receives not only a money-reward, but also publicity,
+for it is made known which worker has made a valuable suggestion.
+This indicates that the worker has shown good judgment. His interest
+is thus stimulated, his attention is held to his work, and the habit
+of initiative comes to him. That this habit of initiative can be
+fostered, is shown by the actual fact that in many sorts of work the
+same man constantly makes suggestions. It becomes a habit with him
+to look for the new way, and as he is constantly rewarded, the
+interest is not allowed to diminish.
+
+ RECORDS OF GOOD BEHAVIOR.--Records of good behavior are
+incorporated in the White List File. The White List File contains
+the names of all men who have ever been employed who merit a
+recommendation, if they should go to work for others, and would
+deserve to be given work as soon as possible, if they came back.
+This White List File should be filled out with many details, but
+even if it contains nothing but a record of the names, and the
+addresses where the men can be reached when new work starts up, it
+has a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, again, the
+element of permanence; there is a place for individuality, and not
+only does the manager have the satisfaction of actually having this
+list, and of using it, but a feeling that his men know that he is in
+some way recognizing them, and endeavoring to make them and their
+good work permanent.
+
+ RECORDS OF ACHIEVEMENT.--Records of achievement vary with the
+amount and nature of the work done. Such records are, as far as
+possible, marked upon programmes.
+
+ RECORDS MADE BY WORKER WHERE POSSIBLE.--Wherever possible the
+worker makes his own records. Even when this is not advisable he is
+informed of his record at as short intervals as are practicable.[3]
+
+ RECORDS MADE ON THE "EXCEPTION PRINCIPLE."--Much time is saved
+by separating records for the inspection of the man above, simply
+having him examine the exceptions to some desired condition,--the
+records which are exceptionally good, the records which are
+exceptionally bad. This not only serves as a reward to the man who
+has a good record, and a punishment for the man who has had a bad
+record, but it also enables the manager to discover at once what is
+wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy it.
+
+ The value of the exception principle can hardly be
+overestimated. It would be of some value to know of exceptionally
+good or poor work, even if the cause were not known. At least one
+would be made to observe the signpost of success or of danger. But,
+under Scientific Management, the cause appears simultaneously with
+the fact on the record,--thus not only indicating the proper method
+of repeating success, or avoiding failure, in the future, but also
+showing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause to effect,
+to the worker himself.
+
+ THIS DISCUSSION NECESSARILY INCOMPLETE.--The records mentioned
+above are only a few of the types of records under Scientific
+Management. Discussion has been confined to these, because they have
+the most direct effect upon the mind of the worker and the manager.
+Possible records are too numerous, and too diverse, to be described
+and discussed in detail. They constitute a part of the "how" of
+Scientific Management,--the manner in which it operates. This is
+covered completely in the literature of Scientific Management,
+written by men who have made Scientific Management and its
+installation a life study. We need only further discuss the posting
+of records, and their effect.
+
+ POSTING OF RECORDS BENEFICIAL.--As has been already noted under
+Individuality, and must be again noted under Incentives, much
+benefit is derived from posting records, especially when these are
+of such a character, or are so posted, that the worker may see at a
+glance the comparative excellence of his results.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS OF RECORDS TO THE WORK.[4]--The results of recording are
+the same under all forms of management, if the records are correct.
+
+ Output increases where records are kept. Under Traditional
+Management there is the danger that pressure for quantity will
+affect quality, especially if insufficient records of the resultant
+quality are kept. Under Transitory and Scientific Management,
+quality is maintained or improved, both because previous records set
+the standard, and because following records exhibit the quality.
+
+ RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--James says, "A man's social use is the
+recognition which he gets from his mates. We are not only gregarious
+animals, liking to be liked in sight of our fellow, but we have an
+innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, and noticed favorably,
+by our kind. No more fiendish punishment could be devised, were such
+a thing physically possible, than that one should be turned loose in
+society and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof.
+If no one turned around when we entered, answered when we spoke or
+minded what we did, but if every person we met 'cut us dead' and
+acted as if we were non-existing things, a kind of rage and impotent
+despair would ere long well up in us, from which the cruelest bodily
+tortures would be a relief; for these would make us feel that,
+however bad might be our plight, we had not sunk to such a depth as
+to be unworthy of attention at all."[5] This recognition the worker
+gets partly through the records which are made of him.
+
+ SELF-KNOWLEDGE ATTAINED THROUGH RECORDS.--Through records of
+output, and especially through charts of such records, and timed
+motion-picture films, or micro-motion study pictures the worker may,
+if he be naturally observant, or if he be taught to observe, gain a
+fine knowledge of himself.
+
+ The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the relation of
+output to, for example,--drink of alcoholic beverages; to smoking;
+to food values; to nutrition; to family worries; and to other
+outside influences;--in fact, the effects of numerous different
+modes of living, are shown promptly to the worker in the form of
+records.
+
+ Two things should here be noted:
+
+ 1. The necessity of having more accurate records of the
+worker and the work, that the relation oL cause to effect may be
+more precise and authentic.
+
+ 2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, as well
+as after, he enters the industrial world, that he can better
+understand and utilize the lesson taught by his own records and
+those of others.
+
+ EDUCATIVE VALUE OF WORKER MAKING HIS OWN RECORD.--Under
+Scientific Management in its most highly developed form, the worker
+makes his own records on his return cards and hands them in. The
+worker thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them and by writing
+them down, what his records are, but he also realizes his individual
+position to-day compared to what it was yesterday, and compared to
+that of his fellows in the same line of work. Further, he gains
+accuracy, he gains judgment, he gains a method of attack. He
+realizes that, as the managers are more or less recorders, so also
+he, in recording himself, is vitally connected with the management.
+It is, after all, more or less an attitude of mind which he gains by
+making out these records himself. It is because of this attitude of
+mind, and of the value which it is to him, that he is made to make
+out his own record under the ultimate form of management, even
+though at times this may involve a sacrifice of the time in which he
+must do it, and although he may work slower than could a specialist
+at recording, who perhaps would, in spite of that, be paid less for
+doing the work.
+
+ EXACT KNOWLEDGE VALUABLE.--We cannot emphasize too often in this
+connection the far-reaching psychological effect upon the worker of
+exact knowledge of the comparative efficiency of methods. The value
+of this is seldom fully appreciated; for example, we are familiar
+with the many examples where the worker has been flattered until he
+believes that he cannot make mistakes or do inefficient work. This
+is most often found where the glowing compliments to the
+manufacturing department, found in the advertising pages of the
+magazine and in the praises sung in print by the publicity
+department, oftentimes ends in an individual overconfidence. This
+unjustified self-esteem is soon shattered by accurate comparative
+records.
+
+ On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and the sneers of
+the jealous, accompanied by such trite expressions as--"You can't
+teach an old dog new tricks," have often destroyed self-confidence
+in a worker, who, in the absence of accurate records of his
+efficiency, is trying to judge himself at new methods. The jibes and
+jokes at the new man at the new work, and especially at the
+experienced, efficient man at unfamiliar work cease, or at least are
+wholly impotent, so far as discouraging the man is concerned,
+provided the worker sees by the records of a true measuring device,
+or method, that his work compares favorably with others of the same
+experience, made under the same conditions.
+
+ DEFINITION OF PROGRAMME.--The word "programme" is defined by the
+Century Dictionary as "a method of operation or line of procedure
+prepared or announced beforehand. An outline or abstract of
+something to be done or carried out."
+
+ TWO MEANINGS OF "PROGRAMME" IN MANAGEMENT.--The word "programme"
+has two meanings in management.
+
+ 1. the work, as it comes to the management to be done
+ 2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, and handed
+ over to the worker to be done.
+
+ Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, the plan which
+the planning department lays out and hands over for the performers,
+or the workers, to do.
+
+ UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO ACCURATE PROGRAMME IS
+POSSIBLE.--Under Traditional Management the plan is at best a
+repetition of records of unscientifically planned work. The most
+that the managers can hope to do is to lay out the time in which
+they expect, after consulting previous elapsed time records, the
+work to be done. Methods are not prescribed, so there is no
+assurance that the calendar will be followed, for the times are set
+by guess, or at best by referring to old unscientifically made
+records.
+
+ UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT CALENDARS CAN BE DESIGNED.--Under
+Transitory Management, with the introduction of systems, that is,
+records of how the work has been done best at various times, come
+methods and a possibility of a more exact calendar. There is some
+likelihood under Transitory System of the work being done on time,
+as the method has been considered and, in many cases, is specified.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ACCURATE CALENDARS POSSIBLE.--Under
+Scientific Management programmes are based on accurate records
+scientifically made and standardized, and a calendar may be made
+that can be conformed to with exactness.
+
+ PROGRAMMES A MATTER OF ROUTING.--The problems of a programme
+under Scientific Management are two, both problems of routing:--
+
+ 1. to route materials to the work place.
+ 2. to route the worker to the placed materials.
+
+ At first glance it might seem simpler to consider the worker as
+static and the materials as in motion. The "routing" of the worker
+is really often not a question of motion at all, as the worker, if
+he were operating a machine, for example, would not change his
+position between various pieces of work--except to rest from
+fatigue--enough to be considered. The word "routing" is used
+figuratively as regards the worker. He is considered as transported
+by the management through the day's work.
+
+ But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, programmes
+must so plan out the progress of each, in detail, for as many days
+ahead as possible, that the most efficient outcome will ensue.
+
+ ROUTING OF WORK.--The work is routed through schedules of
+materials to buy, schedules of material to handle, and schedules of
+labor to be performed. The skilled worker finds all the materials
+for his work ready and waiting for him when he arrives at the task,
+this being provided for by programmes made out many tasks ahead.
+
+ ROUTING OF WORKERS.--The workers themselves are routed by means
+of the route sheet, route chart, pin plan and bulletin board.
+
+ The devices for laying out the work of the workers appeal to the
+imagination as well as the reason. The route chart is a graphical
+representation of a large river, starting with the small
+stream,--the first operation, gathering to itself as the
+tributaries, the various other operations,--till it reaches its full
+growth, the completed work.
+
+ The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a worker, or
+work place, and following his progress on a plan of the work,
+presents a bird's-eye view in miniature of the entire working force;
+and the bulletin board, with its cards that represent work ahead,
+not only eliminates actual delay of shifting from one task to
+another, but permits studying out one task while doing another, and
+also destroys all fear of delay between jobs.
+
+ IMPOSSIBILITY OF DESCRIBING ROUTING DEVICES ACCURATELY.--These
+routing devices might all be described at length, but no description
+could do them justice. A visit to a shop, or factory, or other
+industrial organization operating under Scientific Management is
+necessary, in order to appreciate not only their utility, but the
+interest that they arouse. These programmes are no dead, static
+things. They are alive, pulsing, moving, progressing with the
+progress of the work.
+
+ PROPHECY BECOMES POSSIBLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The
+calendar, or chronological chart, becomes a true prophecy of what
+will take place. This is based on the standardized elementary units,
+and the variations from it will be so slight as to allow of being
+disregarded.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS OF PROGRAMME TO THE WORK.--Under Traditional Management
+the tentative calendar might cause speed, but could not direct
+speed. Under Transitory Management elimination of waste by
+prescribed methods and routing increases output. This increase
+becomes greater under Scientific Management. Standardized routing
+designs the shortest paths, the least wasteful sequence of events,
+the most efficient speed, the most fitting method. The result is
+more and better work.
+
+ RESULTS OF PROGRAMMES TO THE WORKER.--A programme clarifies the
+mind, is definite. The Traditional worker was often not sure what he
+had better do next. The worker under Scientific Management knows
+exactly what he is to do, and where and how he is to do it.
+
+ The attention is held, a field of allied interests are provided
+for possible lapses, as are also methods for recalling attention.
+
+ The programme provides for a look ahead, and the relief that
+comes from seeing the path before one. This ability to foresee also
+leads to a feeling of stability. The knowledge that there is a large
+amount of work ahead, ready to be attacked with no delay, eliminates
+anxiety as to future employment. This allows of concentration on the
+work in hand, and a feeling that, this work being properly done, one
+is free to turn to the next piece of work with the absolute
+assurance that what has been done will be satisfactory.
+
+ RELATION BETWEEN RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES.--No discussion of
+records and programmes would be complete that did not consider the
+relation between them.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF THIS RELATION.--The relation between records and
+programmes in the various types of management is most important, for
+the progress from one type to another may be studied as exemplified
+in the change in these relations.
+
+ A BROADENING OF THE DEFINITIONS.--In order to understand more
+plainly the complexity of this relation, we will not confine
+ourselves here to the narrower definition of a record as a written
+account, but will consider it to mean a registering of an experience
+in the mind, whether this expresses itself in a written record or
+not, A programme will, likewise, be a mental plan.
+
+ MANY POSSIBLE TYPES OF RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES.--In order to
+understand the number of different types of records and programmes
+that can be made for a worker, the table that follows may be
+examined (Table I). It exemplifies twelve possible records and
+twelve possible programmes.
+
+
+ TABLE I
+
+ / /
+ | |1. unconscious record
+ | |2. conscious record,
+ /1. Man -----| | not written
+ | working | |3. written record
+ | for | |4. standardized record
+ | himself \ \
+I. |
+RECORDS----| /1. unconscious record
+ | |2. conscious record, not written
+ | /(a) One of a ---|3. written record
+ | | gang |4. standardized record
+ | | \ /(a) made by man
+ \2. Man -----| |(b) " " manager
+ working | /1. unconscious |(a) made by man
+ for | | record |(b) " " manager
+ another | |2. conscious -|(a) made by man
+ | | record, |(b) " " manager
+ \(b) Individual -| not written |(a) made by man
+ output |3. written |(b) " " manager
+ | record |(a) made by man
+ |4. standardize \(b) " " manager
+ \ record
+
+
+
+ /
+ |1. unconscious programme
+ /1. Man ------------------|2. conscious programme
+ | working |3. written programme
+ | for |4. standardized programme
+ | himself \
+II. |
+PROGRAMMES-|
+ | /1. unconscious /(a) made by man
+ | /(a) One of a ---| programme |(b) " " manager
+ | | gang |2. conscious |(a) made by man
+ | | | programme, |(b) " " manager
+ \2. Man --| | not written -|(a) made by man
+ working | |3. written |(b) " " manager
+ for | | programme |(a) made by man
+ another \(b) Individual -|4. standardized |(b) " " manager
+ output | programme |(a) made by man
+ \ \(b) " " manager
+
+
+
+ INTERRELATION OF THESE TYPES.--The man is classified first, as
+working for himself, or working for another. There will usually be a
+fundamental difference, at the outset, in the minds of these two
+men, for the man working for himself will be of a more independent
+cast of thought. There will be no question as to the man's output
+showing up separately, unless he chooses to prevent this by having
+others work with him. Neither will there be any question but that,
+if a record is made, he makes it himself, unless someone who is not
+vitally connected with the work, as some onlooker, interested or
+disinterested, should make the records for him. But the typical case
+of the man working for himself would be that he was working as an
+individual, and that the record was made by himself. There would
+then be four kinds of records--an unconscious record, a conscious
+record not written, a written record and a standardized record. The
+"unconscious record" would be, in reality, no record at all. It
+would simply be, that somewhere in the man's mind there would be a
+record of what he had done, which, except as a "fringe of
+consciousness" would not particularly influence his programme. What
+we mean by a "conscious record" would be more of a set habit, the
+man knowing that he had done the work in a certain way. This would
+begin to influence, more or less, his programme, and also his
+knowledge of his capacity for work. With a written record, would
+come a thorough knowledge on his part of what he had done and how he
+had done it, and we must note that with this written record comes
+the possibility for some sort of a set programme, the man knowing
+what it will be possible to do, and how he had best do it. With the
+standardized record comes the standardized method.
+
+ RELATIONSHIPS COMPLEX.--When we consider the man working for
+another, he may either be one of a gang, or one whose work is
+considered as that of an individual. In either case, any of the four
+sorts of records can be made of his work that have been already
+described for the man working for himself. Each one of these records
+may be made by the man, or by the management; for with the man
+working for another, naturally the second mind, that of the other,
+or the manager, enters in, and a great many more combinations
+are possible.
+
+ For example,--there might be an unconscious record made by the
+man and a conscious record, or a written record, made by the
+manager. There might be a conscious record made by the man, but an
+unconscious or a written record made by the manager, etc. There are
+too many combinations made to be here considered. Each one of these
+combinations would have a definite and a different effect, both upon
+the mind of the man, and upon the mind of the manager; and also upon
+their relation to each other. The second half of this chart is
+similar, but treats of programmes, as many variables enter here.
+
+ It may be thought that the details of the preceding chart and
+the three following charts are uninteresting, obvious, and show too
+many possible combinations. If this be so, then it is most necessary
+to include them to illustrate the conditions that are passed through
+and slipped back into too often in our schools, our apprenticeship
+and in all but the best of managements.
+
+ The outline of advancement must be known and recognized if the
+quality of teaching, efficiency, and management is to be graded in
+its right class.
+
+ When we consider that each type of record bears a relation to
+each type of programme, the complexity of the problems involved
+become apparent. This will be better shown in Table II.
+
+
+ TABLE II
+
+ 1. Unconscious record, unconscious programme.
+ 2. Conscious record, unconscious programme.
+ 3. Unconscious record, conscious programme.
+ 4. Conscious record, conscious programme.
+ I. Man working 5. Unconscious record, written programme.
+ for himself. 6. Written record, unconscious programme.
+ 7. Conscious record, written programme.
+ 8. Written record, conscious programme.
+ 9. Written record, written programme.
+ 10. Standardized record, standardized programme.
+
+ ILLUSTRATION OF THIS COMPLEXITY.--Table II represents the man
+working for himself, with subdivisions under it showing the possible
+relationship between his record and his programme. We find that
+these are at least ten, reaching all the way from the unconscious
+record and unconscious programme of the migrating transitory laborer
+to the standardized record and the standardized programme of the
+manager who manages himself scientifically.
+
+ Each one of these represent a distinct psychological stage. The
+progression may not be regular and smooth as is here given,--it may
+be a jump, possibly even from one to nine. It may, however, be a
+slow progression from one stage to another, largely to be determined
+by the type of mind that is considered, and the opportunities for
+development along scientific lines which are afforded. It is the
+writer's intention to discuss these at length at some other time.
+Here it is only possible to enumerate, in order to show the size and
+complexity of the problem which is here involved.
+
+ The table does not indicate, as perhaps it should, the fact that
+the relationship between an unconscious record and an unconscious
+programme is slight, while the relation between a written programme
+and a written record is very close indeed. In Table IV this will
+be indicated.
+
+
+ TABLE III
+
+ 1. One of a gang, unconscious
+ record, unconscious programme,
+ on part of both
+ manager and man.
+II. Man working
+ for another.
+ 2. Individual output,--standardized
+ record and programme,
+ known to, or made by, both
+ manager and man.
+
+ ELIMINATION OF WASTE POSSIBLE.--The third table--that of the man
+working for another man--attempts to do no more than indicate the
+first and last step of a long series, beginning with the man, one of
+a gang, an unconscious record, and an unconscious programme, on the
+part of both the manager and the man, down to the final stage of
+individual output, with the written record and programme known to
+both manager and man. It would be a most interesting problem to work
+out the various steps stretching between these two, and the various
+ways in which progression might be made through these steps, either
+taking one step after another slowly or making the various possible
+jumps long and short. A psychological discussion of each step would
+be of value, and certainly must in time be made, but this book has
+not the scope, nor can the time be devoted to such a discussion.
+
+ If this third chart had no other purpose, it would be useful to
+suggest to the student the wide tracts which still remain for study
+and development. It must not be thought that any of the steps
+omitted on this chart are not in existence. Every single possible
+combination of record and programme is in existence to-day, and must
+be studied by the manager of men. Not until these are all
+discovered, described, and standardized, the progression noted,
+and standard progressions outlined, can methods of least waste
+be adopted.
+
+ With a more thorough experimental study of the mind will come a
+possible prediction as to which stages the various types of mind
+must pass through. So, too, with the training of the young mind in
+the primary schools and in the methods of Scientific Management,
+will come the elimination of many stages now necessary, and the
+possibility, even, that the final stage may be introduced at the
+outset, and the enormous waste of time, energy and wearing of
+unnecessary brain paths be absolutely abolished.
+
+ THE PROGRAMME DERIVED FROM THE RECORD.--Having considered the
+various records and programmes and their relation, we will now
+consider the four stages of the record,--(1) unconscious, (2)
+conscious, (3) written, (4) standardized, and trace the derivation
+of the programme from each stage.
+
+
+ TABLE IV
+============================================================
+ I. Record unconscious. Programme cannot be definite.
+ Method is indefinite.
+============================================================
+ II. Record conscious. Programme becomes more definite.
+ Method becomes more definite.
+============================================================
+III. Record written. Programme yet more definite.
+ Method definite.
+============================================================
+ IV. Record standardized. Programme standardized, i.e.,
+ Results predictable.
+ Methods standard.
+============================================================
+
+ UNCONSCIOUS RECORDS MEAN INDEFINITE PROGRAMMES.--First, then,
+suppose that the records are unconscious. What does this imply? It
+implies in the first place that the worker has no idea of his
+capacity; never having thought of what he has done, he has no idea
+what can be done, neither has he a comparative idea of methods, that
+is, of how to do it. It is impossible for a definite programme to be
+laid out by such a worker,--that is to say, no predictions by him as
+to the time of completing the work are possible. Neither could a
+method be derived by him from his previous work.
+
+ Note here the alarming amount of waste. All good methods which
+the worker may possibly have acquired are practically lost to the
+world, and perhaps also to him. Not only this, but all bad methods
+which he has fallen into will be fallen into again and again, as
+there are no warning signs to keep him out of them.
+
+ As there is no possibility of an accurate chronological chart,
+the worker may undertake more than he can do, thus delaying work
+which should have been done by others. On the other hand, he may
+underestimate his capacity, and be left idle because work he should
+have done has been assigned to others. Either of these leads to a
+sense of insecurity, to wavering attention, to "hit or miss" guess
+work, "rule-of-thumb methods," which are the signs of Traditional
+Management.
+
+ WITH CONSCIOUS AND WRITTEN RECORDS COME DEFINITE PROGRAMMES.--We
+turn now to the case where the record is conscious,--that is, where
+the worker keeps in mind exactly what he has done. With this
+conscious record the idea of capacity develops. The man realizes
+what he can do. So also, the idea of method develops, and the man
+realizes how he can do the work. Third, there comes gradually an
+idea of a margin; that is, of a possible way by which capacity can
+be increased for a higher speed, or methods can be slightly varied
+to meet any particular deviation in the work to be done.
+
+ From this ability to estimate capacity, and to plan the method
+ahead, comes the ability to lay out a more definite programme. When
+the record becomes written the exactness of the programme increases.
+Methods also become written, and, though accurate prediction is not
+possible, such prediction is more and more nearly approached. This
+increasing accuracy is the work of Transitory System in all its
+stages.
+
+ STANDARD RECORDS PERMIT OF STANDARD PROGRAMMES.--In the last
+case, the record is standardized, that is, the result of the method
+of processes of analysis and synthesis. Through this process, as has
+been shown, the reason for success is discovered and rendered
+usable. The programme becomes standard, results can be predicted
+accurately, and methods by which these results can be best obtained
+are also standard.
+
+ It may at first escape notice that these standardized records,
+of the ultimate or scientific management type, imply _not_ a greater
+rigidity, but a greater elasticity. This because of the nature of
+the elements of the records, which may, in time, be combined into a
+great number of different, predictable programmes.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS OF RELATIONS BETWEEN RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES ON THE
+WORK.--The most noteworthy result of the closer relations between
+records and programmes which appear during the evolution of
+Scientific Management is the fact that they cause constant
+simplification. The more carefully records are standardized, the
+simpler becomes the drafting of the programme. As more and more
+records become standard, the drafting of programmes becomes
+constantly an easier and cheaper process.
+
+ PROGRAMMES BECOME RECORDS.--Under Traditional Management the
+record that follows a programme may appear very different from the
+programme. Under Scientific Management the record that follows a
+programme most closely resembles the programme. Improvements are not
+made between the programme and the following record,--they find
+their place between the record and the following programme. Thus
+programmes and records may be grouped in pairs, by similarity, with
+a likelihood of difference between any one pair (one programme plus
+one record) and other pairs.
+
+ RESULT ON THE WORKER.--The greatest effect, on the worker, of
+these relations of record to programme under Scientific Management
+is the confidence that he gains in the judgment that is an outcome
+of Scientific Management. When the worker sees that Scientific
+Management makes possible accurate predictions of times, schedules,
+tasks, and performance; that the methods prescribed invariably
+enable him to achieve prescribed results, his confidence in
+Scientific Management grows. So also does the manager's confidence
+in Scientific Management grow,--and in this mutual confidence in the
+system of management is another bond of sympathy.
+
+ The place left for suggestions and improvements, in the
+ever-present opportunities to better standards, fulfills that
+longing for a greater efficiency that is the cause of progress.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII FOOTNOTES: =============================================
+
+ 1. Gillette and Dana, _Cost Keeping and Management Engineering_,
+ p. 65.
+ 2. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., page 2.
+ 3. Gillette and Dana, _Cost Keeping and Management Engineering_,
+ p. VII.
+ 4. H.L. Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., p. 1336.
+ 5. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 179.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ TEACHING
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF TEACHING.--The Century Dictionary defines
+"teaching" as "the act or business of instructing," with synonyms:
+"training" and "education;" and "to teach" is defined:--
+
+ 1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct,
+ explain;"
+ 2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;"
+ 3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in
+ learning, educate."
+
+ "Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically,
+to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant
+"to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the
+same authority, "is to develop mentally or morally by instruction;
+to qualify by instruction and training for the business and duty
+of life."
+
+ UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO DEFINITE PLAN OF TEACHING.--
+Under Traditional Management there is either no definite scheme of
+teaching by the management itself, or practically none; at least,
+this is usually the condition under the most elementary types of
+Traditional Management. In the very highest examples of the
+traditional plan the learner may be shown how, but this showing is
+not usually done in a systematic way, and under so-called
+Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written
+instructions.
+
+ NO SPECIFIED TIME FOR OR SOURCE OF THE TEACHING.--Under
+Traditional Management there is no particular time in which this
+teaching goes on, no particular time allowed for the worker to ask
+for the instruction, nor is there any particular source from which
+he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, almost every
+hindrance against his getting any more instruction than he
+absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to
+whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge
+him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an
+apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next
+to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact
+bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary advantage
+of any particular person to give this teaching. In the first place,
+if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own work
+without interruption, he will not want to take the time off;
+moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or less of a trade
+secret, and desires to educate no more people than necessary, to be
+as clever as he is. In the third place, there is no possible reward
+for giving this instruction. Of course, the worker necessarily
+improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a receptive mind,
+or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, either by
+teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how haphazard.
+
+ GREAT VARIATION UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Only discussion
+of teaching under this type of management with many men who have
+learned under it, can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be
+found. But the consensus of opinion would seem to prove that an
+apprentice of only a generation ago was too often hazed, was
+discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to the workers
+near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature
+for home-study on the subject of his trade. The experience of many
+an apprentice was, doubtless, different from this, but surely the
+mental attitude of the journeymen who were the only teachers must
+have tended toward some such resulting attitude of doubt or
+hesitancy in the apprentice.
+
+ MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKER-TEACHER.--Under the old plan of
+management, the apprentice must appear to the journeyman more or
+less of a supplanter. From the employee's standpoint it was most
+desirable that the number of apprentices be kept down, as an
+oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in a lowering of
+wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was taught, the sooner
+he became an active competitor. There seldom existed under this type
+of management many staff positions to which the workers could hope
+to be promoted, certainly none where they could utilize to the
+fullest extent their teaching ability. There was thus every reason
+for a journeyman to regard the teaching of apprentices as
+unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.
+
+ WORKER NOT TO BLAME FOR THIS.--The worker is not to be blamed
+for this attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it
+almost inevitable. Not only could he gain little or nothing by being
+a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was appealed to
+constantly, and the desire of the upper classmen in hazing days to
+make the next class "pay up" for the hazing that they were obliged
+to endure in their Freshman year.
+
+ ATTITUDE OF THE LEARNER.--The attitude of the typical learner
+must frequently be one of hesitancy and self-distrust if not of
+fear, though conditions were so varied as almost to defy
+classification. One type of apprentice was expected to learn merely
+by observation and imitation. Another was practically the chore boy
+of the worker who was assigned to teach him. A third was under no
+direct supervision at all, but was expected to "keep busy," finding
+his work by himself. A fourth was put through a severe and valuable
+training by a martinet teacher,--and so on.
+
+ TEACHING OFTEN PAINSTAKING.--It is greatly to the credit of the
+worker under this type of management that he was, in spite of all
+drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his
+lights. He insisted on application, and especially on quality of
+work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill to help the
+apprentice under him.
+
+ METHODS OF TEACHING USUALLY WRONG.--Unfortunately, through no
+fault of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually done according
+to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized that
+neither speed nor correct motions were given proper consideration.
+
+ TEACHER NOT TRAINED TO TEACH.--The reason for this was that the
+worker had no training to be a teacher. In the first place, he had
+no adequate idea of his own capabilities, and of which parts of his
+own method were fit to be taught. In the second place, he did not
+know that right motions must be insisted on first, speed next, and
+quality of output third; or in other words that if the motions were
+precise enough, the quality would be first. In the fourth place he
+had no pedagogical training.
+
+ LACK OF STANDARDS AN UNDERLYING LACK.--All shortcoming in the
+old time teaching may be traced to lack of standards. The worker had
+never been measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of
+possible efficiency. No standard methods made plain the manner in
+which the work should be done. Moreover, no standard division and
+assignment of work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of
+the work that quality could be given third place. No standard
+requirements had determined his fitness as a teacher, nor the
+specialty that he should teach, and no incentive held his interest
+to the teaching. These standards the worker-teacher could not
+provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teaching was of such
+a high character as it was.
+
+ VERY LITTLE TEACHING OF ADULTS.--Under Traditional Management,
+teaching of adults was slight,--there being little incentive either
+to teacher or to learner, and it being always difficult for an adult
+to change his method.[1] Moreover, it would be difficult for a
+worker using one method to persuade one using another that his was
+the better, there being no standard. Even if the user of the better
+did persuade the other to follow his method, the final result might
+be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer method that did
+not appear in the better.
+
+ FAILURE TO APPRECIATE THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING.--An
+underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of the
+lack of progress. This is so directly connected with all the other
+lacks of Traditional Management,--provision for adequate promotion
+and pay, standards, and the other underlying principles of
+Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of
+cooeperation,--that it is almost impossible to disentangle the
+reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to attempt to do so here.
+In considering teaching under Scientific Management we shall show
+the influence of the appreciation of teaching,--and may deduce the
+lacks from its non-appreciation, from that discussion.
+
+ UNDER TRANSITORY SYSTEM TEACHING BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT.--Under
+Transitory Management the importance of teaching becomes at once
+more apparent. This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen
+and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of
+written systems of instructions as to best practice. The worker has
+access to all the sources of information of Traditional Management,
+and has, besides these, in effect, unsystematically derived
+standards to direct him.
+
+ SYSTEMS MAKE INSTRUCTION ALWAYS AVAILABLE.--The use of written
+systems enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to
+feel free to ask it, and to follow it without feeling in any way
+humiliated.
+
+ The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided
+improvement in methods. If the written systems are used exclusively
+as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the
+Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely
+proportioned to the time which the man spends upon the studying and
+to the amount of receptive power which he naturally has.
+
+ INCENTIVES TO CONFORM TO SYSTEM.--The worker has incentives to
+follow the systems--
+
+ 1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for
+ permanent filing, for every disobedience of system.
+ 2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the
+ first bonus that is given is for doing work in accordance
+ with the prescribed method.
+
+ Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any
+slight reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must
+account for so doing, and that he will be considered to have
+"stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to
+account for deviations gives the man a feeling of responsibility for
+his act, and also makes him feel his close relationship with the
+managers.
+
+ NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.--There is, under this type of
+management, no set time for the study of the systems.
+
+ SYSTEMS INELASTIC.--Being written, these systems have all the
+disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they
+require considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is
+using them. He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time
+which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and
+adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions.
+In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find
+a fairly detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use
+that. In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work
+varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this
+intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows
+not where to obtain.
+
+ WASTE OF TIME FROM UNSTANDARDIZED SYSTEMS.--The time
+necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method is
+taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts
+down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the
+details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work
+must repeat the investigation.
+
+ LATER TRANSITIONAL MANAGEMENT EMPHASIZES USE OF
+STANDARDS.--Later Transitional Management eliminates this waste of
+time by standardizing methods composed of standardized timed units,
+thus both rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details.
+
+ TEACHING MOST IMPORTANT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Teaching
+is a most important element under Scientific Management not only
+because it increases industrial efficiency, but also because it
+fosters industrial peace.[2]
+
+ IMPORTANCE DEPENDS ON OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic
+idea the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization.
+This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an
+incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management
+divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and
+standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all
+knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all
+more than any could have alone. The importance of having this
+collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker
+cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able
+to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that
+provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages,--to increase
+his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to cooeperate
+with other workers and with the management.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ELEMENT BEST CLAIM TO PERMANENCE OF
+SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Upon the emphasis which it places on
+teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management
+for permanence.[3] We have already shown the derivation of the
+standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between
+the planning and performing departments is based largely on means
+and methods for teaching. We have only to show here that the
+teaching is done in accordance with those laws of Psychology that
+are the laws of Pedagogy.
+
+ TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOT THE RESULT OF THEORY
+ONLY.--The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not
+devised in response to theories of education. They are the result of
+actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The
+teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching,--all these grew up
+to meet needs, as did the other elements of Scientific Management.
+
+ CONFORMITY OF TEACHING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS PROOF OF WORTH OF
+SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The fact that teaching under Scientific
+Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of
+Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.
+
+ CHANGE FROM TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Mr. Gantt
+says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era
+of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the
+future will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage of all
+concerned."[4] This "driving" element of Traditional Management is
+eliminated by Scientific Management.
+
+ NECESSITY FOR PERSONALLY DERIVED JUDGMENT ELIMINATED.--So also
+is eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all
+possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best
+methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages of the
+training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seriously
+advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes of
+knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by
+reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial
+conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining,
+workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school
+training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training
+under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes
+of industrial investigation in which modern science has been
+successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is
+really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical
+formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be
+advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible
+mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that
+the student would be held back from any further original
+investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original
+work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is
+concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker
+is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself instead
+of taking the work of others as the starting point, the most
+valuable initiative will be lost to the world.
+
+ BAD HABITS THE RESULT OF UNDIRECTED LEARNING.--Even worse than
+the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad
+methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work;
+habits of inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are
+all prevented under Scientific Management by the improved methods
+of teaching.
+
+ VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVED.--There
+are, however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system
+of teaching and of management which should be retained and not be
+lost in the new.
+
+ For example,--the greatest single cause of making men capable
+under the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his
+men believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve it.
+
+ It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher
+under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost.
+The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a
+thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with
+confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means
+lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific
+Management.
+
+ TEACHING OF TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT SUPPLEMENTED.--In the
+transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that
+the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written
+system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory
+Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its usefulness is
+by no means impaired.
+
+ SCOPE OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific
+Management teaching must cover
+
+ 1. Teaching of right methods of doing work,
+ 2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.
+
+ The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be
+acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience all
+the elements of the judgment.
+
+ NEEDS FOR TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The needs for
+this teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.
+
+ 1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes.
+ 2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial
+ conditions to standardize his own methods.
+ 3. Worker must know standard practice.
+ 4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching.
+ 5. Right habits can be instilled.
+
+ SOURCES OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The sources of
+teaching under Scientific Management are
+
+ 1. Friends or Relatives }
+ 2. Fellow workers } If the worker chooses
+ 3. Literature of the Trade } to use them.
+ 4. Night schools and study }
+ 5. The Management. }
+
+ METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The Methods of
+Teaching under Scientific Management are
+
+ 1. Written, by means of
+
+ (a) Instruction Cards telling _what_ is to be done
+ and _how._
+ (b) Systems, explaining the _why._
+ (c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illustrating
+ methods.
+ (d) Records made by the worker himself.
+
+ 2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.
+
+ 3. Object-lessons:
+
+ (a) Exhibits.
+ (b) Working models.
+ (c) Demonstrations by the Teacher.
+ (d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.
+
+ WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.--It should be often stated
+that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a
+study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize
+this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and
+that the teachers are a _means_ of presenting to him the underlying
+principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to
+cooeperate with all his energy.
+
+ INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.--Instruction Cards are direct
+instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form,
+closely defined description of standard practice and directions as
+to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The
+makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately,
+therefore they strive constantly for clearness.
+
+ INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.--These
+Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his
+work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader,
+demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead
+to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for
+becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of
+attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect,
+even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]
+
+ SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.--"Systems" or standing
+orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of,
+the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards.
+There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of
+work.
+
+ THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.--Under really successful
+management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind,
+and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and
+his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless
+the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never
+reenforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his
+work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is
+made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the
+"why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason
+to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform
+absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that
+the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think
+at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method
+furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider
+his work.
+
+ DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING
+DIRECTIONS CLEARER.--The Instruction Cards are supplemented with
+drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion
+photographs,--any or all,--in order to make the directions of the
+Instruction Cards plainer.
+
+ STEREOSCOPIC AND MICRO-MOTION STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS PARTICULARLY
+USEFUL.--Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping
+non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as
+an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs
+of right methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.
+
+ The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph"
+as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action
+accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that shows such
+minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that
+will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will show
+a different time of day in each photograph. The difference in the
+time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of the desired
+motion operation or time unit.
+
+ SELF-MADE RECORDS EDUCATIVE.--The educative value of the
+worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently
+appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever
+possible.[6] Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking
+in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel
+himself a part of the record making division of the management. This
+proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and of the
+confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his cooeperation.
+
+ ORAL INSTRUCTION COMES FROM THE FUNCTIONAL FOREMEN.--The
+Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain,
+translate and supplement the various written instructions when the
+worker either does not understand them, does not know how to follow
+them, or makes a mistake in following them.
+
+ ORAL INSTRUCTION HAS ITS FITTING PLACE UNDER SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at
+least four advantages over such instruction under Traditional
+Management.
+
+ 1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction.
+ 2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction.
+ 3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions.
+ 4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner
+ needs it.
+
+ TEACHER, OR FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN, SHOULD UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGY AND
+PEDAGOGY.--The successful teacher must understand the minds of his
+men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that
+it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and
+pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously
+
+ 1. from the teaching of others,
+ 2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems,
+ 3. from actual practice in teaching.
+
+ The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to
+the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries
+in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become
+more and more prevalent.
+
+ ADVANTAGE OF FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN-TEACHER OVER TEACHER IN THE
+SCHOOLS.--The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the
+teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he
+teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how
+the worker must have his information presented to him. This gap is
+narrowed by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as
+a supplement to the written teaching, and by supplementing it with
+object-lessons.
+
+ TEACHER MUST HAVE PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRADE HE IS TO
+TEACH.--The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the
+art or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of
+Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery of the trade,
+as a condition precedent to turning out the best craftsmen. This is
+provided for by securing teachers from the ranks of the workers.[7]
+
+ HE MUST HAVE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE STANDARDS.--He must
+have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to
+teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from
+scientific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is ready and
+at hand, in the standards of Scientific Management that are
+available to all for study.
+
+ HE MUST BE CONVINCED OF THE VALUE OF THE METHODS HE
+TEACHES.--The teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with
+the records of output of the method he is to teach as compared with
+those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old
+methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in
+teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more than a
+salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in
+the goods that he is selling.
+
+ HE MUST BE AN ENTHUSIAST.--The best teacher is the one who is an
+enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause
+contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems
+themselves.
+
+ SUCH ENTHUSIASM CONTAGIOUS.--It is the contagion of this
+enthusiasm that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter
+how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device
+of management that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as
+here described, is conserved the personal element of the successful,
+popular Traditional foreman.
+
+ VALUABLE TEACHER INTERESTS MEN IN THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF
+SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The most valuable teacher is one who can
+arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values
+of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that
+would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished
+from their minds. They will then remember each step as it is
+introduced, and they will be consumed with interest and curiosity to
+know what further steps can be introduced, that will still further
+eliminate waste.
+
+ OBJECT-LESSON MAY BE "WORKING MODELS."--The object-lesson may be
+a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different
+stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be
+done. Successful and economical teaching may be done with such
+models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak
+the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform
+exactly similar work, or where the memory, the visualizing and the
+constructive imagination, are so poor that the models must be
+referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to those who
+take in information easiest through the eyes.
+
+ OBJECT-LESSONS MAY BE DEMONSTRATIONS BY THE TEACHER.--The
+teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by
+means of films showing synthesized right methods on the
+motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of
+teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new
+work,--though it calls for a better memory than does the "working
+model," The model, however, shows desired results; the
+demonstration, desired methods.
+
+ DEMONSTRATION METHOD CHIEF METHOD OF TEACHING BY FOREMEN.--The
+manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the
+workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is
+rated as standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the
+teacher, at any time, on request.
+
+ WORKER MAY DEMONSTRATE UNDER SUPERVISION.--If the worker is of
+that type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he
+is allowed to demonstrate the method under supervision of the
+teacher.[8]
+
+ TEACHING ALWAYS AVAILABLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under
+Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available
+constantly. The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are
+given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that
+he can consult them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if
+object-lessons are used, they are given before work commences, and
+repeated when necessary.
+
+ The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and
+the systems are constantly available for consultation.
+
+ METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGICALLY
+RIGHT.--In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management
+is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically
+right, that it leads to mental development and improvement. Under
+Scientific Management, teaching,--
+
+ 1. uses and trains the senses.
+ 2. induces good habits of thinking and acting.
+ 3. stimulates attention,
+ 4. provides for valuable associations.
+ 5. assists and strengthens the memory.
+ 6. develops the imagination.
+ 7. develops judgment.
+ 8. utilizes suggestion.
+ 9. utilizes "native reactions."
+ 10. develops the will.
+
+ TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TRAINS THE SENSES.--
+Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his
+senses possible. Not only does each man show an aptitude for some
+special sense training,[9] but at certain times one sense may be
+stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is
+illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when
+his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he
+recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain
+thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to
+one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.
+
+ Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed
+psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these
+periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to
+utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of
+training of the other senses.
+
+ SUCH TRAINING PARTIALLY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE WORK.--The
+importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through
+his senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to
+do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions
+made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimately
+follows, and the accuracy of his criticism of the resulting physical
+object of his work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own
+task, and inspects his work.
+
+ SENSE TRAINING INFLUENCES INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY.--With the
+training of the senses the possibility of increased efficiency
+increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum visable is
+reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.[10] They
+lead to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment.
+The bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to
+dispense with sight in some parts of his work.
+
+ SELECTIVE POWER OF SENSES DEVELOPED.--James defines the sense
+organs as "organs of selection."[11] Scientific Management so trains
+them that they can select what is of most value to the worker.
+
+ METHODS OF SENSE TRAINING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The
+senses are trained under Scientific Management by means of the
+various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed
+descriptions of operations, and its accompanying illustrations, not
+only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the
+close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The
+"visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of
+supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available
+simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to assist visualizing
+is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves
+its purpose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the
+third dimension always.
+
+ Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by
+the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not
+confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker
+and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will
+merit a bonus.
+
+ SENSES THAT ARE MOST UTILIZED BEST TRAINED.--The relative
+training given to the various senses depends on the nature of the
+work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with
+an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on
+training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis is
+on such training as will develop that sense.[12]
+
+ VARIATIONS IN SENSE POWER SHOULD BE UTILIZED.--Investigations
+are constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at
+a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa
+Montessori's experience with teaching very young children by touch
+shows that that sense is able to discriminate to an extraordinary
+extent for the first six years of life.[13]
+
+ So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or
+experience should be conserved.[14] Such acuteness is often the
+result of some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish
+with the need.
+
+ PROGRESS IN SUCH TRAINING.--The elementary sense experiences are
+defined and described by Calkins.[15] Only through a psychological
+study can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of
+study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many
+opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the
+standardizing of elements, and the realization of the importance of
+more and more intensive study of the elements lends assurance that
+ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.
+
+ AS MANY SENSES AS POSSIBLE APPEALED TO.--Scientific Management
+has made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible
+in its teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses
+is brought out by Prof. Stratton.[16]
+
+ In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate
+and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses
+simultaneously. The instruction card may be
+
+ 1. read to oneself silently--eyes appealed to
+ 2. read to oneself aloud--eyes and ears appealed to, also
+ muscles used trained to repeat
+ 3. read aloud to one--ears
+ 4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one,--
+ eyes and ears
+ 5. read aloud, and at the same time copied--eyes, ears,
+ muscles of mouth, muscles of hand
+ 6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated
+ 7. read to one while process is performed by oneself
+
+ There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which
+are used, as best suits the worker and the work.[17]
+
+ UNTRAINED WORKER REQUIRES APPEAL TO MOST SENSES.--The value of
+appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced
+worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up"
+his results.
+
+ AT TIMES APPEAL TO BUT ONE SENSE PREFERABLE.--In the case of
+work that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous
+processes, it may prove best to have directions read to the worker.
+So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to
+the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of members to
+rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in through the ears
+only. In this way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the work
+is not halted.
+
+ AT TIMES ONE SENSE IS BEST NOT UTILIZED.--At times teaching may
+well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to
+confuse the learning, and will, when the method is learned, be
+otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In
+teaching the "touch system" of typewriting,[18] the position of the
+keys is quickly remembered by having the key named aloud and at the
+same time struck with the assigned finger, the eyes being
+blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger
+muscles, but _not_ sight.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE RECOGNIZED.--A large part of the success
+of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in
+the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early
+recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from all
+those interested in Scientific Management.
+
+ PSYCHOLOGY ALREADY AIDING THE INDUSTRIES IN SUCH STUDY.--Study
+of the _Psychological Review_ will demonstrate the deep and
+increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The
+importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by
+Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is
+great.[19] Not only are the results of his investigations
+commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the
+close connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF HABITS.[20]--Prof. William James says "an acquired
+habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new
+pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming
+currents ever after tend to escape."
+
+ And again,--"First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them
+accurate, and diminishes fatigue,"[21] and habit diminishes the
+conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Again he
+says, page 144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make
+our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund
+and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest
+of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early
+as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the
+growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we
+should guard against the plague."
+
+ These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.
+
+ How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the
+fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his school
+life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, write
+and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything
+but German.
+
+ HABIT EASILY BECOMES THE MASTER.--Another illustration of the
+power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained
+under old-time methods, and who attempts to follow the packet
+method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks
+from the packet are entirely different from those for picking up the
+lower row. The bricklayers were taught this, yet invariably used the
+old-time motions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste
+involved.[22]
+
+ WRONG PRECONCEIVED IDEAS HAMPER DEVELOPMENT.--Wrong habits or
+ideas often retard development. For example, it took centuries for
+artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were
+sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.[23]
+
+ TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESULTS IN GOOD
+HABITS.--The aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has
+been said, is to create good habits of thinking and good habits of
+doing.
+
+ STANDARDS LEAD TO RIGHT METHODS OF THINKING AND ACTING.--The
+standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in
+the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the
+best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in
+that he need waste no time searching for right methods, but can
+acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker trained under an
+older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against
+old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which
+tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which
+suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring
+of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention
+and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the
+expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other
+hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard
+method is the cause of greater speed of movement of the experienced
+man, and these images of the standard methods do recur often enough
+to drive down the old images and to enable all men who desire, to
+settle down and concentrate upon what they are doing.
+
+ THROUGH STANDARDS BAD HABITS ARE QUICKEST BROKEN.--Through the
+standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new
+habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception,
+and is continually practiced until the new habit is in control.[24]
+
+ THROUGH STANDARDS NEW HABITS ARE QUICKEST FORMED.--These same
+standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming
+of habits, in that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so
+by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.
+
+ HABITS ARE INSTILLED BY TEACHING.--The chief function of the
+teacher during the stage that habits are being formed is the
+instilling of good habits.
+
+ METHODS OF INSTILLING GOOD HABITS.--This he does by
+insisting on
+
+ 1. right motions first, that is to say,--the right number
+ of right motions in the right sequence.
+ 2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly
+ increasing speed.
+ 3. constantly improving quality.[25]
+
+ THIS METHOD IS CONTRARY TO MOST OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--Under most
+old-time practice the quality of the work was the first
+consideration, the quantity of work the second, and the methods of
+achieving the results the third.
+
+ RESULTS OF OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--As a result, the mechanical
+reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the improved
+habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse
+of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and low output
+followed.
+
+ SOME EARLY RECOGNITION OF "RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST."--The necessity
+of teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few
+progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example,
+see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton,
+also page 51.
+
+ Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These
+directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to
+the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.
+
+ BENEFITS OF TEACHING RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST.--Through teaching
+right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right
+habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these
+right habits that result from right motions, will come, naturally,
+an increase in speed, which should be fostered until the desired
+ultimate speed is reached.
+
+ ULTIMATELY, STANDARD QUALITY WILL RESULT.--The result of
+absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality,
+because the standard motions prescribed were chosen because they
+best produced the desired result.
+
+ UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NO LOSS FROM QUALITY DURING
+LEARNING.--As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides
+that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of the work
+during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can
+be said to produce such work as could a learner taught where quality
+was insisted upon first of all, is more than compensated for by the
+ultimate combination of speed and quality gained.
+
+ RESULTS OF TEACHING THE RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST ARE
+FAR-REACHING.--There is no more important subject in this book on
+the Psychology of Management than this of teaching right motions
+first. The most important results of Scientific Management can all,
+in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the
+underlying spirit of cooeperation which, as we shall show in
+"Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific
+Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the
+cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right habits,
+which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are the
+result of insisting that right motions be used from the very
+beginning of the first day.
+
+ FROM RIGHT HABITS OF MOTION COMES SPEED OF MOTIONS.--
+Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion.
+Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of
+motions is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make
+them in the shortest time possible.
+
+ RESPONSE TO STANDARDS BECOMES ALMOST AUTOMATIC.--The standard
+methods, being associated from the start with right habits of
+motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There are no
+discarded habits to delay response.
+
+ STEADY NERVES RESULT.--Oftentimes the power to refrain from
+action is quite as much a sign of education and training as the
+power to react quickly from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in
+some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of right habits is a great
+aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught
+the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any
+suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man
+who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick,
+will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all,
+are merely an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is
+going on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling that
+brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or not.
+
+ REASON AND WILL ARE EDUCATED.--"The education of hand and muscle
+implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the
+cooerdination of movements accompanies the cooerdination of
+thoughts."[26]
+
+ The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle;
+the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves
+the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.
+
+ JUDGMENT RESULTS WITH NO WASTE OF TIME.--Judgment is the outcome
+of learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way.
+There is none of the lost time of "trying out" various methods that
+exists under Traditional Management.
+
+ This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to
+decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but
+also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of different
+workers.
+
+ This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in
+promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of
+the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to
+estimate and judge the work of others.
+
+ HABITS OF ATTENTION FORMED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The good
+habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits
+of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective
+attitude,"[27] by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The
+conditions under which the work is done, and the incentives for
+doing it, provide that the attention shall be "lively and
+prolonged."
+
+ PRESCRIBED MOTIONS AFFORD RHYTHM AND AESTHETIC PLEASURE.--The
+prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and
+that are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the
+attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof.
+Stratton describes it, in a different connection.[28] So also the
+"perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the direction of
+a guiding law, and which "obey the will absolutely,"[29] give an
+aesthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention.
+
+ INSTRUCTION CARD CREATES AND HOLDS ATTENTION.--As has been
+already said in describing the instruction card under Standardization,
+it was designed as a result of investigations as to what would
+best secure output,--to attract and hold the attention.[30]
+Providing, as it does, all directions that an experienced worker is
+likely to need, he can confine his attention solely to his work and
+his card; usually, after the card is once studied, to his work
+alone. The close relation of the elements of the instruction card
+affords a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new
+elements that are constantly made apparent.
+
+ ORAL INDIVIDUAL TEACHING FOSTERS CONCENTRATED ATTENTION.--The
+fact that under Scientific Management oral teaching is individual,
+not only directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon
+what he is being taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction
+from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or embarrassment
+in talking before a crowd.
+
+ THE BULLETIN BOARD FURNISHES THE ELEMENT OF CHANGE.--In order
+that interest or attention may be held, there must be provision for
+allied subjects on which the mind is to wander. This, under
+Scientific Management, is constantly furnished by the collection of
+jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks piled up ahead upon this
+bulletin board provide a needed and ready change for the subject of
+attention or interest, which conserves the economic value of
+concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future
+tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention to
+rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or
+forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the
+"stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is
+installed. When the scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the
+mind is doing its best work, for, while the standardized extreme
+subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison of the ultimate unit,
+and groupings of units of future tasks are often helps in achieving
+the present tasks, without such a definite orderly scheme for
+shifting the attention and interest, the attention will shift to
+useless subjects, and the result will be scattered.
+
+ INCENTIVES MAINTAIN INTEREST.--The knowledge that a prompt
+reward will follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that
+this reward is sure concentrates attention and thus maintains
+interest.
+
+ In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that
+the worker sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to
+the advantage of the management, as well as to his advantage, that
+he also be promoted,--this also maintains interest in the work.
+
+ THIS INTEREST EXTENDS TO THE WORK OF OTHERS.--The interest is
+extended to the work of others, not only by the interrelated
+bonuses, but also by the fact that every man is expected to train up
+a man to take his place, before he is promoted.
+
+ CLOSE RELATIONSHIP OF ALL PARTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HOLDS
+INTEREST.--The attention of the entire organization, as well as of
+the individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its
+teaching, because all parts of Scientific Management are related,
+and because Scientific Management provides for scientifically
+directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that
+the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the
+permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such
+development as will assure progress and success in the future. Every
+member of the organization realizes that upon his individual
+cooeperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific
+Management, because it is based on universal cooeperation. This
+provides an intensity and a continuity of interest that would still
+hold, even though some particular element might lose its interest.
+
+ THIS RELATIONSHIP ALSO PROVIDES FOR ASSOCIATIONS.--The close
+relationship of all parts of Scientific Management provides that all
+ideas are associated, and are so closely connected that they can act
+as a single group, or any selected number of elements can act as
+a group.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHES BRAIN GROUPS THAT HABITUALLY
+ACT IN UNISON.--Professor Read, in describing the general mental
+principle of association says, "When any number of brain cells have
+been in action together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so
+that when one of them is stimulated in a certain way, the others
+will also behave in the way established by the habit."[31] This
+working of the brain is recognized in grouping of motions, such as
+"playing for position."[32] Scientific Management provides the
+groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to standard
+methods, so that the result is largely predictable.
+
+ METHOD OF ESTABLISHING SUCH GROUPS IN THE WORKER'S BRAIN.--The
+standard elements of Scientific Management afford units for such
+groups. Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruction
+cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of
+units as would aid in foreseeing results, just as the foreseeing of
+groups of moves aids the expert chess or checker player. The size
+and number of such groups would indicate the skill of the worker.
+
+ That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management
+synthesizes the units into definite groups, and teaches these to the
+workers as groups.
+
+ TEACHING DONE BY MEANS OF MOTION CYCLES.--The best group is that
+which completes the simplest cycle of performance. This enables the
+worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a
+habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the cycle as a whole,
+and not upon the elementary motions of which it is composed.
+
+ For example--The cycle of the pick and dip process of
+bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar
+simultaneously and deposit them on the wall simultaneously.[33] The
+string mortar method has two cycles, which are, first to pick a
+certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the wall,
+and then to pick up a corresponding number of bricks and deposit
+them on the wall.[34] Each cycle of these two methods consists of an
+association of units that can be remembered as a group.
+
+ SUCH CYCLES INDUCE SPEED.--The worker who has been taught thus
+to associate the units of attention and action into definite
+rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and least
+fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the habit, as does
+the brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus
+characterizes the efficiency of the specialist.[35]
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESTRICTS ASSOCIATIONS.--By its teaching
+of standard methods, Scientific Management restricts association,
+and thus gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.[36]
+Insistence on causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by
+the Systems, which give the reasons, and make the standard method
+easy to remember.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRESENTS SCIENTIFICALLY DERIVED KNOWLEDGE
+TO THE MEMORY.--Industrial memory is founded on experience, and that
+experience that is submitted by teaching under Scientific Management
+to the mind is in the form of scientifically derived standards.
+These furnish
+
+ (a) data that is correct.
+ (b) images that are an aid in acquiring new
+ habits of forming efficient images.
+ (c) standards of comparison, and constant demands
+ for comparison.
+ (d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning
+ processes are stimulated.
+ (e) conscious, efficient grouping.
+ (f) logical association of ideas.
+
+ PROVISION FOR REPETITION OF IMPORTANT IDEAS.--Professor
+Ebbinghaur says, "Associations that have equal reproductive power
+lapse the more slowly, the older they are, and the oftener they have
+been reviewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides
+for utilizing this law by teaching right motions first, and by so
+minutely dividing the elements of such motions that the smallest
+units discovered are found frequently, in similar and different
+operations.
+
+ BEST PERIODS FOR MEMORIZING UTILIZED.--As for education of the
+memory, there is a wide difference of opinion among leading
+psychologists in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as
+the whole, can be improved by training; but all agree that those
+things which are specially desired to be memorized can be learned
+more easily, and more quickly, under some conditions than under
+others:
+
+ For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person,
+when the memory is more efficient than at other times. This is
+usually in the morning, but is not always so. The period when
+memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as
+possible, new methods and new instruction cards are passed out at
+that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to remember what
+is to be done.
+
+ INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RESPECTED.--It is a question that varies
+with different conditions, whether the several instruction cards
+beyond the one he is working on shall be given to the worker ahead
+of time, that he may use his own judgment as to when is the best
+time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and
+concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help to
+see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and
+feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others become
+confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack but one
+problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of mind
+should be taken advantage of when laying out material to be
+memorized.
+
+ AID OF MNEMONIC SYMBOLS TO THE MEMORY.--The mnemonic
+classifications furnish a place where the worker who remembers but
+little of a method or process can go, and recover the full knowledge
+of that which he has forgotten. Better still, they furnish him the
+equivalent of memory of other experiences that he has never had, and
+that are in such form that he can connect this with his memory of
+his own personal experience.
+
+ The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic can associate
+new, scientifically derived data with his memory, because of the
+classifications of Scientific Management, is a most important cause
+of workers being taught quicker, and being more intelligent, under
+Scientific Management, than under any other type of management.
+
+ PROPER LEARNING INSURES PROPER REMEMBERING.--Professor Read
+says, "Take care of the learning and the remembering will take care
+of itself."[37] Scientific Management both provides proper
+knowledge, and provides that this shall be utilized in such a manner
+that proper remembering will ensue.
+
+ BETTER HABITS OF REMEMBERING RESULT.--The results of cultivating
+the memory under Scientific Management are cumulative. Ultimately,
+right habits of remembering result that aid the worker automatically
+so to arrange his memory material as to utilize it better.[38]
+
+ "IMAGINATION" HAS TWO DEFINITIONS.--Professor Read gives
+definitions for two distinct means of Imagination.
+
+ 1. "The general function of the having of images."
+ 2. "The particular one of having images which are not
+ consciously memories or the reproduction of the facts of
+ experience as they were originally presented to
+ consciousness."[39]
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES MATERIAL FOR IMAGES.--As was
+shown under the discussion of the appeals of the various teaching
+devices of Scientific Management,--provision is made for the four
+classes of imagination of Calkins[40]--
+
+ 1. visual,
+ 2. auditory,
+ 3. tactual, and
+ 4. mixed.
+
+ IT ALSO REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTIVE
+IMAGINATION.--Scientific Management realizes that one of the special
+functions of teaching the trades is systematic exercising and
+guiding of imaginations of apprentices and learners. As Professor
+Ennis says,--"Any kind of planning ahead will result in some good,"
+but to plan ahead most effectively it is necessary to have a
+well-developed power of constructive imagination. This consists of
+being able to construct new mental images from old memory images; of
+being able to modify and group images of past experiences, or
+thoughts, in combination with new images based on imagination, and
+not on experience. The excellence of the image arrived at in the
+complete work is dependent wholly upon the training in image forming
+in the past. If there has not been a complete economic system of
+forming standard habits of thought, the worker may have difficulty
+in controlling the trend of associations of thought images, and
+difficulty in adding entirely new images to the groups of
+experienced images, and the problem to be thought out will suffer
+from wandering of the mind. The result will be more like a dream
+than a well balanced mental planning. It is well known that those
+apprentices, and journeymen as well, are the quickest to learn, and
+are better learners, who have the most vivid imagination. The best
+method of teaching the trade, therefore, is the one that also
+develops the power of imagination.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ASSISTS PRODUCTIVE IMAGINATION.--
+Scientific Management assists productive, or constructive,
+imagination, not only by providing standard units, or images, from
+which the results may, be synthesized, but also, through the
+unity of the instruction card, allows of imagination of the outcome,
+from the start.
+
+ For example,--in performing a prescribed cycle of motions, the
+worker has his memory images grouped in such a figure, form, or
+sequence,--often geometrical,--that each motion is a part of a
+growing, clearly imagined whole.
+
+ The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other entirely new
+cycles, and are, as provided for in the opportunities for invention
+that are a part of Scientific Management.
+
+ JUDGMENT THE RESULT OF FAITHFUL ENDEAVOR.--Judgment, or the
+"mental process which ends in an affirmation or negation of
+something,"[41] comes as the result of experience, as is admirably
+expressed by Prof. James,--"Let no youth have any anxiety about the
+upshot of his education whatever the line of it may be. If he keeps
+faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave
+the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on
+waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent
+ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out.
+Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of
+judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up
+within him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people
+should know this truth in advance.[42] The ignorance of it has
+probably engendered more discouragement and faint-heartedness in
+youths embarking on arduous careers than all other causes put
+together."[43]
+
+ TEACHING SUPPLIES THIS JUDGMENT UNDER SCIENTIFIC
+MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management this judgment is the result
+of teaching of standards that are recognized as such by the learner.
+Thus, much time is eliminated, and the apprentice under Scientific
+Management can work with all the assurance as to the value of his
+methods that characterized the seasoned veterans of older types
+of management.
+
+ TEACHING ALSO UTILIZES THE JUDGMENT.--The judgment that is
+supplied by Scientific Management is also used as a spring toward
+action.[44] Scientific Management appeals to the reason, and workers
+perform work as they do because, through the Systems and otherwise,
+they are persuaded that the method they employ is the best.
+
+ THE POWER OF SUGGESTION IS ALSO UTILIZED.[45]--The dynamic power
+of ideas is recognized by Scientific Management, in that the
+instruction card is put in the form of direct commands, which,
+naturally, lead to immediate action. So, also, the teaching written,
+oral and object, as such, can be directly imitated by the
+learner.[46]
+
+ Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says "may well be counted a
+special form of suggestion," will be discussed later in this chapter
+at length.[47]
+
+ WORKER ALWAYS HAS OPPORTUNITY TO CRITICISE THE SUGGESTION.--The
+worker is expected to follow the suggestion of Scientific Management
+without delay, because he believes in the standardization on which
+it is made, and in the management that makes it. But the Systems
+afford him an opportunity of reviewing the reasonableness of the
+suggestion at any time, and his constructive criticism is invited
+and rewarded.
+
+ SUGGESTION MUST BE FOLLOWED AT THE TIME.--The suggestion must be
+followed at the time it is given, or its value as a suggestion is
+impaired. This is provided for by the underlying idea of cooeperation
+on which Scientific Management rests, which molds the mental
+attitude of the worker into that form where suggestions are quickest
+grasped and followed.[48]
+
+ "NATIVE REACTIONS" ENUMERATED BY PROF. JAMES.--Prof. James
+enumerates the "native reactions" as (1) fear, (2) love, (3)
+curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, (7)
+pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) ownership, (10) constructiveness.[49]
+These are all considered by Scientific Management. Such as might
+have a harmful effect are supplanted, others are utilized.
+
+ FEAR UTILIZED BY ANCIENT MANAGERS.--The native reaction most
+utilized by the first managers of armies and ancient works of
+construction was that of fear. This is shown by the ancient rock
+carvings, which portray what happened to those who disobeyed.[50]
+
+ FEAR STILL USED BY TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Fear of personal
+bodily injury is not usual under modern Traditional Management, but
+fear of less progress, less promotion, less remuneration, or of
+discharge, or of other penalties for inferior effort or efficiency
+is still prevalent.
+
+ FEAR TRANSFORMED UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific
+Management the worker may still fear that he will incur a penalty,
+or fail to deserve a reward, but the honest, industrious worker
+experiences no such horror as the old-time fear included. This is
+removed by his knowledge
+
+ 1. that his task is achievable.
+ 2. that his work will not injure his health.
+ 3. that he may be sure of advancement with age and
+ experience.
+ 4. that he is sure of the "square deal."
+
+ Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil effect upon
+him. It is an incentive to cooeperate willingly. Its immediate and
+ultimate effects are advantageous.
+
+ LOVE, OR LOYALTY, FOSTERED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The
+worker's knowledge that the management plans to maintain such
+conditions as will enable him to have the four assurances enumerated
+above leads to love, or loyalty, between workers and employers.[51]
+
+ Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old personal and
+sympathetic relations between employers and workers, it gives
+opportunities for such relations as have not existed since the days
+of the guilds, and the old apprenticeship.[52]
+
+ The cooeperation upon which Scientific Management rests does away
+with the traditional "warfare" between employer and workers that
+made permanent friendliness almost impossible. Cooeperation induces
+friendliness and loyalty of each member in the organization to all
+the others.
+
+ Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installation of
+Scientific Management in his plant, "We had, in effect, been
+installing at great expense a new and wonderful means for increasing
+the efficiency of labor, in the benefits of which the workman
+himself shared, and we have today an organization second, I believe,
+to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of
+purpose."[53] This same loyalty of the workers is plain in an
+article in _Industrial Engineering_, on "Scientific Management as
+Viewed from the Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop
+having Scientific Management were interviewed.[54] After quoting
+various workers' opinions of Scientific Management and their own
+particular shop, the writer says: "Conversations with other men
+brought out practically the same facts. They are all contented. They
+took pride in their work, and seemed to be especially proud of the
+fact that they were employed in the Link-Belt shops."[55]
+
+ TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT DEVELOPS SUCH LOYALTY.--The
+manner of teaching under Scientific Management fosters such loyalty.
+Only through friendly aid can both teacher and taught prosper. Also,
+the perfection of the actual workings of this plan of management
+inspires regard as well as respect for the employer.
+
+ VALUE OF PERSONALITY NOT ELIMINATED.--It is a great mistake to
+think that Scientific Management underestimates the value of
+personality.[56] Rather, Scientific Management enhances the value of
+an admirable personality. This is well exemplified in the Link-Belt
+Co.,[57] and in the Tabor Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, as well
+as on other work where Scientific Management has been installed a
+period of several years.
+
+ CURIOSITY AROUSED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Scientific
+Management arouses the curiosity of the worker, by showing, through
+its teaching, glimpses of the possibilities that exist for further
+scientific investigation. The insistence on standard methods of less
+waste arouses a curiosity as to whether still less wasteful methods
+cannot be found.
+
+ CURIOSITY UTILIZED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--This curiosity is
+very useful as a trait of the learner, the planner and the
+investigator. It can be well utilized by the teacher who recognizes
+it in the learner, by an adaptation of methods of interpreting the
+instruction card, that will allow of partially satisfying, and at
+the same time further exciting, the curiosity.
+
+ In selecting men for higher positions, and for special work,
+curiosity as to the work, with the interest that is its result, may
+serve as an admirable indication of one sort of fitness. This
+curiosity, or general interest, is usually associated with a
+personal interest that makes it more intense, and more easy to
+utilize.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PLACES A HIGH VALUE ON IMITATION.--It was
+a popular custom of the past to look down with scorn on the
+individual or organization that imitated others. Scientific
+Management believes that to imitate with great precision the best,
+is a work of high intelligence and industrial efficiency.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT USES BOTH SPONTANEOUS AND DELIBERATE
+IMITATION.--Teaching under Scientific Management induces both
+spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization prevalent,
+and the conformity to standards exacted, provide that this imitation
+shall follow directed lines.
+
+ SPONTANEOUS IMITATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HAS VALUABLE
+RESULTS.--Under Scientific Management, the worker will spontaneously
+imitate the teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. This
+leads to desired results. So, also, the worker imitates, more or
+less spontaneously, his own past methods of doing work. The right
+habits early formed by Scientific Management insure that the results
+of such imitation shall be profitable.
+
+ DELIBERATE IMITATION CONSTANTLY ENCOURAGED.--Deliberate
+imitation is caused more than anything else by the fact that the man
+knows, if he does the thing in the way directed, his pay will be
+increased.
+
+ Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that the worker is
+made to believe that he is capable, and has the will to overcome
+obstacles. He knows that the management believes he can do the work,
+or the instruction card would not have been issued to him. Moreover,
+he sees that the teacher and demonstrator is a man promoted from his
+rank, and he is convinced, therefore, that what the teacher can do
+he also can do.[58]
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES STANDARDS FOR IMITATION.--It is
+of immense value in obtaining valuable results from imitation, that
+Scientific Management provides standards. Under Traditional
+Management, it was almost impossible for a worker to decide which
+man he should imitate. Even though he might come to determine, by
+constant observation, after a time, which man he desired to imitate,
+he would not know in how far he would do well to copy any particular
+method. Recording individually measured output under Transitory
+Management allows of determining the man of high score, and either
+using him as a model, or formulating his method into rules. Under
+Scientific Management, the instruction card furnishes a method which
+the worker knows that he can imitate exactly, with predetermined
+results.
+
+ IMITATION IS EXPECTED OF ALL.--As standardization applies to the
+work of all, so imitation of standards is expected of all. This fact
+the teacher under Scientific Management can use to advantage, as an
+added incentive to imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further
+decreased, by making clear to every worker that those who are under
+him are expected to imitate him,--and that he must, himself, imitate
+his teachers, in order to set a worthy example.
+
+ IMITATION LEADS TO EMULATION.--Imitation, as provided for by
+teaching under Scientific Management, and admiration for the
+skillful teacher, or the standard imitated, naturally stimulate
+emulation. This emulation takes three forms:
+
+ 1. Competition with the records of others.
+ 2. Competition with one's own record.
+ 3. Competition with the standard record.
+
+ NO HARD FEELING AROUSED.--In the first sort of competition only
+is there a possibility of hard feeling being aroused, but danger of
+this is practically eliminated by the fact that rewards are provided
+for all who are successful. In the second sort of competition, the
+worker, by matching himself against what he has done, measures his
+own increased efficiency. In the third sort of competition, there is
+the added stimulus of surprising the management by exceeding the
+task expected. The incentive in all three cases is not only more pay
+and a chance for promotion, but also the opportunity to win
+appreciation and publicity for successful performance.
+
+ AMBITION IS AROUSED.--The outcome of emulation is ambition. This
+ambition is stimulated by the fact that promotion is so rapid, and
+so outlined before the worker, that he sees the chance for
+advancement himself, and not only advancement that means more pay,
+but advancement also that means a chance to specialize on that work
+which he particularly likes.
+
+ PUGNACITY UTILIZED.--Pugnacity can never be entirely absent
+where there is emulation. Under Scientific Management it is used to
+overcome not persons, but things. Pugnacity is a great driving
+force. It is a wonderful thing that under Scientific Management this
+force is aroused not against one's fellow-workers, but against one's
+work. The desire to win out, to fight it out, is aroused against a
+large task, which the man desires to put behind him. Moreover, there
+is nothing under Scientific Management which forbids an athletic
+contest. While the workers would not, under the ultimate form, be
+allowed to injure themselves by overspeeding, a friendly race with a
+demonstration of pugnacity which harms no one is not frowned upon.
+
+ PRIDE IS STIMULATED.--Pride in one's work is aroused as soon as
+work is functionalized. The moment a man has something to do that he
+likes to do, and can do well, he takes pride in it. So, also, the
+fact that individuality, and personality, are recognized, and that
+his records are shown, makes pride serve as a stimulus. The outcome
+of the worker's pride in his work is pride in himself. He finds that
+he is part of a great whole, and he learns to take pride in the
+entire management,--in both himself and the managers, as well as in
+his own work.
+
+ FEELING OF OWNERSHIP PROVIDED FOR.--It may seem at first glance
+that the instinct of ownership is neglected, and becomes stunted,
+under Scientific Management, in that all tools become more or less
+standardized, and the man is discouraged from having tools peculiar
+in shape, or size, for whose use he has no warrant except long time
+of use.
+
+ Careful consideration shows that Scientific Management provides
+two opportunities for the worker to conserve his instinct for
+ownership,--
+
+ 1. During working hours, where the recognition of his
+personality allows the worker to identify himself with his work, and
+where his cooeperation with the management makes him identified with
+its activities.
+
+ 2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific Management, more
+hours away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money with which
+to acquire those things that he desires to own.
+
+ The teacher must make clear to him both these opportunities, as
+he readily can, since the instinct of ownership is conserved in him
+in an identical manner.
+
+ CONSTRUCTIVENESS A PART OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Every act
+that the worker performs is constructive, because waste has been
+eliminated, and everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching
+makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is also utilized in
+that exercise of initiative is provided for. Thus the instinct,
+instead of being weakened, is strengthened and directed.
+
+ PROGRESS IN UTILIZING INSTINCTS DEMANDS PSYCHOLOGICAL
+STUDY.--Teaching under Scientific Management can never hope fully to
+understand and utilize native reactions, until more assistance has
+been given by psychology. At the present time, Scientific Management
+labors under disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed.
+Psychologists must, by experiments, determine more accurately the
+reactions and their controlability. More thorough study must be made
+of children that Scientific Management may understand more of the
+nature of the reactions of the young workers who come for industrial
+training. Psychology must give its help in this training. Then only,
+can teaching under Scientific Management become truly efficient.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE
+WILL.--The most necessary, and most complex and difficult part of
+Scientific Management, is the training of the will of all members of
+the organization. Prof. Read states in his "Psychology" five means
+of training or influencing the will. These are[59]
+
+ "1. The first important feature in training the will is the
+ help furnished by supplying the mind with a useful body
+ of ideas.
+ "2. The second great feature of the training of the will is
+ the building up in the mind of the proper interests, and the
+ habit of giving the attention to useful and worthy purposes.
+ "3. Another important feature of the training of the will is
+ the establishing of a firm association between ideas and actions,
+ or, in other words, the forming of a good set of habits.
+ "4. Another very important feature of the training of the
+ will has reference to its strength of purpose or power of
+ imitation.
+ "5. The matter of discipline."
+
+ Teaching under Scientific Management does supply these five
+functions, and thus provide for the strengthening and development of
+the will.
+
+ VARIATIONS IN TEACHING OF APPRENTICES AND
+JOURNEYMEN.--Scientific Management must not only be prepared to
+teach apprentices, as must all types of management, it must also
+teach journeymen who have not acquired standard methods.
+
+ APPRENTICES ARE EASILY HANDLED.--Teaching apprentices is a
+comparatively simple proposition, far simpler than under any other
+type of management. Standard methods enable the apprentice to become
+proficient long before his brother could, under the old type of
+teaching. The length of training required depends largely on how
+fingerwise the apprentice is.
+
+ OLDER WORKERS MUST BE HANDLED WITH TACT.--With adult workers,
+the problem is not so simple. Old wrong habits, such as the use of
+ineffective motions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult
+for the adult worker to alter his methods. Moreover, it may be most
+difficult to change his mental attitude, to convince him that the
+methods of Scientific Management are correct.
+
+ A successful worker under Traditional Management, who is proud
+of his work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone
+to regard as the "criticism" of Scientific Management with regard
+to him.
+
+ APPRECIATION OF VARYING VIEWPOINTS NECESSARY.--No management can
+consider itself adequate that does not try to enter into the mental
+attitude of its workers. Actual practice shows that, with time and
+tact, almost any worker can be convinced that all criticism of him
+is constructive, and that for him to conform to the new standards is
+a mark of added proficiency, not an acknowledgment of ill-preparedness.
+The "Systems" do much toward this work of reconciling the older
+workers to the new methods, but most of all can be done by such
+teachers as can demonstrate their own change from old to standard
+methods, and the consequent promotion and success. This is, again,
+an opportunity for the exercise of personality.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES PLACES FOR SUCH TEACHING.--Under
+the methods of teaching employed by Scientific Management,--right
+motions first, next speed, with quality as a resultant product,--it
+is most necessary to provide a place where learners can work. The
+standard planning of quality provides such a place. The plus and
+minus signs automatically divide labor so that the worker can be
+taught by degrees, being set at first where great accuracy is not
+demanded by the work, and being shifted to work requiring more
+accuracy as he becomes more proficient. In this way even the most
+untrained worker becomes efficient, and is engaged in actual
+productive work.
+
+ MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING.--Under Scientific
+Management the results of teaching and learning become apparent
+automatically in records of output. The learner's record of output
+of proper prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive,
+and also has a proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a
+system of measurement may not be accurate as a report of the
+learner's gain,--for he doubtless gains mental results that cannot
+be seen in his output,--but it certainly does serve as an incentive
+to teaching and to learning.
+
+ RELATION OF TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO ACADEMIC
+TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.[60]--Teaching under Scientific
+Management can never be most efficient until the field of such
+teaching is restricted to training learners who are properly
+prepared to receive industrial training.[61] This preparedness
+implies fitting school and academic training, and Vocational
+Guidance.
+
+ LEARNER SHOULD BE MANUALLY ADEPT.--The learner should, before
+entering the industrial world, be taught to be manually adept, or
+fingerwise, to have such control over his trained muscles that they
+will respond quickly and accurately to orders. Such training should
+be started in infancy,[62] in the form of guided play, as, for
+example, whittling, sewing, knitting, handling mechanical toys and
+tools, and playing musical instruments, and continued up to, and
+into, the period of entering a trade.
+
+ SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE MENTAL PREPAREDNESS.--The schools should
+render every student capable of filling some place worthily in the
+industries. The longer the student remains in school, the higher the
+position for which he should be prepared. The amount and nature of
+the training in the schools depends largely on the industrial work
+to be done, and will be possible of more accurate estimation
+constantly, as Scientific Management standardizes work and shows
+what the worker must be to be most efficient.
+
+ VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE MUST PROVIDE DIRECTION.--As made most clear
+in Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, "Vocational Guidance,"[63] bureaus
+of competent directors stand ready to help the youth find that line
+of activity which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction
+to himself. At present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by
+the fact that little data of the industries are at hand, but this
+lack the bureaus are rapidly supplying by gathering such data as are
+available. Most valuable data will not be available until Scientific
+Management has been introduced into all lines.
+
+ PROGRESS DEMANDS COOePERATION.--Progress here, as everywhere,
+demands cooeperation.[64] The three sets of educators,--the teachers
+in the school, in the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific
+Management, must recognize their common work, and must cooeperate to
+do it. There is absolutely no cause for conflict between the three;
+their fields are distinct, but supplementary. Vocational Guidance is
+the intermediary between the other two.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS TO THE WORK.--Under the teaching of Traditional
+Management, the learner may or may not improve the quantity and
+quality of his work. This depends almost entirely on the particular
+teacher whom the learner happens to have. There is no standard
+improvement to the work.
+
+ Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the work gains in
+quantity as the methods become standardized, and quality is
+maintained or improved.
+
+ Under the teaching of Scientific Management, work, the quantity
+of work, increases enormously through the use of standards of all
+kinds; quantity is oftentimes tripled.
+
+ Under the teaching of Scientific Management, when the schools
+and Vocational Guidance movement cooeperate, high output of required
+quality will be obtained at a far earlier stage of the worker's
+industrial life than is now possible, even under Scientific
+Management.
+
+ RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--Under Traditional Management, the worker
+gains a knowledge of how his work can be done, but the method by
+which he is taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not being
+sure that he has learned the best way to do his work, he gains no
+method of attack. The result of the teaching is a habit of doing
+work which is good, or bad, as chance may direct.
+
+ Under Transitory Management, with the use of Systems as
+teachers, the worker gains a better method of attack, as he knows
+the reason why the prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to
+appreciate the possibilities and benefits of standardized teaching.
+
+ The method laid down under Scientific Management is devised to
+further the forming of an accurate accumulation of concepts, which
+results in a proper method of attack. The method of instruction
+under Scientific Management is devised to furnish two things:
+
+ 1. A collection of knowledge relating in its entirety to the
+ future work of the learner.
+ 2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner to
+ apply the same process to acquiring knowledge of other subjects
+ in the most economical and efficient way.
+
+ It teaches the learner to be observant of details, which is the
+surest method for further development of general truths and
+concepts.
+
+ The method of attack of the methods provided for in Scientific
+Management results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This is
+the most efficient method of causing the learner to think for
+himself.
+
+ Processes differing but little, apparently, give vastly
+different results, and the trained habits of observation quickly
+analyze and determine wherein the one process is more efficient than
+the other.
+
+ This result is, of course, the one most desired for causing
+quick and intelligent learning.
+
+ The most valuable education is that which enables the learner to
+make correct judgments. The teaching under Scientific Management
+leads to the acquisition of such judgment, plus an all-around sense
+training, a training in habits of work, and a progressive
+development.
+
+ A partial topic list of the results may make more clear their
+importance.
+
+ 1. Worker better trained for all work.
+ 2. Habits of correct thinking instilled.
+ 3. Preparedness provided for.
+ 4. Productive and repetitive powers increased.
+ 5. Sense powers increased.
+ 6. Habits of proper reaction established.
+ 7. "Guided original work" established.
+ 8. System of waste elimination provided.
+ 9. Method of attack taught.
+ 10. Brain fully developed.
+ 11. "Standard response" developed.
+ 12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking"
+ provided.
+ 13. Self-reliance developed.
+ 14. Love of truth fostered.
+ 15. Moral sentiment developed.
+ 16. Resultant happiness of worker.
+
+ RESULTS TO BE EXPECTED IN THE FUTURE.--When the schools,
+vocational guidance and teaching under Scientific Management
+cooeperate, the worker will not only receive the benefits now
+obtained from Scientific Management, but many more. There will be
+nothing to unlearn, and each thing that is learned will be taught by
+those best fitted to teach it. The collection of vocational guidance
+data will begin with a child at birth, and a record of his
+inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is
+educated, and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this
+scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist
+in making clear exactly in what place the worker will be most
+efficient, and in what sphere he will be able to be most helpful to
+the world, as well as to himself. All early training will be planned
+to make the youth adept with his muscles, and alert, with a mind so
+trained that related knowledge is easily acquired.
+
+ When the vocation for which he is naturally best fitted becomes
+apparent, as it must from the study of the development of the youth
+and his desires, the school will know, and can give exactly, that
+training that is necessary for the vocation. It can also supplement
+his limitations intelligently, in case he decides to follow a
+vocation for which he is naturally handicapped.
+
+ This will bring to the industry learners prepared to be taught
+those things that characterize the industry, the "tricks of the
+trade," and the "secrets of the craft," now become standard, and
+free to all. Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared to
+give. The results of such teaching of Scientific Management will be
+a worker prepared in a short time to fill efficiently a position
+which will allow of promotion to the limit of his possibilities.
+
+ The result of such teaching will be truly educated workers,
+equipped to work, and to live,[65] and to share the world's
+permanent satisfactions.
+
+ The effect of such education on industrial peace must not be
+underestimated. With education, including in education learning and
+culture,--prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, those
+going into industries and those not, will be taught alike to be
+finger wise as well as book wise, up to the time of entering the
+industries, will lead to a better understanding of each other all
+through life.
+
+ The entire bearing of Scientific Management on industrial peace
+cannot be here fully discussed. We must note here the strong effect
+that teaching under Scientific Management will ultimately have on
+doing away with industrial warfare,--the great warfare of ignorance,
+where neither side understands the other, and where each side should
+realize that large immediate sacrifices should be made if necessary,
+that there may be obtained the great permanent benefit and savings
+that can be obtained only by means of the heartiest cooeperation.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII FOOTNOTES: ============================================
+
+ 1. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 541-545.
+ 2. H.K. Hathaway, _Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific
+ Management, Engineering Magazine,_ April, 1911, p. 141.
+ 3. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 372.
+ 4. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 116.
+ 5. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 342.
+ 6. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 289, Harper Ed.,
+ pp. 127-128.
+ 7. H.K. Hathaway, _Engineering Magazine_, April, 1911, p. 144.
+ 8. W.D. Ennis, _An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial
+ Engineering_, June, 1911, p. 462.
+ 9. C.S. Myers, M.D., _An Introduction to Experimental Psychology_,
+ chap. V, p. 73.
+10. G. M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 125.
+11. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 171.
+12. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, chap. I, _Training of
+ Apprentices_.
+13. _McClure's Magazine_, May, 1911, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912.
+14. As a woodman's keenness of hearing.
+15. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, chap. III.
+16. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, chap. VII.
+17. Compare with an actor's learning a part.
+18. As proved by experimenting with a six-year-old child.
+19. Imbert, _Etudes experimentales de travail professionnel ouvrier,
+ Sur la fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides_.
+20. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 134.
+21. _Ibid._, p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course.
+ p. 112.
+22. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 142.
+23. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 214.
+24. Prof. Bain, quoted In William James' _Psychology, Briefer
+ Course_, pp. 145-147.
+25. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 18-19.
+26. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 354.
+27. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 119.
+28. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 99.
+29. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_ p. 240.
+30. Attracting the attention is largely a matter of appealing to
+ what is known to interest, for example, to a known ambition.
+31. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 183.
+32. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 89.
+33. _Ibid._, _Bricklaying System_, para. 555-557.
+34. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 150.
+35. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 179-194.
+36. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 42.
+37. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 208.
+38. William James, _Psychology, Advanced Course_, Vol. I, p. 667.
+39. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 212-213. William
+ James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 302.
+40. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 25.
+41. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 290.
+42. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 150.
+43. W.D. Scott, _Influencing Men in Business_, chap. II.
+44. _Ibid._, chap. III.
+45. W.D. Scott, _The Theory of Advertising_, p. 71.
+46. W.D. Scott, _Increasing Human Efficiency in Business_, p. 41.
+47. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 200.
+48. F.W. Taylor, _The Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 36.
+49. William James, _Talks to Teachers_, chap. III.
+50. Knight's _Mechanical Dictionary_, Vol. III, p. 2204.
+51. For example, see W.D. Scott's _Increasing Efficiency in
+ Business_, chap. IV.
+52. R.A. Bray, _Boy Labor and Apprenticeship_, chap. II, especially
+ p. 8.
+53. Wilfred Lewis, _Proceedings of the Congress of Technology_,
+ 1911, p. 175.
+54. November, 1910.
+55. The Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
+56. For value of personality see J.W. Jenks's, _Governmental Action
+ for Social Welfare_, p. 226.
+57. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143.
+58. Compare with the old darkey, who took her sons from a Northern
+ school, where the teacher was white, in order to send them to a
+ Southern school having a colored teacher that they might feel,
+ as they looked at him, "What _that_ nigger can do, _this_ nigger
+ can do."
+59. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology,_ pp. 297-303.
+60. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 29.
+61. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, _Bulletin No. 5_ of _The Carnegie
+ Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_, p. 70. William
+ Kent, _Discussion of Paper 647_, A.S.M.E., p. 891.
+62. A well known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in
+ infancy, to prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure
+ of a college education.
+63. Meyer Bloomfield, _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_, Houghton
+ Mifflin & Co.
+64. A. Pimloche, _Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern
+ Elementary School_, p. 139.
+65. Friedrich Froebel, _Education of Man_, "To secure for this
+ ability skill and directness, to lift it into full
+ consciousness, to give it insight and clearness, and to exalt
+ it into a life of creative freedom, is the business of the
+ subsequent life of man in successive stages of development and
+ cultivation."
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ INCENTIVES
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF INCENTIVE.--An "incentive" is defined by the
+Century Dictionary as "that which moves the mind or stirs the
+passions; that which incites or tends to incite to action; motive,
+spur." Synonyms--"impulse, stimulus, incitement, encouragement,
+goad."
+
+ IMPORTANCE OF THE INCENTIVE.--The part that the incentive plays
+in the doing of all work is enormous. This is true in learning, and
+also in the performance of work which is the result of this
+learning: manual work and mental work as well. The business man
+finishing his work early that he may go to the baseball game; the
+boy at school rushing through his arithmetic that he may not be kept
+after school; the piece-worker, the amount of whose day's pay
+depends upon the quantity and quality he can produce; the student of
+a foreign language preparing for a trip abroad,--these all
+illustrate the importance of the incentive as an element in the
+amount which is to be accomplished.
+
+ TWO KINDS OF INCENTIVES.--The incentive may be of two kinds: it
+may be first of all, a return, definite or indefinite, which is to
+be received when a certain portion of the work is done, or it may be
+an incentive due to the working conditions themselves. The latter
+case is exemplified where two people are engaged in the same sort of
+work and start in to race one another to see who can accomplish the
+most, who can finish the fixed amount in the shortest space of time,
+or who can produce the best quality. The incentive may be in the
+form of some definite aim or goal which is understood by the worker
+himself, or it may be in some natural instinct which is roused by
+the work, either consciously to the worker, or consciously to the
+man who is assigning the work, or consciously to both, or
+consciously to neither one. In any of these cases it is a natural
+instinct that is being appealed to and that induces the man to do
+more work, whether he sees any material reward for that work or not.
+
+ DEFINITIONS OF TWO TYPES.--We may call the incentive which
+utilizes the natural instinct, "direct incentive," and the incentive
+which utilizes these secondarily, through some set reward or
+punishment, "indirect incentive." This, at first sight, may seem a
+contradictory use of terms--it may seem that the reward would be the
+most direct of incentives; yet a moment's thought will cause one to
+realize that all the reward can possibly do is to arouse in the
+individual a natural instinct which will lead him to increase
+his work.
+
+ INDIRECT INCENTIVES INCLUDE TWO CLASSES.--We will discuss the
+indirect incentives first as, contrary to the usual use of the word
+"indirect," they are most easy to estimate and to describe. They
+divide themselves into two classes, reward and punishment.
+
+ DEFINITION OF REWARD.--Reward is defined by the Century
+Dictionary as--"return, recompense, the fruit of one's labor or
+works; profit," with synonyms, "pay, compensation, remuneration,
+requital and retribution." Note particularly the word "retribution,"
+for it is this aspect of reward, that is, the just outcome of one's
+act, that makes the reward justly include punishment. The word
+"reward" exactly expresses what management would wish to be
+understood by the incentive that it gives its men to increase
+their work.
+
+ DEFINITION OF PUNISHMENT.--The word "punishment" is defined
+as--"pain, suffering, loss, confinement, or other penalty inflicted
+on a person for a crime or offense by the authority to which the
+offender is subject," with synonyms, "chastisement, correction,
+discipline."
+
+ The word punishment, as will be noted later, is most unfortunate
+when applied to what Scientific Management would mean by a penalty,
+though this word also is unfortunate; but, in the first place, there
+is no better word to cover the general meaning; and in the second
+place, the idea of pain and suffering, which Scientific Management
+aims to and does eliminate, is present in some of the older forms of
+management Therefore the word punishment must stand.
+
+ REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS RESULT IN ACTION.--There can be no doubt
+that a reward is an incentive. There may well be doubt as to whether
+a punishment is an incentive to action or not. This, however, is
+only at first glance, and the whole thing rests on the meaning of
+the word "action." To be active is certainly the opposite of being
+at rest. This being true, punishment is just as surely an incentive
+to action as is reward. The man who is punished in every case will
+be led to some sort of action. Whether this really results in an
+increase of output or not simply determines whether the punishment
+is a scientifically prescribed punishment or not. If the
+punishment is of such a nature that the output ceases because of it,
+or that it incites the man punished against the general good, then
+it does not in any wise cease to be an active thing, but it is
+simply a wrong, and unscientifically assigned punishment, that acts
+in a detrimental way.
+
+ SOLDIERING ALONE CUTS DOWN ACTIVITY.--It is interesting to note
+that the greatest cause for cutting down output is related more
+closely to a reward than a punishment. Under such managements as
+provide no adequate reward for all, and no adequate assurance that
+all can receive extra rewards permanently without a cut in the rate,
+it may be advisable, for the worker's best interests, to limit
+output in order to keep the wages, or reward, up, and soldiering
+results. The evils of soldiering will be discussed more at length
+under the "Systems of Pay." It is plain, however, here that
+soldiering is the result of a cutting down of action, and it is
+self-evident that anything which cuts down action is harmful, not
+only to the individual himself, but to society at large.
+
+ NATURE OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.--Under all types of
+management, the principal rewards consist of promotion and pay, pay
+being a broad word used here to include regular wages, a bonus,
+shorter hours, other forms of remuneration or recompense; anything
+which can be given to the man who does the work to benefit him and
+increase his desire to continue doing the work. Punishments may be
+negative, that is, they may simply take the form of no reward; or
+they may be positive, that is, they may include fines, discharge,
+assignment to less remunerative or less desirable work, or any other
+thing which can be given to the man to show him that he has not done
+what is expected of him and, in theory at least, to lead him to
+do better.
+
+ NATURE OF DIRECT INCENTIVES.--Direct incentives will be such
+native reaction as ambition, pride and pugnacity; will be love of
+racing, love of play; love of personal recognition; will be the
+outcome of self-confidence and interest, and so on.
+
+ THE REWARD UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT UNSTANDARDIZED.--As with
+all other discussions of any part or form of Traditional Management,
+the discussion of the incentive under Traditional Management is
+vague from the very nature of the subject. "Traditional" stands for
+vagueness and for variation, for the lack of standardization, for
+the lack of definiteness in knowledge, in process, in results. The
+rewards under Traditional Management, as under all types of
+management, are promotion and pay. It must be an almost unthinkably
+poor system of management, even under Traditional Management, which
+did not attempt to provide for some sort of promotion of the man who
+did the most and best work; but the lack of standardization of
+conditions, of instructions, of the work itself, and of reward,
+makes it almost impossible not only to give the reward, but even to
+determine who deserves the reward. Under Traditional Management, the
+reward need not be positive, that is, it might simply consist in the
+negation of some previously existing disadvantage. It need not be
+predetermined. It might be nothing definite. It might not be so set
+ahead that the man might look forward to it. In other words it might
+simply be the outcome of the good, and in no wise the incentive for
+the good. It need not necessarily be personal. It could be shared
+with a group, or gang, and lose all feeling of personality. It need
+not be a fixed reward or a fixed performance; in fact, if the
+management were Traditional it would be almost impossible that it
+would be a fixed reward. It might not be an assured reward, and in
+most cases it was not a prompt reward. These fixed adjectives
+describe the reward of Scientific Management--positive, predetermined,
+personal, fixed, assured and prompt. A few of these might apply,
+or none might apply to the reward under Traditional Management.
+
+
+ REWARD A PRIZE WON BY ONE ONLY.--If this reward, whether
+promotion or pay, was given to someone under Traditional Management,
+this usually meant that others thereby lost it; it was in the nature
+of a prize which one only could attain, and which the others,
+therefore, would lose, and such a lost prize is, to the average man,
+for the time at least, a dampener on action. The rewarding of the
+winner, to the loss of all of the losers, has been met by the
+workmen getting together secretly, and selecting the winners for a
+week or more ahead, thus getting the same reward out of the employer
+without the extra effort.
+
+ PUNISHMENT UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT WRONG IN THEORY.--The
+punishment, under Traditional Management, was usually much more than
+negative punishment; that is to say, the man who was punished
+usually received much more than simply the negative return of
+getting no reward. The days of bodily punishment have long passed,
+yet the account of the beatings given to the galley slaves and to
+other workers in the past are too vividly described in authentic
+accounts to be lost from memory. To-day, under Traditional
+Management, punishment consists of
+
+ 1. fines, which are usually simply a cutting down of wages,
+ the part deducted remaining with the company,
+ 2. discharge, or
+ 3. assignment to less pleasant or less desirable work.
+
+ This assignment is done on an unscientific basis, the man being
+simply put at something which he dislikes, with no regard as to
+whether his efficiency at that particular work will be high or not.
+
+ RESULTS ARE UNFORTUNATE.--The punishment, under Traditional
+Management, is usually meted out by the foreman, simply as one of
+his many duties. He is apt to be so personally interested, and
+perhaps involved, in the case that his punishment will satisfy some
+wrong notions, impulse of anger, hate, or envy in him, and will
+arouse a feeling of shame or wounded pride, or unappreciation, in
+the man to whom punishment is awarded.
+
+ DIRECT INCENTIVES NOT SCIENTIFICALLY UTILIZED.--As for what we
+have called direct incentive, the love of racing was often used
+under Traditional Management through Athletic Contests, the faults
+in these being that the men were not properly studied, so that they
+could be properly assigned and grouped; care was not always
+exercised that hate should not be the result of the contest; the
+contest was not always conducted according to the rules of clean
+sport; the men slighted quality in hastening the work, and the
+results of the athletic contests were not so written down as to be
+thereafter utilized. Love of play may have been developed
+unconsciously, but was certainly not often studied, Love of personal
+recognition was probably often utilized, but in no scientific way.
+Neither was there anything in Traditional Management to develop
+self-confidence, or to arouse and maintain interest in any set
+fashion. Naturally, if the man were in a work which he particularly
+liked, which under Traditional Management was a matter of luck, he
+would be more or less interested in it, but there was no scientific
+way of arousing or holding his interest. Under Traditional
+Management, a man might take pride in his work, as did many of the
+old bricklayers and masons, who would set themselves apart after
+hours if necessary, lock themselves in, and cut bricks for a
+complicated arch or fancy pattern, but such pride was in no way
+fostered through the efforts of the management. Pugnacity was
+aroused, but it might have an evil effect as well as a good, so far
+as the management had any control. Ambition, in the same way, might
+be stimulated, and might not. There is absolutely nothing under
+Traditional Management to prevent a man being ambitious, gratifying
+his pride, and gratifying his pugnacity in a right way, and at the
+same time being interested in his work, but there was nothing under
+Traditional Management which provided for definite and exact methods
+for encouraging these good qualities, seeing that they developed in
+a proper channel, and scientifically utilizing the outcome again
+and again.
+
+ PAY FOR PERFORMANCE PROVIDED FOR BY TRANSITORY
+MANAGEMENT.--Under Transitory Management, as soon as practicable,
+one bonus is paid for doing work according to the method prescribed.
+As standardization takes place, the second bonus for completing the
+task in the time set can be paid. As each element of Scientific
+Management is introduced, incentives become more apparent, more
+powerful, and more assured.
+
+ DIRECT INCENTIVES MORE SKILLFULLY USED.--With the separating of
+output, and recording of output separately, love of personal
+recognition grew, self-confidence grew, interest in one's work
+grew. The Athletic Contest is so conducted that love of speed, love
+of play, and love of competition are encouraged, the worker
+constantly feeling that he can indulge in these, as he is assured
+of "fair play."
+
+ INCENTIVES UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT CONSTRUCTIVE.--It is most
+important, psychologically and ethically, that it be understood that
+Scientific Management is not in any sense a destructive power. That
+only is eliminated that is harmful, or wasteful, or futile;
+everything that is good is conserved, and is utilized as much as it
+has ever been before, often much more than it has ever been
+utilized. The constructive force, under Scientific Management, is
+one of its great life principles. This is brought out very plainly
+in considering incentives under Scientific Management. With the
+scientifically determined wage, and the more direct and more sure
+plan of promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded incentives
+of older types of management. The value of a fine personality in all
+who are to be imitated is not forgotten; the importance of using all
+natural stimuli to healthful activity is appreciated. Scientific
+Management uses all these, in so far as they can be used to the best
+outcome for workers and work, and supplements them by such
+scientifically derived additions as could never have been derived
+under the older types.
+
+ CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REWARD.--Rewards, under Scientific
+Management are--
+
+ (a) positive; that is to say, the reward must be a
+ definite, positive gain to the man, and not simply a
+ taking away of some thing which may have been a
+ drawback.
+ (b) predetermined; that is to say, before the man begins to
+ work it must be determined exactly what reward he is to
+ get for doing the work.
+ (c) personal; that is, individual, a reward for that
+ particular man for that particular work.
+ (d) fixed, unchanged. He must get exactly what it has been
+ determined beforehand that he shall get.
+ (e) assured; that is to say, there must be provision made
+ for this reward before the man begins to work, so that
+ he may be positive that he will get the reward if he
+ does the work. The record of the organization must be
+ that rewards have always been paid in the past,
+ therefore probably will be in the future.
+ (f) the reward must be prompt; that is to say, as soon as
+ the work has been done, the man must get the reward.
+ This promptness applies to the announcement of the
+ reward; that is to say, the man must know at once that
+ he has gotten the reward, and also to the receipt of
+ the reward by the man.
+
+ POSITIVE REWARD AROUSES INTEREST AND HOLDS ATTENTION.--The
+benefit of the positive reward is that it arouses and holds
+attention. A fine example of a reward that is not positive is that
+type of "welfare work" which consists of simply providing the worker
+with such surroundings as will enable him to work decently and
+without actual discomfort. The worker, naturally, feels that such
+surroundings are his right, and in no sense a reward and incentive
+to added activity. The reward must actually offer to the worker
+something which he has a right to expect only if he earns it;
+something which will be a positive addition to his life.
+
+ PREDETERMINED REWARD CONCENTRATES ATTENTION.--The predetermined
+reward allows both manager and man to concentrate their minds upon
+the work. There is no shifting of the attention, while the worker
+wonders what the reward that he is to receive will be. It is also a
+strong factor for industrial peace, and for all the extra activities
+which will come when industrial conditions are peaceful.
+
+ PERSONAL REWARD CONSERVES INDIVIDUALITY.--The personal reward is
+a strong incentive toward initiative, towards the desire to make the
+most of one's individuality. It is an aid toward the feeling of
+personal recognition. From this personal reward come all the
+benefits which have been considered under individuality.[1]
+
+ FIXED REWARD ELIMINATES WASTE TIME.--The fact that the reward is
+fixed is a great eliminator of waste to the man and to the manager
+both. Not only does the man concentrate better under the fixed
+reward, but the reward, being fixed, need not be determined anew,
+over and over again; that is to say, every time that that kind of
+work is done, simultaneous with the arising of the work comes the
+reward that is to be paid for it. All the time that would be given
+to determining the reward, satisfying the men and arguing the case,
+is saved and utilized.
+
+ ASSURED REWARD AIDS CONCENTRATION.--The assured reward leads to
+concentration,--even perhaps more so than the fact that the reward
+is determined. In case the man was not sure that he would get the
+reward in the end, he would naturally spend a great deal of time
+wondering whether he would or not. Moreover, no immediate good
+fortune counts for much as an incentive if there is a prospect of
+bad luck following in the immediate future.
+
+ NEED FOR PROMPTNESS VARIES.--The need for promptness of the
+reward varies. If the reward is to be given to a man of an
+elementary type of mind, the reward must be immediately announced
+and must be actually given very promptly, as it is impossible for
+anyone of such a type of intellect to look forward very far.[2] A
+man of a high type of intellectual development is able to wait a
+longer time for his reward, and the element of promptness, while
+acting somewhat as an incentive, is not so necessary.
+
+ Under Scientific Management, with the ordinary type of worker on
+manual work, it has been found most satisfactory to pay the reward
+every day, or at the end of the week, and to announce the score of
+output as often as every hour. This not only satisfies the longing
+of the normal mind to know exactly where it stands, but also lends a
+fresh impetus to repeat the high record. There is also, through the
+prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in wondering what the
+result will be, and in allaying suspense. Suspense is not a stimulus
+to great activity, as anyone who has waited for the result of a
+doubtful examination can testify, it being almost impossible to
+concentrate the mind on any other work until one knows whether the
+work which has been done has been completed satisfactorily or not.
+
+ PROMPTNESS ALWAYS AN ADDED INCENTIVE.--There are many kinds of
+life work and modes of living so terrible as to make one shudder at
+the thoughts of the certain sickness, death, or disaster that are
+almost absolutely sure to follow such a vocation. Men continue to
+work for those wages that lead positively to certain death, because
+of the immediateness of the sufficient wages, or reward. This takes
+their attention from their ultimate end. Much more money would be
+required if payment were postponed, say, five years after the act,
+to obtain the services of the air-man, or the worker subject to the
+poisoning of some branches of the lead and mercury industries.
+
+ If the prompt reward is incentive enough to make men forget
+danger and threatened death, how much more efficient is it in
+increasing output where there is no such danger.
+
+ IMMEDIATE REWARD NOT ALWAYS PREFERABLE.--There are cases where
+the prompt reward is not to be preferred, because the delayed reward
+will be greater, or will be available to more people Such is the
+case with the reward that comes from unrestricted output.
+
+ For example,--the immediacy of the temporarily increased reward
+caused by restricting output has often led the combinations of
+working men to such restriction, with an ultimate loss of reward to
+worker, to employer, and to the consumer.
+
+ REWARDS POSSIBLE OF ATTAINMENT BY ALL.--Every man working under
+Scientific Management has a chance to win a reward. This means not
+only that the man has a "square deal," for the man may have a square
+deal under Traditional Management in that he may have a fair chance
+to try for all existing rewards. There is more than this under
+Scientific Management. By the very nature of the plan itself, the
+rewards are possible of achievement by all; any one man, by winning,
+in no way diminishes the chances of the others.
+
+ REWARDS OF MANAGEMENT RESEMBLE REWARDS OF WORKERS.--So far the
+emphasis, in the discussion of reward, has been on the reward as
+given to the worker, and his feeling toward it. The reward to the
+management is just as sure. It lies in the increased output and
+therefore the possibility of lower costs and of greater financial
+gain. It is as positive; it is as predetermined, because before the
+reward to the men is fixed the management realizes what proportion
+that reward will bear to the entire undertaking, and exactly what
+profits can be obtained. It is a fundamental of Scientific
+Management that the management shall be able to prophesy the outputs
+ahead. It will certainly be as personal, if the management side is
+as thoroughly systematized as is the managed; it will be as fixed
+and as assured, and it certainly is as prompt, as the cost records
+can be arranged to come to the management every day, if that
+is desired.
+
+ RESULTS OF SUCH REWARDS.--There are three other advantages to
+management which might well be added here. First, that a reward such
+as this attracts the best men to the work; second, that the reward,
+and the stability of it, indicates the stability of the entire
+institution, and thus raises its standing in the eyes of the
+community as well as in its own eyes; and third, that it leads the
+entire organization, both managed and managing, to look favorably at
+all standardization. The standardized reward is sure to be
+attractive to all members. As soon as it is realized that the reason
+that it is attractive is because it is _standardized_, the entire
+subject of standardization rises in the estimation of every one, and
+the introduction of standards can be carried on more rapidly, and
+with greater success.
+
+ REWARDS DIVIDED INTO PROMOTION AND PAY.--Rewards may be divided
+into two kinds; first, promotion and, second, pay. Under Scientific
+Management promotion is assured for every man and, as has been said,
+this promotion does not thereby hold back others from having the
+same sort of promotion. There is an ample place, under Scientific
+Management, for every man to advance.[3] Not only is the promotion
+sure, thus giving the man absolute assurance that he will advance as
+his work is satisfactory, but it is also gradual.[4] The promotion
+must be by degrees, otherwise the workers may get discouraged, from
+finding their promotion has come faster than has their ability to
+achieve, and the lack of attention, due to being discouraged, may be
+contagious. It is, therefore, of vital importance that the worker be
+properly selected, in order that, in his advancement and promotion,
+he shall be able to achieve his task after having been put at the
+new work. He must be advanced and promoted in a definite line of
+gradual development, in accordance with a fully conceived plan. This
+should be worked out and set down in writing as a definite plan,
+similar to the plan on the instruction card of one of his tasks.
+
+ PROMOTION MAY BE TO PLACES WITHIN OR WITHOUT THE BUSINESS.--In
+many lines of business, the business itself offers ample opportunity
+for promoting all men who can "make good" as rapidly as they can
+prepare themselves for positions over others, and for advancement;
+but under Scientific Management provision is made even in case the
+business does not offer such opportunities.[5] This is done by the
+management finding places outside their own organization for the men
+who are so trained that they can be advanced.
+
+ SUCH PROMOTION ATTRACTS WORKERS.--While at first glance it might
+seem a most unfortunate thing for the management to have to let its
+men go, and while, as Dr. Taylor says, it is unfortunate for a
+business to get the reputation of being nothing but a training
+school, on the other hand, it has a very salutary effect upon the
+men to know that their employers are so disinterestedly interested
+in them that they will provide for their future, even at the risk of
+the individual business at which they have started having to lose
+their services. This will not only, as Dr. Taylor makes clear,
+stimulate many men in the establishment whose men go on to take the
+places of those who are promoted, but will also be a great
+inducement to other men to come into a place that they feel is
+unselfish and generous.
+
+ SUBDIVISIONS OF "PAY."--Under "Pay" we have included eight
+headings:
+
+ 1. Wages
+ 2. Bonus
+ 3. Shorter hours
+ 4. Prizes other than money
+ 5. Extra knowledge
+ 6. Method of attack
+ 7. Good opinion of others
+ 8. Professional standing.
+
+ RELATION BETWEEN WAGES AND BONUS.--Wages and bonus are closely
+related. By wages we mean a fixed sum, or minimum hourly rate, that
+the man gets in any case for his time, and by bonus we mean
+additional money that he receives for achievement of method,
+quantity or quality. Both might very properly be included under
+wages, or under money received for the work, or opportunities for
+receiving money for work, as the case might be. In the discussion of
+the different ways of paying wages under Scientific Management,
+there will be no attempt to discuss the economic value of the
+various means; the different methods will simply be stated, and the
+psychological significance will be, as far as possible, given.
+
+ Before discussing the various kinds of wages advised by the
+experts in Scientific Management, it is well to pause a moment to
+name the various sorts of methods of compensation recognized by
+authorities. David F. Schloss in his "Method of Industrial
+Remuneration" divides all possible ways of gaining remuneration
+into three--
+
+ 1. the different kinds of wages
+ 1. time wage
+ 2. piece wage
+ 3. task wage
+ 4. progressive wage
+ 5. collective piece wage
+ 6. collective task wage
+ 7. collective progressive wage
+ 8. contract work
+ 9. cooeperative work
+
+with
+
+ 2. profit sharing, and
+ 3. industrial cooeperation. These are defined and discussed at
+ length in his book in a lucid and simple manner.
+
+ It is only necessary to quote him here as to the relationship
+between these different forms, where he says, page 11,--"The two
+leading forms of industrial remuneration under the Wages System are
+time wages, and piece wages. Intermediate between these principal
+forms, stands that known as task wage, while supplemental to these
+two named methods, we find those various systems which will here be
+designated by the name of Progressive Wages."[6]
+
+ DAY WORK NEVER SCIENTIFIC.--The simplest of all systems, says
+Dr. Taylor in "A Piece Rate System," paragraph 10, in discussing the
+various forms of compensation "is the Day Work plan, in which the
+employes are divided into certain classes, and a standard rate of
+wages is paid to each class of men," He adds--"The men are paid
+according to the position which they fill, and not according to
+their individual character, energy, skill and reliability," The
+psychological objection to day work is that it does not arouse
+interest or effort or hold attention, nor does it inspire to
+memorizing or to learning.
+
+ It will be apparent that there is no inducement whatever for the
+man to do more than just enough to retain his job, for he in no wise
+shares in the reward for an extra effort, which goes entirely to his
+employer. "Reward," in this case, is usually simply a living
+wage,--enough to inspire the man, if he needs the money enough to
+work to hold his position, but not enough to incite him to any extra
+effort.
+
+ It is true that, in actual practice, through the foreman or some
+man in authority, the workers on day work may be "speeded up" to a
+point where they will do a great deal of work; the foreman being
+inspired, of course, by a reward for the extra output, but, as Dr.
+Taylor says, paragraph 17--"A Piece Rate System," this sort of
+speeding up is absolutely lacking in self-sustaining power. The
+moment that this rewarded foreman is removed, the work will again
+fall down. Therefore, day wage has almost no place in ultimate,
+scientifically managed work.
+
+ PIECE WORK PROVIDES PAY IN PROPORTION TO WORK DONE.--Piece Work
+is the opposite of time work, in that under it the man is paid not
+for the time he spends at the work, but for the amount of work which
+he accomplishes. Under this system, as long as the man is paid a
+proper piece rate, and a rate high enough to keep him interested, he
+will have great inducements to work. He will have a chance to
+develop individuality, a chance for competition, a chance for
+personal recognition. His love of reasonable racing will be
+cultivated. His love of play may be cultivated.
+
+ All of these incentives arise because the man feels that his
+sense of justice is being considered; that if the task is properly
+laid out, and the price per piece is properly determined, he is
+given a "square deal" in being allowed to accomplish as great an
+amount of work as he can, with the assurance that his reward will be
+promptly coming to him.
+
+ DANGER OF RATE BEING CUT.--Piece work becomes objectionable only
+when the rate is cut. The moment the rate is cut the first time, the
+man begins to wonder whether it is going to be cut again, and his
+attention is distracted from the work by his debating this question
+constantly. At best, his attention wanders from one subject to the
+other, and back again. It cannot be concentrated on his work. After
+the rate has been cut once or twice,--and it is sure to be cut
+unless it has been set from scientifically derived elementary time
+units,--the man loses his entire confidence in the stability of the
+rate, and, naturally, when he loses this confidence, his work is
+done more slowly, due to lack of further enthusiasm. On the
+contrary, as long as it is to his advantage to do the work and he is
+sure that his reward will be prompt, and that he will always get the
+price that has been determined as right by him and by the employers
+for his work, he can do this work easily in the time set. As soon as
+he feels that he will not get it, he will naturally begin to do
+less, as it will be not only to his personal advantage to do as
+little as possible, but also very much to the advantage of his
+fellows, for whom the rate will also be cut.
+
+ TASK WAGE CONTAINS NO INCENTIVE TO ADDITIONAL WORK.--What
+Schloss calls the Task Wage would, as he well says, be the
+intermediate between time or day wage and piece wage; that is, it
+would be the assigning of a definite amount of work to be done in
+definite time, and to be paid for by a definite sum. If the task
+were set scientifically, and the time scientifically determined, as
+it must naturally be for a scientific task, and the wage adequate
+for that work, there would seem to be nothing about this form of
+remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisfaction to the
+worker. Naturally, however, there would be absolutely no chance for
+him to desire to go any faster than the time set, or to accomplish
+any more work in the time set than that which he was obliged to, in
+that he could not possibly get anything for the extra work done.
+
+ WORTH OF PREVIOUS METHODS IN THE HANDLING.--It will be noted in
+the discussion of the three types of compensation so far discussed,
+that there is nothing in them that renders them unscientific. Any
+one of the three may be used, and doubtless all are used, on works
+which are attempting to operate under Scientific Management. Whether
+they really are scientific methods of compensation or not, is
+determined by the way that they are handled. Certainly, however, all
+that any of these three can expect to do is to convince the man that
+he is being treated justly; that is to say, if he knows what sort of
+a contract he is entering into, the contract is perfectly fair,
+provided that the management keeps its part of the contract, pays
+the agreed-upon wage.
+
+ In proceeding, instead of following the order of Schloss we will
+follow the order, at least for a time, of Dr. Taylor In "A Piece
+Rate System"; this for two reasons:
+
+ First, for the reason that the "Piece Rate System" is later than
+Schloss' book, Schloss being 1891, and the "Piece Rate" being 1895;
+in the second place that we are following the Scientific Management
+side in distinction to the general economic side, laid down by
+Schloss. There is, however, nothing in our plan of discussion here
+to prevent one's following fairly closely in the Schloss also.
+
+ THE GAIN-SHARING PLAN.--We take up, then, the Gain-sharing Plan
+which was invented by Mr. Henry R. Towne and used by him with
+success in the Yale & Towne works. This is described in a paper read
+before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in professional
+paper No. 341, in 1888 and also in the Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's
+modification of it, described by him in a paper entitled the
+"Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," American Society of
+Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, in describing the
+Profit-sharing Plan, Mr. Halsey says--"Under it, in addition to
+regular wages, the employes were offered a certain percentage of the
+final profits of the business. It thus divides the savings due to
+increased production between employer and employe."
+
+ OBJECTIONS TO THIS PLAN.--We note here the objection to this
+plan: First,--"The workmen are given a share in what they do not
+earn; second, the workmen share regardless of individual deserts;
+third, the promised rewards are remote; fourth, the plan makes no
+provision for bad years; fifth, the workmen have no means of knowing
+if the agreement is carried out." Without discussing any farther
+whether these are worded exactly as all who have tried the plan
+might have found them, we may take these on Mr. Halsey's authority
+and discuss the psychology of them. If the workmen are given a share
+in what they do not earn, they have absolutely no feeling that they
+are being treated justly. This extra reward which is given to them,
+if in the nature of a present, might much better be a present out
+and out. If it has no scientific relation to what they have gotten,
+if the workmen share regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr.
+Taylor says, paragraph 27 in the "Piece Rate System," is the most
+serious defect of all, in that it does not allow for recognition of
+the personal merits of each workman. If the rewards are remote, the
+interest is diminished. If the plan makes no provision for bad
+years, it cannot be self-perpetuating. If the workmen have no means
+of knowing if the agreement will be carried out or not, they will be
+constantly wondering whether it is being carried out or not, and
+their attention will wander.
+
+ THE PREMIUM PLAN.--The Premium Plan is thus described by Mr.
+Halsey--"The time required to do a given piece of work is determined
+from previous experience, and the workman, in addition to his usual
+daily wages, is offered a premium for every hour by which he reduces
+that time on future work, the amount of the premium being less than
+his rate of wages. Making the hourly premium less than the hourly
+wages is the foundation stone upon which rest all the merits of
+the system."
+
+ DR. TAYLOR'S DESCRIPTION OF THIS PLAN.--Dr. Taylor comments upon
+this plan as follows:
+
+ "The Towne-Halsey plan consists in recording the quickest time
+in which a job has been done, and fixing this as a standard. If the
+workman succeeds in doing the job in a shorter time, he is still
+paid his same wages per hour for the time he works on the job, and,
+in addition, is given a premium for having worked faster, consisting
+of from one-quarter to one-half the difference between the wages
+earned and the wages originally paid when the job was done in
+standard time," Dr. Taylor's discussion of this plan will be found
+in "Shop Management," paragraphs 79 to 91.
+
+ Psychologically, the defect of this system undoubtedly is that
+it does not rest upon accurate scientific time study, therefore
+neither management nor men can predict accurately what is going to
+happen. Not being able to predict, they are unable to devote their
+entire attention to the work in hand, and the result cannot be as
+satisfactory as under an assigned task, based upon time study. The
+discussion of this is so thorough in Dr. Taylor's work, and in Mr.
+Halsey's work, that it is unnecessary to introduce more here.
+
+ PROFIT-SHARING.--Before turning to the methods of compensation
+which are based upon the task, it might be well to introduce here
+mention of "Cooeperation," or "Profit-sharing," which, in its extreme
+form, usually means the sharing of the profits from the business as
+a whole, among the men who do the work. This is further discussed by
+Schloss, and also by Dr. Taylor in paragraphs 32 to 35, in "A Piece
+Rate System"; also in "Shop Management," quoting from the "Piece
+Rate System," paragraphs 73 to 77.
+
+ OBJECTIONS TO PROFIT-SHARING.--The objections, Dr. Taylor says,
+to cooeperation are, first in the fact that no form of cooeperation
+has been devised in which each individual is allowed free scope for
+his personal ambition; second, in the remoteness of the reward;
+third, in the unequitable division of the profits. If each
+individual is not allowed free scope, one sees at once that the
+entire advantage of individuality, and of personal recognition, is
+omitted. If the reward is remote, we recognize that its power
+diminishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be equitable division
+of the profits, not only will the men ultimately not be satisfied,
+but they will, after a short time, not even be satisfied while they
+are working, because their minds will constantly be distracted by
+the fact that the division will probably not be equitable, and also
+by the fact that they will be trying to plan ways in which they can
+get their proper share. Thus, not only in the ultimate outcome, but
+also during the entire process, the work will slow up necessarily,
+because the men can have no assurance either that the work itself,
+or the output, have been scientifically determined.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT EMBODIES VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF
+PROFIT-SHARING.--Scientific Management embodies the valuable
+elements of profit-sharing, namely, the idea of cooeperation, and the
+idea that the workers should share in the profit.
+
+ That the latter of these two is properly emphasized by
+Scientific Management is not always understood by the workers. When
+a worker is enabled to make three or four times as much output in a
+day as he has been accustomed to, he may think that he is not
+getting his full share of the "spoils" of increased efficiency,
+unless he gets a proportionately increased rate of pay. It should,
+therefore, be early made clear to him that the saving has been
+caused by the actions of the management, quite as much as by the
+increased efforts for productivity of the men. Furthermore, a part
+of the savings must go to pay for the extra cost of maintaining the
+standard conditions that make such output possible. The necessary
+planners and teachers usually are sufficient as object-lessons to
+convince the workers of the necessity of not giving all the extra
+savings to the workers.
+
+ It is realized that approximately one third of the extra profits
+from the savings must go to the employer, about one third to the
+employes, and the remainder for maintaining the system and carrying
+out further investigations.
+
+ This once understood, the satisfaction that results from a
+cooeperative, profit-sharing type of management will be enjoyed.
+
+ The five methods of compensation which are to follow are all
+based upon the task, as laid down by Dr. Taylor; that is to say,
+upon time study, and an exact knowledge by the man, and the
+employers, of how much work can be done.
+
+ DIFFERENTIAL RATE PIECE WORK THE ULTIMATE FORM OF COMPENSATION.--
+Dr. Taylor's method of compensation, which is acknowledged by all
+thoroughly grounded in Scientific Management to be the ultimate
+form of compensation where it can be used, is called Differential
+Rate Piece Work. It is described in "A Piece Rate System,"
+paragraphs 50 to 52, as follows:--
+
+ "This consists, briefly, in paying a higher price per piece, or
+per unit, or per job, if the work is done in the shortest possible
+time and without imperfection, than is paid if the work takes a
+longer time or is imperfectly done. To illustrate--suppose 20 units,
+or pieces, to be the largest amount of work of a certain kind that
+can be done in a day. Under the differential rate system, if a
+workman finishes 20 pieces per day, and all of these pieces are
+perfect, he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay for
+the day 15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he works too slowly and
+turns out only, say 19 pieces, then instead of receiving 15 cents
+per piece he gets only 12 cents per piece, making his pay for the
+day 12x19= $2.28, instead of $3.00 per day. If he succeeds in
+finishing 20 pieces--some of which are imperfect--then he should
+receive a still lower rate of pay, say 10c or 5c per piece,
+according to circumstances, making his pay for the day $2.00 or only
+$1.00, instead of $3.00."
+
+ ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM.--This system is founded upon
+knowledge that for a large reward men will do a large amount of
+work. The small compensation for a small amount of work--and under
+this system the minimum compensation is a little below the regular
+day's work--may lead men to exert themselves to accomplish more
+work. This system appeals to the justice of the men, in that it is
+more nearly an exact ratio of pay to endeavor.
+
+ TASK WORK WITH A BONUS.--The Task work with Bonus system of
+compensation, which is the invention of Mr. H.L. Gantt, is explained
+in "A Bonus System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, read before the
+American Society of Mechanical Engineers, December, 1901, by Mr.
+Gantt. This system is there described as follows:--
+
+ "If the man follows his instructions and accomplishes all the
+work laid out for him as constituting his proper task for the day,
+he is paid a definite bonus in addition to the day rate which he
+always gets. If, however, at the end of the day he has failed to
+accomplish all of the work laid out, he does not get his bonus, but
+simply his day rate." This system of compensation is explained more
+fully in Chapter VI of Mr. Gantt's book, "Work, Wages and Profits,"
+where he explains the modification now used by him in the bonus.
+
+ ADVANTAGES OF TASK WORK WITH A BONUS.--The psychological
+advantage of the task with a Bonus is the fact that the worker has
+the assurance of a living wage while learning, no matter whether he
+succeeds in winning his bonus or not. In the last analysis, it is
+"day rate" for the unskilled, and "piece rate" for the skilled, and
+it naturally leads to a feeling of security in the worker. Mr. Gantt
+has so admirably explained the advantages, psychological as well as
+industrial, of his system, that it is unnecessary to go farther,
+except to emphasize the fine feeling of brotherhood which underlies
+the idea, and its expression.
+
+ THE DIFFERENTIAL BONUS SYSTEM.--The Differential Bonus System of
+Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frederick A. Parkhurst, and is
+described by him in his book "Applied Methods of Scientific
+Management."
+
+ "The time the job should be done in is first determined by
+analysis and time study. The bonus is then added above the day work
+line. No bonus is paid until a definitely determined time is
+realized. As the time is reduced, the bonus is increased."
+
+ THREE RATE WITH INCREASED RATE SYSTEM.--The Three Rate System of
+Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth and consists
+of day work, i.e., a day rate, or a flat minimum rate, which all who
+are willing to work receive until they can try themselves out; of a
+middle rate, which is given to the man when he accomplishes the work
+with exactness of compliance to prescribed motions, according to the
+requirements of his instruction card; and of a high rate, which is
+paid to the man when he not only accomplishes the task in accordance
+with the instruction card, but also within the set time and of the
+prescribed quality of finished work.
+
+ ADVANTAGE OF THIS SYSTEM.--The advantage of this is, first of
+all, that the man does not have to look forward so far for some of
+his reward, as it comes to him just as soon as he has shown himself
+able to do the prescribed methods required accurately. The first
+extra reward is naturally a stimulus toward winning the second extra
+reward. The middle rate is a stimulus to endeavor to perform that
+method which will enable him easiest to achieve the accomplishment
+of the task that pays the highest wage. The day rate assures the man
+of a living wage. The middle rate pays him a bonus for trying to
+learn. The high rate gives him a piece rate when he is skilled.
+
+ Lastly, as the man can increase his output, with continued
+experience, above that of the task, he receives a differential rate
+piece on the excess quantity, this simply making an increasing
+stimulus to exceed his previous best record.
+
+ ALL TASK SYSTEMS INVESTIGATE LOSS OF BONUS.--Under all these
+bonus forms of wages, if the bonus is not gained the fact is at once
+investigated, in order that the blame may rest where it belongs. The
+blame may rest upon the workers, or it may be due to the material,
+which may be defective, or different from standard; it may be upon
+the supervision, or some fault of the management in not supplying
+the material in the proper quality, or sequence, or a bad condition
+of tools or machinery; or upon the instruction card. The fact that
+the missing of the bonus is investigated is an added assurance to
+the workman that he is getting the "square deal," and enlists his
+sympathy with these forms of bonus system, and his desire to work
+under them. The fact that the management will investigate also
+allows him to concentrate upon output, with no worry as to the
+necessity of his investigating places where he has fallen short.
+
+ NECESSITY FOR WORKERS BEARING THIS LOSS.--In any case, whether
+the blame for losing the bonus is the worker's fault directly or
+not, he loses his bonus. This, for two reasons; in the first place,
+if he did not lose his bonus he would have no incentive to try to
+discover flaws before delays occurred; he would, otherwise, have an
+incentive to allow the material to pass through his hands, defective
+or imperfect as the case might be. This is very closely associated
+with the second reason, and that is, that the bonus comes from the
+savings caused by the plan of management, and that it is necessary
+that the workers as well as the management shall see that everything
+possible tends to increase the saving. It is only as the worker
+feels that his bonus is a part of the saving, that he recognizes the
+justice of his receiving it, that it is in no wise a gift to him,
+simply his proper share, accorded not by any system of philanthropy,
+or so-called welfare work, but simply because his own personal work
+has made it possible for the management to hand back his share
+to him.
+
+ USERS OF ANY TASK SYSTEM APPRECIATE OTHER TASK SYSTEMS.--It is
+of great importance to the workers that the users of any of these
+five methods of compensation of Scientific Management are all ready
+and glad to acknowledge the worth of all these systems. In many
+works more than one, in some all, of these systems of payment may be
+in use. Far from this resulting in confusion, it simply leads to the
+understanding that whatever is best in the particular situation
+should be used. It also leads to a feeling of stability everywhere,
+as a man who has worked under any of these systems founded on time
+study can easily pass to another. There is also a great gain here in
+the doing away of industrial warfare.
+
+ SHORTER HOURS AND HOLIDAYS EFFECTIVE REWARDS.--Probably the
+greatest incentive, next to promotion and more pay, are shorter
+hours and holidays. In some cases, the shorter hours, or holidays,
+have proven even more attractive to the worker than the increase of
+pay. In Shop Management, paragraph 165, Dr. Taylor describes a case
+where children working were obliged to turn their entire pay
+envelopes over to their parents. To them, there was no particular
+incentive in getting more money, but, when the task was assigned, if
+they were allowed to go as soon as their task was completed, the
+output was accomplished in a great deal shorter time. Another case
+where shorter hours were successfully tried, was in an office where
+the girls were allowed the entire Saturday every two weeks, if the
+work was accomplished within a set amount of time. This extra time
+for shopping and matinees proved more attractive than any reasonable
+amount of extra pay that could be offered.
+
+ DESIRE FOR APPROBATION AN INCENTIVE.--Under "Individuality" were
+discussed various devices for developing the individuality of the
+man, such as his picture over a good output or record. These all act
+as rewards or incentives. How successful they would be, depends
+largely upon the temperament of the man and the sort of work that is
+to be done. In all classes of society, among all sorts of people,
+there is the type that loves approbation. This type will be appealed
+to more by a device which allows others to see what has been done
+than by almost anything else. As to what this device must be,
+depends on the intelligence of the man.
+
+ NECESSITY FOR COOePERATION A STRONG INCENTIVE.--Under Scientific
+Management, many workers are forced by their coworkers to try to
+earn their bonuses, as "falling down on" tasks, and therefore
+schedules, may force them to lose their bonuses also.
+
+ The fact that, in many kinds of work, a man falling below his
+task will prevent his fellows from working, is often a strong
+incentive to that man to make better speed. For example, on a
+certain construction job in Canada, the teamsters were shown that,
+by their work, they were cutting down working opportunities for cart
+loaders, who could only be hired as the teamsters hauled sufficient
+loads to keep them busy.
+
+ VALUE OF KNOWLEDGE GAINED AN INCENTIVE TO A FEW ONLY.--Extra
+knowledge, and the better method of attack learned under Scientific
+Management, are rewards that will be appreciated by those of
+superior intelligence only. They will, in a way, be appreciated by
+all, because it will be realized that, through what is learned, more
+pay or promotion is received, but the fact that this extra
+knowledge, and better method of attack, will enable one to do better
+in all lines, not simply in the line at which one is working, and
+will render one's life more full and rich, will be appreciated only
+by those of a wide experience.
+
+ ACQUIRED PROFESSIONAL STANDING A POWERFUL INCENTIVE.--Just as
+the success of the worker under Scientific Management assures such
+admiration by his fellow-workers as will serve as an incentive
+toward further success, so the professional standing attained by
+success in Scientific Management acts as an incentive to those in
+more responsible positions.
+
+ As soon as it is recognized that Scientific Management furnishes
+the only real measure of efficiency, its close relationship to
+professional standing will be recognized, and the reward which it
+can offer in this line will be more fully appreciated.
+
+ PUNISHMENTS NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE.--Punishments may be first
+negative, that is, simply a loss of promised rewards. Such
+punishments, especially in cases of men who have once had the
+reward, usually will act as the necessary stimulus to further
+activity. Punishments may also be positive, such things as fines,
+assignment to less pleasant work, or as a last resort, discharge.
+
+ FINES NEVER ACCRUE TO THE MANAGEMENT.--Fines have been a most
+successful mode of punishment under Scientific Management. Under
+many of the old forms of management, the fines were turned back to
+the management itself, thus raising a spirit of animosity in the
+men, who felt that everything that they suffered was a gain to those
+over them. Under Scientific Management all fines are used in some
+way for the benefit of the men themselves. All fines should be used
+for some benefit fund, or turned into the insurance fund. The fines,
+as has been said, are determined solely by the disciplinarian, who
+is disinterested in the disposition of the funds thus collected. As
+the fines do not in any way benefit the management, and in fact
+rather hurt the management in that the men who pay them, no matter
+where they are applied, must feel more or less discouraged, it is,
+naturally, for the benefit of the management that there shall be as
+few fines as possible. Both management and men realize this, which
+leads to industrial peace, and also leads the managers, the
+functional foremen, and in fact every one, to eliminate the
+necessity and cause for fines to as great an extent as is possible.
+
+ ASSIGNMENT TO LESS PLEASANT WORK EFFECTIVE PUNISHMENT.--
+Assignment to less pleasant work is a very effective form of
+discipline. It has many advantages which do not show on the surface,
+The man may not really get a cut in pay, though his work be changed,
+and thus the damage he receives is in no wise to his purse, but
+simply to his feeling of pride. In the meantime, he is gaining a
+wider experience of the business, so that even the worst
+disadvantage has its bright side.
+
+ DISCHARGE TO BE AVOIDED WHEREVER POSSIBLE.--Discharge is, of
+course, available under Scientific Management, as under all other
+forms, but it is really less used under Scientific Management than
+under any other sort, because if a man is possibly available, and in
+any way trained, it is better to do almost anything to teach him, to
+assign him to different work, to try and find his possibilities,
+than to let him go, and have all that teaching wasted as far as the
+organization which has taught it is concerned.
+
+ DISCHARGE A GRAVE INJURY TO A WORKER.--Moreover, Scientific
+Management realizes that discharge may be a grave injury to a
+worker. As Mr. James M. Dodge, who has been most successful in
+Scientific Management and is noted for his good work for his
+fellow-men, eloquently pleads, in a paper on "The Spirit in Which
+Scientific Management Should Be Approached," given before the
+Conference on Scientific Management at Dartmouth College,
+October, 1911:
+
+ "It is a serious thing for a worker who has located his home
+within reasonable proximity to his place of employment and with
+proper regard for the schooling of his children, to have to seek
+other employment and readjust his home affairs, with a loss of time
+and wages. Proper management takes account not only of this fact,
+but also of the fact that there is a distinct loss to the employer
+when an old and experienced employe is replaced by a new man, who
+must be educated in the methods of the establishment. An old employe
+has, in his experience, a potential value that should not be lightly
+disregarded, and there should be in case of dismissal the soundest
+of reasons, in which personal prejudice or temporary mental
+condition of the foreman should play no part.
+
+ "Constant changing of employes is not wholesome for any
+establishment, and the sudden discovery by a foreman that a man who
+has been employed for a year or more is 'no good' is often a
+reflection on the foreman, and more often still, is wholly untrue.
+All working men, unless they develop intemperate or dishonest
+habits, have desirable value in them, and the conserving and
+increasing of their value is a duty which should be assumed by
+their superiors."
+
+ PUNISHMENT CAN NEVER BE ENTIRELY ABOLISHED.--It might be asked
+why punishments are needed at all under this system; that is, why
+positive punishments are needed. Why not merely a lack of reward for
+the slight offenses, and a discharge if it gets too bad? It must be
+remembered, however, that the punishments are needed to insure a
+proper appreciation of the reward. If there is no negative side, the
+beauty of the reward will never be realized; the man who has once
+suffered by having his pay cut for something which he has done
+wrong, will be more than ready to keep up to the standard. In the
+second place, unless individuals are punished, the rights of other
+individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. When it is
+considered that under Scientific Management the man who gives the
+punishment is the disinterested disciplinarian, that the punishment
+is made exactly appropriate to the offense, and that no advantage
+from it comes to any one except the men themselves, it can be
+understood that the psychological basis is such as to make a
+punishment rather an incentive than a detriment.
+
+ DIRECT INCENTIVES NUMEROUS AND POWERFUL.--As for the direct
+incentives, these are so many that it is possible to enumerate only
+a few. For example--
+
+ This may be simply a result of love of speed, love of play, or
+love of activity, or it may be, in the case of a man running a
+machine, not so much for the love of the activity as for a love of
+seeing things progress rapidly. There is a love of contest which has
+been thoroughly discussed under "Athletic Contests," which results
+in racing, and in all the pleasures of competition.
+
+ RACING DIRECTED UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The psychology of
+the race under Scientific Management is most interesting. The race
+is not a device of Scientific Management to speed up the worker, any
+speed that would be demanded by Scientific Management beyond the
+task-speed would be an unscientific thing. On the other hand, it is
+not the scope of Scientific Management to bar out any contests which
+would not be for the ultimate harm of the workers. Such interference
+would hamper individuality; would make the workers feel that they
+were restricted and held down. While the workers are, under
+Scientific Management, supposed to be under the supervision of some
+one who can see that the work is only such as they can do and
+continuously thrive, any such interference as, for example, stopping
+a harmless race, would at once make them feel that their individual
+initiative was absolutely destroyed. It is not the desire of
+Scientific Management to do anything of that sort, but rather to use
+every possible means to make the worker feel that his initiative is
+being conserved.
+
+ ALL "NATIVE REACTIONS" ACT AS INCENTIVES.--Pride,
+self-confidence, pugnacity,--all the "native reactions" utilized by
+teaching serve as direct incentives.
+
+ RESULTS OF INCENTIVES TO THE WORK.--All incentives in every form
+of management, tend, from their very nature, to increase output.
+When Scientific Management is introduced, there is selection of such
+incentives as will produce greatest amount of specified output, and
+the results can be predicted.
+
+ RESULTS OF INCENTIVES TO THE WORKER.--Under Traditional
+Management the incentives are usually such that the worker is likely
+to overwork himself if he allows himself to be driven by the
+incentive. This results in bodily exhaustion. So, also, the anxiety
+that accompanies an unstandardized incentive leads to mental
+exhaustion. With the introduction of Transitory Management, danger
+from both these types of exhaustion is removed. The incentive
+is so modified that it is instantly subject to judgment as to its
+ultimate value.
+
+ Scientific Management makes the incentives stronger than they
+are under any other type, partly by removing sources of worry, waste
+and hesitation, partly by determining the ratio of incentive to
+output. The worker under such incentives gains in bodily and mental
+poise and security.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX FOOTNOTES: ==============================================
+
+ 1. W.P. Gillette, _Cost Analysis Engineering_, p. 3.
+ 2. F.W. Taylor, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. 33, para. 59.
+ 3. Hugo Diemer, _Factory Organization and Administration_, p. 5.
+ 4. James M. Dodge, Paper 1115, A.S.M.E., p. 723.
+ 5. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 310-311, Harper Ed.,
+ pp. 142-143.
+ 6. See also C.U. Carpenter, _Profit Making in Shop and Factory
+ Management_, pp. 113-115. For an extended and excellent account
+ of the theory of well-known methods of compensating workmen, see
+ C.B. Going, _Principles of Industrial Engineering_, chap. VIII.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ WELFARE
+
+
+ DEFINITION OF WELFARE.--"Welfare" means "a state or condition of
+doing well; prosperous or satisfactory course or relation; exemption
+from evil;" in other words, well-being. This is the primary meaning
+of the word. But, to-day, it is used so often as an adjective, to
+describe work which is being attempted for the good of industrial
+workers, that any use of the word welfare has that fringe of meaning
+to it.
+
+ "WELFARE" HERE INCLUDES TWO MEANINGS.--In the discussion of
+welfare in this chapter, both meanings of the word will be included.
+"Welfare" under each form of management will be discussed, first, as
+meaning the outcome to the men of the type of management itself; and
+second, as discussing the sort of welfare work which is used under
+that form of management.
+
+ DISCUSSION OF FIRST ANSWERS. THREE QUESTIONS.--A discussion of
+welfare as the result of work divides itself naturally into three
+parts, or three questions:
+
+ What is the effect upon the physical life?
+ What is the effect upon the mental life?
+ What is the effect upon the moral life?
+
+ UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--The
+indefiniteness of Traditional Management manifests itself again in
+this discussion, it being almost impossible to make any general
+statement which could not be controverted by particular examples;
+but it is safe to say that in general, under Traditional Management,
+there is not a definite physical improvement in the average worker.
+In the first place, there is no provision for regularity in the
+work. The planning not being done ahead, the man has absolutely no
+way of knowing exactly what he will be called upon to do. There
+being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he
+can go to work the second part of the day, say, with anything like
+the efficiency with which he could go to work in the first part of
+the day. There being no standard, the amount of work which he can
+turn out must vary according as the tools, machinery and equipment
+are in proper condition, and the material supplies his needs.
+
+ NO GOOD HABITS NECESSARILY FORMED.--In the second place, under
+Traditional Management there are no excellent habits necessarily
+formed. The man is left to do fairly as he pleases, if only the
+general outcome be considered sufficient by those over him. There
+may be a physical development on his part, if the work be of a kind
+which can develop him, or which he likes to such an extent that he
+is willing to do enough of it to develop him physically; this liking
+may come through the play element, or through the love of work, or
+through the love of contest, or through some other desire for
+activity, but it is not provided for scientifically, and the outcome
+cannot be exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional Management
+there is no way of knowing that good health and increased strength
+will result from the work, and we know that in many cases poor
+health and depleted strength have been the outcome of the work. We
+may say then fairly, as far as physical improvement is concerned
+that, though it might be the outcome of Traditional Management, it
+was rather in spite of Traditional Management, in the sense at least
+that the management had nothing to do with it, and had absolutely no
+way of providing for it. The moment that it was provided for in any
+systematic way, the Traditional Management vanished.
+
+ NO DIRECTED MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Second, mental development.
+Here, again, there being no fixed habits, no specially trained habit
+of attention, no standard, there was no way of knowing that the
+man's mind was improving. Naturally, all minds improve merely with
+experience. Experience must be gathered in, and must be embodied
+into judgment. There is absolutely no way of estimating what the
+average need in this line would be, it varies so much with the
+temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be a thing that the
+man himself was responsible for, and not the management, certainly
+not the management in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an
+individual worker might be largely responsible for improving him
+intellectually. If this were so, it would be because of the
+temperament of the over-man, or because of his friendly desire to
+impart a mental stimulus; seldom, if ever, because the management
+provided for its being imparted. Thus, there was absolutely no way
+of predicting that wider or deeper interest, or that increased
+mental capacity, would take place.
+
+ MORAL DEVELOPMENT DOUBTFUL.--As for moral development, in the
+average Traditional Management it was not only not provided for, but
+rather doubtful. A man had very little chance to develop real,
+personal responsibilities, in that there was always some one over
+him who was watching him, who disciplined him and corrected him, who
+handed in the reports for him, with the result that he was in a very
+slight sense a free agent. Only men higher up, the foremen and the
+superintendents could obtain real development from personal
+responsibilities. Neither was there much development of
+responsibility for others, in the sense of being responsible for
+personal development of others. Having no accurate standards to
+judge by, there was little or no possibility of appreciation of the
+relative standing of the men, either by the individual of himself,
+or by others of his ability. The man could be admired for his
+strength, or his skill, but not for his real efficiency, as measured
+in any satisfactory way. The management taught self-control in the
+most rudimentary way, or not at all. There was no distinct goal for
+the average man, neither was there any distinct way to arrive at
+such a goal; it was simply a case, with the man lower down, of
+making good for any one day and getting that day's pay. In the more
+enlightened forms of Traditional Management, a chance for promotion
+was always fairly sure, but the moment that the line of promotion
+became assured, we may say that Traditional Management had really
+ceased, and some form of Transitory Management was in operation.
+
+ "SQUARE DEAL" LACKING.--Perhaps the worst lack under Traditional
+Management is the lack of the "square deal." In the first place,
+even the most efficient worker under this form of management was not
+sure of his place. This not only meant worry on his part, which
+distracted his attention from what he did, but meant a wrong
+attitude all along the line. He had absolutely no way of knowing
+that, even though he did his best, the man over him, in anger, or
+because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not discharge him,
+put him in a lower position. So also the custom of spying, the only
+sort of inspection recognized under Traditional Management of the
+most elementary form, led to a feeling on the men's part that they
+were being constantly watched on the sly, and to an inability to
+concentrate. This brought about an inability to feel really honest,
+for being constantly under suspicion is enough to poison even one's
+own opinion of one's integrity. Again, being at the beck and call of
+a prejudiced foreman who was all-powerful, and having no assured
+protection from the whims of such a man, the worker was obliged,
+practically for self-protection, to try to conciliate the foremen by
+methods of assuming merits that are obvious, on the surface. He
+ingratiates himself in the favor of the foreman in that way best
+adapted to the peculiarities of the character of the foreman,
+sometimes joining societies, or the church of the foreman, sometimes
+helping him elect some political candidate or relative; at other
+times, by the more direct method of buying drinks, or taking up a
+subscription for presenting the foreman with a gold watch, "in
+appreciation of his fairness to all;" sometimes by consistently
+losing at cards or other games of chance. When it is considered that
+this same foreman was probably, at the time, enjoying a brutal
+feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense of confidence of the
+"square deal" could develop. There are countless ways that the
+brutal enjoyment of power could be exercised by the man in a
+foreman's position. As has already been said, some men prefer
+promotion to a position of power more than anything else. Nearly all
+desire promotion to power for the extra money that it brings, and
+occasionally, a man will be found who loves the power, although
+unconsciously, for the pleasure he obtains in lording over other
+human beings. This quality is present more or less in all human
+beings. It is particularly strong in the savage, who likes to
+torture captured human beings and animals, and perhaps the greatest
+test for high qualifications of character and gentleness is that of
+having power over other human beings without unnecessarily accenting
+the difference in the situation. Under Military Management, there is
+practically no limit to this power, the management being satisfied
+if the foreman gets the work out of the men, and the men having
+practically no one to appeal to, and being obliged to receive their
+punishment always from the hands of a prejudiced party.
+
+ LITTLE POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPMENT OF WILL.--Being under such
+influence as this, there is little or no possibility of the
+development of an intelligent will. The "will to do" becomes
+stunted, unless the pay is large enough to lead the man to be
+willing to undergo abuses in order to get the money. There is
+nothing, moreover, in the aspect of the management itself to lead
+the man to have a feeling of confidence either in himself, or in the
+management, and to have that moral poise which will make him wish
+to advance.
+
+ REAL CAPACITY NOT INCREASED.--With the likelihood of suspicion,
+hate and jealousy arising, and with constant preparations for
+conflict, of which the average union and employers' association is
+the embodiment, naturally, real capacity is not increased, but is
+rather decreased, under this form of management, and we may ascribe
+this to three faults:
+
+ First, to lack of recognition of individuality,--men are handled
+mostly as gangs, and personality is sunk.
+
+ Second, to lack of standardization, and to lack of time study,
+that fundamental of all standardization, which leads to absolute
+inability to make a measured, and therefore scientific judgment, and
+
+ Third, to the lack of teaching; to the lack of all
+constructiveness.
+
+ These three lacks, then, constitute a strong reason why
+Traditional Management does not add to the welfare of the men.
+
+ LITTLE SYSTEMATIZED WELFARE WORK UNDER TRADITIONAL
+MANAGEMENT.--As for welfare work,--that is, work which the employers
+themselves plan to benefit the men, if under such work be included
+timely impulses of the management for the men, and the carrying of
+these out in a more or less systematic way, it will be true to say
+that such welfare work has existed in all times, and under all forms
+of management. The kind-hearted man will show his kind heart
+wherever he is, but it is likewise true to say that little
+systematic beneficial work is done under what we have defined as
+Traditional Management.
+
+ DEFINITE STATEMENTS AS TO WELFARE UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT
+DIFFICULT TO MAKE.--It is almost impossible to give any statement as
+to the general welfare of workers under Transitory Management,
+because, from the very nature of the case, Transitory Management is
+constantly changing. In the discussion of the various chapters, and
+in showing how individuality, functionalization, measurement, and so
+on, were introduced, and the psychological effect upon the men of
+their being introduced, welfare was more or less unsystematically
+considered. In turning to the discussion under Scientific Management
+and showing how welfare is the result of Scientific Management and
+is incorporated in it, much as to its growth will be included.
+
+ WELFARE WORK UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT IS USUALLY
+COMMENDABLE.--As to the welfare work under Transitory Management,
+much could be said, and much has been said and written. Typical
+Welfare Work under Transitory Management deserves nothing but
+praise. It is the result of the dedication of many beautiful lives
+to a beautiful cause. It consists of such work as building rest
+rooms for the employes, in providing for amusements, in providing
+for better working conditions, in helping to better living
+conditions, in providing for some sort of a welfare worker who can
+talk with the employes and benefit them in every way, including
+being their representative in speaking with the management.
+
+ AN UNDERLYING FLAW IS APPARENT.--There can be no doubt that an
+enormous quantity of good has been done by this welfare work, both
+positively, to the employes themselves, and indirectly, to the
+management, through fostering a kinder feeling. There is, however, a
+flaw to be found in the underlying principles of this welfare work
+as introduced in Transitory Management, and that is that it takes on
+more or less the aspect of a charity, and is so regarded both by the
+employes and by the employer. The employer, naturally, prides
+himself more or less upon doing something which is good, and the
+employe naturally resents more or less having something given to him
+as a sort of charity which he feels his by right.
+
+ ITS EFFECT IS DETRIMENTAL.--The psychological significance of
+this is very great. The employer, feeling that he has bestowed a
+gift, is, naturally, rather chagrined to find it is received either
+as a right, or with a feeling of resentment. Therefore, he is often
+led to decrease what he might otherwise do, for it is only an
+unusual and a very high type of mind that can be satisfied simply
+with the doing of the good act, without the return of gratitude. On
+the other hand, the employe, if he be a man of pride, may resent
+charity even in such a general form as this, and may, with an
+element of rightness, prefer that the money to be expended be put
+into his pay envelope, instead. If it is simply a case of better
+working conditions, something that improves him as an efficient
+worker for the management, he will feel that this welfare work is in
+no sense something which he receives as a gift, but rather something
+which is his right, and which benefits the employer exactly as much,
+if not more than it benefits him.
+
+ WELFARE WORK NOT SELF-PERPETUATING.--Another fault which can be
+found with the actual administration of the welfare work, is the
+fact that it often disregards one of the fundamental principles of
+Scientific Management, in that the welfare workers themselves do not
+train enough people to follow in their footsteps, and thus make
+welfare self-perpetuating.
+
+ In one case which the writer has in mind, a noble woman is
+devoting her life to the welfare of a body of employes in an
+industry which greatly requires such work. The work which she is
+doing is undoubtedly benefiting these people in every aspect, not
+only of their business but of their home lives, but it is also true
+that should she be obliged to give up the work, or be suddenly
+called away, the work would practically fall to pieces. It is built
+up upon her personality, and, wonderful as it is, its basis must be
+recognized as unscientific and temporary.
+
+ SCIENTIFIC PROVISION FOR WELFARE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--
+Under Scientific Management general welfare is provided for by:--
+
+ The effect that the work has on physical improvement. This we
+shall discuss under three headings--
+
+ 1. the regularity of the work.
+ 2. habits.
+ 3. physical development.
+
+ As for the regularity of the work--we have
+
+ (a) The apportionment of the work and the rest. Under
+ Scientific Management, work time and rest time are
+ scientifically apportioned. This means that the man is
+ able to come to each task with the same amount of
+ strength, and that from his work he gains habits of
+ regularity.
+ (b) The laying out of the work. The standards upon which
+ the instruction cards are based, and the method of
+ preparing them, assure regularity.
+ (c) The manner of performing the work. Every time that
+ identical work is done, it is done in an identical
+ manner.
+
+ The resulting regularity has an excellent effect upon the
+physical welfare of the worker.
+
+ 2. Habits, under Scientific Management,
+
+ (a) are prescribed by standards. The various physical
+ habits of the man, the motions that are used, having
+ all been timed and then standardized, the worker
+ acquires physical habits that are fixed.
+ (b) are taught;[1] therefore they are not remote but come
+ actually and promptly into the consciousness and into
+ the action of the worker.
+ (c) are retained, because they are standard habits and
+ because the rewards which are given for using them make
+ it an object to the worker to retain them.
+ (d) Are reenforced by individuality and functionalization;
+ that is to say, the worker is considered as an
+ individual, and his possibilities are studied, before
+ he is put into the work; therefore, his own
+ individuality and his own particular function naturally
+ reenforce those habits which he is taught to form.
+ These habits, being scientifically derived, add to
+ physical improvement.
+
+ 3. Physical development
+
+ (a) is fostered through the play element, has been
+ scientifically studied, and is utilized as far as
+ possible; the same is true of the love of work, which
+ is reenforced by the fact that the man has been placed
+ where he will have the most love for his work.
+ (b) is insured by the love of contest, which is provided
+ for not only by contest with others, but by the
+ constant contest of the worker with his own previous
+ records. When he does exceed these records he utilizes
+ powers which it is for his good physically, as well as
+ otherwise, to utilize.
+
+ RESULTS OF PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--This regularity, good habits,
+and physical development, result in good health, increased strength
+and a better appearance. To these three results all scientific
+managers testify. An excellent example of this is found in Mr.
+Gantt's "Work, Wages and Profits," where the increased health, the
+better color and the better general appearance of the workers under
+Scientific Management is commented on as well as the fact that they
+are inspired by their habits to dress themselves better and in every
+way to become of a higher type.[2]
+
+ MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Welfare under Scientific Management is
+provided for by Mental Development. This we may discuss under
+habits, and under general mental development.
+
+ 1. As for habits we must consider
+
+ (a) Habits of attention. Under Scientific Management, as we
+ have shown, attention must become a habit. Only when it
+ does become a habit, can the work required be properly
+ performed, and the reward received. As only those who
+ show themselves capable of really receiving the reward
+ are considered to be properly placed, ultimately all
+ who remain at work under Scientific Management must
+ attain this habit of attention.
+ (b) Habit of method of attack. This not only enables the
+ worker to do the things that he is assigned
+ satisfactorily, but also has the broadening effect of
+ teaching him how to do other things, i.e., showing him
+ the "how" of doing things, and giving him standards
+ which are the outcome of mental habits, and by which he
+ learns to measure.
+
+ 2. General mental development is provided for by the experience
+which the worker gets not only in the general way in which all who
+work must give experience, but in the set way provided for by
+Scientific Management. This is so presented to the worker that it
+becomes actually usable at once. This not only allows him to judge
+others, but provides for self-knowledge, which is one of the most
+valuable of all of the outcomes of Scientific Management. He becomes
+mentally capable of estimating his own powers and predicting what he
+himself is capable of doing. The outcome of this mental development is
+
+ (a) wider interest.
+ (b) deeper interest.
+ (c) increased mental capabilities.
+
+ The better method of attack would necessarily provide for wider
+interest. The fact that any subject taken up is in its ultimate
+final unit form, would certainly lead to deeper interest; and the
+exercise of these two faculties leads to increased mental
+capabilities.
+
+ MORAL DEVELOPMENT.--Moral development under Scientific
+Management results from the provisions made for cultivating--
+
+ 1. personal responsibility.
+ 2. responsibility for others.
+ 3. appreciation of standing.
+ 4. self-control.
+ 5. "squareness."
+
+ 1. Personal responsibility is developed by
+
+ (a) Individual recognition. When the worker was considered
+ merely as one of a gang, it was very easy for him to
+ shift responsibilities upon others. When he knows that
+ he is regarded by the management, and by his mates, as
+ an individual, that what he does will show up in an
+ individual record, and will receive individual reward
+ or punishment, necessarily personal responsibility is
+ developed.
+
+ Moreover, this individual recognition is brought to his mind by
+his being expected to fill out his own instruction card. In this
+way, his personal responsibility is specifically brought home
+to him.
+
+ (b) The appreciation which comes under Scientific
+ Management. This appreciation takes the form of reward
+ and promotion, and of the regard of his fellow-workers;
+ therefore, being a growing thing, as it is under
+ Scientific Management, it insures that his personal
+ responsibility, shall also be a growing thing, and
+ become greater the longer he works under Scientific
+ Management.
+
+ 2. Responsibility for others is provided for by the
+inter-relation of all functions. It is not necessary that all
+workers under Scientific Management should understand all about it.
+However, many do understand, and the more that they do understand,
+the more they realize that everybody working under Scientific
+Management is more or less dependent upon everybody else. Every
+worker must feel this, more or less, when he realizes that there are
+eight functional bosses over him, who are closely related to him, on
+whom he is dependent, and who are more or less dependent upon him.
+The very fact that the planning is separated from the performing,
+means that more men are directly interested in any one piece of
+work; in fact, that every individual piece of work that is done is
+in some way a bond between a great number of men, some of whom are
+planning and some of whom are performing it. This responsibility for
+others is made even more close in the dependent bonuses which are a
+part of Scientific Management, a man's pay being dependent upon the
+work of those who are working under him. Certainly, nothing could
+bring the fact more closely to the attention of each and every
+worker under this system, than associating it with the pay envelope.
+
+ 3. Appreciation of standing is fostered by
+
+ (a) individual records. Through these the individual
+ himself knows what he has done, his fellows know, and
+ the management knows.
+ (b) comparative records, which show even those who might
+ not make the comparison, exactly how each worker
+ stands, with relation to his mates, or with relation to
+ his past records.
+
+ This appreciation of standing is well exemplified in the happy
+phrasing of Mr. Gantt--"There is in every workroom a fashion, or
+habit of work, and the new worker follows that fashion, for it isn't
+respectable not to. The man or woman who ignores fashion does not
+get much pleasure from associating with those that follow it, and
+the new member consequently tries to fall in with the sentiment of
+the community.[3] Our chart shows that the stronger the sentiment in
+favor of industry is, the harder the new member tries and the sooner
+he succeeds."
+
+ 4. Self-control is developed by
+
+ (a) the habits of inhibition fostered by Scientific
+ Management,--that is to say, when the right habits are
+ formed, necessarily many wrong habits are eliminated.
+ It becomes a part of Scientific Management to inhibit
+ all inattention and wrong habits, and to concentrate
+ upon the things desired. This is further aided by
+ (b) the distinct goal and the distinct task which
+ Scientific Management gives, which allow the man to
+ hold himself well in control, to keep his poise and to
+ advance steadily.
+
+ 5. "Squareness." This squareness is exemplified first of all by
+the attitude of the management. It provides, in every way, that the
+men are given a "square deal," in that the tasks assigned are of the
+proper size, and that the reward that is given is of the proper
+dimensions, and is assured. This has already been shown to be
+exemplified in many characteristics of Scientific Management, and
+more especially in the inspection and in the disciplining.
+
+ MORAL DEVELOPMENT RESULTS IN CONTENTMENT, BROTHERHOOD AND THE
+"WILL TO DO".--The three results of this moral development are
+
+ 1. contentment
+ 2. brotherhood
+ 3. a "will to do."
+
+ 1. Contentment is the outgrowth of the personal responsibility,
+the appreciation of standing, and the general "squareness" of the
+entire plan of Scientific Management.
+
+ 2. The idea of brotherhood is fostered particularly through the
+responsibility for others, through the feeling that grows up that
+each man is dependent upon all others, and that it is necessary for
+every man to train up another man to take his place before he can be
+advanced. Thus it comes about that the old caste life, which so
+often grew up under Traditional Management, becomes abolished, and
+there ensues a feeling that it is possible for any man to grow up
+into any other man's place. The tug-of-war attitude of the
+management and men is transformed into the attitude of a band of
+soldiers scaling a wall. Not only is the worker pulled up, but he is
+also forced up from the bottom.[4]
+
+ 3. The "will to do" is so fostered by Scientific Management that
+not only is the worker given every incentive, but he, personally,
+becomes inspired with this great desire for activity, which is after
+all the best and finest thing that any system of work can give
+to him.
+
+ INTERRELATION OF PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT.--As to
+the interrelation of physical, mental and moral development, it must
+never be forgotten that the mind and the body must be studied
+together,[5] and that this is particularly true in considering the
+mind in management.[6] For the best results of the mind, the body
+must be cared for, and provided for, fully as much as must the mind,
+or the best results from the mind will not, and cannot, be obtained.
+
+ Successful management must consider the results of all mental
+states upon the health, happiness and prosperity of the worker, and
+the quality, quantity and cost of the output. That is to say, unless
+the mind is kept in the right state, with the elimination of worry,
+the body cannot do its best work, and, in the same way, unless the
+body is kept up to the proper standard, the mind cannot develop.
+Therefore, a really good system of management must consider not only
+these things separately, but in their interrelation,--and this
+Scientific Management does.
+
+ RESULT OF PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IS INCREASED
+CAPACITY.--The ultimate result of all this physical improvement,
+mental development and moral development is increased capacity,
+increased capacity not only for work, but for health, and for life
+in general.
+
+ WELFARE WORK AN INTEGRAL PART OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--
+Strictly speaking, under Scientific Management, there should be no
+necessity for a special department of Welfare Work. It should be so
+incorporated in Scientific Management that it is not to be
+distinguished. Here the men are looked out for in such a way under
+the operation of Scientific Management itself that there is no
+necessity for a special welfare worker. This is not to say that the
+value of personality will disappear under Scientific Management, and
+that it may not be necessary in some cases to provide for nurses,
+for physical directors, and for advisers. It will, however, be
+understood that the entire footing of these people is changed under
+Scientific Management. It is realized under Scientific Management
+that these people, and their work, benefit the employers as much as
+the employes. They must go on the regular payroll as a part of the
+efficiency equipment. The workers must understand that there is
+absolutely no feeling of charity, or of gift, in having them; that
+they add to the perfectness of the entire establishment.
+
+
+ SUMMARY
+
+ RESULTS OF WELFARE TO THE WORK.--Because of Welfare Work, of
+whatever type, more and better work is accomplished, with only such
+expenditure of effort as is beneficial to the worker. Not only does
+the amount of work done increase, but it also tends to become
+constant, after it has reached its standard expected volume.
+
+ RESULT OF WELFARE WORK TO THE WORKER.--This description of
+welfare of the men under Scientific Management, in every sense of
+the word welfare, has been very poor and incomplete if from it the
+reader has not deduced the fact that Scientific Management enables
+the worker not only to lead a fuller life in his work, but also
+outside his work; that it furnishes him hours enough free from the
+work to develop such things as the work cannot develop; that it
+furnishes him with health and interest enough to go into his leisure
+hours with a power to develop himself there; that it furnishes him
+with a broader outlook, and, best of all, with a capacity of judging
+for himself what he needs most to get. In other words, if Scientific
+Management is what it claims to be, it leads to the development of a
+fuller life in every sense of the word, enabling the man to become a
+better individual in himself, and a better member of his community.
+If it does not do this it is not truly Scientific Management. Miss
+Edith Wyatt has said, very beautifully, at the close of her book,
+"Making Both Ends Meet"[7]: "No finer dream was ever dreamed than
+that the industry by which the nation lives, should be so managed as
+to secure for the men and women engaged in it their real prosperity,
+their best use of their highest powers. How far Scientific
+Management will go toward realizing the magnificent dream in the
+future, will be determined by the greatness of spirit and the
+executive genius with which its principles are sustained by all the
+people interested in its inauguration, the employers, the workers
+and the engineers."
+
+ We wish to modify the word "dream" to the word "plan." The plan
+of Scientific Management is right, and, as Miss Wyatt says, is but
+waiting for us to fulfill the details that are laid out before us.
+
+ CONCLUSION.--The results thus far attained by Scientific
+Management justify a prediction as to its future. It will accomplish
+two great works.
+
+ 1. It will educate the worker to the point where workers will
+ be fitted to work, and to live.
+ 2. It will aid the cause of Industrial Peace.
+
+ It will put the great power of knowledge into every man's hands.
+This it must do, as it is founded on cooeperation, and this
+cooeperation demands that all shall know and shall be taught.
+
+ With this knowledge will come ability to understand the rights
+of others as well as one's own. "To know all is to pardon all."
+
+ Necessity for cooeperation, and trained minds:--These two can but
+lead to elimination of that most wasteful of all warfare--Industrial
+Warfare. Such will be the future of Scientific Management,--whether
+it win universal approval, universal disapproval, or half-hearted
+advocacy to-day.
+
+ When the day shall come that the ultimate benefits of Scientific
+Management are realized and enjoyed, depends on both the managers
+and the workers of the country; but, in the last analysis, the
+greatest power towards hastening the day lies in the hands of
+the workers.
+
+ To them Scientific Management would desire to appeal as a road
+up and out from industrial monotony and industrial turmoil. There
+are many roads that lead to progress. This road leads straightest
+and surest,--and we can but hope that the workers of all lands, and
+of our land in particular, will not wait till necessity drives, but
+will lead the way to that true "Brotherhood" which may some day come
+to be.
+
+
+CHAPTER X FOOTNOTES: ===============================================
+
+ 1. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 115, p. 121.
+ 2. Pp. 171-172.
+ 3. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, pp. 154-155.
+ 4. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 170, Harper Ed., p. 76.
+ 5. William James, _Psychology, Advanced Course_. Vol. II, p. 372.
+ 6. See remarkable work of Dr. A. Imbert, _Evaluation de la Capacite
+ de Travail d'un Ouvrier Avant et Apres un Accident; Les Methodes
+ du Laboratoire appliquees a l'Etude directe et pratique des
+ Questions ouvrieres._
+ 7. Clark and Wyatt, Macmillan, pp. 269-270.
+
+====================================================================
+
+
+
+
+ INDEX
+
+
+Accidents, prevention by measuring devices, 114.
+ prevention by standardization, 180.
+"All Round" Men utilized by scientific management, 87.
+Ambition, use of, 258.
+American Journal of Physiology--1904, 111.
+Analysis, amount governed by nature of work, 126.
+ definition of, 123.
+ field of psychology in, 128.
+ training should be provided in schools, 129.
+ worker should understand process, 129.
+Analysis and Synthesis, cost the determining factor, 127.
+ effect on work of, 138.
+ effect on worker of, 138.
+ place in traditional management, 124.
+ place in transitory management, 125.
+ under scientific management, 125.
+ use by psychology, 123.
+Analysist, duties of, 126.
+ qualifications of, 128.
+Animals, standardization of work with, 170.
+Appreciation, under scientific management, 325.
+Apprentices, teaching of, 262.
+Approbation, as an incentive, 304.
+Athletic Contests, description of, 34.
+Attention, forming habit of, 240.
+ gaining of, 178.
+ held by bulletin board, 241.
+ relation to fatigue, 160.
+ relation to instruction card, 241.
+ relation to placing of workers, 161.
+
+
+Babbage, Charles--"Economy of Manufacturers," 2, 76, 179.
+Barth, C.G.--"A.S.M.E. Paper 1010," 778, 174.
+Blan, L.B.--"Special Study of Incidence of Retardation," 29.
+Body, relation of mind to, 48, 160.
+Bonus, definition of, 288.
+ investigation of loss of, 301.
+Brashear, John, 81.
+Breakdowns, prevented by measuring devices, 114.
+Brotherhood, coming of, 332.
+ under scientific management, 328.
+Bulletin Board, aids attention, 241.
+ benefit of, 194.
+
+
+Calkins, M.W.--"A First Book in Psychology," 22, 53, 171.
+Card, instruction, 44.
+Capacity, increasing of, 317, 329.
+Class, relation to individual, 49.
+Clothing, in sports, 167.
+ standards, 166.
+Constructiveness, benefits of, 260.
+Contentment, under scientific management, 327.
+Cooke, M.L.--"Bulletin No. 5 Carnegie Foundation," 9, 86, 94, 139.
+Cooeperation, necessity for, 102, 265, 332.
+ relation to incentives, 304.
+Cost, determining factor in analysis and synthesis, 127.
+Curiosity, under scientific management, 255.
+
+
+Dana, R.T.--"Handbook of Steam Shovel Work," 111.
+Dana and Saunders--"Rock Drilling," 139.
+Day, Charles--"Industrial Plants," 66.
+Day Work, description of, 289.
+Decision of choice, elimination of, 163.
+Demonstration, value of, 227.
+Development, mental, 313, 323.
+ moral, 324.
+Devices, standard, need for, 164.
+Differential Bonus, description of, 300.
+Differential Rate Piece, description of, 298.
+Discharge, avoidance of, 306.
+Disciplinarian, duties of, 68, 70.
+Disciplining, psychology of, 71.
+ under scientific management, 70, 72.
+ under traditional management, 69.
+Dodge, James M., 135.
+ "Discussion to Paper 1119 A.S.M.E.," 131.
+Driver management, 10.
+
+
+Efficiency, controlling factor in, 3.
+ measured by time and motion study, 115.
+ securing of, 3.
+Emulation, use of, 258.
+"Engineering," London, Sept 15, 1911, 136.
+Equipment, measured by motion study and time study, 108.
+ standardization of, 163.
+Errors, checking of, 112.
+Exception principle, records made on, 187.
+ value of, 188.
+
+
+Fatigue, eliminating of, 159.
+ importance of, 233.
+ influence of distracted attention on, 160.
+ relation to standards, 168.
+Fear, treatment of, 252.
+Fines, use of, 305.
+First class man, definition of, 98, 152.
+Foreman, duties of, 55.
+ duties under scientific management, 64.
+ qualifications of, 54, 55.
+Foremanship, functionalized, 63,
+Functional foreman, as teacher, 224.
+Functional foremanship, teaching feature of, 63, 64.
+Functionalization, definition of, 52.
+ effect upon work of, 83.
+ effect upon worker of, 85.
+ under scientific management, 61, 81.
+ under traditional management, 54.
+ under transitory management, 61.
+ use by psychology, 53.
+Functions, basis of division into, 6S.
+ place of operation of, 66.
+
+
+Gain-sharing, definition of, 293.
+ objections to, 294.
+Gang boss, duties of, 73.
+Gang instruction card, description of, 45, 175.
+Gantt, H.L.--"A.S.M.E. Paper 928," 95, 181.
+ "A.S.M.E. Paper No. 1002," 55.
+ "Work, Wages and Profits," 24, 84, 89, 93, 125.
+Gilbreth, F.B.--"Bricklaying System," 130.
+ "Cost Reducing System," 8, 35, 95, 127.
+ "Motion Study," 4, 28, 134.
+Gillette, H.P.--"A.S.E.C. Paper No. 1," 3, 111.
+ "Cost Analysis Engineering," 55.
+Gillette and Dana--"Cost Keeping and Management Engineering," 3, 53, 86.
+Given man, definition of, 152.
+Going, C.B.--"Methods of the Sante Fe," 158.
+Government, duty in measurement of, 120.
+
+
+Habit, importance of, 234.
+ methods of instilling, 236.
+ relation to standards, 235.
+ relation to teaching, 235.
+Habits, necessity of forming, 312.
+ of attention, 24.
+ of motions, right, 238.
+ standardizing of, 164.
+ under scientific management, 321.
+Hathaway, H.K.--"Machinery," Nov., 1906, 84.
+Holidays, effectiveness as reward, 303.
+
+
+Idiosyncrasies, emphasis on, 50.
+Iles, George--"Inventors at Work," 17.
+Imagination, under scientific management, 248.
+Imitation, use of, 256.
+Improvement, physical, 322.
+Incentives, classes of, 272.
+ definition of, 271.
+ direct, 275.
+ importance of, 271.
+ indirect, 272.
+ individual, 46.
+ relation to cooeperation, 304.
+ relation to interest, 242.
+ relation to knowledge, 304.
+ relation to standards, 140.
+ result on work of, 310.
+ result on worker of, 310.
+ under scientific management, 279.
+Individual, as unit, 50.
+ differences respected, 246.
+ importance of study of, 23.
+ relation to class, 49.
+Individuality, definition of, 21.
+ development of, 50.
+ psychological emphasis on, 22.
+ recognition under scientific management, 27.
+ recognition under transitory management, 26.
+ relation to instruction card, 44.
+ relation to standardization, 149.
+ relation to teaching, 46.
+ result upon work, 46.
+ result upon worker, 47.
+ status under traditional management, 24.
+Industrial engineering, 106.
+Industrial peace, relation of scientific management to, 331.
+Initiative, records of, 185.
+Initiative and Incentive Management, 10.
+Inspector, duties of, 75.
+Instruction card, as teacher, 221.
+ clerk, duties of, 67.
+ contents of, 154.
+ definition of, 153.
+ educative value of, 156.
+ gang, 45.
+ help to memory of, 176.
+ individuality under, 44.
+ language of, 157.
+ relation to attention, 241.
+ types of, 154.
+Interest, relation to incentives, 242.
+Interim management, 11.
+Invention, fostered by comparing methods, 107.
+Invention, relation scientific management, 136.
+ under standardization, 179.
+
+
+James, William--"Psychology," 7.
+ "Psychology, Briefer Course," 22.
+Job, long time, provision for, 83.
+ short time, provision for, 82.
+Journeymen, teaching of, 262.
+Judgment, derivation of, 250.
+ result of teaching, 251.
+ securing of, 240.
+
+
+Knowledge, as an incentive, 304,
+ transferred under scientific management, 117.
+
+
+Ladd, G.T.--definition of psychology, 22.
+Le Chatelier, H.--"Discussion to Paper 1119, A.S.M.E," 124.
+Long time job, provision for, 83.
+Loyalty, under scientific management, 253.
+
+
+Man, first class definition of, 98, 152.
+ given, definition of, 152.
+ standard, definition of, 152.
+Management, change in meaning of, 8.
+ definition of, 6.
+ driver, 10.
+ good foundation of, 3.
+ initiative and incentive, 10,
+ interim, 11.
+ Marquis of Queensbury, 10.
+ military, 9.
+ place of analysis and synthesis in, 124.
+ place to start study of, 5.
+ scientific, 12.
+ successful, definition of, 3,
+ teaching of, 3.
+ three stages of, 14.
+ traditional, definition of, 8.
+ traditional, preferable name for, 9, 11.
+ transitory, 11.
+ types of, 8.
+ ultimate, 12.
+ value of study of, 2, 4.
+Manufacturers, duty toward measurement, 122.
+Manual training, necessity for, 264.
+Marquis of Queensbury management, 10.
+Measurement, cooeperation of worker under, 116.
+ definition of, 90.
+ duty of government toward, 120.
+ effect upon worker of, 114.
+ elimination of waste by, 115.
+ importance in management, 93
+ importance in psychology, 90.
+ methods in psychology, 91.
+ methods under scientific management, 105.
+ necessity for training in, 104.
+ of teaching and learning, 263.
+ problems in management, 94.
+ relation to task of, 98.
+ results to work of, 113.
+ selection of units, 111.
+ under scientific management, 97.
+ under traditional management, 95.
+ under transitory management, 96.
+Measured functional management, 12.
+Measurer, qualifications of, 99.
+Measuring devices, prevent accidents and breakdowns, 114.
+Memory, relation to scientific management, 245.
+Metcalfe, Henry--"Cost of Manufactures," 113, 140.
+Method of attack, standardization of, 172.
+Methods, benefits of comparison of, 107.
+ introduction of new, 137.
+ measurement by motion study and time study, 106.
+Micro-motion study, definition of, 106.
+ demands cooeperation, 103.
+Military management, 9.
+Mind, relation of body to, 48, 160.
+Mnemonic symbols, advantages of, 151.
+ use of, 247.
+Motion cycles, use in teaching, 244.
+Motions, habits of right, 238.
+ teaching of right, 237.
+Motion study, aims of, 110.
+ definition of, 106.
+ measurement by, 105.
+ scope of, 108.
+Muensterburg, Hugo--"American Problems," 22, 30, 53, 90, 112.
+
+
+Native reactions, use of, 252, 309.
+
+
+Object lessons, value of, 226.
+Observation, dangers of surreptitious, 102.
+ necessity for unbiased, 101.
+Observed worker, qualifications of, 103.
+Observer, qualifications of, 99.
+ relation of Vocational Guidance Bureau, 101.
+One-talent men, utilized by scientific management, 86.
+Oral teaching, advantages of, 241.
+Order of work clerk, duties of, 66.
+Outputs, advantages of recording, 37.
+ advantages of separating, 36.
+ handling under traditional management, 25.
+ relation to individuality, 33.
+Ownership, use of feeling of, 259.
+
+
+Parkhurst, F.A.--"Applied Methods of Scientific Management," 181.
+Pay, subdivisions of, 288.
+ use of, 286.
+Performing, separated from planning, 61.
+Personality, value of, 255.
+Piece work, description of, 290.
+Planning, a life study, 76.
+ an epoch-making example of, 78.
+ detailed done by all under scientific management, 80.
+ hardship to worker of individual, 79.
+ open to all who like it, 80.
+ separated from performing, 61.
+ taken from all who dislike it, 80.
+ wastefulness of individual, 79.
+Planning department, work of, 62.
+Pin plan, description of, 194.
+Premium plan, description of, 295.
+Pride, stimulation of, 259.
+Professional standing as an incentive, 305.
+Profit-sharing, description of, 296.
+ objections to, 296.
+ relation to scientific management, 297.
+Programme, as routing, 193.
+ definition of, 192.
+ derived from record under scientific management, 203.
+ relation to records, 196.
+ result to work and worker of, 195.
+ types of, 197.
+ under traditional management, 192.
+ under transitory management, 193.
+Promotion, provision for under scientific management, 87, 88.
+ use of, 286.
+Psychology, aid to industries by, 233.
+ appreciation of scientific management by, 93.
+Psychology, definition of, 1, 22.
+ experimental field of, 30.
+ relation to progress, 260.
+ value of study of, 1, 4.
+Psychology of management, conclusions of, 18.
+ definition of, 1.
+ description and outline of, 1.
+ importance of, 1, 4, 15.
+ outline of method of, 18.
+ plan of study in, 15.
+Pugnacity, usefulness of, 259.
+Punishment, avoidance of, 308.
+ classes of, 305.
+ definition of, 273.
+ nature of, 274.
+ under traditional management, 277.
+
+
+Quality, maintenance of, 238.
+ standardization of, 171.
+
+
+Rate, necessity of maintaining, 291.
+Reason, education of, 239.
+Recognition, individual, 324.
+Records, advantages of, 39.
+ definition of, 183.
+ educative value of, 190, 223.
+ individual, 40.
+ making by workers of, 40, 187.
+ necessity for detailed, 109.
+ of achievement, 187.
+ of good behavior, 186.
+ of initiative, 185.
+ posting of, 188.
+ relation to incentives, 41.
+ relation to programmes, 196.
+ result to work of, 188.
+ result on worker of, 189.
+ test of worth of, 184.
+ types of, 185, 197.
+ under scientific management, 184.
+ under traditional management, 183.
+ under transitory management, 184.
+Records and programmes, result on work of, 206.
+Records and programmes, result on worker of, 206.
+Repair boss, duties of, 74.
+Responsibility, under scientific management, 325.
+Rest, provision for, 169.
+Reward, assured, 282.
+ attainability of, 284.
+ benefits of positive, 281.
+ definition of, 273.
+ fixed, 282.
+ nature of, 274.
+ personal, 282.
+ predetermined, 282.
+ results of, 285.
+ under scientific management, 280.
+ under traditional management, 26, 275.
+ under transitory management, 279.
+Rhythm, securing of, 240.
+Route chart, description of, 194.
+Route clerk, duties of, 66.
+
+
+Schloss, David F.--"Methods of Industrial Remuneration," 75, 289.
+Scientific management, appreciation by psychologists of, 93.
+ athletic contests under, 34.
+ brotherhood under, 328.
+ change in mental attitude under, 89.
+ contentment under, 327.
+ definition of, 6, 12.
+ derivation of, 17.
+ development of men under, 87.
+ disciplining under, 70.
+ divisions of, 16.
+ duties of foremen under, 64.
+ emulation under, 258.
+ final results of, 331.
+ functionalization under, 6, 81.
+ importance of teaching under, 215.
+ incentives under, 279.
+ individual task under, 43,
+ measurement under, 97.
+ methods of measurement under, 105.
+ opportunities in, 4.
+ place of workers under, 62.
+ provision for specialists under, 86.
+ provides for same detailed planning by all, 80.
+ place of analysis and synthesis in, 125.
+ possibility of prophecy under, 195.
+ promotion of men under, 87.
+ relation of all parts of, 242.
+ relation to imagination, 248.
+ relation to individuality, 27.
+ relation to individual records, 42.
+ relation to industrial peace, 331.
+ relation to invention, 136.
+ relation to memory, 245.
+ relation to profit snaring, 297.
+ relation to traditional management, 218.
+ relation to welfare, 320.
+ rewards under, 184, 280.
+ results in loyalty, 253.
+ selection of workers under, 32.
+ standardization under, 147.
+ stimulation of pride by, 259.
+ supplements demanded by, 29.
+ teaching of apprentices under, 262.
+ teaching of journeymen under, 262.
+ training of will under, 261.
+ transference of knowledge under, 117.
+ underlying ideas of, 16.
+ use of ambition by, 258.
+ use of curiosity, 255.
+ use of imitation, 256.
+ utilization of "all round" men under, 87.
+ utilization of one-talent men by, 86.
+ vocabulary, interest of, 8.
+ vocabulary, poverty, 7.
+ "will to do" under, 328.
+Self control, development of, 326.
+Sense training, importance of, 228.
+ methods of, 230.
+ scope of, 231.
+Short time job, provision for, 82.
+Smith, Adam--"Wealth of Nations," 84, 179.
+Soldiering, disadvantages of, 274.
+Specialists, provision under scientific management for, 86.
+Specializing, encouraged under scientific management, 86.
+Speed boss, duties of, 74.
+Square deal, need for, 315.
+Squareness, under scientific management, 327.
+Standards, derivation of, 139.
+ effect of, 168.
+ relation to automatic response, 239.
+ relation to habit, 235.
+ relation to incentive, 140, 257.
+ relation to "judgment," 141.
+ relation to phrasing, 158.
+ relation to psychology, 142.
+ relations to systems, 145.
+ relation to task, 140.
+ result of measurement, 147.
+"Standard amount," definition of, 98.
+Standard clothing, 167.
+Standard man, definition of, 152.
+Standardization, definition of, 139.
+ develops individuality, 149.
+ invention under, 180.
+ of clothing, 166.
+ of devices, 164.
+ of equipment, 163.
+ of method of attack, 172.
+ of nomenclature, 151.
+ of quality, 171.
+ of tools, 164.
+ prevention of accidents by, 180.
+ progress of, 181.
+ purpose of, 143.
+Standardization, relation to initiative, 148.
+ result to work of, 173.
+ result to worker of, 174.
+ under scientific management, 147.
+ under traditional management, 143.
+ under transitory management, 144.
+ universality of application, 149.
+ waste eliminated by, 150.
+Stratton--"Experimental Psychology and Culture,"
+ 92, 93, 113, 160, 169.
+Suggestion, use of, 252.
+Suggestion card, description of, 185.
+Sully, James--"The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology,"
+ 22, 23, 53, 141.
+Synthesis, definition of, 123.
+ importance of selection in, 129.
+ relation to task, 130.
+Synthesist, duties of, 129.
+ qualifications of, 135.
+Systems, definition of, 221.
+ importance of, 144.
+ incentives to follow, 214.
+ inelasticity of, 214.
+ relations to standards of, 145.
+ teaching power of, 213.
+ value in transitory management, 146.
+
+
+Task, advantage to name for, 133.
+ applied to work of all, 134.
+ definition under scientific management, 133.
+ individual under scientific management, 43.
+ measured by motion study and time study, 108.
+ organization, 134.
+ relation to measurement of, 98.
+ relation to standard, 140.
+ result of synthesis, 130.
+ under traditional management, 25.
+ unfortunate name of, 131.
+Task wage, definition of, 292.
+Task work with a bonus, 299.
+Taylor, F.W.--"A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 28," 108.
+ "A.S.M.E. Paper 1119," 112, 180.
+ "On the Art of Cutting Metals," 78, 166.
+ "Piece Rate System, A," 117.
+ "Principles of Scientific Management," 4, 10, 15, 18, 62.
+ "Shop Management," 7, 9, 26, 54, 55, 63, 94, 95, 108, 117, 164, 165.
+Taylor and Thompson--"Concrete Plain and Reinforced," 123.
+Teaching, availability of, 227
+ equipment of, 225.
+ functional foreman as, 224.
+ training of, 224.
+Teaching, availability of, 227.
+ by motion cycles, 244.
+ definition of, 208.
+ devices of, 222.
+ future of, 268.
+ involved in functional foremanship, 64.
+ measurement of, 263.
+ methods of, 220.
+ need of, 219.
+ of right motions, 23.
+ of untrained worked, 232.
+ oral, 223, 241.
+ psychological basis of, 228.
+ relation to habit, 235.
+ relation to individuality, 46.
+ results in judgment, 251.
+ results to work of, 266.
+ results to worker of, 266.
+ scope of, 219.
+ sources of, 220.
+ under scientific management, 215.
+ under traditional management, 25, 208.
+ under transitory management, 213.
+Three Rate with Increased Rate,
+ description of, 300.
+Time and Cost clerk, duties of, 68.
+Time study, aims of, 110.
+ definition of, 106
+ importance to worker of, 121.
+ measurement by, 105.
+ scope of, 108.
+"Tolerance," provision for, 172.
+Tools, standard, need for, 164.
+Towne, H.R.--"Introduction to Scientific Management," 12.
+Traditional management,
+ definition of, 8, 11.
+ disciplining under, 69.
+ functionalization under, 54.
+ handling of output under, 25.
+ measurement under, 95.
+ place of analysis and synthesis in, 124.
+ position of workers under, 60.
+ preferable name for, 9.
+ programme under, 192.
+ punishment under, 277.
+ records under, 183.
+ reward under, 26, 275.
+ selecting workers under, 24.
+ standardization under, 143.
+ tasks under, 25.
+ teaching under, 25, 208.
+ treatment of individuality, 24.
+ welfare under, 311, 317.
+Transitory management,
+ functionalization under, 61.
+ measurement under, 96.
+ place of analysis and synthesis in, 125.
+ programmes under, 193.
+ recognition of individuality, 26.
+ records under, 184, 185.
+ reward under, 279.
+ standardization under, 144.
+ teaching under, 213.
+ value of systems in, 146.
+ welfare under, 318.
+
+
+Ultimate management, 12.
+U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture, No. 208, 108.
+Units of measurement, selection of, 111.
+
+
+Vocabulary, importance of scientific management, 7.
+Vocational guidance, duties of, 265.
+ relation to teaching, 264.
+Vocational guidance bureau,
+ training of observers by, 101.
+ work of, 29.
+
+
+Wages, definition of, 288.
+Waste, eliminated by measurement, 115.
+ eliminated by standardization, 150.
+Welfare, definition of, 311.
+ individual, 46.
+ relation to traditional management, 311.
+ relation to transitory management, 318.
+ result to work of, 330.
+ result on worker of, 330.
+ under scientific management, 320.
+Welfare work,
+ relation to scientific management, 329.
+ under traditional management, 317.
+White List File, description of, 186.
+Will, development of, 316.
+ education of, 239.
+ training of, 261.
+Will to do, under scientific management, 328.
+Work, effect of analysis and synthesis on, 138.
+ effect of functionalization upon, 83.
+ necessity for regularity in, 321.
+ result of incentives to, 310.
+ result of individuality upon, 46.
+ results of measurement on, 113.
+ result of programme on, 195.
+ result of records on, 188, 206.
+Work, result of standardization on, 173.
+ results of teaching on, 266.
+ result of welfare on, 330.
+Worker, advantages of functionalization to, 76.
+ appreciation of time study by, 121.
+ capacity of, 94.
+ change in mental attitude under scientific management, 89.
+ cooeperation under measurement of, 116.
+ development through records, 39.
+ effect of analysis and synthesis on, 138.
+ effect of functionalization upon, 85.
+ effect of measurement upon, 114.
+ given planning if he likes it, 80.
+ hardship of individual planning to, 79.
+ making of records by, 40.
+ observed, qualifications of, 103.
+ observed, securing cooeperation of, 102.
+ place under scientific management, 62.
+ position under traditional management, 60.
+ records made by, 187.
+ relation to process of analysis, 129.
+ relation to standardization, 164.
+ relieved of planning if he dislikes it, 80,
+ rest periods for, 169.
+ result of incentives on, 310.
+ result of individuality upon, 47.
+ result of programme on, 195, 206.
+ result of records to, 189, 206.
+ results of standardization to, 174.
+ results of teaching on, 266.
+ result of welfare on, 330.
+ rewards of, 285.
+ selection under scientific management, 32.
+ selection under traditional management, 24.
+ untrained, teaching of, 232.
+ variables of, 28.
+Working models, value of, 226.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Psychology of Management, by L. M. Gilbreth
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