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Gilbreth, Ph.D.</title> +<style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + .ltritem {margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0em;} /* block indent */ + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Psychology of Management, by L. M. Gilbreth + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Psychology of Management + The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and + Installing Methods of Least Waste + +Author: L. M. Gilbreth + +Release Date: July 10, 2005 [EBook #16256] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT *** + + + + +Produced by Audrey Longhurst, Tom Roch and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div><!--Cover--><a name="P-fm01" id="Cover"></a> +<h1>THE PSYCHOLOGY</h1> +<h3>OF</h3> +<h1>MANAGEMENT</h1> +<br /> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<!--Publisher--><a name="P-fm02" id="Publisher"></a> +<h3>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</h3> +<h5>NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS<br /> +ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO</h5> +<h3>MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED</h3> +<h5>LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA<br /> +MELBOURNE</h5> +<h3>THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.</h3> +<h5>TORONTO</h5> +<br /> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<!--Title Page--><a name="P-fm03" id="Title"></a> +<h1>THE PSYCHOLOGY</h1> +<h3>OF</h3> +<h1>MANAGEMENT</h1> +<br /> +<h4><i>The Function of the Mind in Determining,<br /> +Teaching and Installing Methods<br /> +of Least Waste</i></h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<h5>BY</h5> +<h3>L.M. GILBRETH, PH.D.</h3> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<h3>New York<br /> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +1921</h3> +<br /> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<!--Copyright--><a name="P-fm04" id="Copyright"></a> +<h5>1914,<br /> +BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</h5> +<br /> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<center>Set up and +electrotyped. Published March, +1914</center> +<br /> +<hr width="50%" /> +<br /> +<!--Dedication--><a name="P-fm05" id="Dedication"></a> +<h3>TO MY<br /> +FATHER AND MOTHER</h3> +<br /> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<!--Contents p1--><a name="P-contents01" id="Contentsp1"></a> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<h3><a href="#chapteri">CHAPTER I</a></h3> +<table summary="General Outline of the Psychology of Management"> +<tr> +<td><b>DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF +MANAGEMENT</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td> <a href="#P001">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Psychology of Management — +Importance of the Subject — Purpose of this Book — +Definition of Management — The Three Types of Management +— Possible Psychological Studies of Management — Plan +of Psychological Study Here Used — Underlying Ideas or +Divisions of Scientific Management — Outline of Method of +Investigation — Conclusions to be Reached.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapterii">CHAPTER II</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter II"> +<tr> +<td><b>INDIVIDUALITY</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td> <a href="#P021">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Individuality — Place of +Individuality in Psychology — Individuality Under Traditional +Management — Individuality Under Transitory Management +— Individuality Under Scientific Management — Selection +of Workers — Separating Output — Recording Output +Separately — Individual Tasks — Individual Instruction +Cards — Individual Teaching — Individual Incentives +— Individual Welfare — Summary: (a) Effect of +Individuality upon Work; (b) Effect of Individuality upon +Worker.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapteriii">CHAPTER III</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter III"> +<tr> +<td><b>FUNCTIONALIZATION</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td> <a href="#P052">52</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Functionalization — +Psychological Use of Functionalization — Functionalization in +Traditional Management — Functionalization Under Transitory +Management — Functionalization Under Scientific Management +— Separating <!--Contents p2--><a name="P-contents02" id= +"Contentsp2"></a> the Planning From the Performing — +Functionalized Foremanship — The Function of Order of Work +and Route Clerk — The Function of Instruction Card Clerk +— The Function of Time and Cost Clerk — The Function of +Disciplinarian — The Function of Gang Boss — The +Function of Speed Boss — The Function of Repair Boss — +The Function of Inspector — Functionalizing the Worker +— Functionalizing the Work Itself — Summary: (a) Effect +of Functionalization upon the Work; (b) Effect of Functionalization +upon the Worker.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapteriv">CHAPTER IV</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter IV"> +<tr> +<td><b>MEASUREMENT</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td> <a href="#P090">90</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Measurement — Importance of +Measurement in Psychology — Relation of Measurement in +Psychology to Measurement in Management — Importance of +Measurement in Management — Measurement in Traditional +Management — Measurement in Transitory Management — +Measurement in Scientific Management — Qualifications of the +Observer — Methods of Observation — Definitions of +Motion Study and Time Study — Methods of Motion Study and +Time Study — Summary: (a) Effect of Measurement on the Work; +(b) Effect of Measurement on the Worker; (c) Future Results to be +Expected; (d) First Step Toward Obtaining These Results.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapterv">CHAPTER V</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter V"> +<tr> +<td><b>ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Analysis — Definition of +Synthesis — Use of Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology +— Importance of Analysis and Synthesis in Management — +Place in Traditional Management — Place in Transitory +Management — Place in Scientific Management — The Work +of the Analyst — Determining Factor in Amount of Analysis +— Field of Psychology in Analysis — Qualifications of +an Analyst — Worker's Interest in Analysis — +<!--Contents p3--><a name="P-contents03" id="Contentsp3"></a> The +Work of the Synthesist — Results of Synthesist's Work — +The Task — Discussion of the Name "Task" — Definition +of "Task" in Scientific Management — Field of Application of +the Task Idea — Qualifications of the Synthesist — +Summary: (a) Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Work; (b) +Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Worker.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chaptervi">CHAPTER VI</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter VI"> +<tr> +<td><b>STANDARDIZATION</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P139">139</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Standardization — Relation +of the Standard to the Task and the Incentive — Relation of +the Standard to Psychology — Purpose of Standardization +— Standardization Under Traditional Management — +Standardization Under Transitory Management — Value of +Systems — Standardization Under Scientific Management — +Relation of Standard to Measurement — Scope of +Standardization Under Scientific Management — Permanence of +Results — Needs of Standardization Likened to Needs in Field +of Spelling — Standard Nomenclature — Advantages of +Mnemonic Symbols — Standard Phraseology — The Standard +Man — Standard Means of Conveying Information — +Definition of the Instruction Card — Detailed Description of +the Instruction Card — Value of Standard Surroundings — +Necessity for Proper Placing of the Worker — Standard +Equipment — Standard Tools and Devices — Standard +Clothing — Standard Methods — Rest from Fatigue — +Standardization of Work with Animals — Standard Quality +— Standard "Method of Attack" — Summary: (a) Effect of +Standardization on the Work; (b) Effect of Standardization on the +Worker; (c) Progress of Standardization Assured.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chaptervii">CHAPTER VII</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter VII"> +<tr> +<td><b>RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Record — Records Under +Traditional Management — Records Under Transitory +<!--Contents p4--><a name="P-contents04" id="Contentsp4"></a> +Management — Records Under Scientific Management — +Criterion of Records — Records of Work and Workers — +Records of Initiative — Records of Good Behavior — +Records of Achievement — Records of "Exceptions" — +Posting of Records — Summary of Results of Records to Work +and Worker — Definition of Programme — Programmes Under +Traditional Management — Programmes Under Transitory +Management — Programmes Under Scientific Management — +Programmes and Routing — Possibility of Prophecy Under +Scientific Management — Summary of Results of Programmes to +Work and Worker — Relation Between Records and Programmes +— Types of Records and Programmes — Interrelation of +Types — Illustrations of Complexity of Relations — +Possibilities of Eliminating Waste — Derivation of the +Programme — Summary: (a) Effect of Relations Between Records +and Programmes on the Work; (b) Effect on the Worker.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapterviii">CHAPTER VIII</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter VIII"> +<tr> +<td><b>TEACHING</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P208">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Teaching — Teaching Under +Traditional Management — Faults Due to Lack of Standards +— Teaching Under Transitory Management — Teaching Under +Scientific Management — Importance of Teaching — +Conforming of Teaching to Psychological Laws — Conservation +of Valuable Elements of Traditional and Transitory Management +— Scope of Teaching — Source of Teaching — +Methods of Teaching — Instruction Cards as Teachers — +Systems as Teachers — Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs +— Functional Foremen as Teachers — Object Lessons as +Teachers — Training the Senses — Forming Good Habits +— Importance of Teaching Right Motions First — +Stimulating Attention — Forming Associations — +Educating the Memory — Cultivating the Imagination — +Developing the Judgment — Utilizing Suggestion — +Utilizing Native <!--Contents p5--><a name="P-contents05" id= +"Contentsp5"></a> Reactions — Developing the Will — +Adaptability of Teaching — Provision of Places for Teaching +— Measurement of Teaching — Relation of Teaching to +Academic Training and Vocational Guidance — Summary: (a) +Result of Teaching in the Work; (b) Result of Teaching to the +Worker; (c) Results to be Expected in the Future.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapterix">CHAPTER IX</a></h3> +<table summary="Chapter IX"> +<tr> +<td><b>INCENTIVES</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P271">271</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Incentive — Importance of +Incentives — Direct and Indirect Incentives — +Definition of Reward — Definition of Punishment — +Nature of Direct Incentives — The Reward Under Traditional +Management — The Punishment Under Traditional Management +— The Direct Incentive Under Traditional Management — +Incentives Under Transitory Management — Rewards Under +Scientific Management — Promotion and Pay — Relation of +Wages and Bonus — Day Work — Piece Work — Task +Wage — Gain Sharing — Premium Plan — Profit +Sharing — Differential Rate Piece — Task Work with a +Bonus — Differential Bonus — Three Rate — Three +Rate with Increased Rate — Other Rewards — Negative and +Positive Punishments — Fines and Their Disposal — +Assignment to Less Pleasant Work — Discharge and Its +Elimination — Use of Direct Incentives — Summary: (a) +Effect of Incentives upon the Work; (b) Effect of Incentives upon +the Worker.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<h3><a href="#chapterx">CHAPTER X</a></h3> + +<table summary="Chapter X"> +<tr> +<td><b>WELFARE</b></td> +<td> </td> +<td><a href="#P311">311</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="justify">Definition of Welfare — "Welfare" and +"Welfare Work" — Welfare Under Traditional Management — +Welfare Work Under Traditional Management — Welfare Under +Transitory Management — Welfare Work Under Transitory +Management — Welfare Under Scientific Management +<!--Contents p6--><a name="P-contents06" id="Contentsp6"></a> +— Physical Improvement — Mental Development — +Moral Development — Interrelation of Physical, Mental and +Moral Development — Welfare Work Under Scientific Management +— Summary: (a) Result of Welfare to the Work; (b) Result of +Welfare to the Worker.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#index"><b>INDEX</b></a></td> +<td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#index">333</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> +<!--Page 001--><a name="P001" id="P001"></a> +<hr width="33%" /> +<br /> +<h1>The Psychology of Management</h1> +<br /> +<h3><a name="chapteri" id="chapteri">CHAPTER I</a></h3> +<h3>DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL OUTLINE OF</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Psychology of Management.</b> — The +Psychology of Management, as here used, means, — the effect +of the mind that is directing work upon that work which is +directed, and the effect of this undirected and directed work upon +the mind of the worker.</p> +<p><b>Importance of the Subject.</b> — Before defining the +terms that will be used more in detail, and outlining the method of +treatment to be followed, it is well to consider the importance of +the subject matter of this book, for upon the reader's interest in +the subject, and his desire, from the outset, to follow what is +said, and to respond to it, rests a large part of the value of this +book.</p> +<p><b>Value of Psychology.</b> — First of all, then, what is +there in the subject of psychology to demand the attention of the +manager?</p> +<p>Psychology, in the popular phrase, is "the study of the mind." +It has for years been included in the training of all teachers, and +has been one of the first steps for the student of philosophy; but +it has not, usually, been included among the studies of the young +<!--Page 002--><a name="P002" id="P002"></a> scientific or +engineering student, or of any students in other lines than +Philosophy and Education. This, not because its value as a "culture +subject" was not understood, but because the course of the average +student is so crowded with technical preparation necessary to his +life work, and because the practical value of psychology has not +been recognized. It is well recognized that the teacher must +understand the working of the mind in order best to impart his +information in that way that will enable the student to grasp it +most readily. It was not recognized that every man going out into +the world needs all the knowledge that he can get as to the working +of the human mind in order not only to give but to receive +information with the least waste and expenditure of energy, nor was +it recognized that in the industrial, as well as the academic +world, almost every man is a teacher.</p> +<p><b>Value of Management.</b> — The second question +demanding attention is; — Of what value is the study of +management?</p> +<p>The study of management has been omitted from the student's +training until comparatively recently, for a very different reason +than was psychology. It was never doubted that a knowledge of +management would be of great value to anyone and everyone, and many +were the queer schemes for obtaining that knowledge after +graduation. It was doubted that management could be studied +otherwise than by observation and practice. <a href= +"#ch01fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> Few teachers, if any, believed in the +existence, or possibility, of a teaching <!--Page 003--><a name= +"P003" id="P003"></a> science of management. Management was +assumed by many to be an art, by even more it was thought to be a +divinely bestowed gift or talent, rather than an acquired +accomplishment. It was common belief that one could learn to manage +only by going out on the work and watching other managers, or by +trying to manage, and not by studying about management in a class +room or in a text book; that watching a good manager might help +one, but no one could hope really to succeed who had not "the knack +born in him."</p> +<p>With the advent of "Scientific Management," and its +demonstration that the best management is founded on laws that have +been determined, and can be taught, the study of management in the +class room as well as on the work became possible and +actual.<a href="#ch01fn02"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Value of Psychology of Management.</b> — Third, we must +consider the value of the study of the psychology of +management.<a href="#ch01fn03"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p>This question, like the one that precedes it, is answered by +Scientific Management. It has demonstrated that the emphasis in +successful management lies on the <i>man</i>, not on the +<i>work</i>; that efficiency is best secured by placing the +emphasis on the man, and modifying the equipment, materials and +methods to make the most of the man. It has, further, recognized +that the man's mind is a controlling factor in his efficiency, and +has, by teaching, enabled <!--Page 004--><a name="P004" id= +"P004"></a> the man to make the most of his powers. <a href= +"#ch01fn04"><sup>4</sup></a> In order to understand this teaching +element that is such a large part of management, a knowledge of +psychology is imperative; and this study of psychology, as it +applies to the work of the manager or the managed, is exactly what +the "psychology of management" is.</p> +<p><b>Five Indications of This Value.</b> — In order to +realize the importance of the psychology of management it is +necessary to consider the following five points: —</p> +<p>1. Management is a life study of every man who works with other +men. He must either manage, or be managed, or both; in any case, he +can never work to best advantage until he understands both the +psychological and managerial laws by which he governs or is +governed.</p> +<p>2. A knowledge of the underlying laws of management is the most +important asset that one can carry with him into his life work, +even though he will never manage any but himself. It is useful, +practical, commercially valuable.</p> +<p>3. This knowledge is to be had <i>now</i>. The men who have it +are ready and glad to impart it to all who are interested and who +will pass it on.<a href="#ch01fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> The text books +are at hand now. The opportunities for practical experience in +Scientific Management will meet all demands as fast as they are +made.</p> +<p>4. The psychology of, that is, the mind's +<!--Page 005--><a name="P005" id="P005"></a> place in management +is only one part, element or variable of management; one of +numerous, almost numberless, variables.</p> +<p>5. It is a division well fitted to occupy the attention of the +beginner, as well as the more experienced, because it is a most +excellent place to start the study of management. A careful study +of the relations of psychology to management should develop in the +student a method of attack in learning his selected life work that +should help him to grasp quickly the orderly array of facts that +the other variables, as treated by the great managers, bring to +him.</p> +<p><b>Purpose of This Book.</b> — It is scarcely necessary to +mention that this book can hope to do little more than arouse an +interest in the subject and point the way to the detailed books +where such an interest can be more deeply aroused and more fully +satisfied.</p> +<p><b>What This Book Will Not Do.</b> — It is not the purpose +of this book to give an exhaustive treatment of psychology. Neither +is it possible in this book to attempt to give a detailed account +of management in general, or of the Taylor plan of "Scientific +Management" so-called, in particular. All of the literature on the +subject has been carefully studied and reviewed for the purpose of +writing this book, — not only what is in print, but +considerable that is as yet in manuscript. No statement has been +made that is not along the line of the accepted thought and +standardized practice of the authorities. The foot notes have been +prepared with great care. By reading <!--Page 006--><a name="P006" +id="P006"></a> the references there given one can verify +statements in the text, and can also, if he desires, inform himself +at length on any branch of the subject that especially interests +him.</p> +<p><b>What This Book Will Do.</b> — This book aims not so +much to instruct as to arouse an interest in its subject, and to +point the way whence instruction comes. If it can serve as an +introduction to psychology and to management, can suggest the +relation of these two fields of inquiries and can ultimately enroll +its readers as investigators in a resultant great field of inquiry, +it will have accomplished its aim.</p> +<p><b>Definition of Management.</b> — To discuss this subject +more in detail —</p> +<p>First: What is "Management"?</p> +<p>"Management," as defined by the Century Dictionary, is "the art +of managing by direction or regulation."</p> +<p>Successful management of the old type was an art based on no +measurement. Scientific Management is an art based upon a science, +— upon laws deducted from measurement. Management continues +to be what it has always been, — the <i>art</i> of directing +activity.</p> +<p><b>Change in the Accepted Meaning.</b> — "Management," +until recent years, and the emphasis placed on Scientific +Management was undoubtedly associated, in the average mind, with +the <i>managing</i> part of the organization only, neglecting that +vital part — the best interests of the managed, almost +entirely. Since we have come to realize that management signifies +the relationship between the managing <!--Page 007--><a name="P007" +id="P007"></a> and the managed in doing work, a new realization +of its importance has come about. <a href= +"#ch01fn06"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Inadequacy of the Terms Used</b>. — It is unfortunate +that the English language is so poor in synonyms in this field that +the same word must have two such different and conflicting +meanings, for, though the new definition of management be accepted, +the "Fringe" of associations that belong to the old are apt to +remain.<a href="#ch01fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> The thoughts of "knack, +aptitude, tact, adroitness," — not to speak of the less +desirable "Brute Force," "shrewdness, subtlety, cunning, artifice, +deceit, duplicity," of the older idea of management remain in the +background of the mind and make it difficult, even when one is +convinced that management is a science, to think and act as if it +were.</p> +<p>It must be noticed and constantly remembered that one of the +greatest difficulties to overcome in studying management and its +development is the meaning of the terms used. It is most +unfortunate that the new ideas have been forced to content +themselves with old forms as best they may.</p> +<p><b>Psychological Interest of the Terms</b>. — Psychology +could ask no more interesting subject than a study of the mental +processes that lie back of many of these terms. It is most +unfortunate for the obtaining of clearness, that new terms were not +invented for the new ideas. There is, however, an excellent reason +for using the old terms. By their use it is emphasized that the new +thought is a logical outgrowth <!--Page 008--><a name="P008" id= +"P008"></a> of the old, and experience has proved that this +close relationship to established ideas is a powerful argument for +the new science; but such terms as "task," "foreman," "speed boss," +"piece-rate" and "bonus," as used in the science of management, +suffer from misunderstanding caused by old and now false +associations. Furthermore, in order to compare old and new +interpretations of the ideas of management, the older terms of +management should have their traditional meanings only. The two +sets of meanings are a source of endless confusion, unwarranted +prejudice, and worse. This is well recognized by the authorities on +Management.</p> +<p><b>The Three Types of Management.</b> — We note this +inadequacy of terms again when we discuss the various <i>types</i> +of Management.</p> +<p>We may divide all management into three types —</p> +<p>(1) Traditional</p> +<p>(2) Transitory</p> +<p>(3) Scientific, or measured functional. <a href= +"#ch01fn08"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p>Traditional Management, the first, has been variously called +"Military," "Driver," the "Marquis of Queensberry type," +"Initiative and Incentive Management," as well as "Traditional" +management.</p> +<p><b>Definition of the First Type.</b> — In the first type, +the power of managing lies, theoretically at least, in the hands of +one man, a capable "all-around" manager. The line of authority and +of responsibility is clear, fixed and single. Each man comes in +direct contact with but one man above him. A man may or may not +manage more than one man beneath him, <!--Page 009--><a name="P009" +id="P009"></a> but, however this may be, he is managed by but +one man above him.</p> +<p><b>Preferable Name for the First Type.</b> — The names +"Traditional," or "Initiative and Incentive," are the preferable +titles for this form of management. It is true they lack in +specificness, but the other names, while aiming to be descriptive, +really emphasize one feature only, and in some cases with +unfortunate results.</p> +<p><b>The Name "Military" Inadvisable.</b> — The direct line +of authority suggested the name "Military," <a href= +"#ch01fn09"><sup>9</sup></a> and at the time of the adoption of +that name it was probably appropriate as well as +complimentary.<a href="#ch01fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> Appropriate in +the respect referred to only, for the old type of management varied +so widely in its manifestations that the comparison to the +procedure of the Army was most inaccurate. "Military" has always +been a synonym for "systematized", "orderly," "definite," while the +old type of management was more often quite the opposite of the +meaning of all these terms. The term "Military Management" though +often used in an uncomplimentary sense would, today, if understood, +be more complimentary than ever it was in the past. The +introduction of various features of Scientific Management into the +Army and Navy, — and such features are being incorporated +steadily and constantly, — is raising the standard of +management there to a high degree. <!--Page010--><a name="P010" id= +"P010"></a> This but renders the name "Military" Management for +the old type more inaccurate and misleading.</p> +<p>It is plain that the stirring associations of the word +"military" make its use for the old type, by advocates of the old +type, a weapon against Scientific Management that only the careful +thinker can turn aside.</p> +<p><b>The Names "Driver" and "Marquis of Queensberry" +Unfortunate.</b> — The name "Driver" suggests an opposition +between the managers and the men, an opposition which the term +"Marquis of Queensberry" emphasizes. This term "Marquis of +Queensberry" has been given to that management which is thought of +as a mental and physical contest, waged "according to the rules of +the game." These two names are most valuable pictorially, or in +furnishing oratorical material. They are constant reminders of the +constant desire of the managers to get all the work that is +possible out of the men, but they are scarcely descriptive in any +satisfactory sense, and the visions they summon, while they are +perhaps definite, are certainly, for the inexperienced in +management, inaccurate. In other words, they usually lead to +imagination rather than to perception.</p> +<p><b>The Name "Initiative and Incentive" Authoritative.</b> +— The term "Initiative and Incentive" is used by Dr. Taylor, +and is fully described by him. <a href= +"#ch01fn11"><sup>11</sup></a> The words themselves suggest, truly, +that he gives the old form of management its due. He does more than +this. He points out in his definition of the terms the likenesses +between the old and new forms.</p> +<!--Page011--><a name="P011" id="P011"></a> +<p><b>The Name "Traditional" Brief and Descriptive</b>. — The +only excuses for the term "Traditional," since Dr. Taylor's term is +available, are its brevity and its descriptiveness. The fact that +it is indefinite is really no fault in it, as the subject it +describes is equally indefinite. The "fringe" <a href= +"#ch01fn12"><sup>12</sup></a> of this word is especially good. It +calls up ideas of information handed down from generation to +generation orally, the only way of teaching under the old type of +management. It recalls the idea of the inaccurate perpetuation of +unthinking custom, and the "myth" element always present in +tradition, — again undeniable accusations against the old +type of management. The fundamental idea of the tradition, that it +is <i>oral</i>, is the essence of the difference of the old type of +management from science, or even system, which must be written.</p> +<p>It is not necessary to make more definite here the content of +this oldest type of management, rather being satisfied with the +extent, and accepting for working use the name "Traditional" with +the generally accepted definition of that name.</p> +<p><b>Definition of the Second Type of Management</b>. — The +second type of management is called "Interim" or "Transitory" +management. It includes all management that is consciously passing +into Scientific Management and embraces all stages, from management +that has incorporated one scientifically derived principle, to +management that has adopted all but one such principle.</p> +<p><b>Preferable Name for Second Type of Management.</b> +<!--Page012--><a name="P012" id="P012"></a> — Perhaps the +name "Transitory" is slightly preferable in that, though the +element of temporariness is present in both words, it is more +strongly emphasized in the latter. The usual habit of associating +with it the ideas of "fleeting, evanescent, ephemeral, momentary, +short-lived," may have an influence on hastening the completion of +the installing of Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Definition of the Third Type of Management.</b> — The +third form of management is called "Ultimate," "measured +Functional," or "Scientific," management, and might also be called, +— but for the objection of Dr. Taylor, the "Taylor Plan of +Management." This differs from the first two types mentioned in +that it is a definite plan of management synthesized from +scientific analysis of the data of management. In other words, +Scientific Management is that management which is a science, i.e., +which operates according to known, formulated, and applied +laws.<a href="#ch01fn13"><sup>13</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Preferable Name of the Third Type of Management.</b> — +The name "Ultimate" has, especially to the person operating under +the transitory stage, all the charm and inspiration of a goal. It +has all the incentives to accomplishment of a clearly circumscribed +task. Its very definiteness makes it seem possible of attainment. +It is a great satisfaction to one who, during a lifetime of +managing effort, has tried one offered improvement after another to +be convinced that he has found the right road at last. The name +<!--Page013--><a name="P013" id="P013"></a> is, perhaps, of +greatest value in attracting the attention of the uninformed and, +as the possibilities of the subject can fulfill the most exacting +demands, the attention once secured can be held.</p> +<p>The name "measured functional" is the most descriptive, but +demands the most explanation. The principle of functionalization is +one of the underlying, fundamental principles of Scientific +Management. It is not as necessary to stop to define it here, as it +is necessary to discuss the definition, the principle, and the +underlying psychology, at length later.</p> +<p>The name "scientific" while in some respects not as appropriate +as are any of the other names, has already received the stamp of +popular approval. In derivation it is beyond criticism. It also +describes exactly, as has been said, the difference between the +older forms of management and the new. Even its "fringe" of +association is, or at least was when first used, all that could be +desired; but the name is, unfortunately, occasionally used +indiscriminately for any sort of system and for schemes of +operation that are not based on time study. It has gradually become +identified more or less closely with</p> +<p>1. the Taylor Plan of Management</p> +<p>2. what we have defined as the "Transitory" plan of +management</p> +<p>3. management which not only is not striving to be scientific, +but which confounds "science" with "system." Both its advocates and +opponents have been guilty of misuse of the word. Still, in spite +of this, the very fact that the word has had a wide use, that it +has become habitual to think of the new type +<!--Page 014--><a name="P014" id="P014"></a> of management as +"Scientific," makes its choice advisable. We shall use it, but +restrict its content. With us "Scientific Management" is used to +mean the complete Taylor plan of management, with no modifications +and no deviations.</p> +<p>We may summarize by saying that:</p> +<p>1. the popular name is Scientific Management,</p> +<p>2. the inspiring name is Ultimate management,</p> +<p>3. the descriptive name is measured Functional management,</p> +<p>4. the distinctive name is the Taylor Plan of Management.</p> +<p>For the purpose of this book, Scientific Management is, then, +the most appropriate name. Through its use, the reader is enabled +to utilize all his associations, and through his study he is able +to restrict and order the content of the term.</p> +<p><b>Relationship Between the Three Types of Management.</b> +— From the foregoing definitions and descriptions it will be +clear that the three types of management are closely related. Three +of the names given bring out this relationship most clearly. These +are Traditional (i.e., Primitive), Interim, and Ultimate. These +show, also, that the relationship is genetic, i.e., that the second +form grows out of the first, but passes through to the third. The +growth is evolutional.</p> +<p>Under the first type, or in the first stage of management, the +laws or principles underlying right management are usually unknown, +hence disregarded.</p> +<p>In the second stage, the laws are known and installed as fast as +functional foremen can be taught <!--Page 015--><a name="P015" id= +"P015"></a> their new duties and the resistances of human nature +can be overcome.<a href="#ch01fn14"><sup>14</sup></a></p> +<p>In the third stage the managing is operated in accordance with +the recognized laws of management.</p> +<p><b>Psychological Significance of This Relationship.</b> — +The importance of the knowledge and of the desire for it can +scarcely be overestimated. This again makes plain the value of the +psychological study of management.</p> +<p><b>Possible Psychological Studies of Management.</b> — In +making this psychological study of management, it would be possible +to take up the three types as defined above, separately and in +order, and to discuss the place of the mind in each, at length; but +such a method would not only result in needless repetition, but +also in most difficult comparisons when final results were to be +deduced and formulated.</p> +<p>It would, again, be possible to take up the various elements or +divisions of psychological study as determined by a consensus of +psychologists, and to illustrate each in turn from the three types +of management; but the results from any such method would be apt to +seem unrelated and impractical, i.e., it would be a lengthy process +to get results that would be of immediate, practical use in +managing.</p> +<p><b>Plan of Psychological Study Used Here.</b> — It has, +therefore, seemed best to base the discussion that is to follow +upon arbitrary divisions of scientific management, that is +—</p> +<!--Page 016--><a name="P016" id="P016"></a> +<p>1. To enumerate the underlying principles on which scientific +management rests.</p> +<p>2. To show in how far the other two types of management vary +from Scientific Management.</p> +<p>3. To discuss the psychological aspect of each principle.</p> +<p><b>Advantages of This Plan of Study.</b> — In this way the +reader can gain an idea of</p> +<p>1. The relation of Scientific Management to the other types of +management.</p> +<p>2. The structure of Scientific Management.</p> +<p>3. The relation between the various elements of Scientific +Management.</p> +<p>4. The psychology of management in general, and of the three +types of management in particular.</p> +<p><b>Underlying Ideas and Divisions of Scientific Management.</b> +— These underlying ideas are grouped under nine divisions, as +follows: —</p> +<p>1. Individuality.</p> +<p>2. Functionalization.</p> +<p>3. Measurement.</p> +<p>4. Analysis and Synthesis.</p> +<p>5. Standardization.</p> +<p>6. Records and Programmes.</p> +<p>7. Teaching.</p> +<p>8. Incentives.</p> +<p>9. Welfare.</p> +<p>It is here only necessary to enumerate these divisions. Each +will be made the subject of a chapter.</p> +<p><b>Derivation of These Divisions.</b> — These divisions +lay no claim to being anything but underlying ideas of Scientific +Management, that embrace varying numbers <!--Page 017--><a name= +"P017" id="P017"></a> of established elements that can easily be +subjected to the scrutiny of psychological investigation.</p> +<p>The discussion will be as little technical as is possible, will +take nothing for granted and will cite references at every step. +This is a new field of investigation, and the utmost care is +necessary to avoid generalizing from insufficient data.</p> +<p><b>Derivation of Scientific Management.</b> — There has +been much speculation as to the age and origin of Scientific +Management. The results of this are interesting, but are not of +enough practical value to be repeated here. Many ideas of +Scientific Management can be traced back, more or less clearly and +directly, to thinkers of the past; but the Science of Management, +as such, was discovered, and the deduction of its laws, or +"principles," made possible when Dr. Frederick W. Taylor discovered +and applied Time Study. Having discovered this, he constructed from +it and the other fundamental principles a complete whole.</p> +<p>Mr. George Iles in that most interesting and instructive of +books, "Inventors at Work," <a href="#ch01fn15"><sup>15</sup></a> +has pointed out the importance, to development in any line of +progress or science, of measuring devices and methods. +Contemporaneous with, or previous to, the discovery of the device +or method, must come the discovery or determination of the most +profitable unit of measurement which will, of itself, best show the +variations in efficiency from class. When Dr. Taylor discovered +units of measurement for determining, <i>prior to performance</i>, +the amount of any kind of <!--Page 018--><a name="P018" id= +"P018"></a> work that a worker could do and the amount of rest +he must have during the performance of that work, then, and not +until then, did management become a science. On this hangs the +science of management.<a href="#ch01fn16"><sup>16</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Outline of Method of Investigation.</b> — In the +discussion of each of the nine divisions of Scientific Management, +the following topics must be treated:</p> +<p>1. Definition of the division and its underlying idea.</p> +<p>2. Appearance and importance of the idea in Traditional and +Transitory Management.</p> +<p>3. Appearance and importance of the idea in Scientific +Management.</p> +<p>4. Elements of Scientific Management which show the effects of +the idea.</p> +<p>5. Results of the idea upon work and workers.</p> +<p>These topics will be discussed in such order as the particular +division investigated demands. The psychological significance of +the appearance or non-appearance of the idea, and of the effect of +the idea, will be noted. The results will be summarized at the +close of each chapter, in order to furnish data for drawing +conclusions at the close of the discussion.</p> +<p><b>Conclusions to be Reached.</b> — These conclusions will +include the following: —</p> +<p> 1. "Scientific Management" is a science.</p> +<p> 2. It alone, of the Three Types of Management, is a +science.</p> +<p> 3. Contrary to a widespread belief that Scientific +Management kills individuality, it is built on the basic +<!--Page 019--><a name="P019" id="P019"></a> principle of +recognition of the individual, not only as an economic unit but +also as a personality, with all the idiosyncrasies that distinguish +a person.</p> +<p> 4. Scientific Management fosters individuality by +functionalizing work.</p> +<p> 5. Measurement, in Scientific Management, is of ultimate +units of subdivision.</p> +<p> 6. These measured ultimate units are combined into methods +of least waste.</p> +<p> 7. Standardization under Scientific Management applies to +all elements.</p> +<p> 8. The accurate records of Scientific Management make +accurate programmes possible of fulfillment.</p> +<p> 9. Through the teaching of Scientific Management the +management is unified and made self-perpetuating.</p> +<p>10. The method of teaching of Scientific Management is a +distinct and valuable contribution to Education.</p> +<p>11. Incentives under Scientific Management not only stimulate +but benefit the worker.</p> +<p>12. It is for the ultimate as well as immediate welfare of the +worker to work under Scientific Management.</p> +<p>13. Scientific Management is applicable to all fields of +activity, and to mental as well as physical work.</p> +<p>14. Scientific Management is applicable to self-management as +well as to managing others.</p> +<p>15. It teaches men to coöperate with the management as well +as to manage. <!--Page 020--><a name="P020" id="P020"></a></p> +<p>16. It is a device capable of use by all.</p> +<p>17. The psychological element of Scientific Management is the +most important element.</p> +<p>18. Because Scientific Management is psychologically right it is +the ultimate form of management.</p> +<p>19. This psychological study of Scientific Management emphasizes +especially the teaching features.</p> +<p>20. Scientific Management simultaneously</p> +<p class="ltritem">a. increases output and wages and lowers +costs.</p> +<p class="ltritem">b. eliminates waste.</p> +<p class="ltritem">c. turns unskilled labor into skilled.</p> +<p class="ltritem">d. provides a system of self-perpetuating +welfare.</p> +<p class="ltritem">e. reduces the cost of living.</p> +<p class="ltritem">f. bridges the gap between the college trained +and the apprenticeship trained worker.</p> +<p class="ltritem">g. forces capital and labor to coöperate +and to promote industrial peace.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER I FOOTNOTES--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn01" id="ch01fn01"> 1</a>. +Charles Babbage, <i>Economy of Manufacturers.</i> Preface, p. +v.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn02" id="ch01fn02"> 2</a>. +Halbert P. Gillette, Paper No. 1, American Society of Engineering +Contractors.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn03" id="ch01fn03"> 3</a>. +Gillette and Dana, <i>Cost Keeping and Management</i>, p. 5.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn04" id="ch01fn04"> 4</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Motion Study</i>, p. 98.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn05" id="ch01fn05"> 5</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Principles of Scientific Management</i>, p. 144.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn06" id="ch01fn06"> 6</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 16, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper No. +1003.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn07" id="ch01fn07"> 7</a>. +William James, <i>Psychology</i>, Vol. I, p. 258.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn08" id="ch01fn08"> 8</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Cost Reducing System</i>, Chap. 1.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn09" id="ch01fn09"> 9</a>. +Morris Llewellyn Cooke, <i>Bulletin No. 5 of the Carnegie +Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching</i>, p. 17.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn10" id="ch01fn10">10</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 234, Am. Soc. M.E., Paper No. +1003.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn11" id="ch01fn11">11</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Principles of Scientific Management</i>, pp. 33-38.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn12" id="ch01fn12">12</a>. The idea +called to mind by the use of a given word. — <i>Ed.</i></p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn13" id="ch01fn13">13</a>. Henry R. +Towne, Introduction to <i>Shop Management</i>. (Harper & +Bros.)</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn14" id="ch01fn14">14</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Principles of Scientific Management</i>, p. 123. (Harper +& Bros.)</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn15" id="ch01fn15">15</a>. Doubleday, +Page & Co.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch01fn16" id="ch01fn16">16</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Principles of Scientific Management</i>, p. 137. (Harper +& Bros.)</p> +<br /> +<!--Page 021--><a name="P021" id="P021"></a> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--032.png folio 21--> +<h3><a name="chapterii" id="chapterii">CHAPTER II</a></h3> +<h3>INDIVIDUALITY</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Individuality.</b> — "An individual is a +single thing, a being that is, or is regarded as, a unit. An +individual is opposed to a crowd. Individual action is opposed to +associate action. Individual interests are opposed to common or +community interests." These definitions give us some idea of the +extent of individuality. Individuality is a particular or +distinctive characteristic of an individual; "that quality or +aggregate of qualities which distinguishes one person or thing from +another, idiosyncrasy." This indicates the content.</p> +<p>For our purpose, we may define the study of individuality as a +consideration of the individual as a unit with special +characteristics. That it is a <i>unit</i> signifies that it is one +of many and that it has likeness to the many. That it has +<i>special characteristics</i> shows that it is one of many, but +different from the many. This consideration of individuality +emphasizes both the common element and the diverging +characteristics.</p> +<p><b>Individuality as Treated in This Chapter.</b> — The +recognition of individuality is the subject of this chapter. The +utilization of this individuality in its deviation +<!--Page 022--><a name="P022" id="P022"></a> from class, is the +subject of the chapter that follows, Functionalization.</p> +<p><b>Individuality as Considered by Psychology.</b> — +Psychology has not always emphasized the importance of the +individual as a unit for study. Prof. Ladd's definition of +psychology, quoted and endorsed by Prof. James, is "the description +and explanation of states of consciousness, as such." <a href= +"#ch02fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> "By states of consciousness," says +James, "are meant such things as sensation, desires, emotions, +cognitions, reasonings, decisions, volitions, and the like." This +puts the emphasis on such divisions of consciousness as, +"attention," "interest," and "will."</p> +<p>With the day of experimental psychology has come the importance +of the individual self as a subject of study, <a href= +"#ch02fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> and psychology has come to be defined, +as Calkins defines it, as a "science of the self as conscious." +<a href="#ch02fn03"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p>We hear much in the talk of today of the "psychology of the +crowd," the "psychology of the mob," and the "psychology of the +type," etc., but the mind that is being measured, and from whose +measurements the laws are being deduced and formulated is, at the +present the <i>individual</i> mind. <a href= +"#ch02fn04"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>The psychology which interested itself particularly in studying +such divisions of mental activity as attention, will, habit, etc., +emphasizes more particularly the likenesses of minds. It is +necessary to understand <!--Page 023--><a name="P023" id= +"P023"></a> thoroughly all of these likenesses before one can be +sure what the differences, or idiosyncrasies, are, and how +important they are, because, while the likenesses furnish the +background, it is the differences that are most often actually +utilized by management. These must be determined in order to +compute and set the proper individual task for the given man from +standard data of the standard, or first-class man.</p> +<p>In any study of the individual, the following facts must be +noted: —</p> +<p>1. The importance of the study of the individual, and the +comparatively small amount of work that has as yet been done in +that field.</p> +<p>2. The difficulty of the study, and the necessity for great +care, not only in the study itself, but in deducing laws from +it.</p> +<p>3. The necessity of considering any one individual trait as +modified by all the other traits of the individual.</p> +<p>4. The importance of the individual as distinct from the +type.</p> +<p>Many students are so interested in studying types and deducing +laws which apply to types in general, that they lose sight of the +fact that the individual is the basis of the study, — that +individuality is that for which they must seek and for which they +must constantly account. As Sully says, we must not emphasize +"<i>typical developments</i> in a new individual," at the expense +of "typical development <i>in a new individual</i>." <a href= +"#ch02fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> It is the fact that the development +<!--Page 024--><a name="P024" id="P024"></a> occurs in an +individual, and not that the development is typical, that we should +emphasize.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Seldom Recognized Under Traditional +Management.</b> — Under Traditional Management there was +little or no systematized method for the recognition of +individuality or individual fitness. <a href= +"#ch02fn06"><sup>6</sup></a> The worker usually was, in the mind of +the manager, one of a crowd, his only distinguishing mark being the +amount of work which he was capable of performing.</p> +<p><b>Selecting Workers Under Traditional Management.</b> — +In selecting men to do work, there was little or no attempt to +study the individuals who applied for work. The matter of selection +was more of a process of "guess work" than of exact measurement, +and the highest form of test was considered to be that of having +the man actually tried out by being given a chance at the work +itself. There was not only a great waste of time on the work, +because men unfitted to it could not turn it out so successfully, +but there also was a waste of the worker, and many times a positive +injury to the worker, by his being put at work which he was +unfitted either to perform, to work at continuously, or both.</p> +<p>In the most progressive type of Traditional Management there was +usually a feeling, however, that if the labor market offered even +temporarily a greater supply than the work in hand demanded, it was +wise to choose those men to do the work who were best fitted for +it, or who were willing to work for less wages. It is surprising to +find in the traditional type, <!--Page 025--><a name="P025" id= +"P025"></a> even up to the present day, how often men were +selected for their strength and physique, rather than for any +special capabilities fitting them for working in, or at, the +particular line of work to be done.</p> +<p><b>Output Seldom Separated Under Traditional Management.</b> +— Under Traditional Management especially on day work the +output of the men was not usually separated, nor was the output +recorded separately, as can be done even with the work of +gangs.</p> +<p><b>Few Individual Tasks Under Traditional Management.</b> +— Seldom, if ever, was an individual task set for a worker on +day work, or piece work, and even if one were set, it was not +scientifically determined. The men were simply set to work alone or +in gangs, <i>as the work demanded</i>, and if the foreman was +overworked or lazy, allowed to take practically their own time to +do the work. If, on the other hand, the foreman was a "good +driver," the men might be pushed to their utmost limit of their +individual undirected speed, regardless of their welfare.</p> +<p><b>Little Individual Teaching Under Traditional Management.</b> +— Not having a clear idea either of the present fitness and +the future possibilities of the worker, or the requirements of the +work, no intelligent attempt could be made at efficient individual +teaching. What teaching was done was in the form of directions for +all, concerning the work in general, the directions being given by +an overworked foreman, the holding of whose position often depended +more upon whether his employer made money than upon the way his men +were taught, or worked.</p> +<!--Page 026--><a name="P026" id="P026"></a> +<p><b>Seldom an Individual Reward Under Traditional Management.</b> +— As a typical example of disregard of individuality, the +worker in the household may be cited, and especially the "general +housework girl." Selected with no knowledge of her capabilities, +and with little or no scientific or even systematized knowledge of +the work that she is expected to do, there is little or no thought +of a prescribed and definite task, no teaching specially adapted to +the individual needs of the taught, and no reward in proportion to +efficiency.</p> +<p><b>Cause of These Lacks Under Traditional Management.</b> +— The fault lies not in any desire of the managers to do poor +or wasteful work, or to treat their workers unfairly, — but +in a lack of knowledge and of accurate methods for obtaining, +conserving and transmitting knowledge. Under Traditional Management +no one individual knows precisely what is to be done. Such +management seldom knows how work could best be done; — never +knows how much work each individual can do. <a href= +"#ch02fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> Understanding neither work nor +workers, it can not adjust the one to the other so as to obtain +least waste. Having no conception of the importance of accurate +measurement, it has no thought of the individual as a unit.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Recognized Under Transitory Management.</b> +— Recognition of individuality is one of the principles first +apparent under Transitory Management.</p> +<p>This is apt to demonstrate itself first of all in causing the +outputs of the workers to "show up" separately, +<!--Page 027--><a name="P027" id="P027"></a> rewarding these +separated outputs, and rewarding each worker for his individual +output.</p> +<p><b>Benefits of This Recognition</b>. — The benefits of +introducing these features first are that the worker, (1) seeing +his individual output, is stimulated to measure it, and (2) +receiving compensation in accordance with his output, is satisfied; +and (3) observing that records are necessary to determine the +amount of output and pay, is glad to have accurate measurement and +the other features of Scientific Management introduced.</p> +<p><b>Individuality a Fundamental Principle of Scientific +Management</b>. — Under Scientific Management the individual +is the unit to be measured. Functionalization is based upon +utilizing the particular powers and special abilities of each man. +Measurement is of the individual man and his work. Analysis and +synthesis build up methods by which the individual can best do his +work. Standards are of the work of an individual, a standard man, +and the task is always for an individual, being that percentage of +the standard man's task that the particular individual can do. +Records are of individuals, and are made in order to show and +reward individual effort. Specific individuals are taught those +things that they, individually, require. Incentives are individual +both in the cases of rewards and punishments, and, finally, it is +the welfare of the individual worker that is considered, without +the sacrifice of any for the good of the whole.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Considered in Selecting Workers</b>. — +Under Scientific Management individuality is considered +<!--Page 028--><a name="P028" id="P028"></a> in selecting +workers as it could not be under either of the other two forms of +management. This for several reasons:</p> +<p>1. The work is more specialized, hence requires more carefully +selected men.</p> +<p>2. With standardized methods comes a knowledge to the managers +of the qualifications of the "standard men" who can best do the +work and continuously thrive.</p> +<p>3. Motion study, in its investigation of the worker, supplies a +list of variations in workers that can be utilized in selecting +men.<a href="#ch02fn08"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Variables of the Worker.</b> — This list now includes +at least 50 or 60 variables, and shows the possible elements which +may demand consideration. When it is remembered that the individual +selected may need a large or small proportion of most of the +variables in order to do his particular work most successfully, and +that every single one of these variables, as related to the others, +may, in some way affect his output and his welfare in doing his +assigned work, the importance of taking account of individuality in +selection is apparent.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Needs Support in Studying Workers.</b> +— The best of management is by no means at its ultimate stage +in practice in this field. This, not because of a lack in the laws +of management, but because, so far, Scientific Management has not +received proper support from other lines of activity.</p> +<p><b>Present Lack of Knowledge of Applicants.</b> — At +present, the men who apply to the Industries for positions +<!--Page 029--><a name="P029" id="P029"></a> have no +scientifically determined idea of their own capabilities, neither +has there been any effort in the training or experience of most of +those who apply for work for the first time to show them how fit +they really are to do the work which they wish to do.</p> +<p><b>Supplements Demanded by Scientific Management.</b> — +Before the worker can be scientifically selected so that his +individuality can be appreciated, Scientific Management must be +supplemented in two ways: —</p> +<p>1. By psychological and physiological study of workers under it. +By such study of the effect of various kinds of standardized work +upon the mind and body, standard requirements for men who desire to +do the work can be made.</p> +<p>2. By scientific study of the worker made before he comes into +the Industries, the results of which shall show his capabilities +and possibilities.<a href="#ch02fn09"><sup>9</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Whence This Help Must Come.</b> — This study must be +made</p> +<p>a. In the Vocational Guidance Work.</p> +<p>b. In the Academic Work, and in both fields psychological and +physiological investigations are called for.</p> +<p><b>Work of Vocational Guidance Bureaus.</b> — Vocational +Guidance Bureaus are, at present, doing a wonderful work in their +line. This work divides itself into two parts:</p> +<p>1. Determining the capabilities of the boy, that is, +<!--Page 030--><a name="P030" id="P030"></a> seeing what he is, +by nature and training, best fitted to do.</p> +<p>2. Determining the possibilities of his securing work in the +line where he is best fitted to work, that is, studying the +industrial opportunities that offer, and the "welfare" of the +worker under each, using the word welfare in the broadest sense, of +general wellbeing, mental, physical, moral and financial.</p> +<p><b>Work of Academic World.</b> — The Academic World is +also, wherever it is progressive, attempting to study the student, +and to develop him so that he can be the most efficient individual. +Progressive educators realize that schools and colleges must stand +or fall, as efficient, as the men they train become successful or +unsuccessful in their vocations, as well as in their personal +culture.</p> +<p><b>Need for Psychological Study in All Fields.</b> — In +both these complementary lines of activity, as in Scientific +Management itself, the need for psychological study is +evident.<a href="#ch02fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> Through it, only, can +scientific progress come. Here is emphasized again the importance +of measurement. Through accurate measurement of the mind and the +body only can individuality be recognized, conserved and developed +as it should be.</p> +<p><b>Preparedness of Experimental Psychology.</b> — +Experimental psychology has instruments of precision with which to +measure and test the minds and bodies brought to it, and its +leading exponents are so broadening the scope of its activities +that it is ready and glad to plan for investigations.</p> +<!--Page 031--><a name="P031" id="P031"></a> +<p><b>Method of Selection Under Ultimate Management.</b> — +Under Ultimate Management, the minds of the workers, — and of +the managers too, — will have been studied, and the results +recorded from earliest childhood. This record, made by trained +investigators, will enable vocational guidance directors to tell +the child what he is fitted to be, and thus to help the schools and +colleges to know how best to train him, that is to say, to provide +what he will need to know to do his life work, and also those +cultural studies that his vocational work may lack, and that may be +required to build out his best development as an individual.</p> +<p>It is not always recognized that even the student who can afford +to postpone his technical training until he has completed a general +culture course, requires that his culture course be carefully +planned. Not only must he choose those general courses that will +serve as a foundation for his special study, and that will broaden +and enrich his study, but also he must be provided with a +counter-balance, — with interests that his special work might +never arouse in him. Thus the field of Scientific Management can be +narrowed to determining and preparing standard plans for standard +specialized men, and selecting men to fill these places from +competent applicants.</p> +<p>What part of the specialized training needed by the special work +shall be given in schools and what in the industries themselves can +be determined later. The "twin apprentice" plan offers one solution +of the problem that has proved satisfactory in many places. The +psychological study should determine <!--Page 032--><a name="P032" +id="P032"></a> through which agency knowledge can best come at +any particular stage of mental growth.</p> +<p><b>Effect on Workers of Such Selection.</b> — As will be +shown at greater length under "Incentives," Scientific Management +aims in every way to encourage initiative. The outline here given +as to how men must, ultimately, under Scientific Management, be +selected serves to show that, far from being "made machines of," +men are selected to reach that special place where their +individuality can be recognized and rewarded to the greatest +extent.</p> +<p><b>Selection Under Scientific Management To-day.</b> — At +the present day, the most that Scientific Management can do, in the +average case, is to determine the type of men needed for any +particular kind of work, and then to select that man who seems, +from such observations as can be made, best to conform to the type. +The accurate knowledge of the requirements of the work, and the +knowledge of variables of the worker make even a cursory +observation more rich in results than it would otherwise be. Even +such an apparently obvious observation, as that the very fact that +a man claims that he can do the work implies desire and will on his +part to do it that may overcome many natural lacks, — even +this is an advance in recognizing individuality.</p> +<p><b>Effect of This Selection.</b> — The result of this +scientific selection of the workman is not only better work, but +also, and more important from the psychological side, the +development of his individuality. It is not always recognized that +the work itself is a great <!--Page 033--><a name="P033" id= +"P033"></a> educator, and that acute cleverness in the line of +work to which he is fitted comes to the worker.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Developed by Separating Outputs.</b> — +Under Scientific Management the work of each man is arranged either +so that his output shows up separately and on the individual +records, or, if the Work is such that it seems best to do it in +gangs, the output can often be so recorded that the individual's +output can be computed from the records.</p> +<p><b>Purpose of Separating Outputs.</b> — The primary +purpose of separating the output is to see what the man can do, to +record this, and to reward the man according to his work, but this +separating of output has also an individual result, which is even +more important than the result aimed at, and that is the +development of individuality.</p> +<p>Under Traditional Management and the usual "day work," much of +the work is done by gangs and is observed or recorded as of gangs. +Only now and then, when the work of some particular individual +shows up decidedly better or worse than that of his fellows, and +when the foreman or superintendent, or other onlooker, happens to +observe this is the individual appreciated, and then only in the +most inexact, unsystematic manner.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management, making individual output show up +separately allows of individual recording, tasks, teaching and +rewards.</p> +<p><b>Effect on Athletic Contests.</b> — Also, with this +separation of the work of the individual under Scientific +Management comes the possibility of a real, <!--Page 034--><a name= +"P034" id="P034"></a> scientific, "athletic contest." This +athletic contest, which proves itself so successful in Traditional +Management, even when the men are grouped as gangs and their work +is not recorded or thought of separately, proves itself quite as +efficient or more efficient under Scientific Management, when the +work of the man shows up separately. It might be objected that the +old gang spirit, or it might be called "team" spirit, would +disappear with the separation of the work. This is not so, as will +be noted by a comparison to a baseball team, where each man has his +separate place and his separate work and where his work shows up +separately with separate records, such as "batting average" and +"fielding average." Team spirit is the result of being grouped +together against a common opponent, and it will be the same in any +sort of work when the men are so grouped, or given to understand +that they belong on the same side.</p> +<p>The following twelve rules for an Athletic Contest under +Transitory System are quoted as exemplifying the benefits which +accrue to Individuality.</p> +<p> 1. Men must have square deal.</p> +<p> 2. Conditions must be similar.</p> +<p> 3. Men must be properly spaced and placed.</p> +<p> 4. Output must show up separately.</p> +<p> 5. Men must be properly started.</p> +<p> 6. Causes for delay must be eliminated.</p> +<p> 7. Pace maker must be provided.</p> +<p> 8. Time for rest must be provided.</p> +<p> 9. Individual scores must be kept and posted.</p> +<p>10. "Audience" must be provided. <!--Page 035--><a name="P035" +id="P035"></a></p> +<p>11. Rewards must be prompt and provided for all good scores +— not for winners only.</p> +<p>12. Appreciation must be shown. <a href= +"#ch02fn11"><sup>11</sup></a></p> +<p>This list shows the effects of many fundamental principles of +Scientific Management, — but we note particularly here that +over half the rules demand that outputs be separated as a +prerequisite.</p> +<p>None of the benefits of the Athletic Contest are lost under +Scientific Management. The only restrictions placed are that the +men shall not be grouped according to any distinction that would +cause hatred or ill feeling, that the results shall be ultimately +beneficial to the workers themselves, and that all high scores +shall win high prizes.</p> +<p>As will be brought out later under "Incentives," no competition +is approved under Scientific Management which speeds up the men +uselessly, or which brings any ill feeling between the men or any +feeling that the weaker ones have not a fair chance. All of these +things are contrary to Scientific Management, as well as contrary +to common sense, for it goes without saying that no man is capable +of doing his best work permanently if he is worried by the idea +that he will not receive the square deal, that someone stronger +than he will be allowed to cheat or to domineer over him, or that +he will be speeded up to such an extent that while his work will +increase for one day, the next day his work will fall down because +of the effect of the fatigue of the day before.</p> +<p>The field of the contests is widened, as separating +<!--Page 036--><a name="P036" id="P036"></a> of the work of the +individual not only allows for competition between individuals, but +for the competition of the individual with his own records. This +competition is not only a great, constant and helpful incentive to +every worker, but it is also an excellent means of developing +individuality.</p> +<p><b>Advantages to Managers of Separating Output.</b> — The +advantages to the managers of separating the work are that there is +a chance to know exactly who is making the high output, and that +the spirit of competition which prevails when men compare their +outputs to their own former records or others, leads to increased +effort.</p> +<p><b>Advantages to Workers of Separating Output.</b> — As +for advantages to the men:</p> +<p>By separation of the individual work, not only is the man's work +itself shown, but at the same time the work of all other people is +separated, cut away and put aside, and he can locate the man who is +delaying him by, for example, not keeping him supplied with +materials. The man has not only an opportunity to concentrate, but +every possible incentive to exercise his will and his desire to do +things. His attention is concentrated on the fact that he as an +individual is expected to do his very best. He has the moral +stimulus of responsibility. He has the emotional stimulus of +competition. He has the mental stimulus of definiteness. He has, +most valuable of all, a chance to be an entity rather than one of +an undiscriminated gang. This chance to be an individual, or +personality, is in great contradistinction to the popular opinion +of Scientific Management, <!--Page 037--><a name="P037" id= +"P037"></a> which thinks it turns men into machines. A very +simple example of the effect of the worker's seeing his output show +up separately in response to and in proportion to his effort and +skill is that of boys in the lumber producing districts chopping +edgings for fire wood. Here the chopping is so comparatively light +that the output increased very rapidly, and the boy delights to +"see his pile of fire wood grow."</p> +<p>With the separation of the work comes not only the opportunity +for the men to see their own work, but also to see that of others, +and there comes with this the spirit of imitation, or the spirit of +friendly opposition, either of which, while valuable in itself is +even more valuable as the by-product of being a life-giving +thought, and of putting life into the work such as there never +could be when the men were working together, more or less +objectless, because they could not see plainly either what they +were doing themselves, or what others were doing.</p> +<p>Separation of the output of the men gives them the greatest +opportunity to develop. It gives them a chance to concentrate their +attention at the work on which they are, because it is not +necessary for them to waste any time to find out what that work is. +Their work stands out by itself; they can put their whole minds to +that work; they can become interested in that work and its outcome, +and they can be positive that what they have done will be +appreciated and recognized, and that it will have a good effect, +with no possibility of evil effect, upon their chance for work and +their chance for pay and promotion in the future. Definiteness of +the boundaries, then, is <!--Page 038--><a name="P038" id= +"P038"></a> not only good management in that it shows up the +work and that it allows each man to see, and each man over him, or +observing him to see exactly what has been done, — it has +also an excellent effect upon the worker's mind.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Developed by Recording Output Separately.</b> +— The spirit of individuality is brought out still more +clearly by the fact that under Scientific Management, output is +recorded separately. This recording of the outputs separately is, +usually, and very successfully, one of the first features installed +in Transitory Management, and a feature very seldom introduced, +even unconscious of its worth, in day work under Traditional +Management. It is one of the great disadvantages of many kinds of +work, especially in this day, that the worker does only a small +part of the finished article and that he has a feeling that what he +does is not identified permanently with the success of the +completed whole. We may note that one of the great unsatisfying +features to such arts as acting and music, is that no matter how +wonderful the performer's efforts, there was no permanent record of +them; that the work of the day dies with the day. He can expect to +live only in the minds and hearts of the hearers, in the accounts +of spectators, or in histories of the stage.</p> +<p>It is, therefore, not strange that the world's best actors and +singers are now grasping the opportunity to make their best efforts +permanent through the instrumentality of the motion picture films +and the talking machine records. This same feeling, minus the glow +of enthusiasm that at least attends the actor +<!--Page 039--><a name="P039" id="P039"></a> during the work, is +present in more or less degree in the mind of the worker.</p> +<p><b>Records Make Work Seem Worth While.</b> — With the +feeling that his work is recorded comes the feeling that the work +is really worth while, for even if the work itself does not last, +the records of it are such as can go on.</p> +<p><b>Records Give Individuals a Feeling of Permanence.</b> — +With recorded individual output comes also the feeling of +permanence, of credit for good performance. This desire for +permanence shows itself all through the work of men in Traditional +Management, for example — in the stone cutter's art where the +man who had successfully dressed the stone from the rough block was +delighted to put his own individual mark on it, even though he knew +that that mark probably would seldom, if ever, be noticed again by +anyone after the stone was set in the wall. It is an underlying +trait of the human mind to desire this permanence of record of +successful effort, and fulfilling and utilizing this desire is a +great gain of Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Mental Development of Worker Through Records.</b> — It +is not only for his satisfaction that the worker should see his +records and realize that his work has permanence, but also for +comparison of his work not only with his own record, but with the +work of others. The value of these comparisons, not only to the +management but to the worker himself, must not be underestimated. +The worker gains mental development and physical skill by studying +these comparisons.</p> +<!--Page 040--><a name="P040" id="P040"></a> +<p><b>Advantages to Worker of Making his Own Records.</b> — +These possibilities of mental development are still further +increased when the man makes his own records. This leads to closer +attention, to more interest in the work, and to a realization of +the man as to what the record really means, and what value it +represents. Though even a record that is made for him and is posted +where he can see it will probably result in a difference in his pay +envelope, no such progress is likely to occur as when the man makes +his own record, and must be conscious every moment of the time +exactly where he stands.</p> +<p><b>Possibilities of Making Individual Records.</b> — +Records of individual efficiency are comparatively easy to make +when output is separated. But even when work must be done by gangs +or teams of men, there is provision made in Scientific Management +for recording this gang work in such a way that either the output +or the efficiency, or both, of each man shows up separately. This +may be done in several ways, such as, for example, by recording the +total time of delays avoidable and unavoidable, caused by each man, +and from this computing individual records. This method of +recording is psychologically right, because the recording of the +delay will serve as a warning to the man, and as a spur to him not +to cause delay to others again.</p> +<p>The forcefulness of the "don't" and the "never" have been +investigated by education. Undoubtedly the "do" is far stronger, +but in this particular case the command deduced from the records of +delay to others is, necessarily, in the negative form, and a +<!--Page 041--><a name="P041" id="P041"></a> study of the +psychological results proves most instructive.</p> +<p><b>Benefits to Managers of Individual Records.</b> — The +value of the training to the foremen, to the superintendents and to +the managers higher up, who study these records, as well as to the +timekeepers, recorders and clerks in the Time and Cost Department +who make the records, is obvious. There is not only the possibility +of appreciating and rewarding the worker, and thus stimulating him +to further activity, there is also, especially in the Transitory +stage, when men are to be chosen on whom to make Time Study +observations, an excellent chance to compare various methods of +doing work and their results.</p> +<p><b>Incentives with Individual Records.</b> — The greatest +value of recorded outputs is in the appreciation of the work of the +individual that becomes possible. First of all, appreciation by the +management, which to the worker must be the most important of all, +as it means to him a greater chance for promotion and for more pay. +This promotion and additional pay are amply provided for by +Scientific Management, as will be shown later in discussing +Incentives and Welfare.</p> +<p>Not only is the work appreciated by the management and by the +man himself, but also the work becomes possible of appreciation by +others. The form of the record as used in Scientific Management, +and as introduced early in the transitory stage, makes it possible +for many beside those working on the job, if they take the pains to +consult the records, which are best posted in a conspicuous place +on the work, <!--Page 042--><a name="P042" id="P042"></a> to +know and appreciate what the worker is doing. This can be best +illustrated, perhaps, by various methods of recording output on +contracting work, — out-of-door work.</p> +<p>The flag flown by the successful contestants in the athletic +contests, showing which gang or which individual has made the +largest output during the day previous, allows everyone who passes +to appreciate the attainment of that particular worker, or that +group of workers. The photographs of the "high priced men," copies +of which may be given to the workers themselves, allow the worker +to carry home a record and thus impress his family with what he has +done. Too often the family is unable by themselves to understand +the value of the worker's work, or to appreciate the effect of his +home life, food, and rest conditions upon his life work, and this +entire strong element of interest of the worker's family in his +work is often lost.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Individual Records to Scientific Management in +General</b>. — Any study of Records of an individual's work +again makes clear that no one topic of Scientific Management can be +properly noted without a consideration of all other elements. The +fact that under Scientific Management the record with which the man +most surely and constantly competes is his own, as provided for by +the individual instruction card and the individual task; the fact +that under Scientific Management the man need be in no fear of +losing his job if he does his best; the fact that Scientific +Management is founded on the "square deal"; — all of these +facts must be kept constantly in mind <!--Page 043--><a name="P043" +id="P043"></a> when considering the advantages of recording +individual output, for they all have a strong psychological effect +on the man's mind. It is important to remember that not only does +Scientific Management provide for certain directions and thoughts +entering the man's mind, but that it also eliminates other thoughts +which would surely have a tendency to retard his work. The result +is output far exceeding what is usually possible under Traditional +Management, because drawbacks are removed and impetuses added.</p> +<p>The outcome of the records, and their related elements in other +branches of Scientific Management, is to arouse interest. Interest +arouses abnormally concentrated attention, and this in turn is the +cause of genius. This again answers the argument of those who claim +that Scientific Management kills individuality and turns the worker +into a machine.</p> +<p><b>Individual Task Under Scientific Management.</b> — +Individuality is also taken into consideration when preparing the +task. This task would always be for an individual, even in the case +of the gang instruction card. It usually recognizes individuality, +in that, —</p> +<p>1. It is prepared for one individual only, when possible.</p> +<p>2. It is prepared for the particular individual who is to do +it.</p> +<p>The working time, as will be shown later, is based upon time +study observations on a standard man, but when a task is assigned +for a certain individual, that proportion of the work of the +standard or first class <!--Page 044--><a name="P044" id= +"P044"></a> man is assigned to that particular given man who is +actually to do it, which he is able to do. It is fundamental that +the task must be such that the man who is actually put at it, when +he obeys orders and works steadily, can do it; that is, the task +must be achievable, and achievable without such effort as would do +mental or physical injury to the worker. This not only gives the +individual the proper amount of work to do, recognizes his +particular capabilities and is particularly adapted to him, but it +also eliminates all dread on the score of his not being +appreciated, in that the worker knows that if he achieves or +exceeds his task he will not only receive the wage for it, but will +continue to receive that wage, or more, for like achievement. The +rate is not cut. Under the "three-rate with increased rate system," +which experience has shown to be a most advanced plan for +compensating workmen, the worker receives one bonus for exactness +as to methods, that is, he receives one bonus if he does the task +exactly as he is instructed to do it as to methods; and a second +bonus, or extra bonus, if he completes his task in the allotted +time. This not only assures adequate pay to the man who is slow, +but a good imitator, but also to the man who, perhaps, is not such +a good imitator, and must put attention on the quality rather than +the quantity of his performance.</p> +<p><b>Individuality Emphasized by Instruction Card.</b> — +This individual task is embodied in an individual instruction +card.</p> +<p>In all work where it is possible to do so, the worker is given +an individual instruction card, even though <!--Page 045--><a name= +"P045" id="P045"></a> his operations and rest periods are also +determined by a gang instruction card. This card not only tells the +man what he is to do, how he can best do it, and the time that it +is supposed to take him to do it, — but it bears also the +signature of the man who made it. This in order that if the worker +cannot fulfill the requirements of the card he may lose no time in +determining who is to give him the necessary instructions or help +that will result in his earning his large wages. More than this, he +must call for help from his assigned teachers, as is stated in +large type on a typical Instruction Card as follows: "When +instructions cannot be carried out, foreman must at once report to +man who signed this card."</p> +<p>The signature of the man who made the card not only develops his +sense of individuality and responsibility, but helps create a +feeling of inter-responsibility between the workers in various +parts of the organization.</p> +<p><b>The Gang Instruction Card</b>. — A gang instruction +card is used for such work only as must be done by a group of men +all engaged at the work at once, or who are working at a dependent +sequence of operations, or both. This card contains but those +portions of the instructions for each man which refer to those +elements which must be completed before a following element, to be +done by the next man in the sequence, can be completed. Because of +the nature of the work, the gang instruction card must be put in +the hands of a leader, or foreman, whether or not it is also in the +hands of each of the individuals. The amount of work which can be +required as a set task for each individual <!--Page 046--><a name= +"P046" id="P046"></a> member of the gang, the allowance for rest +for overcoming fatigue, the time that the rest periods must occur, +and the proper pay, are fully stated on the Individual Instruction +Cards.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Teaching Foster Individuality.</b> — As will +be shown at length in the Chapter on Teaching, under Scientific +Management teaching is not only general, by "Systems," "Standing +Orders," or "Standard Practice," but also specific. Specialized +teachers, called, unfortunately for the emphasis desired to be put +on teaching, "functional foremen," help the individual worker to +overcome his peculiar difficulties.</p> +<p>This teaching not only allows every worker to supplement his +deficiencies of disposition or experience, but the teachers' places +give opportunities for those who have a talent for imparting +knowledge to utilize and develop it.</p> +<p><b>Individual Incentive and Welfare.</b> — Finally, +individual incentive and individual welfare are not only both +present, but interdependent. Desire for individual success, which +might lead a worker to respond to the incentive till he held back +perhaps the work of others, is held in balance by interdependence +of bonuses. This will be explained in full in the Chapters on +Incentives and Welfare.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Result of Idea of Individuality upon Work.</b> — To +recapitulate; — Under Traditional Management, because of its +frequent neglect of the idea of individuality, work is often +unsystematized, and high <!--Page 047--><a name="P047" id= +"P047"></a> output is usually the result of "speeding up" only, +with constant danger of a falling off in quality overbalancing men +and injury to men and machinery.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, as outputs are separated, +separately recorded, and as the idea of Individuality is embodied +in selecting men, setting tasks, the instruction cards, periods of +rest, teaching, incentives and welfare, output increases without +undue pressure on the worker.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management — with various elements which +embody individuality fully developed, output increases, to the +welfare of worker, manager, employer and consumer and with no +falling off in quality.</p> +<p><b>Effect Upon the Worker.</b> — The question of the +effect upon the worker of emphasis laid upon individuality, can +perhaps best be answered by asking and answering the following +questions: —</p> +<p>1. When, where, how, and how much is individuality +considered?</p> +<p>2. What consideration is given to the relation of the mind to +the body of the individual?</p> +<p>3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration of individual +and class?</p> +<p>4. In how far is the individual the unit?</p> +<p>5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies?</p> +<p>6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing about +development, that is, broadening, deepening and making the +individual more progressive?</p> +<p><b>Extent of Consideration of Individuality</b>. — 1. +Under Traditional Management consideration of individuality is +seldom present, but those best forms of Traditional +<!--Page 048--><a name="P048" id="P048"></a> Management that are +successful are so because it is present. This is not usually +recognized, but investigation shows that the successful manager, or +foreman, or boss, or superintendent succeeds either because of his +own individuality or because he brings out to good advantage the +individual possibilities of his men. The most successful workers +under Traditional Management are those who are allowed to be +individuals and to follow out their individual bents of greatest +efficiency, instead of being crowded down to become mere members of +gangs, with no chance to think, to do, or to be anything but parts +of the gang.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, and most fully under Scientific +Management, the spirit of individuality, far from being crowded +out, is a basic principle, and everything possible is done to +encourage the desire to be a personality.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Mind to Body.</b> — Under Traditional +Management, where men worked in the same employ for a long time, +much consideration was given to the relation of the mind to the +body. It was realized that men must not be speeded up beyond what +they could do healthfully; they must have good sleeping quarters +and good, savory and appetizing food to eat and not be fatigued +unnecessarily, if they were to become successful workers. More than +this, philanthropic employers often attempted to supply many kinds +of comfort and amusement.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management the physical and mental welfare are +provided for more systematically.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management consideration of the +<!--Page 049--><a name="P049" id="P049"></a> mind and body of +the workman, and his health, and all that that includes, is a +subject for scientific study and for scientific administration. As +shown later, it eliminates all discussion and troubles of so-called +"welfare work," because the interests of the employer and the +worker become identical and everything that is done becomes the +concern of both.</p> +<p>Scientific Management realizes that the condition of the body +effects every possible mental process. It is one of the great +advantages of a study of the psychology of management that the +subject absolutely demands from the start, and insists in every +stage of the work, on this relationship of the body to the mind, +and of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the worker to his +work.</p> +<p>It is almost impossible, in management, to separate the subject +of the worker from that of his work, or to think of the worker as +not working except in such a sense as "ceasing-from-work," +"about-to-work," "resting to overcome fatigue of work," or "resting +during periods of unavoidable delays." The relation of the worker +to his work is constantly in the mind of the manager. It is for +this reason that not only does management owe much to psychology, +but that psychology, as applied to any line of study, will, +ultimately, be recognized as owing much to the science of +management.</p> +<p><b>Relative Emphasis on Individual and Class.</b> — Under +Traditional Management the gang, or the class, usually receives the +chief emphasis. If the individual developed, as he undoubtedly did, +in many kinds of mechanical work, especially in small +organizations, <!--Page 050--><a name="P050" id="P050"></a> it +was more or less because it was not possible for the managers to +organize the various individuals into classes or gangs. In the +transitory stage the emphasis is shifting. Under Scientific +Management the emphasis is most decidedly and emphatically upon the +individual as the unit to be managed, as has been shown.</p> +<p><b>Individual as the Unit.</b> — Under Traditional +Management the individual was seldom the unit. Under Transitory +Management the individual is the unit, but there is not much +emphasis in the early stages placed upon his peculiarities and +personalities. Under Scientific Management the unit is always the +individual, and the utilizing and strengthening of his personal +traits, special ability and skill is a dominating feature.</p> +<p><b>Emphasis on Idiosyncrasies.</b> — Under Traditional +Management there is either no consideration given to +idiosyncrasies, or too wide a latitude is allowed. In cases where +no consideration is given, there is often either a pride in the +managers in "treating all men alike," though they might respond +better to different handling, or else the individual is undirected +and his personality manifests itself in all sorts of unguided +directions, many of which must necessarily be wasteful, +unproductive, or incomplete in development. Under Scientific +Management, functionalization, as will be shown, provides for the +utilization of all idiosyncrasies and efficient deviations from +class, and promotion is so planned that a man may develop along the +line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is encouraged and +developed constantly.</p> +<p><b>Development of Individuality.</b> — The development +<!--Page 051--><a name="P051" id="P051"></a> of individuality is +more sure under Scientific Management than it is under either of +the other two forms of management, (a) because this development is +recognized to be a benefit to the worker and to the employer and +(b) because this development as a part of a definite plan is +provided for and perfected scientifically.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER II FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn01" id="ch02fn01"> 1</a>. +William James, <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 1.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn02" id="ch02fn02"> 2</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems</i>, p. 34.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn03" id="ch02fn03"> 3</a>. Mary +Whiton Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, p. 1.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn04" id="ch02fn04"> 4</a>. James +Sully, <i>Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, p. 14.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn05" id="ch02fn05"> 5</a>. James +Sully, <i>Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, p. 577.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn06" id="ch02fn06"> 6</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 52.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn07" id="ch02fn07"> 7</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.)</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn08" id="ch02fn08"> 8</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Motion Study</i>, p. 7.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn09" id="ch02fn09"> 9</a>. L.B. +Blan, <i>A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation</i>, p. +89.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn10" id="ch02fn10">10</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems</i>, pp. 38-39.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch02fn11" id="ch02fn11">11</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Cost Reducing System</i>, Chap. III.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 052--><a name="P052" id="P052"></a> +<h3><a name="chapteriii" id="chapteriii">CHAPTER III</a></h3> +<h3>FUNCTIONALIZATION</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Functionalization.</b> — A function, says +the Century Dictionary, is — "The fulfilment or discharge of +a set duty or requirement, exercise of a faculty or office, or +power of acting, faculty, — that power of acting in a +specific way which appertains to a thing by virtue of its special +constitution; that mode of action or operation which is proper to +any organ, faculty, office structure, etc. (This is the most usual +signification of the term)."</p> +<p>"Functionalization" is not given in the Century Dictionary. The +nearest to it to be found there is "Functionality," which is +defined as — "The state of having or being a function." +Functionalization as here used means — the state of being +divided into functions, or being functionalized. "Functionalize" is +given in the Century Dictionary, defined as "to assign some office +or function to" — the note being made that it is rare. +"Functionalize" may not be the best word that could be used in this +connection, but there seems to be no other word in the English +language which contains its full meaning, therefore we will use the +word here in the sense of assigning work according to capacity or +faculty. A faculty means — "A specific power, mental or +physical; a <!--Page 053--><a name="P053" id="P053"></a> special +capacity for any particular kind of action or affection; natural +capability."</p> +<p><b>Psychological Use of Functionalization.</b> — The word +"Function" is in constant use by modern psychologists, especially +by those who believe that — "Psychology is the science of the +self in relation to environment," <a href= +"#ch03fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> or that "Psychology is a scientific +account of our mental processes."<a href= +"#ch03fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> Sully defines a function as "a +psychologically simple process," <a href= +"#ch03fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> and compares its elementariness to a +muscular contraction as an element of a step in walking.</p> +<p>In investigating the principle of Functionalization as embodied +in various forms of Management, we must note that, while Management +can, and does under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize +<i>work</i> as far as possible, it will be impossible to come to +ultimate results until a psychological study of the requirement of +the work <i>from</i> the worker, and results of the work <i>on</i> +the worker is made.<a href="#ch03fn04"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Functionalization in Management.</b> — "Functional +Management" consists, to quote Dr. Taylor, "in so directing the +work of management that each man from the assistant superintendent +down shall have as few functions as possible to perform. If +practicable, the work of each man in the management should be +confined to the performance of a single leading function." <a href= +"#ch03fn05"><sup>5</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 054--><a name="P054" id="P054"></a> +<p>A study of functionalization as applied to management must +answer the following questions:</p> +<p>1. How is the work divided?</p> +<p>2. How are the workers assigned to the work?</p> +<p>3. What are the results to the work?</p> +<p>4. What are the results to the worker?</p> +<p><b>Traditional Management Seldom Functionalizes.</b> — +Under Traditional Management the principle of Functionalization was +seldom applied or understood. Even when the manager tried to +separate planning from performing, or so to divide the work that +each worker could utilize his special ability, there were no +permanently beneficial results, because there was no standard +method of division.</p> +<p><b>The Work of the Foreman Not Properly Divided.</b> — The +work of a foreman was not divided, but the well rounded man, as Dr. +Taylor says,<a href="#ch03fn06"><sup>6</sup></a> was supposed to +have</p> +<p>1. Brain</p> +<p>2. Education</p> +<p>3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity or +strength</p> +<p>4. Tact</p> +<p>5. Energy</p> +<p>6. Grit</p> +<p>7. Honesty</p> +<p>8. Judgment, or common sense</p> +<p>9. Good health.</p> +<p>Dr. Taylor says — "Plenty of men who possess only three of +the above qualities can be hired at any time for laborer's wages. +Add four of these qualities together, <!--Page 055--><a name="P055" +id="P055"></a> and you get a higher priced man. The man +combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to find, and +those with 6, 7 and 8 are almost impossible to get."</p> +<p>Yet, under Traditional Management these general qualities and +many points of specific training were demanded of the foreman. Dr. +Taylor has enumerated the qualifications or the duties of a gang +boss in charge of lathes or planers. <a href= +"#ch03fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> Careful reading of this enumeration +will show most plainly that the demands made were almost impossible +of fulfillment. <a href="#ch03fn08"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p>Another list which is interesting is found in "Cost Reducing +System," a long list of the duties of the Ideal Superintendent or +foreman in construction work. <a href= +"#ch03fn09"><sup>9</sup></a></p> +<h3>QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF FIRST CLASS FOREMAN</h3> +<p>A first class foreman must have:</p> +<p class="ltritem">bodily</p> +<p class="ltritem">strength</p> +<p class="ltritem">brains</p> +<p class="ltritem">common sense</p> +<p class="ltritem">education</p> +<p class="ltritem">energy</p> +<p class="ltritem">good health</p> +<p class="ltritem">good judgment</p> +<p class="ltritem">grit</p> +<p class="ltritem">manual dexterity <!--Page 056--><a name="P056" +id="P056"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">special knowledge</p> +<p class="ltritem">tact</p> +<p class="ltritem">technical knowledge.</p> +<p>He must be:</p> +<p class="ltritem">able to concentrate his mind upon small +things</p> +<p class="ltritem">able to read drawings readily</p> +<p class="ltritem">able to visualize the work at every stage of its +progress, and even before it begins</p> +<p class="ltritem">a master of detail</p> +<p class="ltritem">honest</p> +<p class="ltritem">master of at least one trade.</p> +<p>His duties consist of:</p> +<p class="ltritem">considering broad policies.</p> +<p class="ltritem">considering new applicants for important +positions.</p> +<p class="ltritem">considering the character and fitness of the +men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">determining a proper day's work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">determining costs.</p> +<p class="ltritem">determining the method of compensation.</p> +<p class="ltritem">determining the sequence of events for the best +results.</p> +<p class="ltritem">disciplining the men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">dividing the men into gangs for speed +contests.</p> +<p class="ltritem">fixing piece and day rates.</p> +<p class="ltritem">getting rid of inferior men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">handling relations with the unions.</p> +<p class="ltritem">hiring good men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">installing such methods and devices as will +detect dishonesty.</p> +<p class="ltritem">instructing the workman. <!--Page 057--><a name= +"P057" id="P057"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">keeping the time and disciplining those who are +late or absent.</p> +<p class="ltritem">laying out work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">looking ahead to see that there are men enough +for future work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">looking ahead to see that there is enough future +work for the men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">making profits.</p> +<p class="ltritem">measuring each man's effort fairly.</p> +<p class="ltritem">obtaining good results in quality.</p> +<p class="ltritem">paying the men on days when they are +discharged.</p> +<p class="ltritem">paying the men on pay day.</p> +<p class="ltritem">preventing soldiering.</p> +<p class="ltritem">readjusting wages.</p> +<p class="ltritem">retaining good men.</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that all men are honest.</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that men are shifted promptly when +breakdowns occur.</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that repairs are made promptly before +breakdowns occur,</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that repairs are made promptly after +breakdowns occur.</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that the most suitable man is allotted to +each part of the work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">seeing that the work is not slighted.</p> +<p class="ltritem">setting piece work prices.</p> +<p class="ltritem">setting rates.</p> +<p class="ltritem">setting tasks.</p> +<p class="ltritem">supervising timekeeping.</p> +<p class="ltritem">teaching the apprentices. +<!--Page 058--><a name="P058" id="P058"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">teaching the improvers.</p> +<p class="ltritem">teaching the learners.</p> +<p>In studying these lists we note —</p> +<p>1. That the position will be best filled by a very high and rare +type of man.</p> +<p>2. That the man is forced to use every atom of all of his powers +and at the same time to waste his energies in doing much +unimportant pay reducing routine work, some of which could be done +by clerks.</p> +<p>3. That in many cases the work assigned for him to do calls for +qualifications which are diametrically opposed to each other.</p> +<p>4. That psychology tells us that a man fitted to perform some of +these duties would probably be mentally ill fitted for performing +others in the best possible way that they could be performed.</p> +<p><b>Work Not Well Done.</b> — Not only does the foreman +under Traditional Management do a great deal of work which can be +done by cheaper men, but he also wastes his time on clerical work +in which he is not a specialist, and, therefore, which he does not +do as well as the work can be done by a cheaper man, and this takes +more of his time than he ought to devote to it. The result is that +the work is not done as well as it can and should be done.</p> +<p>A most perfect illustration of a common form of Traditional +Management is the old story of the foreman, who, in making his +rounds of the various parts of the work, comes to the deep hole +being excavated for a foundation pier and says hurriedly — +"How many of yez is there in the hole?" "Seven." "The half of yez +come up."</p> +<!--Page 059--><a name="P059" id="P059"></a> +<p>The theoretical defects of the old type of management often seen +before the advent of the trained engineer on the work include: +—</p> +<p> 1. lack of planning ahead.</p> +<p> 2. an overworked foreman.</p> +<p> 3. no functionalizing of the work.</p> +<p> 4. no standards of individual efficiency.</p> +<p> 5. unmeasured individual outputs.</p> +<p> 6. no standard methods.</p> +<p> 7. no attempt at teaching.</p> +<p> 8. inaccurate directions.</p> +<p> 9. lack of athletic contests.</p> +<p>10. no high pay for extra efficiency.</p> +<p>11. poor investigation of workers' special capabilities.</p> +<p>In spite of the fact that under unfunctionalized management the +foreman has far more to do than he can expect to do well, the +average foreman thinks that he belongs to a class above his +position. This is partly because the position is so unstandardized +that it arouses a sense of unrest, and partly because he has to +spend much of his time at low priced functions.</p> +<p>Under the feeling of enmity, or at least, of opposition, which +often exists, openly or secretly, between the average Traditional +Management and men, the foreman must ally himself with one side or +the other. If he joins with the men, he must countenance the +soldiering, which they find necessary in order to maintain their +rates of wages. Thus the output of the shop will seldom increase +and his chance for appreciation and promotion by the management +will probably <!--Page 060--><a name="P060" id="P060"></a> be +slight and slow. His position as boss, combined with that of ally +of the men, is awkward.</p> +<p>If he allies himself to the management, he must usually become a +driver of the men, if he wishes to increase output. This condition +will never be agreeable to him unless he has an oversupply of brute +instincts.</p> +<p><b>The Workers Not Best Utilized.</b> — Under the best +types of Traditional Management we do find more or less spasmodic +attempts at the functionalization of the worker. When there was any +particular kind of work to be done, the worker who seemed to the +manager to be the best fitted, was set at that kind of work. For +example — if there was a particularly heavy piece of work he +might say — "Let A do it because he is strong." If there was +a particularly fine piece of work to be done he might say — +"Let B do it because he is specially skilled." If there was a piece +of work to be done which required originality, he might say — +"Let C do it for the reason that he is inventive and resourceful;" +but, in most cases, when the particular job on hand was finished, +the worker selected to do it returned to other classes of work, and +such special fitness or capability as he had, was seldom +systematically utilized, or automatically assigned to his special +function, neither was such experience as he had gained +systematically conserved. Moreover, no such study of the work to be +done had been made as would prove that the assignment of that +particular worker to the work was right. The psychology of this was +entirely wrong, — not only had no such study of the general +and particular characteristics, traits, faculties, and +<!--Page 061--><a name="P061" id="P061"></a> talents of the man +been made as would prove that he was the right man to be assigned, +but the mere fact that he possessed one quality necessary for the +work, if he really did possess it, was no sign that the other +qualities which he possessed might not make him the wrong man to be +chosen. Even if the man did happen to be assigned to work for which +he was particularly suited, unless provision were made to keep him +at such work only, to keep him well supplied with work, to allow +time for rest, and to provide proper pay, he could not utilize his +capabilities to the fullest extent.</p> +<p><b>Transitory Management Functionalizes.</b> — Under +Transitory Management, management becomes gradually more and more +functionalized. With separated outputs and separate records, the +worker's capabilities become apparent, and he can be assigned to +the standardized positions which gradually evolve. Every +recognition of individuality carries with it a corresponding +functionalization of men and work.</p> +<p><b>Functionalization a Fundamental of Scientific Management.</b> +— With Scientific Management comes the realization that with +close study and with functionalization only, can that provision and +assignment of the work which is best for both work and worker be +obtained. The principle is applied to every part of management, and +results in</p> +<p>1. separating the planning from the performing.</p> +<p>2. functionalizing foremen.</p> +<p>3. functionalizing workers.</p> +<p>4. assigning competent workers to fitting work.</p> +<p><b>Separating the Planning from the Performing.</b> — The +emphasis on separating the planning from <!--Page 062--><a name= +"P062" id="P062"></a> the performing in Scientific Management +cannot be over-estimated. It is a part of Dr. Taylor's fourth +principle of Scientific Management, "Almost equal division of the +work and the responsibility between the management and the +workmen."<a href="#ch03fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> The greatest outputs +can be achieved to the greatest benefit to managers and men when +the work is divided, the management undertaking that part of the +work that it is best fitted to do, the workmen performing that part +which they are best fitted to do.</p> +<p><b>The Work of the Planning Department.</b> — It has been +determined by actual experience that the line of division most +agreeable to the managers and the workmen and most productive of +coöperation by both, as well as most efficient in producing +low costs, is that which separates the planning from the +performing. Under Scientific Management the Planning Department +relieves the man of determining —</p> +<p>1. what work is to be done.</p> +<p>2. sequence in which it is to be done.</p> +<p>3. method by which it shall be done.</p> +<p>4. where it shall be done.</p> +<p>5. which men shall do it.</p> +<p>6. time that it shall take.</p> +<p>7. exact quality of product.</p> +<p>8. quantity of additional pay that shall be given for doing +it.</p> +<p><b>Work of the Workers.</b> — The men are simply given +standard tasks to do, with teachers to help them, and a standard +wage according to performance as a reward. <!--Page 063--><a name= +"P063" id="P063"></a> There are but three things expected of +them: —</p> +<p>1. coöperation with the management in obtaining the +prescribed work, method and quality.</p> +<p>2. the exercise of their ingenuity in making improvements after +they have learned the standard prescribed practice.</p> +<p>3. the fitting of themselves for higher pay and promotion.</p> +<p><b>Functionalized Foremanship.</b> — The work that, under +Scientific Management, is usually done by one man, the Foreman, is +subdivided into eight or more functions. These functions are +assigned to the following functional foremen: <a href= +"#ch03fn11"><sup>11</sup></a></p> +<p>Planning Department</p> +<p class="ltritem">1. Order of work and route man</p> +<p class="ltritem">2. Instruction card man</p> +<p class="ltritem">3. Cost and time clerk</p> +<p class="ltritem">4. Disciplinarian</p> +<p>Performing Department</p> +<p class="ltritem">5. Gang boss</p> +<p class="ltritem">6. Speed boss</p> +<p class="ltritem">7. Repair boss</p> +<p class="ltritem">8. Inspector</p> +<p>Each of the above functions may be in charge of a separate man, +or one man may be in charge of several functions, or several men +may do the work of one function; the work being divided between +them in some cases by further functionalizing it, — and in +others by separating it into similar parts. Which of +<!--Page 064--><a name="P064" id="P064"></a> these conditions is +most effective depends on the size of the job, or the nature of the +job to be done. The important question is, not the number of men +doing the planning, but the fact that every foreman, so far as is +possible, is assigned to the special kind of work that he is best +fitted to do with the greatest elimination of unnecessary +waste.</p> +<p><b>Changes in the Functions of the Foreman.</b> — A +Foreman, under Scientific Management, must have three +qualifications. He must be</p> +<p>1. a specialist at the work that he is to do.</p> +<p>2. a good observer, able to note minute variations of method, +work, and efficiency.</p> +<p>3. a good teacher.</p> +<p>A comparison of these qualifications with those of the foreman +under Traditional Management, will show as important changes, +—</p> +<p>1. the particular place in the field of knowledge in which the +foreman must specialize.</p> +<p>2. the change in the type of criticism expected from the +foreman.</p> +<p>3. the far greater emphasis placed on duties as a teacher.</p> +<p><b>Importance of the Teaching Feature in Functional +Foremanship.</b> — The teaching feature of management, +— the most important feature of Scientific Management, +— will be discussed in the Chapter on Teaching. Only so much +is included here as shows its derivation from the principle of +functionalization, and its underlying importance.</p> +<p>Functionalization means specialization. This results in +coöperation between foremen, between foremen +<!--Page 065--><a name="P065" id="P065"></a> and workers, and +between workers. By "co-operate" is here meant not only "to work +together," but also "to work together to promote the object." This +coöperation persists not only because it is demanded by the +work, but also because it is insured by the inter-dependent +bonuses.</p> +<p>Functionalization under Scientific Management separates planning +from performing. This means that the specialists who plan must +teach the specialist who performs, this being the way in which they +co-operate to the greatest personal advantage to all.</p> +<p><b>Basis of Division into Functions.</b> — Under +Scientific Management divisions are made on the basis of underlying +ideas. Functions are not classified as they are embodied in +particular men, but men are classified as they embody particular +functions. This allows of standardization, through which alone can +progress and evolution come quickest. It is comparatively easy and +simple to standardize a function. Being a "set duty," it can be +fixed, studied and simplified. It is extremely difficult and +complex to standardize an individual. This standardizing of the +function, however, in no wise stunts individuality. On the +contrary, it gives each individual a chance to utilize his +particular faculty for obtaining the greatest efficiency, pleasure +and profit. This is well illustrated in the case of specialization +in baseball, for excellence as a pitcher does not stunt the player +as a catcher.</p> +<p>Functions may be subdivided as far as the nature of the work +demands. Note here, again, that it is the relative complexity or +simplicity of the nature of the work that is to be done that +determines the degree <!--Page 066--><a name="P066" id= +"P066"></a> of its functionalization, not the number of men +employed at the work.</p> +<p>Note, also, that with every subdivision of functions comes +greater opportunity for specialization, hence for individual +development.</p> +<p><b>Place of Operation of the Functions.</b> — Four +functions of the eight find their place in the planning department. +The other four are out on the work. That is to say, — the men +who represent four functions work almost entirely in the planning +room, while the men who represent the other four functions work +mostly among the workers. This division is, however, largely a +matter of convenience. Three of the first four groups of men +communicate with the workers mostly in writing and are seldom +engaged as observers, except in obtaining data for the creation of +standards, while the fourth is often in the planning room. The last +four usually communicate with the men orally, and must observe and +teach the worker constantly.</p> +<p>In the descriptions that follow, each function is represented as +embodied in one man, this aiding simplicity and clearness in +description.</p> +<p><b>The Order of Work and Route Clerk.</b> — The Order of +Work and Route Clerk lays out the exact path of each piece of work, +and determines the sequence of events of moving and a general +outline of performance. <a href="#ch03fn12"><sup>12</sup></a> With +the requirements of the work in mind, the most efficient day's work +for each worker is determined. The paths and sequences of +transportation <!--Page 067--><a name="P067" id="P067"></a> are +outlined by means of route charts and route sheets showing +graphical and detailed directions, which are the means by which the +foremen of the other functions are enabled to coöperate with +other foremen and with the workers.</p> +<p>The work of this function requires a practical man, of the +successful foreman type, experienced in the class of work to be +executed, who is also familiar with the theories of Scientific +Management in general, and the work of the other foremen in +particular, and who has the faculty of visualization and well +developed constructive imagination. He must also have at his +command in systematic form, and available for immediate use, +records of previous experience.</p> +<p><b>The Instruction Card Clerk</b>. — The Instruction Card +Clerk prepares written directions for the workers as to what +methods should be used in doing the work, the sequence of +performance of the elements of the method, the speeds and action of +the accompanying machinery, the time that each element should take +for its performance, the time allowed for rest for overcoming +fatigue caused by its performance, and the total elapsed time +allowed for performing all of the work on the instruction card in +order to obtain the unusually high additional wages as a reward for +his skill and coöperation.</p> +<p>The work of this function requires the best available (but not +necessarily the fastest), practical experienced man in the trade +described, who also has had sufficient experience in motion study +and time study to enable him to write down the best known method +for doing the work described, and also <!--Page 068--><a name= +"P068" id="P068"></a> prophesying the correct time that the work +and rest from its resulting fatigue will take. He must supplement +the instruction card with such sketches, drawings and photographs +as will best assist the worker to visualize his work before and +during its performance.</p> +<p><b>Function of Time and Cost Clerk</b>. — The work done by +the Time and Cost Clerk calls for accuracy and a love of +statistical detail. It will help him if he knows the trades with +which he is coöperating, but such knowledge is not absolutely +essential. He will be promoted fastest who has a knowledge of the +theory of management, coupled with the theory and practice of +statistics and accountancy, for the true costs must include +knowledge of costs of materials, and the distribution of the +overhead burden of running expenses and selling.</p> +<p><b>Function of the Disciplinarian</b>. — The function of +the Disciplinarian must be discussed at length, both because of the +psychological effect upon the men of the manner of the discipline +and of the disciplinarian, and because of the fact that the +disciplinarian is the functional foreman of the four in the +planning department who comes in most personal contact with the +workers, as well as all of the other foremen, and the +Superintendent.</p> +<p>It is important to note, in the discussion that is to follow, +not only how disciplining is transformed as management develops +progressively, but also that the intimate acquaintance of +discipliner with disciplined is not done away with, but rather +supplemented by <!--Page 069--><a name="P069" id="P069"></a> the +standardizing which is the outcome of Scientific Management.</p> +<p>The defects of methods of disciplining under Traditional +Management are remedied, but here, as always, Scientific Management +retains and develops that which is good. This because the good in +the older forms conformed, unconsciously, to the underlying +laws.</p> +<p><b>Defects of Disciplining Under Traditional Management</b>. +— Under Traditional Management, the disciplining is done by +the foreman; that is, the punishment is meted out by the man who +has charge of all activities of the men under him. This is +actually, in practice and in theory, psychologically wrong. If +there is one man who should be in a state of mind that would enable +him to judge dispassionately, it is the disciplinarian. The man to +be disciplined is usually guilty of one of six offenses:</p> +<p>1. an offense against an employé of a grade above +him.</p> +<p>2. an offense against an employé of the same grade.</p> +<p>3. an offense against an employé of a grade below +him.</p> +<p>4. falling short in the quality of his work.</p> +<p>5. falling short in the quantity of his work.</p> +<p>6. an offense against the system (disobeying orders), falling +down on schedule, or intentionally not coöperating.</p> +<p>The employé over him, or the foreman, to whom he is +supposed to have done some injustice, would be in no state of mind +to judge as to the man's <!--Page 070--><a name="P070" id= +"P070"></a> culpability. In the case of an offense against an +employé of the same grade, the best that the injured +employé could do would be to appeal to his foreman, who +oftentimes is not an unprejudiced judge, and the multiplicity of +whose duties give him little time to give attention to the subject +of disciplining.</p> +<p>If the offense is against quantity or quality of work, again the +old fashioned foreman, for lack of time, and for lack of training +and proper standards of measurement, will find it almost impossible +to know how guilty the man is, and what form of punishment and what +amount of punishment or loss of opportunity for progress will be +appropriate.</p> +<p><b>Changes in Disciplinarian's Function Under Scientific +Management</b>. — All this is changed under Scientific +Management. The disciplinarian is a specially appointed functional +foreman, and has few other duties except those that are directly or +indirectly connected with disciplining. He is in touch with the +requirements of the work, because he is in the Planning Department; +he is in touch with the employment bureau, and knows which men +should be employed; he has a determining voice in deciding +elementary rate fixing and should always be consulted before wages +are changed or a reassignment of duties is determined. All of these +are great advantages to him in deciding justly and appropriately +punishments and promotion, not for the workers alone but also for +the foremen and the managers.</p> +<p><b>Duties of the Disciplinarian</b>. — The Disciplinarian +keeps a record of each man's virtues and defects; he is in position +to know all about the man; where he <!--Page 071--><a name="P071" +id="P071"></a> comes from; what his natural and acquired +qualifications are; what his good points, possibilities and special +fitness are; what his wages are, and his need for them. All that it +is possible for the managers to know of the men is to be +concentrated in this disciplinarian. He is, in practice, more the +counsel and advocate of the worker than an unsympathetic judge, as +is indicated by the fact that his chief function is that of +"diplomat" and "peacemaker." His greatest duty is to see that the +"square deal" is meted out without fear or favor to employer or to +employé.</p> +<p><b>Importance of Psychology in Disciplining</b>. — Not +only does the position of disciplinarian under Scientific +Management answer the psychological requirements for such a +function, but also the holder of the position of disciplinarian +must understand psychology and apply, at least unconsciously, and +preferably consciously, the known laws of psychology, if he wishes +to be successful.</p> +<p>The disciplinarian must consider not only what the man has done +and the relation of this act of his to his other acts; he must also +investigate the cause and the motive of the act, for on the cause +and motive, in reality, depends more than on the act itself. He +must probe into the physical condition of the man, as related to +his mental acts. He must note the effect of the same kind of +discipline under different conditions; for example, he must note +that, on certain types of people, disciplining in the presence of +other people has a most derogatory effect, just as rewards before +people may have a most advantageous effect. Upon others, discipline +that is meted out in the presence of <!--Page 072--><a name="P072" +id="P072"></a> other people is the only sort of discipline which +has the desired effect. The sensitiveness of the person to be +disciplined, the necessity for sharp discipline, and for that +particular sort of discipline which may require the element of +shame in it, must all be considered. He must be able to discover +and note whether the discipline should be meted out to a +ringleader, and whether the other employés, supposed to be +blameworthy, are really only guilty in acquiescing, or in failing +to report one who has really furnished the initiative. He must +differentiate acts which are the result of following a ringleader +blindly from the concerted acts of disobedience of a crowd, for the +"mob spirit" is always an element to be estimated and separately +handled.</p> +<p><b>Inadequacy of Terms in Disciplining</b>. — The words +"disciplinarian" and "punishment" are most unfortunate. The +"Disciplinarian" would be far better called the "peacemaker," and +the "punishment" by some such word as the "adjustment." It is +<i>not</i> the duty of the disciplinarian to "take out anybody's +grudge" against a man; it <i>is</i> his duty to adjust +disagreements. He must remember constantly that his discipline must +be of such a nature that the result will be for the permanent best +interests of the one disciplined, his co-workers, his associates +and his family.</p> +<p>The aim is, not to put the man down, but to keep him up to his +standard, as will be shown later in a chapter on Incentives. If the +punishment is in the form of a fine, it must not in any way return +to the coffers of the management. The fines collected — +<!--Page 073--><a name="P073" id="P073"></a> even those fines +collected from the individuals composing the management, should go +in some form to the benefit of the men themselves, such, for +example, as contributions to a workman's sick benefit fund or to +general entertainment at the annual outing of employés. In +practice, the disciplinarian is rather the friend of the worker +than of the employer, if the two interests can possibly be +separated. Again "penalty" is a bad word to use. Any words used in +this connection should preferably have had taken from them any +feeling that personal prejudice affects the discipline. It is the +nature of the offense itself which should prescribe what the +outcome of it shall be.</p> +<p>The position of disciplinarian requires a man who has a keen +sense of justice, who has had such experience as to enable him to +smooth out difficulties until all are in a frame of mind where they +can look upon their own acts and the acts of others calmly. He must +be able so to administer his duties that each decision inspires the +realization that he acted to the best of his knowledge and belief. +He must be one who is fearless, and has no tendency to have +favorites. He must have a clear knowledge of the theories and +principles of Scientific Management, in order that he can fill the +position of enforcer of its laws.</p> +<p><b>The Gang Boss</b>. — The duties of The Gang Boss are to +see that the worker has plenty of work ahead, to see that +everything that he will need with which to do the work is at hand, +and to see that the work is actually "set," or placed and performed +correctly. This position calls for a practical demonstrator, who +must himself be able and willing actually <!--Page 074--><a name= +"P074" id="P074"></a> to prepare and help on the work. It calls +particularly for a man with teaching ability, with special emphasis +on ability to teach, with great exactness, the prescribed method +and to follow the orders of the planning department implicitly.</p> +<p><b>The Speed Boss</b>. — The speed boss is responsible for +the methods of doing work with machinery. He has charge of +overseeing the work, and teaching the worker, during the entire +time that the work is being done. He must be prepared constantly to +demonstrate at any time not only <i>how</i> the work is done, but +also that it can be done in the specified time called for in order +to earn the bonus. This position calls for a man who is able, +personally, to carry out the detailed written orders of the +instruction card in regard to speeds, feeds, cuts, methods of +operation, quality and quantity.</p> +<p>He must be proficient at the art of imparting his knowledge to +other workmen, and at the same time be able to secure the +prescribed outputs and quantities. He need not be the fastest +worker in the shop, but he should be one of the most intelligent +workers and best teachers, with a keen desire to coöperate, +both with the workers and with the other foremen.</p> +<p><b>The Repair Boss</b>. — The repair boss has charge of +the plant and its maintenance. He must have a natural love of order +and of cleanliness, and a systematic type of mind. This position +calls for a man with an experience that will enable him to detect +liability of breakdowns before they actually occur. He must be +resourceful in repairing unexpected breakdowns in an emergency, and +be able at all times <!--Page 075--><a name="P075" id= +"P075"></a> to carry out literally the directions given on the +instruction cards of the Planning Department for cleaning, +maintaining, and repairing the machines.</p> +<p><b>The Inspector</b>. — The function of inspector under +scientific or the Taylor plan of management is most important, +especially in connection with the "first inspection." During the +manufacture of the first piece and after it is finished the +inspector passes and reports upon it before the worker proceeds +with the other pieces. Here the worker gets a return in person for +each successive act on the first piece he makes under a new +instruction card, or, if he is a new worker, under an old +instruction card. Ambiguity of instructions, if present, is thus +eliminated, and wrong actions or results are corrected before much +damage to material has been done and before much time and effort +are wasted. The first erroneous cycles of work are not repeated, +and the worker is promptly shown exactly how efficiently he has +succeeded in determining the requirements of his instructions.</p> +<p>The inspector is responsible for the quality of the work. He +fulfills the requirements of Schloss, who says, in speaking of the +danger, under some managements, that the foreman will sacrifice +quality to speed, if he gets a bonus for quantity of output, +— "The best safeguard against this serious danger would be +found in the appointment of a distinct staff of inspectors whose +duty it should be to ascertain, as the work proceeds, that the +stipulated standards of excellence are at all times scrupulously +maintained." This position of inspector requires an observant man +who naturally is inclined to give constructive rather +<!--Page 076--><a name="P076" id="P076"></a> than +destructive-criticism. He should be a man who can coöperate +with the workman and foreman to rescue condemned or damaged +material with the least expenditure of time, effort and +expense.</p> +<p><b>Functionalizing the Worker</b>. — Under Scientific +Management, the worker as well as the foreman, is a specialist. +This he becomes by being relieved of everything that he is not best +fitted to do, and allowed to concentrate upon doing, according to +exact and scientifically derived methods, that work at which he is +an expert.<a href="#ch03fn13"><sup>13</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Relieving the Worker of the Planning</b>. — The +planning is taken away from the worker, not because it is something +too choice, sacred or entertaining for him to do, or something +which the managers desire to do themselves, but because it is best, +for the workers themselves as well as the work, that the planning +be done by specialists at planning. If he is expert enough to plan, +the worker will be promoted to the planning department. In the +meantime, he is working under the best plan that experts can +devise.</p> +<p><b>Master Planning a Life Study</b>. — The best planner is +he who, — other things being equal, — is the most +ingenious, the most experienced and the best observer. It is an art +to observe; it requires persistent attention. The longer and the +more the observer observes, the more details, and variables +affecting details, <!--Page 077--><a name="P077" id="P077"></a> +he observes. The untrained observer could not expect to compete +with one of special natural talent who has also been trained. It is +not every man who is fitted by nature to observe closely, hence to +plan. To observe is a condition precedent to visualizing. Practice +in visualizing makes for increasing the faculty of constructive +imagination. He with the best constructive imagination is the +master planner.</p> +<p>The art of observing is founded on a study of fundamental +elements. In order that planning may be done best, previous to +starting work, the entire sequence of operations must be laid out, +so that the ideas of value of every element of every subdivision of +the process of working may be corrected to act most efficiently in +relation with each and all of the subsequent parts and events that +are to follow. This planning forwards and backwards demands an +equipment of time study, motion study and micro-motion study +records such as can be used economically only when all the planning +is done in one place, with one set of records. The planner must be +able to see and control the whole problem in all of its +aspects.</p> +<p>For example, — the use that is to be made of the work +after it is completed may entirely change the methods best used in +doing it. Thus, the face of a brick wall that is to be plastered +does not require and should not have the usual excellence of nicely +ruled joints required on a face that is not to be plastered. In +fact, the roughest, raggedest joints will be that quality of wall +that will make the plaster adhere the best.</p> +<!--Page 078--><a name="P078" id="P078"></a> +<p>As an example of professional observation and investigation with +which no untrained observer could compete, we cite the epoch making +work of Dr. Taylor in determining the most efficient speeds, feeds, +cuts and shape of tools to use for the least wastefulness in +cutting metals.<a href="#ch03fn14"><sup>14</sup></a></p> +<p>Dr. Taylor, an unusually brilliant man, at the end of twenty-six +years, working with the best scientists, engineers, experimenters, +and workmen, after an expenditure of literally hundreds of +thousands of dollars, was able to determine and write down a method +for cutting metals many times less wasteful in time than was ever +known before; but the data from the experiments was so complex and +involved that a considerable knowledge of higher mathematics had to +be used to apply the data. Furthermore, the data was in such form +that it took longer to use the knowledge contained therein than it +did to do the work on any given piece of metal cutting. After +gathering this knowledge, Dr. Taylor, with his assistants, first +Mr. Gantt and finally Mr. Barth, reduced it to such a form that now +it can be used in a matter of a few seconds or minutes. This was +done by making slide rules. <a href="#ch03fn15"><sup>15</sup></a> +Today workers have this knowledge in a form that any machinist can +use with a little instruction. As a result, Dr. Taylor's +observations have revolutionized the design of metal cutting +machinery and the metal cutting industry, and the data +<!--Page 079--><a name="P079" id="P079"></a> he collected is +used in every metal cutting planning department.</p> +<p>Furthermore, as a by-product to his observations and +investigations, he discovered the Taylor-White process of making +high speed steel, which revolutionized the steel tool industry. No +untrained workman could expect ever to compete with such work as +this in obtaining results for most efficient planning and at the +same time perform his ordinary work.</p> +<p><b>Wastefulness of Individual Planning</b>. — Even if it +were possible so to arrange the work of every worker that he could +be in close proximity to the equipment for planning and could be +given the training needed, individual planning for "small lots" +with no systematized standardization of planning-results would be +an economic waste that would cause an unnecessary hardship on the +worker, the employer and the ultimate consumer. Individual planning +could not fit the broad scheme of planning, and at best would cause +delays and confusion, and make an incentive to plan for the +individual self, instead of planning for the greatest good of the +greatest number.</p> +<p>Again, even if it were possible to plan best by individual +planning, there is a further waste in changing from one kind of +work to another. This waste is so great and so obvious that it was +noticed and recognized by the earliest manufacturers and +economists.</p> +<p><b>Hardship to the Worker of Individual Planning</b>. — To +obtain the most wages and profits there must be the most savings to +divide. These cannot be obtained when each man plans for himself +(except <!--Page 080--><a name="P080" id="P080"></a> in the home +trades), because all large modern operations have the quantity of +output dependent upon the amount of blockades, stoppages and +interferences caused by dependent sequences. It is not, therefore, +possible to obtain the most profit or most wages by individual +planning. Planning is a general function, and the only way to +obtain the best results is by organized planning, and by seeing +that no planning is done for one worker without proper +consideration of its bearing and effect upon any or all the other +men's outputs.</p> +<p><b>The Man Who Desires to Be a Planner Can Be One</b>. — +If the worker is the sort of a man who can observe and plan, or who +desires to plan, even though he is not at first employed in the +planning department, he is sure to get there finally, as the system +provides that each man shall go where he is best fitted. Positions +in planning departments are hard to fill, because of the scarcity +of men equipped to do this work. The difficulty of teaching men to +become highly efficient planners is one of the reasons for the slow +advance of the general adoption of Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>The Man Who Dislikes Planning Can Be Relieved</b>. — It +must not be forgotten that many people dislike the planning +responsibility in connection with their work. For such, relief from +planning makes the performance of the planned work more interesting +and desirable.</p> +<p><b>Provision for Planning by All Under Scientific +Management</b>. — Much has been said about the worker's +"God-given rights to think," and about the <!--Page 081--><a name= +"P081" id="P081"></a> necessity for providing every worker with +an opportunity to think.</p> +<p>Scientific Management provides the fullest opportunities for +every man to think, to exercise his mental faculties, and to +plan</p> +<p>1. in doing the work itself, as will be shown at length in +chapters that follow.</p> +<p>2. outside of the regular working hours, but in connection with +promotion in his regular work.</p> +<p>Scientific Management provides always, and most emphatically, +that the man shall have hours free from his work in such a state +that he will not be too fatigued to do anything. Furthermore, if he +work as directed, his number of working hours per day will be so +reduced that he will have more time each day for his chosen form of +mental stimulus and improvement.</p> +<p>Our friend John Brashear is a most excellent example of what one +can do in after hours away from his work. He was a laborer in a +steel mill. His duties were not such as resemble in any way +planning or research work, yet he became one of the world's most +prominent astronomical thinkers and an Honorary member of the +American Society of Mechanical Engineers, because he had the desire +to be a student. Under Scientific Management such a desire receives +added impetus from the method of attack provided for through its +teaching.</p> +<p><b>Functionalizing the Work Itself</b>. — The work of each +part of the planning and performing departments may be +functionalized, or subdivided, as the result of motion study and +time study. The elementary <!--Page 082--><a name="P082" id= +"P082"></a> timed units are combined or synthesized into tasks, +made to fit the capabilities of specialized workers. It is then +necessary to: —</p> +<p>1. List the duties and requirements of the work.</p> +<p>2. Decide whether the place can be best handled as one, or +subdivided into several further subdivisions, or functions, or even +sub-functions, for two or more function specialists.</p> +<p>For the sake of analysis, all work may be considered as of one +of two classes: —</p> +<p>1. the short time job.</p> +<p>2. the long time job.</p> +<p>These two divisions are handled differently, as follows:</p> +<p><b>The Short Time Job</b>. — On the short time job that +probably will never be repeated, there is little opportunity and no +economic reason for specially training a man for its performance. +The available man best suited to do the work with little or no help +should be chosen to do it. The suitability of the man for the work +should be determined only by applying simple tests, or, if even +these will cause costly delay or more expense than the work +warrants, the man who appears suitable and who most desires the +opportunity to do the work can be assigned to it.</p> +<p>If the job is connected with a new art, a man whose habits will +help him can be chosen.</p> +<p>For example: — in selecting a man to fly, it has been +found advantageous to give a trick bicycle rider the +preference.</p> +<p>There is no other reason why the man for the short job should +not be fitted as well to his work as <!--Page 083--><a name="P083" +id="P083"></a> the man for the long job, except the +all-important reason of cost for special preparation. Any expense +for study of the workers must be borne ultimately both by worker +and management, and it is undesirable to both that expense should +be incurred which will not be ultimately repaid.</p> +<p><b>The Long Time Job</b>. — The long time job allows of +teaching, therefore applicants for it may be carefully studied. +Usually that man should be chosen who, with all the natural +qualifications and capabilities for the job, except practical +skill, requires the most teaching to raise him from the lower plane +to that highest mental and manual plane which he is able to fill +successfully continuously. In this way each man will be developed +into a worker of great value to the management and to himself.</p> +<p>The man who is capable and already skilled at some work is thus +available for a still higher job, for which he can be taught. Thus +the long job affords the greatest opportunity for promotion. The +long job justifies the expenditure of money, effort and time by +management and men, and is the ideal field for the application of +scientific selection and functionalization.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Effect of Functionalization upon the Work</b>. — Under +Traditional Management, there was little or no definite +functionalization. If the quantity of output did increase, as the +result of putting a man at that work for which he seemed best +fitted, there was seldom provision made for seeing that the quality +of <!--Page 084--><a name="P084" id="P084"></a> product was +maintained by a method of constructive inspection that prevented +downward deviations from standard quality, instead of condemning +large quantities of the finished product.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, the Department of Inspection is one +of the first Functions installed. This assures maintained quality, +and provides that all increase in output shall be actual gain.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management, functionalization results in +increased quantity of output, <a href="#ch03fn16"><sup>16</sup></a> +with maintained and usually increased quality. <a href= +"#ch03fn17"><sup>17</sup></a> This results in decreased cost. The +cost is sufficiently lower to allow of increased wages to the +employés, a further profit to the employer, and a +maintained, or lowered, selling price. This means a benefit to the +consumer.</p> +<p>It may be objected that costs cannot be lowered, because of the +number of so-called "non-producers" provided for by Scientific +Management.</p> +<p>In answer to this it may be said that there are no non-producers +under Scientific Management. Corresponding work that, under +Scientific Management, is done in the planning department must all +be done somewhere, in a less systematic manner, even under +Traditional Management. <a href="#ch03fn18"><sup>18</sup></a> The +planning department, <!--Page 085--><a name="P085" id= +"P085"></a> simply does this work more efficiently, — with +less waste. Moreover, much work of the planning department, being +founded on elementary units, is available for constant use. Here +results an enormous saving by the conservation and utilization of +planning effort.</p> +<p>Also, standard methods are more apt to result in standard +quality, and with less occasion for rejecting output that is below +the requisite standards than is the case under Traditional +Management.</p> +<p><b>Effect of Functionalization upon the Worker</b>. — +Under Traditional Management, even if the worker often becomes +functionalized, he seldom has assurance that he will be able to +reap the harvest from remaining so, and even so, neither data nor +teaching are provided to enable him to fulfill his function most +successfully.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management the worker becomes more and more +functionalized, as the results of motion study and time study make +clear the advantages of specializing the worker.</p> +<p><b>Effects upon the Scientifically Managed Worker</b>. — +Under Scientific Management the effects of Functionalization are so +universal and so far reaching that it is necessary to enumerate +them in detail.</p> +<p><b>Worker Relieved of Everything but His Special Functions</b>. +— Functionalization, in providing that every man is assigned +a special function, also provides that he be called upon to do work +in that function only, relieving him of all other work and +responsibility. Realization of this elimination has a +<!--Page 086--><a name="P086" id="P086"></a> psychological +effect on action and habits of thinking. <a href= +"#ch03fn19"><sup>19</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Places are Provided for Specialists</b>. — +Functionalization utilizes men with decided bents, and allows each +man to occupy that place for which he is fitted. <a href= +"#ch03fn20"><sup>20</sup></a> Assignment to functions is done +according to the capabilities and desires of those who are to fill +them.</p> +<p><b>Specializing Is Encouraged</b>. — It is most important +to remember that the man with any special talent or talents, +individuality or special fitness is much more likely, under +Scientific Management, to obtain and retain the place that he is +fitted for than he ever could have been under Traditional +Management, for, while many fairly efficient men can be found who +can fill a general position, a man with the marked desirable trait +necessary to fill a distinct position requiring that trait, will be +one of few, and will have his place waiting for him.</p> +<p><b>One-Talent Men Utilized — .</b>With Functionalization, +men who lack qualifications for the position which they may, at the +start, endeavor to fill, may be transferred to other positions, +where the qualities they lack are not required. If a man has one +talent, Scientific Management provides a place where that can be +utilized.</p> +<p>For example: —</p> +<p>Men who cannot produce the prescribed output +<!--Page 087--><a name="P087" id="P087"></a> constantly, are +placed on other work. The slow, unskilled worker who has difficulty +to learn, may be put upon work requiring less skill, or where speed +is not required so much as watchfulness and faithfulness. The +worker who is slow, but exceptionally skilled, has the opportunity +to rise to the position of the functional foreman, especially in +the planning department, where knowledge, experience and +resourcefulness, and especially ability to teach, are much more +desired than speed and endurance. Thus there are places provided, +below and above, that can utilize all kinds of abilities.</p> +<p><b>"All Round" Men Are Utilized</b>. — The exceptional man +who possesses executive ability in all lines, and balance between +them all, is the ideal man for a manager, and his special "all +round" ability would be wasted in any position below that of a +manager.</p> +<p><b>Stability Provided For</b>. — Every man is maintained +in his place by his interresponsibility with other men. If he is a +worker, every man's work is held to standard quality by the +inspector, while the requirements and rewards of his function are +kept before him by the instruction card man, rate fixer and the +disciplinarian.</p> +<p><b>Promotion and Development Provided For</b>. — +Functionalization provides for promotion by showing every man not +only the clearly circumscribed place where he is to work, but also +by showing him the definite place above him to which he may be +promoted and its path, and by teaching him how he can fill it. This +allows him to develop the possibilities <!--Page 088--><a name= +"P088" id="P088"></a> of his best self by using and specially +training those talents which are most marked in him.</p> +<p>Functional Foremanship allows many more people, to become +foremen, and to develop the will and judgment which foremanship +implies.</p> +<p><b>Men in the Organization Preferred to Outsiders</b>. — +Men in the organization are preferable to outsiders as functional +foremen and for promotion. Not only does a worker's knowledge of +his work help him to become more efficient when he is promoted to +the position of foreman, — but his efficiency as a teacher is +also increased by the fact that he knows and understands the +workers whom he is there to teach.</p> +<p><b>All Men Are Pushed Up</b>. — Scientific Management +raises every man as high as he is capable of being raised. It does +not speed him up, but pushes him up to the highest notch which he +can fill. Actual practice has shown that there is a greater demand +for efficient men in the planning department than there is supply; +also, that men in the planning department who fit themselves for +higher work can be readily promoted to positions of greater +responsibility, either inside or outside the organization.</p> +<p><b>Years of Productivity Prolonged</b>. — Under +Functionalization the number of years of productivity of all, +workers and foremen alike, are increased. The specialty to which +the man is assigned is his natural specialty, thus his possible and +profitable working years are prolonged, because he is at that work +for which he is naturally fitted.</p> +<p>Moreover, the work of teaching is one at which the teacher +becomes more clever and more valuable <!--Page 089--><a name="P089" +id="P089"></a> as time goes on, the functional foreman has that +much more chance to become valuable as years go by.</p> +<p><b>Change in the Worker's Mental Attitude</b>. — The work +under functionalization is such as to arouse the worker's attention +and to hold his interest. <a href="#ch03fn21"><sup>21</sup></a> But +the most important and valuable change in the worker's feelings is +the change in his attitude towards the foremen and the employer. +From "natural enemies" as sometimes considered under typical +Traditional Management, these all now become friends, with the +common aim, coöperation, for the purpose of increasing output +and wages, and lowering costs. This change of feeling results in an +appreciation of the value of teaching, and also in promoting +industrial peace.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER III FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn01" id="ch03fn01"> 1</a>. Mary +Whiton Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, p. 273.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn02" id="ch03fn02"> 2</a>. +Sully, <i>The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, p. 1.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn03" id="ch03fn03"> 3</a>. +<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 54.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn04" id="ch03fn04"> 4</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems</i>, p. 35.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn05" id="ch03fn05"> 5</a>. +Gillette and Dana, <i>Cost Keeping and Management Engineering</i>, +p. 1.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn06" id="ch03fn06"> 6</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 221. Harper Ed., p. 96.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn07" id="ch03fn07"> 7</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 221-231. Harper Ed., pp. +96-98.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn08" id="ch03fn08"> 8</a>. +Compare H.L. Gantt, No. 1002, A.S.M.E., para. 9.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn09" id="ch03fn09"> 9</a>. +Compare H.P. Gillette, <i>Cost Analysis Engineering</i>, pp. +1-2.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn10" id="ch03fn10">10</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Principles of Scientific Management</i>, p. 37.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn11" id="ch03fn11">11</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 245. Harper Ed., p. 104.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn12" id="ch03fn12">12</a>. For +excellent example of special routing see: Charles Day, +<i>Industrial Plants</i>, chap. VII.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn13" id="ch03fn13">13</a>. C. +Babbage, <i>Economy of Manufacturers</i>. p. 172. "The constant +repetition of the same process necessarily produces in the workman +a degree of excellence and rapidity in his particular department, +which is never possessed by a person who is obliged to execute many +different processes."</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn14" id="ch03fn14">14</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>On the Art of Cutting Metals</i>, Paper No. 1119, +A.S.M.E.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn15" id="ch03fn15">15</a>. C.G. +Barth, <i>Slide Rules for Machine Shops and Taylor System</i>. +Paper No. 1010, A.S.M.E.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn16" id="ch03fn16">16</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 19.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn17" id="ch03fn17">17</a>. Adam +Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, p. 2. "The greatest improvement in +the productive powers of labor, and the greater part of the skill, +dexterity, and judgment, with which it is anywhere directed, or +applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labor." +Also p. 4.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn18" id="ch03fn18">18</a>. H.K. +Hathaway, <i>The Value of "Non-Producers" in Manufacturing Plants. +Machinery</i>, Nov., 1906, p. 134.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn19" id="ch03fn19">19</a>. Gillette +and Dana, <i>Cost Keeping and Management Engineering</i>, p. +11.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn20" id="ch03fn20">20</a>. Morris +Llewellyn Cooke, <i>Bulletin No. 5, Carnegie Foundation for the +Advancement of Teaching</i>, p. 15.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch03fn21" id="ch03fn21">21</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 120.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 090--><a name="P090" id="P090"></a> +<h3><a name="chapteriv" id="chapteriv">CHAPTER IV</a></h3> +<h3>MEASUREMENT</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Measurement.</b> — "Measurement," +according to the Century Dictionary, — "is the act of +measuring," and to measure is — "to ascertain the length, +extent, dimensions, quantity or capacity of, by comparison with a +standard; ascertain or determine a quantity by exact observation," +or, again, "to estimate or determine the relative extent, greatness +or value of, appraise by comparison with something else."</p> +<p><b>Measurement Important in Psychology.</b> — Measurement +has always been of importance in psychology; but it is only with +the development of experimental psychology and its special +apparatus, that methods of accurate measurements are available +which make possible the measurement of extremely short periods of +time, or measurements "quick as thought," These enable us to +measure the variations of different workers as to their abilities +and their mental and physical fatigue; <a href= +"#ch04fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> to study mental processes at different +stages of mental and physical growth; to compare different people +under the same conditions, and the same person under different +conditions; <!--Page 091--><a name="P091" id="P091"></a> to +determine the personal coefficient of different workers, +specialists and foremen, and to formulate resultant standards. As +in all other branches of science, the progress comes with the +development of measurement.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Measurement in Psychology.</b> — No student +of management, and of measurement in the field of management, can +afford not to study, carefully and at length, methods of +measurement under psychology. This, for at least two most important +reasons, which will actually improve him as a measurer, i.e. +—</p> +<p>1. The student will discover, in the books on experimental +psychology and in the "Psychological Review," a marvelous array of +results of scientific laboratory experiments in psychology, which +will be of immediate use to him in his work.</p> +<p>2. He will receive priceless instruction in methods of +measuring. No where better than in the field of psychology, can one +learn to realize the importance of measurements, the necessity for +determination of elements for study, and the necessity for accurate +apparatus and accuracy in observation.</p> +<p>Prof. George M. Stratton, in his book "Experimental Psychology +and Culture," — says "In mental measurements, therefore, +there is no pretense of taking the mind's measure as a whole, nor +is there usually any immediate intention of testing even some +special faculty or capacity of the individual. What is aimed at is +the measurement of a limited event in consciousness, such as a +particular perception or feeling. The experiments are addressed, of +course, <!--Page 092--><a name="P092" id="P092"></a> not to the +weight or size of such phenomena, but usually to their duration and +intensity."<a href="#ch04fn02"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p>The emphasis laid on a study of elements is further shown in the +same book by the following, — "The actual laboratory work in +time-measurement, however, has been narrowed down to determining, +not the time in general that is occupied by some mental action, but +rather the shortest possible time in which a particular operation, +like discrimination or choice or association or recognition, can be +performed under the simplest and most favorable +circumstances.<a href="#ch04fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> The experimental +results here are something like speed or racing records, made under +the best conditions of track and training. A delicate chronograph +or chronoscope is used, which marks the time in thousandths of a +second."</p> +<p><b>Measurement in Psychology Related to Measurement in +Management.</b> — Measurement in psychology is of importance +to measurement in management not only as a source of information +and instruction, but also as a justification and support. +Scientific Management has suffered from being called absurd, +impractical, impossible, over-exact, because of the emphasis which +it lays on measurement. Yet, to the psychologist, all present +measurement in Scientific Management must appear coarse, inaccurate +and of immediate and passing value only. With the knowledge that +psychologists endorse accurate measurement, and will coöperate +in discovering elements <!--Page 093--><a name="P093" id= +"P093"></a> for study, instruments of precision and methods of +investigation, the investigator in industrial fields must persist +in his work with a new interest and confidence. <a href= +"#ch04fn04"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>Scientific Management cannot hope to furnish psychology with +either data or methods of measurement. It can and does, however, +open a new field for study to experimental psychology, and shows +itself willing to furnish the actual working difficulties or +problems, to do the preliminary investigation, and to utilize +results as fast as they can be obtained.</p> +<p><b>Psychologists Appreciate Scientific Management.</b> — +The appreciation which psychologists have shown of work done by +Scientific Management must be not only a matter of gratification, +but of inspiration to all workers in Scientific Management.</p> +<p>So, also, must the new divisions of the Index to the +Psychological Review relating to Activity and Fatigue, and the work +being so extensively done in these lines by French, German, Italian +and other nations, as well as by English and American +psychologists.</p> +<p><b>Measurement Important in Management.</b> — The study of +individuality and of functionalization have made plain the +necessity of measurement for successful management. Measurement +furnishes the means for obtaining that accurate knowledge upon +which the science of management rests, as do all sciences — +exact and inexact.<a href="#ch04fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> Through +measurement, methods <!--Page 094--><a name="P094" id= +"P094"></a> of less waste are determined, standards are made +possible, and management becomes a science, as it derives +standards, and progressively makes and improves them, and the +comparisons from them, accurate.</p> +<p><b>Problem of Measurement in Management</b> — One of the +important problems of measurement in management is determining how +many hours should constitute the working day in each different kind +of work and at what gait the men can work for greatest output and +continuously thrive. The solution of this problem involves the +study of the men, the work, and the methods, which study must +become more and more specialized; but the underlying aim is to +determine standards and individual capacity as exactly as is +possible.<a href="#ch04fn06"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Capacity.</b> — There are at least four views of a +worker's capacity.</p> +<p>1. What he thinks his capacity is.</p> +<p>2. What his associates think his capacity is.</p> +<p>3. What those over him think his capacity is.</p> +<p>4. What accurate measurement determines his actual capacity to +be.</p> +<p><b>Ignorance of Real Capacity.</b> — Dr. Taylor has +emphasized the fact that the average workman does not know either +his true efficiency or his true capacity. <a href= +"#ch04fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> The experience of others has also gone +to show that even the skilled workman has little or inaccurate +knowledge of the amount of output that a good +<!--Page 095--><a name="P095" id="P095"></a> worker can achieve +at his chosen vocation in a given time. <a href= +"#ch04fn08"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p>For example, — until a bricklayer has seen his output +counted for several days, he has little idea of how many bricks he +can lay, or has laid, in a day. <a href= +"#ch04fn09"><sup>9</sup></a></p> +<p>The average manager is usually even more ignorant of the +capacity of the workers than are the men themselves. <a href= +"#ch04fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> This is because of the prevalence of, +and the actual necessity for the worker's best interest, under some +forms of management, of "soldiering." Even when the manager +realizes that soldiering is going on, he has no way, especially +under ordinary management, of determining its extent.</p> +<p><b>Little Measurement in Traditional Management.</b> — +Under Traditional Management there was little measurement of a +man's capacity. The emphasis was entirely on the results. There +was, it is true, in everything beyond the most elementary of +Traditional Management, a measurement of the result. The manager +did know, at the end of certain periods of time, how much work had +been done, and how much it had cost him. This was a very important +thing for him to know. If his cost ran too high, and his output +fell too low, he investigated. If he found a defect, he tried to +remedy it; but much time had to be wasted in this investigation, +because often he had no idea where to start in to look for the +defects. The result of the defects was usually the cause for the +inquiry as to their presence.</p> +<!--Page 096--><a name="P096" id="P096"></a> +<p>He might investigate the men, he might investigate the methods, +he might investigate the equipment, he might investigate the +surroundings, and so on, — and very often in the mind of the +Traditional manager, there was not even this most elementary +division. If things went wrong he simply knew, — "Something +is wrong somewhere," and it was the work of the foremen to find out +where the place was, or so to speed up the men that the output +should be increased and the cost lowered. Whether the defects were +really remedied, or simply concealed by temporarily speeding up, +was not seriously questioned.</p> +<p>Moreover, until measuring devices are secured, the only standard +is what someone thinks about things, and the pity of it is that +even this condition does not remain staple.</p> +<p><b>Transitory Management Realizes Value of Measurement.</b> +— One of the first improvements introduced when Traditional +Management gives place to the Transitory stage is the measurement +of the separated output of individual workers. These outputs are +measured and recorded. The records for extra high outputs are +presented to the worker promptly, so that he may have a keen idea +constantly of the relation of effort to output, while the fatigue +and the effort of doing the work is still fresh in his mind.</p> +<p>The psychology of the prompt reward will be considered later at +length, but it cannot be emphasized too often that the prompter the +reward, the greater the stimulus. The reward will become associated +with the fatigue in such a way that the worker will really get, at +the time, more satisfaction out of his <!--Page 097--><a name= +"P097" id="P097"></a> fatigue than he will discomfort; at the +least, any dissatisfaction over his fatigue will be eliminated, by +the constant and first thought of the reward which he has gotten +through his efforts.</p> +<p>This record of efficiency is often so presented to the workers +that they get an excellent idea of the numerical measure of their +efficiency and its trend. This is best done by a graphical +chart.</p> +<p>The records of the outputs of others on the same kind of work +done concurrently, or a corresponding record on work done +previously, will show the relative efficiency of any worker as +compared with the rest. These standards of comparison are a strong +incentive and, if they are shown at the time that such work is +done, they also become so closely associated not only with the +mental but the bodily feeling of the man that the next time the +work is repeated, the thoughts that the same effort will probably +bring greater results, and that it has done so in the past with +others, will be immediately present in the mind.</p> +<p><b>Measurement Is Basic Under Scientific Management.</b> — +Under Scientific Management measurement is basic. Measurement is of +the work, of outputs, of the methods, the tools, and of the worker, +with the individual as a unit, and motion study, time study and +micro-motion study and the chrono-cyclegraph as the methods of +measurement.</p> +<p>Measurement is a most necessary adjunct to selecting the workers +and the managers and to assigning them to the proper functions and +work. They cannot be selected to the greatest advantage and set to +functionalized work until —</p> +<!--Page 098--><a name="P098" id="P098"></a> +<p class="ltritem">(a) the unit of measurement that will of itself +tend to reduce costs has been determined.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) methods of measurement have been +determined.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) measurement has been applied.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) standards for measurement have been +derived.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(e) devices for cheapening the cost of measuring +have been installed.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management Measurement Determines the +Task.</b> — An important aim of measurement under Scientific +Management is to determine the Task, or the standard amount of any +kind of work that a first class man can do in a certain period of +time. The "standard amount" is the largest amount that a first +class man can do and continuously thrive.</p> +<p>The "first-class" man is the man who can eventually become best +fitted, by means of natural and acquired capabilities, to do the +work. The "certain period of time" is that which best suits the +work and the man's thriving under the work. The amount of time +allowed for a task consists of three parts —</p> +<p>1. time actually spent at work.</p> +<p>2. time for rest for overcoming fatigue.</p> +<p>3. time for overcoming delays.</p> +<p>Measurement must determine what percentage of the task time is +to be spent at work and what at rest, and must also determine +whether the rest period should all follow the completed work, or +should be divided into parts, these parts to follow certain cycles +through the entire work period.</p> +<!--Page 099--><a name="P099" id="P099"></a> +<p>The method of constructing the task is discussed under two +chapters that follow, Analysis and Synthesis, and Standardization. +Here we note only that the task is built up of elementary units +measured by motion study, time study, and micro-motion study.</p> +<p>When this standard task has been determined the worker's +efficiency can be measured by his performance of, or by the amount +that he exceeds, the task.</p> +<p><b>Qualifications of the Observer or Measurer.</b> — The +position of observer, or as he has well been called, "trade +revolutionizer," should be filled by a man specially selected for +the position on account of his special natural fitness and previous +experience. He also should be specially trained for his work. As in +all other classes of work, the original selection of the man is of +vital importance. The natural qualities of the successful hunter, +fisherman, detective, reporter and woodsman for observation of +minute details are extremely desirable. It is only by having +intimate knowledge of such experiences as Agassiz had with his +pupils, or with untrained "observers" of the trade, that one can +realize the lack of powers of observation of detail in the average +human being.</p> +<p>Other natural qualifications required to an efficient observer +are that of being</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) an "eye worker";</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) able to concentrate attention for unusually +long periods;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) able to get every thought out of a simple +written sentence; <!--Page 100--><a name="P100" id= +"P100"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) keenly interested in his work;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(e) accurate;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(f) possessed of infinite patience;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(g) an enthusiastic photographer.</p> +<p>The measurer or observer should, preferably, have the intimate +knowledge that comes from personal experience of the work to be +observed, although such a man is often difficult if not impossible +to obtain.</p> +<p>The position of observer illustrates another of the many +opportunities of the workmen for promotion from the ranks to higher +positions when they are capable of holding the promotion. +Naturally, other things being equal, no man is so well acquainted +with the work to be observed as he who has actually done it +himself, and if he have also the qualifications of the worker at +the work, which should, in the future, surely be determined by +study of him and by vocational guidance, he will be able to go at +once from his position in the ranks to that of observer, or time +study man.</p> +<p>The observer must also familiarize himself with the literature +regarding motion study and time study, and must form the habit of +recording systematically the minutest details observable.</p> +<p>The effect upon the man making the observation of knowing that +his data, even though at the time they may seem unimportant, can be +used for the deduction of vital laws, is plain. He naturally feels +that he is a part of a permanent scheme, and is ready and willing +to put his best activity into the work. The benefits accruing from +this fact have been so well recognized in making United States +surveys and <!--Page 101--><a name="P101" id="P101"></a> charts, +that the practice has been to have the name of the man in charge of +the work printed on them.</p> +<p><b>Anyone Interested May Become an Observer.</b> — A +review of the mental equipment needed by a measurer, or observer, +will show that much may be done toward training oneself for such a +position by practice. Much pleasure as well as profit can be +obtained by acquiring the habit of observation, both in the regular +working and in the non-working hours. Vocational Guidance Bureaus +should see that this habit of observation is cultivated, not only +for the æsthetic pleasure which it gives, but also for its +permanent usefulness.</p> +<p><b>Unbiased Observation Necessary.</b> — In order to take +observations properly, the investigator should be absolutely +impartial, unprejudiced, and unbiased by any preconceived notions. +Otherwise, he will be likely to think that a certain thing ought to +happen. Or he may have a keen desire to obtain a certain result to +conform to a pet theory. In other words, the observer must be of a +very stable disposition. He must not be carried away by his +observations.</p> +<p>The elimination of any charting by the man who makes the +observations, or at least its postponement until all observations +are made, will tend to decrease the dangers of unconscious effect +of what he considers the probable curve of the observations should +be.</p> +<p>As has been well said, watching the curve to be charted before +all of the data have been obtained develops a distinct theory in +the mind of the investigator and is apt to "bend the curve" or, at +least, to <!--Page 102--><a name="P102" id="P102"></a> develop a +feeling that if any new, or special, data do not agree with the +tendency of the curve — so much the worse for the reputation +of the data for reliability.</p> +<p><b>Observed Worker Should Realize the Purpose of the +Measurement.</b> — The observed worker should be made to +realize the purpose and importance of the measurement. The +observing should always be done with his full knowledge and hearty +coöperation. He will attain much improvement by intelligent +coöperation with the observer, and may, in turn, be able to be +promoted to observing if he is interested enough to study and +prepare himself after hours.</p> +<p><b>Worker Should Never Be Observed Surreptitiously.</b> — +No worker should ever be observed, timed and studied +surreptitiously. In the first place, if the worker does not know +that he is being observed, he cannot coöperate with the +observer to see that the methods observed are methods of least +waste. Therefore the motion study and time study records that +result will not be fundamental standards in any case and will +probably be worthless.</p> +<p>In the second place, if the worker discovers that he is being +observed secretly, he will feel that he is being spied upon and is +not being treated fairly. The stop watch has too long been +associated with the idea of "taking the last drop of blood from the +worker." Secret observations will tend strongly to lend credence to +this idea. Even should the worker thus observed not think that he +was being watched in order to force him, at a later time, to make +higher outputs, after he has once learned that he is being +<!--Page 103--><a name="P103" id="P103"></a> watched secretly, +his attention will constantly be distracted by the thought that +perhaps he is being studied and timed again. He will be constantly +on the alert to see possible observers. This may result in +"speeding him up," but the speed will not be a legitimate speed, +that results to his good as well as to that of his employer.</p> +<p>Worst of all, he will lose confidence in the "squareness" of his +employer. Hence he will fail to co-operate, and one of the greatest +advantages of Scientific Management will thus be lost.</p> +<p>It is a great advantage of micro-motion study that it demands +coöperation of the man studied, and that its results are open +to study by all.</p> +<p><b>An Expert Best Worker to Observe.</b> — The best worker +to observe for time study is he who is so skilled that he can +perform a cycle of prescribed standard motions automatically, +without mental concentration. This enables him to devote his entire +mental activity to deviating the one desired variable from the +accepted cycle of motions.</p> +<p>The difficulty in motion study and time study is not so often to +vary the variable being observed and studied, as it is to maintain +the other variables constant. Neither skill nor appreciation of +what is wanted is enough alone. The worker who is to be measured +successfully must</p> +<p>1. have the required skill.</p> +<p>2. understand the theory of what is being done.</p> +<p>3. be willing to coöperate.</p> +<p><b>Everyone Should Be Trained in Being Measured.</b> — +Accurate measurement of individuals, in actual practice, +<!--Page 104--><a name="P104" id="P104"></a> brings out the fact +that lamentably few persons are accustomed to be, or can readily +be, measured. It has been a great drawback to the advance of +Scientific Management that the moment a measurer of any kind is put +on the work, either a device to measure output or a man to measure +or to time reactions, motions, or output, the majority of the +workers become suspicious. Being unaccustomed to being measured, +they think, as is usually the case with things to which we are +unaccustomed, that there is something harmful to them in it. This +feeling makes necessary much explanation which in reality should +not be needed.</p> +<p>The remedy for this condition is a proper training in youth. A +boy brought up with the fundamental idea of the importance of +measurement to all modern science, for all progress, accustomed to +being measured, understanding the "why" of the measuring, and the +results from it, will not hesitate or object, when he comes to the +work, to being measured in order that he may be put where it is +best for himself, as well as for the work, that he be put.</p> +<p>The importance of human measurement to vocational guidance and +to the training of the young for life work has never been properly +realized. Few people understand the importance of psychological +experiment as a factor in scientific vocational guidance. For this +alone, it will probably in time be a general custom to record and +keep as close track as possible of the psychological measurements +of the child during the period of education, vocational guidance +and apprenticeship. Not only this, but he also should be +<!--Page 105--><a name="P105" id="P105"></a> accustomed to being +measured, physically and psychologically, from his first years, +just as he is now accustomed to being weighed.</p> +<p>The child should be taught to measure himself, his faculties, +his reactions, his capabilities as compared with his former self +and as compared with the capabilities of others. It is most +important that the child should form a habit not only of measuring, +but of being measured.</p> +<p><b>Motion Study and Time Study Are the Method of Measurement +Under Scientific Management.</b> — Under Scientific +Management, much measuring is done by motion study and time study, +which measure the relative efficiency of various men, of various +methods, or of various kinds of equipment, surroundings, tools, +etc. Their most important use is as measuring devices of the men. +They have great psychological value in that they are founded on the +"square deal" and the men know this from the start. Being operated +under laws, they are used the same way on all sorts of work and on +all men. As soon as the men really understand this fact, and +realize</p> +<p>1. that the results are applied to all men equally;</p> +<p>2. that all get an ample compensation for what they do;</p> +<p>3. that under them general welfare is considered; the objections +to such study will vanish.</p> +<p><b>Motion Study Is Determining Methods of Least Waste.</b> +— Motion Study is the dividing of the elements of the work +into the most fundamental subdivisions possible; studying these +fundamental units separately and in relation to one another; and +from <!--Page 106--><a name="P106" id="P106"></a> these studied, +chosen units, when timed, building up methods of least waste.</p> +<p><b>Time Study Is Determining Standard Unit Times.</b> — +Time study consists of timing the elements of the best method +known, and, from these elementary unit times, synthesizing a +standard time in which a standard man can do a certain piece of +work in accordance with the finally accepted method.</p> +<p>Micro-motion study is timing sub-divisions, or elements of +motions by carrying out the principles of motion study to a greater +degree of accuracy by means of a motion picture camera, a clock +that will record different times of day in each picture of a moving +picture film together with a cross sectioned background and other +devices for assisting in measuring the relative efficiency and +wastefulness of motions. It also is the cheapest, quickest and more +accurate method of recording indisputable time study records. It +has the further advantage of being most useful in assisting the +instruction card man to devise methods of least waste. <a href= +"#ch04fn11"><sup>11</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Motion Study and Time Study Measure Individual +Efficiency.</b> — Motion Study and Time Study measure +individual capacity or efficiency by providing data from which +standards can be made. These standards made, the degree to which +the individual approaches or exceeds the standard can be +determined.</p> +<p><b>Motion Study and Time Study Measure Methods.</b> — +Motion Study and Time Study are devices for measuring methods. By +their use, old methods are "tried out," once and for all, and their +relative value <!--Page 107--><a name="P107" id="P107"></a> in +efficiency, determined. By their use, also, new methods are "tried +out." This is most important under Scientific Management.</p> +<p>Any new method suggested can be tested in a short time. Such +elements of it as have already been tested, can be valued at the +start, the new elements introduced can be motion studied and time +studied, and waste eliminated to as great an extent as possible, +with no loss of time or thought.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management, the men who understand what motion +study and time study mean, know that their suggested methods will +be tested, not only fairly, but so effectively that they, and +everyone else, can know at once exactly the worth of their +suggestions.</p> +<p><b>Comparison of Methods Fosters Invention.</b> — The +value of such comparative study can be seen at a glance. When one +such method after another is tried out, not only can one tell +quickly what a new method is worth, but can also determine what it +is worth compared to all others which have been considered. This is +because the study is a study of elements, primarily, and not of +methods as a whole. Not only can suggested methods be estimated, +but also new methods which have never been suggested will become +apparent themselves through this study. Common elements, being at +once classified and set aside, the new ones will make themselves +prominent, and better methods for doing work will suggest +themselves, especially to the inventive mind.</p> +<p><b>Books of Preliminary Data Needed.</b> — In order that +this investigation may be best fostered, not only must +<!--Page 108--><a name="P108" id="P108"></a> books of standards +be published, but also books of preliminary data, which other +workers may attack if they desire, and where they can find common +elements. Such books of preliminary data are needed on all +subjects.><a href="#ch04fn12"><sup>12</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Motion Study and Time Study Measure Equipment and Tools.</b> +— Time and motion study are measuring devices for +ascertaining relative merits of different kinds of equipment, +surroundings and tools. Through them, the exact capacities of +equipment or of a tool or machine can be discovered at once, and +also the relative value in efficiency. Also motion study and time +study determine exactly how a tool or a piece of equipment can best +be used.</p> +<p>In "On The Art of Cutting Metals" Dr. Taylor explains the effect +of such study on determining the amount of time that tools should +be used, the speed at which they should be used, the feed, and so +on.<a href="#ch04fn13"><sup>13</sup></a> This paper exemplifies +more thoroughly than does anything else ever written the value of +Time Study, and the scientific manner in which it is applied.</p> +<p><b>The Scope of Time and Motion Study Is Unlimited.</b> — +It is a great misfortune that the worker does not understand, as he +should, that motion study and time study apply not only to his +work, but also to the work of the managers. In order to get results +from the start, and paying results, it often happens that the work +of the worker is the first to be <!--Page 109--><a name="P109" id= +"P109"></a> so studied, but when Scientific Management is in +full operation, the work of the managers is studied exactly to the +same extent, and set down exactly as accurately, as the work of the +worker himself. The worker should understand this from the start, +that he may become ready and willing to coöperate.</p> +<p><b>Detailed Records Necessary.</b> — Motion study and time +study records must go into the greatest detail possible. If the +observations are hasty, misdirected or incomplete they may be quite +unusable and necessitate going through the expensive process of +observation all over again. Dr. Taylor has stated that during his +earlier experiences he was obliged to throw away a large quantity +of time study data, because they were not in sufficient detail and +not recorded completely enough to enable him to use them after a +lapse of a long period from the time of their first use. No system +of time study, and no individual piece of time study, can be +considered a success unless by its use at any time, when new, or +after a lapse of years, an accurate prediction of the amount of +work a man can do can be made.</p> +<p>All results attained should invariably be preserved, whether +they appear at the moment to be useful or valuable or not. In time +study in the past it has been found, as in the investigations of +all other sciences, that apparently unimportant details of today +are of vital importance years after, as a necessary step to attain, +or further proof of a discovery. This was exemplified in the case +of the shoveling experiment of Dr. Taylor. The laws came from what +was considered the unimportant portion of the +<!--Page 110--><a name="P110" id="P110"></a> data. There is +little so unimportant that time and motion study would not be +valuable. Just as it is a great help to the teacher to know the +family history of the student, so it is to the one who has to use +time and motion study data to know all possible of the hereditary +traits, environment and habits of the worker who was observed.</p> +<p><b>Specialized Study Imperative.</b> — As an illustration +of the field for specialized investigation which motion study and +time study present, we may take the subject of fatigue. Motion +Study and Time Study aim to show,</p> +<p>1. the least fatiguing method of getting least waste.</p> +<p>2. the length of time required for a worker to do a certain +thing.</p> +<p>3. the amount of rest and the time of rest required to overcome +fatigue.</p> +<p>Dr. Taylor spent years in determining the percentage of rest +that should be allowed in several of the trades, beginning with +those where the making of output demands weight hanging on the +arms; but there is still a great amount of investigation that could +be done to advantage to determine the most advisable percentage of +rest in the working day of different lengths of hours. Such +investigation would probably show that many of our trades could do +the same amount of work in fewer hours, if the quantity and time of +rest periods were scientifically determined.</p> +<p>Again, there is a question of the length of each rest period. It +has been proven that in many classes <!--Page 111--><a name="P111" +id="P111"></a> of work, and especially in those where the work +is interrupted periodically by reason of its peculiar nature, or by +reason of inefficient performance in one of the same sequence of +dependent operations, alternate working and resting periods are +best. There is to be considered in this connection, however, the +recognized disadvantage of reconcentrating the attention after +these rest periods. Another thing to be considered is that the rate +of output does not decline from the beginning of the day, but +rather the high point of the curve representing rate of production +is at a time somewhat later than at the starting point. The period +before the point of maximum efficiency is known as "warming up" +among ball players, and is well recognized in all athletic +sports.</p> +<p>As for the point of minimum efficiency, or of greatest fatigue, +this varies for "morning workers," and "night workers." This +exemplifies yet another variable.</p> +<p>The minuteness of the sub-fields that demand observation, is +shown by an entry in the Psychological Index: "1202. Benedict, F.G. +"Studies in Body — Temperature." 1. Influence of the +Inversion of the Daily Routine; the Temperature of Night +Workers."<a href="#ch04fn14"><sup>14</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Selection of Best Unit of Measurement Necessary and +Important.</b> — Selecting the unit of measurement that will +of itself reduce costs is a most important element in obtaining +maximum efficiency.<a href="#ch04fn15"><sup>15</sup></a> This is +seldom <!--Page 112--><a name="P112" id="P112"></a> realized. +<a href="#ch04fn16"><sup>16</sup></a> Where possible, several units +of measurements should be used to check each other. <a href= +"#ch04fn17"><sup>17</sup></a> One alone may be misleading, or put +an incentive on the workers to give an undesirable result.</p> +<p>The rule is, — always select that unit of output that +will, of itself, cause a reduction in costs.</p> +<p>For example: — In measuring the output of a concrete gang, +counting cement bags provides an incentive to use more cement than +the instruction card calls for. Counting the batches of concrete +dumped out of the mixer, provides an incentive to use rather +smaller quantities of broken stone and sand than the proportions +call for, — and, furthermore, does not put the incentive on +the men to spill no concrete in transportation, neither does it put +an incentive to use more lumps for Cyclopean concrete.</p> +<p>Measuring the quantity actually placed in the forms puts no +incentive to watch bulging forms closely.</p> +<p>While measuring outputs by all these different units of +measurements would be valuable to check up accuracy of proportions, +accuracy of stores account, and output records, the most important +unit of measurement for selection would be, "cubic feet of forms +filled," the general dimensions to be taken from the latest revised +engineer's drawings.</p> +<p><b>Necessity for Checking Errors.</b> — Dr. Stratton says, +— "No measurements, whether they be psychic or physical, are +exact beyond a certain point, and the art of using them consists +largely in checks and counter checks, and in knowing how far the +measurement <!--Page 113--><a name="P113" id="P113"></a> is +reliable and where the doubtful zone begins." <a href= +"#ch04fn18"><sup>18</sup></a></p> +<p>Capt. Metcalfe says, — "Errors of observation may be +divided into two general classes; the instrumental and those due to +the personal bias of the observer; the former referring to the +standard itself, and the latter to the application of the standard +and the record of the measurement." <a href= +"#ch04fn19"><sup>19</sup></a></p> +<p>The concrete illustration given above is an example of careful +checking up. Under Scientific Management so many, and such careful +records are kept that detecting errors becomes part of the daily +routine.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results of Measurement to the Work.</b> — Under +Traditional Management, even the crudest measurement of output and +cost usually resulted in an increase in output. But there was no +accuracy of measurement of individual efficiency, nor was there +provision made to conserve results and make them permanently +useful.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management and measurement of individual +output, output increased and rewards for the higher output kept up +the standard.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management Better Methods and Better Work +Results.</b> — Under Scientific Measurement, measurement of +the work itself determines</p> +<p>1. what kind of workers are needed.</p> +<p>2. how many workers are needed.</p> +<p>3. how best to use them.</p> +<!--Page 114--><a name="P114" id="P114"></a> +<p>Motion Study and Time Study measurement, —</p> +<p>1. divide the work into units.</p> +<p>2. measure each unit.</p> +<p>3. study the variables, or elements, one at a time.</p> +<p>4. furnish resulting timed elements to the synthesizer of +methods of least waste.</p> +<p><b>Accurate Measuring Devices Prevent Breakdowns and +Accidents.</b> — The accurate measuring devices which +accomplish measurement under Scientific Management prevent +breakdowns and accidents to life and limb.</p> +<p>For example. —</p> +<p>1. The maintained tension on a belt bears a close relation to +its delay periods.</p> +<p>2. The speed of a buzz planer determines its liability to shoot +out pieces of wood to the injury of its operator, or to injure +bystanders.</p> +<p>Scientific Management, by determining and standardizing methods +and equipment both, provides for uninterrupted output.</p> +<p><b>Effect on the Worker.</b> — Under Traditional +Management there is not enough accurate measurement done to make +its effect on the worker of much value.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, as soon as individual outputs are +measured, the worker takes more interest in his work, and endeavors +to increase his output.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management measurement of the worker tells</p> +<p>1. what the workers are capable of doing.</p> +<p>2. what function it will be best to assign them to and to +cultivate in them.</p> +<!--Page 115--><a name="P115" id="P115"></a> +<p><b>Waste Eliminated by Accurate Measurement.</b> — This +accurate measurement increases the worker's efficiency in that it +enables him to eliminate waste. "Cut and try" methods are +eliminated. There is no need to test a dozen methods, a dozen men, +a dozen systems of routing, or various kinds of equipment more than +once, — that one time when they are scientifically tried out +and measured. This accurate measurement also eliminates disputes +between manager and worker as to what the latter's efficiency +is.</p> +<p><b>Efficiency Measured by Time and Motion Study.</b> — +Time and Motion Study.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) measure the man by his work; that is, by the +results of his activities;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) measure him by his methods;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) measure him by his capacity to learn;</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) measure him by his capacity to teach.</p> +<p>Now measurement by result alone is very stimulating to +increasing activities, especially when it shows, as it does under +Scientific Management, the relative results of various people doing +the same kind of work. But it does not, itself, show the worker +<i>how</i> to obtain greater results without putting on more speed +or using up more activities. But when the worker's methods are +measured, he begins to see, for himself, exactly why and where he +has failed.</p> +<p>Scientific Management provides for him to be taught, and the +fact that he sees through the measurements exactly what he needs to +be taught will make him glad to have the teacher come and show him +how to do better. Through this teaching, its results, and the speed +with which the results come, the <!--Page 116--><a name="P116" id= +"P116"></a> workers and the managers can see how fast the worker +is capable of learning, and, at the same time, the worker, the +teacher and the managers can see in how far the foreman is capable +of instructing.</p> +<p><b>Final Outcome Beneficial to Managers and Men.</b> — +Through measurement in Scientific Management, managers acquire +—</p> +<p>1. ability to select men, methods, equipment, etc.;</p> +<p>2. ability to assign men to the work which they should do, to +prescribe the method which they shall use, and to reward them for +their output suitably;</p> +<p>3. ability to predict. On this ability to predict rests the +possibility of making calendars, chronological charts and +schedules, and of planning determining sequence of events, etc., +which will be discussed at length later.</p> +<p>Ability to predict allows the managers to state "premature +truths," which the records show to be truths when the work has been +done.</p> +<p>It must not be forgotten that the managers are enabled not only +to predict what the men, equipment, machinery, etc., will do, but +what they can do themselves.</p> +<p><b>The Effect on the Men Is That the Worker Co-operates.</b> +— 1. The worker's interest is held. The men know that the +methods they are using are the best. The exact measurements of +efficiency of the learner, — and under Scientific Management +a man never ceases to be a learner, — give him a continued +interest in his work. It is impossible to hold the attention of the +intelligent worker to a method or process <!--Page 117--><a name= +"P117" id="P117"></a> that he does not believe to> be the +most efficient and least wasteful.</p> +<p>Motion study and time study are the most efficient measuring +device of the relative qualities of differing methods. They furnish +definite and exact proof to the worker as to the excellence of the +method that he is told to use. When he is convinced, lack of +interest due to his doubts and dissatisfaction is removed.</p> +<p>2. The worker's judgment is appealed to. The method that he uses +is the outcome of coöperation between him and the management. +His own judgment assures him that it is the best, up to that time, +that they, working together, have been able to discover.</p> +<p>3. The worker's reasoning powers are developed. Continuous +judging of records of efficiency develops high class, well +developed reasoning powers.</p> +4. The worker fits his task, therefore there is no need of +adjustment, and his attitude toward his work is right.<br /> +<br /> +<p>5. There is elimination of soldiering, both natural and +systematic.<a href="#ch04fn20"><sup>20</sup></a></p> +<p><b>All Knowledge Becomes the Knowledge of All.</b> — Two +outcomes may be confidently expected in the future, as they are +already becoming apparent where-ever Scientific Management is being +introduced:</p> +<p>1. The worker will become more and more willing +<!--Page 118--><a name="P118" id="P118"></a> to impart his +knowledge to others. When the worker realizes that passing on his +trade secrets will not cause him to lose his position or, by +raising up a crowd of competitors, lower his wages, but will, on +the contrary, increase his wages and chances of promotion, he is +ready and willing to have his excellent methods standardized.</p> +<p>Desire to keep one's own secret, or one's own method a secret is +a very natural one. It stimulates interest, it stimulates pride. It +is only when, as in Scientific Management, the possessor of such a +secret may receive just compensation, recognition and honor for his +skill, and receive a position where he can become an appreciated +teacher of others that he is, or should be, willing to give up this +secret. Scientific Management, however, provides this opportunity +for him to teach, provides that he receives credit for what he has +done, and receive that publicity and fame which is his due, and +which will give him the same stimulus to work which the knowledge +that he had a secret skill gave him in the past.</p> +<p>One method of securing this publicity is by naming the device or +method after its inventor. This has been found to be successful not +only in satisfying the inventor, but in stimulating others to +invent.</p> +<p><b>Measurement of Individual Efficiency Will Be Endorsed by +All.</b> — 2. The worker will, ultimately, realize that it is +for the good of all, as well as for himself, that individual +efficiency be measured and rewarded.</p> +<p>It has been advanced as an argument against measurement that it +discriminates against the "weaker brother," who should have a right +to obtain the same <!--Page 119--><a name="P119" id="P119"></a> +pay as the stronger, for the reason that he has equal needs for +this pay to maintain life and for the support of his family.</p> +<p>Putting aside at the moment the emotional side of this argument, +which is undoubtedly a strong side and a side worthy of +consideration, with much truth in it, and looking solely at the +logical side, — it cannot do the "weaker" brother any good in +the long run, and it does the world much harm, to have his work +overestimated. The day is coming, when the world will demand that +the quantity of the day's work shall be measured as accurately +where one sells labor, as where one sells sugar or flour. Then, +pretending that one's output is greater than it really is will be +classed with "divers weights and divers measures," with their false +standards. The day will come when the public will insist that the +"weaker brother's" output be measured to determine just how weak he +is, and whether it is weakness, unfitness for that particular job, +or laziness that is the cause of his output being low. When he +reaches a certain degree of weakness, he will be assisted with a +definite measured quantity of assistance. Thus the "weaker brother" +may be readily distinguished from the lazy, strong brother, and the +brother who is working at the wrong job. Measurement should +certainly be insisted on, in order to determine whether these +strong brothers are doing their full share, or whether they are +causing the weaker brothers to over-exert themselves.</p> +<p>No one who has investigated the subject properly can doubt that +it will be better for the world in general <!--Page 120--><a name= +"P120" id="P120"></a> to have each man's output, weak and +strong, properly measured and estimated regardless of whether the +weak and strong are or are not paid the same wages. The reason why +the unions have had to insist that the work shall not be measured +and that the weaker brother's weakness shall not be realized is, +that in the industrial world the only brotherhood that was +recognized was the brotherhood between the workers, there being a +distinct antagonism between the worker and the manager and little +or no brotherhood of the public at large. When Scientific +Management does away, as it surely will, with this antagonism, by +reason of the coöperation which is its fundamental idea, then +the workers will show themselves glad to be measured.</p> +<p>As for the "weaker" brother idea, it is a natural result of such +ill treatment. It has become such a far-reaching emotion that even +Scientific Management, with its remedy for many ills, cannot expect +in a moment, or in a few years, to alter the emotional bias of the +multitudes of people who have held it for good and sufficient +reasons for generations.</p> +<p><b>The Government Should Conserve Measurement Data.</b> — +The one thing which can permanently alter this feeling forms the +natural conclusion to this chapter. That is, measurements in +general and motion study and time study in particular must become a +matter of government investigation. When the government has taken +over the investigation and established a bureau where such data as +Scientific Management discovers is collected and kept on file for +all who <!--Page 121--><a name="P121" id="P121"></a> will to +use, then the possessor of the secret will feel that it can safely +place the welfare of its "weaker brothers" in the hands of a body +which is founded and operates on the idea of the "square deal."</p> +<p><b>Appreciation of Time Study by Workers the First Step.</b> +— The first step of the workers in this direction must be the +appreciation of time study, for on time study hangs the entire +subject of Scientific Management. It is this great discovery by Dr. +Taylor that makes the elimination of waste possible. It has come to +stay. Many labor leaders are opposed to it, but the wise thing for +them to do is to study, foster and cultivate it. They cannot stop +its progress. There is no thing that can stop it. The modern +managers will obtain it, and the only way to prevent it from being +used by unscrupulous managers is for the workman also to learn the +facts of time study. It is of the utmost importance to the workers +of the country, for their own protection, that they be as familiar +with time study data as the managers are. Time study is the +foundation and frame work of rate setting and fixing, and certainly +the subject of rate fixing is the most important subject there is +to the workmen, whether they are working on day work, piece work, +premium, differential rate piece, task with bonus, or three-rate +system.</p> +<p>Dr. Taylor has proved by time study that many of the customary +working days are too long, that the same amount of output can be +achieved in fewer hours per day. Time study affords the means for +the only scientific proof that many trades fatigue the workers +beyond their endurance and strength. <!--Page 122--><a name="P122" +id="P122"></a> Time study is the one means by which the workers +can prove the real facts of their unfortunate condition under the +Traditional plan of management.</p> +<p>The workers of the country should be the very ones that should +insist upon the government taking the matter in hand for scientific +investigation. Knowledge is power, — a rule with no +exception, and the knowledge of scientific time study would prepare +the workers of any trade, and would provide their intelligent +leaders with data for accurate decisions for legislation and other +steps for their best interests. The national bodies should hire +experts to represent them and to coöperate with the government +bureau in applying science to their life work.</p> +<p>The day is fast approaching when makers of machinery will have +the best method of operating their machines micro-motion studied +and cyclegraphed and description of methods of operation in +accordance with such records will be everywhere considered as a +part of the "makers' directions for using."</p> +<p>Furthermore associations of manufacturers will establish +laboratories for determining methods of least waste by means of +motion study, time study and micro-motion study, and the findings +of such laboratories will be put in standardized shape for use by +all its members. The trend today shows that soon there will be +hundreds of books of time study tables. The government must sooner +or later save the waste resulting from this useless duplication of +efforts.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER IV FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn01" id="ch04fn01"> 1</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems,</i> p. 34.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn02" id="ch04fn02"> 2</a>. G.M. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Its Bearing upon +Culture</i>, p. 37.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn03" id="ch04fn03"> 3</a>. +<i>Ibid</i>., p. 38.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn04" id="ch04fn04"> 4</a>. For +apparatus for psychological experiment see Stratton, p. 38, p. 171, +p. 265.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn05" id="ch04fn05"> 5</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits,</i> p. 15.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn06" id="ch04fn06"> 6</a>. +Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, <i>The Carnegie Foundation +for the Advancement of Teaching,</i> p. 7.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn07" id="ch04fn07"> 7</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management,</i> para. 29. Harper Ed., p. 25.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn08" id="ch04fn08"> 8</a>. H.L. +Gantt, Paper No. 928, A.S.M.E., para. 6.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn09" id="ch04fn09"> 9</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Cost Reducing System</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn10" id="ch04fn10">10</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 61. Harper Ed., p. 33.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn11" id="ch04fn11">11</a>. +<i>Industrial Engineering</i>, Jan., 1913.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn12" id="ch04fn12">12</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, pp. 398-391. Harper Ed., p. 179. +Compare, U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture No. 208. <i>The Influence of +Muscular and Mental Work on Metabolism</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn13" id="ch04fn13">13</a>. +President's Annual Address, Dec., 1906. Vol. 28, Transactions +A.S.M.E.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn14" id="ch04fn14">14</a>. +<i>American Journal of Physiology</i>, 1904, XI, pp. 145-170.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn15" id="ch04fn15">15</a>. R.T. Dana, +For Construction Service Co., <i>Handbook of Steam Shovel Work</i>, +p. 161. H.P. Gillette, Vol. I, p. 71, A.S.E.C.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn16" id="ch04fn16">16</a>. F.W. +Taylor, Vol. 28, A.S.M.E., Paper 1119, para. 68.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn17" id="ch04fn17">17</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems</i>, p. 37.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn18" id="ch04fn18">18</a>. G.M. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 59.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn19" id="ch04fn19">19</a>. Henry +Metcalfe, <i>Cost of Manufactures</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch04fn20" id="ch04fn20">20</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 46. Harper Ed., p. 30. F.W. +Taylor, <i>A Piece Rate System</i>, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. +22.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 123--><a name="P123" id="P123"></a> +<h3><a name="chapterv" id="chapterv">CHAPTER V</a></h3> +<h3>ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Analysis.</b> — "Analysis," says the +Century Dictionary is "the resolution or separation of anything +which is compound, as a conception, a sentence, a material +substance or an event, into its constituent elements or into its +causes;" that is to say, analysis is the division of the thing +under consideration into its definite cause, and into its definite +parts or elements, and the explanation of the principle upon which +such division is made.<a href="#ch05fn01"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Definition of Synthesis.</b> — "Synthesis" is, "a +putting of two or more things together; composition; specifically, +the combination of separate elements of objects of thought into a +whole, as of simple into compound or complex conceptions, and +individual propositions into a system."</p> +<p><b>Use of Analysis and Synthesis by Psychology.</b> — +Analysis is defined by Sully as follows: "Analysis" is "taking +apart more complex processes in order to single out for special +inspection their several constituent processes."</p> +<p>He divides elements of thought activity into two</p> +<p class="ltritem">"(a) analysis: abstraction</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) synthesis: comparison." +<!--Page 124--><a name="P124" id="P124"></a></p> +<p>Speaking of the latter, he says, "The clear explicit detachment +in thought of the common elements which comparison secures allows +of a new reconstructive synthesis of things as made up of +particular groupings of a number of general qualities."</p> +<p><b>Place of Analysis and Synthesis in Management.</b> — +Any study of management which aims to prove that management may be, +and under Scientific Management is, a science, must investigate its +use of analysis and of synthesis. <a href= +"#ch05fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> Upon the degree and perfection of the +analysis depends the permanent value and usefulness of the +knowledge gained. Upon the synthesis, and what it includes and +excludes, depends the efficiency of the results deduced.</p> +<p><b>Little Analysis or Synthesis Under Traditional +Management.</b> — Under Traditional Management analysis and +synthesis are so seldom present as to be negligible. Success or +failure are seldom if ever so studied and measured that the causes +are well understood. Therefore, no standards for future work that +are of any value can be established. It need only be added that one +reason why Traditional Management makes so little progress is +because it makes no analyses that are of permanent value. What data +it has are available for immediate use only. Practically every man +who does the work must "start at the beginning," for himself. If +this is often true of entire methods, it is even more true of +elements of methods. As elements are not studied and recorded +separately, they are not recognized when they appear again, and the +<!--Page 125--><a name="P125" id="P125"></a> resultant waste is +appalling. This waste is inevitable with the lack of +coöperation under Traditional Management and the fact that +each worker plans the greater part of his work for himself.</p> +<p><b>Analysis and Synthesis Appear Late in Transitory +Management.</b> — Division of output appears early in +Transitory Management, but it is usually not until a late stage +that motion study and time study are conducted so successfully that +scientifically determined and timed elements can be constructed +into standards. As everything that is attempted in the line of +analysis and synthesis under Transitory Management is done +scientifically under Scientific Management, we may avoid repetition +by considering Scientific Management at once.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Analysis and Synthesis in Scientific Management +to Measurement and Standardization.</b> — Analysis considers +the subject that is to be measured, — be it individual action +or output of any kind, — and divides it into such a number of +parts, and parts of such a nature, as will best suit the purpose +for which the measurement is taken. When these subdivisions have +been measured, synthesis combines them into a whole. <a href= +"#ch05fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> Under Scientific Management, through +the measurements used, synthesis is a combination of those elements +which are necessary only, and which have been proven to be most +efficient. The result of the synthesis is standardized, and used +until a more accurate standard displaces it.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management analysis and synthesis are methods +of determining standards from <!--Page 126--><a name="P126" id= +"P126"></a> available knowledge. Measurement furnishes the +means.</p> +<p><b>Analyst's Work Is Division.</b> — It is the duty of the +analyst to divide the work that he is set to study into the +minutest divisions possible. What is possible is determined by the +time and money that can be set aside for the investigation.</p> +<p><b>The Nature of the Work Must Determine the Amount of Analysis +Practicable.</b> — In determining the amount of time and +money required, it is necessary to consider —</p> +<p>1. the cost of the work if done with no special study.</p> +<p>2. how many times the work is likely to be repeated.</p> +<p>3. how many elements that it contains are likely to be similar +to elements in work that has already been studied.</p> +<p>4. how many new elements that it contains are likely to be +available in subsequent work.</p> +<p>5. the probable cost of the work after it has been studied +—</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) the cost of doing it.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) the cost of the investigation.</p> +<p>6. The loss, if any, from delaying the work until after it has +been studied.</p> +<p>7. the availability of trained observers and measurers, analysts +and synthesists.</p> +<p>8. the available money for carrying on the investigations.</p> +<p>These questions at least must be answered before +<!--Page 127--><a name="P127" id="P127"></a> it is possible to +decide whether study shall be made or not, and to what degree it +can be carried.</p> +<p><b>Cost the Determining Factor.</b> — It is obvious that +in all observation in the industrial world cost must be the +principal determining feature. Once the cost can be estimated, and +the amount of money that can be allowed for the investigation +determined, it is possible at least to approximate satisfactory +answers to the other questions. How closely the answers approximate +depends largely on the skill and experience of the analyst.</p> +<p>The greater number of times the work is to be repeated, the less +the ultimate cost. The more elements contained similar to elements +already determined, the less the additional cost, and the less the +time necessary. The more elements contained that can be used again, +even in different work, the less the ultimate cost. The better +trained the analyst, the less the immediate or additional cost and +time.</p> +<p>Much depends on the amount of previous data at hand when the +investigation is being made, and on the skill and speed of the +analyst in using these data.</p> +<p><b>Process of Division Unending.</b> — In practice, the +process of division continues as long as it can show itself to be a +method for cost reducing. Work may be divided into processes: each +process into subdivisions; each subdivision into cycles; each cycle +into elements; each element into time units; each time unit into +motions, — and so on, indefinitely, toward the "indivisible +minimum."<a href="#ch05fn04"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 128--><a name="P128" id="P128"></a> +<p><b>Measuring May Take Place at Any Stage.</b> — At any of +these stages of division the results may be taken as final for the +purpose of the study, — and the operations, or final +divisions of the work at that stage, may be measured.</p> +<p>To obtain results with the least expenditure of time, the +operations must be subjected to motion study before they are timed +as well as after. This motion study can be accurate and of +permanent value only in so far as the divisions are final. The +resulting improved operations are then ready to be timed.</p> +<p><b>Ultimate Analysis the Field of Psychology.</b> — When +the analyst has proceeded as far as he can in dividing the work +into prime factors the problem continues in the field of +psychology. Here the opportunities for securing further data become +almost limitless.</p> +<p><b>Ultimate Analysis Justifiable.</b> — It is the +justification for analysis to approach the ultimate as nearly as +possible, that the smaller and more difficult of measurement the +division is, the more often it will appear in various combinations +of elements. The permanence and exactness of the result vary with +the effort for obtaining it.</p> +<p><b>Qualifications of an Analyst.</b> — To be most +successful, an analyst should have ingenuity, patience, and that +love of dividing a process into its component parts and studying +each separate part that characterizes the analytic mind. The +analyst must be capable of doing accurate work, and orderly +work.</p> +<p>To get the most pleasure and profit from his work he should +realize that his great, underlying purpose <!--Page 129--><a name= +"P129" id="P129"></a> is to relieve the worker of unnecessary +fatigue, to shorten his work period per day, and to increase the +number of his days and years of higher earning power. With this +realization will come an added interest in his subject.</p> +<p><b>Worker Should Understand the Process of Analysis.</b> — +It is not enough that the worker should understand the methods of +measurement. He can get most from the resultant standards and will +most efficiently coöperate if he understands the division into +elements to be studied.</p> +<p><b>Schools Should Provide Training.</b> — Much of the +training in analysis in the schools comes at such a late period of +the course that the average industrial worker must miss a large +part of it. This is a defect in school training that should be +remedied. Even very young children soon are capable of, and greatly +enjoy, dividing a process into elements. If the worker be taught, +in his preparations, and in the work itself, to divide what he does +into its elements, he will not only enjoy analysis of his work, but +will be able to follow the analysis in his own mind, and to +coöperate better in the processes of measurement.</p> +<p><b>The Synthesist's Work Is Selection and Addition.</b> — +The synthesist studies the individual results of the analyst's +work, and their inter-relation, and determines which of these +should be combined, and in what manner, for the most economic +result. His duty is to construct that combination of the elements +which will be most efficient.</p> +<p><b>Importance of Selection Must Be Emphasized.</b> — If +synthesis in Scientific Management were nothing +<!--Page 130--><a name="P130" id="P130"></a> more than combining +all the elements that result from analysis into a whole, it would +be valuable. Any process studied analytically will be performed +more intelligently, even if there is no change in the method.</p> +<p>But the most important part of the synthesist's work is the +actual elimination of elements which are useless, and the +combination of the remaining elements in such a way, or sequence, +or schedule, that a far better method than the one analyzed will +result.</p> +<p>We may take an example from Bricklaying. <a href= +"#ch05fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> In "Stringing Mortar Method, on the +Filling Tiers before the Days of the Pack-on-the-Wall-Method" +— the division, which was into operations only, showed +eighteen operations and eighteen motions for every brick that was +laid. Study and synthesis of these elements resulted in a method +that required only 1 3/4 motions to lay a brick. Over half the +original motions were found to be useless, hence entirely omitted. +In several other cases it was found possible to make one motion do +work for two or four brick, with the same, or less, fatigue to the +worker.</p> +<p><b>Result Is the Basis for the Task.</b> — The result of +synthesis is the basis for the task, — it becomes the +standard that shows what has actually been done, and what can be +expected to be repeated. It is important to note the relation +between the task and synthesis. When it becomes generally +understood that the "Task," under Scientific Management is neither +an ideal which exists simply in the imagination, nor an +<!--Page 131--><a name="P131" id="P131"></a> impossibly high +estimate of what can be expected, — but is actually the sum +of observed and timed operations, plus a definite and sufficient +percentage of allowance for overcoming the fatigue, — then +much objection to it will cease.</p> +<p><b>General Lack of Knowledge the Chief Cause of Objection to the +Task.</b> — As is the case with most objections to Scientific +Management, or its elements, ignorance is the chief obstacle to the +introduction and success of the Task Idea. This ignorance seems to +be more or less prevalent everywhere among managers as well as +workers.</p> +<p>Scientific Management can, and does, succeed even when the +workers are ignorant of many of its fundamental principles, but it +will never make the strides that it should until every man working +under it, as well as all outside, understand <i>why</i> it is doing +as it does, as well as <i>what</i> is done.</p> +<p>This educational campaign could find no better starting point +than the word "task," and the "task idea."</p> +<p><b>The Name Task Is Unfortunate.</b> <a href= +"#ch05fn06"><sup>6</sup></a> — The Century Dictionary defines +"Task" as follows:</p> +<p>1. "a tax, an assessment, an impost</p> +<p>2. "labor imposed, especially a definite quantity or amount of +labor; work to be done; one's stint; that which duty or necessity +imposes; duty or duties collectively</p> +<p>3. "a lesson to be learned; a portion of study imposed by a +teacher <!--Page 132--><a name="P132" id="P132"></a></p> +<p>4. "work undertaken, — an undertaking</p> +<p>5. "burdensome employment; toil."</p> +<p>Only the fourth meaning, as here given, covers in any way what +is meant by the task in Scientific Management.</p> +<p>The ideas included in the other four definitions are most +unpleasant. The thought of labor; the thought that the labor is +imposed; the thought that the imposition is definite; that duty +makes it necessary that it be done; that it is burdensome; that it +is toilsome: these are most unfortunate ideas and have been +associated with the word so long in the human mind that it will be +a matter of years before a new set of associations can be formed +which will be pleasant, and which will render the word "task" +attractive and agreeable to the worker and to the public in +general.</p> +<p><b>No Other Adequate Word Has Been Suggested.</b> — +However, there seems to be no better word forthcoming; therefore, +one can but follow the example of the masters in management, who +have accepted this word, and have done their best to make it +attractive by the way they themselves have used it.</p> +<p>To the writer, the word "stint" is far more attractive and more +truly descriptive than is "task." Perhaps because of the +old-fashioned idea that a reward, usually immediate, followed the +completion of the "stint."</p> +<p>Opinions as to a preferable word will doubtless vary, but it is +self-evident that the word "task" has already become so firmly +established in Scientific Management that any attempt to change it +would result in a confusion. It is far better to concentrate +<!--Page 133--><a name="P133" id="P133"></a> on developing a new +set of associations for it in as many minds as possible.</p> +<p><b>Decided Advantage to the Use of the Word Task.</b> — +Perhaps in one way it is fortunate that the use of the word "task" +does coincide more or less with the use of that word under +Traditional Management. Under Traditional Management the task is +the work to be done. It may be just as well that the same word +should be used under Scientific Management, in order that both the +worker and investigator may realize, that, after all <i>the work +that is to be done</i> is, in its essentials, exactly the same. +With this realization from the beginning, the mind of the worker or +investigator may be the more predisposed to note the eliminations +of waste and the cutting down of time, effort and fatigue under the +scientifically derived methods.</p> +<p><b>Definition of Task as Used in Scientific Management.</b> +— The task, under Scientific Management, differs from the +task under Traditional Management in that —</p> +<p>1. The tools and surrounding conditions with which the work +shall be done are standardized.</p> +<p>2. The method in which the work shall be done is prescribed.</p> +<p>3. The time that the work shall take is scientifically +determined.</p> +<p>4. An allowance is made for rest from fatigue.</p> +<p>5. The quality of the output is prescribed.</p> +<p>When to this is added the fact that the method is taught, and +that the reward is ample, fixed, prompt and assured, the attractive +features of the task under Scientific Management have been made +plain.</p> +<!--Page 134--><a name="P134" id="P134"></a> +<p><b>Task Idea Applies to Work of Everyone.</b> — Under +Scientific Management there is a task for every member of the +organization, from the head of the management to the worker at the +most rudimentary work. This is too often not known, or not +appreciated by the worker, who feels that what is deemed best for +him should be good for everyone. The mental attitude will never be +right till all understand that the task idea will increase +efficiency when applied to any possible kind of work. With the +application of the task idea to all, will come added +coöperation.</p> +<p><b>Task Idea Applies to the Work of the Organization.</b> +— The work which is to be done by the organization should be +considered the task of the organization, and this organization task +is studied before individual tasks are set. The methods used in +determining this organization task are analysis and synthesis, just +as in the case of the individual task.</p> +<p><b>Individual Tasks Are Elements of Organization Task.</b> +— The individual tasks are considered as elements of the +organization task. The problem is, to determine the best +arrangement of these individual tasks, the best schedule, and +routing. The individual task may be thought of as something moving, +that must be gotten out of the way.</p> +<p>Management has been called largely a matter of transportation. +It may be "transportation" or moving of materials, revolution of +parts of fixed machinery, or merely transportation of parts of +one's body in manual movements; <a href= +"#ch05fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> in any case, the laws governing +transportation apply to all. This view of management +<!--Page 135--><a name="P135" id="P135"></a> is most stimulating +to the mind. A moving object attracts attention and holds interest. +Work that is interesting can be accomplished with greater speed and +less fatigue. Thinking in terms of the methods of Scientific +Management as the most accurate and efficient in transporting the +finished output and its "chips" <a href= +"#ch05fn08"><sup>8</sup></a> will be a great aid towards attaining +the best results possible by means of a new method of visualizing +the problem.</p> +<p><b>Qualifications of the Synthesist.</b> — The synthesist +must have a constructive mind, for he determines the sequence of +events as well as the method of attack. He must have the ability to +see the completed whole which he is trying to make, and to regard +the elements with which he works not only as units, but in relation +to each other. He must feel that any combination is influenced not +only by the elements that go into it, but by the inter-relation +between these elements. This differs for different combinations as +in a kaleidoscope.</p> +<p><b>The Synthesist a Conserver.</b> — The Synthesist must +never be thought of as a destructive critic. He is, in reality, a +conserver of all that is valuable in old methods. Through his work +and that of the analyst, the valuable elements of traditional +methods are incorporated into standard methods. These standard +methods will, doubtless, be improved as time goes on, but the +valuable elements will be permanently conserved.</p> +<p><b>Synthesist an Inventor.</b> — The valuable inventions +referred to as the result of measurement are the work +<!--Page 136--><a name="P136" id="P136"></a> of the synthetic +mind. It discovers new, better methods of doing work, and this +results in the invention of better means, such as tools or +equipment.</p> +<p>For example, — in the field of Bricklaying, the +Non-stooping Scaffold, the Packet and the Fountain Trowel were not +invented until the analysis of bricklaying was made, and the +synthesis of the chosen elements into standard methods made plain +the need and specifications for new equipment.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Invention to Scientific Management Important.</b> +— There has been much discussion as to the relation of +Invention to Scientific Management. It has been claimed by many +otherwise able authorities that many results claimed as due to +Scientific Management are really the results of new machinery, +tools or equipment that have been invented. <a href= +"#ch05fn09"><sup>9</sup></a> Scientific Management certainly can +lay no claim to credit for efficiency which comes through +inventions neither suggested nor determined by it. But the +inventions from the results of which Scientific Management is said +to have borrowed credit are usually, like the bricklaying +inventions cited, not only direct results of Scientific Management, +but probably would not have sprung from any other source for years +to come.</p> +<p><b>Synthesist a Discoverer of Laws.</b> — It is the +synthetic type of mind that discovers the laws. For example — +it was Dr. Taylor, with the aid of a few of his specially trained +co-workers, who discovered the following governing laws:</p> +<p>1. law of no ratio between the foot-pounds of work done and the +fatigue caused in different kinds of work. <!--Page 137--><a name= +"P137" id="P137"></a></p> +<p>2. law of percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue.</p> +<p>3. law of classification of work according to percentage of +fatigue caused.</p> +<p>4. laws for making high-speed steel.</p> +<p>5. laws relating to cutting metals.</p> +<p>6. laws that will predict the right speed, feed and cut on +metals for the greatest output.</p> +<p>7. laws for predicting maximum quantity of output that a man can +achieve and thrive.</p> +<p>8. laws for determining the selection of the men best suited for +the work.</p> +<p><b>Synthesist an Adviser on Introduction of New Methods. +—</b> Having constructed the standard tasks or standard +methods which are new, the synthesist must remember to introduce +his new task or method with as few new variables as possible. He +should so present it that all the old knowledge will come out to +meet the new, that all the brain paths that have already been made +will be utilized, and that the new path will lead out from paths +which are well known and well traveled.</p> +<p><b>Introduce with as Few New Variables as Possible. —</b> +The greatest speed in learning a new method will be attained by +introducing it with as few new variables as possible.</p> +<p>For example, — learning to dictate to a dictaphone. The +writer found it very difficult, at first, to dictate into the +dictaphone,— the whirling of the cylinder distracted the +eye, the buzzing of the motor distracted the ear, the rubber tube +leading to the mouth-piece was constantly reminding the touch that +something new was being attempted. At the suggestion +<!--Page 138--><a name="P138" id="P138"></a> of one well versed +in Scientific Management, the mouth-piece of the dictaphone was +propped on the desk telephone on a level with the mouth-piece of +the latter. The writer then found that as soon as one became +interested in the dictating and one's attention was concentrated on +the thought, one was able absolutely to forget the new variable, +because it is one which is kept constant, and to dictate fluently. +The emphasis laid on the likeness in thus dictating to the old +accustomed act of talking through the telephone, seemed to put all +other differences into the background, and to allow of forming the +new and desired habit very quickly.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Effect of Analysis and Synthesis on the Work.</b> — As +the outcome of Analysis and Synthesis is Standardization, so the +effect of them upon work is standard work. Quantity of output can +be predicted, quality of output is assured.</p> +<p><b>Effect on the Worker.</b> — The effect of Analysis and +Synthesis upon the worker is to make him feel that the methods +which he is using are right, and that, because of this, his work +must be of value. The more the worker is induced to coöperate +in the determining and the combination of elements, the more will +he share with the investigators the satisfaction in getting +permanent results. The outcome of this coöperation will, +again, result in more perfect future results, and so on, +progressively.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER V FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn01" id="ch05fn01"> 1</a>. +Compare <i>Mechanical Analysis</i>. Taylor and Thompson, +<i>Concrete, Plain and Reinforced</i>, p. 193.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn02" id="ch05fn02"> 2</a>. H. +LeChatelier, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., p. 303.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn03" id="ch05fn03"> 3</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 35.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn04" id="ch05fn04"> 4</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Cost Reducing System</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn05" id="ch05fn05"> 5</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, p. 151.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn06" id="ch05fn06"> 6</a>. James +M. Dodge, Discussion of Paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 284.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn07" id="ch05fn07"> 7</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Motion Study</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn08" id="ch05fn08"> 8</a>. James +M. Dodge.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch05fn09" id="ch05fn09"> 9</a>. +London, <i>Engineering</i>, Sept. 15, 1911.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 139--><a name="P139" id="P139"></a> +<h3><a name="chaptervi" id="chaptervi">CHAPTER VI</a></h3> +<h3>STANDARDIZATION</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Standardization.</b> — Standardization is +"the act of standardizing, or the state of being standardized." "A +standard," according to the Century Dictionary, "is that which is +set up as a unit of reference; a form, type, example, incidence, or +combination of conditions accepted as correct and perfect and hence +as a basis of comparison. A criterion established by custom, public +opinion or general consent; a model." <a href= +"#ch06fn01"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p>We must note particularly that the standard is a "unit of +reference," that it is a "basis of comparison," and that it is "a +model." These three phrases describe the standard in management, +and are particularly emphasized by the use of the standard in +Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Standards Derived from Actual Practice.</b> — +Management derives its standards not from theories as to best +methods, but from scientific study of actual practice. <a href= +"#ch06fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> As already shown, the method of +deriving a standard is —</p> +<!--Page 140--><a name="P140" id="P140"></a> +<p>1. to analyze the best practice known into the smallest possible +elements,</p> +<p>2. to measure these elements,</p> +<p>3. to adopt the least wasteful elements as standard +elements,</p> +<p>4. to synthesize the necessary standard elements into the +standard.</p> +<p><b>The Standard Is Progressive.</b> — A standard remains +fixed only until a more perfect standard displaces it. The data +from which the standard was derived may be reviewed because of some +error, because a further subdivision of the elements studied may +prove possible, or because improvements in some factor of the work, +i.e., the worker, material, tools, equipment, etc., may make a new +standard desirable.</p> +<p>The fact that a standard is recognized as not being an ultimate +standard in no wise detracts from its working value. As Captain +Metcalfe has said: "Whatever be the standard of measurement, it +suffices for comparison if it be generally accepted, if it be +impartially applied, and if the results be fully recorded." +<a href="#ch06fn03"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Change in the Standard Demands Change in the Task and in the +Incentive.</b> — Necessarily, with the change in the standard +comes a change in the task and in the reward. All parts of +Scientific Management are so closely related that it is impossible +to make a successful progressive step in one branch without +simultaneously making all the related progressions in other +branches that go with it.</p> +<p>For example, — if the material upon which a standard +<!--Page 141--><a name="P141" id="P141"></a> was based caused +more care or effort, a smaller task must be set, and wages must be +proportionately lowered. <i>Proportionately</i>, note, for +determining that change would necessitate a review and a +redistribution of the cost involved.</p> +<p>In the same way, if an improvement in equipment necessitated a +new method, as does the packet in laying brick, a new task would +become imperative, and a reconsideration of the wage. The wage +might remain the same, it might go down, it might go up. In actual +practice, in the case of bricklayers, it has gone up. But the point +is, it <i>must</i> be restudied. This provides effectually against +cutting the rate or increasing the task in any unjust manner.</p> +<p><b>Similarity Between the Standard and the "Judgment" of +Psychology.</b> — There are many points of similarity between +the "Standard," of management, and the "judgment" of psychology. +Sully says, in speaking of the judgment, <a href= +"#ch06fn04"><sup>4</sup></a> — "This process of judging +illustrates the two fundamental elements in thought activity, viz., +analysis and synthesis." "To judge is clearly to discern and to +mark off as a special object of thought some connecting relation." +"To begin with, before we can judge we must have the requisite +materials for forming a judgment." "In the second place, to judge +is to carry out a process of reflection on given material." "In +addition to clearness and accuracy, our judgments may have other +perfections. So far as our statements accord with known facts, they +should be adhered to, — at least, till new evidence proves +them untrue."</p> +<!--Page 142--><a name="P142" id="P142"></a> +<p><b>Psychology a Final Appeal as to Permanent Value of Any +Standard.</b> — The standard under management, even under +Scientific Management, can lay no claim to being perfect. It can +never nearly approach perfection until the elements are so small +that it is practicable to test them psychologically and +physiologically. The time when this can be done in many lines, when +the benefit that will directly accrue will justify the necessary +expenditure, may seem far distant, but every analysis of +operations, no matter how rudimentary, is hastening the day when +the underlying, permanently valuable elements can be determined and +their variations studied.</p> +<p><b>Coöperation Will Hasten the Day of Psychological and +Physiological Study of Standards.</b> — Coöperation in +collecting and comparing the results of motion study and time study +everywhere will do much to assist toward more ultimate +determination of elements. At the present time the problems that +management submits to psychology are too indefinite and cover too +large a field to be attacked successfully. Coöperation between +management standardizers would mean —</p> +<p>1. that all management data would be available to psychologists +and physiologists.</p> +<p>2. that such data, being available also to all standardizers, +would prevent reduplication of results.</p> +<p>3. that savings would result.</p> +<p>4. that, from a study and comparison of the collected data a +trained synthetic mind could build up better standards than could +be built from any set of individual data. <!--Page 143--><a name= +"P143" id="P143"></a></p> +<p>5. Savings would result from this.</p> +<p>6. Inventions would also result.</p> +<p>7. Savings would again result from these.</p> +<p>8. All of these various savings could be invested in more +intensive study of elements.</p> +<p>9. These more valuable results would again be available to +psychologists and physiologists.</p> +<p>This cycle would go on indefinitely. Meantime, all would benefit +with little added cost to any. For the results of the psychological +and physiological study would be available to all, and +investigators in those lines have shown themselves ready and glad +to undertake investigations.</p> +<p><b>Purpose of Standardization.</b> — The purpose of +standardizing is the same under all types of management; that is, +it is the elimination of waste.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Frequently Attempted Under Traditional +Management.</b> — In much progressive Traditional Management +there is an appreciation of the necessity of standardizing tools +and equipment, that is to say, of having these on the "duplicate +part system," that assembling may be done quickly, and repairs made +without delay.</p> +<p>The manager notices some particularly successful man, or method, +or arrangement of tools, equipment, or the surroundings, and +decides to have a record made thereof that the success may be +repeated. These records, if made in sufficient detail, are very +valuable. The difficulty is that so often the man making the +records does not observe all the variables. Hence the very elements +which caused the success may be overlooked entirely.</p> +<!--Page 144--><a name="P144" id="P144"></a> +<p><b>Value of Standardization Not Appreciated Under Traditional +Management.</b> — It is surprising, under Traditional +Management, to note, in many cases, the years that elapse before +any need for standardization is felt. It is also surprising that, +even when some standardization has been done, its importance is +seldom realized. The new standard becomes a matter of course, and +the management fails to be impressed enough with its benefits to +apply the principle of standardization to other fields.</p> +<p><b>Under Transitory Management Standardization Becomes +Constantly More Important.</b> — Not until Motion Study and +Time Study have been introduced can the full benefits of +standardization be attained. But as soon as the Transitory Stage of +Management appears, the importance of standardization is realized. +This is brought about largely through the records of individual +outputs, which constantly call attention to the necessity of making +available to all the methods, tools and equipment of the most +successful workers.</p> +<p><b>Records of Successes Become More Profitable.</b> — The +rules which embody successful practice become more profitable as +the necessity for more detailed recording of all the variables +becomes possible. An appreciation of what scientific motion study +and time study will ultimately do affects the minds of the +management until the workers are given directions as to methods to +be used, and the incentive of extra pay for following +directions.</p> +<p><b>"Systems" Show an Appreciation of Psychology.</b> — The +"Systems," standing orders or collections <!--Page 145--><a name= +"P145" id="P145"></a> of written directions, that are evolved at +this stage have a permanent value. This is especially true when the +directions, often called "rules," contain the reason for the rule. +There is a decided awakening to the importance of Psychology in +this appeal to the reason of the worker. He is not affronted by +being forced to follow directions for which he is given no reason +and which he has no reason to believe have been scientifically +derived. These rules, in a certain typical case, are stated in +simple language, some in the form of commands, some in the form of +suggestions, and are obviously so prepared as to be understood and +obeyed by the workers with the least possible amount of effort, +opposition and time. As ample opportunity is given for suggestions, +the worker's attention and interest are held, and any craving he +may have for self-expression is gratified.</p> +<p><b>Systems Permanently Useful.</b> — These systems, +collections of rules, directions or standing orders are useful even +when Ultimate Management is completely installed —</p> +<p>1. for use as records of successful methods which may be +scientifically studied for elements.</p> +<p>2. for use by the instruction card clerk in explaining to the +men why the rules on the instruction card are given.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Systems to Standards Should Be Emphasized.</b> +— The worker is too often not made to understand the relation +of Systems to Standards. The average worker does not object to +Systems, because he realizes that the System is a collection of his +best, least wasteful methods of doing work. <!--Page 146--><a name= +"P146" id="P146"></a> When he can be convinced that standards +are only efficient elements of his own methods scientifically +studied and combined, any opposition to them will disappear.</p> +<p><b>The Personal Note of the "System" Should Be Preserved.</b> +— Perhaps one thing that makes the typical "Systems" so +attractive is the personal note that they contain. Illustrated with +pictures of successful work that the workers themselves have done, +often containing pictures of the men themselves that illustrate +successful methods, with mention of the names of men who have +offered valuable suggestions or inventions, they make the worker +feel his part in successful results. They conserve the old spirit +of coöperation between the master and his apprentices.</p> +<p>The conditions of modern industry make it extremely difficult to +conserve this feeling. Scientific Management is successful not only +because it makes possible a more effective coöperation than +has ever existed since the old "master-and-apprentice" relation +died out, but also because it conserves in the Systems the interim +channel for personal communication between the various members of +the organization.</p> +<p><b>Systems a Valuable Assistance in Transition to Scientific +Management.</b> — One great problem which those introducing +Scientific Management have to face is exactly how to make the +worker understand the relation of the new type of management to the +old. The usefulness of the written system in use in most places +where it is planned to introduce Scientific Management as a means +of making the worker <!--Page 147--><a name="P147" id= +"P147"></a> understand the transition has, perhaps, not been +appreciated.</p> +<p>The development of the standard from the system is easy to +explain. This being done, all parts of Scientific Management are so +closely related that their interrelation can be readily made +apparent.</p> +<p>It is the worker's right as well as privilege to understand the +management under which he works, and he only truly coöperates, +with his will and judgment as well as with his hands, when he feels +that his mind is a part of the directing mind.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Under Scientific Management Eliminates Waste +Scientifically.</b> — Under Scientific Management the +elimination of waste by the use of standards becomes a science. +Standards are no longer based on opinions, as under Traditional +Management, but are based upon scientific investigation of the +elements of experience.</p> +<p>As James says, in the "Psychology, Briefer Course," page 156, +paragraph 4, — "It is obvious and palpable that our state of +mind is never precisely the same. Every thought we have of a given +fact is, strictly speaking, unique and only bears a resemblance of +kind with our other thoughts of the same facts. When the identical +fact recurs we must think of it in a fresh manner, see it under a +somewhat different angle, apprehend it in different relations from +those in which it last appeared."</p> +<p><b>The Standard the Result of Measurement.</b> — It is +obvious, therefore, that a scientifically derived standard can +never be the outcome of an opinion. Whenever the opinion returns, +the different thoughts <!--Page 148--><a name="P148" id= +"P148"></a> with which it would be accompanied would so color it +as to change it, and the standard with it. It is obvious, +therefore, that a standard must be the result of definite +mathematical and other measured proof, and not of an opinion, and +that the standard must be in such physical shape that the +subject-matter will always be clearly defined, otherwise the +ultimate losses resulting from dependent sequences of the standard +schedule and time-tables would be enormous.</p> +<p><b>Successful Standardization Demands Complete Conformity to +Standards.</b> — The laws for establishment of standards; the +laws of achieving them; the laws for preventing deviations from +those paths that will permit of their achievement; the dependent +sequences absolutely necessary to perform the complete whole; these +have been worked out and given to the world by Dr. Taylor, who +recognized, as James has said, page 157, that, "a permanently +existing 'Idea' which makes its appearance before the footlights of +consciousness at periodic intervals, is as mythological an entity +as the Jack of Spades." The entire organization from the highest to +the lowest must conform to these standards. It is out of the +question to permit the deviations resulting from individual +initiative. Individual initiative is quite as objectionable in +obtaining the best results, — that is, high wages and low +production cost, — as service would be on a railroad if each +locomotive engineer were his own train despatcher, determining at +what time and to what place he would go.</p> +<p><b>Initiative Provided For.</b> — There is a distinct +place <!--Page 149--><a name="P149" id="P149"></a> for +initiative in Scientific Management, but that place is not outside +of the planning department, until the planning department's method +has been proved to be fully understood by achieving it. The +standards must be made by the men to whom this work is assigned, +and they must be followed absolutely by the worker. He is willing +to follow them, under Scientific Management, because he realizes +that a place for his suggestions is supplied, and that, if his +suggestions are accepted, they will be incorporated into the new +standards which must then be followed by all thereafter.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Applies to the Work of All.</b> — It is +important to note that standardizing is applied to the work of all. +This, if understood by all, will do away with all question of +discrimination or the lack of a "square deal." It will make the +worker feel ready to follow his standard exactly, just as he knows +the manager is following his. So, also, the worker should be made +to realize that the very fact that there is a standardization +means, under Scientific Management, that that applies to every man, +and that there is no discrimination against him in any possible +way.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Conserves and Develops Individuality.</b> +— Standardization conserves individual capacity by doing away +with the wasteful process of trial and error of the individual +workman. It develops individuality by allowing the worker to +concentrate his initiative upon work that has not before been done, +and by providing incentive and reward for inventions.</p> +<!--Page 150--><a name="P150" id="P150"></a> +<p><b>Waste Eliminated Is Eliminated Permanently.</b> — +Scientific Management not only eliminates waste, but provides that +waste shall be eliminated for all time in the future.</p> +<p>The standard once written down, there can be no slipping back +into the old methods based upon opinions of the facts.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Under Scientific Management Resembles +Standardization of Spelling.</b> — The need for +standardization has already been emphasized, but might further be +illustrated by the discussions, pro and con, of the question of +simplified spelling. Before the days of dictionaries, our spelling +was not standardized — it was the privilege of any good +writer to spell much as he desired; but the creation of written +standards of spelling, that is to say the making of dictionaries, +fixed the forms of spelling at that time, that is, created +standards. The Simplified Spelling Board is now endeavoring to make +some new standards, their action being based upon sufficient +reasons for making a change, and also for not changing the spelling +of any word until it is determined that the suggested spelling is +more advisable than the old spelling.</p> +<p>Just so, under Scientific Management, the best known standards +are used continuously until better have been discovered. The +planning department, consisting of the best men available, whose +special duty it is to create new standards, acts as does the +Simplified Spelling Board, as a court of appeals for new standards, +which must pass this court before they can hope to succeed the old, +and which must, <!--Page 151--><a name="P151" id="P151"></a> if +they are to be accepted, possess many elements of the old and be +changed only in such a way that the users can, without difficulty, +shift to the new use.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management Nomenclature Is Standardized.</b> +— Under Standardization in Scientific Management the +standardization of the nomenclature, of the names and of the terms +used must be noted. The effect of this upon the mind is excellent, +because the use of a word very soon becomes a habit — its +associations become fixed. If different names are used for the same +thing, — that is to say, if different names are used +indiscriminately, the thing itself becomes hazy, in just such a +degree as it possesses many names. The use of the fixed term, the +fixed word, leads to definiteness always. Just so, also, the +Mnemonic Symbol system in use by Scientific Management, leads to +swift identification of the subdivision of the classification to +which it is applied, and to elimination of waste in finding and +remembering where to find any particular thing or piece of +information desired. By it may be identified "the various articles +of manufacture and papers relating to it as well as the operations +to be performed on each piece and the various charges of the +establishment."</p> +<p><b>Mnemonic Symbols Save Time and Effort.</b> — These +Mnemonic Symbols save actual motions and time in speaking and +writing, and save time in that they are so designed as to be +readily remembered. They also save time and effort in that the mind +accustomed to them works with them as collective groups of +<!--Page 152--><a name="P152" id="P152"></a> ideas, without +stopping to elaborate them into their more detailed form.</p> +<p><b>Standard Phraseology Eliminates Waste.</b> — As typical +of the savings effected by standardization, we may cite a lineman +talking to the Central Telephone Office: —</p> +<p>"John Doe — 1234 L. Placing Extension Station," This +signified — "My name is John Doe, I am telephoning from +number 1234, party L. I have finished installing an extension +station. Where shall I go next?"</p> +<p>In the same way standard signals are remembered best by the man +who signals and are understood quickest by the man who receives +them, with a direct increase in speed to the work done.</p> +<p><b>Standard Man Is the Man upon Whom Studies Are Made.</b> +— The standard man is the ideal man to observe and with whom +to obtain the best Motion Study and Time Study data. He is the +fastest worker, working under the direction of the man best +informed in the particular trade as to the motions of best present +practice, and being timed by a Time Study Expert.</p> +<p><b>Relation Between the Standard Man, the First-Class Man, the +Given Man and the Task.</b> — The "first-class man" under +Scientific Management means the man who is best fitted by nature +and by training to do the task permanently or until promoted.</p> +<p>The "given man" is the man who is actually put to work at the +task, whether or not he is well fitted for its performance.</p> +<p>The "task" is that percentage of the standard +<!--Page 153--><a name="P153" id="P153"></a> man's achievement +that the given man to whom the task is to be assigned can do +continuously and thrive, that he can do easily enough to win his +bonus without injuring himself, temporarily or permanently, in any +way.</p> +<p><b>Writing the Standard Means for Conveying Information.</b> +— Under Scientific Management, and even in the early stages +of Transitory Management, writing is the standard means of +conveying information.</p> +<p>All orders, without exception, should be in writing. This +insures that the "eye workers" get their directions in the most +impressive form; does away with the need of constant oral +repetition; eliminates confusion; insures a clear impression in the +mind of the giver as well as of the receiver of the order as to +exactly what is wanted; and provides a record of all orders given. +Putting the instructions in writing in no way precludes utilizing +the worker's natural aptitude to learn by imitation, for he also +always has the opportunity to watch and imitate the workings of the +functional teachers as well as his scientifically taught +fellow-workers.</p> +<p><b>The Instruction Card the Standard Method of Conveying +Instructions as to the Task.</b> — The records of the work of +the standard man are contained in data of the Motion Study and Time +Study department. These records, in the form in which they are to +be used by the man who is to perform the task, are, for the benefit +of that man, incorporated in what is known as the instruction +card.</p> +<p><b>Definition of the Instruction Card.</b> — The +instruction card is a set of directions for the man, telling +<!--Page 154--><a name="P154" id="P154"></a> him what he is to +do, how he is to do it, how long it should take him to do it, and +what he will receive for doing it, and giving him an opportunity to +call for, and obtain, assistance the instant that he finds he +cannot do it, and to report back to the managers as to how he has +succeeded in the performance.</p> +<p>The Instruction Card has been called "a self-producer of a +predetermined product."</p> +<p><b>Comparative Definition of Instruction Cards, Under Scientific +Management.</b> — There are three types of Instruction Cards, +which may be described as follows:</p> +<p>Type One: — Largely geographical, telling</p> +<p>1. Where to Work.</p> +<p>2. From Whom to Take Orders.</p> +<p>3. What to Do.</p> +<p>Type Two: — Typical engineer's specification, — +telling</p> +<p>1. Results desired.</p> +<p>2. Qualities of Products.</p> +<p>Type Three: — A list of elementary, step-by-step +instructions, subdivided into their motions, with time allowed for +each timable element, preferably for each motion, and a division +between</p> +<p>1. Getting ready.</p> +<p>2. Making or constructing.</p> +<p>3. Clearing up. This is the only type used by Scientific +Management.</p> +<p><b>Directions, Pay Allowance and Time Allowance Essential.</b> +— The Instruction Card under Scientific Management must +contain directions, and state the pay allowance and time +allowance.</p> +<!--Page 155--><a name="P155" id="P155"></a> +<p>Directions as to how the work shall be done eliminate waste by +cutting out all wrong methods and prescribing the right method +exactly.</p> +<p>The setting of a time in which the work is to be done is a great +stimulus to the worker, and is also necessary, because upon the +attainment of this set time depends the ability of the managers to +pay the bonus to the worker, and also to maintain a schedule, or +time-table, that will make possible the maintaining of necessary +conditions for others, in turn, to earn their bonuses. It cannot be +too often emphasized that the extra wages are paid to the men out +of the savings, and are absolutely dependent upon the fact of there +being savings. It is only when the worker does the work within the +time prescribed, that the managers do save enough to warrant the +payment of the extra wages that compensate the man for doing the +stipulated quantity of work.</p> +<p>The instruction card contains a statement of the wage or bonus +that will be earned for the complete performance of the task set +therein, thus furnishing an incentive at the time that the work is +done.</p> +<p><b>Standard Division of Instruction Card Necessary.</b> — +There are many reasons for dividing an instruction card in the +present standard way, namely, —</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) to reduce the amount of time study +observation necessary to be taken,</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) to reduce the difficulties of synthesizing +the time studied element,</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) to locate quickly just where the worker +needs help and instruction to enable him to achieve his task, +<!--Page 156--><a name="P156" id="P156"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) to keep up the interest of the worker by +having short time elements with which to measure his relative +ability,</p> +<p class="ltritem">(e) to present the subject-matter of instruction +in such natural subdivisions that resting places are automatically +provided that allow the mind to recover from its absorption of each +subdivision. This provides definite stopping places between +co-related units of instruction holding the attention as a complete +unit against distraction, and a complete resting place between +subdivisions that permits the mind to relax and wander without +losing complete grasp of each unit as a whole.</p> +<p><b>Detailed Instruction Educative.</b> — The greater the +perfection of the detail of the instruction card, the greater the +educative value of this plan of management. The educative value of +the instruction card will be discussed at length under +Teaching.</p> +<p>Those inexperienced in Scientific Management have complained +that the detail of Instruction Cards and other parts of Scientific +Management is tiresome. Dr. Taylor has answered such objectors in +Discussions, and also in his own directions for planning the +Instruction Card, which are to be found in "Shop Management."</p> +<p>The advantages of the detailed instruction card are more than +might appear on the surface. Not only does the man whose attention +is easily distracted keep to his work better if he is told every +possible detail, but also the cards when filed can be taken out +<!--Page 157--><a name="P157" id="P157"></a> again, and every +detail and item of the method reviewed at length and revised if +necessary.</p> +<p>The experienced worker who gets to know the instruction by rote +is not bothered by extreme detail. On the contrary, he grasps it at +a glance, and focuses his mind upon any new feature and upon the +speed and exactness of muscular action needed for compliance with +the card.</p> +<p><b>Language of Instruction Card Important.</b> — The +language in which instructions and commands are transmitted on the +instruction card is of sufficient importance to warrant careful +consideration. It would be helpful if the instruction card clerk +and the man who is to use the instruction cards were both masters +of English, but this is hardly to be expected. The best substitute +for such special English training is a "System" for the use of the +instruction card clerk that will give him some outline of English +that will by degrees make his wording terse, simple and +unambiguous.</p> +<p>He should be impressed with the value of short sentences, and of +sentences that will require no punctuation other than a period at +the end. The short sentence is the most important step toward +brevity, terseness, conciseness and clear thinking.</p> +<p>The second most important feature is that the instruction card +clerk always uses the same standard wording for the same +instructions. Repetition of phrasing is a virtue, and the use of +the same word for the same thing and the same meaning repeatedly is +very desirable. The wording, phrasing and sentencing should be +standard wherever possible.</p> +<!--Page 158--><a name="P158" id="P158"></a> +<p><b>Standard Phrasing Desirable.</b> — After a short time a +phrase or sentence that is often repeated will be recognized as +quickly as will a word or a letter. Men who cannot read and write +at all are comparatively few. Men who can read and write but little +are many. It is entirely possible to teach such men standard +groupings, which they can recognize on the Instruction Card and use +in a very short time.</p> +<p>For example, — laborers who do not even know their +alphabets will learn quickly to read setting marks on cut +stone.</p> +<p>Just as mnemonic symbols save time and effort, so standard +phrasing aids toward finding out what is to be done, and +remembering how it is to be done. <a href= +"#ch06fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> Both of these can be accomplished if +the standardization is so complete that directions can be read and +remembered almost at a glance. <a href= +"#ch06fn06"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Specific Terms Helpful.</b> — To be most effective, +directions should be in the imperative form, and in specific +terms.</p> +<p>The history and growth of language shows that the language of +the savage consisted of vague general terms as compared to the +specific individual terms of the modern language of civilized man. +There are examples to be seen on every hand to-day where the oral +language of instructions and orders to proceed, that are given to +the worker, are still more vague, comparatively, than the language +between savages.</p> +<!--Page 159--><a name="P159" id="P159"></a> +<p><b>Similarity of Form and Shape Advisable.</b> — As for +the form and shape, as Dr. Taylor says, "anything that will +transmit ideas by sketch or wording will serve as an instruction +card." He advises, however, taking advantage of the saving in time +to be gained by having the instruction cards as nearly alike as +possible. They may, for convenience' sake, vary as to length, but +in width, ruling, spacing and wording they should be as nearly +alike as possible.</p> +<p><b>Standard Surroundings Valuable.</b> — Standard +environment, or surroundings, of the worker are valuable for two +reasons:</p> +<p>1. Because they directly increase output by eliminating +everything which might distract attention or cause needless +fatigue, and by assisting in the attainment of more output by +having the best possible surroundings for greater output.</p> +<p>2. Because all surroundings suggest an easy achievement. Knowing +that everything has been done to make his work possible and easy, +the worker feels this atmosphere of possibility and ease around +him, and the suggestive power of this is strong.</p> +<p><b>Unnecessary Fatigue Should Be Eliminated.</b> — The +walls, appliances and furniture, and the clothing of the worker +should be of that color which will rest his eyes from the fatigue +of the work. All unnecessary noise should be eliminated, and +provision should be made, where possible, that the workers may +enjoy their sleep or their rest hours in perfect quiet.</p> +<p>Records show the value of having quiet reign in and near the +camp, that the workers may not be disturbed. Even though they are +not disturbed <!--Page 160--><a name="P160" id="P160"></a> +enough to be waked up, every noise that is registered in the brain +affects the body, for it is now conceded that the body reflects +every phase of mental activity.</p> +<p><b>All Mental States Affect Bodily States</b> — Dr. +Stratton says: "It is now generally accepted that the body reflects +every shade of psychic operations; that in all manner of mental +action there is some physical expression." <a href= +"#ch06fn07"><sup>7</sup></a> All consciousness is motor "is the +brief expression of this important truth; every mental state +somehow runs over into a corresponding bodily state."</p> +<p><b>Elimination of Worry Assists in Concentrating Attention.</b> +— The more fireproof the building, and the more stable the +other conditions, the greater the efficiency of the inmate. +Burglar-proof buildings not only actually induce better sleep, in +that possible intrusions are eliminated, but give a state of mental +peace by the removal of apprehension. So also, a "germ proof" house +is not only really more healthful for an inmate, but eliminates +worry over possible danger of ill health. The mental health of the +worker not only controls, in a measure, his physical health, but +also his desire to work. Having no distractions, he can put his +mind upon that which is given him to do.</p> +<p><b>Distracted Attention Causes Fatigue.</b> — The +attention of the worker is apt to be distracted not only by +recognized dangers, such as burglars, fires, and disease, but also +by other transitory things that, involuntarily on his part, take +his mind from the work in hand. A flickering light distracts the +attention <!--Page 161--><a name="P161" id="P161"></a> and +causes fatigue, whether we have consciously noticed it or not. Many +things are recorded by the senses without one's being conscious of +them.</p> +<p>For example, the ceasing of a clock to tick, although we have +not noticed that it was ticking. Another example is the effect upon +the pulse or the brain of being spoken to when asleep.</p> +<p>The flickering lamp of the chronocyclegraph device is much more +fatiguing than the steady lamp of plain cyclegraphs.</p> +<p><b>Proper Placing of Workers Eliminates Distracted +Attention.</b> — Workers must be placed so that they do not +see intermittently moving objects out of the corners of their eyes. +In the early history of man it was continuously necessary to watch +for first evidence of things behind one, or at a distance, in order +to be safe from an enemy. From generations of survival of the most +fit there have developed human eyes most sensitive to moving +objects that are seen out of the corner of the eye. Even civilized +man has his attention distracted quickest, and most, by those +moving objects that he sees the least distinctly, and furthest to +one side from the direction in which he is looking.</p> +<p>The leaf that moves or the grass that trembles may attract the +attention where seen "out of the corner of the eye" to a point +where it will even cause a start and a great fear.</p> +<p>As an example of the distracting effect of moving objects seen +"out of the corner of the eye," try reading a book facing a window +in a car where the moving scenery can be seen on each side of the +book. <!--Page 162--><a name="P162" id="P162"></a> The flitting +object will interrupt one, one cannot get the full meaning out of +what one is reading — yet if one lays down the book and looks +directly at the scenery, the mind can concentrate to a point where +one does not see that moving scenery which is directly in front of +the eyes.</p> +<p>There is a great difference in this power of sensitiveness of +the corners of some workers' eyes from that of others. The first +move of Scientific Management is to place and arrange all workers, +as far as is possible, in such a position that nothing to distract +them will be behind them, and later to see that the eyes of workers +are tested, that those whose eyes are most sensitive may be placed +accordingly.</p> +<p><b>This Elimination May Take Place in All Kinds of Work.</b> +— The necessity of removing all things which will distract +the attention is as great for the brain worker as for the shop or +construction worker. All papers that attract the eye, and hence the +attention, should be cleaned from the desk, everything except that +on which the worker is working. The capability of being distracted +by the presence of other things varies in all workers.</p> +<p>In using the dictaphone, one can do much better work if one is +in a room where there is little or nothing to distract attention. +An outline of work ahead, may tempt to study and planning of what +is ahead, rather than to carrying out the task scheduled for +immediate performance. The presence of a paper with an outline +merely of what is being done is found to be a great help, as the +eye can rest on that, and after a few moments, will become so +accustomed to <!--Page 163--><a name="P163" id="P163"></a> it +that the whole attention will be given to the dictating.</p> +<p><b>Benefits of Eliminating "Decision of Choice."</b> — +There is always time lost by "decision of choice." The elimination +of this is well illustrated by the bricks that are piled on the +packet, which decides for the bricklayer which brick is next, +making an obvious sequence, hence the saving of time of decision +regarding motions, also the saving coming from the play for +position. Oftentimes a handicap of slow mental action can be +compensated for, in a measure, by planning ahead in great detail. +In this way, if the plan is made sufficiently in detail, there is +absolutely no time possible left to be wasted in "decision of +choice." The worker goes from one step to another, and as these +steps are arranged logically, his mind does not tend to wander +away, but to keep on in an uninterrupted sequence to the goal.</p> +<p><b>Standard Equipment Important.</b> — As for equipment, +the phenomena of habit are among the most important features of the +psychology of management and the possibilities of the elimination +of unnecessary waste resulting from taking advantage of this +feature is possible only when the equipment, surroundings and +methods of the worker are standardized. Therefore the insistence +upon standardization, even down to the smallest things, is vital +for achieving the greatest output.</p> +<p>For example, — suppose the keys of the monotype machine, +piano or typewriter were not located permanently in the same +relative position. Consider the loss of time in not being able to +use habits in finding <!--Page 164--><a name="P164" id= +"P164"></a> each key. Such an arrangement sounds ridiculous on +the face of it, yet it is a common practice for many operators, +especially of monotype machines, to make a complete mental decision +as to the muscles and fingers with which they will strike the +desired key.</p> +<p>Imagine the records of output of a typist who was using a +different keyboard every day, if there were that many kinds of +keyboards. It is easy for anyone to conceive the great advantages +of standard keyboards for such machines, but only those who have +made a study of output of all kinds of workers can fully realize +that similar differences in sizes of output are being produced by +the workers of the country for lack of similar standardization of +working conditions and equipment.</p> +<p><b>Utmost Standardization Does Not Make "Machines" of the +Workers Operating Under It.</b> — The attention of those who +believe that standardization makes machines out of the workers +themselves, is called to the absence of such effect upon the typist +as compared with the scribe, the monotype and linotype operator as +compared with the compositor, and the mechanical computing machine +operator as compared with the arithmetician.</p> +<p><b>Standard Methods Demand Standard Tools and Devices.</b> +— Habits cannot be standardized until the devices and tools +used are of standard pattern. It is not nearly so essential to have +the best tools as it is to have standard tools. <a href= +"#ch06fn08"><sup>8</sup></a> Experience in the hospitals +<!--Page 165--><a name="P165" id="P165"></a> points to the +importance of this fact in surgery. Tools once adopted as standard +should not be changed until the improvement or greater efficiency +from their use will compensate for the loss during the period of +"breaking in" the user, that is, of forming new habits in order to +handle strange tools. As will be brought out more fully under +"Teaching," good habits are as difficult to break as bad ones, the +only difference being that one does not usually desire to break +good ones. Naturally, if a new device is introduced, what was an +excellent habit for the old device becomes, perhaps, a very bad +habit for the new device. There must come a time before the +manipulation of the new device has become a habit when output will +go down and costs will go up. It is necessary, before introducing +this device, to investigate whether the ultimate reduction of costs +will be sufficient to allow for this period of lower production. It +is not fair, however, to the new device or method really to +consider its record until the use of it has become such a habit +with the workers as was the use of the old device.</p> +<p>No one who has not made a study of cutting tools can realize the +crying need for standardizing in that field. Dr. Taylor says, +writing in the Revised "Shop Management" of 1911, — "Hardly a +shop can be found in which tools made from a dozen different +qualities of steel are not used side by side, in many cases with +little or no means of telling one make from another." <a href= +"#ch06fn09"><sup>9</sup></a> The effect of the slightest variation +in the shape or the method of handling the tool +<!--Page 166--><a name="P166" id="P166"></a> upon the three +dimensions of the work that the tool can do in a given time, is +astounding. <a href="#ch06fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> More important, +from the psychological point of view, is the effect upon the mind +of the worker of seeing such unstandardized equipment; of having to +stop to select the particular tool that he desires, and thus having +his attention distracted from his work; and of knowing that his act +of judgment in so selecting is of no permanent value, as the next +time he needs a similar tool he will probably have to reselect.</p> +<p><b>Standard Clothing a Crying Need.</b> — There is a great +need today for standardization in the field of clothing. The idea +prevalent that wearing apparel is attractive only when it is +"different" is unfortunate in its influence upon the cost of +living. How much more unfortunate is it, when it affects the mind +of the worker, and leads him to look upon standard working clothes +with distaste.</p> +<p>To a careful observer, there is nothing more disheartening than +a study of workers' clothes, especially the clothes of women +workers. Too warm clothes where work requiring high temperature is +done, with no provision for adding needed wraps for the trip home; +high-heeled shoes where the worker must stand at her task for hours +at a time; tight waists and ill fitting skirts, where every muscle +should have free play, — these are but examples of hundreds +of places where reforms are needed.</p> +<p>Little or no blame attaches to the worker for this state of +affairs. Seldom, if ever, does the management +<!--Page 167--><a name="P167" id="P167"></a> attempt to +standardize working clothes. Moreover, the underlying idea is not +made clear that such clothes bear no resemblance to the meaningless +uniforms which are badge and symbol of service. They resemble +rather the blouse or pinafore of the artist, the outfit of the +submarine diver or the fireman.</p> +<p><b>The Sports Present a Fine Example of This.</b> — The +greatest advance toward standardizing clothing has come in the +sports, which, in many respects, present admirable object-lessons. +In the tennis court, on the links, on the gridiron, the diamond, or +track, the garment worn of itself does not increase fatigue. On the +contrary, it is so designed as not to interfere with the efficiency +of the wearer.</p> +<p><b>Management Should Provide Clothing Standards.</b> — +Under Ultimate Management the most efficient clothing for any kind +of work will be standardized. The expense of such articles of +clothing as will add to the quantity or quality of output will, +directly or indirectly, be borne by the management, just as it now +bears the expense for equipment and tools. These essentials being +supplied, and the underlying dignity and importance of +standardization understood, the worker will gladly conform, and +supply the minor accessories.</p> +<p><b>Such Standards Must Apply to All.</b> — It is of the +utmost importance that such standardization, when adopted, should +apply to the clothing of all, managers as well as employés. +When the old pride in the "crafts" returns, or when efficiency is +as universal in the industrial world as it is in the world of +sport, — then one may look for results.</p> +<!--Page 168--><a name="P168" id="P168"></a> +<p><b>Effects of Such Standards Enormous.</b> — The effect +which such standardized clothing would have on the physical and +mental well-being of the wearers can scarcely be overestimated. +Fatigue would be eliminated, and the old "joy in working" might +return. Not being based upon looks alone, — though the +æsthetic appeal should not be neglected, — the worker's +ability to work more and better with greater content of mind would +be the criterion. The success of the clothing would be +scientifically measured, the standards improved, and progress +itself become standardized.</p> +<p><b>Standard Methods Eliminate Fatigue.</b> — There is no +doubt in the minds of those who have made it a study, that the +constant receipt of the same kind of impressions, caused by the +same kind of stimulation of the same terminal sense organs, causes +semi-automatic response with less resulting fatigue, corresponding +to the lessened effort. All methods should, therefore, as far as +possible, be made up of standard elements under standard +conditions, with standard devices and appliances, and they should +be standardized from the standpoint of all of our senses as to +color, shape, size, weight, location, position and surface texture, +that the worker may grasp at a single thought by means of each or +all his senses, that no special muscles or other fatiguing +processes need be operated to achieve the standard result +desired.</p> +<p><b>Muscles That Tire Easily Should Be Saved.</b> — It must +be remembered that all work should be so arranged that the muscle +that changes the position or shape of the eye or the size of its +pupil should not <!--Page 169--><a name="P169" id="P169"></a> be +operated except when necessary. Care in planning can oftentimes +standardize conditions so as to relieve these and other muscles, +which grow tired easily, or transfer this work to other muscles +which are not so easily tired.</p> +<p>Not only do the reactions from such standards require less +bodily effort, but it also requires less mental effort to work +under methods that are standardized. Therefore, both directly and +indirectly, the worker benefits by the standardization.</p> +<p><b>Rest from Fatigue Is Provided for Scientifically.</b> — +Scientific Management provides and prescribes rest for overcoming +fatigue of the worker more scientifically and economically than he +could possibly provide it for himself. Weber's law is that "our +power of detecting differences between sensations does not depend +on the absolute amount of difference in the stimuli, but on the +relative amount."<a href="#ch06fn11"><sup>11</sup></a> The +additional fatigue from handling additional weights causes fatigue +to increase with the weight, but not in direct proportion to the +extra weight handled. When the correct weight of the unit to be +handled has been determined, the additional weight will cause +fatigue in quantities greater in proportion than the extra weight +handled.</p> +<p><b>Rest Periods Arranged for Best Good of Work and Worker.</b> +— If possible, rest from fatigue is so arranged as to +interfere with work the least. The necessary rest periods of the +individuals of a gang should come at that period of the cycle that +does not cause any allowance to be made for rest in between +<!--Page 170--><a name="P170" id="P170"></a> the performance of +the dependent operations of different members of the gang. Such an +arrangement will enable the worker to keep a sustained interest in +the work.</p> +<p><b>Work with Animals Should Be Standardized.</b> — The +necessity for standardizing work with animals has been greatly +underestimated, although it has been done more or less successfully +in systems for construction work. For work with horses and carts, +the harnesses and the carts should be standardized and standards +only should be used. The instruction card dealing with the action, +motions and their sequence should be standard to save time in +changing teams from the full to the empty cart and <i>vice +versa</i>. While standardized action is necessary with men, it is +even more necessary for men in connection with the work of animals, +such as horses, mules and oxen. The instruction card for the act of +changing of teams from an empty cart to a full cart should state +the side that the driver gets down from his seat to the ground, the +sequence in which he unhooks the harness and hooks it up again, and +the side on which he gets up to his seat in the cart. Even the +wording of his orders to his horse should be standardized.</p> +<p>While this book will deal with the human mind only, it is in +order to state that a book could be written to advantage on +training the horse by means of a standard man-horse language and a +standard practice of their combined action.</p> +<p>Animals have not the capacity for forming new habits that they +have for remembering the sequence <!--Page 171--><a name="P171" id= +"P171"></a> of former acts. They have little ability to adapt +themselves to a sequence of motions caused by unexpected +conditions, unless those conditions suggest the opportunity of +revenge, or the necessity of self-preservation, or immediate +welfare. This is only touched upon here from the man side.</p> +<p>Naturally, the output earning power of a man working with +animals depends largely upon the handling of the animal, and the +man can never attain his full output, or the managers get what they +might expect to get from the man-horse combination, until the +psychology of the horse, or mule, or elephant, or whatever animal +is used, is also studied and combined with the other studies on +Scientific Management.</p> +<p>An example of the benefits of standardized work with animals: +— The standard fire signals in the Fire House cause such +perfect horse action that fire horses always have a reputation for +superior intelligence.</p> +<p><b>The Worker Who Is Best Suited for His Work in the Performing +Department Is Incapable of Discovering the Best Method.</b> — +An exaggerated case of the result of leaving the selection of the +method to the worker is that of the West Indian negro who carried +the wheelbarrow on his head. <a href="#ch06fn12"><sup>12</sup></a> +This well-known example, though it seems impossible and absurd, is +no more inefficient than are hundreds of methods in use in the +industrial world to-day.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management Quality Is Standardized.</b> +— Scientific Management determines exactly what quality as +well as what quantity of work is <!--Page 172--><a name="P172" id= +"P172"></a> needed, and the method prescribed is that one not +only of lower costs, but which fits the particular need of the +particular occasion most accurately.</p> +<p>Workers are kept under pressure for quality, yet the pressure is +not irksome, because the worker understands exactly what quality is +desired, and what variations from exactness are permitted.</p> +<p><b>Variations in Quality or Exactness Indicated by Standard +Signs.</b> — All dimensions on the drawings of work have +either a letter or symbol or plus or minus signs. There is much to +be said about the effect this has on the worker.</p> +<p>1. It gives the worker immediate knowledge of the prescribed +quality demanded.</p> +<p>2. He does not have to worry as to the maximum variation that he +can make without interfering with his bonus.</p> +<p>3. There is no fear of criticism or discharge for using his own +faulty judgment.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Has a Standard "Method of Attack."</b> +— We must note next the standard "method of attack" in +Scientific Management. It is recognized that sensations are +modified by those that come before, by those that come +simultaneously, and by those that follow. The psychic effect of +each and every kind of sensation depends upon what other sensations +have been experienced, are being experienced at that time, or will +presently be experienced. The scientific manager realizes this, and +provides for the most desirable sequence of sensation; then, having +seen, to the best of his ability, that the sensation occurs at the +time which he desires it to occur, he <!--Page 173--><a name="P173" +id="P173"></a> provides for concentration upon that one +sensation and elimination of all other thoughts or desires.</p> +<p>Professor Faraday says: "That part of self-education which +consists in teaching the mind to resist the desires and +inclinations until they are proved to be right is the most +important of all." How this is shown under Scientific Management +will be shown in "Teaching." It is sufficient to say here that the +method of attack of Scientific Management is to eliminate all +possible bodily as well as mental exertion, — to cut down +motions, to cut down even sensations and such mental acts as +visualizing. The object is, not so much to eliminate these motions +and these sensations, and this visualizing from the life of the +worker, as simply to use up less energy in producing the output. +This allows the worker an extra supply of energy upon which to fall +back to produce greater output and to get greater wages. If his +energy is not all utilized in his working hours, then, as will be +shown more clearly under "Welfare," there is that much more left +for him to enjoy in his own leisure time.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Result to the Work.</b> — Under Traditional Management, +where standards are not established, the worker is constantly +delayed by the necessity for decision of choice, by the lack of +knowing what should be chosen, and by a dearth of standard +equipment, materials and tools from which to choose.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of standards, +the elimination of delays and the <!--Page 174--><a name="P174" id= +"P174"></a> provision for standard surroundings and supplies of +all kinds, comes increased output of the desired quality.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management, not only is output increased and +quality assured, but results of work can be predicted. <a href= +"#ch06fn13"><sup>13</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Results to the Worker.</b> — Results from +standardization to the worker under Traditional and Transitory +Management are the same as, and are included in, results under +Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>State of Worker's Feelings Improved.</b> — Under +Scientific Management the state of the employé's feelings is +improved by the standardization. It is a recognized fact that +mental disturbance from such causes as fear of losing his job will +sometimes have the same ill effect upon a workman as does overwork, +or insufficient rest for overcoming fatigue. It will occasionally +wear upon the nervous system and the digestive organs. Now +Scientific Management by standardization removes from the workman +this fear of losing his job, for the worker knows that if he +conforms to the standard instructions he certainly will not lose +his position unless the business as a whole is unsuccessful.</p> +<p>On the other hand, feelings, such as happiness and contentment, +and even hearing rhythmic sounds, music, etc., are an aid toward +increasing output. For the best results, therefore, under +Scientific Management the worker is furnished with standard +conditions; his train of ideas is held upon the work in hand +without interruption, and the working conditions are +<!--Page 175--><a name="P175" id="P175"></a> such that the +managers furnish the worker with inducements to conform to the +standard conditions happily.</p> +<p><b>Worker's Retentive Power Increased.</b> — We note in +the second place, the increased retentive power of anyone who is +working with standards. There is great difference between different +people of the same degree of intelligence as to their ability to +memorize certain things, especially such as sequences of the +elements of a process. This lack of retentive power is illustrated +particularly well in the cases often found where the student has +difficulty in learning to spell. It is here that the standard +instruction card comes into play to good effect. Its great detail +remedies the defect in memorizing of certain otherwise brilliant +workers, and its standard form and repetition of standard phrases +aid the retentive power of the man who has a good memory.</p> +<p><b>Standard Elements Serve as Memory Drills.</b> — This +use of standardized elements makes the time elapsing between +repetitions shorter, for, while it may be a long time before the +worker again encounters the identical work or method, still, the +fact that elements are standard means that he will have occasion to +repeat elements frequently, and that his memory will each time be +further drilled by these repetitions.</p> +<p><b>Gang Instruction Card an Aid to Memory.</b> — The gang +instruction card has been used with good effect at the beginning of +unfamiliar repetitive cycles of work to train the memory of whole +gangs of men at once, and to cut down the elapsed time from the +time when one man's operation is sufficiently completed to +<!--Page 176--><a name="P176" id="P176"></a> permit the next man +to commence his. It has been found, in the case of setting timbers +in mill construction for example, that to have one man call out the +next act in the sequence as fast as the preceding one is finished, +until all have committed the sequence to memory, will materially +decrease the time necessary for the entire sequence of elements in +a cycle of work.</p> +<p><b>Individual Instruction Card an Inanimate Memory.</b> — +The instruction card supplies a most accurate memory in inanimate +form, that neither blurs nor distorts with age.</p> +<p>The ranter against this standard memory is no more sensible than +a man who would advocate the worker's forgetting the result of his +best experience, that his mind might be periodically exercised by +rediscovering the method of least waste anew with each problem.</p> +<p>Other things being equal, that worker has the longest number of +years of earning power who remembers the largest number of right +methods; or at least remembers where to find them described in +detail; and, conversely, those who have no memory, and know not +where to look for or to lay their hand on the method of least +waste, remain at the beginning of their industrial education. +"Experience," from an earning standpoint, does not exist when the +mind does not retain a memory of the method. The instruction card, +then, acts as a form of transferable memory — it conserves +memory. Once it is made, it furnishes the earning power without the +necessity of the former experience having been had more than +once.</p> +<!--Page 177--><a name="P177" id="P177"></a> +<p>Plans, details, free-hand sketches, and two-dimension +photographs surpass the highest form of mental imagery, and such +cultivated imagery is undoubtedly a high achievement. There is no +kind of memory, visualization, nor constructive imagination that +can equal the stereoscopic or three-dimension photographs that may +accompany the instruction card for enabling the worker to "see the +completed work before it is begun." Probably the greatest hindrance +to development of lower forms of animal life is their inability to +picture past experiences, and the reason for the intellectual +strides made by the worker under Scientific Management is the +development of this faculty.</p> +<p><b>A Conserver of Individual Memories.</b> — Many people +believe that the memory of a person ceases at his death. Whether +this is so or not, the loss to the world, and particularly the +industrial world, of not having the instruction card for the +passing on of the worker's experience to the workers who follow is +stupendous and incalculable, and this loss, like so many other +losses, can be eliminated by the process of making written +standards.</p> +<p><b>Motor Memory Improved by Standardization.</b> — Not +only are the retentive powers of the brain improved, but also the +brain centers, and the muscles, etc., become trained through +standardization. With standardization a long sequence of muscular +motions or operations can be noted at a glance, and can be +remembered without difficulty.</p> +<p><b>Standards Prevent Men from Becoming Machines.</b> — +Those who object to the worker taking advantage of these +scientifically derived standards which <!--Page 178--><a name= +"P178" id="P178"></a> aid the memory, can only be compared to +such people as desire the workers to turn into unthinking animals. +Psychologists believe that some of the lower animals have no +memory. Turning the workers into machines which do not in any way +utilize thought-saving devices is simply putting them but little +above the class of these lower, memory-less, animals.</p> +<p><b>Through Standards the Worker's Attention Is Gained at the +Start.</b> — The general act of attention plays an important +part in Scientific Management. The insistence upon standardized +performance requires the utmost attention at the beginning of +learning a new method of performance. This extra output of mental +activity, which is always required for accomplishing new methods of +work, could not be continuously maintained, but after the new +method has once been learned, its repetition requires less +attention, consequently less fatigue. The attention of the worker +is, therefore, strongly demanded at the beginning and when, later, +it is not needed except for new and unfamiliar work, an opportunity +arises for invention and mental advancement.</p> +<p><b>Attention Allowed to Lapse and Then Recalled.</b> — +Standardization shifts the objects of attention and eliminates the +need for constant concentration. The standardization of processes +relieves the worker to a marked extent from the extremely fatiguing +mental effort of unproductive fixed, valueless, and unnecessary +attention on the stream of consciousness. The repeated elements +which form a part of all standards reconcentrates the attention if +it is allowed to lapse.</p> +<!--Page 179--><a name="P179" id="P179"></a> +<p><b>Standardization Eliminates the Shifting Viewpoint.</b> +— Under old-time Traditional Management the way that the man +happened to feel at the particular time made a great difference, +not only in his work, but in his relations with other men. The +standardization not only of the relationship between the men, but +of the relationships between the foreman, the manager, and the +worker, the fact that the disciplining is put in the hands of a man +who is not biased by his personal feelings in his dealings with the +men; — all of these things mean that the viewpoint of the men +as to their work and their relationship remains fixed. This +standardizing of the viewpoint is an enormous help toward +increasing output.</p> +<p><b>The Common Viewpoint Is an Impetus.</b> — There are +those who believe that the concerted standard process of thought of +the many minds assists the operation of any one mind. However this +may be, there is no doubt that the fact that the standard thought +is present in all minds at one time at least eliminates some cause +for discussion and leads to unity and consequent success in the +work.</p> +<p><b>Invention Is Stimulated.</b> — Chances for invention +and construction are provided by standardization. <a href= +"#ch06fn14"><sup>14</sup></a> By having a scientifically derived +standard method as a starter, the worker can exert much of his +mental power toward improvement from that point upward, instead of +being occupied with methods below it and in wasting, perhaps, a +lifetime in striving to get up <!--Page 180--><a name="P180" id= +"P180"></a> to it,<a href="#ch06fn15"><sup>15</sup></a> this in +distinction to the old plan, where a worker knew only what he could +personally remember of what had been handed down by tradition, +tradition being the memory of society. Under Scientific Management +a worker has many repetitions of experience, some of which he does +not always recognize as such. When he does recognize them, he has +the power and daring for rapid construction that come to those only +who "know that they know."</p> +<p>Standardization of ultimate subdivisions, as such, brings that +power to the worker sooner. The conscious knowledge of familiarity +of process is an essential for attaining the complete benefits of +experience.</p> +<p>Far from making machines out of the men, standardization causes +a mental state that leads to invention, for the reason that the +worker's brain is in most intimate contact with the work, and yet +has not been unnecessarily fatigued by the work itself. No more +monotonous work could be cited than that of that boy whose sole +duty was to operate by hand the valve to the engine, yet he +invented the automatic control of the slide valve used throughout +the world to-day.</p> +<p><b>Standardization Prevents Accidents.</b> — The results +of standardization so far given, concern changes in the worker's +mental capacity, or attitude. Such changes, and other changes, will +be discussed from a different viewpoint under "Teaching." As for +results to the worker's body, one of the most important is the +elimination of causes for accidents.</p> +<p>The rigid inspection, testing, and repairing provided +<!--Page 181--><a name="P181" id="P181"></a> for by Scientific +Management provides against accidents from defects in equipment, +tools, or material. The fact that instructions are written, +provides against wrong methods of handling work. <a href= +"#ch06fn16"><sup>16</sup></a> The concentrated attention caused by +standardization, is a safeguard against accidents that occur from +the worker's carelessness.<a href="#ch06fn17"><sup>17</sup></a> The +proper allowance of rest for overcoming fatigue, insures that the +worker's mind is fresh enough to enable him to comply with +standards, and, finally, the spirit of coöperation that +underlies Scientific Management is an added check against +accidents, in that everyone is guarding his fellows as well as +himself.</p> +<p><b>Progress of Standardization Assured.</b> — As +Scientific Management becomes older, progress will be faster, +because up to this time there has been a hindrance standing in the +way of rapid advancement of the best standards. This hindrance has +been the tendency of habits of thought coinciding with former +practice. For example, the design of concrete building for years +followed the habit of thinking in terms of brick, or wood, or +steel, and then attempting to design and construct in reinforced +concrete. Again, in the case of the motor car, habits of thinking +in vehicles drawn by animals for years kept the design +unnecessarily leaning toward that of horse vehicles. As soon as +thought was in terms of power vehicles, the efficient motor truck +of to-day was made, using the power also for power loading and +power hoisting, <!--Page 182--><a name="P182" id="P182"></a> as +is now done in motor trucks specially designed for transporting and +handling pianos and safes. So, also, while the thought was of +traditional practice, standard practice was held back. Now that the +theories of standardization are well understood, standardization +and standards in general can advance with great rapidity.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER VI FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn01" id="ch06fn01"> 1</a>. +Compare R.T. Dana and W.L. Sanders, <i>Rock Drilling</i>, chap. +XVI.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn02" id="ch06fn02"> 2</a>. The +idea of perfection is not involved in the standard of Scientific +Management. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, Bulletin No. 5, of <i>The +Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching</i>, p. 6.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn03" id="ch06fn03"> 3</a>. +<i>Cost of Manufactures</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn04" id="ch06fn04"> 4</a>. +Sully, <i>The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, pp. +290-292.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn05" id="ch06fn05"> 5</a>. C.B. +Going, <i>Methods of the Sante Fé</i>, p. 66.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn06" id="ch06fn06"> 6</a>. For +desirability of standard signals see R.T. Dana, <i>Handbook of +Steam Shovel Work</i>, p. 32.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn07" id="ch06fn07"> 7</a>. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, pp. +268-269.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn08" id="ch06fn08"> 8</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management,</i> para. 285, Harper Ed., pp. +123-124.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn09" id="ch06fn09"> 9</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management,</i> revised 1911, pp. 124-125.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn10" id="ch06fn10">10</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>On the Art of Cutting Metals</i>, A.S.M.E., No. +1119.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn11" id="ch06fn11">11</a>. Stratton, +<i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 11.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn12" id="ch06fn12">12</a>. Mary +Whiton Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, p. 65.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn13" id="ch06fn13">13</a>. C.G. +Barth, A.S.M.E., Vol. 25, Paper 1010, p. 46.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn14" id="ch06fn14">14</a>. Charles +Babbage, <i>On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures</i>, Secs. +224-225. Adam Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, Book 1, chap. 1, p. +4.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn15" id="ch06fn15">15</a>. F.W. +Taylor, paper 1119, A.S.M.E., para. 51; para. 98-100.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn16" id="ch06fn16">16</a>. F.A. +Parkhurst, <i>Applied Methods of Scientific Management, Industrial +Engineering</i>, Oct. 1911, p. 251.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch06fn17" id="ch06fn17">17</a>. H.L. +Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., para. 15.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 183--><a name="P183" id="P183"></a> +<h3><a name="chaptervii" id="chaptervii">CHAPTER VII</a></h3> +<h3>RECORDS AND PROGRAMMES</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Record.</b> — A record is, according to +the Century Dictionary — "something set down in writing or +delineated for the purpose of preserving memory; specifically a +register; an authentic or official copy of any writing, or an +account of any fact and proceedings, whether public or private, +usually entered in a book for preservation; also the book +containing such copy or account." <a href= +"#ch07fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> The synonyms given are "note, +chronicle, account, minute, memorandum."</p> +<p><b>Few Written Records Under Traditional Management.</b> — +For the purposes of this preliminary study of records, emphasis +will be laid on the fact that the record is written. Under +Traditional Management there are practically no such labor records. +What records are kept are more in the nature of "bookkeeping +records," as Gillette and Dana call them, records "showing debits +and credits between different accounts." In many cases, under +Traditional Management, not even such records of profit or loss +from an individual piece of work were kept, the manager, in extreme +cases, oftentimes "keeping his books in <!--Page 184--><a name= +"P184" id="P184"></a> his head" and having only the vaguest idea +of the state of his finances.</p> +<p><b>Importance of Records Realized Under Transitory +Management.</b> — As has been amply demonstrated in +discussing Individuality and Standardization, the recognition of +the value of records is one of the first indications of Transitory +Management. Since this stage of management has Scientific +Management in view as "a mark to come to," the records evolved and +used are not discarded by Scientific Management, but are simply +perfected. Therefore, there is no need to discuss these transitory +records, except to say that, from the start, <i>quality</i> of +records is insisted upon before quantity of records.</p> +<p><b>No "Bookkeeping" Records Under Scientific Management.</b> +— Under Scientific Management there are no "bookkeeping +records" kept of costs as such. Instead, there are "time and cost +records," so called, of the time and efficiency of performance. +From these, costs can be deduced at any time. Items of cost without +relation to their causes, on work that is not to be repeated, have +little value. Cost records, as such, usually represent a needless, +useless expenditure of time and money. It must be emphasized that +Scientific Management can in no way be identified with "cost +keeping," in the sense that is understood to mean aimlessly +recording unrelated costs. Under Scientific Management costs are an +ever-present by-product of the system, not a direct product.</p> +<p><b>Records Must Lower Costs and Simplify Work.</b> — The +quantity of records that should be made depends on the amount, +diversity and state of development <!--Page 185--><a name="P185" +id="P185"></a> of the work done. No record should be made, which +does not, directly or indirectly, actually reduce costs or in some +way increase efficiency. The purpose of the records, as of +Scientific Management in general, is to simplify work. Only when +this is recognized, can the records made be properly judged. +Numerous as they may at times seem to be, their number is +determined absolutely by the satisfactory manner in which they +—</p> +<p>1. Reduce costs.</p> +<p>2. Simplify work.</p> +<p>3. Increase efficiency.</p> +<p><b>Records of Work and Workers.</b> — Records may be of +the work or of the worker <a href="#ch07fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> +— that is to say, of material used, tools used, output +produced, etc., or of individual efficiency, in one form or +another. Records of efficiency may be of workers, of foremen, and +of managers, and a record may be made of any man in several +capacities; for example, a record is kept of a functional foreman +in the form of the work of the men who are under him, while another +record might be kept of him as a worker himself; for example, the +time being taken that it took him to teach others their duties, the +time to learn what was to be done on any new work, etc.</p> +<p><b>Records of Initiative.</b> — Records of initiative are +embodied in the Suggestion Card. Even under advanced Traditional +Management the cards are furnished to the men upon which to write +any ideas as to improvements. These suggestions are received, and, +if accepted, are rewarded.</p> +<!--Page 186--><a name="P186" id="P186"></a> +<p>Under Scientific Management such suggestions become more +valuable, for, as has been shown, they are based upon standards; +thus if accepted, they signify not only a real, but a permanent +improvement. Their greatest value, however, is in the stimulus that +they furnish to the worker, in the information that they furnish +the management as to which workers are interested, and in the +spirit of coöperation that they foster.</p> +<p>The worker receives not only a money-reward, but also publicity, +for it is made known which worker has made a valuable suggestion. +This indicates that the worker has shown good judgment. His +interest is thus stimulated, his attention is held to his work, and +the habit of initiative comes to him. That this habit of initiative +can be fostered, is shown by the actual fact that in many sorts of +work the same man constantly makes suggestions. It becomes a habit +with him to look for the new way, and as he is constantly rewarded, +the interest is not allowed to diminish.</p> +<p><b>Records of Good Behavior.</b> — Records of good +behavior are incorporated in the White List File. The White List +File contains the names of all men who have ever been employed who +merit a recommendation, if they should go to work for others, and +would deserve to be given work as soon as possible, if they came +back. This White List File should be filled out with many details, +but even if it contains nothing but a record of the names, and the +addresses where the men can be reached when new work starts up, it +has a stimulating effect upon the worker. He feels, +<!--Page 187--><a name="P187" id="P187"></a> again, the element +of permanence; there is a place for individuality, and not only +does the manager have the satisfaction of actually having this +list, and of using it, but a feeling that his men know that he is +in some way recognizing them, and endeavoring to make them and +their good work permanent.</p> +<p><b>Records of Achievement.</b> — Records of achievement +vary with the amount and nature of the work done. Such records are, +as far as possible, marked upon programmes.</p> +<p><b>Records Made by Worker Where Possible.</b> — Wherever +possible the worker makes his own records. Even when this is not +advisable he is informed of his record at as short intervals as are +practicable.<a href="#ch07fn03"><sup>3</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Records Made on the "Exception Principle."</b> — Much +time is saved by separating records for the inspection of the man +above, simply having him examine the exceptions to some desired +condition, — the records which are exceptionally good, the +records which are exceptionally bad. This not only serves as a +reward to the man who has a good record, and a punishment for the +man who has had a bad record, but it also enables the manager to +discover at once what is wrong and where it is wrong, and to remedy +it.</p> +<p>The value of the exception principle can hardly be +overestimated. It would be of some value to know of exceptionally +good or poor work, even if the cause were not known. At least one +would be made to observe the signpost of success or of danger. But, +<!--Page 188--><a name="P188" id="P188"></a> under Scientific +Management, the cause appears simultaneously with the fact on the +record, — thus not only indicating the proper method of +repeating success, or avoiding failure, in the future, but also +showing, and making clear, the direct relation of cause to effect, +to the worker himself.</p> +<p><b>This Discussion Necessarily Incomplete.</b> — The +records mentioned above are only a few of the types of records +under Scientific Management. Discussion has been confined to these, +because they have the most direct effect upon the mind of the +worker and the manager. Possible records are too numerous, and too +diverse, to be described and discussed in detail. They constitute a +part of the "how" of Scientific Management, — the manner in +which it operates. This is covered completely in the literature of +Scientific Management, written by men who have made Scientific +Management and its installation a life study. We need only further +discuss the posting of records, and their effect.</p> +<p><b>Posting of Records Beneficial.</b> — As has been +already noted under Individuality, and must be again noted under +Incentives, much benefit is derived from posting records, +especially when these are of such a character, or are so posted, +that the worker may see at a glance the comparative excellence of +his results.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results of Records to the Work.</b> <a href= +"#ch07fn04"><sup>4</sup></a> — The results of recording are +the same under all forms of management, if the records are +correct.</p> +<!--Page 189--><a name="P189" id="P189"></a> +<p>Output increases where records are kept. Under Traditional +Management there is the danger that pressure for quantity will +affect quality, especially if insufficient records of the resultant +quality are kept. Under Transitory and Scientific Management, +quality is maintained or improved, both because previous records +set the standard, and because following records exhibit the +quality.</p> +<p><b>Results to the Worker.</b> — James says, "A man's +social use is the recognition which he gets from his mates. We are +not only gregarious animals, liking to be liked in sight of our +fellow, but we have an innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, +and noticed favorably, by our kind. No more fiendish punishment +could be devised, were such a thing physically possible, than that +one should be turned loose in society and remain absolutely +unnoticed by all the members thereof. If no one turned around when +we entered, answered when we spoke or minded what we did, but if +every person we met 'cut us dead' and acted as if we were +non-existing things, a kind of rage and impotent despair would ere +long well up in us, from which the cruelest bodily tortures would +be a relief; for these would make us feel that, however bad might +be our plight, we had not sunk to such a depth as to be unworthy of +attention at all."<a href="#ch07fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> This +recognition the worker gets partly through the records which are +made of him.</p> +<p><b>Self-Knowledge Attained Through Records.</b> — Through +records of output, and especially through charts of such records, +and timed motion-picture films, <!--Page 190--><a name="P190" id= +"P190"></a> or micro-motion study pictures the worker may, if he +be naturally observant, or if he be taught to observe, gain a fine +knowledge of himself.</p> +<p>The constant exhibit of cause and effect of the relation of +output to, for example, — drink of alcoholic beverages; to +smoking; to food values; to nutrition; to family worries; and to +other outside influences; — in fact, the effects of numerous +different modes of living, are shown promptly to the worker in the +form of records.</p> +<p>Two things should here be noted:</p> +<p>1. The necessity of having more accurate records of the worker +and the work, that the relation o£ cause to effect may be +more precise and authentic.</p> +<p>2. The necessity for so training the worker, before, as well as +after, he enters the industrial world, that he can better +understand and utilize the lesson taught by his own records and +those of others.</p> +<p><b>Educative Value of Worker Making His Own Record.</b> — +Under Scientific Management in its most highly developed form, the +worker makes his own records on his return cards and hands them in. +The worker thus not only comes to realize, by seeing them and by +writing them down, what his records are, but he also realizes his +individual position to-day compared to what it was yesterday, and +compared to that of his fellows in the same line of work. Further, +he gains accuracy, he gains judgment, he gains a method of attack. +He realizes that, as the managers are more or less recorders, so +also he, in recording himself, is vitally connected with the +management. It is, after all, more or less an attitude of mind +which he gains <!--Page 191--><a name="P191" id="P191"></a> by +making out these records himself. It is because of this attitude of +mind, and of the value which it is to him, that he is made to make +out his own record under the ultimate form of management, even +though at times this may involve a sacrifice of the time in which +he must do it, and although he may work slower than could a +specialist at recording, who perhaps would, in spite of that, be +paid less for doing the work.</p> +<p><b>Exact Knowledge Valuable.</b> — We cannot emphasize too +often in this connection the far-reaching psychological effect upon +the worker of exact knowledge of the comparative efficiency of +methods. The value of this is seldom fully appreciated; for +example, we are familiar with the many examples where the worker +has been flattered until he believes that he cannot make mistakes +or do inefficient work. This is most often found where the glowing +compliments to the manufacturing department, found in the +advertising pages of the magazine and in the praises sung in print +by the publicity department, oftentimes ends in an individual +overconfidence. This unjustified self-esteem is soon shattered by +accurate comparative records.</p> +<p>On the other hand, hazing of the new worker and the sneers of +the jealous, accompanied by such trite expressions as — "You +can't teach an old dog new tricks," have often destroyed +self-confidence in a worker, who, in the absence of accurate +records of his efficiency, is trying to judge himself at new +methods. The jibes and jokes at the new man at the new work, and +especially at the experienced, efficient man at unfamiliar +<!--Page 192--><a name="P192" id="P192"></a> work cease, or at +least are wholly impotent, so far as discouraging the man is +concerned, provided the worker sees by the records of a true +measuring device, or method, that his work compares favorably with +others of the same experience, made under the same conditions.</p> +<p><b>Definition of Programme.</b> — The word "programme" is +defined by the Century Dictionary as "a method of operation or line +of procedure prepared or announced beforehand. An outline or +abstract of something to be done or carried out."</p> +<p><b>Two Meanings of "Programme" in Management.</b> — The +word "programme" has two meanings in management.</p> +<p>1. the work, as it comes to the management to be done</p> +<p>2. the work as it is planned out by the managers, and handed +over to the worker to be done.</p> +<p>Programme as here used is a plan for doing work, the plan which +the planning department lays out and hands over for the performers, +or the workers, to do.</p> +<p><b>Under Traditional Management No Accurate Programme Is +Possible.</b> — Under Traditional Management the plan is at +best a repetition of records of unscientifically planned work. The +most that the managers can hope to do is to lay out the time in +which they expect, after consulting previous elapsed time records, +the work to be done. Methods are not prescribed, so there is no +assurance that the calendar will be followed, for the times are set +by guess, or at best by referring to old unscientifically made +records.</p> +<!--Page 193--><a name="P193" id="P193"></a> +<p><b>Under Transitory Management Calendars Can Be Designed.</b> +— Under Transitory Management, with the introduction of +systems, that is, records of how the work has been done best at +various times, come methods and a possibility of a more exact +calendar. There is some likelihood under Transitory System of the +work being done on time, as the method has been considered and, in +many cases, is specified.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management Accurate Calendars Possible.</b> +— Under Scientific Management programmes are based on +accurate records scientifically made and standardized, and a +calendar may be made that can be conformed to with exactness.</p> +<p><b>Programmes a Matter of Routing.</b> — The problems of a +programme under Scientific Management are two, both problems of +routing: —</p> +<p>1. to route materials to the work place.</p> +<p>2. to route the worker to the placed materials.</p> +<p>At first glance it might seem simpler to consider the worker as +static and the materials as in motion. The "routing" of the worker +is really often not a question of motion at all, as the worker, if +he were operating a machine, for example, would not change his +position between various pieces of work — except to rest from +fatigue — enough to be considered. The word "routing" is used +figuratively as regards the worker. He is considered as transported +by the management through the day's work.</p> +<p>But, whether the work move, or the worker, or both, programmes +must so plan out the progress of each, in detail, for as many days +ahead as possible, that the most efficient outcome will ensue.</p> +<!--Page 194--><a name="P194" id="P194"></a> +<p><b>Routing of Work.</b> — The work is routed through +schedules of materials to buy, schedules of material to handle, and +schedules of labor to be performed. The skilled worker finds all +the materials for his work ready and waiting for him when he +arrives at the task, this being provided for by programmes made out +many tasks ahead.</p> +<p><b>Routing of Workers.</b> — The workers themselves are +routed by means of the route sheet, route chart, pin plan and +bulletin board.</p> +<p>The devices for laying out the work of the workers appeal to the +imagination as well as the reason. The route chart is a graphical +representation of a large river, starting with the small stream, +— the first operation, gathering to itself as the +tributaries, the various other operations, — till it reaches +its full growth, the completed work.</p> +<p>The pin plan, with each pin or flag representing a worker, or +work place, and following his progress on a plan of the work, +presents a bird's-eye view in miniature of the entire working +force; and the bulletin board, with its cards that represent work +ahead, not only eliminates actual delay of shifting from one task +to another, but permits studying out one task while doing another, +and also destroys all fear of delay between jobs.</p> +<p><b>Impossibility of Describing Routing Devices Accurately.</b> +— These routing devices might all be described at length, but +no description could do them justice. A visit to a shop, or +factory, or other industrial organization operating under +Scientific Management is necessary, in order to appreciate not only +<!--Page 195--><a name="P195" id="P195"></a> their utility, but +the interest that they arouse. These programmes are no dead, static +things. They are alive, pulsing, moving, progressing with the +progress of the work.</p> +<p><b>Prophecy Becomes Possible Under Scientific Management.</b> +— The calendar, or chronological chart, becomes a true +prophecy of what will take place. This is based on the standardized +elementary units, and the variations from it will be so slight as +to allow of being disregarded.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results of Programme to the Work.</b> — Under +Traditional Management the tentative calendar might cause speed, +but could not direct speed. Under Transitory Management elimination +of waste by prescribed methods and routing increases output. This +increase becomes greater under Scientific Management. Standardized +routing designs the shortest paths, the least wasteful sequence of +events, the most efficient speed, the most fitting method. The +result is more and better work.</p> +<p><b>Results of Programmes to the Worker.</b> — A programme +clarifies the mind, is definite. The Traditional worker was often +not sure what he had better do next. The worker under Scientific +Management knows exactly what he is to do, and where and how he is +to do it.</p> +<p>The attention is held, a field of allied interests are provided +for possible lapses, as are also methods for recalling +attention.</p> +<p>The programme provides for a look ahead, and the +<!--Page 196--><a name="P196" id="P196"></a> relief that comes +from seeing the path before one. This ability to foresee also leads +to a feeling of stability. The knowledge that there is a large +amount of work ahead, ready to be attacked with no delay, +eliminates anxiety as to future employment. This allows of +concentration on the work in hand, and a feeling that, this work +being properly done, one is free to turn to the next piece of work +with the absolute assurance that what has been done will be +satisfactory.</p> +<p><b>Relation Between Records and Programmes.</b> — No +discussion of records and programmes would be complete that did not +consider the relation between them.</p> +<p><b>Importance of This Relation.</b> — The relation between +records and programmes in the various types of management is most +important, for the progress from one type to another may be studied +as exemplified in the change in these relations.</p> +<p><b>A Broadening of the Definitions.</b> — In order to +understand more plainly the complexity of this relation, we will +not confine ourselves here to the narrower definition of a record +as a written account, but will consider it to mean a registering of +an experience in the mind, whether this expresses itself in a +written record or not, A programme will, likewise, be a mental +plan.</p> +<p><b>Many Possible Types of Records and Programmes.</b> — In +order to understand the number of different types of records and +programmes that can be made for a worker, the table that follows +may be examined (Table I). It exemplifies twelve possible records +and twelve possible programmes. <!--Page 197--><a name="P197" id= +"P197"></a></p> +<h4>TABLE I</h4> +<pre> + / / + | |1. unconscious record + | |2. conscious record, + /1. Man working--| | not written + | for himself | |3. written record + | | |4. standardized record + | \ \ + | + I. RECORDS-----| /1. unconscious record + | |2. conscious record, not written + | /(a) One of a gang---|3. written record + | | |4. standardized record + | | \ /(a) made by man + \2. Man working--| |(b) " " manager + for another | /1. unconscious record |(a) made by man + | |2. conscious record, |(b) " " manager + \(b) Individual | not written ---|(a) made by man + output |3. written record |(b) " " manager + \4. standardized record |(a) made by man + |(b) " " manager + |(a) made by man + \(b) " " manager + + + + / + |1. unconscious programme + /1. Man working-----------------------|2. conscious programme + | for himself |3. written programme + | |4. standardized programme + | \ + | +II. PROGRAMMES--| + | / /(a) made by man + | /(a) One of a gang-| |(b) " " manager + | | |1. unconscious programme |(a) made by man + | | |2. conscious programme, |(b) " " manager + \2. Man working--| | not written ---|(a) made by man + for another | |3. written programme |(b) " " manager + | |4. standardized programme |(a) made by man + \(b) Individual----| |(b) " " manager + output | |(a) made by man + \ \(b) " " manager + +</pre> +<!--Page 198--><a name="P198" id="P198"></a> +<p><b>Interrelation of These Types.</b> — The man is +classified first, as working for himself, or working for another. +There will usually be a fundamental difference, at the outset, in +the minds of these two men, for the man working for himself will be +of a more independent cast of thought. There will be no question as +to the man's output showing up separately, unless he chooses to +prevent this by having others work with him. Neither will there be +any question but that, if a record is made, he makes it himself, +unless someone who is not vitally connected with the work, as some +onlooker, interested or disinterested, should make the records for +him. But the typical case of the man working for himself would be +that he was working as an individual, and that the record was made +by himself. There would then be four kinds of records — an +unconscious record, a conscious record not written, a written +record and a standardized record. The "unconscious record" would +be, in reality, no record at all. It would simply be, that +somewhere in the man's mind there would be a record of what he had +done, which, except as a "fringe of consciousness" would not +particularly influence his programme. What we mean by a "conscious +record" would be more of a set habit, the man knowing that he had +done the work in a certain way. This would begin to influence, more +or less, his programme, and also his knowledge of his capacity for +work. With a written record, would come a thorough knowledge on his +part of what he had done and how he had done it, and we must note +that with this written record <!--Page 199--><a name="P199" id= +"P199"></a> comes the possibility for some sort of a set +programme, the man knowing what it will be possible to do, and how +he had best do it. With the standardized record comes the +standardized method.</p> +<p><b>Relationships Complex.</b> — When we consider the man +working for another, he may either be one of a gang, or one whose +work is considered as that of an individual. In either case, any of +the four sorts of records can be made of his work that have been +already described for the man working for himself. Each one of +these records may be made by the man, or by the management; for +with the man working for another, naturally the second mind, that +of the other, or the manager, enters in, and a great many more +combinations are possible.</p> +<p>For example, — there might be an unconscious record made +by the man and a conscious record, or a written record, made by the +manager. There might be a conscious record made by the man, but an +unconscious or a written record made by the manager, etc. There are +too many combinations made to be here considered. Each one of these +combinations would have a definite and a different effect, both +upon the mind of the man, and upon the mind of the manager; and +also upon their relation to each other. The second half of this +chart is similar, but treats of programmes, as many variables enter +here.</p> +<p>It may be thought that the details of the preceding chart and +the three following charts are uninteresting, obvious, and show too +many possible combinations. If this be so, then it is most +necessary to include them <!--Page 200--><a name="P200" id= +"P200"></a> to illustrate the conditions that are passed through +and slipped back into too often in our schools, our apprenticeship +and in all but the best of managements.</p> +<p>The outline of advancement must be known and recognized if the +quality of teaching, efficiency, and management is to be graded in +its right class.</p> +<p>When we consider that each type of record bears a relation to +each type of programme, the complexity of the problems involved +become apparent. This will be better shown in Table II.</p> +<h4>TABLE II</h4> +<table summary="Table II"> +<tr> +<td valign="middle">I. Man working for himself.</td> +<td></td> +<td> 1. Unconscious record, unconscious programme.<br /> + 2. Conscious record, unconscious programme.<br /> + 3. Unconscious record, conscious programme.<br /> + 4. Conscious record, conscious programme.<br /> + 5. Unconscious record, written programme.<br /> + 6. Written record, unconscious programme.<br /> + 7. Conscious record, written programme.<br /> + 8. Written record, conscious programme.<br /> + 9. Written record, written programme.<br /> +10. Standardized record, standardized programme.<br /></td> +</tr> +</table> +<!--Page 201--><a name="P201" id="P201"></a> +<p><b>Illustration of This Complexity.</b> — Table II +represents the man working for himself, with subdivisions under it +showing the possible relationship between his record and his +programme. We find that these are at least ten, reaching all the +way from the unconscious record and unconscious programme of the +migrating transitory laborer to the standardized record and the +standardized programme of the manager who manages himself +scientifically.</p> +<p>Each one of these represent a distinct psychological stage. The +progression may not be regular and smooth as is here given, — +it may be a jump, possibly even from one to nine. It may, however, +be a slow progression from one stage to another, largely to be +determined by the type of mind that is considered, and the +opportunities for development along scientific lines which are +afforded. It is the writer's intention to discuss these at length +at some other time. Here it is only possible to enumerate, in order +to show the size and complexity of the problem which is here +involved.</p> +<p>The table does not indicate, as perhaps it should, the fact that +the relationship between an unconscious record and an unconscious +programme is slight, while the relation between a written programme +and a written record is very close indeed. In Table IV this will be +indicated.</p> +<h4>TABLE III</h4> +<table summary="Table III"> +<tr> +<td valign="middle">II. Man working for himself.</td> +<td></td> +<td>1. One of a gang, unconscious record, unconscious programme, on +part of both manager and man.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<!--Page 202--><a name="P202" id="P202"></a><br /> +2. Individual output, — standardized record and programme, +known to, or made by, both manager and man.<br /> +<br /></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Elimination of Waste Possible.</b> — The third table +— that of the man working for another man — attempts +to do no more than indicate the first and last step of a long +series, beginning with the man, one of a gang, an unconscious +record, and an unconscious programme, on the part of both the +manager and the man, down to the final stage of individual output, +with the written record and programme known to both manager and +man. It would be a most interesting problem to work out the various +steps stretching between these two, and the various ways in which +progression might be made through these steps, either taking one +step after another slowly or making the various possible jumps long +and short. A psychological discussion of each step would be of +value, and certainly must in time be made, but this book has not +the scope, nor can the time be devoted to such a discussion.</p> +<p>If this third chart had no other purpose, it would be useful to +suggest to the student the wide tracts which still remain for study +and development. It must not be thought that any of the steps +omitted on this chart are not in existence. Every single possible +combination of record and programme is in existence to-day, and +must be studied by the manager of men. Not until these are all +discovered, described, <!--Page 203--><a name="P203" id= +"P203"></a> and standardized, the progression noted, and +standard progressions outlined, can methods of least waste be +adopted.</p> +<p>With a more thorough experimental study of the mind will come a +possible prediction as to which stages the various types of mind +must pass through. So, too, with the training of the young mind in +the primary schools and in the methods of Scientific Management, +will come the elimination of many stages now necessary, and the +possibility, even, that the final stage may be introduced at the +outset, and the enormous waste of time, energy and wearing of +unnecessary brain paths be absolutely abolished.</p> +<p><b>The Programme Derived from the Record.</b> — Having +considered the various records and programmes and their relation, +we will now consider the four stages of the record, — (1) +unconscious, (2) conscious, (3) written, (4) standardized, and +trace the derivation of the programme from each stage.</p> +<a name="P204" id="P204"></a> +<table summary="Table IV"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"> +<b>TABLE IV</b></td> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> +<hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">I. Record unconscious.</td> +<td>Programme cannot be definite.<br /> +Method is indefinite.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">II. Record conscious.</td> +<td>Programme becomes more definite.<br /> +Method becomes more definite.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">III. Record written.</td> +<td>Programme yet more definite.<br /> +Method definite.</td> +</tr> +<!--Page 204--> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<hr /></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV. Record standardized.</td> +<td>Programme standardized, i.e.,<br /> +Results predictable.<br /> +Methods standard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<hr /></td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Unconscious Records Mean Indefinite Programmes.</b> — +First, then, suppose that the records are unconscious. What does +this imply? It implies in the first place that the worker has no +idea of his capacity; never having thought of what he has done, he +has no idea what can be done, neither has he a comparative idea of +methods, that is, of how to do it. It is impossible for a definite +programme to be laid out by such a worker, — that is to say, +no predictions by him as to the time of completing the work are +possible. Neither could a method be derived by him from his +previous work.</p> +<p>Note here the alarming amount of waste. All good methods which +the worker may possibly have acquired are practically lost to the +world, and perhaps also to him. Not only this, but all bad methods +which he has fallen into will be fallen into again and again, as +there are no warning signs to keep him out of them.</p> +<p>As there is no possibility of an accurate chronological chart, +the worker may undertake more than he can do, thus delaying work +which should have been done by others. On the other hand, he may +underestimate his capacity, and be left idle because work he should +have done has been assigned to others. Either of these leads to a +sense of insecurity, to wavering attention, to "hit or miss" guess +work, "rule-of- <!--Page 205--><a name="P205" id="P205"></a> +thumb methods," which are the signs of Traditional Management.</p> +<p><b>With Conscious and Written Records Come Definite +Programmes.</b> — We turn now to the case where the record is +conscious, — that is, where the worker keeps in mind exactly +what he has done. With this conscious record the idea of capacity +develops. The man realizes what he can do. So also, the idea of +method develops, and the man realizes how he can do the work. +Third, there comes gradually an idea of a margin; that is, of a +possible way by which capacity can be increased for a higher speed, +or methods can be slightly varied to meet any particular deviation +in the work to be done.</p> +<p>From this ability to estimate capacity, and to plan the method +ahead, comes the ability to lay out a more definite programme. When +the record becomes written the exactness of the programme +increases. Methods also become written, and, though accurate +prediction is not possible, such prediction is more and more nearly +approached. This increasing accuracy is the work of Transitory +System in all its stages.</p> +<p><b>Standard Records Permit of Standard Programmes.</b> — +In the last case, the record is standardized, that is, the result +of the method of processes of analysis and synthesis. Through this +process, as has been shown, the reason for success is discovered +and rendered usable. The programme becomes standard, results can be +predicted accurately, and methods by which these results can be +best obtained are also standard.</p> +<p>It may at first escape notice that these standardized +<!--Page 206--><a name="P206" id="P206"></a> records, of the +ultimate or scientific management type, imply <i>not</i> a greater +rigidity, but a greater elasticity. This because of the nature of +the elements of the records, which may, in time, be combined into a +great number of different, predictable programmes.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results of Relations Between Records and Programmes on the +Work.</b> — The most noteworthy result of the closer +relations between records and programmes which appear during the +evolution of Scientific Management is the fact that they cause +constant simplification. The more carefully records are +standardized, the simpler becomes the drafting of the programme. As +more and more records become standard, the drafting of programmes +becomes constantly an easier and cheaper process.</p> +<p><b>Programmes Become Records.</b> — Under Traditional +Management the record that follows a programme may appear very +different from the programme. Under Scientific Management the +record that follows a programme most closely resembles the +programme. Improvements are not made between the programme and the +following record, — they find their place between the record +and the following programme. Thus programmes and records may be +grouped in pairs, by similarity, with a likelihood of difference +between any one pair (one programme plus one record) and other +pairs.</p> +<p><b>Result on the Worker.</b> — The greatest effect, on the +worker, of these relations of record to programme under Scientific +Management is the confidence that he <!--Page 207--><a name="P207" +id="P207"></a> gains in the judgment that is an outcome of +Scientific Management. When the worker sees that Scientific +Management makes possible accurate predictions of times, schedules, +tasks, and performance; that the methods prescribed invariably +enable him to achieve prescribed results, his confidence in +Scientific Management grows. So also does the manager's confidence +in Scientific Management grow, — and in this mutual +confidence in the system of management is another bond of +sympathy.</p> +<p>The place left for suggestions and improvements, in the +ever-present opportunities to better standards, fulfills that +longing for a greater efficiency that is the cause of progress.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER VII FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch07fn01" id="ch07fn01"> 1</a>. +Gillette and Dana, <i>Cost Keeping and Management Engineering</i>, +p. 65.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch07fn02" id="ch07fn02"> 2</a>. H.L. +Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., page 2.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch07fn03" id="ch07fn03"> 3</a>. +Gillette and Dana, <i>Cost Keeping and Management Engineering</i>, +p. VII.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch07fn04" id="ch07fn04"> 4</a>. H.L. +Gantt, Paper No. 1002, A.S.M.E., p. 1336.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch07fn05" id="ch07fn05"> 5</a>. +William James, <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 179.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 208--><a name="P208" id="P208"></a> +<h3><a name="chapterviii" id="chapterviii">CHAPTER VIII</a></h3> +<h3>TEACHING</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Teaching.</b> — The Century Dictionary +defines "teaching" as "the act or business of instructing," with +synonyms: "training" and "education;" and "to teach" is defined: +—</p> +<p>1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct, +explain;"</p> +<p>2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;"</p> +<p>3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in +learning, educate."</p> +<p>"Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically, +to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant +"to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the +same authority, "is to develop mentally or morally by instruction; +to qualify by instruction and training for the business and duty of +life."</p> +<p><b>Under Traditional Management No Definite Plan of +Teaching.</b> — Under Traditional Management there is either +no definite scheme of teaching by the management itself, or +practically none; at least, this is usually the condition under the +most elementary types of Traditional Management. In the very +highest examples of the traditional plan the learner may +<!--Page 209--><a name="P209" id="P209"></a> be shown how, but +this showing is not usually done in a systematic way, and under +so-called Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written +instructions.</p> +<p><b>No Specified Time for or Source of the Teaching.</b> — +Under Traditional Management there is no particular time in which +this teaching goes on, no particular time allowed for the worker to +ask for the instruction, nor is there any particular source from +which he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, almost every +hindrance against his getting any more instruction than he +absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to +whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge +him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an +apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next +to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact +bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary +advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In the +first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his +own work without interruption, he will not want to take the time +off; moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or less of a +trade secret, and desires to educate no more people than necessary, +to be as clever as he is. In the third place, there is no possible +reward for giving this instruction. Of course, the worker +necessarily improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a +receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, +either by teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how +haphazard.</p> +<!--Page 210--><a name="P210" id="P210"></a> +<p><b>Great Variation Under Traditional Management.</b> — +Only discussion of teaching under this type of management with many +men who have learned under it, can sufficiently emphasize the +variations to be found. But the consensus of opinion would seem to +prove that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too often +hazed, was discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to +the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find +valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his trade. The +experience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, different from +this, but surely the mental attitude of the journeymen who were the +only teachers must have tended toward some such resulting attitude +of doubt or hesitancy in the apprentice.</p> +<p><b>Mental Attitude of the Worker-Teacher.</b> — Under the +old plan of management, the apprentice must appear to the +journeyman more or less of a supplanter. From the employee's +standpoint it was most desirable that the number of apprentices be +kept down, as an oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in +a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was +taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There seldom +existed under this type of management many staff positions to which +the workers could hope to be promoted, certainly none where they +could utilize to the fullest extent their teaching ability. There +was thus every reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of +apprentices as unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.</p> +<p><b>Worker Not to Blame for This.</b> — The worker is +<!--Page 211--><a name="P211" id="P211"></a> not to be blamed +for this attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it +almost inevitable. Not only could he gain little or nothing by +being a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was +appealed to constantly, and the desire of the upper classmen in +hazing days to make the next class "pay up" for the hazing that +they were obliged to endure in their Freshman year.</p> +<p><b>Attitude of the Learner.</b> — The attitude of the +typical learner must frequently be one of hesitancy and +self-distrust if not of fear, though conditions were so varied as +almost to defy classification. One type of apprentice was expected +to learn merely by observation and imitation. Another was +practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach +him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, but was +expected to "keep busy," finding his work by himself. A fourth was +put through a severe and valuable training by a martinet teacher, +— and so on.</p> +<p><b>Teaching Often Painstaking.</b> — It is greatly to the +credit of the worker under this type of management that he was, in +spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the +best of his lights. He insisted on application, and especially on +quality of work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill to +help the apprentice under him.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Teaching Usually Wrong.</b> — Unfortunately, +through no fault of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually +done according to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output was so +emphasized that neither speed nor correct motions were given proper +consideration.</p> +<!--Page 212--><a name="P212" id="P212"></a> +<p><b>Teacher Not Trained to Teach.</b> — The reason for this +was that the worker had no training to be a teacher. In the first +place, he had no adequate idea of his own capabilities, and of +which parts of his own method were fit to be taught. In the second +place, he did not know that right motions must be insisted on +first, speed next, and quality of output third; or in other words +that if the motions were precise enough, the quality would be +first. In the fourth place he had no pedagogical training.</p> +<p><b>Lack of Standards an Underlying Lack.</b> — All +shortcoming in the old time teaching may be traced to lack of +standards. The worker had never been measured, hence had no idea of +his efficiency, or of possible efficiency. No standard methods made +plain the manner in which the work should be done. Moreover, no +standard division and assignment of work allowed of placing +apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could be given +third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness as +a teacher, nor the specialty that he should teach, and no incentive +held his interest to the teaching. These standards the +worker-teacher could not provide for himself, and the wonder is +that the teaching was of such a high character as it was.</p> +<p><b>Very Little Teaching of Adults.</b> — Under Traditional +Management, teaching of adults was slight, — there being +little incentive either to teacher or to learner, and it being +always difficult for an adult to change his method. <a href= +"#ch08fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> Moreover, it would be difficult for a +worker using one method to persuade one using +<!--Page 213--><a name="P213" id="P213"></a> another that his +was the better, there being no standard. Even if the user of the +better did persuade the other to follow his method, the final +result might be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer +method that did not appear in the better.</p> +<p><b>Failure to Appreciate the Importance of Teaching.</b> — +An underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of +the lack of progress. This is so directly connected with all the +other lacks of Traditional Management, — provision for +adequate promotion and pay, standards, and the other underlying +principles of Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of +coöperation, — that it is almost impossible to +disentangle the reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to +attempt to do so here. In considering teaching under Scientific +Management we shall show the influence of the appreciation of +teaching, — and may deduce the lacks from its +non-appreciation, from that discussion.</p> +<p><b>Under Transitory System Teaching Becomes More Important.</b> +— Under Transitory Management the importance of teaching +becomes at once more apparent. This, both by providing for the +teaching of foremen and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by +the providing of written systems of instructions as to best +practice. The worker has access to all the sources of information +of Traditional Management, and has, besides these, in effect, +unsystematically derived standards to direct him.</p> +<p><b>Systems Make Instruction Always Available.</b> — The +use of written systems enables every worker to receive instruction +at any time, to feel free to ask <!--Page 214--><a name="P214" id= +"P214"></a> it, and to follow it without feeling in any way +humiliated.</p> +<p>The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided +improvement in methods. If the written systems are used exclusively +as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the +Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely +proportioned to the time which the man spends upon the studying and +to the amount of receptive power which he naturally has.</p> +<p><b>Incentives to Conform to System.</b> — The worker has +incentives to follow the systems —</p> +<p>1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for +permanent filing, for every disobedience of system.</p> +<p>2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the first +bonus that is given is for doing work in accordance with the +prescribed method.</p> +<p>Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any +slight reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must +account for so doing, and that he will be considered to have +"stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to +account for deviations gives the man a feeling of responsibility +for his act, and also makes him feel his close relationship with +the managers.</p> +<p><b>No Set Time for Using Systems.</b> — There is, under +this type of management, no set time for the study of the +systems.</p> +<p><b>Systems Inelastic.</b> — Being written, these systems +have all the disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to +say, they require considerable adaptability <!--Page 215--><a name= +"P215" id="P215"></a> on the part of the man who is using them. +He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time which he must +put on studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that +method to his work while still obeying instructions. In the case of +the system being in great detail, he can usually find a fairly +detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use that. +In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work +varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this +intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows +not where to obtain.</p> +<p><b>Waste of Time from Unstandardized Systems.</b> — The +time necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method +is taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far +cuts down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the +details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work +must repeat the investigation.</p> +<p><b>Later Transitional Management Emphasizes Use of +Standards.</b> — Later Transitional Management eliminates +this waste of time by standardizing methods composed of +standardized timed units, thus both rendering standards elastic, +and furnishing details.</p> +<p><b>Teaching Most Important Under Scientific Management.</b> +— Teaching is a most important element under Scientific +Management not only because it increases industrial efficiency, but +also because it fosters industrial peace. <a href= +"#ch08fn02"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Importance Depends on Other Elements of Scientific +<!--Page 216--><a name="P216" id="P216"></a> Management.</b> +— As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic idea +the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization. +This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an +incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management +divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and +standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all +knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of +all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this +collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker +cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able +to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that +provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages, — to +increase his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to +coöperate with other workers and with the management.</p> +<p><b>Importance of Teaching Element Best Claim to Permanence of +Scientific Management.</b> — Upon the emphasis which it +places on teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific +Management for permanence. <a href="#ch08fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> We +have already shown the derivation of the standards which are +taught. We have shown that the relation between the planning and +performing departments is based largely on means and methods for +teaching. We have only to show here that the teaching is done in +accordance with those laws of Psychology that are the laws of +Pedagogy.</p> +<p><b>Teaching in Scientific Management Not the Result of Theory +Only.</b> — The methods of teaching under +<!--Page 217--><a name="P217" id="P217"></a> Scientific +Management were not devised in response to theories of education. +They are the result of actual experience in getting work done most +successfully. The teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching, +— all these grew up to meet needs, as did the other elements +of Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Conformity of Teaching to Psychological Laws Proof of Worth +of Scientific Management.</b> — The fact that teaching under +Scientific Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws +of Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific +Management.</p> +<p><b>Change from Teaching Under Traditional Management.</b> +— Mr. Gantt says, "The general policy of the past has been to +drive; but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and +the policy of the future will be to teach and to lead, to the +advantage of all concerned." <a href="#ch08fn04"><sup>4</sup></a> +This "driving" element of Traditional Management is eliminated by +Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Necessity for Personally Derived Judgment Eliminated.</b> +— So also is eliminated the old belief that the worker must +go through all possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" +as to best methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages +of the training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is +seriously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes +of knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by +reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial +conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining, +workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the +<!--Page 218--><a name="P218" id="P218"></a> old-school +training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training +under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes +of industrial investigation in which modern science has been +successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is +really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical +formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be +advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible +mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that +the student would be held back from any further original +investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original +work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is +concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker +is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself +instead of taking the work of others as the starting point, the +most valuable initiative will be lost to the world.</p> +<p><b>Bad Habits the Result of Undirected Learning.</b> — +Even worse than the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring +habits of bad methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of +inaccurate work; habits of inattention. Any or all of these might +develop. These are all prevented under Scientific Management by the +improved methods of teaching.</p> +<p><b>Valuable Elements of Traditional Management Conserved.</b> +— There are, however, many valuable elements of the old +Traditional system of teaching and of management which should be +retained and not be lost in the new.</p> +<p>For example, — the greatest single cause of making +<!--Page 219--><a name="P219" id="P219"></a> men capable under +the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his men +believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve +it.</p> +<p>It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher +under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost. +The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a +thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with +confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means +lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific +Management.</p> +<p><b>Teaching of Transitory Management Supplemented.</b> — +In the transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we +note that the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. +Written system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of +Transitory Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its +usefulness is by no means impaired.</p> +<p><b>Scope of Teaching Under Scientific Management.</b> — +Under Scientific Management teaching must cover</p> +<p>1. Teaching of right methods of doing work,</p> +<p>2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.</p> +<p>The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be +acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience +all the elements of the judgment.</p> +<p><b>Needs for Teaching Under Scientific Management.</b> — +The needs for this teaching have been stated, but may be +recapitulated here.</p> +<p>1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes. +<!--Page 220--><a name="P220" id="P220"></a></p> +<p>2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial conditions +to standardize his own methods.</p> +<p>3. Worker must know standard practice.</p> +<p>4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching.</p> +<p>5. Right habits can be instilled.</p> +<p><b>Sources of Teaching Under Scientific Management.</b> — +The sources of teaching under Scientific Management are</p> +<table summary="Sources of Teaching"> +<tr> +<td width="55%">1. Friends or Relatives<br /> +2. Fellow workers<br /> +3. Literature of the Trade<br /> +4. Night schools and study<br /> +5. The Management.</td> +<td>}<br /> +}<br /> +}<br /> +}<br /> +}</td> +<td align="center" valign="middle" width="35%">If the worker +chooses<br /> +to use them.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p><b>Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Management.</b> — +The Methods of Teaching under Scientific Management are</p> +<p>1. Written, by means of</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) Instruction Cards telling <i>what</i> is to +be done and <i>how.</i></p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) Systems, explaining the <i>why.</i></p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, +illustrating methods.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) Records made by the worker himself.</p> +<p>2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.</p> +<p>3. Object-lessons:</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) Exhibits.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) Working models.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) Demonstrations by the Teacher.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) Demonstrations by the worker under +Supervision.</p> +<p><b>Worker a Source of These Methods.</b> — It should be +often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all methods +<!--Page 221--><a name="P221" id="P221"></a> are derived from a +study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize +this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and +that the teachers are a <i>means</i> of presenting to him the +underlying principles of his own experience, will the worker be +able to coöperate with all his energy.</p> +<p><b>Instruction Cards Are Directions.</b> — Instruction +Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, giving, in +most concise form, closely defined description of standard practice +and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is +to be performed. The makers know that they must make their +directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive constantly for +clearness.</p> +<p><b>Instruction Cards Teach Directly and Indirectly.</b> — +These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to +do his work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader, +demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may +lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to +preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The +excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to +have some good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously +note it.<a href="#ch08fn05"><sup>5</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Systems Are Reasons and Explanations.</b> — "Systems" +or standing orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and +explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the +Instruction Cards. There is a system showing the standard practice +of each kind of work.</p> +<!--Page 222--><a name="P222" id="P222"></a> +<p><b>They Enlist the Judgment of the Worker.</b> — Under +really successful management, it is realized that the worker is of +an inquiring mind, and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his +is recognized, and his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his +best work. Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his +judgment will never reënforce his work. He may conform to the +method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he +knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner +prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the +system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the +details, and his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the +objections of those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, +and that he has no incentive to think at his work. On the contrary, +it will be seen that this method furnishes him with more viewpoints +from which he can consider his work.</p> +<p><b>Drawings, Charts, Plans and Photographs Means of Making +Directions Clearer.</b> — The Instruction Cards are +supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and +timed motion photographs, — any or all, — in order to +make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.</p> +<p><b>Stereoscopic and Micro-Motion Study Photographs Particularly +Useful.</b> — Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful +in helping non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. +The value as an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized +micro-motion photographs of right methods is as yet but faintly +appreciated.</p> +<!--Page 223--><a name="P223" id="P223"></a> +<p>The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph" +as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in +action accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that +shows such minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a +speed that will catch the most rapid of human motions without a +blur, will show a different time of day in each photograph. The +difference in the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time +of the desired motion operation or time unit.</p> +<p><b>Self-Made Records Educative.</b> — The educative value +of the worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently +appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever +possible.<a href="#ch08fn06"><sup>6</sup></a> Not only does the +worker learn from the actual marking in of the spaces reserved for +him, but also he learns to feel himself a part of the record making +division of the management. This proof of the "square deal," in +recording his output, and of the confidence in him, cannot fail to +enlist his coöperation.</p> +<p><b>Oral Instruction Comes from the Functional Foremen.</b> +— The Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to +explain, translate and supplement the various written instructions +when the worker either does not understand them, does not know how +to follow them, or makes a mistake in following them.</p> +<p><b>Oral Instruction Has Its Fitting Place Under Scientific +Management.</b> — Oral instruction under Scientific +Management has at least four advantages over such instruction under +Traditional Management.</p> +<!--Page 224--><a name="P224" id="P224"></a> +<p>1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction.</p> +<p>2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction.</p> +<p>3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions.</p> +<p>4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner +needs it.</p> +<p><b>Teacher, or Functional Foreman, Should Understand Psychology +and Pedagogy.</b> — The successful teacher must understand +the minds of his men, and must be able to present his information +in such a way that it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of +psychology and pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost +unconsciously</p> +<p>1. from the teaching of others,</p> +<p>2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems,</p> +<p>3. from actual practice in teaching.</p> +<p>The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to +the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries +in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become +more and more prevalent.</p> +<p><b>Advantage of Functional Foreman-Teacher Over Teacher in the +Schools.</b> — The Functional Foreman-teacher has an +advantage over the teacher in the school in that the gap between +him and those he teaches is not so great. He knows, because he +remembers, exactly how the worker must have his information +presented to him. This gap is narrowed by functionalizing the oral +teaching, by using it merely as a supplement to the written +teaching, and by supplementing it with object-lessons.</p> +<!--Page 225--><a name="P225" id="P225"></a> +<p><b>Teacher Must Have Practical Knowledge of the Trade He Is to +Teach.</b> — The teacher must have an intimate practical +knowledge of the art or trade that he is to teach. The most +profound knowledge of Psychology will never be a substitute for the +mastery of the trade, as a condition precedent to turning out the +best craftsmen. This is provided for by securing teachers from the +ranks of the workers.<a href="#ch08fn07"><sup>7</sup></a></p> +<p><b>He Must Have a Thorough Knowledge of the Standards.</b> +— He must have more than the traditional knowledge of the +trade that he is to teach; he must have also the knowledge that +comes only from scientific investigation of his trade. This +knowledge is ready and at hand, in the standards of Scientific +Management that are available to all for study.</p> +<p><b>He Must Be Convinced of the Value of the Methods He +Teaches.</b> — The teacher must also have an intimate +acquaintance with the records of output of the method he is to +teach as compared with those of methods held in high esteem by the +believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be +efficient in teaching any method in which he does not believe, any +more than a salesman can do his best work when he does not +implicitly believe in the goods that he is selling.</p> +<p><b>He Must Be an Enthusiast.</b> — The best teacher is the +one who is an enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can +cause contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the +problems themselves.</p> +<p><b>Such Enthusiasm Contagious.</b> — It is the contagion +of this enthusiasm that will always create a demand +<!--Page 226--><a name="P226" id="P226"></a> for teachers, no +matter how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form +or device of management that does away with good men, and in the +teacher, as here described, is conserved the personal element of +the successful, popular Traditional foreman.</p> +<p><b>Valuable Teacher Interests Men in the Economic Value of +Scientific Management.</b> — The most valuable teacher is one +who can arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the +economic values of the methods of Scientific Management, that all +other objects that would ordinarily distract or hold their +attention will be banished from their minds. They will then +remember each step as it is introduced, and they will be consumed +with interest and curiosity to know what further steps can be +introduced, that will still further eliminate waste.</p> +<p><b>Object-lesson May Be "Working Models."</b> — The +object-lesson may be a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a +process in different stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the +work that is to be done. Successful and economical teaching may be +done with such models, which are especially valuable where the +workers do not speak the same language as the teacher, where many +workers are to perform exactly similar work, or where the memory, +the visualizing and the constructive imagination, are so poor that +the models must be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal +best to those who take in information easiest through the eyes.</p> +<p><b>Object-lessons May Be Demonstrations by the +<!--Page 227--><a name="P227" id="P227"></a> Teacher.</b> +— The teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the +worker, or by means of films showing synthesized right methods on +the motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of +teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new +work, — though it calls for a better memory than does the +"working model," The model, however, shows desired results; the +demonstration, desired methods.</p> +<p><b>Demonstration Method Chief Method of Teaching by Foremen.</b> +— The manual demonstration method is the chief method of +teaching the workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, +and no method is rated as standard that cannot be successfully +demonstrated by the teacher, at any time, on request.</p> +<p><b>Worker may Demonstrate Under Supervision.</b> — If the +worker is of that type that can learn only by actually doing the +work himself, he is allowed to demonstrate the method under +supervision of the teacher. <a href= +"#ch08fn08"><sup>8</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Teaching Always Available Under Scientific Management.</b> +— Under Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching +are available constantly. The instruction card and accompanying +illustrations are given to the worker before he starts to work, and +are so placed that he can consult them easily at any time during +the work. As, also, if object-lessons are used, they are given +before work commences, and repeated when necessary.</p> +<!--Page 228--><a name="P228" id="P228"></a> +<p>The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and +the systems are constantly available for consultation.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Teaching Under Scientific Management +Psychologically Right.</b> — In order to prove that teaching +under Scientific Management is most valuable, it is necessary to +show that it is psychologically right, that it leads to mental +development and improvement. Under Scientific Management, teaching, +—</p> +<p> 1. uses and trains the senses.</p> +<p> 2. induces good habits of thinking and acting.</p> +<p> 3. stimulates attention,</p> +<p> 4. provides for valuable associations.</p> +<p> 5. assists and strengthens the memory.</p> +<p> 6. develops the imagination.</p> +<p> 7. develops judgment.</p> +<p> 8. utilizes suggestion.</p> +<p> 9. utilizes "native reactions."</p> +<p>10. develops the will.</p> +<p><b>Teaching Under Scientific Management Trains the Senses.</b> +— Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train +all of his senses possible. Not only does each man show an aptitude +for some special sense training, <a href= +"#ch08fn09"><sup>9</sup></a> but at certain times one sense may be +stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is +illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth +when his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he +recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the +<!--Page 229--><a name="P229" id="P229"></a> time that a certain +thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to +one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.</p> +<p>Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed +psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these +periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to +utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of +training of the other senses.</p> +<p><b>Such Training Partially Determines the Quality of the +Work.</b> — The importance of sense training can scarcely be +overestimated. Through his senses, the worker takes in the +directions as to what he is to do, and on the accuracy with which +his senses record the impressions made upon them, depends the +mental model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy of his +criticism of the resulting physical object of his work. Through the +senses, the worker sets his own task, and inspects his work.</p> +<p><b>Sense Training Influences Increase of Efficiency.</b> — +With the training of the senses the possibility of increased +efficiency increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum +visable is reduced, and more accurate impressions become +possible.<a href="#ch08fn10"><sup>10</sup></a> They lead to more +rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment. The +bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to dispense +with sight in some parts of his work.</p> +<p><b>Selective Power of Senses Developed.</b> — James +defines the sense organs as "organs of selection." <a href= +"#ch08fn11"><sup>11</sup></a> <!--Page 230--><a name="P230" id= +"P230"></a> Scientific Management so trains them that they can +select what is of most value to the worker.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Sense Training Under Scientific Management.</b> +— The senses are trained under Scientific Management by means +of the various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its +detailed descriptions of operations, and its accompanying +illustrations, not only tends to increase powers of visualization, +but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the +minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, +is an example of supplementing weak power of visualization. The +most available simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to +assist visualizing is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, +which not only serves its purpose at the time of its use, but +trains the eye to see the third dimension always.</p> +<p>Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by +the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not +confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker +and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will +merit a bonus.</p> +<p><b>Senses That Are Most Utilized Best Trained.</b> — The +relative training given to the various senses depends on the nature +of the work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often +is with an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid +on training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis +is on such training as will develop that sense. <a href= +"#ch08fn12"><sup>12</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 231--><a name="P231" id="P231"></a> +<p><b>Variations in Sense Power Should Be Utilized.</b> — +Investigations are constantly going to prove that each sense has a +predominance at a different time in the age of the child or man. +Dottoressa Montessori's experience with teaching very young +children by touch shows that that sense is able to discriminate to +an extraordinary extent for the first six years of life. <a href= +"#ch08fn13"><sup>13</sup></a></p> +<p>So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or +experience should be conserved. <a href= +"#ch08fn14"><sup>14</sup></a> Such acuteness is often the result of +some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish with the +need.</p> +<p><b>Progress in Such Training.</b> — The elementary sense +experiences are defined and described by Calkins. <a href= +"#ch08fn15"><sup>15</sup></a> Only through a psychological study +can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of study. +As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities +for training and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing of +elements, and the realization of the importance of more and more +intensive study of the elements lends assurance that ultimately all +possibilities will be utilized.</p> +<p><b>As Many Senses as Possible Appealed To.</b> — +Scientific Management has made great progress in appealing to as +many senses as possible in its teaching. The importance of the +relation between the senses is brought out by Prof. +Stratton.<a href="#ch08fn16"><sup>16</sup></a></p> +<p>In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its +<!--Page 232--><a name="P232" id="P232"></a> teachers, animate +and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses +simultaneously. The instruction card may be</p> +<p>1. read to oneself silently — eyes appealed to</p> +<p>2. read to oneself aloud — eyes and ears appealed to, also +muscles used trained to repeat</p> +<p>3. read aloud to one — ears</p> +<p>4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one, — eyes +and ears</p> +<p>5. read aloud, and at the same time copied — eyes, ears, +muscles of mouth, muscles of hand</p> +<p>6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated</p> +<p>7. read to one while process is performed by oneself</p> +<p>There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which +are used, as best suits the worker and the work. <a href= +"#ch08fn17"><sup>17</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Untrained Worker Requires Appeal to Most Senses.</b> — +The value of appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an +inexperienced worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and +to "check up" his results.</p> +<p><b>At Times Appeal to But One Sense Preferable. —</b> In +the case of work that must be watched constantly, and that involves +continuous processes, it may prove best to have directions read to +the worker. So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to +advantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of +members to rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in +through the ears only. In this <!--Page 233--><a name="P233" id= +"P233"></a> way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the +work is not halted.</p> +<p><b>At Times One Sense Is Best Not Utilized.</b> — At times +teaching may well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense +will tend to confuse the learning, and will, when the method is +learned, be otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning +process. In teaching the "touch system" of typewriting, <a href= +"#ch08fn18"><sup>18</sup></a> the position of the keys is quickly +remembered by having the key named aloud and at the same time +struck with the assigned finger, the eyes being blindfolded. Thus +hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger muscles, but +<i>not</i> sight.</p> +<p><b>Importance of Fatigue Recognized.</b> — A large part of +the success of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific +Management is in the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. +This was early recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly +receiving study from all those interested in Scientific +Management.</p> +<p><b>Psychology Already Aiding the Industries in Such Study.</b> +— Study of the <i>Psychological Review</i> will demonstrate +the deep and increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of +fatigue. The importance of such stimulating and helpful work as +that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, +France, is great.<a href="#ch08fn19"><sup>19</sup></a> Not only are +the results of his investigations commercially valuable, but also +they are valuable as indicating the close connection between +Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.</p> +<!--Page 234--><a name="P234" id="P234"></a> +<p><b>Importance of Habits. <a href= +"#ch08fn20"><sup>20</sup></a></b> — Prof. William James says +"an acquired habit, from the psychological point of view, is +nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by +which certain incoming currents ever after tend to escape."</p> +<p>And again, — "First, habit simplifies our movements, makes +them accurate, and diminishes fatigue," <a href= +"#ch08fn21"><sup>21</sup></a> and habit diminishes the conscious +attention with which our acts are performed. Again he says, page +144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make our +nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund and +capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of +the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as +possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the +growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as +we should guard against the plague."</p> +<p>These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.</p> +<p>How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the +fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his +school life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, +write and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything +but German.</p> +<p><b>Habit Easily Becomes the Master.</b> — Another +illustration of the power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, +who has been trained under old-time methods, +<!--Page 235--><a name="P235" id="P235"></a> and who attempts to +follow the packet method. The standard motions for picking up the +upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely different from +those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers were taught +this, yet invariably used the old-time motions for picking up the +bricks, in spite of the waste involved. <a href= +"#ch08fn22"><sup>22</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Wrong Preconceived Ideas Hamper Development.</b> — +Wrong habits or ideas often retard development. For example, it +took centuries for artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, +because they were sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the +color itself.<a href="#ch08fn23"><sup>23</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Teaching Under Scientific Management Results in Good +Habits.</b> — The aim of teaching under Scientific +Management, as has been said, is to create good habits of thinking +and good habits of doing.</p> +<p><b>Standards Lead to Right Methods of Thinking and Acting.</b> +— The standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the +worker in the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they +present the best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the +beginner, in that he need waste no time searching for right +methods, but can acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker +trained under an older, supplanted method, in that they wage a +winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old +motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard +images, which suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The +spontaneous recurring <!--Page 236--><a name="P236" id= +"P236"></a> of images under the old method is the familiar cause +of inattention and being unable to get down to business, and the +real cause of the expression, "You can't teach old dogs new +tricks." On the other hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the +images of the standard method is the cause of greater speed of +movement of the experienced man, and these images of the standard +methods do recur often enough to drive down the old images and to +enable all men who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what +they are doing.</p> +<p><b>Through Standards Bad Habits Are Quickest Broken.</b> — +Through the standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt +acquisition of a new habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced +without exception, and is continually practiced until the new habit +is in control.<a href="#ch08fn24"><sup>24</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Through Standards New Habits Are Quickest Formed.</b> — +These same standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the +speediest forming of habits, in that repetition is exact and +frequent, and is kept so by the fact that the worker's judgment +seconds that of the teacher.</p> +<p><b>Habits Are Instilled by Teaching.</b> — The chief +function of the teacher during the stage that habits are being +formed is the instilling of good habits.</p> +<p><b>Methods of Instilling Good Habits.</b> — This he does +by insisting on</p> +<p>1. right motions first, that is to say, — the right number +of right motions in the right sequence. <!--Page 237--><a name= +"P237" id="P237"></a></p> +<p>2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly +increasing speed.</p> +<p>3. constantly improving quality. <a href= +"#ch08fn25"><sup>25</sup></a></p> +<p><b>This Method Is Contrary to Most Old-time Practice.</b> +— Under most old-time practice the quality of the work was +the first consideration, the quantity of work the second, and the +methods of achieving the results the third.</p> +<p><b>Results of Old-time Practice.</b> — As a result, the +mechanical reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the +improved habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary +impulse of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and +low output followed.</p> +<p><b>Some Early Recognition of "Right Motions First."</b> — +The necessity of teaching the right motions first was early +recognized by a few progressive spirits, as is shown in military +tactics; for example, see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of +U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton, also page 51.</p> +<p>Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These +directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to +the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.</p> +<p><b>Benefits of Teaching Right Motions First.</b> — Through +teaching right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. +The right habit is formed at the outset. With the constant +insistence on these right habits that result from right motions, +will come, naturally, an increase in speed, which should be +fostered until the desired ultimate speed is reached.</p> +<!--Page 238--><a name="P238" id="P238"></a> +<p><b>Ultimately, Standard Quality Will Result.</b> — The +result of absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed +quality, because the standard motions prescribed were chosen +because they best produced the desired result.</p> +<p><b>Under Scientific Management No Loss from Quality During +Learning.</b> — As will be shown later, Scientific Management +provides that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of +the work during the learning period. The delay in time before the +learner can be said to produce such work as could a learner taught +where quality was insisted upon first of all, is more than +compensated for by the ultimate combination of speed and quality +gained.</p> +<p><b>Results of Teaching the Right Motions First Are +Far-reaching.</b> — There is no more important subject in +this book on the Psychology of Management than this of teaching +right motions first. The most important results of Scientific +Management can all, in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of +habits, even to the underlying spirit of coöperation which, as +we shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of +Scientific Management. These right habits of Scientific Management +are the cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right +habits, which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are +the result of insisting that right motions be used from the very +beginning of the first day.</p> +<p><b>From Right Habits of Motion Comes Speed of Motions. +—</b> Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed +of motion. Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of +sequence of motions <!--Page 239--><a name="P239" id="P239"></a> +is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make them in +the shortest time possible.</p> +<p><b>Response to Standards Becomes Almost Automatic.</b> — +The standard methods, being associated from the start with right +habits of motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There +are no discarded habits to delay response.</p> +<p><b>Steady Nerves Result.</b> — Oftentimes the power to +refrain from action is quite as much a sign of education and +training as the power to react quickly from a sensation. Such +conduct is called, in some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of +right habits is a great aid toward these steady nerves. The man who +knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically +to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong +ways. So the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, +in laying brick, will not be tempted to make those extra motions +which, after all, are merely an exhibition in his hand of the +vacillation that is going on in his brain, as to whether he really +is handling that brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or +not.</p> +<p><b>Reason and Will Are Educated.</b> — "The education of +hand and muscle implies a corresponding training of reasoning and +will; and the coördination of movements accompanies the +coördination of thoughts." <a href= +"#ch08fn26"><sup>26</sup></a></p> +<p>The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle; +the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves +the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.</p> +<!--Page 240--><a name="P240" id="P240"></a> +<p><b>Judgment Results with No Waste of Time.</b> — Judgment +is the outcome of learning the right way, and knowing that it is +the right way. There is none of the lost time of "trying out" +various methods that exists under Traditional Management.</p> +<p>This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to +decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, +but also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of +different workers.</p> +<p>This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in +promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of +the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to +estimate and judge the work of others.</p> +<p><b>Habits of Attention Formed by Scientific Management.</b> +— The good habits which result from teaching standard methods +result in habits of attention. The standards aid the mind in +holding a "selective attitude," <a href= +"#ch08fn27"><sup>27</sup></a> by presenting events in an orderly +sequence. The conditions under which the work is done, and the +incentives for doing it, provide that the attention shall be +"lively and prolonged."</p> +<p><b>Prescribed Motions Afford Rhythm and Æsthetic +Pleasure.</b> — The prescribed motions that result from +motion study and time study, and that are arranged in cycles, +afford a rhythm that allows the attention to "glide over some beats +and linger on others," as Prof. Stratton describes it, in a +different connection.<a href="#ch08fn28"><sup>28</sup></a> So also +the "perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the +direction of a guiding law, and <!--Page 241--><a name="P241" id= +"P241"></a> which "obey the will absolutely,"<a href= +"#ch08fn29"><sup>29</sup></a> give an æsthetic pleasure and +afford less of a tax upon the attention.</p> +<p><b>Instruction Card Creates and Holds Attention.</b> — As +has been already said in describing the instruction card under +Standardization, it was designed as a result of investigations as +to what would best secure output, — to attract and hold the +attention.<a href="#ch08fn30"><sup>30</sup></a> Providing, as it +does, all directions that an experienced worker is likely to need, +he can confine his attention solely to his work and his card; +usually, after the card is once studied, to his work alone. The +close relation of the elements of the instruction card affords a +field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new elements +that are constantly made apparent.</p> +<p><b>Oral Individual Teaching Fosters Concentrated Attention.</b> +— The fact that under Scientific Management oral teaching is +individual, not only directly concentrates the attention of the +learner upon what he is being taught, but also indirectly prevents +distraction from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or +embarrassment in talking before a crowd.</p> +<p><b>The Bulletin Board Furnishes the Element of Change.</b> +— In order that interest or attention may be held, there must +be provision for allied subjects on which the mind is to wander. +This, under Scientific Management, is constantly furnished by the +collection of jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks piled up +ahead upon this bulletin board provide a needed and ready change +for the subject of attention <!--Page 242--><a name="P242" id= +"P242"></a> or interest, which conserves the economic value of +concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future +tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention +to rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or +forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the +"stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought +is installed. When the scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, +the mind is doing its best work, for, while the standardized +extreme subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison of the +ultimate unit, and groupings of units of future tasks are often +helps in achieving the present tasks, without such a definite +orderly scheme for shifting the attention and interest, the +attention will shift to useless subjects, and the result will be +scattered.</p> +<p><b>Incentives Maintain Interest.</b> — The knowledge that +a prompt reward will follow success stimulates interest. The +knowledge that this reward is sure concentrates attention and thus +maintains interest.</p> +<p>In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that +the worker sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to +the advantage of the management, as well as to his advantage, that +he also be promoted, — this also maintains interest in the +work.</p> +<p><b>This Interest Extends to the Work of Others.</b> — The +interest is extended to the work of others, not only by the +interrelated bonuses, but also by the fact that every man is +expected to train up a man to take his place, before he is +promoted.</p> +<p><b>Close Relationship of All Parts of Scientific Management +<!--Page 243--><a name="P243" id="P243"></a> Holds Interest.</b> +— The attention of the entire organization, as well as of the +individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its +teaching, because all parts of Scientific Management are related, +and because Scientific Management provides for scientifically +directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that +the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the +permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such +development as will assure progress and success in the future. +Every member of the organization realizes that upon his individual +coöperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific +Management, because it is based on universal coöperation. This +provides an intensity and a continuity of interest that would still +hold, even though some particular element might lose its +interest.</p> +<p><b>This Relationship Also Provides for Associations.</b> — +The close relationship of all parts of Scientific Management +provides that all ideas are associated, and are so closely +connected that they can act as a single group, or any selected +number of elements can act as a group.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Establishes Brain Groups That +Habitually Act in Unison.</b> — Professor Read, in describing +the general mental principle of association says, "When any number +of brain cells have been in action together, they form a habit of +acting in unison, so that when one of them is stimulated in a +certain way, the others will also behave in the way established by +the habit."<a href="#ch08fn31"><sup>31</sup></a> This working of +the brain is <!--Page 244--><a name="P244" id="P244"></a> +recognized in grouping of motions, such as "playing for position." +<a href="#ch08fn32"><sup>32</sup></a> Scientific Management +provides the groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to +standard methods, so that the result is largely predictable.</p> +<p><b>Method of Establishing Such Groups in the Worker's Brain.</b> +— The standard elements of Scientific Management afford units +for such groups. Eventually, with the use of such elements in +instruction cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, +such groups of units as would aid in foreseeing results, just as +the foreseeing of groups of moves aids the expert chess or checker +player. The size and number of such groups would indicate the skill +of the worker.</p> +<p>That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management +synthesizes the units into definite groups, and teaches these to +the workers as groups.</p> +<p><b>Teaching Done by Means of Motion Cycles.</b> — The best +group is that which completes the simplest cycle of performance. +This enables the worker to associate certain definite motions, to +make these into a habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the +cycle as a whole, and not upon the elementary motions of which it +is composed.</p> +<p>For example — The cycle of the pick and dip process of +bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar +simultaneously and deposit them on the wall simultaneously. +<a href="#ch08fn33"><sup>33</sup></a> The string mortar method +<!--Page 245--><a name="P245" id="P245"></a> has two cycles, +which are, first to pick a certain number of trowelfuls of mortar +and deposit them on the wall, and then to pick up a corresponding +number of bricks and deposit them on the wall. <a href= +"#ch08fn34"><sup>34</sup></a> Each cycle of these two methods +consists of an association of units that can be remembered as a +group.</p> +<p><b>Such Cycles Induce Speed.</b> — The worker who has been +taught thus to associate the units of attention and action into +definite rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and +least fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the habit, as +does the brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus +characterizes the efficiency of the specialist. <a href= +"#ch08fn35"><sup>35</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Restricts Associations.</b> — By +its teaching of standard methods, Scientific Management restricts +association, and thus gains in the speed with which associated +ideas arise.<a href="#ch08fn36"><sup>36</sup></a> Insistence on +causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by the Systems, +which give the reasons, and make the standard method easy to +remember.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Presents Scientifically Derived +Knowledge to the Memory.</b> — Industrial memory is founded +on experience, and that experience that is submitted by teaching +under Scientific Management to the mind is in the form of +scientifically derived standards. These furnish</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) data that is correct.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) images that are an aid in acquiring new +habits of forming efficient images. <!--Page 246--><a name="P246" +id="P246"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) standards of comparison, and constant +demands for comparison.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning +processes are stimulated.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(e) conscious, efficient grouping.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(f) logical association of ideas.</p> +<p><b>Provision for Repetition of Important Ideas. —</b> +Professor Ebbinghaur says, "Associations that have equal +reproductive power lapse the more slowly, the older they are, and +the oftener they have been reviewed by renewed memorizing." +Scientific Management provides for utilizing this law by teaching +right motions first, and by so minutely dividing the elements of +such motions that the smallest units discovered are found +frequently, in similar and different operations.</p> +<p><b>Best Periods for Memorizing Utilized.</b> — As for +education of the memory, there is a wide difference of opinion +among leading psychologists in regard to whether or not the +memorizing faculty, as the whole, can be improved by training; but +all agree that those things which are specially desired to be +memorized can be learned more easily, and more quickly, under some +conditions than under others:</p> +<p>For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person, +when the memory is more efficient than at other times. This is +usually in the morning, but is not always so. The period when +memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as +possible, new methods and new instruction cards are passed out at +that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to remember what +is to be done.</p> +<p><b>Individual Differences Respected.</b> — It is a +question <!--Page 247--><a name="P247" id="P247"></a> that +varies with different conditions, whether the several instruction +cards beyond the one he is working on shall be given to the worker +ahead of time, that he may use his own judgment as to when is the +best time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and +concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help +to see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, +and feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others +become confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack +but one problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of +mind should be taken advantage of when laying out material to be +memorized.</p> +<p><b>Aid of Mnemonic Symbols to the Memory.</b> — The +mnemonic classifications furnish a place where the worker who +remembers but little of a method or process can go, and recover the +full knowledge of that which he has forgotten. Better still, they +furnish him the equivalent of memory of other experiences that he +has never had, and that are in such form that he can connect this +with his memory of his own personal experience.</p> +<p>The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic can associate +new, scientifically derived data with his memory, because of the +classifications of Scientific Management, is a most important cause +of workers being taught quicker, and being more intelligent, under +Scientific Management, than under any other type of management.</p> +<p><b>Proper Learning Insures Proper Remembering.</b> — +Professor Read says, "Take care of the learning and +<!--Page 248--><a name="P248" id="P248"></a> the remembering +will take care of itself." <a href="#ch08fn37"><sup>37</sup></a> +Scientific Management both provides proper knowledge, and provides +that this shall be utilized in such a manner that proper +remembering will ensue.</p> +<p><b>Better Habits of Remembering Result.</b> — The results +of cultivating the memory under Scientific Management are +cumulative. Ultimately, right habits of remembering result that aid +the worker automatically so to arrange his memory material as to +utilize it better.<a href="#ch08fn38"><sup>38</sup></a></p> +<p><b>"Imagination" Has Two Definitions.</b> — Professor Read +gives definitions for two distinct means of Imagination.</p> +<p>1. "The general function of the having of images."</p> +<p>2. "The particular one of having images which are not +consciously memories or the reproduction of the facts of experience +as they were originally presented to consciousness." <a href= +"#ch08fn39"><sup>39</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Provides Material for Images.</b> +— As was shown under the discussion of the appeals of the +various teaching devices of Scientific Management, — +provision is made for the four classes of imagination of +Calkins<a href="#ch08fn40"><sup>40</sup></a> —</p> +<p>1. visual,</p> +<p>2. auditory,</p> +<p>3. tactual, and</p> +<p>4. mixed.</p> +<!--Page 249--><a name="P249" id="P249"></a> +<p><b>It Also Realizes the Importance of Productive +Imagination.</b> — Scientific Management realizes that one of +the special functions of teaching the trades is systematic +exercising and guiding of imaginations of apprentices and learners. +As Professor Ennis says, — "Any kind of planning ahead will +result in some good," but to plan ahead most effectively it is +necessary to have a well-developed power of constructive +imagination. This consists of being able to construct new mental +images from old memory images; of being able to modify and group +images of past experiences, or thoughts, in combination with new +images based on imagination, and not on experience. The excellence +of the image arrived at in the complete work is dependent wholly +upon the training in image forming in the past. If there has not +been a complete economic system of forming standard habits of +thought, the worker may have difficulty in controlling the trend of +associations of thought images, and difficulty in adding entirely +new images to the groups of experienced images, and the problem to +be thought out will suffer from wandering of the mind. The result +will be more like a dream than a well balanced mental planning. It +is well known that those apprentices, and journeymen as well, are +the quickest to learn, and are better learners, who have the most +vivid imagination. The best method of teaching the trade, +therefore, is the one that also develops the power of +imagination.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Assists Productive Imagination.</b> +— Scientific Management assists productive, or constructive, +imagination, not only by providing <!--Page 250--><a name="P250" +id="P250"></a> standard units, or images, from which the results +may, be synthesized, but also, through the unity of the instruction +card, allows of imagination of the outcome, from the start.</p> +<p>For example, — in performing a prescribed cycle of +motions, the worker has his memory images grouped in such a figure, +form, or sequence, — often geometrical, — that each +motion is a part of a growing, clearly imagined whole.</p> +<p>The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other entirely new +cycles, and are, as provided for in the opportunities for invention +that are a part of Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Judgment the Result of Faithful Endeavor.</b> — +Judgment, or the "mental process which ends in an affirmation or +negation of something," <a href="#ch08fn41"><sup>41</sup></a> comes +as the result of experience, as is admirably expressed by Prof. +James, — "Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of +his education whatever the line of it may be. If he keeps +faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave +the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on +waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent +ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled +out. Silently, between all the details of his business, the +<i>power of judging</i> in all that class of matter will have built +itself up within him as a possession that will never pass away. +Young people should know this truth in advance. <a href= +"#ch08fn42"><sup>42</sup></a> The ignorance of it has probably +engendered more discouragement <!--Page 251--><a name="P251" id= +"P251"></a> and faint-heartedness in youths embarking on arduous +careers than all other causes put together." <a href= +"#ch08fn43"><sup>43</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Teaching Supplies This Judgment Under Scientific +Management.</b> — Under Scientific Management this judgment +is the result of teaching of standards that are recognized as such +by the learner. Thus, much time is eliminated, and the apprentice +under Scientific Management can work with all the assurance as to +the value of his methods that characterized the seasoned veterans +of older types of management.</p> +<p><b>Teaching Also Utilizes the Judgment.</b> — The judgment +that is supplied by Scientific Management is also used as a spring +toward action.<a href="#ch08fn44"><sup>44</sup></a> Scientific +Management appeals to the reason, and workers perform work as they +do because, through the Systems and otherwise, they are persuaded +that the method they employ is the best.</p> +<p><b>The Power of Suggestion Is Also Utilized.</b> <a href= +"#ch08fn45"><sup>45</sup></a> — The dynamic power of ideas is +recognized by Scientific Management, in that the instruction card +is put in the form of direct commands, which, naturally, lead to +immediate action. So, also, the teaching written, oral and object, +as such, can be directly imitated by the learner. <a href= +"#ch08fn46"><sup>46</sup></a></p> +<p>Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says "may well be counted a +special form of suggestion," will be discussed later in this +chapter at length.<a href="#ch08fn47"><sup>47</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 252--><a name="P252" id="P252"></a> +<p><b>Worker Always Has Opportunity to Criticise the +Suggestion.</b> — The worker is expected to follow the +suggestion of Scientific Management without delay, because he +believes in the standardization on which it is made, and in the +management that makes it. But the Systems afford him an opportunity +of reviewing the reasonableness of the suggestion at any time, and +his constructive criticism is invited and rewarded.</p> +<p><b>Suggestion Must Be Followed at the Time.</b> — The +suggestion must be followed at the time it is given, or its value +as a suggestion is impaired. This is provided for by the underlying +idea of coöperation on which Scientific Management rests, +which molds the mental attitude of the worker into that form where +suggestions are quickest grasped and followed. <a href= +"#ch08fn48"><sup>48</sup></a></p> +<p><b>"Native Reactions" Enumerated by Prof. James.</b> — +Prof. James enumerates the "native reactions" as (1) fear, (2) +love, (3) curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, +(7) pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) ownership, (10) +constructiveness.<a href="#ch08fn49"><sup>49</sup></a> These are +all considered by Scientific Management. Such as might have a +harmful effect are supplanted, others are utilized.</p> +<p><b>Fear Utilized by Ancient Managers.</b> — The native +reaction most utilized by the first managers of armies and ancient +works of construction was that of fear. This is shown by the +ancient rock carvings, which portray what happened to those who +disobeyed.<a href="#ch08fn50"><sup>50</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 253--><a name="P253" id="P253"></a> +<p><b>Fear Still Used by Traditional Management.</b> — Fear +of personal bodily injury is not usual under modern Traditional +Management, but fear of less progress, less promotion, less +remuneration, or of discharge, or of other penalties for inferior +effort or efficiency is still prevalent.</p> +<p><b>Fear Transformed Under Scientific Management.</b> — +Under Scientific Management the worker may still fear that he will +incur a penalty, or fail to deserve a reward, but the honest, +industrious worker experiences no such horror as the old-time fear +included. This is removed by his knowledge</p> +<p>1. that his task is achievable.</p> +<p>2. that his work will not injure his health.</p> +<p>3. that he may be sure of advancement with age and +experience.</p> +<p>4. that he is sure of the "square deal."</p> +<p>Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil effect upon +him. It is an incentive to coöperate willingly. Its immediate +and ultimate effects are advantageous.</p> +<p><b>Love, or Loyalty, Fostered by Scientific Management.</b> +— The worker's knowledge that the management plans to +maintain such conditions as will enable him to have the four +assurances enumerated above leads to love, or loyalty, between +workers and employers.<a href="#ch08fn51"><sup>51</sup></a></p> +<p>Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old personal and +sympathetic relations between employers and workers, it gives +opportunities for such <!--Page 254--><a name="P254" id= +"P254"></a> relations as have not existed since the days of the +guilds, and the old apprenticeship. <a href= +"#ch08fn52"><sup>52</sup></a></p> +<p>The coöperation upon which Scientific Management rests does +away with the traditional "warfare" between employer and workers +that made permanent friendliness almost impossible. +Coöperation induces friendliness and loyalty of each member in +the organization to all the others.</p> +<p>Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installation of +Scientific Management in his plant, "We had, in effect, been +installing at great expense a new and wonderful means for +increasing the efficiency of labor, in the benefits of which the +workman himself shared, and we have today an organization second, I +believe, to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of +purpose."<a href="#ch08fn53"><sup>53</sup></a> This same loyalty of +the workers is plain in an article in <i>Industrial +Engineering</i>, on "Scientific Management as Viewed from the +Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop having +Scientific Management were interviewed.<a href= +"#ch08fn54"><sup>54</sup></a> After quoting various workers' +opinions of Scientific Management and their own particular shop, +the writer says: "Conversations with other men brought out +practically the same facts. They are all contented. They took pride +in their work, and seemed to be especially proud of the fact that +they were employed in the Link-Belt shops." <a href= +"#ch08fn55"><sup>55</sup></a></p> +<!--Page 255--><a name="P255" id="P255"></a> +<p><b>Teaching Under Scientific Management Develops Such +Loyalty.</b> — The manner of teaching under Scientific +Management fosters such loyalty. Only through friendly aid can both +teacher and taught prosper. Also, the perfection of the actual +workings of this plan of management inspires regard as well as +respect for the employer.</p> +<p><b>Value of Personality Not Eliminated.</b> — It is a +great mistake to think that Scientific Management underestimates +the value of personality. <a href="#ch08fn56"><sup>56</sup></a> +Rather, Scientific Management enhances the value of an admirable +personality. This is well exemplified in the Link-Belt Co., +<a href="#ch08fn57"><sup>57</sup></a> and in the Tabor +Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, as well as on other work where +Scientific Management has been installed a period of several +years.</p> +<p><b>Curiosity Aroused by Scientific Management.</b> — +Scientific Management arouses the curiosity of the worker, by +showing, through its teaching, glimpses of the possibilities that +exist for further scientific investigation. The insistence on +standard methods of less waste arouses a curiosity as to whether +still less wasteful methods cannot be found.</p> +<p><b>Curiosity Utilized by Scientific Management.</b> — This +curiosity is very useful as a trait of the learner, the planner and +the investigator. It can be well utilized by the teacher who +recognizes it in the learner, by an adaptation of methods of +interpreting the instruction card, that will allow of partially +satisfying, <!--Page 256--><a name="P256" id="P256"></a> and at +the same time further exciting, the curiosity.</p> +<p>In selecting men for higher positions, and for special work, +curiosity as to the work, with the interest that is its result, may +serve as an admirable indication of one sort of fitness. This +curiosity, or general interest, is usually associated with a +personal interest that makes it more intense, and more easy to +utilize.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Places a High Value on Imitation.</b> +— It was a popular custom of the past to look down with scorn +on the individual or organization that imitated others. Scientific +Management believes that to imitate with great precision the best, +is a work of high intelligence and industrial efficiency.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Uses Both Spontaneous and Deliberate +Imitation.</b> — Teaching under Scientific Management induces +both spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization +prevalent, and the conformity to standards exacted, provide that +this imitation shall follow directed lines.</p> +<p><b>Spontaneous Imitation Under Scientific Management Has +Valuable Results.</b> — Under Scientific Management, the +worker will spontaneously imitate the teacher, when the latter has +been demonstrating. This leads to desired results. So, also, the +worker imitates, more or less spontaneously, his own past methods +of doing work. The right habits early formed by Scientific +Management insure that the results of such imitation shall be +profitable.</p> +<p><b>Deliberate Imitation Constantly Encouraged.</b> — +Deliberate imitation is caused more than anything +<!--Page 257--><a name="P257" id="P257"></a> else by the fact +that the man knows, if he does the thing in the way directed, his +pay will be increased.</p> +<p>Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that the worker is +made to believe that he is capable, and has the will to overcome +obstacles. He knows that the management believes he can do the +work, or the instruction card would not have been issued to him. +Moreover, he sees that the teacher and demonstrator is a man +promoted from his rank, and he is convinced, therefore, that what +the teacher can do he also can do. <a href= +"#ch08fn58"><sup>58</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Provides Standards for Imitation.</b> +— It is of immense value in obtaining valuable results from +imitation, that Scientific Management provides standards. Under +Traditional Management, it was almost impossible for a worker to +decide which man he should imitate. Even though he might come to +determine, by constant observation, after a time, which man he +desired to imitate, he would not know in how far he would do well +to copy any particular method. Recording individually measured +output under Transitory Management allows of determining the man of +high score, and either using him as a model, or formulating his +method into rules. Under Scientific Management, the instruction +card furnishes a method which the worker knows that he can imitate +exactly, with predetermined results.</p> +<!--Page 258--><a name="P258" id="P258"></a> +<p><b>Imitation Is Expected of All.</b> — As standardization +applies to the work of all, so imitation of standards is expected +of all. This fact the teacher under Scientific Management can use +to advantage, as an added incentive to imitation. Any dislike of +imitation is further decreased, by making clear to every worker +that those who are under him are expected to imitate him, — +and that he must, himself, imitate his teachers, in order to set a +worthy example.</p> +<p><b>Imitation Leads to Emulation.</b> — Imitation, as +provided for by teaching under Scientific Management, and +admiration for the skillful teacher, or the standard imitated, +naturally stimulate emulation. This emulation takes three +forms:</p> +<p>1. Competition with the records of others.</p> +<p>2. Competition with one's own record.</p> +<p>3. Competition with the standard record.</p> +<p><b>No Hard Feeling Aroused.</b> — In the first sort of +competition only is there a possibility of hard feeling being +aroused, but danger of this is practically eliminated by the fact +that rewards are provided for all who are successful. In the second +sort of competition, the worker, by matching himself against what +he has done, measures his own increased efficiency. In the third +sort of competition, there is the added stimulus of surprising the +management by exceeding the task expected. The incentive in all +three cases is not only more pay and a chance for promotion, but +also the opportunity to win appreciation and publicity for +successful performance.</p> +<p><b>Ambition Is Aroused.</b> — The outcome of emulation is +ambition. This ambition is stimulated by the +<!--Page 259--><a name="P259" id="P259"></a> fact that promotion +is so rapid, and so outlined before the worker, that he sees the +chance for advancement himself, and not only advancement that means +more pay, but advancement also that means a chance to specialize on +that work which he particularly likes.</p> +<p><b>Pugnacity Utilized.</b> — Pugnacity can never be +entirely absent where there is emulation. Under Scientific +Management it is used to overcome not persons, but things. +Pugnacity is a great driving force. It is a wonderful thing that +under Scientific Management this force is aroused not against one's +fellow-workers, but against one's work. The desire to win out, to +fight it out, is aroused against a large task, which the man +desires to put behind him. Moreover, there is nothing under +Scientific Management which forbids an athletic contest. While the +workers would not, under the ultimate form, be allowed to injure +themselves by overspeeding, a friendly race with a demonstration of +pugnacity which harms no one is not frowned upon.</p> +<p><b>Pride Is Stimulated.</b> — Pride in one's work is +aroused as soon as work is functionalized. The moment a man has +something to do that he likes to do, and can do well, he takes +pride in it. So, also, the fact that individuality, and +personality, are recognized, and that his records are shown, makes +pride serve as a stimulus. The outcome of the worker's pride in his +work is pride in himself. He finds that he is part of a great +whole, and he learns to take pride in the entire management, +— in both himself and the managers, as well as in his own +work.</p> +<p><b>Feeling of Ownership Provided For.</b> — It may +<!--Page 260--><a name="P260" id="P260"></a> seem at first +glance that the instinct of ownership is neglected, and becomes +stunted, under Scientific Management, in that all tools become more +or less standardized, and the man is discouraged from having tools +peculiar in shape, or size, for whose use he has no warrant except +long time of use.</p> +<p>Careful consideration shows that Scientific Management provides +two opportunities for the worker to conserve his instinct for +ownership, —</p> +<p>1. During working hours, where the recognition of his +personality allows the worker to identify himself with his work, +and where his coöperation with the management makes him +identified with its activities.</p> +<p>2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific Management, more +hours away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money with which +to acquire those things that he desires to own.</p> +<p>The teacher must make clear to him both these opportunities, as +he readily can, since the instinct of ownership is conserved in him +in an identical manner.</p> +<p><b>Constructiveness a Part of Scientific Management.</b> — +Every act that the worker performs is constructive, because waste +has been eliminated, and everything that is done is upbuilding. +Teaching makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is also +utilized in that exercise of initiative is provided for. Thus the +instinct, instead of being weakened, is strengthened and +directed.</p> +<p><b>Progress in Utilizing Instincts Demands Psychological +Study.</b> — Teaching under Scientific Management can never +hope fully to understand and utilize <!--Page 261--><a name="P261" +id="P261"></a> native reactions, until more assistance has been +given by psychology. At the present time, Scientific Management +labors under disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed. +Psychologists must, by experiments, determine more accurately the +reactions and their controlability. More thorough study must be +made of children that Scientific Management may understand more of +the nature of the reactions of the young workers who come for +industrial training. Psychology must give its help in this +training. Then only, can teaching under Scientific Management +become truly efficient.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Realizes the Importance of Training the +Will.</b> — The most necessary, and most complex and +difficult part of Scientific Management, is the training of the +will of all members of the organization. Prof. Read states in his +"Psychology" five means of training or influencing the will. These +are<a href="#ch08fn59"><sup>59</sup></a></p> +<p>"1. The first important feature in training the will is the help +furnished by supplying the mind with a useful body of ideas.</p> +<p>"2. The second great feature of the training of the will is the +building up in the mind of the proper interests, and the habit of +giving the attention to useful and worthy purposes.</p> +<p>"3. Another important feature of the training of the will is the +establishing of a firm association between ideas and actions, or, +in other words, the forming of a good set of habits.</p> +<p>"4. Another very important feature of the training +<!--Page 262--><a name="P262" id="P262"></a> of the will has +reference to its strength of purpose or power of imitation.</p> +<p>"5. The matter of discipline."</p> +<p>Teaching under Scientific Management does supply these five +functions, and thus provide for the strengthening and development +of the will.</p> +<p><b>Variations in Teaching of Apprentices and Journeymen.</b> +— Scientific Management must not only be prepared to teach +apprentices, as must all types of management, it must also teach +journeymen who have not acquired standard methods.</p> +<p><b>Apprentices Are Easily Handled.</b> — Teaching +apprentices is a comparatively simple proposition, far simpler than +under any other type of management. Standard methods enable the +apprentice to become proficient long before his brother could, +under the old type of teaching. The length of training required +depends largely on how fingerwise the apprentice is.</p> +<p><b>Older Workers Must Be Handled with Tact.</b> — With +adult workers, the problem is not so simple. Old wrong habits, such +as the use of ineffective motions, must be eliminated. Physically, +it is difficult for the adult worker to alter his methods. +Moreover, it may be most difficult to change his mental attitude, +to convince him that the methods of Scientific Management are +correct.</p> +<p>A successful worker under Traditional Management, who is proud +of his work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone +to regard as the "criticism" of Scientific Management with regard +to him.</p> +<!--Page 263--><a name="P263" id="P263"></a> +<p><b>Appreciation of Varying Viewpoints Necessary.</b> — No +management can consider itself adequate that does not try to enter +into the mental attitude of its workers. Actual practice shows +that, with time and tact, almost any worker can be convinced that +all criticism of him is constructive, and that for him to conform +to the new standards is a mark of added proficiency, not an +acknowledgment of ill-preparedness. The "Systems" do much toward +this work of reconciling the older workers to the new methods, but +most of all can be done by such teachers as can demonstrate their +own change from old to standard methods, and the consequent +promotion and success. This is, again, an opportunity for the +exercise of personality.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Provides Places for Such Teaching.</b> +— Under the methods of teaching employed by Scientific +Management, — right motions first, next speed, with quality +as a resultant product, — it is most necessary to provide a +place where learners can work. The standard planning of quality +provides such a place. The plus and minus signs automatically +divide labor so that the worker can be taught by degrees, being set +at first where great accuracy is not demanded by the work, and +being shifted to work requiring more accuracy as he becomes more +proficient. In this way even the most untrained worker becomes +efficient, and is engaged in actual productive work.</p> +<p><b>Measurement of Teaching and Learning.</b> — Under +Scientific Management the results of teaching and learning become +apparent automatically in records <!--Page 264--><a name="P264" id= +"P264"></a> of output. The learner's record of output of proper +prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive, and also +has a proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a system of +measurement may not be accurate as a report of the learner's gain, +— for he doubtless gains mental results that cannot be seen +in his output, — but it certainly does serve as an incentive +to teaching and to learning.</p> +<p><b>Relation of Teaching in Scientific Management to Academic +Training and Vocational Guidance.</b> <a href= +"#ch08fn60"><sup>60</sup></a> — Teaching under Scientific +Management can never be most efficient until the field of such +teaching is restricted to training learners who are properly +prepared to receive industrial training. <a href= +"#ch08fn61"><sup>61</sup></a> This preparedness implies fitting +school and academic training, and Vocational Guidance.</p> +<p><b>Learner Should Be Manually Adept.</b> — The learner +should, before entering the industrial world, be taught to be +manually adept, or fingerwise, to have such control over his +trained muscles that they will respond quickly and accurately to +orders. Such training should be started in infancy, <a href= +"#ch08fn62"><sup>62</sup></a> in the form of guided play, as, for +example, whittling, sewing, knitting, handling mechanical toys and +tools, and playing musical instruments, and continued up to, and +into, the period of entering a trade.</p> +<!--Page 265--><a name="P265" id="P265"></a> +<p><b>Schools Should Provide Mental Preparedness.</b> — The +schools should render every student capable of filling some place +worthily in the industries. The longer the student remains in +school, the higher the position for which he should be prepared. +The amount and nature of the training in the schools depends +largely on the industrial work to be done, and will be possible of +more accurate estimation constantly, as Scientific Management +standardizes work and shows what the worker must be to be most +efficient.</p> +<p><b>Vocational Guidance Must Provide Direction.</b> — As +made most clear in Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, "Vocational +Guidance,"<a href="#ch08fn63"><sup>63</sup></a> bureaus of +competent directors stand ready to help the youth find that line of +activity which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction to +himself. At present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by the +fact that little data of the industries are at hand, but this lack +the bureaus are rapidly supplying by gathering such data as are +available. Most valuable data will not be available until +Scientific Management has been introduced into all lines.</p> +<p><b>Progress Demands Coöperation.</b> — Progress here, +as everywhere, demands coöperation. <a href= +"#ch08fn64"><sup>64</sup></a> The three sets of educators, — +the teachers in the school, in the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and +in Scientific Management, must recognize their common work, +<!--Page 266--><a name="P266" id="P266"></a> and must +coöperate to do it. There is absolutely no cause for conflict +between the three; their fields are distinct, but supplementary. +Vocational Guidance is the intermediary between the other two.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results to the Work.</b> — Under the teaching of +Traditional Management, the learner may or may not improve the +quantity and quality of his work. This depends almost entirely on +the particular teacher whom the learner happens to have. There is +no standard improvement to the work.</p> +<p>Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the work gains in +quantity as the methods become standardized, and quality is +maintained or improved.</p> +<p>Under the teaching of Scientific Management, work, the quantity +of work, increases enormously through the use of standards of all +kinds; quantity is oftentimes tripled.</p> +<p>Under the teaching of Scientific Management, when the schools +and Vocational Guidance movement coöperate, high output of +required quality will be obtained at a far earlier stage of the +worker's industrial life than is now possible, even under +Scientific Management.</p> +<p><b>Results to the Worker.</b> — Under Traditional +Management, the worker gains a knowledge of how his work can be +done, but the method by which he is taught is seldom, of itself, +helpful to him. Not being sure that he has learned the best way to +do his work, he gains no method of attack. The result of +<!--Page 267--><a name="P267" id="P267"></a> the teaching is a +habit of doing work which is good, or bad, as chance may +direct.</p> +<p>Under Transitory Management, with the use of Systems as +teachers, the worker gains a better method of attack, as he knows +the reason why the prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to +appreciate the possibilities and benefits of standardized +teaching.</p> +<p>The method laid down under Scientific Management is devised to +further the forming of an accurate accumulation of concepts, which +results in a proper method of attack. The method of instruction +under Scientific Management is devised to furnish two things:</p> +<p>1. A collection of knowledge relating in its entirety to the +future work of the learner.</p> +<p>2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner to apply +the same process to acquiring knowledge of other subjects in the +most economical and efficient way.</p> +<p>It teaches the learner to be observant of details, which is the +surest method for further development of general truths and +concepts.</p> +<p>The method of attack of the methods provided for in Scientific +Management results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This +is the most efficient method of causing the learner to think for +himself.</p> +<p>Processes differing but little, apparently, give vastly +different results, and the trained habits of observation quickly +analyze and determine wherein the one process is more efficient +than the other.</p> +<!--Page 268--><a name="P268" id="P268"></a> +<p>This result is, of course, the one most desired for causing +quick and intelligent learning.</p> +<p>The most valuable education is that which enables the learner to +make correct judgments. The teaching under Scientific Management +leads to the acquisition of such judgment, plus an all-around sense +training, a training in habits of work, and a progressive +development.</p> +<p>A partial topic list of the results may make more clear their +importance.</p> +<p> 1. Worker better trained for all work.</p> +<p> 2. Habits of correct thinking instilled.</p> +<p> 3. Preparedness provided for.</p> +<p> 4. Productive and repetitive powers increased.</p> +<p> 5. Sense powers increased.</p> +<p> 6. Habits of proper reaction established.</p> +<p> 7. "Guided original work" established.</p> +<p> 8. System of waste elimination provided.</p> +<p> 9. Method of attack taught.</p> +<p>10. Brain fully developed.</p> +<p>11. "Standard response" developed.</p> +<p>12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking" provided.</p> +<p>13. Self-reliance developed.</p> +<p>14. Love of truth fostered.</p> +<p>15. Moral sentiment developed.</p> +<p>16. Resultant happiness of worker.</p> +<p><b>Results To Be Expected in the Future.</b> — When the +schools, vocational guidance and teaching under Scientific +Management coöperate, the worker will not only receive the +benefits now obtained from Scientific Management, but many more. +There will <!--Page 269--><a name="P269" id="P269"></a> be +nothing to unlearn, and each thing that is learned will be taught +by those best fitted to teach it. The collection of vocational +guidance data will begin with a child at birth, and a record of his +inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is educated, +and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this +scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist +in making clear exactly in what place the worker will be most +efficient, and in what sphere he will be able to be most helpful to +the world, as well as to himself. All early training will be +planned to make the youth adept with his muscles, and alert, with a +mind so trained that related knowledge is easily acquired.</p> +<p>When the vocation for which he is naturally best fitted becomes +apparent, as it must from the study of the development of the youth +and his desires, the school will know, and can give exactly, that +training that is necessary for the vocation. It can also supplement +his limitations intelligently, in case he decides to follow a +vocation for which he is naturally handicapped.</p> +<p>This will bring to the industry learners prepared to be taught +those things that characterize the industry, the "tricks of the +trade," and the "secrets of the craft," now become standard, and +free to all. Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared to +give. The results of such teaching of Scientific Management will be +a worker prepared in a short time to fill efficiently a position +which will allow of promotion to the limit of his +possibilities.</p> +<p>The result of such teaching will be truly educated +<!--Page 270--><a name="P270" id="P270"></a> workers, equipped +to work, and to live,<a href="#ch08fn65"><sup>65</sup></a> and to +share the world's permanent satisfactions.</p> +<p>The effect of such education on industrial peace must not be +underestimated. With education, including in education learning and +culture, — prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, +those going into industries and those not, will be taught alike to +be finger wise as well as book wise, up to the time of entering the +industries, will lead to a better understanding of each other all +through life.</p> +<p>The entire bearing of Scientific Management on industrial peace +cannot be here fully discussed. We must note here the strong effect +that teaching under Scientific Management will ultimately have on +doing away with industrial warfare, — the great warfare of +ignorance, where neither side understands the other, and where each +side should realize that large immediate sacrifices should be made +if necessary, that there may be obtained the great permanent +benefit and savings that can be obtained only by means of the +heartiest coöperation.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER VIII FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn01" id="ch08fn01"> 1</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, para. 541-545.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn02" id="ch08fn02"> 2</a>. H.K. +Hathaway, <i>Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific +Management, Engineering Magazine,</i> April, 1911, p. 141.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn03" id="ch08fn03"> 3</a>. H.L. +Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 372.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn04" id="ch08fn04"> 4</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 116.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn05" id="ch08fn05"> 5</a>. H.L. +Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 342.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn06" id="ch08fn06"> 6</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 289, Harper Ed., pp. +127-128.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn07" id="ch08fn07"> 7</a>. H.K. +Hathaway, <i>Engineering Magazine</i>, April, 1911, p. 144.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn08" id="ch08fn08"> 8</a>. W.D. +Ennis, <i>An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial +Engineering</i>, June, 1911, p. 462.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn09" id="ch08fn09"> 9</a>. C.S. +Myers, M.D., <i>An Introduction to Experimental Psychology</i>, +chap. V, p. 73.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn10" id="ch08fn10">10</a>. G.M. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 125.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn11" id="ch08fn11">11</a>. William +James, <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 171.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn12" id="ch08fn12">12</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, chap. I, <i>Training of +Apprentices</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn13" id="ch08fn13">13</a>. +<i>McClure's Magazine</i>, May, 1911, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn14" id="ch08fn14">14</a>. As a +woodman's keenness of hearing.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn15" id="ch08fn15">15</a>. M.W. +Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, chap. III.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn16" id="ch08fn16">16</a>. Stratton, +<i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, chap. VII.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn17" id="ch08fn17">17</a>. Compare +with an actor's learning a part.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn18" id="ch08fn18">18</a>. As proved +by experimenting with a six-year-old child.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn19" id="ch08fn19">19</a>. Imbert, +<i>Etudes experimentales de travail professionnel ouvrier, Sur la +fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides</i>.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn20" id="ch08fn20">20</a>. William +James, <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 134.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn21" id="ch08fn21">21</a>. +<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course. +p. 112.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn22" id="ch08fn22">22</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, p. 142.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn23" id="ch08fn23">23</a>. Stratton, +<i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 214.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn24" id="ch08fn24">24</a>. Prof. +Bain, quoted In William James' <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, +pp. 145-147.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn25" id="ch08fn25">25</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, para. 18-19.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn26" id="ch08fn26">26</a>. M.W. +Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, p. 354.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn27" id="ch08fn27">27</a>. James +Sully, <i>The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, p. 119.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn28" id="ch08fn28">28</a>. Stratton, +<i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 99.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn29" id="ch08fn29">29</a>. Stratton, +<i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i> p. 240.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn30" id="ch08fn30">30</a>. Attracting +the attention is largely a matter of appealing to what is known to +interest, for example, to a known ambition.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn31" id="ch08fn31">31</a>. M.S. Read, +<i>An Introductory Psychology</i>, p. 183.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn32" id="ch08fn32">32</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Motion Study</i>, p. 89.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn33" id="ch08fn33">33</a>. +<i>Ibid.</i>, </>Bricklaying System, para. 555-557.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn34" id="ch08fn34">34</a>. F.B. +Gilbreth, <i>Bricklaying System</i>, p. 150.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn35" id="ch08fn35">35</a>. M.S. Read, +<i>An Introductory Psychology</i>, pp. 179-194.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn36" id="ch08fn36">36</a>. G.M. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 42.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn37" id="ch08fn37">37</a>. M.S. Read, +<i>An Introductory Psychology</i>, p. 208.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn38" id="ch08fn38">38</a>. William +James, <i>Psychology, Advanced Course</i>, Vol. I, p. 667.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn39" id="ch08fn39">39</a>. M.S. Read, +<i>An Introductory Psychology</i>, pp. 212-213. William James, +<i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 302.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn40" id="ch08fn40">40</a>. M.W. +Calkins, <i>A First Book in Psychology</i>, p. 25.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn41" id="ch08fn41">41</a>. James +Sully, <i>The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology</i>, p. 290.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn42" id="ch08fn42">42</a>. William +James, <i>Psychology, Briefer Course</i>, p. 150.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn43" id="ch08fn43">43</a>. W.D. +Scott, <i>Influencing Men in Business</i>, chap. II.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn44" id="ch08fn44">44</a>. +<i>Ibid.</i>, chap. III.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn45" id="ch08fn45">45</a>. W.D. +Scott, <i>The Theory of Advertising</i>, p. 71.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn46" id="ch08fn46">46</a>. W.D. +Scott, <i>Increasing Human Efficiency in Business</i>, p. 41.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn47" id="ch08fn47">47</a>. G.M. +Stratton, <i>Experimental Psychology and Culture</i>, p. 200.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn48" id="ch08fn48">48</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>The Principles of Scientific Management</i>, p. 36.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn49" id="ch08fn49">49</a>. William +James, <i>Talks to Teachers</i>, chap. III.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn50" id="ch08fn50">50</a>. Knight's +<i>Mechanical Dictionary</i>, Vol. III, p. 2204.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn51" id="ch08fn51">51</a>. For +example, see W.D. Scott's <i>Increasing Efficiency in Business</i>, +chap. IV.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn52" id="ch08fn52">52</a>. R.A. Bray, +<i>Boy Labor and Apprenticeship</i>, chap. II, especially p. 8.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn53" id="ch08fn53">53</a>. Wilfred +Lewis, <i>Proceedings of the Congress of Technology</i>, 1911, p. +175.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn54" id="ch08fn54">54</a>. November, +1910.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn55" id="ch08fn55">55</a>. The +Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn56" id="ch08fn56">56</a>. For value +of personality see J.W. Jenks's, <i>Governmental Action for Social +Welfare</i>, p. 226.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn57" id="ch08fn57">57</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn58" id="ch08fn58">58</a>. Compare +with the old darkey, who took her sons from a Northern school, +where the teacher was white, in order to send them to a Southern +school having a colored teacher that they might feel, as they +looked at him, "What <i>that</i> nigger can do, <i>this</i> nigger +can do."</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn59" id="ch08fn59">59</a>. M.S. Read, +<i>An Introductory Psychology,</i> pp. 297-303.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn60" id="ch08fn60">60</a>. Hugo +Münsterberg, <i>American Problems</i>, p. 29.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn61" id="ch08fn61">61</a>. Morris +Llewellyn Cooke, <i>Bulletin No. 5</i> of <i>The Carnegie +Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching</i>, p. 70. William +Kent, <i>Discussion of Paper 647</i>, A.S.M.E., p. 891.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn62" id="ch08fn62">62</a>. A well +known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in infancy, to +prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure of a college +education.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn63" id="ch08fn63">63</a>. Meyer +Bloomfield, <i>The Vocational Guidance of Youth</i>, Houghton +Mifflin & Co.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn64" id="ch08fn64">64</a>. A. +Pimloche, <i>Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary +School</i>, p. 139.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch08fn65" id="ch08fn65">65</a>. Friedrich +Froebel, <i>Education of Man</i>, "To secure for this ability skill +and directness, to lift it into full consciousness, to give it +insight and clearness, and to exalt it into a life of creative +freedom, is the business of the subsequent life of man in +successive stages of development and cultivation."</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 271--><a name="P271" id="P271"></a> +<h3><a name="chapterix" id="chapterix">CHAPTER IX</a></h3> +<h3>INCENTIVES</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Incentive.</b> — An "incentive" is +defined by the Century Dictionary as "that which moves the mind or +stirs the passions; that which incites or tends to incite to +action; motive, spur." Synonyms — "impulse, stimulus, +incitement, encouragement, goad."</p> +<p><b>Importance of the Incentive.</b> — The part that the +incentive plays in the doing of all work is enormous. This is true +in learning, and also in the performance of work which is the +result of this learning: manual work and mental work as well. The +business man finishing his work early that he may go to the +baseball game; the boy at school rushing through his arithmetic +that he may not be kept after school; the piece-worker, the amount +of whose day's pay depends upon the quantity and quality he can +produce; the student of a foreign language preparing for a trip +abroad, — these all illustrate the importance of the +incentive as an element in the amount which is to be +accomplished.</p> +<p><b>Two Kinds of Incentives.</b> — The incentive may be of +two kinds: it may be first of all, a return, definite or +indefinite, which is to be received when a certain +<!--Page 272--><a name="P272" id="P272"></a> portion of the work +is done, or it may be an incentive due to the working conditions +themselves. The latter case is exemplified where two people are +engaged in the same sort of work and start in to race one another +to see who can accomplish the most, who can finish the fixed amount +in the shortest space of time, or who can produce the best quality. +The incentive may be in the form of some definite aim or goal which +is understood by the worker himself, or it may be in some natural +instinct which is roused by the work, either consciously to the +worker, or consciously to the man who is assigning the work, or +consciously to both, or consciously to neither one. In any of these +cases it is a natural instinct that is being appealed to and that +induces the man to do more work, whether he sees any material +reward for that work or not.</p> +<p><b>Definitions of Two Types.</b> — We may call the +incentive which utilizes the natural instinct, "direct incentive," +and the incentive which utilizes these secondarily, through some +set reward or punishment, "indirect incentive." This, at first +sight, may seem a contradictory use of terms — it may seem +that the reward would be the most direct of incentives; yet a +moment's thought will cause one to realize that all the reward can +possibly do is to arouse in the individual a natural instinct which +will lead him to increase his work.</p> +<p><b>Indirect Incentives Include Two Classes.</b> — We will +discuss the indirect incentives first as, contrary to the usual use +of the word "indirect," they are most easy to estimate and to +describe. They divide themselves into two classes, reward and +punishment.</p> +<!--Page 273--><a name="P273" id="P273"></a> +<p><b>Definition of Reward.</b> — Reward is defined by the +Century Dictionary as — "return, recompense, the fruit of +one's labor or works; profit," with synonyms, "pay, compensation, +remuneration, requital and retribution." Note particularly the word +"retribution," for it is this aspect of reward, that is, the just +outcome of one's act, that makes the reward justly include +punishment. The word "reward" exactly expresses what management +would wish to be understood by the incentive that it gives its men +to increase their work.</p> +<p><b>Definition of Punishment.</b> — The word "punishment" +is defined as — "pain, suffering, loss, confinement, or other +penalty inflicted on a person for a crime or offense by the +authority to which the offender is subject," with synonyms, +"chastisement, correction, discipline."</p> +<p>The word punishment, as will be noted later, is most unfortunate +when applied to what Scientific Management would mean by a penalty, +though this word also is unfortunate; but, in the first place, +there is no better word to cover the general meaning; and in the +second place, the idea of pain and suffering, which Scientific +Management aims to and does eliminate, is present in some of the +older forms of management Therefore the word punishment must +stand.</p> +<p><b>Rewards and Punishments Result in Action.</b> — There +can be no doubt that a reward is an incentive. There may well be +doubt as to whether a punishment is an incentive to action or not. +This, however, is only at first glance, and the whole thing rests +<!--Page 274--><a name="P274" id="P274"></a> on the meaning of +the word "action." To be active is certainly the opposite of being +at rest. This being true, punishment is just as surely an incentive +to action as is reward. The man who is punished in every case will +be led to some sort of action. Whether this really results in an +increase of output or not simply determines whether the punishment +is a scientifically prescribed punishment or not. If the punishment +is of such a nature that the output ceases because of it, or that +it incites the man punished against the general good, then it does +not in any wise cease to be an active thing, but it is simply a +wrong, and unscientifically assigned punishment, that acts in a +detrimental way.</p> +<p><b>Soldiering Alone Cuts Down Activity.</b> — It is +interesting to note that the greatest cause for cutting down output +is related more closely to a reward than a punishment. Under such +managements as provide no adequate reward for all, and no adequate +assurance that all can receive extra rewards permanently without a +cut in the rate, it may be advisable, for the worker's best +interests, to limit output in order to keep the wages, or reward, +up, and soldiering results. The evils of soldiering will be +discussed more at length under the "Systems of Pay." It is plain, +however, here that soldiering is the result of a cutting down of +action, and it is self-evident that anything which cuts down action +is harmful, not only to the individual himself, but to society at +large.</p> +<p><b>Nature of Rewards and Punishments.</b> — Under all +types of management, the principal rewards consist +<!--Page 275--><a name="P275" id="P275"></a> of promotion and +pay, pay being a broad word used here to include regular wages, a +bonus, shorter hours, other forms of remuneration or recompense; +anything which can be given to the man who does the work to benefit +him and increase his desire to continue doing the work. Punishments +may be negative, that is, they may simply take the form of no +reward; or they may be positive, that is, they may include fines, +discharge, assignment to less remunerative or less desirable work, +or any other thing which can be given to the man to show him that +he has not done what is expected of him and, in theory at least, to +lead him to do better.</p> +<p><b>Nature of Direct Incentives.</b> — Direct incentives +will be such native reaction as ambition, pride and pugnacity; will +be love of racing, love of play; love of personal recognition; will +be the outcome of self-confidence and interest, and so on.</p> +<p><b>The Reward Under Traditional Management Unstandardized.</b> +— As with all other discussions of any part or form of +Traditional Management, the discussion of the incentive under +Traditional Management is vague from the very nature of the +subject. "Traditional" stands for vagueness and for variation, for +the lack of standardization, for the lack of definiteness in +knowledge, in process, in results. The rewards under Traditional +Management, as under all types of management, are promotion and +pay. It must be an almost unthinkably poor system of management, +even under Traditional Management, which did not attempt to provide +for some sort of promotion of the man who did the most and best +<!--Page 276--><a name="P276" id="P276"></a> work; but the lack +of standardization of conditions, of instructions, of the work +itself, and of reward, makes it almost impossible not only to give +the reward, but even to determine who deserves the reward. Under +Traditional Management, the reward need not be positive, that is, +it might simply consist in the negation of some previously existing +disadvantage. It need not be predetermined. It might be nothing +definite. It might not be so set ahead that the man might look +forward to it. In other words it might simply be the outcome of the +good, and in no wise the incentive for the good. It need not +necessarily be personal. It could be shared with a group, or gang, +and lose all feeling of personality. It need not be a fixed reward +or a fixed performance; in fact, if the management were Traditional +it would be almost impossible that it would be a fixed reward. It +might not be an assured reward, and in most cases it was not a +prompt reward. These fixed adjectives describe the reward of +Scientific Management — positive, predetermined, personal, +fixed, assured and prompt. A few of these might apply, or none +might apply to the reward under Traditional Management.</p> +<p><b>Reward a Prize Won by One Only.</b> — If this reward, +whether promotion or pay, was given to someone under Traditional +Management, this usually meant that others thereby lost it; it was +in the nature of a prize which one only could attain, and which the +others, therefore, would lose, and such a lost prize is, to the +average man, for the time at least, a dampener on action. The +rewarding of the winner, <!--Page 277--><a name="P277" id= +"P277"></a> to the loss of all of the losers, has been met by +the workmen getting together secretly, and selecting the winners +for a week or more ahead, thus getting the same reward out of the +employer without the extra effort.</p> +<p><b>Punishment Under Traditional Management Wrong in Theory.</b> +— The punishment, under Traditional Management, was usually +much more than negative punishment; that is to say, the man who was +punished usually received much more than simply the negative return +of getting no reward. The days of bodily punishment have long +passed, yet the account of the beatings given to the galley slaves +and to other workers in the past are too vividly described in +authentic accounts to be lost from memory. To-day, under +Traditional Management, punishment consists of</p> +<p>1. fines, which are usually simply a cutting down of wages, the +part deducted remaining with the company,</p> +<p>2. discharge, or</p> +<p>3. assignment to less pleasant or less desirable work.</p> +<p>This assignment is done on an unscientific basis, the man being +simply put at something which he dislikes, with no regard as to +whether his efficiency at that particular work will be high or +not.</p> +<p><b>Results Are Unfortunate.</b> — The punishment, under +Traditional Management, is usually meted out by the foreman, simply +as one of his many duties. He is apt to be so personally +interested, and perhaps involved, in the case that his punishment +will <!--Page 278--><a name="P278" id="P278"></a> satisfy some +wrong notions, impulse of anger, hate, or envy in him, and will +arouse a feeling of shame or wounded pride, or unappreciation, in +the man to whom punishment is awarded.</p> +<p><b>Direct Incentives Not Scientifically Utilized.</b> — As +for what we have called direct incentive, the love of racing was +often used under Traditional Management through Athletic Contests, +the faults in these being that the men were not properly studied, +so that they could be properly assigned and grouped; care was not +always exercised that hate should not be the result of the contest; +the contest was not always conducted according to the rules of +clean sport; the men slighted quality in hastening the work, and +the results of the athletic contests were not so written down as to +be thereafter utilized. Love of play may have been developed +unconsciously, but was certainly not often studied, Love of +personal recognition was probably often utilized, but in no +scientific way. Neither was there anything in Traditional +Management to develop self-confidence, or to arouse and maintain +interest in any set fashion. Naturally, if the man were in a work +which he particularly liked, which under Traditional Management was +a matter of luck, he would be more or less interested in it, but +there was no scientific way of arousing or holding his interest. +Under Traditional Management, a man might take pride in his work, +as did many of the old bricklayers and masons, who would set +themselves apart after hours if necessary, lock themselves in, and +cut bricks for a complicated arch or fancy pattern, but such pride +was in no way fostered <!--Page 279--><a name="P279" id= +"P279"></a> through the efforts of the management. Pugnacity was +aroused, but it might have an evil effect as well as a good, so far +as the management had any control. Ambition, in the same way, might +be stimulated, and might not. There is absolutely nothing under +Traditional Management to prevent a man being ambitious, gratifying +his pride, and gratifying his pugnacity in a right way, and at the +same time being interested in his work, but there was nothing under +Traditional Management which provided for definite and exact +methods for encouraging these good qualities, seeing that they +developed in a proper channel, and scientifically utilizing the +outcome again and again.</p> +<p><b>Pay for Performance Provided for by Transitory +Management.</b> — Under Transitory Management, as soon as +practicable, one bonus is paid for doing work according to the +method prescribed. As standardization takes place, the second bonus +for completing the task in the time set can be paid. As each +element of Scientific Management is introduced, incentives become +more apparent, more powerful, and more assured.</p> +<p><b>Direct Incentives More Skillfully Used.</b> — With the +separating of output, and recording of output separately, love of +personal recognition grew, self-confidence grew, interest in one's +work grew. The Athletic Contest is so conducted that love of speed, +love of play, and love of competition are encouraged, the worker +constantly feeling that he can indulge in these, as he is assured +of "fair play."</p> +<p><b>Incentives Under Scientific Management Constructive.</b> +— <!--Page 280--><a name="P280" id="P280"></a> It is most +important, psychologically and ethically, that it be understood +that Scientific Management is not in any sense a destructive power. +That only is eliminated that is harmful, or wasteful, or futile; +everything that is good is conserved, and is utilized as much as it +has ever been before, often much more than it has ever been +utilized. The constructive force, under Scientific Management, is +one of its great life principles. This is brought out very plainly +in considering incentives under Scientific Management. With the +scientifically determined wage, and the more direct and more sure +plan of promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded incentives +of older types of management. The value of a fine personality in +all who are to be imitated is not forgotten; the importance of +using all natural stimuli to healthful activity is appreciated. +Scientific Management uses all these, in so far as they can be used +to the best outcome for workers and work, and supplements them by +such scientifically derived additions as could never have been +derived under the older types.</p> +<p><b>Characteristics of the Reward.</b> — Rewards, under +Scientific Management are —</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) positive; that is to say, the reward must be +a definite, positive gain to the man, and not simply a taking away +of some thing which may have been a drawback.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) predetermined; that is to say, before the +man begins to work it must be determined exactly what reward he is +to get for doing the work. <!--Page 281--><a name="P281" id= +"P281"></a></p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) personal; that is, individual, a reward for +that particular man for that particular work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) fixed, unchanged. He must get exactly what +it has been determined beforehand that he shall get.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(e) assured; that is to say, there must be +provision made for this reward before the man begins to work, so +that he may be positive that he will get the reward if he does the +work. The record of the organization must be that rewards have +always been paid in the past, therefore probably will be in the +future.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(f) the reward must be prompt; that is to say, +as soon as the work has been done, the man must get the reward. +This promptness applies to the announcement of the reward; that is +to say, the man must know at once that he has gotten the reward, +and also to the receipt of the reward by the man.</p> +<p><b>Positive Reward Arouses Interest and Holds Attention.</b> +— The benefit of the positive reward is that it arouses and +holds attention. A fine example of a reward that is not positive is +that type of "welfare work" which consists of simply providing the +worker with such surroundings as will enable him to work decently +and without actual discomfort. The worker, naturally, feels that +such surroundings are his right, and in no sense a reward and +incentive to added activity. The reward must actually offer to the +worker something which he has a right to expect +<!--Page 282--><a name="P282" id="P282"></a> only if he earns +it; something which will be a positive addition to his life.</p> +<p><b>Predetermined Reward Concentrates Attention.</b> — The +predetermined reward allows both manager and man to concentrate +their minds upon the work. There is no shifting of the attention, +while the worker wonders what the reward that he is to receive will +be. It is also a strong factor for industrial peace, and for all +the extra activities which will come when industrial conditions are +peaceful.</p> +<p><b>Personal Reward Conserves Individuality.</b> — The +personal reward is a strong incentive toward initiative, towards +the desire to make the most of one's individuality. It is an aid +toward the feeling of personal recognition. From this personal +reward come all the benefits which have been considered under +individuality.<a href="#ch09fn01"><sup>1</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Fixed Reward Eliminates Waste Time.</b> — The fact that +the reward is fixed is a great eliminator of waste to the man and +to the manager both. Not only does the man concentrate better under +the fixed reward, but the reward, being fixed, need not be +determined anew, over and over again; that is to say, every time +that that kind of work is done, simultaneous with the arising of +the work comes the reward that is to be paid for it. All the time +that would be given to determining the reward, satisfying the men +and arguing the case, is saved and utilized.</p> +<p><b>Assured Reward Aids Concentration.</b> — The assured +reward leads to concentration, — even perhaps +<!--Page 283--><a name="P283" id="P283"></a> more so than the +fact that the reward is determined. In case the man was not sure +that he would get the reward in the end, he would naturally spend a +great deal of time wondering whether he would or not. Moreover, no +immediate good fortune counts for much as an incentive if there is +a prospect of bad luck following in the immediate future.</p> +<p><b>Need for Promptness Varies.</b> — The need for +promptness of the reward varies. If the reward is to be given to a +man of an elementary type of mind, the reward must be immediately +announced and must be actually given very promptly, as it is +impossible for anyone of such a type of intellect to look forward +very far.<a href="#ch09fn02"><sup>2</sup></a> A man of a high type +of intellectual development is able to wait a longer time for his +reward, and the element of promptness, while acting somewhat as an +incentive, is not so necessary.</p> +<p>Under Scientific Management, with the ordinary type of worker on +manual work, it has been found most satisfactory to pay the reward +every day, or at the end of the week, and to announce the score of +output as often as every hour. This not only satisfies the longing +of the normal mind to know exactly where it stands, but also lends +a fresh impetus to repeat the high record. There is also, through +the prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in wondering what +the result will be, and in allaying suspense. Suspense is not a +stimulus to great activity, as anyone who has waited for the result +of a doubtful examination can testify, it being almost impossible +<!--Page 284--><a name="P284" id="P284"></a> to concentrate the +mind on any other work until one knows whether the work which has +been done has been completed satisfactorily or not.</p> +<p><b>Promptness Always an Added Incentive.</b> — There are +many kinds of life work and modes of living so terrible as to make +one shudder at the thoughts of the certain sickness, death, or +disaster that are almost absolutely sure to follow such a vocation. +Men continue to work for those wages that lead positively to +certain death, because of the immediateness of the sufficient +wages, or reward. This takes their attention from their ultimate +end. Much more money would be required if payment were postponed, +say, five years after the act, to obtain the services of the +air-man, or the worker subject to the poisoning of some branches of +the lead and mercury industries.</p> +<p>If the prompt reward is incentive enough to make men forget +danger and threatened death, how much more efficient is it in +increasing output where there is no such danger.</p> +<p><b>Immediate Reward Not Always Preferable.</b> — There are +cases where the prompt reward is not to be preferred, because the +delayed reward will be greater, or will be available to more people +Such is the case with the reward that comes from unrestricted +output.</p> +<p>For example, — the immediacy of the temporarily increased +reward caused by restricting output has often led the combinations +of working men to such restriction, with an ultimate loss of reward +to worker, to employer, and to the consumer.</p> +<p><b>Rewards Possible of Attainment by All.</b> — Every +<!--Page 285--><a name="P285" id="P285"></a> man working under +Scientific Management has a chance to win a reward. This means not +only that the man has a "square deal," for the man may have a +square deal under Traditional Management in that he may have a fair +chance to try for all existing rewards. There is more than this +under Scientific Management. By the very nature of the plan itself, +the rewards are possible of achievement by all; any one man, by +winning, in no way diminishes the chances of the others.</p> +<p><b>Rewards of Management Resemble Rewards of Workers.</b> +— So far the emphasis, in the discussion of reward, has been +on the reward as given to the worker, and his feeling toward it. +The reward to the management is just as sure. It lies in the +increased output and therefore the possibility of lower costs and +of greater financial gain. It is as positive; it is as +predetermined, because before the reward to the men is fixed the +management realizes what proportion that reward will bear to the +entire undertaking, and exactly what profits can be obtained. It is +a fundamental of Scientific Management that the management shall be +able to prophesy the outputs ahead. It will certainly be as +personal, if the management side is as thoroughly systematized as +is the managed; it will be as fixed and as assured, and it +certainly is as prompt, as the cost records can be arranged to come +to the management every day, if that is desired.</p> +<p><b>Results of Such Rewards.</b> — There are three other +advantages to management which might well be added here. First, +that a reward such as this attracts the best men to the work; +second, that the <!--Page 286--><a name="P286" id="P286"></a> +reward, and the stability of it, indicates the stability of the +entire institution, and thus raises its standing in the eyes of the +community as well as in its own eyes; and third, that it leads the +entire organization, both managed and managing, to look favorably +at all standardization. The standardized reward is sure to be +attractive to all members. As soon as it is realized that the +reason that it is attractive is because it is <i>standardized</i>, +the entire subject of standardization rises in the estimation of +every one, and the introduction of standards can be carried on more +rapidly, and with greater success.</p> +<p><b>Rewards Divided into Promotion and Pay.</b> — Rewards +may be divided into two kinds; first, promotion and, second, pay. +Under Scientific Management promotion is assured for every man and, +as has been said, this promotion does not thereby hold back others +from having the same sort of promotion. There is an ample place, +under Scientific Management, for every man to advance. <a href= +"#ch09fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> Not only is the promotion sure, thus +giving the man absolute assurance that he will advance as his work +is satisfactory, but it is also gradual.<a href= +"#ch09fn04"><sup>4</sup></a> The promotion must be by degrees, +otherwise the workers may get discouraged, from finding their +promotion has come faster than has their ability to achieve, and +the lack of attention, due to being discouraged, may be contagious. +It is, therefore, of vital importance that the worker be properly +selected, in order that, in his advancement and promotion, he shall +be able to achieve <!--Page 287--><a name="P287" id="P287"></a> +his task after having been put at the new work. He must be advanced +and promoted in a definite line of gradual development, in +accordance with a fully conceived plan. This should be worked out +and set down in writing as a definite plan, similar to the plan on +the instruction card of one of his tasks.</p> +<p><b>Promotion May Be to Places Within or Without the +Business.</b> — In many lines of business, the business +itself offers ample opportunity for promoting all men who can "make +good" as rapidly as they can prepare themselves for positions over +others, and for advancement; but under Scientific Management +provision is made even in case the business does not offer such +opportunities.<a href="#ch09fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> This is done by +the management finding places outside their own organization for +the men who are so trained that they can be advanced.</p> +<p><b>Such Promotion Attracts Workers.</b> — While at first +glance it might seem a most unfortunate thing for the management to +have to let its men go, and while, as Dr. Taylor says, it is +unfortunate for a business to get the reputation of being nothing +but a training school, on the other hand, it has a very salutary +effect upon the men to know that their employers are so +disinterestedly interested in them that they will provide for their +future, even at the risk of the individual business at which they +have started having to lose their services. This will not only, as +Dr. Taylor makes clear, stimulate many men in the establishment +whose men go on to take the places of those who +<!--Page 288--><a name="P288" id="P288"></a> are promoted, but +will also be a great inducement to other men to come into a place +that they feel is unselfish and generous.</p> +<p><b>Subdivisions of "Pay."</b> — Under "Pay" we have +included eight headings:</p> +<p>1. Wages</p> +<p>2. Bonus</p> +<p>3. Shorter hours</p> +<p>4. Prizes other than money</p> +<p>5. Extra knowledge</p> +<p>6. Method of attack</p> +<p>7. Good opinion of others</p> +<p>8. Professional standing.</p> +<p><b>Relation Between Wages and Bonus.</b> — Wages and bonus +are closely related. By wages we mean a fixed sum, or minimum +hourly rate, that the man gets in any case for his time, and by +bonus we mean additional money that he receives for achievement of +method, quantity or quality. Both might very properly be included +under wages, or under money received for the work, or opportunities +for receiving money for work, as the case might be. In the +discussion of the different ways of paying wages under Scientific +Management, there will be no attempt to discuss the economic value +of the various means; the different methods will simply be stated, +and the psychological significance will be, as far as possible, +given.</p> +<p>Before discussing the various kinds of wages advised by the +experts in Scientific Management, it is well to pause a moment to +name the various sorts of methods of compensation recognized by +authorities. <!--Page 289--><a name="P289" id="P289"></a> David +F. Schloss in his "Method of Industrial Remuneration" divides all +possible ways of gaining remuneration into three —</p> +<p>1. the different kinds of wages</p> +<p class="ltritem">1. time wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">2. piece wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">3. task wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">4. progressive wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">5. collective piece wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">6. collective task wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">7. collective progressive wage</p> +<p class="ltritem">8. contract work</p> +<p class="ltritem">9. coöperative work</p> +<p>with</p> +<p>2. profit sharing, and</p> +<p>3. industrial coöperation. These are defined and discussed +at length in his book in a lucid and simple manner.</p> +<p>It is only necessary to quote him here as to the relationship +between these different forms, where he says, page 11, — "The +two leading forms of industrial remuneration under the Wages System +are time wages, and piece wages. Intermediate between these +principal forms, stands that known as task wage, while supplemental +to these two named methods, we find those various systems which +will here be designated by the name of Progressive Wages." <a href= +"#ch09fn06"><sup>6</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Day Work Never Scientific.</b> — The simplest of all +<!--Page 290--><a name="P290" id="P290"></a> systems, says Dr. +Taylor in "A Piece Rate System," paragraph 10, in discussing the +various forms of compensation "is the Day Work plan, in which the +employés are divided into certain classes, and a standard +rate of wages is paid to each class of men," He adds — "The +men are paid according to the position which they fill, and not +according to their individual character, energy, skill and +reliability," The psychological objection to day work is that it +does not arouse interest or effort or hold attention, nor does it +inspire to memorizing or to learning.</p> +<p>It will be apparent that there is no inducement whatever for the +man to do more than just enough to retain his job, for he in no +wise shares in the reward for an extra effort, which goes entirely +to his employer. "Reward," in this case, is usually simply a living +wage, — enough to inspire the man, if he needs the money +enough to work to hold his position, but not enough to incite him +to any extra effort.</p> +<p>It is true that, in actual practice, through the foreman or some +man in authority, the workers on day work may be "speeded up" to a +point where they will do a great deal of work; the foreman being +inspired, of course, by a reward for the extra output, but, as Dr. +Taylor says, paragraph 17 — "A Piece Rate System," this sort +of speeding up is absolutely lacking in self-sustaining power. The +moment that this rewarded foreman is removed, the work will again +fall down. Therefore, day wage has almost no place in ultimate, +scientifically managed work.</p> +<p><b>Piece Work Provides Pay in Proportion to Work Done.</b> +— Piece Work is the opposite of time work, +<!--Page 291--><a name="P291" id="P291"></a> in that under it +the man is paid not for the time he spends at the work, but for the +amount of work which he accomplishes. Under this system, as long as +the man is paid a proper piece rate, and a rate high enough to keep +him interested, he will have great inducements to work. He will +have a chance to develop individuality, a chance for competition, a +chance for personal recognition. His love of reasonable racing will +be cultivated. His love of play may be cultivated.</p> +<p>All of these incentives arise because the man feels that his +sense of justice is being considered; that if the task is properly +laid out, and the price per piece is properly determined, he is +given a "square deal" in being allowed to accomplish as great an +amount of work as he can, with the assurance that his reward will +be promptly coming to him.</p> +<p><b>Danger of Rate Being Cut.</b> — Piece work becomes +objectionable only when the rate is cut. The moment the rate is cut +the first time, the man begins to wonder whether it is going to be +cut again, and his attention is distracted from the work by his +debating this question constantly. At best, his attention wanders +from one subject to the other, and back again. It cannot be +concentrated on his work. After the rate has been cut once or +twice, — and it is sure to be cut unless it has been set from +scientifically derived elementary time units, — the man loses +his entire confidence in the stability of the rate, and, naturally, +when he loses this confidence, his work is done more slowly, due to +lack of further enthusiasm. On the contrary, as long as it is to +his <!--Page 292--><a name="P292" id="P292"></a> advantage to do +the work and he is sure that his reward will be prompt, and that he +will always get the price that has been determined as right by him +and by the employers for his work, he can do this work easily in +the time set. As soon as he feels that he will not get it, he will +naturally begin to do less, as it will be not only to his personal +advantage to do as little as possible, but also very much to the +advantage of his fellows, for whom the rate will also be cut.</p> +<p><b>Task Wage Contains No Incentive to Additional Work.</b> +— What Schloss calls the Task Wage would, as he well says, be +the intermediate between time or day wage and piece wage; that is, +it would be the assigning of a definite amount of work to be done +in definite time, and to be paid for by a definite sum. If the task +were set scientifically, and the time scientifically determined, as +it must naturally be for a scientific task, and the wage adequate +for that work, there would seem to be nothing about this form of +remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisfaction to the +worker. Naturally, however, there would be absolutely no chance for +him to desire to go any faster than the time set, or to accomplish +any more work in the time set than that which he was obliged to, in +that he could not possibly get anything for the extra work +done.</p> +<p><b>Worth of Previous Methods in the Handling.</b> — It +will be noted in the discussion of the three types of compensation +so far discussed, that there is nothing in them that renders them +unscientific. Any one of the three may be used, and doubtless all +are used, <!--Page 293--><a name="P293" id="P293"></a> on works +which are attempting to operate under Scientific Management. +Whether they really are scientific methods of compensation or not, +is determined by the way that they are handled. Certainly, however, +all that any of these three can expect to do is to convince the man +that he is being treated justly; that is to say, if he knows what +sort of a contract he is entering into, the contract is perfectly +fair, provided that the management keeps its part of the contract, +pays the agreed-upon wage.</p> +<p>In proceeding, instead of following the order of Schloss we will +follow the order, at least for a time, of Dr. Taylor In "A Piece +Rate System"; this for two reasons:</p> +<p>First, for the reason that the "Piece Rate System" is later than +Schloss' book, Schloss being 1891, and the "Piece Rate" being 1895; +in the second place that we are following the Scientific Management +side in distinction to the general economic side, laid down by +Schloss. There is, however, nothing in our plan of discussion here +to prevent one's following fairly closely in the Schloss also.</p> +<p><b>The Gain-sharing Plan.</b> — We take up, then, the +Gain-sharing Plan which was invented by Mr. Henry R. Towne and used +by him with success in the Yale & Towne works. This is +described in a paper read before the American Society of Mechanical +Engineers, in professional paper No. 341, in 1888 and also in the +Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's modification of it, described by him in +a paper entitled the "Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," American +Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, +<!--Page 294--><a name="P294" id="P294"></a> in describing the +Profit-sharing Plan, Mr. Halsey says — "Under it, in addition +to regular wages, the employés were offered a certain +percentage of the final profits of the business. It thus divides +the savings due to increased production between employer and +employé."</p> +<p><b>Objections to This Plan.</b> — We note here the +objection to this plan: First, — "The workmen are given a +share in what they do not earn; second, the workmen share +regardless of individual deserts; third, the promised rewards are +remote; fourth, the plan makes no provision for bad years; fifth, +the workmen have no means of knowing if the agreement is carried +out." Without discussing any farther whether these are worded +exactly as all who have tried the plan might have found them, we +may take these on Mr. Halsey's authority and discuss the psychology +of them. If the workmen are given a share in what they do not earn, +they have absolutely no feeling that they are being treated justly. +This extra reward which is given to them, if in the nature of a +present, might much better be a present out and out. If it has no +scientific relation to what they have gotten, if the workmen share +regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr. Taylor says, +paragraph 27 in the "Piece Rate System," is the most serious defect +of all, in that it does not allow for recognition of the personal +merits of each workman. If the rewards are remote, the interest is +diminished. If the plan makes no provision for bad years, it cannot +be self-perpetuating. If the workmen have no means of knowing if +the agreement will be carried out or not, they will be constantly +<!--Page 295--><a name="P295" id="P295"></a> wondering whether +it is being carried out or not, and their attention will +wander.</p> +<p><b>The Premium Plan.</b> — The Premium Plan is thus +described by Mr. Halsey — "The time required to do a given +piece of work is determined from previous experience, and the +workman, in addition to his usual daily wages, is offered a premium +for every hour by which he reduces that time on future work, the +amount of the premium being less than his rate of wages. Making the +hourly premium less than the hourly wages is the foundation stone +upon which rest all the merits of the system."</p> +<p><b>Dr. Taylor's Description of This Plan.</b> — Dr. Taylor +comments upon this plan as follows:</p> +<p>"The Towne-Halsey plan consists in recording the quickest time +in which a job has been done, and fixing this as a standard. If the +workman succeeds in doing the job in a shorter time, he is still +paid his same wages per hour for the time he works on the job, and, +in addition, is given a premium for having worked faster, +consisting of from one-quarter to one-half the difference between +the wages earned and the wages originally paid when the job was +done in standard time," Dr. Taylor's discussion of this plan will +be found in "Shop Management," paragraphs 79 to 91.</p> +<p>Psychologically, the defect of this system undoubtedly is that +it does not rest upon accurate scientific time study, therefore +neither management nor men can predict accurately what is going to +happen. Not being able to predict, they are unable to devote their +entire attention to the work in hand, and the result +<!--Page 296--><a name="P296" id="P296"></a> cannot be as +satisfactory as under an assigned task, based upon time study. The +discussion of this is so thorough in Dr. Taylor's work, and in Mr. +Halsey's work, that it is unnecessary to introduce more here.</p> +<p><b>Profit-sharing</b>. — Before turning to the methods of +compensation which are based upon the task, it might be well to +introduce here mention of "Coöperation," or "Profit-sharing," +which, in its extreme form, usually means the sharing of the +profits from the business as a whole, among the men who do the +work. This is further discussed by Schloss, and also by Dr. Taylor +in paragraphs 32 to 35, in "A Piece Rate System"; also in "Shop +Management," quoting from the "Piece Rate System," paragraphs 73 to +77.</p> +<p><b>Objections to Profit-sharing</b>. — The objections, Dr. +Taylor says, to coöperation are, first in the fact that no +form of coöperation has been devised in which each individual +is allowed free scope for his personal ambition; second, in the +remoteness of the reward; third, in the unequitable division of the +profits. If each individual is not allowed free scope, one sees at +once that the entire advantage of individuality, and of personal +recognition, is omitted. If the reward is remote, we recognize that +its power diminishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be equitable +division of the profits, not only will the men ultimately not be +satisfied, but they will, after a short time, not even be satisfied +while they are working, because their minds will constantly be +distracted by the fact that the division will probably not be +equitable, <!--Page 297--><a name="P297" id="P297"></a> and also +by the fact that they will be trying to plan ways in which they can +get their proper share. Thus, not only in the ultimate outcome, but +also during the entire process, the work will slow up necessarily, +because the men can have no assurance either that the work itself, +or the output, have been scientifically determined.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Management Embodies Valuable Elements of +Profit-sharing</b>. — Scientific Management embodies the +valuable elements of profit-sharing, namely, the idea of +coöperation, and the idea that the workers should share in the +profit.</p> +<p>That the latter of these two is properly emphasized by +Scientific Management is not always understood by the workers. When +a worker is enabled to make three or four times as much output in a +day as he has been accustomed to, he may think that he is not +getting his full share of the "spoils" of increased efficiency, +unless he gets a proportionately increased rate of pay. It should, +therefore, be early made clear to him that the saving has been +caused by the actions of the management, quite as much as by the +increased efforts for productivity of the men. Furthermore, a part +of the savings must go to pay for the extra cost of maintaining the +standard conditions that make such output possible. The necessary +planners and teachers usually are sufficient as object-lessons to +convince the workers of the necessity of not giving all the extra +savings to the workers.</p> +<p>It is realized that approximately one third of the extra profits +from the savings must go to the employer, <!--Page 298--><a name= +"P298" id="P298"></a> about one third to the employés, +and the remainder for maintaining the system and carrying out +further investigations.</p> +<p>This once understood, the satisfaction that results from a +coöperative, profit-sharing type of management will be +enjoyed.</p> +<p>The five methods of compensation which are to follow are all +based upon the task, as laid down by Dr. Taylor; that is to say, +upon time study, and an exact knowledge by the man, and the +employers, of how much work can be done.</p> +<p><b>Differential Rate Piece Work the Ultimate Form of +Compensation.</b> — Dr. Taylor's method of compensation, +which is acknowledged by all thoroughly grounded in Scientific +Management to be the ultimate form of compensation where it can be +used, is called Differential Rate Piece Work. It is described in "A +Piece Rate System," paragraphs 50 to 52, as follows: —</p> +<p>"This consists, briefly, in paying a higher price per piece, or +per unit, or per job, if the work is done in the shortest possible +time and without imperfection, than is paid if the work takes a +longer time or is imperfectly done. To illustrate — suppose +20 units, or pieces, to be the largest amount of work of a certain +kind that can be done in a day. Under the differential rate system, +if a workman finishes 20 pieces per day, and all of these pieces +are perfect, he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay +for the day 15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he works too slowly +and turns out only, say 19 pieces, then instead of receiving 15 +cents per piece he gets <!--Page 299--><a name="P299" id= +"P299"></a> only 12 cents per piece, making his pay for the day +12×19= $2.28, instead of $3.00 per day. If he succeeds in +finishing 20 pieces — some of which are imperfect — +then he should receive a still lower rate of pay, say 10¢ or +5¢ per piece, according to circumstances, making his pay for +the day $2.00 or only $1.00, instead of $3.00."</p> +<p><b>Advantages of This System.</b> — This system is founded +upon knowledge that for a large reward men will do a large amount +of work. The small compensation for a small amount of work — +and under this system the minimum compensation is a little below +the regular day's work — may lead men to exert themselves to +accomplish more work. This system appeals to the justice of the +men, in that it is more nearly an exact ratio of pay to +endeavor.</p> +<p><b>Task Work with a Bonus</b>. — The Task work with Bonus +system of compensation, which is the invention of Mr. H.L. Gantt, +is explained in "A Bonus System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, +read before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, December, +1901, by Mr. Gantt. This system is there described as follows: +—</p> +<p>"If the man follows his instructions and accomplishes all the +work laid out for him as constituting his proper task for the day, +he is paid a definite bonus in addition to the day rate which he +always gets. If, however, at the end of the day he has failed to +accomplish all of the work laid out, he does not get his bonus, but +simply his day rate." This system of compensation is explained more +fully in Chapter VI of Mr. Gantt's book, "Work, Wages and Profits," +<!--Page 300--><a name="P300" id="P300"></a> where he explains +the modification now used by him in the bonus.</p> +<p><b>Advantages of Task Work with a Bonus.</b> — The +psychological advantage of the task with a Bonus is the fact that +the worker has the assurance of a living wage while learning, no +matter whether he succeeds in winning his bonus or not. In the last +analysis, it is "day rate" for the unskilled, and "piece rate" for +the skilled, and it naturally leads to a feeling of security in the +worker. Mr. Gantt has so admirably explained the advantages, +psychological as well as industrial, of his system, that it is +unnecessary to go farther, except to emphasize the fine feeling of +brotherhood which underlies the idea, and its expression.</p> +<p><b>The Differential Bonus System.</b> — The Differential +Bonus System of Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frederick A. +Parkhurst, and is described by him in his book "Applied Methods of +Scientific Management."</p> +<p>"The time the job should be done in is first determined by +analysis and time study. The bonus is then added above the day work +line. No bonus is paid until a definitely determined time is +realized. As the time is reduced, the bonus is increased."</p> +<p><b>Three Rate with Increased Rate System</b>. — The Three +Rate System of Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frank B. +Gilbreth and consists of day work, i.e., a day rate, or a flat +minimum rate, which all who are willing to work receive until they +can try themselves out; of a middle rate, which is given to the man +when he accomplishes the work with exactness +<!--Page 301--><a name="P301" id="P301"></a> of compliance to +prescribed motions, according to the requirements of his +instruction card; and of a high rate, which is paid to the man when +he not only accomplishes the task in accordance with the +instruction card, but also within the set time and of the +prescribed quality of finished work.</p> +<p><b>Advantage of This System.</b> — The advantage of this +is, first of all, that the man does not have to look forward so far +for some of his reward, as it comes to him just as soon as he has +shown himself able to do the prescribed methods required +accurately. The first extra reward is naturally a stimulus toward +winning the second extra reward. The middle rate is a stimulus to +endeavor to perform that method which will enable him easiest to +achieve the accomplishment of the task that pays the highest wage. +The day rate assures the man of a living wage. The middle rate pays +him a bonus for trying to learn. The high rate gives him a piece +rate when he is skilled.</p> +<p>Lastly, as the man can increase his output, with continued +experience, above that of the task, he receives a differential rate +piece on the excess quantity, this simply making an increasing +stimulus to exceed his previous best record.</p> +<p><b>All Task Systems Investigate Loss of Bonus.</b> — Under +all these bonus forms of wages, if the bonus is not gained the fact +is at once investigated, in order that the blame may rest where it +belongs. The blame may rest upon the workers, or it may be due to +the material, which may be defective, or different from standard; +it may be upon the supervision, or some fault of the management in +not supplying the material <!--Page 302--><a name="P302" id= +"P302"></a> in the proper quality, or sequence, or a bad +condition of tools or machinery; or upon the instruction card. The +fact that the missing of the bonus is investigated is an added +assurance to the workman that he is getting the "square deal," and +enlists his sympathy with these forms of bonus system, and his +desire to work under them. The fact that the management will +investigate also allows him to concentrate upon output, with no +worry as to the necessity of his investigating places where he has +fallen short.</p> +<p><b>Necessity for Workers Bearing This Loss.</b> — In any +case, whether the blame for losing the bonus is the worker's fault +directly or not, he loses his bonus. This, for two reasons; in the +first place, if he did not lose his bonus he would have no +incentive to try to discover flaws before delays occurred; he +would, otherwise, have an incentive to allow the material to pass +through his hands, defective or imperfect as the case might be. +This is very closely associated with the second reason, and that +is, that the bonus comes from the savings caused by the plan of +management, and that it is necessary that the workers as well as +the management shall see that everything possible tends to increase +the saving. It is only as the worker feels that his bonus is a part +of the saving, that he recognizes the justice of his receiving it, +that it is in no wise a gift to him, simply his proper share, +accorded not by any system of philanthropy, or so-called welfare +work, but simply because his own personal work has made it possible +for the management to hand back his share to him.</p> +<!--Page 303--><a name="P303" id="P303"></a> +<p><b>Users of Any Task System Appreciate Other Task Systems.</b> +— It is of great importance to the workers that the users of +any of these five methods of compensation of Scientific Management +are all ready and glad to acknowledge the worth of all these +systems. In many works more than one, in some all, of these systems +of payment may be in use. Far from this resulting in confusion, it +simply leads to the understanding that whatever is best in the +particular situation should be used. It also leads to a feeling of +stability everywhere, as a man who has worked under any of these +systems founded on time study can easily pass to another. There is +also a great gain here in the doing away of industrial warfare.</p> +<p><b>Shorter Hours and Holidays Effective Rewards.</b> — +Probably the greatest incentive, next to promotion and more pay, +are shorter hours and holidays. In some cases, the shorter hours, +or holidays, have proven even more attractive to the worker than +the increase of pay. In Shop Management, paragraph 165, Dr. Taylor +describes a case where children working were obliged to turn their +entire pay envelopes over to their parents. To them, there was no +particular incentive in getting more money, but, when the task was +assigned, if they were allowed to go as soon as their task was +completed, the output was accomplished in a great deal shorter +time. Another case where shorter hours were successfully tried, was +in an office where the girls were allowed the entire Saturday every +two weeks, if the work was accomplished within a set amount of +time. This extra time for shopping and matinees proved more +attractive <!--Page 304--><a name="P304" id="P304"></a> than any +reasonable amount of extra pay that could be offered.</p> +<p><b>Desire for Approbation an Incentive.</b> — Under +"Individuality" were discussed various devices for developing the +individuality of the man, such as his picture over a good output or +record. These all act as rewards or incentives. How successful they +would be, depends largely upon the temperament of the man and the +sort of work that is to be done. In all classes of society, among +all sorts of people, there is the type that loves approbation. This +type will be appealed to more by a device which allows others to +see what has been done than by almost anything else. As to what +this device must be, depends on the intelligence of the man.</p> +<p><b>Necessity for Coöperation a Strong Incentive.</b> +— Under Scientific Management, many workers are forced by +their coworkers to try to earn their bonuses, as "falling down on" +tasks, and therefore schedules, may force them to lose their +bonuses also.</p> +<p>The fact that, in many kinds of work, a man falling below his +task will prevent his fellows from working, is often a strong +incentive to that man to make better speed. For example, on a +certain construction job in Canada, the teamsters were shown that, +by their work, they were cutting down working opportunities for +cart loaders, who could only be hired as the teamsters hauled +sufficient loads to keep them busy.</p> +<p><b>Value of Knowledge Gained an Incentive to a Few Only.</b> +— Extra knowledge, and the better method of attack learned +under Scientific Management, are rewards that will be appreciated +by those of superior <!--Page 305--><a name="P305" id= +"P305"></a> intelligence only. They will, in a way, be +appreciated by all, because it will be realized that, through what +is learned, more pay or promotion is received, but the fact that +this extra knowledge, and better method of attack, will enable one +to do better in all lines, not simply in the line at which one is +working, and will render one's life more full and rich, will be +appreciated only by those of a wide experience.</p> +<p><b>Acquired Professional Standing a Powerful Incentive.</b> +— Just as the success of the worker under Scientific +Management assures such admiration by his fellow-workers as will +serve as an incentive toward further success, so the professional +standing attained by success in Scientific Management acts as an +incentive to those in more responsible positions.</p> +<p>As soon as it is recognized that Scientific Management furnishes +the only real measure of efficiency, its close relationship to +professional standing will be recognized, and the reward which it +can offer in this line will be more fully appreciated.</p> +<p><b>Punishments Negative and Positive.</b> — Punishments +may be first negative, that is, simply a loss of promised rewards. +Such punishments, especially in cases of men who have once had the +reward, usually will act as the necessary stimulus to further +activity. Punishments may also be positive, such things as fines, +assignment to less pleasant work, or as a last resort, +discharge.</p> +<p><b>Fines Never Accrue to the Management</b>. — Fines have +been a most successful mode of punishment under Scientific +Management. Under many of the old forms of management, the fines +were turned back <!--Page 306--><a name="P306" id="P306"></a> to +the management itself, thus raising a spirit of animosity in the +men, who felt that everything that they suffered was a gain to +those over them. Under Scientific Management all fines are used in +some way for the benefit of the men themselves. All fines should be +used for some benefit fund, or turned into the insurance fund. The +fines, as has been said, are determined solely by the +disciplinarian, who is disinterested in the disposition of the +funds thus collected. As the fines do not in any way benefit the +management, and in fact rather hurt the management in that the men +who pay them, no matter where they are applied, must feel more or +less discouraged, it is, naturally, for the benefit of the +management that there shall be as few fines as possible. Both +management and men realize this, which leads to industrial peace, +and also leads the managers, the functional foremen, and in fact +every one, to eliminate the necessity and cause for fines to as +great an extent as is possible.</p> +<p><b>Assignment to Less Pleasant Work Effective Punishment</b>. +— Assignment to less pleasant work is a very effective form +of discipline. It has many advantages which do not show on the +surface, The man may not really get a cut in pay, though his work +be changed, and thus the damage he receives is in no wise to his +purse, but simply to his feeling of pride. In the meantime, he is +gaining a wider experience of the business, so that even the worst +disadvantage has its bright side.</p> +<p><b>Discharge To Be Avoided Wherever Possible.</b> — +Discharge is, of course, available under Scientific Management, as +under all other forms, but it is really <!--Page 307--><a name= +"P307" id="P307"></a> less used under Scientific Management than +under any other sort, because if a man is possibly available, and +in any way trained, it is better to do almost anything to teach +him, to assign him to different work, to try and find his +possibilities, than to let him go, and have all that teaching +wasted as far as the organization which has taught it is +concerned.</p> +<p><b>Discharge a Grave Injury to a Worker.</b> — Moreover, +Scientific Management realizes that discharge may be a grave injury +to a worker. As Mr. James M. Dodge, who has been most successful in +Scientific Management and is noted for his good work for his +fellow-men, eloquently pleads, in a paper on "The Spirit in Which +Scientific Management Should Be Approached," given before the +Conference on Scientific Management at Dartmouth College, October, +1911:</p> +<p>"It is a serious thing for a worker who has located his home +within reasonable proximity to his place of employment and with +proper regard for the schooling of his children, to have to seek +other employment and readjust his home affairs, with a loss of time +and wages. Proper management takes account not only of this fact, +but also of the fact that there is a distinct loss to the employer +when an old and experienced employé is replaced by a new +man, who must be educated in the methods of the establishment. An +old employé has, in his experience, a potential value that +should not be lightly disregarded, and there should be in case of +dismissal the soundest of reasons, in which personal prejudice or +temporary mental condition of the foreman should play no part.</p> +<!--Page 308--><a name="P308" id="P308"></a> +<p>"Constant changing of employés is not wholesome for any +establishment, and the sudden discovery by a foreman that a man who +has been employed for a year or more is 'no good' is often a +reflection on the foreman, and more often still, is wholly untrue. +All working men, unless they develop intemperate or dishonest +habits, have desirable value in them, and the conserving and +increasing of their value is a duty which should be assumed by +their superiors."</p> +<p><b>Punishment Can Never Be Entirely Abolished.</b> — It +might be asked why punishments are needed at all under this system; +that is, why positive punishments are needed. Why not merely a lack +of reward for the slight offenses, and a discharge if it gets too +bad? It must be remembered, however, that the punishments are +needed to insure a proper appreciation of the reward. If there is +no negative side, the beauty of the reward will never be realized; +the man who has once suffered by having his pay cut for something +which he has done wrong, will be more than ready to keep up to the +standard. In the second place, unless individuals are punished, the +rights of other individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. +When it is considered that under Scientific Management the man who +gives the punishment is the disinterested disciplinarian, that the +punishment is made exactly appropriate to the offense, and that no +advantage from it comes to any one except the men themselves, it +can be understood that the psychological basis is such as to make a +punishment rather an incentive than a detriment.</p> +<p><b>Direct Incentives Numerous and Powerful.</b> — As +<!--Page 309--><a name="P309" id="P309"></a> for the direct +incentives, these are so many that it is possible to enumerate only +a few. For example —</p> +<p>This may be simply a result of love of speed, love of play, or +love of activity, or it may be, in the case of a man running a +machine, not so much for the love of the activity as for a love of +seeing things progress rapidly. There is a love of contest which +has been thoroughly discussed under "Athletic Contests," which +results in racing, and in all the pleasures of competition.</p> +<p><b>Racing Directed Under Scientific Management.</b> — The +psychology of the race under Scientific Management is most +interesting. The race is not a device of Scientific Management to +speed up the worker, any speed that would be demanded by Scientific +Management beyond the task-speed would be an unscientific thing. On +the other hand, it is not the scope of Scientific Management to bar +out any contests which would not be for the ultimate harm of the +workers. Such interference would hamper individuality; would make +the workers feel that they were restricted and held down. While the +workers are, under Scientific Management, supposed to be under the +supervision of some one who can see that the work is only such as +they can do and continuously thrive, any such interference as, for +example, stopping a harmless race, would at once make them feel +that their individual initiative was absolutely destroyed. It is +not the desire of Scientific Management to do anything of that +sort, but rather to use every possible means to make the worker +feel that his initiative is being conserved.</p> +<p><b>All "Native Reactions" Act as Incentives.</b> — Pride, +<!--Page 310--><a name="P310" id="P310"></a> self-confidence, +pugnacity, — all the "native reactions" utilized by teaching +serve as direct incentives.</p> +<p><b>Results of Incentives to the Work.</b> — All incentives +in every form of management, tend, from their very nature, to +increase output. When Scientific Management is introduced, there is +selection of such incentives as will produce greatest amount of +specified output, and the results can be predicted.</p> +<p><b>Results of Incentives to the Worker.</b> — Under +Traditional Management the incentives are usually such that the +worker is likely to overwork himself if he allows himself to be +driven by the incentive. This results in bodily exhaustion. So, +also, the anxiety that accompanies an unstandardized incentive +leads to mental exhaustion. With the introduction of Transitory +Management, danger from both these types of exhaustion is removed. +The incentive is so modified that it is instantly subject to +judgment as to its ultimate value.</p> +<p>Scientific Management makes the incentives stronger than they +are under any other type, partly by removing sources of worry, +waste and hesitation, partly by determining the ratio of incentive +to output. The worker under such incentives gains in bodily and +mental poise and security.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER IX FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn01" id="ch09fn01"> 1</a>. W.P. +Gillette, <i>Cost Analysis Engineering</i>, p. 3.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn02" id="ch09fn02"> 2</a>. F.W. +Taylor, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. 33, para. 59.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn03" id="ch09fn03"> 3</a>. Hugo +Diemer, <i>Factory Organization and Administration</i>, p. 5.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn04" id="ch09fn04"> 4</a>. James +M. Dodge, Paper 1115, A.S.M.E., p. 723.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn05" id="ch09fn05"> 5</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 310-311, Harper Ed., pp. +142-143.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch09fn06" id="ch09fn06"> 6</a>. See +also C.U. Carpenter, <i>Profit Making in Shop and Factory +Management</i>, pp. 113-115. For an extended and excellent account +of the theory of well-known methods of compensating workmen, see +C.B. Going, <i>Principles of Industrial Engineering</i>, chap. +VIII.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page 311--><a name="P311" id="P311"></a> +<h3><a name="chapterx" id="chapterx">CHAPTER X</a></h3> +<h3>WELFARE</h3> +<p><b>Definition of Welfare.</b> — "Welfare" means "a state +or condition of doing well; prosperous or satisfactory course or +relation; exemption from evil;" in other words, well-being. This is +the primary meaning of the word. But, to-day, it is used so often +as an adjective, to describe work which is being attempted for the +good of industrial workers, that any use of the word welfare has +that fringe of meaning to it.</p> +<p><b>"Welfare" Here Includes Two Meanings.</b> — In the +discussion of welfare in this chapter, both meanings of the word +will be included. "Welfare" under each form of management will be +discussed, first, as meaning the outcome to the men of the type of +management itself; and second, as discussing the sort of welfare +work which is used under that form of management.</p> +<p><b>Discussion of First Answers. Three Questions.</b> — A +discussion of welfare as the result of work divides itself +naturally into three parts, or three questions:</p> +<p class="ltritem">What is the effect upon the physical life?</p> +<p class="ltritem">What is the effect upon the mental life?</p> +<p class="ltritem">What is the effect upon the moral life?</p> +<p><b>Under Traditional Management No Physical Improvement.</b> +— The indefiniteness of Traditional Management +<!--Page 312--><a name="P312" id="P312"></a> manifests itself +again in this discussion, it being almost impossible to make any +general statement which could not be controverted by particular +examples; but it is safe to say that in general, under Traditional +Management, there is not a definite physical improvement in the +average worker. In the first place, there is no provision for +regularity in the work. The planning not being done ahead, the man +has absolutely no way of knowing exactly what he will be called +upon to do. There being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of +knowing whether he can go to work the second part of the day, say, +with anything like the efficiency with which he could go to work in +the first part of the day. There being no standard, the amount of +work which he can turn out must vary according as the tools, +machinery and equipment are in proper condition, and the material +supplies his needs.</p> +<p><b>No Good Habits Necessarily Formed.</b> — In the second +place, under Traditional Management there are no excellent habits +necessarily formed. The man is left to do fairly as he pleases, if +only the general outcome be considered sufficient by those over +him. There may be a physical development on his part, if the work +be of a kind which can develop him, or which he likes to such an +extent that he is willing to do enough of it to develop him +physically; this liking may come through the play element, or +through the love of work, or through the love of contest, or +through some other desire for activity, but it is not provided for +scientifically, and the outcome cannot be exactly predicted. +Therefore, under Traditional Management <!--Page 313--><a name= +"P313" id="P313"></a> there is no way of knowing that good +health and increased strength will result from the work, and we +know that in many cases poor health and depleted strength have been +the outcome of the work. We may say then fairly, as far as physical +improvement is concerned that, though it might be the outcome of +Traditional Management, it was rather in spite of Traditional +Management, in the sense at least that the management had nothing +to do with it, and had absolutely no way of providing for it. The +moment that it was provided for in any systematic way, the +Traditional Management vanished.</p> +<p><b>No Directed Mental Development.</b> — Second, mental +development. Here, again, there being no fixed habits, no specially +trained habit of attention, no standard, there was no way of +knowing that the man's mind was improving. Naturally, all minds +improve merely with experience. Experience must be gathered in, and +must be embodied into judgment. There is absolutely no way of +estimating what the average need in this line would be, it varies +so much with the temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be +a thing that the man himself was responsible for, and not the +management, certainly not the management in any impersonal sense. +Some one man over an individual worker might be largely responsible +for improving him intellectually. If this were so, it would be +because of the temperament of the over-man, or because of his +friendly desire to impart a mental stimulus; seldom, if ever, +because the management provided for its being imparted. Thus, there +was absolutely no way of predicting that wider or deeper +<!--Page 314--><a name="P314" id="P314"></a> interest, or that +increased mental capacity, would take place.</p> +<p><b>Moral Development Doubtful.</b> — As for moral +development, in the average Traditional Management it was not only +not provided for, but rather doubtful. A man had very little chance +to develop real, personal responsibilities, in that there was +always some one over him who was watching him, who disciplined him +and corrected him, who handed in the reports for him, with the +result that he was in a very slight sense a free agent. Only men +higher up, the foremen and the superintendents could obtain real +development from personal responsibilities. Neither was there much +development of responsibility for others, in the sense of being +responsible for personal development of others. Having no accurate +standards to judge by, there was little or no possibility of +appreciation of the relative standing of the men, either by the +individual of himself, or by others of his ability. The man could +be admired for his strength, or his skill, but not for his real +efficiency, as measured in any satisfactory way. The management +taught self-control in the most rudimentary way, or not at all. +There was no distinct goal for the average man, neither was there +any distinct way to arrive at such a goal; it was simply a case, +with the man lower down, of making good for any one day and getting +that day's pay. In the more enlightened forms of Traditional +Management, a chance for promotion was always fairly sure, but the +moment that the line of promotion became assured, we may say that +Traditional Management had really ceased, and +<!--Page 315--><a name="P315" id="P315"></a> some form of +Transitory Management was in operation.</p> +<p><b>"Square Deal" Lacking.</b> — Perhaps the worst lack +under Traditional Management is the lack of the "square deal." In +the first place, even the most efficient worker under this form of +management was not sure of his place. This not only meant worry on +his part, which distracted his attention from what he did, but +meant a wrong attitude all along the line. He had absolutely no way +of knowing that, even though he did his best, the man over him, in +anger, or because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not +discharge him, put him in a lower position. So also the custom of +spying, the only sort of inspection recognized under Traditional +Management of the most elementary form, led to a feeling on the +men's part that they were being constantly watched on the sly, and +to an inability to concentrate. This brought about an inability to +feel really honest, for being constantly under suspicion is enough +to poison even one's own opinion of one's integrity. Again, being +at the beck and call of a prejudiced foreman who was all-powerful, +and having no assured protection from the whims of such a man, the +worker was obliged, practically for self-protection, to try to +conciliate the foremen by methods of assuming merits that are +obvious, on the surface. He ingratiates himself in the favor of the +foreman in that way best adapted to the peculiarities of the +character of the foreman, sometimes joining societies, or the +church of the foreman, sometimes helping him elect some political +candidate or relative; at other times, by the more direct method +<!--Page 316--><a name="P316" id="P316"></a> of buying drinks, +or taking up a subscription for presenting the foreman with a gold +watch, "in appreciation of his fairness to all;" sometimes by +consistently losing at cards or other games of chance. When it is +considered that this same foreman was probably, at the time, +enjoying a brutal feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense +of confidence of the "square deal" could develop. There are +countless ways that the brutal enjoyment of power could be +exercised by the man in a foreman's position. As has already been +said, some men prefer promotion to a position of power more than +anything else. Nearly all desire promotion to power for the extra +money that it brings, and occasionally, a man will be found who +loves the power, although unconsciously, for the pleasure he +obtains in lording over other human beings. This quality is present +more or less in all human beings. It is particularly strong in the +savage, who likes to torture captured human beings and animals, and +perhaps the greatest test for high qualifications of character and +gentleness is that of having power over other human beings without +unnecessarily accenting the difference in the situation. Under +Military Management, there is practically no limit to this power, +the management being satisfied if the foreman gets the work out of +the men, and the men having practically no one to appeal to, and +being obliged to receive their punishment always from the hands of +a prejudiced party.</p> +<p><b>Little Possibility of Development of Will.</b> — Being +under such influence as this, there is little or no possibility of +the development of an intelligent will. The <!--Page 317--><a name= +"P317" id="P317"></a> "will to do" becomes stunted, unless the +pay is large enough to lead the man to be willing to undergo abuses +in order to get the money. There is nothing, moreover, in the +aspect of the management itself to lead the man to have a feeling +of confidence either in himself, or in the management, and to have +that moral poise which will make him wish to advance.</p> +<p><b>Real Capacity Not Increased.</b> — With the likelihood +of suspicion, hate and jealousy arising, and with constant +preparations for conflict, of which the average union and +employers' association is the embodiment, naturally, real capacity +is not increased, but is rather decreased, under this form of +management, and we may ascribe this to three faults:</p> +<p>First, to lack of recognition of individuality, — men are +handled mostly as gangs, and personality is sunk.</p> +<p>Second, to lack of standardization, and to lack of time study, +that fundamental of all standardization, which leads to absolute +inability to make a measured, and therefore scientific judgment, +and</p> +<p>Third, to the lack of teaching; to the lack of all +constructiveness.</p> +<p>These three lacks, then, constitute a strong reason why +Traditional Management does not add to the welfare of the men.</p> +<p><b>Little Systematized Welfare Work Under Traditional +Management.</b> — As for welfare work, — that is, work +which the employers themselves plan to benefit the men, if under +such work be included timely impulses of the management for the +men, and the carrying of these out in a more or less systematic +way, it will be true to say that such welfare work has existed +<!--Page 318--><a name="P318" id="P318"></a> in all times, and +under all forms of management. The kind-hearted man will show his +kind heart wherever he is, but it is likewise true to say that +little systematic beneficial work is done under what we have +defined as Traditional Management.</p> +<p><b>Definite Statements as to Welfare Under Transitory Management +Difficult To Make.</b> — It is almost impossible to give any +statement as to the general welfare of workers under Transitory +Management, because, from the very nature of the case, Transitory +Management is constantly changing. In the discussion of the various +chapters, and in showing how individuality, functionalization, +measurement, and so on, were introduced, and the psychological +effect upon the men of their being introduced, welfare was more or +less unsystematically considered. In turning to the discussion +under Scientific Management and showing how welfare is the result +of Scientific Management and is incorporated in it, much as to its +growth will be included.</p> +<p><b>Welfare Work Under Transitory Management Is Usually +Commendable.</b> — As to the welfare work under Transitory +Management, much could be said, and much has been said and written. +Typical Welfare Work under Transitory Management deserves nothing +but praise. It is the result of the dedication of many beautiful +lives to a beautiful cause. It consists of such work as building +rest rooms for the employés, in providing for amusements, in +providing for better working conditions, in helping to better +living conditions, in providing for some sort of a welfare worker +who can talk with the employés and benefit +<!--Page 319--><a name="P319" id="P319"></a> them in every way, +including being their representative in speaking with the +management.</p> +<p><b>An Underlying Flaw Is Apparent.</b> — There can be no +doubt that an enormous quantity of good has been done by this +welfare work, both positively, to the employés themselves, +and indirectly, to the management, through fostering a kinder +feeling. There is, however, a flaw to be found in the underlying +principles of this welfare work as introduced in Transitory +Management, and that is that it takes on more or less the aspect of +a charity, and is so regarded both by the employés and by +the employer. The employer, naturally, prides himself more or less +upon doing something which is good, and the employé +naturally resents more or less having something given to him as a +sort of charity which he feels his by right.</p> +<p><b>Its Effect Is Detrimental.</b> — The psychological +significance of this is very great. The employer, feeling that he +has bestowed a gift, is, naturally, rather chagrined to find it is +received either as a right, or with a feeling of resentment. +Therefore, he is often led to decrease what he might otherwise do, +for it is only an unusual and a very high type of mind that can be +satisfied simply with the doing of the good act, without the return +of gratitude. On the other hand, the employé, if he be a man +of pride, may resent charity even in such a general form as this, +and may, with an element of rightness, prefer that the money to be +expended be put into his pay envelope, instead. If it is simply a +case of better working conditions, something that improves him as +an efficient <!--Page 320--><a name="P320" id="P320"></a> worker +for the management, he will feel that this welfare work is in no +sense something which he receives as a gift, but rather something +which is his right, and which benefits the employer exactly as +much, if not more than it benefits him.</p> +<p><b>Welfare Work Not Self-perpetuating.</b> — Another fault +which can be found with the actual administration of the welfare +work, is the fact that it often disregards one of the fundamental +principles of Scientific Management, in that the welfare workers +themselves do not train enough people to follow in their footsteps, +and thus make welfare self-perpetuating.</p> +<p>In one case which the writer has in mind, a noble woman is +devoting her life to the welfare of a body of employés in an +industry which greatly requires such work. The work which she is +doing is undoubtedly benefiting these people in every aspect, not +only of their business but of their home lives, but it is also true +that should she be obliged to give up the work, or be suddenly +called away, the work would practically fall to pieces. It is built +up upon her personality, and, wonderful as it is, its basis must be +recognized as unscientific and temporary.</p> +<p><b>Scientific Provision for Welfare Under Scientific +Management.</b> — Under Scientific Management general welfare +is provided for by: —</p> +<p>The effect that the work has on physical improvement. This we +shall discuss under three headings —</p> +<p>1. the regularity of the work.</p> +<p>2. habits.</p> +<p>3. physical development.</p> +<!--Page 321--><a name="P321" id="P321"></a> +<p>As for the regularity of the work — we have</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) The apportionment of the work and the rest. +Under Scientific Management, work time and rest time are +scientifically apportioned. This means that the man is able to come +to each task with the same amount of strength, and that from his +work he gains habits of regularity.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) The laying out of the work. The standards +upon which the instruction cards are based, and the method of +preparing them, assure regularity.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) The manner of performing the work. Every +time that identical work is done, it is done in an identical +manner.</p> +<p>The resulting regularity has an excellent effect upon the +physical welfare of the worker.</p> +<p>2. Habits, under Scientific Management,</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) are prescribed by standards. The various +physical habits of the man, the motions that are used, having all +been timed and then standardized, the worker acquires physical +habits that are fixed.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) are taught; <a href= +"#ch10fn01"><sup>1</sup></a> therefore they are not remote but come +actually and promptly into the consciousness and into the action of +the worker.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) are retained, because they are standard +habits and because the rewards which are given for using them make +it an object to the worker to retain them.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(d) Are reënforced by individuality and +functionalization; <!--Page 322--><a name="P322" id="P322"></a> +that is to say, the worker is considered as an individual, and his +possibilities are studied, before he is put into the work; +therefore, his own individuality and his own particular function +naturally reënforce those habits which he is taught to form. +These habits, being scientifically derived, add to physical +improvement.</p> +<p>3. Physical development</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) is fostered through the play element, has +been scientifically studied, and is utilized as far as possible; +the same is true of the love of work, which is reënforced by +the fact that the man has been placed where he will have the most +love for his work.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) is insured by the love of contest, which is +provided for not only by contest with others, but by the constant +contest of the worker with his own previous records. When he does +exceed these records he utilizes powers which it is for his good +physically, as well as otherwise, to utilize.</p> +<p><b>Results of Physical Improvement.</b> — This regularity, +good habits, and physical development, result in good health, +increased strength and a better appearance. To these three results +all scientific managers testify. An excellent example of this is +found in Mr. Gantt's "Work, Wages and Profits," where the increased +health, the better color and the better general appearance of the +workers under Scientific Management is commented on as well as the +fact that they <!--Page 323--><a name="P323" id="P323"></a> are +inspired by their habits to dress themselves better and in every +way to become of a higher type. <a href= +"#ch10fn02"><sup>2</sup></a></p> +<p><b>Mental Development.</b> — Welfare under Scientific +Management is provided for by Mental Development. This we may +discuss under habits, and under general mental development.</p> +<p>1. As for habits we must consider</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) Habits of attention. Under Scientific +Management, as we have shown, attention must become a habit. Only +when it does become a habit, can the work required be properly +performed, and the reward received. As only those who show +themselves capable of really receiving the reward are considered to +be properly placed, ultimately all who remain at work under +Scientific Management must attain this habit of attention.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) Habit of method of attack. This not only +enables the worker to do the things that he is assigned +satisfactorily, but also has the broadening effect of teaching him +how to do other things, i.e., showing him the "how" of doing +things, and giving him standards which are the outcome of mental +habits, and by which he learns to measure.</p> +<p>2. General mental development is provided for by the experience +which the worker gets not only in the general way in which all who +work must give experience, but in the set way provided for by +Scientific Management. This is so presented to the worker +<!--Page 324--><a name="P324" id="P324"></a> that it becomes +actually usable at once. This not only allows him to judge others, +but provides for self-knowledge, which is one of the most valuable +of all of the outcomes of Scientific Management. He becomes +mentally capable of estimating his own powers and predicting what +he himself is capable of doing. The outcome of this mental +development is</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) wider interest.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) deeper interest.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(c) increased mental capabilities.</p> +<p>The better method of attack would necessarily provide for wider +interest. The fact that any subject taken up is in its ultimate +final unit form, would certainly lead to deeper interest; and the +exercise of these two faculties leads to increased mental +capabilities.</p> +<p><b>Moral Development.</b> — Moral development under +Scientific Management results from the provisions made for +cultivating —</p> +<p class="ltritem">1. personal responsibility.</p> +<p class="ltritem">2. responsibility for others.</p> +<p class="ltritem">3. appreciation of standing.</p> +<p class="ltritem">4. self-control.</p> +<p class="ltritem">5. "squareness."</p> +<p>1. Personal responsibility is developed by</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) Individual recognition. When the worker was +considered merely as one of a gang, it was very easy for him to +shift responsibilities upon others. When he knows that he is +regarded by the management, and by his mates, as an individual, +that what he does will show up in an individual record, and will +receive individual reward or punishment, <!--Page 325--><a name= +"P325" id="P325"></a> necessarily personal responsibility is +developed.</p> +<p>Moreover, this individual recognition is brought to his mind by +his being expected to fill out his own instruction card. In this +way, his personal responsibility is specifically brought home to +him.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) The appreciation which comes under +Scientific Management. This appreciation takes the form of reward +and promotion, and of the regard of his fellow-workers; therefore, +being a growing thing, as it is under Scientific Management, it +insures that his personal responsibility, shall also be a growing +thing, and become greater the longer he works under Scientific +Management.</p> +<p>2. Responsibility for others is provided for by the +inter-relation of all functions. It is not necessary that all +workers under Scientific Management should understand all about it. +However, many do understand, and the more that they do understand, +the more they realize that everybody working under Scientific +Management is more or less dependent upon everybody else. Every +worker must feel this, more or less, when he realizes that there +are eight functional bosses over him, who are closely related to +him, on whom he is dependent, and who are more or less dependent +upon him. The very fact that the planning is separated from the +performing, means that more men are directly interested in any one +piece of work; in fact, that every individual piece of work that is +done is in some way a bond between a great number of men, some of +whom are planning and some <!--Page 326--><a name="P326" id= +"P326"></a> of whom are performing it. This responsibility for +others is made even more close in the dependent bonuses which are a +part of Scientific Management, a man's pay being dependent upon the +work of those who are working under him. Certainly, nothing could +bring the fact more closely to the attention of each and every +worker under this system, than associating it with the pay +envelope.</p> +<p>3. Appreciation of standing is fostered by</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) individual records. Through these the +individual himself knows what he has done, his fellows know, and +the management knows.</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) comparative records, which show even those +who might not make the comparison, exactly how each worker stands, +with relation to his mates, or with relation to his past +records.</p> +<p>This appreciation of standing is well exemplified in the happy +phrasing of Mr. Gantt — "There is in every workroom a +fashion, or habit of work, and the new worker follows that fashion, +for it isn't respectable not to. The man or woman who ignores +fashion does not get much pleasure from associating with those that +follow it, and the new member consequently tries to fall in with +the sentiment of the community. <a href= +"#ch10fn03"><sup>3</sup></a> Our chart shows that the stronger the +sentiment in favor of industry is, the harder the new member tries +and the sooner he succeeds."</p> +<p>4. Self-control is developed by</p> +<p class="ltritem">(a) the habits of inhibition fostered by +Scientific Management, — that is to say, when the +<!--Page 327--><a name="P327" id="P327"></a> right habits are +formed, necessarily many wrong habits are eliminated. It becomes a +part of Scientific Management to inhibit all inattention and wrong +habits, and to concentrate upon the things desired. This is further +aided by</p> +<p class="ltritem">(b) the distinct goal and the distinct task +which Scientific Management gives, which allow the man to hold +himself well in control, to keep his poise and to advance +steadily.</p> +<p>5. "Squareness." This squareness is exemplified first of all by +the attitude of the management. It provides, in every way, that the +men are given a "square deal," in that the tasks assigned are of +the proper size, and that the reward that is given is of the proper +dimensions, and is assured. This has already been shown to be +exemplified in many characteristics of Scientific Management, and +more especially in the inspection and in the disciplining.</p> +<p><b>Moral Development Results in Contentment, Brotherhood and the +"Will To Do".</b> — The three results of this moral +development are</p> +<p class="ltritem">1. contentment</p> +<p class="ltritem">2. brotherhood</p> +<p class="ltritem">3. a "will to do."</p> +<p>1. Contentment is the outgrowth of the personal responsibility, +the appreciation of standing, and the general "squareness" of the +entire plan of Scientific Management.</p> +<p>2. The idea of brotherhood is fostered particularly through the +responsibility for others, through the feeling that grows up that +each man is dependent <!--Page 328--><a name="P328" id= +"P328"></a> upon all others, and that it is necessary for every +man to train up another man to take his place before he can be +advanced. Thus it comes about that the old caste life, which so +often grew up under Traditional Management, becomes abolished, and +there ensues a feeling that it is possible for any man to grow up +into any other man's place. The tug-of-war attitude of the +management and men is transformed into the attitude of a band of +soldiers scaling a wall. Not only is the worker pulled up, but he +is also forced up from the bottom. <a href= +"#ch10fn04"><sup>4</sup></a></p> +<p>3. The "will to do" is so fostered by Scientific Management that +not only is the worker given every incentive, but he, personally, +becomes inspired with this great desire for activity, which is +after all the best and finest thing that any system of work can +give to him.</p> +<p><b>Interrelation of Physical, Mental and Moral Development.</b> +— As to the interrelation of physical, mental and moral +development, it must never be forgotten that the mind and the body +must be studied together, <a href="#ch10fn05"><sup>5</sup></a> and +that this is particularly true in considering the mind in +management. <a href="#ch10fn06"><sup>6</sup></a> For the best +results of the mind, the body must be cared for, and provided for, +fully as much as must the mind, or the best results from the mind +will not, and cannot, be obtained.</p> +<!--Page 329--><a name="P329" id="P329"></a> +<p>Successful management must consider the results of all mental +states upon the health, happiness and prosperity of the worker, and +the quality, quantity and cost of the output. That is to say, +unless the mind is kept in the right state, with the elimination of +worry, the body cannot do its best work, and, in the same way, +unless the body is kept up to the proper standard, the mind cannot +develop. Therefore, a really good system of management must +consider not only these things separately, but in their +interrelation, — and this Scientific Management does.</p> +<p><b>Result of Physical, Mental and Moral Development Is Increased +Capacity.</b> — The ultimate result of all this physical +improvement, mental development and moral development is increased +capacity, increased capacity not only for work, but for health, and +for life in general.</p> +<p><b>Welfare Work an Integral Part of Scientific Management.</b> +— Strictly speaking, under Scientific Management, there +should be no necessity for a special department of Welfare Work. It +should be so incorporated in Scientific Management that it is not +to be distinguished. Here the men are looked out for in such a way +under the operation of Scientific Management itself that there is +no necessity for a special welfare worker. This is not to say that +the value of personality will disappear under Scientific +Management, and that it may not be necessary in some cases to +provide for nurses, for physical directors, and for advisers. It +will, however, be understood that the entire footing of these +people is changed under Scientific Management. It is realized under +Scientific <!--Page 330--><a name="P330" id="P330"></a> +Management that these people, and their work, benefit the employers +as much as the employés. They must go on the regular payroll +as a part of the efficiency equipment. The workers must understand +that there is absolutely no feeling of charity, or of gift, in +having them; that they add to the perfectness of the entire +establishment.</p> +<h3>SUMMARY</h3> +<p><b>Results of Welfare to the Work.</b> — Because of +Welfare Work, of whatever type, more and better work is +accomplished, with only such expenditure of effort as is beneficial +to the worker. Not only does the amount of work done increase, but +it also tends to become constant, after it has reached its standard +expected volume.</p> +<p><b>Result of Welfare Work to the Worker.</b> — This +description of welfare of the men under Scientific Management, in +every sense of the word welfare, has been very poor and incomplete +if from it the reader has not deduced the fact that Scientific +Management enables the worker not only to lead a fuller life in his +work, but also outside his work; that it furnishes him hours enough +free from the work to develop such things as the work cannot +develop; that it furnishes him with health and interest enough to +go into his leisure hours with a power to develop himself there; +that it furnishes him with a broader outlook, and, best of all, +with a capacity of judging for himself what he needs most to get. +In other words, if Scientific Management is what it claims to be, +it leads to the development of a fuller life in every sense of the +<!--Page 331--><a name="P331" id="P331"></a> word, enabling the +man to become a better individual in himself, and a better member +of his community. If it does not do this it is not truly Scientific +Management. Miss Edith Wyatt has said, very beautifully, at the +close of her book, "Making Both Ends Meet" <a href= +"#ch10fn07"><sup>7</sup></a>: "No finer dream was ever dreamed than +that the industry by which the nation lives, should be so managed +as to secure for the men and women engaged in it their real +prosperity, their best use of their highest powers. How far +Scientific Management will go toward realizing the magnificent +dream in the future, will be determined by the greatness of spirit +and the executive genius with which its principles are sustained by +all the people interested in its inauguration, the employers, the +workers and the engineers."</p> +<p>We wish to modify the word "dream" to the word "plan." The plan +of Scientific Management is right, and, as Miss Wyatt says, is but +waiting for us to fulfill the details that are laid out before +us.</p> +<p><b>Conclusion.</b> — The results thus far attained by +Scientific Management justify a prediction as to its future. It +will accomplish two great works.</p> +<p>1. It will educate the worker to the point where workers will be +fitted to work, and to live.</p> +<p>2. It will aid the cause of Industrial Peace.</p> +<p>It will put the great power of knowledge into every man's hands. +This it must do, as it is founded on coöperation, and this +coöperation demands that all shall know and shall be +taught.</p> +<p>With this knowledge will come ability to understand +<!--Page 332--><a name="P332" id="P332"></a> the rights of +others as well as one's own. "To know all is to pardon all."</p> +<p>Necessity for coöperation, and trained minds: — These +two can but lead to elimination of that most wasteful of all +warfare — Industrial Warfare. Such will be the future of +Scientific Management, — whether it win universal approval, +universal disapproval, or half-hearted advocacy to-day.</p> +<p>When the day shall come that the ultimate benefits of Scientific +Management are realized and enjoyed, depends on both the managers +and the workers of the country; but, in the last analysis, the +greatest power towards hastening the day lies in the hands of the +workers.</p> +<p>To them Scientific Management would desire to appeal as a road +up and out from industrial monotony and industrial turmoil. There +are many roads that lead to progress. This road leads straightest +and surest, — and we can but hope that the workers of all +lands, and of our land in particular, will not wait till necessity +drives, but will lead the way to that true "Brotherhood" which may +some day come to be.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--CHAPTER X FOOTNOTES:--> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn01" id="ch10fn01"> 1</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, p. 115, p. 121.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn02" id="ch10fn02"> 2</a>. Pp. +171-172.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn03" id="ch10fn03"> 3</a>. H.L. +Gantt, <i>Work, Wages and Profits</i>, pp. 154-155.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn04" id="ch10fn04"> 4</a>. F.W. +Taylor, <i>Shop Management</i>, para. 170, Harper Ed., p. 76.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn05" id="ch10fn05"> 5</a>. +William James, <i>Psychology, Advanced Course</i>. Vol. II, p. +372.</p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn06" id="ch10fn06"> 6</a>. See +remarkable work of Dr. A. Imbert, <i>Evaluation de la Capacite de +Travail d'un Ouvrier Avant et Apres un Accident; Les Methodes du +Laboratoire appliquees a l'Etude directe et pratique des Questions +ouvrieres.</i></p> +<p class="note"><a name="ch10fn07" id="ch10fn07"> 7</a>. Clark +and Wyatt, Macmillan, pp. 269-270.</p> +<br /> +<hr /> +<br /> +<!--Page Index--> +<h3><a name="index" id="index">INDEX</a></h3> +<p>Accidents, prevention by measuring devices, <a href= +"#P114">114.</a><br /> + prevention by standardization, <a href="#P180">180</a>.<br /> +"All Round" Men utilized by scientific management, <a href= +"#P087">87</a>.<br /> +Ambition, use of, <a href="#P258">258</a>.<br /> +American Journal of Physiology — 1904, <a href= +"#P111">111</a>.<br /> +Analysis, amount governed by nature of work, <a href= +"#P126">126</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P123">123</a>.<br /> + field of psychology in, <a href="#P128">128</a>.<br /> + training should be provided in schools, <a href= +"#P129">129</a>.<br /> + worker should understand process, <a href= +"#P129">129</a>.<br /> +Analysis and Synthesis, cost the determining factor, <a href= +"#P127">127</a>.<br /> + effect on work of, <a href="#P138">138</a>.<br /> + effect on worker of, <a href="#P138">138</a>.<br /> + place in traditional management, <a href= +"#P124">124</a>.<br /> + place in transitory management, <a href= +"#P125">125</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P125">125</a>.<br /> + use by psychology, <a href="#P123">123</a>.<br /> +Analysist, duties of, <a href="#P126">126</a>.<br /> + qualifications of, <a href="#P128">128</a>.<br /> +Animals, standardization of work with, <a href= +"#P170">170</a>.<br /> +Appreciation, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P325">325</a>.<br /> +Apprentices, teaching of, <a href="#P262">262</a>.<br /> +Approbation, as an incentive, <a href="#P304">304</a>.<br /> +Athletic Contests, description of, <a href="#P034">34</a>.<br /> +Attention, forming habit of, <a href="#P240">240</a>.<br /> + gaining of, <a href="#P178">178</a>.<br /> + held by bulletin board, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> + relation to fatigue, <a href="#P160">160</a>.<br /> + relation to instruction card, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> + relation to placing of workers, <a href= +"#P161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Babbage, Charles — "Economy of Manufacturers," <a href= +"#P002">2</a>, <a href="#P076">76</a>, <a href= +"#P179">179</a>.<br /> +Barth, C.G. — "A.S.M.E. Paper 1010," <a href="#P078">78</a>, +<a href="#P174">174</a>.<br /> +Blan, L.B. — "Special Study of Incidence of Retardation," +<a href="#P029">29</a>.<br /> +Body, relation of mind to, <a href="#P029">48</a>, <a href= +"#P160">160</a>.<br /> +Bonus, definition of, <a href="#P228">288</a>.<br /> + investigation of loss of, <a href="#P301">301</a>.<br /> +Brashear, John, <a href="#P081">81</a>.<br /> +Breakdowns, prevented by measuring devices, <a href= +"#P114">114</a>.<br /> +Brotherhood, coming of, <a href="#P332">332</a><br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P328">328</a>.<br /> +Bulletin Board, aids attention, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> + benefit of, <a href="#P194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Calkins, M.W. — "A First Book in Psychology," <a href= +"#P022">22</a>, <a href="#P053">53</a>, <a href= +"#P171">171</a>.<br /> +Card, instruction, <a href="#P044">44</a>.<br /> +Capacity, increasing of, <a href="#P317">317</a>, <a href= +"#P329">329</a>.<br /> +Class, relation to individual, <a href="#P049">49</a>.<br /> +Clothing, in sports, <a href="#P167">167</a>.<br /> + standards, <a href="#P166">166</a>.<br /> +Constructiveness, benefits of, <a href="#P260">260</a>.<br /> +Contentment, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P327">327</a>.<br /> +Cooke, M.L. — "Bulletin No. 5 Carnegie Foundation," <a href= +"#P009">9</a>, <a href="#P086">86</a>, <a href="#P094">94</a>, +<a href="#P139">139</a>.<br /> +Coöperation, necessity for, <a href="#P102">102</a>, <a href= +"#P265">265</a>, <a href="#P332">332</a>.<br /> + relation to incentives, <a href="#P304">304</a>.<br /> +Cost, determining factor in analysis and synthesis, <a href= +"#P127">127</a>.<br /> +Curiosity, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Dana, R.T. — "Handbook of Steam Shovel Work," <a href= +"#P111">111</a>.<br /> +Dana and Saunders — "Rock Drilling," <a href= +"#P139">139</a>.<br /> +Day, Charles — "Industrial Plants," <a href= +"#P066">66</a>.<br /> +Day Work, description of, <a href="#P289">289</a>.<br /> +Decision of choice, elimination of, <a href="#P163">163</a>.<br /> +Demonstration, value of, <a href="#P227">227</a>.<br /> +Development, mental, <a href="#P313">313</a>, <a href= +"#P323">323</a>.<br /> + moral, <a href="#P324">324</a>.<br /> +Devices, standard, need for, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> +Differential Bonus, description of, <a href="#P300">300</a>.<br /> +Differential Rate Piece, description of, <a href= +"#P298">298</a>.<br /> +Discharge, avoidance of, <a href="#P306">306</a>.<br /> +Disciplinarian, duties of, <a href="#P068">68</a>, <a href= +"#P070">70</a>.<br /> +Disciplining, psychology of, <a href="#P071">71</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P070">70</a>, <a href= +"#P072">72</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P069">69</a>.<br /> +Dodge, James M., <a href="#P135">135</a>.<br /> + "Discussion to Paper 1119 A.S.M.E.," <a href= +"#P131">131</a>.<br /> +Driver management, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Efficiency, controlling factor in, <a href="#P003">3</a>.<br /> + measured by time and motion study, <a href= +"#P115">115</a>.<br /> + securing of, <a href="#P003">3</a>.<br /> +Emulation, use of, <a href="#P258">258</a>.<br /> +"Engineering," London, Sept 15, 1911, <a href= +"#P136">136</a>.<br /> +Equipment, measured by motion study and time study, <a href= +"#P108">108</a>.<br /> + standardization of, <a href="#P163">163</a>.<br /> +Errors, checking of, <a href="#P112">112</a>.<br /> +Exception principle, records made on, <a href= +"#P187">187</a>.<br /> + value of, <a href="#P188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Fatigue, eliminating of, <a href="#P159">159</a>.<br /> + importance of, <a href="#P233">233</a>.<br /> + influence of distracted attention on, <a href= +"#P160">160</a>.<br /> + relation to standards, <a href="#P168">168</a>.<br /> +Fear, treatment of, <a href="#P252">252</a>.<br /> +Fines, use of, <a href="#P305">305</a>.<br /> +First class man, definition of, <a href="#P098">98</a>, <a href= +"#P152">152</a>.<br /> +Foreman, duties of, <a href="#P055">55</a>.<br /> + duties under scientific management, <a href= +"#P064">64</a>.<br /> + qualifications of, <a href="#P054">54</a>, <a href= +"#P055">55</a>.<br /> +Foremanship, functionalized, <a href="#P063">63</a>.<br /> +Functional foreman, as teacher, <a href="#P224">224</a>.<br /> +Functional foremanship, teaching feature of, <a href= +"#P063">63</a>, <a href="#P064">64</a>.<br /> +Functionalization, definition of, <a href="#P052">52</a>.<br /> + effect upon work of, <a href="#P083">83</a>.<br /> + effect upon worker of, <a href="#P085">85</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P061">61</a>, <a href= +"#P081">81</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P054">54</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P061">61</a>.<br /> + use by psychology, <a href="#P053">53</a>.<br /> +Functions, basis of division into, <a href="#P065">65</a>.<br /> + place of operation of, <a href="#P066">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Gain-sharing, definition of, <a href="#P293">293</a>.<br /> + objections to, <a href="#P294">294</a>.<br /> +Gang boss, duties of, <a href="#P073">73</a>.<br /> +Gang instruction card, description of, <a href="#P045">45</a>, +<a href="#P175">175</a>.<br /> +Gantt, H.L. — "A.S.M.E. Paper 928," <a href="#P095">95</a>, +<a href="#P181">181</a>.<br /> + "A.S.M.E. Paper No. 1002," <a href="#P055">55</a>.<br /> + "Work, Wages and Profits," <a href="#P024">24</a>, <a href= +"#P084">84</a>, <a href="#P089">89</a>, <a href="#P093">93</a>, +<a href="#P125">125</a>.<br /> +Gilbreth, F.B. — "Bricklaying System," <a href= +"#P130">130</a>.<br /> + "Cost Reducing System," <a href="#P008">8</a>, <a href= +"#P035">35</a>, <a href="#P095">95</a>, <a href= +"#P127">127</a>.<br /> + "Motion Study," <a href="#P004">4</a>, <a href= +"#P028">28</a>, <a href="#P134">134</a>.<br /> +Gillette, H.P. — "A.S.E.C. Paper No. 1," <a href= +"#P003">3</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a>.<br /> + "Cost Analysis Engineering," <a href="#P055">55</a>.<br /> +Gillette and Dana — "Cost Keeping and Management +Engineering," <a href="#P003">3</a>, <a href="#P053">53</a>, +<a href="#P086">86</a>.<br /> +Given man, definition of, <a href="#P152">152</a>.<br /> +Going, C.B. — "Methods of the Sante Fe," <a href= +"#P158">158</a>.<br /> +Government, duty in measurement of, <a href="#P120">120</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Habit, importance of, <a href="#P234">234</a>.<br /> + methods of instilling, <a href="#P236">236</a>.<br /> + relation to standards, <a href="#P235">235</a>.<br /> + relation to teaching, <a href="#P235">235</a>.<br /> +Habits, necessity of forming, <a href="#P312">312</a>.<br /> + of attention, <a href="#P024">24</a>.<br /> + of motions, right, <a href="#P238">238</a>.<br /> + standardizing of, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P321">321</a>.<br /> +Hathaway, H.K. — "Machinery," Nov., 1906, <a href= +"#P084">84</a>.<br /> +Holidays, effectiveness as reward, <a href="#P303">303</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Idiosyncrasies, emphasis on, <a href="#P050">50</a>.<br /> +Iles, George — "Inventors at Work," <a href= +"#P017">17</a>.<br /> +Imagination, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P248">248</a>.<br /> +Imitation, use of, <a href="#P256">256</a>.<br /> +Improvement, physical, <a href="#P322">322</a>.<br /> +Incentives, classes of, <a href="#P272">272</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P271">271</a>.<br /> + direct, <a href="#P275">275</a>.<br /> + importance of, <a href="#P271">271</a>.<br /> + indirect, <a href="#P272">272</a>.<br /> + individual, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + relation to coöperation, <a href="#P304">304</a>.<br /> + relation to interest, <a href="#P242">242</a>.<br /> + relation to knowledge, <a href="#P304">304</a>.<br /> + relation to standards, <a href="#P140">140</a>.<br /> + result on work of, <a href="#P310">310</a>.<br /> + result on worker of, <a href="#P310">310</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P279">279</a>.<br /> +Individual, as unit, <a href="#P050">50</a>.<br /> + differences respected, <a href="#P246">246</a>.<br /> + importance of study of, <a href="#P023">23</a>.<br /> + relation to class, <a href="#P049">49</a>.<br /> +Individuality, definition of, <a href="#P021">21</a>.<br /> + development of, <a href="#P050">50</a>.<br /> + psychological emphasis on, <a href="#P022">22</a>.<br /> + recognition under scientific management, <a href= +"#P027">27</a>.<br /> + recognition under transitory management, <a href= +"#P026">26</a>.<br /> + relation to instruction card, <a href="#P044">44</a>.<br /> + relation to standardization, <a href="#P149">149</a>.<br /> + relation to teaching, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + result upon work, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + result upon worker, <a href="#P047">47</a>.<br /> + status under traditional management, <a href= +"#P024">24</a>.<br /> +Industrial engineering, <a href="#P106">106</a>.<br /> +Industrial peace, relation of scientific management to, <a href= +"#P331">331</a>.<br /> +Initiative, records of, <a href="#P185">185</a>.<br /> +Initiative and Incentive Management, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> +Inspector, duties of, <a href="#P075">75</a>.<br /> +Instruction card, as teacher, <a href="#P221">221</a>.<br /> + clerk, duties of, <a href="#P067">67</a>.<br /> + contents of, <a href="#P154">154</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P153">153</a>.<br /> + educative value of, <a href="#P156">156</a>.<br /> + gang, <a href="#P045">45</a>.<br /> + help to memory of, <a href="#P176">176</a>.<br /> + individuality under, <a href="#P044">44</a>.<br /> + language of, <a href="#P157">157</a>.<br /> + relation to attention, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> + types of, <a href="#P154">154</a>.<br /> +Interest, relation to incentives, <a href="#P242">242</a>.<br /> +Interim management, <a href="#P011">11</a>.<br /> +Invention, fostered by comparing methods, <a href= +"#P107">107</a>.<br /> +Invention, relation scientific management, <a href= +"#P136">136</a>.<br /> + under standardization, <a href="#P179">179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +James, William — "Psychology," <a href="#P007">7</a>.<br /> + "Psychology, Briefer Course," <a href="#P022">22</a>.<br /> +Job, long time, provision for, <a href="#P083">83</a>.<br /> + short time, provision for, <a href="#P082">82</a>.<br /> +Journeymen, teaching of, <a href="#P262">262</a>.<br /> +Judgment, derivation of, <a href="#P250">250</a>.<br /> + result of teaching, <a href="#P251">251</a>.<br /> + securing of, <a href="#P240">240</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Knowledge, as an incentive, <a href="#P304">304</a>.<br /> + transferred under scientific management, <a href= +"#P117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ladd, G.T. — definition of psychology, <a href= +"#P022">22</a>.<br /> +Le Chatelier, H. — "Discussion to Paper 1119, A.S.M.E," +<a href="#P124">124</a>.<br /> +Long time job, provision for, <a href="#P083">83</a>.<br /> +Loyalty, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P253">253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Man, first class definition of, <a href="#P098">98</a>, <a href= +"#P152">152</a>.<br /> + given, definition of, <a href="#P152">152</a>.<br /> + standard, definition of, <a href="#P152">152</a>.<br /> +Management, change in meaning of, <a href="#P008">8</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P006">6</a>.<br /> + driver, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> + good foundation of, <a href="#P003">3</a>.<br /> + initiative and incentive, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> + interim, <a href="#P011">11</a>.<br /> + Marquis of Queensbury, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> + military, <a href="#P009">9</a>.<br /> + place of analysis and synthesis in, <a href= +"#P124">124</a>.<br /> + place to start study of, <a href="#P005">5</a>.<br /> + scientific, <a href="#P012">12</a>.<br /> + successful, definition of, <a href="#P003">3</a>.<br /> + teaching of, <a href="#P003">3</a>.<br /> + three stages of, <a href="#P014">14</a>.<br /> + traditional, definition of, <a href="#P008">8</a>.<br /> + traditional, preferable name for, <a href="#P009">9</a>, +<a href="#P011">11</a>.<br /> + transitory, <a href="#P011">11</a>.<br /> + types of, <a href="#P008">8</a>.<br /> + ultimate, <a href="#P012">12</a>.<br /> + value of study of, <a href="#P002">2</a>, <a href= +"#P004">4</a>.<br /> +Manufacturers, duty toward measurement, <a href= +"#P122">122</a>.<br /> +Manual training, necessity for, <a href="#P264">264</a>.<br /> +Marquis of Queensbury management, <a href="#P010">10</a>.<br /> +Measurement, coöperation of worker under, <a href= +"#P116">116</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P090">90</a>.<br /> + duty of government toward, <a href="#P120">120</a>.<br /> + effect upon worker of, <a href="#P114">114</a>.<br /> + elimination of waste by, <a href="#P115">115</a>.<br /> + importance in management, <a href="#P093">93</a>.<br /> + importance in psychology, <a href="#P090">90</a>.<br /> + methods in psychology, <a href="#P091">91</a>.<br /> + methods under scientific management, <a href= +"#P105">105</a>.<br /> + necessity for training in, <a href="#P104">104</a>.<br /> + of teaching and learning, <a href="#P263">263</a>.<br /> + problems in management, <a href="#P094">94</a>.<br /> + relation to task of, <a href="#P098">98</a>.<br /> + results to work of, <a href="#P113">113</a>.<br /> + selection of units, <a href="#P111">111</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P097">97</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P095">95</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P096">96</a>.<br /> +Measured functional management, <a href="#P012">12</a>.<br /> +Measurer, qualifications of, <a href="#P099">99</a>.<br /> +Measuring devices, prevent accidents and breakdowns, <a href= +"#P114">114</a>.<br /> +Memory, relation to scientific management, <a href= +"#P245">245</a>.<br /> +Metcalfe, Henry — "Cost of Manufactures," <a href= +"#P113">113</a>, <a href="#P140">140</a>.<br /> +Method of attack, standardization of, <a href= +"#P172">172</a>.<br /> +Methods, benefits of comparison of, <a href="#P107">107</a>.<br /> + introduction of new, <a href="#P137">137</a>.<br /> + measurement by motion study and time study, <a href= +"#P106">106</a>.<br /> +Micro-motion study, definition of, <a href="#P106">106</a>.<br /> + demands coöperation, <a href="#P103">103</a>.<br /> +Military management, <a href="#P009">9</a>.<br /> +Mind, relation of body to, <a href="#P048">48</a>, <a href= +"#P160">160</a>.<br /> +Mnemonic symbols, advantages of, <a href="#P151">151</a>.<br /> + use of, <a href="#P247">247</a>.<br /> +Motion cycles, use in teaching, <a href="#P244">244</a>.<br /> +Motions, habits of right, <a href="#P238">238</a>.<br /> + teaching of right, <a href="#P237">237</a>.<br /> +Motion study, aims of, <a href="#P110">110</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P106">106</a>.<br /> + measurement by, <a href="#P105">105</a>.<br /> + scope of, <a href="#P108">108</a>.<br /> +Münsterburg, Hugo — "American Problems," <a href= +"#P022">22</a>, <a href="#P030">30</a>, <a href="#P053">53</a>, +<a href="#P090">90</a>, <a href="#P112">112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Native reactions, use of, <a href="#P252">252</a>, <a href= +"#P309">309</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Object lessons, value of, <a href="#P226">226</a>.<br /> +Observation, dangers of surreptitious, <a href= +"#P102">102</a>.<br /> + necessity for unbiased, <a href="#P101">101</a>.<br /> +Observed worker, qualifications of, <a href="#P103">103</a>.<br /> +Observer, qualifications of, <a href="#P099">99</a>.<br /> + relation of Vocational Guidance Bureau, <a href= +"#P101">101</a>.<br /> +One-talent men, utilized by scientific management, <a href= +"#P086">86</a>.<br /> +Oral teaching, advantages of, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> +Order of work clerk, duties of, <a href="#P066">66</a>.<br /> +Outputs, advantages of recording, <a href="#P037">37</a>.<br /> + advantages of separating, <a href="#P036">36</a>.<br /> + handling under traditional management, <a href= +"#P025">25</a>.<br /> + relation to individuality, <a href="#P033">33</a>.<br /> +Ownership, use of feeling of, <a href="#P259">259</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Parkhurst, F.A. — "Applied Methods of Scientific +Management," <a href="#P181">181</a>.<br /> +Pay, subdivisions of, <a href="#P288">288</a>.<br /> + use of, <a href="#P286">286</a>.<br /> +Performing, separated from planning, <a href="#P061">61</a>.<br /> +Personality, value of, <a href="#P255">255</a>.<br /> +Piece work, description of, <a href="#P290">290</a>.<br /> +Planning, a life study, <a href="#P076">76</a>.<br /> + an epoch-making example of, <a href="#P078">78</a>.<br /> + detailed done by all under scientific management, <a href= +"#P080">80</a>.<br /> + hardship to worker of individual, <a href= +"#P079">79</a>.<br /> + open to all who like it, <a href="#P080">80</a>.<br /> + separated from performing, <a href="#P061">61</a>.<br /> + taken from all who dislike it, <a href="#P080">80</a>.<br /> + wastefulness of individual, <a href="#P079">79</a>.<br /> +Planning department, work of, <a href="#P062">62</a>.<br /> +Pin plan, description of, <a href="#P194">194</a>.<br /> +Premium plan, description of, <a href="#P295">295</a>.<br /> +Pride, stimulation of, <a href="#P259">259</a>.<br /> +Professional standing as an incentive, <a href= +"#P305">305</a>.<br /> +Profit-sharing, description of, <a href="#P296">296</a>.<br /> + objections to, <a href="#P296">296</a>.<br /> + relation to scientific management, <a href= +"#P297">297</a>.<br /> +Programme, as routing, <a href="#P193">193</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P192">192</a>.<br /> + derived from record under scientific management, <a href= +"#P203">203</a>.<br /> + relation to records, <a href="#P196">196</a>.<br /> + result to work and worker of, <a href="#P195">195</a>.<br /> + types of, <a href="#P197">197</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P192">192</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P193">193</a>.<br /> +Promotion, provision for under scientific management, <a href= +"#P087">87</a>, <a href="#P088">88</a>.<br /> + use of, <a href="#P286">286</a>.<br /> +Psychology, aid to industries by, <a href="#P233">233</a>.<br /> + appreciation of scientific management by, <a href= +"#P093">93</a>.<br /> +Psychology, definition of, <a href="#P001">1</a>, <a href= +"#P022">22</a>.<br /> + experimental field of, <a href="#P030">30</a>.<br /> + relation to progress, <a href="#P260">260</a>.<br /> + value of study of, <a href="#P001">1</a>, <a href= +"#P004">4</a>.<br /> +Psychology of management, conclusions of, <a href= +"#P018">18</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P001">1</a>.<br /> + description and outline of, <a href="#P001">1</a>.<br /> + importance of, <a href="#P001">1</a>, <a href="#P004">4</a>, +<a href="#P015">15</a>.<br /> + outline of method of, <a href="#P018">18</a>.<br /> + plan of study in, <a href="#P015">15</a>.<br /> +Pugnacity, usefulness of, <a href="#P259">259</a>.<br /> +Punishment, avoidance of, <a href="#P308">308</a>.<br /> + classes of, <a href="#P305">305</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P273">273</a>.<br /> + nature of, <a href="#P274">274</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P277">277</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Quality, maintenance of, <a href="#P238">238</a>.<br /> + standardization of, <a href="#P171">171</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Rate, necessity of maintaining, <a href="#P291">291</a>.<br /> +Reason, education of, <a href="#P239">239</a>.<br /> +Recognition, individual, <a href="#P324">324</a>.<br /> +Records, advantages of, <a href="#P039">39</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P183">183</a>.<br /> + educative value of, <a href="#P190">190</a>, <a href= +"#P223">223</a>.<br /> + individual, <a href="#P040">40</a>.<br /> + making by workers of, <a href="#P040">40</a>, <a href= +"#P187">187</a>.<br /> + necessity for detailed, <a href="#P109">109</a>.<br /> + of achievement, <a href="#P187">187</a>.<br /> + of good behavior, <a href="#P186">186</a>.<br /> + of initiative, <a href="#P185">185</a>.<br /> + posting of, <a href="#P188">188</a>.<br /> + relation to incentives, <a href="#P041">41</a>.<br /> + relation to programmes, <a href="#P196">196</a>.<br /> + result to work of, <a href="#P188">188</a>.<br /> + result on worker of, <a href="#P189">189</a>.<br /> + test of worth of, <a href="#P184">184</a>.<br /> + types of, <a href="#P185">185</a>, <a href= +"#P197">197</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P184">184</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P183">183</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P184">184</a>.<br /> +Records and programmes, result on work of, <a href= +"#P206">206</a>.<br /> +Records and programmes, result on worker of, <a href= +"#P206">206</a>.<br /> +Repair boss, duties of, <a href="#P074">74</a>.<br /> +Responsibility, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P325">325</a>.<br /> +Rest, provision for, <a href="#P169">169</a>.<br /> +Reward, assured, <a href="#P282">282</a>.<br /> + attainability of, <a href="#P284">284</a>.<br /> + benefits of positive, <a href="#P281">281</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P273">273</a>.<br /> + fixed, <a href="#P282">282</a>.<br /> + nature of, <a href="#P274">274</a>.<br /> + personal, <a href="#P282">282</a>.<br /> + predetermined, <a href="#P282">282</a>.<br /> + results of, <a href="#P285">285</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P280">280</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P026">26</a>, +<a href="#P275">275</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P279">279</a>.<br /> +Rhythm, securing of, <a href="#P240">240</a>.<br /> +Route chart, description of, <a href="#P194">194</a>.<br /> +Route clerk, duties of, <a href="#P066">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Schloss, David F. — "Methods of Industrial Remuneration," +<a href="#P075">75</a>, <a href="#P289">289</a>.<br /> +Scientific management, appreciation by psychologists of, <a href= +"#P093">93</a>.<br /> + athletic contests under, <a href="#P034">34</a>.<br /> + brotherhood under, <a href="#P328">328</a>.<br /> + change in mental attitude under, <a href= +"#P089">89</a>.<br /> + contentment under, <a href="#P327">327</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P006">6</a>, <a href= +"#P012">12</a>.<br /> + derivation of, <a href="#P017">17</a>.<br /> + development of men under, <a href="#P087">87</a>.<br /> + disciplining under, <a href="#P070">70</a>.<br /> + divisions of, <a href="#P016">16</a>.<br /> + duties of foremen under, <a href="#P064">64</a>.<br /> + emulation under, <a href="#P258">258</a>.<br /> + final results of, <a href="#P331">331</a>.<br /> + functionalization under, <a href="#P006">6</a>, <a href= +"#P081">81</a>.<br /> + importance of teaching under, <a href="#P215">215</a>.<br /> + incentives under, <a href="#P279">279</a>.<br /> + individual task under, <a href="#P043">43</a>.<br /> + measurement under, <a href="#P097">97</a>.<br /> + methods of measurement under, <a href="#P105">105</a>.<br /> + opportunities in, <a href="#P004">4</a>.<br /> + place of workers under, <a href="#P062">62</a>.<br /> + provision for specialists under, <a href= +"#P086">86</a>.<br /> + provides for same detailed planning by all, <a href= +"#P080">80</a>.<br /> + place of analysis and synthesis in, <a href= +"#P125">125</a>.<br /> + possibility of prophecy under, <a href="#P195">195</a>.<br /> + promotion of men under, <a href="#P087">87</a>.<br /> + relation of all parts of, <a href="#P242">242</a>.<br /> + relation to imagination, <a href="#P248">248</a>.<br /> + relation to individuality, <a href="#P027">27</a>.<br /> + relation to individual records, <a href="#P042">42</a>.<br /> + relation to industrial peace, <a href="#P331">331</a>.<br /> + relation to invention, <a href="#P136">136</a>.<br /> + relation to memory, <a href="#P245">245</a>.<br /> + relation to profit snaring, <a href="#P297">297</a>.<br /> + relation to traditional management, <a href= +"#P218">218</a>.<br /> + relation to welfare, <a href="#P320">320</a>.<br /> + rewards under, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a href= +"#P280">280</a>.<br /> + results in loyalty, <a href="#P253">253</a>.<br /> + selection of workers under, <a href="#P032">32</a>.<br /> + standardization under, <a href="#P147">147</a>.<br /> + stimulation of pride by, <a href="#P259">259</a>.<br /> + supplements demanded by, <a href="#P029">29</a>.<br /> + teaching of apprentices under, <a href="#P262">262</a>.<br /> + teaching of journeymen under, <a href="#P262">262</a>.<br /> + training of will under, <a href="#P261">261</a>.<br /> + transference of knowledge under, <a href= +"#P117">117</a>.<br /> + underlying ideas of, <a href="#P016">16</a>.<br /> + use of ambition by, <a href="#P258">258</a>.<br /> + use of curiosity, <a href="#P255">255</a>.<br /> + use of imitation, <a href="#P256">256</a>.<br /> + utilization of "all round" men under, <a href= +"#P087">87</a>.<br /> + utilization of one-talent men by, <a href= +"#P086">86</a>.<br /> + vocabulary, interest of, <a href="#P008">8</a>.<br /> + vocabulary, poverty, <a href="#P007">7</a>.<br /> + "will to do" under, <a href="#P328">328</a>.<br /> +Self control, development of, <a href="#P326">326</a>.<br /> +Sense training, importance of, <a href="#P228">228</a>.<br /> + methods of, <a href="#P230">230</a>.<br /> + scope of, <a href="#P231">231</a>.<br /> +Short time job, provision for, <a href="#P082">82</a>.<br /> +Smith, Adam — "Wealth of Nations," <a href="#P084">84</a>, +<a href="#P179">179</a>.<br /> +Soldiering, disadvantages of, <a href="#P274">274</a>.<br /> +Specialists, provision under scientific management for, <a href= +"#P086">86</a>.<br /> +Specializing, encouraged under scientific management, <a href= +"#P086">86</a>.<br /> +Speed boss, duties of, <a href="#P074">74</a>.<br /> +Square deal, need for, <a href="#P315">315</a>.<br /> +Squareness, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P327">327</a>.<br /> +Standards, derivation of, <a href="#P139">139</a>.<br /> + effect of, <a href="#P168">168</a>.<br /> + relation to automatic response, <a href= +"#P239">239</a>.<br /> + relation to habit, <a href="#P235">235</a>.<br /> + relation to incentive, <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href= +"#P257">257</a>.<br /> + relation to "judgment," <a href="#P141">141</a>.<br /> + relation to phrasing, <a href="#P158">158</a>.<br /> + relation to psychology, <a href="#P142">142</a>.<br /> + relations to systems, <a href="#P145">145</a>.<br /> + relation to task, <a href="#P140">140</a>.<br /> + result of measurement, <a href="#P147">147</a>.<br /> +"Standard amount," definition of, <a href="#P098">98</a>.<br /> +Standard clothing, <a href="#P167">167</a>.<br /> +Standard man, definition of, <a href="#P152">152</a>.<br /> +Standardization, definition of, <a href="#P139">139</a>.<br /> + develops individuality, <a href="#P149">149</a>.<br /> + invention under, <a href="#P180">180</a>.<br /> + of clothing, <a href="#P166">166</a>.<br /> + of devices, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> + of equipment, <a href="#P163">163</a>.<br /> + of method of attack, <a href="#P172">172</a>.<br /> + of nomenclature, <a href="#P151">151</a>.<br /> + of quality, <a href="#P171">171</a>.<br /> + of tools, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> + prevention of accidents by, <a href="#P180">180</a>.<br /> + progress of, <a href="#P181">181</a>.<br /> + purpose of, <a href="#P143">143</a>.<br /> +Standardization, relation to initiative, <a href= +"#P148">148</a>.<br /> + result to work of, <a href="#P173">173</a>.<br /> + result to worker of, <a href="#P174">174</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P147">147</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P143">143</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P144">144</a>.<br /> + universality of application, <a href="#P149">149</a>.<br /> + waste eliminated by, <a href="#P150">150</a>.<br /> +Stratton — "Experimental Psychology and Culture,"<br /> +<a href="#P092">92</a>, <a href="#P093">93</a>, <a href= +"#P113">113</a>, <a href="#P160">160</a>, <a href= +"#P169">169</a>.<br /> +Suggestion, use of, <a href="#P252">252</a>.<br /> +Suggestion card, description of, <a href="#P185">185</a>.<br /> +Sully, James — "The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology,"<br /> +<a href="#P022"></a>22, <a href="#P023">23</a>, <a href= +"#P053">53</a>, <a href="#P141">141</a>.<br /> +Synthesis, definition of, <a href="#P123">123</a>.<br /> + importance of selection in, <a href="#P129">129</a>.<br /> + relation to task, <a href="#P130">130</a>.<br /> +Synthesist, duties of, <a href="#P129">129</a>.<br /> + qualifications of, <a href="#P135">135</a>.<br /> +Systems, definition of, <a href="#P221">221</a>.<br /> + importance of, <a href="#P144">144</a>.<br /> + incentives to follow, <a href="#P214">214</a>.<br /> + inelasticity of, <a href="#P214">214</a>.<br /> + relations to standards of, <a href="#P145">145</a>.<br /> + teaching power of, <a href="#P213">213</a>.<br /> + value in transitory management, <a href= +"#P146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Task, advantage to name for, <a href="#P133">133</a>.<br /> + applied to work of all, <a href="#P134">134</a>.<br /> + definition under scientific management, <a href= +"#P133">133</a>.<br /> + individual under scientific management, <a href= +"#P043">43</a>.<br /> + measured by motion study and time study, <a href= +"#P108">108</a>.<br /> + organization, <a href="#P134">134</a>.<br /> + relation to measurement of, <a href="#P098">98</a>.<br /> + relation to standard, <a href="#P140">140</a>.<br /> + result of synthesis, <a href="#P130">130</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P025">25</a>.<br /> + unfortunate name of, <a href="#P131">131</a>.<br /> +Task wage, definition of, <a href="#P292">292</a>.<br /> +Task work with a bonus, <a href="#P299">299</a>.<br /> +Taylor, F.W. — "A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 28," <a href= +"#P108">108</a>.<br /> + "A.S.M.E. Paper 1119," <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href= +"#P180">180</a>.<br /> + "On the Art of Cutting Metals," <a href="#P078">78</a>, +<a href="#P166">166</a>.<br /> + "Piece Rate System, A," <a href="#P117">117</a>.<br /> + "Principles of Scientific Management," <a href="#P004">4</a>, +<a href="#P010">10</a>, <a href="#P015">15</a>, <a href= +"#P018">18</a>, <a href="#P062">62</a>.<br /> + "Shop Management," <a href="#P007">7</a>, <a href= +"#P009">9</a>, <a href="#P026">26</a>, <a href="#P054">54</a>, +<a href="#P055">55</a>, <a href="#P063">63</a>, <a href= +"#P094">94</a>, <a href="#P095">95</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, +<a href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P164">164</a>, <a href= +"#P165">165</a>.<br /> +Taylor and Thompson — "Concrete Plain and Reinforced," +<a href="#P123">123</a>.<br /> +Teaching, availability of, <a href="#P227">227</a>.<br /> + equipment of, <a href="#P225">225</a>.<br /> + functional foreman as, <a href="#P224">224</a>.<br /> + training of, <a href="#P224">224</a>.<br /> +Teaching, availability of, <a href="#P227">227</a>.<br /> + by motion cycles, <a href="#P244">244</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P208">208</a>.<br /> + devices of, <a href="#P222">222</a>.<br /> + future of, <a href="#P268">268</a>.<br /> + involved in functional foremanship, <a href= +"#P064">64</a>.<br /> + measurement of, <a href="#P263">263</a>.<br /> + methods of, <a href="#P220">220</a>.<br /> + need of, <a href="#P219">219</a>.<br /> + of right motions, <a href="#P023">23</a>.<br /> + of untrained worked, <a href="#P232">232</a>.<br /> + oral, <a href="#P223">223</a>, <a href="#P241">241</a>.<br /> + psychological basis of, <a href="#P228">228</a>.<br /> + relation to habit, <a href="#P235">235</a>.<br /> + relation to individuality, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + results in judgment, <a href="#P251">251</a>.<br /> + results to work of, <a href="#P266">266</a>.<br /> + results to worker of, <a href="#P266">266</a>.<br /> + scope of, <a href="#P219">219</a>.<br /> + sources of, <a href="#P220">220</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P215">215</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P025">25</a>, +<a href="#P208">208</a>.<br /> + under transitory management, <a href="#P213">213</a>.<br /> +Three Rate with Increased Rate,<br /> + description of, <a href="#P300">300</a>.<br /> +Time and Cost clerk, duties of, <a href="#P068">68</a>.<br /> +Time study, aims of, <a href="#P110">110</a>.<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P106">106</a>.<br /> + importance to worker of, <a href="#P121">121</a>.<br /> + measurement by, <a href="#P105">105</a>.<br /> + scope of, <a href="#P108">108</a>.<br /> +"Tolerance, provision for, <a href="#P172">172</a>.<br /> +Tools, standard, need for, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> +Towne, H.R. — "Introduction to Scientific Management," +<a href="#P012">12</a>.<br /> +Traditional management,<br /> + definition of, <a href="#P008">8</a>, <a href= +"#P011">11</a>.<br /> + disciplining under, <a href="#P069">69</a>.<br /> + functionalization under, <a href="#P054">54</a>.<br /> + handling of output under, <a href="#P025">25</a>.<br /> + measurement under, <a href="#P095">95</a>.<br /> + place of analysis and synthesis in, <a href= +"#P124">124</a>.<br /> + position of workers under, <a href="#P060">60</a>.<br /> + preferable name for, <a href="#P009">9</a>.<br /> + programme under, <a href="#P192">192</a>.<br /> + punishment under, <a href="#P277">277</a>.<br /> + records under, <a href="#P183">183</a>.<br /> + reward under, <a href="#P026">26</a>, <a href= +"#P275">275</a>.<br /> + selecting workers under, <a href="#P024">24</a>.<br /> + standardization under, <a href="#P143">143</a>.<br /> + tasks under, <a href="#P025">25</a>.<br /> + teaching under, <a href="#P025">25</a>, <a href= +"#P208">208</a>.<br /> + treatment of individuality, <a href="#P024">24</a>.<br /> + welfare under, <a href="#P311">311</a>, <a href= +"#P317">317</a>.<br /> +Transitory management,<br /> + functionalization under, <a href="#P061">61</a>.<br /> + measurement under, <a href="#P096">96</a>.<br /> + place of analysis and synthesis in, <a href= +"#P125">125</a>.<br /> + programmes under, <a href="#P193">193</a>.<br /> + recognition of individuality, <a href="#P026">26</a>.<br /> + records under, <a href="#P184">184</a>, <a href= +"#P185">185</a>.<br /> + reward under, <a href="#P279">279</a>.<br /> + standardization under, <a href="#P144">144</a>.<br /> + teaching under, <a href="#P213">213</a>.<br /> + value of systems in, <a href="#P146">146</a>.<br /> + welfare under, <a href="#P318">318</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ultimate management, <a href="#P012">12</a>.<br /> +U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture, No. 208, <a href= +"#P108">108</a>.<br /> +Units of measurement, selection of, <a href="#P111">111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Vocabulary, importance of scientific management, <a href= +"#P007">7</a>.<br /> +Vocational guidance, duties of, <a href="#P265">265</a>.<br /> + relation to teaching, <a href="#P264">264</a>.<br /> +Vocational guidance bureau,<br /> + training of observers by, <a href="#P101">101</a>.<br /> + work of, <a href="#P029">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Wages, definition of, <a href="#P288">288</a>.<br /> +Waste, eliminated by measurement, <a href="#P115">115</a>.<br /> + eliminated by standardization, <a href="#P150">150</a>.<br /> +Welfare, definition of, <a href="#P311">311</a>.<br /> + individual, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + relation to traditional management, <a href= +"#P311">311</a>.<br /> + relation to transitory management, <a href= +"#P318">318</a>.<br /> + result to work of, <a href="#P330">330</a>.<br /> + result on worker of, <a href="#P330">330</a>.<br /> + under scientific management, <a href="#P320">320</a>.<br /> +Welfare work,<br /> + relation to scientific management, <a href= +"#P329">329</a>.<br /> + under traditional management, <a href="#P317">317</a>.<br /> +White List File, description of, <a href="#P186">186</a>.<br /> +Will, development of, <a href="#P316">316</a>.<br /> + education of, <a href="#P239">239</a>.<br /> + training of, <a href="#P261">261</a>.<br /> +Will to do, under scientific management, <a href= +"#P328">328</a>.<br /> +Work, effect of analysis and synthesis on, <a href= +"#P138">138</a>.<br /> + effect of functionalization upon, <a href= +"#P083">83</a>.<br /> + necessity for regularity in, <a href="#P321">321</a>.<br /> + result of incentives to, <a href="#P310">310</a>.<br /> + result of individuality upon, <a href="#P046">46</a>.<br /> + results of measurement on, <a href="#P113">113</a>.<br /> + result of programme on, <a href="#P195">195</a>.<br /> + result of records on, <a href="#P188">188</a>, <a href= +"#P206">206</a>.<br /> +Work, result of standardization on, <a href="#P173">173</a>.<br /> + results of teaching on, <a href="#P266">266</a>.<br /> + result of welfare on, <a href="#P330">330</a>.<br /> +Worker, advantages of functionalization to, <a href= +"#P076">76</a>.<br /> + appreciation of time study by, <a href="#P121">121</a>.<br /> + capacity of, <a href="#P094">94</a>.<br /> + change in mental attitude under scientific management, +<a href="#P089">89</a>.<br /> + coöperation under measurement of, <a href= +"#P116">116</a>.<br /> + development through records, <a href="#P039">39</a>.<br /> + effect of analysis and synthesis on, <a href= +"#P138">138</a>.<br /> + effect of functionalization upon, <a href= +"#P085">85</a>.<br /> + effect of measurement upon, <a href="#P114">114</a>.<br /> + given planning if he likes it, <a href="#P080">80</a>.<br /> + hardship of individual planning to, <a href= +"#P079">79</a>.<br /> + making of records by, <a href="#P040">40</a>.<br /> + observed, qualifications of, <a href="#P103">103</a>.<br /> + observed, securing coöperation of, <a href= +"#P102">102</a>.<br /> + place under scientific management, <a href= +"#P062">62</a>.<br /> + position under traditional management, <a href= +"#P060">60</a>.<br /> + records made by, <a href="#P187">187</a>.<br /> + relation to process of analysis, <a href= +"#P129">129</a>.<br /> + relation to standardization, <a href="#P164">164</a>.<br /> + relieved of planning if he dislikes it, <a href= +"#P080">80</a>.<br /> + rest periods for, <a href="#P169">169</a>.<br /> + result of incentives on, <a href="#P310">310</a>.<br /> + result of individuality upon, <a href="#P047">47</a>.<br /> + result of programme on, <a href="#P195">195</a>, <a href= +"#P206">206</a>.<br /> + result of records to, <a href="#P189">189</a>, <a href= +"#P206">206</a>.<br /> + results of standardization to, <a href="#P174">174</a>.<br /> + results of teaching on, <a href="#P266">266</a>.<br /> + result of welfare on, <a href="#P330">330</a>.<br /> + rewards of, <a href="#P285">285</a>.<br /> + selection under scientific management, <a href= +"#P032">32</a>.<br /> + selection under traditional management, <a href= +"#P024">24</a>.<br /> + untrained, teaching of, <a href="#P232">232</a>.<br /> + variables of, <a href="#P028">28</a>.<br /> +Working models, value of, <a href="#P226">226</a>.<br /></p> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Psychology of Management, by L. 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