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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:48:17 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:48:17 -0700 |
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diff --git a/16167-h/16167-h.htm b/16167-h/16167-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ed29dd --- /dev/null +++ b/16167-h/16167-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,15113 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title> + The Seven Great Monarchies, by George Rawlinson, The Seventh Monarchy + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 20%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 25%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient +Eastern World, Vol 7. (of 7): The Sassanian or New Persian Empire, by George Rawlinson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 7. (of 7): The Sassanian or New Persian Empire + The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, + Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian + or New Persian Empire; With Maps and Illustrations. + +Author: George Rawlinson + +Illustrator: George Rawlinson + +Release Date: July 1, 2005 [EBook #16167] +Last Updated: September 6, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES + </h1> + <p> + OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN WORLD; OR, THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND ANTIQUITIES + OF CHALDAEA, ASSYRIA BABYLON, MEDIA, PERSIA, PARTHIA, AND SASSANIAN, OR + NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. <b> BY </b> <b> GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., </b> CAMDEN + PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN THREE VOLUMES. + VOLUME III. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0002"> CHAPTER XV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0003"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0004"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0005"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0006"> CHAPTER XIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0007"> CHAPTER XX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0008"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0009"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0010"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Plate 11. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Plate 12. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Plate 15. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> Inscription, Page 278 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> Chapter-4 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> Plate 13. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> Plate 14. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> Page 289 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> Chapter-5 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> Plate 16. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> Plate 17 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> Plate 18. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0014"> Chapter-8 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0015"> Plate 19 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0016"> Plate 20 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0017"> Plate 21. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0001"> Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0002"> Plate XXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0003"> Plate XXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0004"> Plate XXIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> Plate XXIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> Plate XXV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> Plate XXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> Plate XXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> Plate XXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> Plate XXIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> Plate XXX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> Plate XXXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> Plate XXXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> Plate XXXIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> Plate XXXIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> Plate XXXV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> Plate XXXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> Plate XXXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> Plate XXXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> Plate XXXIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> Plate XL. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> Plate XLI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> Plate XLII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> Plate XLIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> Plate XLIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> Plate XLV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> Plate XLVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> Family-tree </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTERS I. TO XIV. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </h2> + <p> + THE SEVENTH MONARCHY HISTORY OF THE SASSANIAN OR NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. <a + name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/sassian_empire.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="sassian_empire_th (154K)" src="images/sassian_empire_th.jpg" + width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Condition of the Persians under the Successors of Alexander—under + the Arsacidce. Favor shown them by the latter—allowed to have Kings + of their own. Their Religion at first held in honor. Power of their + Priests. Gradual Change of Policy on the part of the Parthian Monarchs, + and final Oppression of the Magi. Causes which produced the Insurrection + of Artaxerxes.</i> + </p> + <p> + “The Parthians had been barbarians; they had ruled over a nation far more + civilized than themselves, and had oppressed them and their religion.” + </p> + <p> + Niebuhr, Lectures on Roman History, vol. iii. p. 270. + </p> + <p> + When the great Empire of the Persians, founded by Cyrus, collapsed under + the attack of Alexander the Great, the dominant race of Western Asia did + not feel itself at the first reduced to an intolerable condition. It was + the benevolent design of Alexander to fuse into one the two leading + peoples of Europe and Asia, and to establish himself at the head of a + Perso-Hellenic State, the capital of which was to have been Babylon. Had + this idea been carried out, the Persians would, it is evident, have lost + but little by their subjugation. Placed on a par with the Greeks, united + with them in marriage bonds, and equally favored by their common ruler, + they could scarcely have uttered a murmur, or have been seriously + discontented with their position. But when the successors of the great + Macedonian, unable to rise to the height of his grand conception, took + lower ground, and, giving up the idea of a fusion, fell back upon the + ordinary status, and proceeded to enact the ordinary role, of conquerors, + the feelings of the late lords of Asia, the countrymen of Cyrus and + Darius, must have undergone a complete change. It had been the intention + of Alexander to conciliate and elevate the leading Asiatics by uniting + them with the Macedonians and the Greeks, by promoting social intercourse + between the two classes of his subjects and encouraging them to + intermarry, by opening his court to Asiatics, by educating them in Greek + ideas and in Greek schools, by promoting them to high employments, and + making them feel that they were as much valued and as well cared for as + the people of the conquering race: it was the plan of the Seleucidae to + govern wholly by means of European officials, Greek or Macedonian, and to + regard and treat the entire mass of their Asiatic subjects as mere slaves. + Alexander had placed Persian satraps over most of the provinces, attaching + to them Greek or Macedonian commandants as checks. Seloucus divided his + empire into seventy-two satrapies; but among his satraps not one was an + Asiatic—all were either Macedonians or Greeks. Asiatics, indeed, + formed the bulk of his standing army, and so far were admitted to + employment; they might also, no doubt, be tax-gatherers, couriers, + scribes, constables, and officials of that mean stamp; but they were as + carefully excluded from all honorable and lucrative offices as the natives + of Hindustan under the rule of the East India Company. The standing army + of the Seleucidae was wholly officered, just as was that of our own + Sepoys, by Europeans; Europeans thronged the court, and filled every + important post under the government. There cannot be a doubt that such a + high-spirited and indeed arrogant people as the Persians must have fretted + and chafed under this treatment, and have detested the nation and dynasty + which had thrust them down from their pre-eminence and converted them from + masters into slaves. It would scarcely much tend to mitigate the + painfulness of their feelings that they could not but confess their + conquerors to be a civilized people—as civilized, perhaps more + civilized than themselves—since the civilization was of a type and + character which did not please them or command their approval. There is an + essential antagonism between European and Asiatic ideas and modes of + thought, such as seemingly to preclude the possibility of Asiatics + appreciating a European civilization. The Persians must have felt towards + the Greco-Macedonians much as the Mohammedans of India feel towards + ourselves—they may have feared and even respected them—but + they must have very bitterly hated them. Nor was the rule of the + Seleucidae such as to overcome by its justice or its wisdom the original + antipathy of the dispossessed lords of Asia towards those by whom they had + been ousted. The satrapial system, which these monarchs lazily adopted + from their predecessors, the Achaemenians, is one always open to great + abuses, and needs the strictest superintendence and supervision. There is + no reason to believe that any sufficient watch was kept over their satraps + by the Seleucid kings, or even any system of checks established, such as + the Achaemenidae had, at least in theory, set up and maintained. The + Greco-Macedonian governors of provinces seem to have been left to + themselves almost entirely, and to have been only controlled in the + exercise of their authority by their own notions of what was right or + expedient. Under these circumstances, abuses were sure to creep in; and it + is not improbable that gross outrages were sometimes perpetrated by those + in power—outrages calculated to make the blood of a nation boil, and + to produce a keen longing for vengeance. We have no direct evidence that + the Persians of the time did actually suffer from such a misuse of + satrapial authority; but it is unlikely that they entirely escaped the + miseries which are incidental to the system in question. Public opinion + ascribed the grossest acts of tyranny and oppression to some of the + Seleucid satraps; probably the Persians were not exempt from the common + lot of the subject races. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, the Seleucid monarchs themselves were occasionally guilty of + acts of tyranny, which must have intensified the dislike wherewith they + were regarded by their Asiatic subjects. The reckless conduct of Antiochus + Epiphanes towards the Jews is well known; but it is not perhaps generally + recognized that intolerance and impious cupidity formed a portion of the + system on which he governed. There seems, however, to be good reason to + believe that, having exhausted his treasury by his wars and his + extravagances, Epiphanes formed a general design of recruiting it by means + of the plunder of his subjects. The temples of the Asiatics had hitherto + been for the most part respected by their European conquerors, and large + stores of the precious metals were accumulated in them. Epiphanes saw in + these hoards the means of relieving his own necessities, and determined to + seize and confiscate them. Besides plundering the Temple of Jehovah at + Jerusalem, he made a journey into the southeastern portion of his empire, + about B.C. 165, for the express purpose of conducting in person the + collection of the sacred treasures. It was while he was engaged in this + unpopular work that a spirit of disaffection showed itself; the East took + arms no less than the West; and in Persia, or upon its borders, the + avaricious monarch was forced to retire before the opposition which his + ill-judged measures had provoked, and to allow one of the doomed temples + to escape him. When he soon afterwards sickened and died, the natives of + this part of Asia saw in his death a judgment upon him for his attempted + sacrilege. + </p> + <p> + It was within twenty years of this unfortunate attempt that the dominion + of the Seleucidae over Persia and the adjacent countries came to an end. + The Parthian Empire had for nearly a century been gradually growing in + power and extending itself at the expense of the Syro-Macedonian; and, + about B.C. 163, an energetic prince, Mithridates I., commenced a series of + conquests towards the West, which terminated (about B.C. 150) in the + transference from the Syro-Macedonian to the Parthian rule of Media Magna, + Susiana, Persia, Babylonia, and Assyria Proper. It would seem that the + Persians offered no resistance to the progress of the new conqueror. The + Seleucidae had not tried to conciliate their attachment, and it was + impossible that they should dislike the rupture of ties which had only + galled hitherto. Perhaps their feeling, in prospect of the change, was one + of simple indifference. Perhaps it was not without some stir of + satisfaction and complacency that they saw the pride of the hated + Europeans abased, and a race, which, however much it might differ from + their own, was at least Asiatic, installed in power. The Parthia system, + moreover, was one which allowed greater liberty to the subject races than + the Macedonian, as it had been understood and carried out by the + Seleucidae; and so far some real gain was to be expected from the change. + Religious motives must also have conspired to make the Persians sympathize + with the new power, rather than with that which for centuries had despised + their faith and had recently insulted it. + </p> + <p> + The treatment of the Persians by their Parthian lords seems, on the whole, + to have been marked by moderation. Mithridates indeed, the original + conqueror, is accused of having alienated his new subjects by the + harshness of his rule; and in the struggle which occurred between him and + the Seleucid king, Demetrius II., Persians, as well as Elymseans and + Bactrians, are said to have fought on the side of the Syro-Macedonian. But + this is the only occasion in Parthian history, between the submission of + Persia and the great revolt under Artaxerxes, where there is any + appearance of the Persians regarding their masters with hostile feelings. + In general they show themselves submissive and contented with their + position, which was certainly, on the whole, a less irksome one than they + had occupied under the Seleucidae. + </p> + <p> + It was a principle of the Parthian governmental system to allow the + subject peoples, to a large extent, to govern themselves. These peoples + generally, and notably the Persians, were ruled by native kings, who + succeeded to the throne by hereditary right, had the full power of life + and death, and ruled very much as they pleased, so long as they paid + regularly the tribute imposed upon them by the “King of Kings,” and sent + him a respectable contingent when he was about to engage in a military + expedition. Such a system implies that the conquered peoples have the + enjoyment of their own laws and institutions, are exempt from troublesome + interference, and possess a sort of semi-independence. Oriental nations, + having once assumed this position, are usually contented with it, and + rarely make any effort to better themselves. It would seem that, thus far + at any rate, the Persians could not complain of the Parthian rule, but + must have been fairly satisfied with their condition. + </p> + <p> + Again, the Greco-Macedonians had tolerated, but they had not viewed with + much respect, the religion which they had found established in Persia. + Alexander, indeed, with the enlightened curiosity which characterised him, + had made inquiries concerning, the tenets of the Magi, and endeavored to + collect in one the writings of Zoroaster. But the later monarchs, and + still more their subjects, had held the system in contempt, and, as we + have seen, Epiphanes had openly insulted the religious feelings of his + Asiatic subjects. The Parthians, on the other hand, began at any rate with + a treatment of the Persian religion which was respectful and gratifying. + Though perhaps at no time very sincere Zoroastrians, they had conformed to + the State religion under the Achaemenian kings; and when the period came + that they had themselves to establish a system of government, they gave to + the Magian hierarchy a distinct and important place in their governmental + machinery. The council, which advised the monarch, and which helped to + elect and (if need were) depose him, was composed of two elements—-the + <i>Sophi</i>, or wise men, who were civilians; and the <i>Magi</i>, or + priests of the Zoroastrian religion. The Magi had thus an important + political status in Parthia, during the early period of the Empire; but + they seem gradually to have declined in favor, and ultimately to have + fallen into disrepute. The Zoroastrian creed was, little by little, + superseded among the Parthians by a complex idolatry, which, beginning + with an image-worship of the Sun and Moon, proceeded to an association + with those deities of the deceased kings of the nation, and finally added + to both a worship of ancestral idols, which formed the most cherished + possession of each family, and practically monopolized the religious + sentiment. All the old Zoroastrian practices were by degrees laid aside. + In Armenia the Arsacid monarchs allowed the sacred fire of Ormazd to + become extinguished; and in their own territories the Parthian Arsacidae + introduced the practice, hateful to Zoroastrians, of burning the dead. The + ultimate religion of these monarchs seems in fact to have been a + syncretism wherein Sabaism, Confucianism, Greco-Macedonian notions, and an + inveterate primitive idolatry were mixed together. It is not impossible + that the very names of Ormazd and Ahriman had ceased to be known at the + Parthian Court, or were regarded as those of exploded deities, whose + dominion over men’s minds had passed away. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, in Persia itself, and to some extent doubtless among + the neighboring countries, Zoroastrianism (or what went by the name) had a + firm hold on the religious sentiments of the multitude, who viewed with + disfavor the tolerant and eclectic spirit which animated the Court of + Ctesiphon. The perpetual fire, kindled, as it was, from heaven, was + carefully tended and preserved on the fire-altars of the Persian holy + places; the Magian hierarchy was held in the highest repute, the kings + themselves (as it would seem) not disdaining to be Magi; the ideas—even + perhaps the forms—of Ormazd and Ahriman were familiar to all; + image-worship was abhorred; the sacred writings in the Zend or most ancient + Iranian language were diligently preserved and multiplied; a pompous + ritual was kept up; the old national religion, the religion of the + Achaemenians, of the glorious period of Persian ascendency in Asia, was + with the utmost strictness maintained, probably the more zealously as it + fell more and more into disfavor with the Parthians. + </p> + <p> + The consequence of this divergence of religious opinion between the + Persians and their feudal lords must undoubtedly have been a certain + amount of alienation and discontent. The Persian Magi must have been + especially dissatisfied with the position of their brethren at Court; and + they would doubtless use their influence to arouse the indignation of + their countrymen generally. But it is scarcely probable that this cause + alone would have produced any striking result. Religious sympathy rarely + leads men to engage in important wars, unless it has the support of other + concurrent motives. To account for the revolt of the Persians against + their Parthian lords under Artaxerxes, something more is needed than the + consideration of the religious differences which separated the two + peoples. + </p> + <p> + First, then, it should be borne in mind that the Parthian rule must have + been from the beginning distasteful to the Persians, owing to the rude and + coarse character of the people. At the moment of Mithridates’s successes, + the Persians might experience a sentiment of satisfaction that the + European invader was at last thrust back, and that Asia had re-asserted + herself; but a very little experience of Parthian rule was sufficient to + call forth different feelings. There can be no doubt that the Parthians, + whether they were actually Turanians or no, were, in comparison with the + Persians, unpolished and uncivilized. They showed their own sense of this + inferiority by an affectation of Persian manners. But this affectation was + not very successful. It is evident that in art, in architecture, in + manners, in habits of life, the Parthian race reached only a low standard; + they stood to their Hellenic and Iranian subjects in much the same + relation that the Turks of the present day stand to the modern Greeks; + they made themselves respected by their strength and their talent for + organization; but in all that adorns and beautifies life they were + deficient. The Persians must, during the whole time of their subjection to + Parthia, have been sensible of a feeling of shame at the want of + refinement and of a high type of civilization in their masters. + </p> + <p> + Again, the later sovereigns of the Arsacid dynasty were for the most part + of weak and contemptible character. From the time of Volagases I. to that + of Artabanus IV., the last king, the military reputation of Parthia had + declined. Foreign enemies ravaged the territories of Parthian vassal + kings, and retired when they chose, unpunished. Provinces revolted and + established their independence. Rome was entreated to lend assistance to + her distressed and afflicted rival, and met the entreaties with a refusal. + In the wars which still from time to time were waged between the two + empires Parthia was almost uniformly worsted. Three times her capital was + occupied, and once her monarch’s summer palace was burned. Province after + province had to be ceded to Rome. The golden throne which symbolized her + glory and magnificence was carried off. Meanwhile feuds raged between the + different branches of the Arsacid family; civil wars were frequent; two or + three monarchs at a time claimed the throne, or actually ruled in + different portions of the Empire. It is not surprising that under these + circumstances the bonds were loosened between Parthia and her vassal + kingdoms, or that the Persian tributary monarchs began to despise their + suzerains, and to contemplate without alarm the prospect of a rebellion + which should place them in an independent position. + </p> + <p> + While the general weakness of the Arsacid monarchs was thus a cause + naturally leading to a renunciation of their allegiance on the part of the + Persians, a special influence upon the decision taken by Artaxerxes is + probably to be assigned to one, in particular, of the results of that + weakness. When provinces long subject to Parthian rule revolted, and + revolted successfully, as seems to have been the case with Hyrcania, and + partially with Bactria, Persia could scarcely for very shame continue + submissive. Of all the races subject to Parthia, the Persians were the one + which had held the most brilliant position in the past, and which retained + the liveliest remembrance of its ancient glories. This is evidenced not + only by the grand claims which Artaxorxes put forward in his early + negotiations with the Romans, but by the whole course of Persian + literature, which has fundamentally an historic character, and exhibits + the people as attached, almost more than any other Oriental nation, to the + memory of its great men and of their noble achievements. The countrymen of + Cyrus, of Darius, of Xerxes, of Ochus, of the conquerors of Media, + Bactria, Babylon, Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, of the invaders of Scythia and + Greece, aware that they had once borne sway over the whole region between + Tunis and the Indian Desert, between the Caucasus and the Cataracts, when + they saw a petty mountain clan, like the Hyrcanians, establish and + maintain their independence despite the efforts of Parthia to coerce them, + could not very well remain quiet. If so weak and small a race could defy + the power of the Arsacid monarchs, much more might the far more numerous + and at least equally courageous Persians expect to succeed, if they made a + resolute attempt to recover their freedom. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that Artaxerxes, in his capacity of vassal, served + personally in the army with which the Parthian monarch Artabanus carried + on the struggle against Rome, and thus acquired the power of estimating + correctly the military strength still possessed by the Arsacidae, and of + measuring it against that which he knew to belong to his nation. It is not + unlikely that he formed his plans during the earlier period of Artabanus’s + reign, when that monarch allowed himself to be imposed upon by Caracallus, + and suffered calamities and indignities in consequence of his folly. When + the Parthian monarch atoned for his indiscretion and wiped out the memory + of his disgraces by the brilliant victory of Nisibis and the glorious + peace which he made with Macrinus, Artaxerxes may have found that he had + gone too far to recede; or, undazzled by the splendor of these successes, + he may still have judged that he might with prudence persevere in his + enterprise. Artabanus had suffered great losses in his two campaigns + against Rome, and especially in the three days’ battle of Nisibis. He was + at variance with several princes of his family, one of whom certainly + maintained himself during his whole reign with the State and title of + “King of Parthia.” Though he had fought well at Nisibis, he had not given + any indications of remarkable military talent. Artaxerxes, having taken + the measure of his antagonist during the course of the Roman war, having + estimated his resources and formed a decided opinion on the relative + strength of Persia and Parthia, deliberately resolved, a few years after + the Roman war had come to an end, to revolt and accept the consequences. + He was no doubt convinced that his nation would throw itself + enthusiastically into the struggle, and he believed that he could conduct + it to a successful issue. He felt himself the champion of a depressed, if + not an oppressed, nationality, and had faith in his power to raise it into + a lofty position. Iran, at any rate, should no longer, he resolved, submit + patiently to be the slave of Turan; the keen, intelligent, art-loving + Aryan people should no longer bear submissively the yoke of the rude, + coarse, clumsy Scyths. An effort after freedom should be made. He had + little doubt of the result. The Persians, by the strength of their own + right arms and the blessing of Ahuramazda, the “All-bounteous,” would + triumph over their impious masters, and become once more a great and + independent people. At the worst, if he had miscalculated, there would be + the alternative of a glorious death upon the battle-field in one of the + noblest of all causes, the assertion of a nation’s freedom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Situation and Size of Persia. General Character of the Country and + Climate. Chief Products. Characteristics of the Persian People, physical + and moral. Differences observable in the Race at different periods.</i> + </p> + <p> + Persia Proper was a tract of country lying on the Gulf to which it has + given name, and extending about 450 miles from north-west to south-east, + with an average breadth of about 250 miles. Its entire area may be + estimated at about a hundred thousand square miles. It was thus larger + than Great Britain, about the size of Italy, and rather less than half the + size of France. The boundaries were, on the west, Elymais or Susiana + (which, however, was sometimes reckoned a part of Persia); on the north, + Media; on the east, Carmania; and on the south, the sea. It is nearly + represented in modern times by the two Persian provinces of Farsistan and + Laristan, the former of which retains, but slightly changed, the ancient + appellation. The Hindyan or Tab (ancient Oroatis) seems towards its mouth + to have formed the western limit. Eastward, Persia extended to about the + site of the modern Bunder Kongo. Inland, the northern boundary ran + probably a little south of the thirty-second parallel, from long. 50° to + 55°. The line dividing Persia Proper from Carmania (now Kerman) was + somewhat uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The character of the tract is extremely diversified. Ancient writers + divided the country into three strongly contrasted regions. The first, or + coast tract, was (they said) a sandy desert, producing nothing but a few + dates, owing to the intensity of the heat. Above this was a fertile + region, grassy, with well-watered meadows and numerous vineyards, enjoying + a delicious climate, producing almost every fruit but the olive, + containing pleasant parks or “paradises,” watered by a number of limpid + streams and clear lakes, well wooded in places, affording an excellent + pasture for horses and for all sorts of cattle, abounding in water-fowl + and game of every kind, and altogether a most delightful abode. Beyond + this fertile region, towards the north, was a rugged mountain tract, cold + and mostly covered with snow, of which they did not profess to know much. + </p> + <p> + In this description there is no doubt a certain amount of truth; but it is + mixed probably with a good deal of exaggeration. There is no reason to + believe that the climate or character of the country has undergone any + important alteration between the time of Nearchus or Strabo and the + present day. At present it is certain that the tract in question answers + but very incompletely to the description which those writers give of it. + Three regions may indeed be distinguished, though the natives seem now to + speak of only two; but none of them corresponds at all exactly to the + accounts of the Greeks. The coast tract is represented with the nearest + approach to correctness. This is, in fact, a region of arid plain, often + impregnated with salt, ill-watered, with a poor soil, consisting either of + sand or clay, and productive of little besides dates and a few other + fruits. A modern historian says of it that “it bears a greater resemblance + in soil and climate to Arabia than to the rest of Persia.” It is very hot + and unhealthy, and can at no time have supported more than a sparse and + scanty population. Above this, towards the north, is the best and most + fertile portion of the territory. A mountain tract, the continuation of + Zagros, succeeds to the flat and sandy coast region, occupying the greater + portion of Persia Proper. It is about two hundred miles in width, and + consists of an alternation of mountain, plain, and narrow valley, + curiously intermixed, and hitherto mapped very imperfectly. In places this + district answers fully to the description of Nearchus, being, “richly + fertile, picturesque, and romantic almost beyond imagination, with lovely + wooded dells, green mountain sides, and broad plains, suited for the + production of almost any crops.” But it is only to the smaller moiety of + the region that such a character attaches; more than half the mountain + tract is sterile and barren; the supply of water is almost everywhere + scanty; the rivers are few, and have not much volume; many of them, after + short courses, end in the sand, or in small salt lakes, from which the + superfluous water is evaporated. Much of the country is absolutely without + streams, and would be uninhabitable were it not for the <i>kanats</i> or + <i>kareezes</i>—subterranean channels made by art for the conveyance + of spring water to be used in irrigation. The most desolate portion of the + mountain tract is towards the north and north-east, where it adjoins upon + the third region, which is the worst of the three. This is a portion of + the high tableland of Iran, the great desert which stretches from the + eastern skirts of Zagros to the Hamoon, the Helmend, and the river of + Subzawur. It is a dry and hard plain, intersected at intervals by ranges + of rocky hills, with a climate extremely hot in summer and extremely cold + in winter, incapable of cultivation, excepting so far as water can be + conveyed by <i>kanats</i>, which is, of course, only a short distance. The + fox, the jackal, the antelope, and the wild ass possess this sterile and + desolate tract, where “all is dry and cheerless,” and verdure is almost + unknown. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the two most peculiar districts of Persia are the lake basins of + Neyriz and Deriah-i-Nemek. The rivers given off from the northern side of + the great mountain chain between the twenty-ninth and thirty-first + parallels, being unable to penetrate the mountains, flow eastward towards + the desert; and their waters gradually collect into two streams, which end + in two lakes, the Deriah-i-Nemek and that of Neyriz, or Lake Bakhtigan. + The basin of Lake Neyriz lies towards the north. Here the famous Bendamir, + and the Pulwar or Kur-ab, flowing respectively from the north-east and the + north, unite in one near the ruins of the ancient Persepolis, and, after + fertilizing the plain of Merdasht, run eastward down a rich vale for a + distance of some forty miles into the salt lake which swallows them up. + This lake, when full, has a length of fifty or sixty miles, with a breadth + of from three to six. In summer, however, it is often quite dry, the water + of the Bendamir being expended in irrigation before reaching its natural + terminus. The valley and plain of the Bendamir, and its tributaries, are + among the most fertile portions of Persia, as well as among those of most + historic interest. + </p> + <p> + The basin of the Deriah-i-Nemek is smaller than that of the Neyriz, but it + is even more productive. Numerous brooks and streams, rising not far from + Shiraz, run on all sides into the Nemek lake, which has a length of about + fifteen and a breadth of three or three and a half miles. Among the + streams is the celebrated brook of Hafiz, the Rocknabad, which still + retains “its singular transparency and softness to the taste.” Other rills + and fountains of extreme clearness abound, and a verdure is the result, + very unusual in Persia. The vines grown in the basin produce the famous + Shiraz wine, the only good wine which is manufactured in the East. The + orchards are magnificent. In the autumn “the earth is covered with the + gathered harvest, flowers, and fruits; melons, peaches, pears, nectarines, + cherries, grapes, pomegranates; all is a garden, abundant in sweets and + refreshment.” + </p> + <p> + But, notwithstanding the exceptional fertility of the Shiraz plain and of + a few other places, Persia Proper seems to have been rightly characterized + in ancient times as “a scant land and a rugged.” Its area was less than a + fifth of the area of modern Persia; and of this space nearly one half was + uninhabitable, consisting either of barren stony mountain or of scorching + sandy plain, ill supplied with water and often impregnated with salt. Its + products, consequently, can have been at no time either very abundant or + very varied. Anciently, the low coast tract seems to have been cultivated + to a small extent in corn, and to have produced good dates and a few other + fruits. The mountain region was, as we have seen, celebrated for its + excellent pastures, for its abundant fruits, and especially for its + grapes. Within the mountains, on the high plateau, assafoetida (silphium) + was found, and probably some other medicinal herbs. Corn, no doubt, could + be grown largely in the plains and valleys of the mountain tract, as well + as on the plateau, so far as the <i>kanats</i> carried the water. There + must have been, on the whole, a deficiency of timber, though the palms of + the low tract, and the oaks, planes, chenars or sycamores, poplars, and + willows of the mountain regions sufficed for the wants of the natives. Not + much fuel was required, and stone was the general material used for + building. Among the fruits for which Persia was famous are especially + noted the peach, the walnut, and the citron. The walnut bore among the + Romans the appellation of “royal.” + </p> + <p> + Persia, like Media, was a good nursery for horses. Fine grazing grounds + existed in many parts of the mountain region, and for horses of the Arab + breed even the Deshtistan was not unsuited. Camels were reared in some + places, and sheep and goats were numerous. Horned cattle were probably not + so abundant, as the character of the country is not favorable for them. + Game existed in large quantities, the lakes abounding with water-fowl, + such as ducks, teal, heron, snipe, etc.; and the wooded portions of the + mountain tract giving shelter to the stag, the wild goat, the wild boar, + the hare, the pheasant, and the heathcock, fish were also plentiful. + Whales visited the Persian Gulf, and were sometimes stranded upon the + shores, where their carcases furnished a mine of wealth to the + inhabitants. Dolphins abounded, as well as many smaller kinds; and + shell-fish, particularly oysters, could always be obtained without + difficulty. The rivers, too, were capable of furnishing fresh-water fish + in good quantity, though we cannot say if this source of supply was + utilized in antiquity. + </p> + <p> + The mineral treasures of Persia were fairly numerous. Good salt was + yielded by the lakes of the middle region, and was also obtainable upon + the plateau. Bitumen and naphtha were produced by sources in the low + country. The mountains contained most of the important metals and a + certain number of valuable gems. The pearls of the Gulf acquired early a + great reputation, and a regular fishery was established for them before + the time of Alexander. + </p> + <p> + But the most celebrated of all the products of Persia were its men. The + “scant and rugged country” gave birth, as Cyrus the Great is said to have + observed, to a race brave, hardy, and enduring, calculated not only to + hold its own against aggressors, but to extend its sway and exercise + dominion over the Western Asiatics generally. The Aryan family is the one + which, of all the races of mankind, is the most self-asserting, and has + the greatest strength, physical, moral, and intellectual. The Iranian + branch of it, whereto the Persians belonged, is not perhaps so gifted as + some others; but it has qualities which place it above most of those by + which Western Asia was anciently peopled. In the primitive times, from + Cyrus the Great to Darius Hystaspis, the Persians seem to have been rude + mountaineers, probably not very unlike the modern Kurds and Lurs, who + inhabit portions of the same chain which forms the heart of the Persian + country. Their physiognomy was handsome. A high straight forehead, a long + slightly aquiline nose, a short and curved upper lip, a well-rounded chin, + characterized the Persian. The expression of his face was grave and noble. + He had abundant hair, which he wore very artificially arranged. Above and + round the brow it was made to stand away from the face in short crisp + curls; on the top of the head it was worn smooth; at the back of the head + it was again trained into curls, which followed each other in several rows + from the level of the forehead to the nape of the neck. The moustache was + always cultivated, and curved in a gentle sweep. A beard and whiskers were + worn, the former sometimes long and pendent, like the Assyrian, but more + often clustering around the chin in short close curls. The figure was + well-formed, but somewhat stout; the carriage was dignified and simple. <a + href="#linkimage-0002">[PLATE XI, Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate011.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 11. " /> + </div> + <p> + Simplicity of manners prevailed during this period. At the court there was + some luxury; but the bulk of the nation, living in their mountain + territory, and attached to agriculture and hunting, maintained the habits + of their ancestors, and were a somewhat rude though not a coarse people. + The dress commonly worn was a close-fitting shirt or tunic of leather, + descending to the knee, and with sleeves that reached down to the wrist. + Round the tunic was worn a belt or sash, which was tied in front. The head + was protected by a loose felt cap and the feet by a sort of high shoe or + low boot. The ordinary diet was bread and cress-seed, while the sole + beverage was water. In the higher ranks, of course, a different style of + living prevailed; the elegant and flowing “Median robe” was worn; flesh of + various kinds was eaten; much wine was consumed; and meals were extended + to a great length; The Persians, however, maintained during this period a + general hardihood and bravery which made them the most dreaded adversaries + of the Greeks, and enabled them to maintain an unquestioned dominion over + the other native races of Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + As time went on, and their monarchs became less warlike, and wealth + accumulated, and national spirit decayed, the Persian character by degrees + deteriorated, and sank, even under the Achaemenian kings, to a level not + much superior to that of the ordinary Asiatic. The Persian antagonists of + Alexander were pretty nearly upon a par with the races which in Hindustan + have yielded to the British power; they occasionally fought with + gallantry, but they were deficient in resolution, in endurance, in all the + elements of solid strength; and they were quite unable to stand their + ground against the vigor and dash of the Macedonians and the Greeks. + Whether physically they were very different from the soldiers of Cyrus may + be doubted, but morally they had fallen far below the ancient standard; + their self-respect, their love of country, their attachment to their + monarch had diminished; no one showed any great devotion to the cause for + which he fought; after two defeats the empire wholly collapsed; and the + Persians submitted, apparently without much reluctance, to the + Helleno-Macedonian yoke. + </p> + <p> + Five centuries and a half of servitude could not much improve or elevate + the character of the people. Their fall from power, their loss of wealth + and of dominion did indeed advantage them in one way: it but an end to + that continually advancing sloth and luxury which had sapped the virtue of + the nation, depriving it of energy, endurance, and almost every manly + excellence. It dashed the Persians back upon the ground whence they had + sprung, and whence, Antseus-like, they proceeded to derive fresh vigor and + vital force. In their “scant and rugged” fatherland, the people of Cyrus + once more recovered to a great extent their ancient prowess and hardihood—their + habits became simplified, their old patriotism revived, their self-respect + grew greater. But while adversity thus in some respects proved its “sweet + uses” upon them, there were other respects in which submission to the yoke + of the Greeks, and still more to that of the Parthians, seems to have + altered them for the worse rather than for the better. There is a + coarseness and rudeness about the Sassanian Persians which we do not + observe in Achaemenian times. The physique of the nation is not indeed + much altered. Nearly the same countenance meets us in the sculptures of + Artaxerxes, the son of Babek, of Sapor, and of their successors, with + which we are familiar from the bas-reliefs of Darius Hystapis and Xerxes. + There is the same straight forehead, the same aquiline nose, the same + well-shaped mouth, the same abundant hair. The form is, however, coarser + and clumsier; the expression is less refined; and the general effect + produced is that the people have, even physically, deteriorated. The + mental and aesthetic standard seems still more to have sunk. There is no + evidence that the Persians of Sassanian times possessed the governmental + and administrative ability of Darius Hystapis or Artaxerxes Ochus. Their + art, though remarkable, considering the almost entire disappearance of art + from Western Asia under the Parthians, is, compared with that of + Achaemenian times, rude and grotesque. In architecture, indeed, they are + not without merit though even here the extent to which they were indebted + to the Parthians, which cannot be exactly determined, must lessen our + estimation of them; but their mimetic art, while not wanting in spirit, is + remarkably coarse and unrefined. As a later chapter will be devoted to + this subject, no more need be said upon it here. It is sufficient for our + present purpose to note that the impression which we obtain from the + monumental remains of the Sassanian Persians accords with what is to be + gathered of them from the accounts of the Romans and the Greeks. The great + Asiatic revolution of the year A.D. 226 marks a revival of the Iranic + nationality from the depressed state into which it had sunk for more than + five hundred years; but the revival is not full or complete. The Persians + of the Sassanian kingdom are not equal to those of the time between Cyrus + the Great and Darius Codomannus; they have ruder manners, a grosser taste, + less capacity for government and organization; they have, in fact, been + coarsened by centuries of Tartar rule; they are vigorous, active, + energetic, proud, brave; but in civilization and refinement they do not + rank much above their Parthian predecessors. Western Asia gained, perhaps, + something, but it did not gain much, from the substitution of the Persians + for the Parthians as the dominant power. The change is the least marked + among the revolutions which the East underwent between the accession of + Cyrus and the conquests of Timour. But it is a change, on the whole, for + the better. It is accompanied by a revival of art, by improvements in + architecture; it inaugurates a religious revolution which has advantages. + Above all, it saves the East from stagnation. It is one among many of + those salutary shocks which, in the political as in the natural world, are + needed from time to time to stimulate action and prevent torpor and + apathy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Artaxerxes I. Stories told of him. Most probable account of + his Descent, Rank, and Parentage. His Contest with Artabanus. First War + with Chosroes of Armenia. Contest with Alexander Severus. Second War with + Chosroes and conquest of Armenia. Religious Reforms. Internal + Administration and Government. Art. Coinage. Inscriptions.</i> + </p> + <p> + Around the cradle of an Oriental sovereign who founds a dynasty there + cluster commonly a number of traditions, which have, more or less, a + mythical character. The tales told of the Great, which even Herodotus set + aside as incredible, have their parallels in narratives that were current + within one or two centuries with respect to the founder of the Second + Persian Empire, which would not have disgraced the mythologers of + Achaemenian times. Artaxerxes, according to some, was the son of a common + soldier who had an illicit connection with the wife of a Persian cobbler + and astrologer, a certain Babek or Papak, an inhabitant of the Cadusian + country and a man of the lowest class. Papak, knowing by his art that the + soldier’s son would attain a lofty position, voluntarily ceded his rights + as husband to the favorite of fortune, and bred up as his own the issue of + this illegitimate commerce, who, when he attained to manhood, justified + Papak’s foresight by successfully revolting from Artabanus and + establishing the new Persian monarchy. Others said that the founder of the + new kingdom was a Parthian satrap, the son of a noble, and that, having + long meditated revolt, he took the final plunge in consequence of a + prophecy uttered by Artabanus, who was well skilled in magical arts, and + saw in the stars that the Parthian empire was threatened with destruction. + Artabanus, on a certain occasion, when he communicated this prophetic + knowledge to his wife, was overheard by one of her attendants, a noble + damsel named Artaducta, already affianced to Artaxerxes and a sharer in + his secret counsels. At her instigation he hastened his plans, raised the + standard of revolt, and upon the successful issue of his enterprise made + her his queen. Miraculous circumstances were freely interwoven with these + narratives, and a result was produced which staggered the faith even of + such a writer as Moses of Chorene, who, desiring to confine himself to + what was strictly true and certain, could find no more to say of + Artaxerxes’s birth and origin than that he was the son of a certain Sasan, + and a native of Istakr, or Persepolis. + </p> + <p> + Even, however, the two facts thus selected as beyond criticism by Moses + are far from being entitled to implicit credence. Artaxerxes, the son of + Sasan according to Agathangelus and Moses, is the same as Papak (or Babek) + in his own and his son’s inscriptions. The Persian writers generally take + the same view, and declare that Sasan was a remoter ancestor of + Artaxerxes, the acknowledged founder of the family, and not Artaxerxes’ + father. In the extant records of the new Persian Kingdom, the coins and + the inscriptions, neither Sasan nor the gentilitial term derived from it, + Sasanidae, has any place; and though it would perhaps be rash to question + on this account the employment of the term Sasanidae by the dynasty, yet + we may regard it as really “certain” that the father of Artaxerxes was + named, not Sasan, but Papak; and that, if the term Sasanian was in reality + a patronymic, it was derived, like the term “Achaemenian,” from some + remote progenitor whom the royal family of the new empire believed to have + been their founder. + </p> + <p> + The native country of Artaxerxes is also variously stated by the + authorities. Agathangelus calls him an Assyrian, and makes the Assyrians + play an important part in his rebellion. Agathias says that he was born in + the Cadusian country, or the low tract south-west of the Caspian, which + belonged to Media rather than to Assyria or Persia. Dio Cassius, and + Herodian, the contemporaries of Artaxerxes, call him a Persian; and there + can be no reasonable doubt that they are correct in so doing. Agathangelus + allows the predominantly Persian character of his revolt, and Agathias is + apparently unaware that the Cadusian country was no part of Persia. The + statement that he was a native of Persepolis (Istakr) is first found in + Moses of Chorene. It may be true, but it is uncertain; for it may have + grown out of the earlier statement of Agathangelus, that he held the + government of the province of Istakr. We can only affirm with confidence + that the founder of the new Persian monarchy was a genuine Persian, + without attempting to determine positively what Persian city or province + had the honor of producing him. + </p> + <p> + A more interesting question, and one which will be found perhaps to admit + of a more definite answer, is that of the rank and station in which + Artaxerxes was born. We have seen that Agathias (writing ab. A.D. 580) + called him the supposititious son of a cobbler. Others spoke of him as the + child of a shepherd; while some said that his father was “an inferior + officer in the service of the government.” But on the other hand, in the + inscriptions which Artaxerxes himself setup in the neighborhood of + Persepolis, he gives his father, Papak, the title of “King.” Agathangelus + calls him a “noble” and “satrap of Persepolitan government;” while + Herodian seems to speak of him as “king of the Persians,” before his + victories over Artabanus. On the whole, it is perhaps most probable that, + like Cyrus, he was the hereditary monarch of the subject kingdom of + Persia, which had always its own princes under the Parthians, and that + thus he naturally and without effort took the leadership of the revolt + when circumstances induced his nation to rebel and seek to establish its + independence. The stories told of his humble origin, which are + contradictory and improbable, are to be paralleled with those which made + Cyrus the son of a Persian of moderate rank, and the foster-child of a + herdsman. There is always in the East a tendency towards romance and + exaggeration; and when a great monarch emerges from a comparatively humble + position, the humility and obscurity of his first condition are + intensified, to make the contrast more striking between his original low + estate and his ultimate splendor and dignity. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances of the struggle between Artaxerxes and. Artabanus are + briefly sketched by Dio Cassius and Agathangelus, while they are related + more at large by the Persian writers. It is probable that the contest + occupied a space of four or five years. At first, we are told, Artabanus + neglected to arouse himself, and took no steps towards crushing the + rebellion, which was limited to an assertion of the independence of Persia + Proper, or the province of Fars. After a time the revolted vassal, finding + himself unmolested, was induced to raise his thoughts higher, and + commenced a career of conquest. Turning his arms eastward, he attacked + Kerman (Carmania), and easily succeeded in reducing that scantily-peopled + tract under his dominion. He then proceeded to menace the north, and, + making war in that quarter, overran and attached to his kingdom some of + the outlying provinces of Media. Roused by these aggressions, the Parthian + monarch at length took the field, collected an army consisting in part of + Parthians, in part of the Persians who continued faithful to him, against + his vassal, and, invading Persia, soon brought his adversary to a battle. + A long and bloody contest followed, both sides suffering great losses; but + victory finally declared itself in favor of Artaxerxes, through the + desertion to him, during the engagement, of a portion of his enemy’s + forces. A second conflict ensued within a short period, in which the + insurgents were even more completely successful; the carnage on the side + of the Parthians was great, the loss of the Persians small; and the great + king fled precipitately from the field. Still the resources of Parthia + were equal to a third trial of arms. After a brief pause, Artabanus made a + final effort to reduce his revolted vassal; and a last engagement took + place in the plain of Hormuz, which was a portion of the Jerahi valley, in + the beautiful country between Bebahan and Shuster. Here, after a desperate + conflict, the Parthian monarch suffered a third and signal defeat; his + army was scattered; and he himself lost his life in the combat. According + to some, his death was the result of a hand-to-hand conflict with his + great antagonist, who, pretending to fly, drew him on, and then pierced + his heart with an arrow. + </p> + <p> + The victory of Hormuz gave to Artaxerxes the dominion of the East; but it + did not secure him this result at once, or without further struggle. + Artabanus had left sons; and both in Bactria and Armenia there were + powerful branches of the Arsacid family, which could not see unmoved the + downfall of their kindred in Parthia. Chosroes, the Armenian monarch, was + a prince of considerable ability, and is said to have been set upon his + throne by Artabanus, whose brother he was, according to some writers. At + any rate he was an Arsacid; and he felt keenly the diminution of his own + influence involved in the transfer to an alien race of the sovereignty + wielded for five centuries by the descendants of the first Arsaces. He had + set his forces in motion, while the contest between Artabanus and + Artaxerxes was still in progress, in the hope of affording substantial + help to his relative. But the march of events was too rapid for him; and, + ere he could strike a blow, he found that the time for effectual action + had gone by, that Artabanus was no more, and that the dominion of + Artaxerxes was established over most of the countries which had previously + formed portions of the Parthian Empire. Still, he resolved to continue the + struggle; he was on friendly terms with Rome, and might count on an + imperial contingent; he had some hope that the Bactrian Arsacidae would + join him; at the worst, he regarded his own power as firmly fixed and as + sufficient to enable him to maintain an equal contest with the new + monarchy. Accordingly he took the Parthian Arsacids under his protection, + and gave them a refuge in the Armenian territory. At the same time he + negotiated with both Balkh and Rome, made arrangements with the barbarians + upon his northern frontier to lend him aid, and, having collected a large + army, invaded the new kingdom on the north-west, and gained certain not + unimportant successes. According to the Armenian historians, Artaxerxes + lost Assyria and the adjacent regions; Bactria wavered; and, after the + struggle had continued for a year or two, the founder of the second + Persian empire was obliged to fly ignominiously to India! But this entire + narrative seems to be deeply tinged with the vitiating stain of intense + national vanity, a fault which markedly characterizes the Armenian + writers, and renders them, when unconfirmed by other authorities, almost + worthless. The general course of events, and the position which Artaxerxes + takes in his dealings with Rome (A.D. 229-230), sufficiently indicate that + any reverses which he sustained at this time in his struggle with Chosroes + and the unsubmitted Arsacidae must have been trivial, and that they + certainly had no greater result than to establish the independence of + Armenia, which, by dint of leaning upon Rome, was able to maintain itself + against the Persian monarch and to check the advance of the Persians in + North-Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes, however, resisted in this quarter, and unable to overcome the + resistance, which he may have regarded as deriving its effectiveness (in + part at least) from the support lent it by Rome, determined (ab. A.D. 229) + to challenge the empire to an encounter. Aware that Artabanus, his late + rival, against whom he had measured himself, and whose power he had + completely overthrown, had been successful in his war with Macrinus, had + gained the great battle of Nisibis, and forced the Imperial State to + purchase an ignominious peace by a payment equal to nearly two millions of + our money, he may naturally have thought that a facile triumph was open to + his arms in this direction. Alexander Severus, the occupant of the + imperial throne, was a young man of a weak character, controlled in a + great measure by his mother, Julia Mamaea, and as yet quite + undistinguished as a general. The Roman forces in the East were known to + be licentious and insubordinate; corrupted by the softness of the climate + and the seductions of Oriental manners, they disregarded the restraints of + discipline, indulged in the vices which at once enervate the frame and + lower the moral character, had scant respect for their leaders, and seemed + a defence which it would be easy to overpower and sweep away. Artaxerxes, + like other founders of great empires, entertained lofty views of his + abilities and his destinies; the monarchy which he had built up in the + space of some five or six years was far from contenting him; well read in + the ancient history of his nation, he sighed after the glorious days of + Cyrus the Great and Darius Hystaspis, when all Western Asia from the + shores of the AEgean to the Indian desert, and portions of Europe and + Africa, had acknowledged the sway of the Persian king. The territories + which these princes had ruled he regarded as his own by right of + inheritance; and we are told that he not only entertained, but boldly + published, these views. His emissaries everywhere declared that their + master claimed the dominion of Asia as far as the AEgean Sea and the + Propontis. It was his duty and his mission to recover to the Persians + their pristine empire. What Cyrus had conquered, what the Persian kings + had held from that time until the defeat of Codomannus by Alexander, was + his by indefeasible right, and he was about to take possession of it. + </p> + <p> + Nor were these brave words a mere <i>brutum fulmen</i>. Simultaneously + with the putting forth of such lofty pretensions the troops of the Persian + monarch crossed the Tigris and spread themselves over the entire Roman + province of Mesopotamia, which was rapidly overrun and offered scarcely + any resistance. Severus learned at the same moment the demands of his + adversary and the loss of one of his best provinces. He heard that his + strong posts upon the Euphrates, the old defences of the empire in this + quarter, were being attacked, and that Syria daily expected the passage of + the invaders. The crisis was one requiring prompt action; but the weak and + inexperienced youth was content to meet it with diplomacy, and, instead of + sending an army to the East, despatched ambassadors to his rival with a + letter. “Artaxerxes,” he said, “ought to confine himself to his own + territories and not seek to revolutionize Asia; it was unsafe, on the + strength of mere unsubstantial hopes, to commence a great war. Every one + should be content with keeping what belonged to him. Artaxerxes would find + war with Rome a very different thing from the contests in which he had + been hitherto engaged with barbarous races like his own. He should call to + mind the successes of Augustus and Trajan, and the trophies carried off + from the East by Lucius Verus and by Septimius Severus.” + </p> + <p> + The counsels of moderation have rarely much effect in restraining princely + ambition. Artaxerxes replied by an embassy in which he ostentatiously + displayed the wealth and magnificence of Persia; but, so far from making + any deduction from his original demands, he now distinctly formulated + them, and required their immediate acceptance. “Artaxerxes, the Great + King,” he said, “ordered the Romans and their ruler to take their + departure forthwith from Syria and the rest of Western Asia, and to allow + the Persians to exercise dominion over Ionia and Caria and the other + countries within the AEgean and the Euxine, since these countries belonged + to Persia by right of inheritance.” A Roman emperor had seldom received + such a message; and Alexander, mild and gentle as he was by nature, seems + to have had his equanimity disturbed by the insolence of the mandate. + Disregarding the sacredness of the ambassadorial character, he stripped + the envoys of their splendid apparel, treated them as prisoners of war, + and settled them as agricultural colonists in Phrygia. If we may believe + Herodian, he even took credit to himself for sparing their lives, which he + regarded as justly forfeit to the offended majesty of the empire. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the angry prince, convinced at last against his will that + negotiations with such an enemy were futile, collected an army and began + his march towards the East. Taking troops from the various provinces + through which he passed, he conducted to Antioch, in the autumn of A.D. + 231, a considerable force, which was there augmented by the legions of the + East and by troops drawn from Egypt and other quarters. Artaxerxes, on his + part, was not idle. According to Soverus himself, the army brought into + the field by the Persian monarch consisted of one hundred and twenty + thousand mailed horsemen, of eighteen hundred scythed chariots, and of + seven hundred trained elephants, bearing on their backs towers filled with + archers; and though this pretended host has been truly characterized as + one “the like of which is not to be found in Eastern history, and has + scarcely been imagined in Eastern romance,” yet, allowing much for + exaggeration, we may still safely conclude that great exertions had been + made on the Persian side, that their forces consisted of the three arms + mentioned, and that the numbers of each were large beyond ordinary + precedent. The two adversaries were thus not ill-matched; each brought the + flower of his troops to the conflict; each commanded the army, on which + his dependence was placed, in person; each looked to obtain from the + contest not only an increase of military glory, but substantial fruits of + victory in the shape of plunder or territory. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that the Persian monarch, after the high tone + which he had taken, would have maintained an aggressive attitude, have + crossed the Euphrates, and spread the hordes at his disposal over Syria, + Cappadocia, and Asia Minor. But it seems to be certain that he did not do + so, and that the initiative was taken by the other side. Probably the + Persian arms, as inefficient in sieges as the Parthian, were unable to + overcome the resistance offered by the Roman forts upon the great river; + and Artaxerxes was too good a general to throw his forces into the heart + of an enemy’s country without having first secured a safe retreat. The + Euphrates was therefore crossed by his adversary in the spring of A.D. + 232; the Roman province of Mesopotamia was easily recovered; and + arrangements were made by which it was hoped to deal the new monarchy a + heavy blow, if not actually to crush and conquer it. + </p> + <p> + Alexander divided his troops into three bodies. One division was to act + towards the north, to take advantage of the friendly disposition of + Chosroes, king of Armenia, and, traversing his strong mountain territory, + to direct its attack upon Media, into which Armenia gave a ready entrance. + Another was to take a southern line, and to threaten Persia Proper from + the marshy tract about the junction of the Euphrates with the Tigris, a + portion of the Babylonian territory. The third and main division, which + was to be commanded by the emperor in person, was to act on a line + intermediate between the other two, which would conduct it to the very + heart of the enemy’s territory, and at the same time allow of its giving + effective support to either of the two other divisions if they should need + it. + </p> + <p> + The plan of operations appears to have been judiciously constructed, and + should perhaps be ascribed rather to the friends whom the youthful emperor + consulted than to his own unassisted wisdom. But the best designed plans + may be frustrated by unskilfulness or timidity in the execution; and it + was here, if we may trust the author who alone gives us any detailed + account of the campaign, that the weakness of Alexander’s character showed + itself. The northern army successfully traversed Armenia, and, invading + Media, proved itself in numerous small actions superior to the Persian + force opposed to it, and was able to plunder and ravage the entire country + at its pleasure. The southern division crossed Mesopotamia in safety, and + threatened to invade Persia Proper. Had Alexander with the third and main + division kept faith with the two secondary armies, had he marched briskly + and combined his movements with theirs, the triumph of the Roman arms + would have been assured. But, either from personal timidity or from an + amiable regard for the anxieties of his mother Mamsea, he hung back while + his right and left wings made their advance, and so allowed the enemy to + concentrate their efforts on these two isolated bodies. The army in Media, + favored by the rugged character of the country, was able to maintain its + ground without much difficulty; but that which had advanced by the line of + the Euphrates and Tigris, and which was still marching through the + boundless plains of the great alluvium, found itself suddenly beset by a + countless host, commanded by Artaxerxes in person, and, though it + struggled gallantly, was overwhelmed and utterly destroyed by the arrows + of the terrible Persian bowmen. Herodian says, no doubt with some + exaggeration, that this was the greatest calamity which had ever befallen + the Romans. It certainly cannot compare with Cannae, with the disaster of + Varus, or even with the similar defeat of Crassus in a not very distant + region. But it was (if rightly represented by Herodian) a terrible blow. + It absolutely determined the campaign. A Caesar or a Trajan might have + retrieved such a loss. An Alexander Severus was not likely even to make an + attempt to do so. Already weakened in body by the heat of the climate and + the unwonted fatigues of war, he was utterly prostrated in spirit by the + intelligence when it reached him. The signal was at once given for + retreat. Orders were sent to the <i>corps d’ armee</i> which occupied + Media to evacuate its conquests and to retire forthwith upon the + Euphrates. These orders were executed, but with difficulty. Winter had + already set in throughout the high regions; and in its retreat the army of + Media suffered great losses through the inclemency of the climate, so that + those who reached Syria were but a small proportion of the original force. + Alexander himself, and the army which he led, experienced less difficulty; + but disease dogged the steps of this division, and when its columns + reached Antioch it was found to be greatly reduced in numbers by sickness, + though it had never confronted an enemy. The three armies of Severus + suffered not indeed equally, but still in every case considerably, from + three distinct causes—sickness, severe weather, and marked + inferiority to the enemy. The last-named cause had annihilated the + southern division; the northern had succumbed to climate; the main army, + led by Severus himself, was (comparatively speaking) intact, but even this + had been decimated by sickness, and was not in a condition to carry on the + war with vigor. The result of the campaign had thus been altogether + favorable to the Persians, but yet it had convinced Artaxerxes that Rome + was more powerful than he had thought. It had shown him that in imagining + the time had arrived when they might be easily driven out of Asia—he + had made a mistake. The imperial power had proved itself strong enough to + penetrate deeply within his territory, to ravage some of his best + provinces, and to threaten his capital. The grand ideas with which he had + entered upon the contest had consequently to be abandoned; and it had to + be recognized that the struggle with Rome was one in which the two parties + were very evenly matched, one in which it was not to be supposed that + either side would very soon obtain any decided preponderance. Under these + circumstances the grand ideas were quietly dropped; the army which had + been gathered together to enforce them was allowed to disperse, and was + not required within any given time to reassemble; it is not unlikely that + (as Niebuhr conjectures) a peace was made, though whether Rome ceded any + of her territory by its terms is exceedingly doubtful. Probably the + general principle of the arrangement was a return to the <i>status quo + ante bellum</i>, or, in other words, the acceptance by either side, as the + true territorial limits between Rome and Persia, of those boundaries which + had been previously held to divide the imperial possessions from the + dominions of the Arsacidse. + </p> + <p> + The issue of the struggle was no doubt disappointing to Artaxerxes; but + if, on the one hand, it dispelled some illusions and proved to him that + the Roman State, though verging to its decline, nevertheless still + possessed a vigor and a life which he had been far from anticipating, on + the other hand it left him free to concentrate his efforts on the + reduction of Armenia, which was really of more importance to him, from + Armenia being the great stronghold of the Arsacid power, than the nominal + attachment to the empire of half-a-dozen Roman provinces. So long as + Arsacidae maintained themselves in a position of independence and + substantial power so near the Persian borders, and in a country of such + extent and such vast natural strength as Armenia, there could not but be a + danger of reaction, of the nations again reverting to the yoke whereto + they had by long use become accustomed, and of the star of the Sasanidae + paling before that of the former masters of Asia. It was essential to the + consolidation of the new Persian Empire that Armenia should be subjugated, + or at any rate that Arsacidae should cease to govern it; and the fact that + the peace which appears to have been made between Rome and Persia, A.D. + 232, set Artaxerxes at liberty to direct all his endeavors to the + establishment of such relations between his own state and Armenia as he + deemed required by public policy and necessary for the security of his own + power, must be regarded as one of paramount importance, and as probably + one of the causes mainly actuating him in the negotiations and inclining + him to consent to peace on any fair and equitable terms. Consequently, the + immediate result of hostilities ceasing between Persia and Rome was their + renewal between Persia and Armenia. The war had indeed, in one sense, + never ceased; for Chosroes had been an ally of the Romans during the + campaign of Severus, and had no doubt played a part in the invasion and + devastation of Media which have been described above. But, the Romans + having withdrawn, he was left wholly dependent on his own resources; and + the entire strength of Persia was now doubtless brought into the field + against him. Still he defended himself with such success, and caused + Artaxerxes so much alarm, that after a time that monarch began to despair + of ever conquering his adversary by fair means, and cast about for some + other mode of accomplishing his purpose. Summoning an assembly of all the + vassal kings, the governors, and the commandants throughout the empire, he + besought them to find some cure for the existing distress, at the same + time promising a rich reward to the man who should contrive an effectual + remedy. The second place in the kingdom should be his; he should have + dominion over one half of the Arians; nay, he should share the Persian + throne with Artaxerxes himself, and hold a rank and dignity only slightly + inferior. We are told that these offers prevailed with a noble of the + empire, named Anak, a man who had Arsacid blood in his veins, and belonged + to that one of the three branches of the old royal stock which had long + been settled at Bactria (Balkh), and that he was induced thereby to come + forward and undertake the assassination of Chosroes, who was his near + relative and would not be likely to suspect him of an ill intent. + Artaxerxes warmly encouraged him in his design, and in a little time it + was successfully carried out. Anak, with his wife, his children, his + brother, and a train of attendants, pretended to take refuge in Armenia + from the threatened vengeance of his sovereign, who caused his troops to + pursue him, as a rebel and deserter, to the very borders of Armenia. + Unsuspicious of any evil design, Ohosroes received the exiles with favor, + discussed with them his plans for the subjugation of Persia, and, having + sheltered them during the whole of the autumn and winter, proposed to them + in the spring that they should accompany him and take part in the year’s + campaign. Anak, forced by this proposal to precipitate his designs, + contrived a meeting between himself, his brother, and Chosroes, without + attendants, on the pretext of discussing plans of attack, and, having thus + got the Armenian monarch at a disadvantage, drew sword upon him, together + with his brother, and easily put him to death. The crime which he had + undertaken was thus accomplished; but he did not live to receive the + reward promised him for it. Armenia rose in arms on learning the foul deed + wrought upon its king; the bridges and the few practicable outlets by + which the capital could be quitted were occupied by armed men; and the + murderers, driven to desperation, lost their lives in an attempt to make + their escape by swimming the river Araxes. Thus Artaxerxes obtained his + object without having to pay the price that he had agreed upon; his + dreaded rival was removed; Armenia lay at his mercy; and he had not to + weaken his power at home by sharing it with an Arsacid partner. + </p> + <p> + The Persian monarch allowed the Armenians no time to recover from the blow + which he had treacherously dealt them. His armies at once entered their + territory and carried everything before them. Chosroes seems to have had + no son of sufficient age to succeed him, and the defence of the country + fell upon the satraps, or governors of the several provinces. These chiefs + implored the aid of the Roman emperor, and received a contingent; but + neither were their own exertions nor was the valor of their allies of any + avail. Artaxerxes easily defeated the confederate army, and forced the + satraps to take refuge in Roman territory. Armenia submitted to his arms, + and became an integral portion of his empire. It probably did not greatly + trouble him that Artavasdes, one of the satraps, succeeded in carrying off + one of the sons of Chosroes, a boy named Tiridates, whom he conveyed to + Rome, and placed under the protection of the reigning emperor. + </p> + <p> + Such were the chief military successes of Artaxerxes. The greatest of our + historians, Gibbon, ventures indeed to assign to him, in addition, “some + easy victories over the wild Scythians and the effeminate Indians.” But + there is no good authority for this statement; and on the whole it is + unlikely that he came into contact with either nation. His coins are not + found in Afghanistan; and it may be doubted whether he ever made any + eastern expedition. His reign was not long; and it was sufficiently + occupied by the Roman and Armenian wars, and by the greatest of all his + works, the reformation of religion. + </p> + <p> + The religious aspect of the insurrection which transferred the headship of + Western Asia from the Parthians to the Persians, from Artabanus to + Artaxerxes, has been already noticed; but we have now to trace, so far as + we can, the steps by which the religious revolution was accomplished, and + the faith of Zoroaster, or what was believed to be such, established as + the religion of the State throughout the new empire. Artaxerxes, himself + (if we may believe Agathias) a Magus, was resolved from the first that, if + his efforts to shake off the Parthian yoke succeeded, he would use his + best endeavors to overthrow the Parthian idolatry and install in its stead + the ancestral religion of the Persians. This religion consisted of a + combination of Dualism with a qualified creature-worship, and a special + reverence for the elements, earth, air, water, and fire. Zoroastrianism, + in the earliest form which is historically known to us, postulated two + independent and contending principles—a principle of good, + Ahura-Mazda, and a principle of evil, Angro-Mainyus. These beings, who + were coeternal and coequal, were engaged in a perpetual struggle for + supremacy; and the world was the battle-field wherein the strife was + carried on. Each had called into existence numerous inferior beings, + through whose agency they waged their interminable conflict. Ahura-Mazda + (Oromazdos, Ormazd) had created thousands of angelic beings to perform his + will and fight on his side against the Evil One; and Alngro-Mainyus + (Arimanius, Ahriman) had equally on his part called into being thousands + of malignant spirits to be his emissaries in the world, to do his work, + and fight his battles. The greater of the powers called into being by + Ahura-Mazda were proper objects of the worship of man, though, of course, + his main worship was to be given to Ahura-Mazda. Angro-Mainyus was not to + be worshipped, but to be hated and feared. With this dualistic belief had + been combined, at a time not much later than that of Darius Hystaspis, an + entirely separate system, the worship of the elements. Fire, air, earth, + and water were regarded as essentially holy, and to pollute any of them + was a crime. Fire was especially to be held in honor; and it became an + essential part of the Persian religion to maintain perpetually upon the + fire-altars the sacred flame, supposed to have been originally kindled + from heaven, and to see that it never went out. Together with this + elemental worship was introduced into the religion a profound regard for + an order of priests called Magians, who interposed themselves between the + deity and the worshipper, and claimed to possess prophetic powers. This + Magian order was a priest-caste, and exercised vast influence, being + internally organized into a hierarchy containing many ranks, and claiming + a sanctity far above that of the best laymen. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes found the Magian order depressed by the systematic action of + the later Parthian princes, who had practically fallen away from the + Zoroastrian faith and become mere idolaters. He found the fire-altars in + ruins, the sacred flame extinguished, the most essential of the Magian + ceremonies and practices disregarded. Everywhere, except perhaps in his + own province of Persia Proper, he found idolatry established. Temples of + the sun abounded, where images of Mithra were the object of worship, and + the Mithraic cult was carried out with a variety of imposing ceremonies. + Similar temples to the moon existed in many places; and the images of the + Arsacidae were associated with those of the sun and moon gods, in the + sanctuaries dedicated to them. The precepts of Zoroaster were forgotten. + The sacred compositions which bore that sage’s name, and had been handed + down from a remote antiquity, were still indeed preserved, if not in a + written form, yet in the memory of the faithful few who clung to the old + creed; but they had ceased to be regarded as binding upon their + consciences by the great mass of the Western Asiatics. Western Asia was a + seething-pot, in which were mixed up a score of contradictory creeds, old + and new, rational and irrational, Sabaism, Magism, Zoroastrianism, Grecian + polytheism, teraphim-worship, Judaism, Chaldae mysticism, Christianity. + Artaxerxes conceived it to be his mission to evoke order out of this + confusion, to establish in lieu of this extreme diversity an absolute + uniformity of religion. + </p> + <p> + The steps which he took to effect his purpose seem to have been the + following. He put down idolatry by a general destruction of the images, + which he overthrew and broke to pieces. He raised the Magian hierarchy to + a position of honor and dignity such as they had scarcely enjoyed even + under the later Achaemenian princes, securing them in a condition of + pecuniary independence by assignments of lands, and also by allowing their + title to claim from the faithful the tithe of all their possessions. He + caused the sacred fire to be rekindled on the altars where it was + extinguished, and assigned to certain bodies of priests the charge of + maintaining the fire in each locality. He then proceeded to collect the + supposed precepts of Zoroaster into a volume, in order to establish a + standard of orthodoxy whereto he might require all to conform. He found + the Zoroastrians themselves divided into a number of sects. Among these he + established uniformity by means of a “general council,” which was attended + by Magi from all parts of the empire, and which settled what was to be + regarded as the true Zoroastrian faith. According to the Oriental writers, + this was effected in the following way: Forty thousand, or, according to + others, eighty thousand Magi having assembled, they were successively + reduced by their own act to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and + finally to seven, the most highly respected for their piety and learning. + Of these seven there was one, a young but holy priest, whom the universal + consent of his brethren recognized as pre-eminent. His name was + Arda-Viraf. “Having passed through the strictest ablutions, and drunk a + powerful opiate, he was covered with a white linen and laid to sleep. + Watched by seven of the nobles, including the king, he slept for seven + days and nights; and, on his reawaking, the whole nation listened with + believing wonder to his exposition of the faith of Ormazd, which was + carefully written down by an attendant scribe for the benefit of + posterity.” + </p> + <p> + The result, however brought about, which must always remain doubtful, was + the authoritative issue of a volume which the learned of Europe have now + possessed for some quarter of a century, and which has recently been made + accessible to the general reader by the labors of Spiegel. This work, the + Zendavesta, while it may contain fragments of a very ancient literature, + took its present shape in the time of Artaxerxes, and was probably then + first collected from the mouths of the Zoroastrian priests and published + by Arda-Viraf. Certain additions may since have been made to it; but we + are assured that “their number is small,” and that we “have no reason to + doubt” that the text of the Avesta, in the days of Arda-Viraf, was on the + whole exactly the same as at present. The religious system of the new + Persian monarchy is thus completely known to us, and will be described + minutely in a later chapter. At present we have to consider, not what the + exact tenets of the Zoroastrians were, but only the mode in which + Artaxerxes imposed them upon his subjects. + </p> + <p> + The next step, after settling the true text of the sacred volume, was to + agree upon its interpretation. The language of the Avesta, though pure + Persian, was of so archaic a type that none but the most learned of the + Magi understood it; to the common people, even to the ordinary priest, it + was a dead letter. Artaxerxes seems to have recognized the necessity of + accompanying the Zend text with a translation and a commentary in the + language of his own time, the Pehlevi or Huzvaresh. Such a translation and + commentary exist; and though in part belonging to later Sassanian times, + they reach back probably in their earlier portions to the era of + Artaxerxes, who may fairly be credited with the desire to make the sacred + book “understanded of the people.” + </p> + <p> + Further, it was necessary, in order to secure permanent uniformity of + belief, to give to the Magian priesthood, the keepers and interpreters of + the sacred book, very extensive powers. The Magian hierarchy was therefore + associated with the monarch in the government and administration of the + State. It was declared that the altar and the throne were inseparable, and + must always sustain each other. The Magi were made to form the great + council of the nation. While they lent their support to the crown, the + crown upheld them against all impugners, and enforced by pains and + penalties their decisions. Persecution was adopted and asserted as a + principle of action without any disguise. By an edict of Artaxerxes, all + places of worship were closed except the temples of the fire-worshippers. + If no violent outbreak of fanaticism followed, it was because the various + sectaries and schismatics succumbed to the decree without resistance. + Christian, and Jew, and Greek, and Parthian, and Arab allowed their + sanctuaries to be closed without striking a blow to prevent it; and the + non-Zoroastrians of the empire, the votaries of foreign religions, were + shortly reckoned at the insignificant number of 80,000. + </p> + <p> + Of the internal administration and government of his extensive empire by + Artaxerxes, but little is known. That little seems, however, to show that + while in general type and character it conformed to the usual Oriental + model, in its practical working it was such as to obtain the approval of + the bulk of his subjects. Artaxerxes governed his provinces either through + native kings, or else through Persian satraps. At the same time, like the + Achaemenian monarchs, he kept the armed force under his own control by the + appointment of “generals” or “commandants” distinct from the satraps. + Discarding the Parthian plan of intrusting the military defence of the + empire and the preservation of domestic order to a mere militia, he + maintained on a war footing a considerable force, regularly paid and + drilled. “There can be no power,” he remarked, “without an army, no army + without money, no money without agriculture, and no agriculture without + justice.” To administer strict justice was therefore among his chief + endeavors. Daily reports were made to him of all that passed not only in + his capital, but in every province of his vast empire; and his knowledge + extended even to the private actions of his subjects. It was his earnest + desire that all well-deposed persons should feel an absolute assurance of + security with respect to their lives, their property, and their honor. At + the same time he punished crimes with severity, and even visited upon + entire families the transgression of one of their members. It is said to + have been one of his maxims, that “kings should never use the sword where + the cane would answer;” but, if the Armenian historians are to be trusted, + in practice he certainly did not err on the side of clemency. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes was, of course, an absolute monarch, having the entire power of + life or death, and entitled, if he chose, to decide all matters at his own + mere will and pleasure. But, in practice, he, like most Oriental despots, + was wont to summon and take the advice of counsellors. It is perhaps + doubtful whether any regular “Council of State” existed under him. Such an + institution had prevailed under the Parthians, where the monarchs were + elected and might be deposed by the Megistanes; but there is no evidence + that Artaxerxes continued it, or did more than call on each occasion for + the advice of such persons among his subjects as he thought most capable. + In matters affecting his relations towards foreign powers he consulted + with the subject kings, the satraps, and the generals; in religious + affairs he no doubt took counsel with the chief Magi. The general + principles which guided his conduct both in religious and other matters + may perhaps be best gathered from the words of that “testament,” or “dying + speech,” which he is said to have addressed to his son Sapor. “Never + forget,” he said, “that, as a king, you are at once the protector of + religion and of your country. Consider the altar and the throne as + inseparable; they must always sustain each other. A sovereign without + religion is a tyrant; and a people who have none may be deemed the most + monstrous of all societies. Religion may exist without a state; but a + state cannot exist without religion; and it is by holy laws that a + political association can alone be bound. You should be to your people an + example of piety and of virtue, but without pride or ostentation.... + Remember, my son, that it is the prosperity or adversity of the ruler + which forms the happiness or misery of his subjects, and that the fate of + the nation depends on the conduct of the individual who fills the throne. + The world is exposed to constant vicissitudes; learn, therefore, to meet + the frowns of fortune with courage and fortitude, and to receive her + smiles with moderation and wisdom. To sum up all—may your + administration be such as to bring, at a future day, the blessings of + those whom God has confided to our parental care upon both your memory and + mine!” + </p> + <p> + There is reason to believe that Artaxerxes, some short time before his + death, invested Sapor with the emblems of sovereignty, and either + associated him in the empire, or wholly ceded to him his own place. The + Arabian writer, Macoudi, declares that, sated with glory and with power, + he withdrew altogether from the government, and, making over the + administration of affairs to his favorite son, devoted himself to + religious contemplation. Tabari knows nothing of the religious motive, but + relates that towards the close of his life Artaxerxes “made Sapor regent, + appointed him formally to be his successor, and with his own hands placed + the .crown on his head.” <a href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE XII.]</a> These + notices would, by themselves, have been of small importance; but force is + lent to them by the facts that Artaxerxes is found to have placed the + effigy of Sapor on his later coins, and that in one of his bas-reliefs he + seems to be represented as investing Sapor with the diadem. This tablet, + which is at Takht-i-Bostan, has been variously explained, and, as it is + unaccompanied by any inscription, no certain account can be given of it; + but, on the whole the opinion of those most competent to judge seems to be + that the intention of the artist was to represent Artaxerxes (who wears + the cap and inflated ball) as handing the diadem to Sapor—distinguished + by the mural crown of his own tablets and coins—while Ormazd, marked + by his customary <i>baton</i>, and further indicated by a halo of glory + around his head, looks on, sanctioning and approving the transaction. A + prostrate figure under the feet of the two Sassanian kings represents + either Artabanus or the extinct Parthian monarchy, probably the former; + while the sunflower upon which Ormazd stands, together with the rays that + stream from his head, denote an intention to present him under a + Mithraitic aspect, suggestive to the beholder of a real latent identity + between the two great objects of Persian worship. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate012.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 12. " /> + </div> + <p> + The coins of Artaxerxes present five different types. <a + href="#linkimage-0002">[PLATE XI., Fig. 1.]</a> In the earliest his effigy + appears on the obverse, front-faced, with the simple legend AETaHsnaTE + (Artaxerxes), or sometimes with the longer one, BaGi ARTaiiSHaTR MaLKA, + “Divine Artaxerxes, King;” while the reverse bears the profile of his + father, Papak, looking to the left, with the legend BaGi PAPaKi MaLKA, + “Divine Papak, King;” or BaBl BaGi PAPaKi MaLKA, “Son of Divine Papak, + King.” Both heads wear the ordinary Parthian diadem and tiara; and the + head of Artaxerxes much resembles that of Volagases V., one of the later + Parthian kings. The coins of the next period have a head on one side only. + This is in profile, looking to the right, and bears a highly ornamental + tiara, exactly like that of Mithridates I. of Parthia, the great + conqueror. It is usually accompanied by the legend MaZDiSN BaGi ARTaHSHaTR + MaLKA (or MaLKAN MaLKA) aiean, i.e. “The Ormazd-worshipping Divine + Artaxerxes, King of Iran,” or “King of the Kings of Iran.” The reverse of + these coins bears a fire-altar, with the legend ARTaHSHaTR nuvazi, a + phrase of doubtful import. In the third period, while the reverse remains + unchanged, on the obverse the Parthian costume is entirely given up; and + the king takes, instead of the Parthian tiara, a low cap surmounted by the + inflated ball, which thenceforth becomes the almost universal badge of a + Sassanian monarch. The legend is now longer, being commonly MaZDiSN BaGi + ARTaiisi-iaTR MaLKAN MaLKA airanMiNUCHiTRi iniN YazDAN, or “The + Ormazd-worshipping Divine Artaxerxes, King of the Kings of Iran, + heaven-descended of (the race of) the Gods.” The fourth period is marked + by the assumption of the mural crown, which in the sculptures of + Artaxerxes is given only to Ormazd, but which was afterwards adopted by + Sapor I. and many later kings, in combination with the ball, as their + usual head-dress. The legend on these coins remains as in the third + period, and the reverse is likewise unchanged. Finally, there are a few + coins of Artaxerxes, belonging to the very close of his reign, where he is + represented with the tiara of the third period, looking to the right; + while in front of him, and looking towards him, is another profile, that + of a boy, in whom numismatists recognize his eldest son and successor, + Sapor. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XV., Fig. 1]</a>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate015.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 15. " /> + </div> + <p> + It is remarkable that with the accession of Artaxerxes there is at once a + revival of art. Art had sunk under the Parthians, despite their Grecian + leanings, to the lowest ebb which it had known in Western Asia since the + accession of Asshur-izir-pal to the throne of Assyria (B.C. 886). Parthian + attempts at art were few and far between, and when made were unhappy, not + to say ridiculous. The coins of Artaxerxes, compared with those of the + later Parthian monarchs, show at once a renaissance. The head is well cut; + the features have individuality and expression; the epigraph is + sufficiently legible. Still more is his sculpture calculated to surprise + us. Artaxerxes represents himself as receiving the Persian diadem from the + hands of Ormazd; both he and the god are mounted upon chargers of a stout + breed, which are spiritedly portrayed; Artabanus lies prostrate under the + feet of the king’s steed, while under those of the deity’s we observe the + form of Ahriman, also prostrate, and indeed seemingly dead. Though the + tablet has not really any great artistic merit, it is far better than + anything that remains to us of the Parthians; it has energy and vigor; the + physiognomies are carefully rendered; and the only flagrant fault is a + certain over-robustness in the figures, which has an effect that is not + altogether pleasing. Still, we cannot but see in the new Persian art—even + at its very beginning—a movement towards life after a long period of + stagnation; an evidence of that general stir of mind which the downfall of + Tartar oppression rendered possible; a token that Aryan intelligence was + beginning to recover and reassert itself in all the various fields in + which it had formerly won its triumphs. + </p> + <p> + The coinage of Artaxerxes, and of the other Sassanian monarchs, is based, + in part upon Roman, in part upon Parthian, models. The Roman aureus + furnishes the type which is reproduced in the Sassanian gold coins, while + the silver coins follow the standard long established in Western Asia, + first under the Seleucid, and then under the Arsacid princes. This + standard is based upon the Attic drachm, which was adopted by Alexander as + the basis of his monetary system. The curious occurrence of a completely + different standard for gold and silver in Persia during this period is + accounted for by the circumstances of the time at which the coinage took + its rise. The Arsacidae had employed no gold coins, but had been content + with a silver currency; any gold coin that may have been in use among + their subjects for purposes of trade during the continuance of their + empire must have been foreign money—Roman, Bactrian, or Indian; but + the quantity had probably for the most part been very small. But, about + ten years before the accession of Artaxerxes there had been a sudden + influx into Western Asia of Roman gold, in consequence of the terms of the + treaty concluded between Artabanus and Macrinus (A.D. 217), whereby Rome + undertook to pay to Parthia an indemnity of above a million and a half of + our money. It is probable that the payment was mostly made in aurei. + Artaxerxes thus found current in the countries, which he overran and + formed into an empire, two coinages—a gold and a silver—coming + from different sources and possessing no common measure. It was simpler + and easier to retain what existed, and what had sufficiently adjusted + itself through the working of commercial needs, than to invent something + new; and hence the anomalous character of the New Persian monetary system. + </p> + <p> + The remarkable bas-relief of Artaxerxes described above and figured below + in the chapter on the Art of the Sassanians, is accompanied by a bilingual + inscription, or perhaps we should say by two bilingual inscriptions, which + possess much antiquarian and some historic interest. The longer of the two + runs as follows:—“Pathkar zani mazdisn bagi Artahshatr, malkan malka + Airan, minuchitri min Ydztan, bari bagi Pap-aki malka;” while the Greek + version of it is— + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/before_chap4.jpg" width="100%" + alt="Inscription, Page 278 " /> + </div> + <p> + The inscriptions are interesting, first, as proving the continued use of + the Greek character and language by a dynasty that was intensely national + and that wished to drive the Greeks out of Asia. Secondly, they are + interesting as showing the character of the native language, and letters, + employed by the Persians, when they came suddenly into notice as the + ruling people of Western Asia. Thirdly, they have an historic interest in + what they tell us of the relationship of Artaxerxes to Babek (Papak), of + the rank of Babek, and of the religious sympathies of the Sassanians. In + this last respect they do indeed, in themselves, little but confirm the + evidence of the coins and the general voice of antiquity on the subject. + Coupled, however, with the reliefs to which they are appended, they do + more. They prove to us that the Persians of the earliest Sassanian times + were not averse to exhibiting the great personages of their theology in + sculptured forms; nay, they reveal to us the actual forms then considered + appropriate to Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd) and Angro-Mainyus (Ahriman); for we + can scarcely be mistaken in regarding the prostrate figure under the hoofs + of Ahura-Mazda’s steed as the antagonist Spirit of Evil. Finally, the + inscriptions show that, from the commencement of their sovereignty, the + Sassanian princes claimed for themselves a qualified divinity, assuming + the title of BAG and ALHA, “god,” and taking, in the Greek version of + their legends, the correspondent epithet of <i>OEOE</i> + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Death of Artaxerxes I. and Accession of Sapor I. War of Sapor with + Manizen. His first War with Rome. Invasion of Mesopotamia, A.D. 241. + Occupation of Antioch. Expedition of Gordian to the East. Recovery by Rome + of her lost Territory. Peace made between Rome and Persia. Obscure + Interval. Second War with Rome. Mesopotamia again invaded, A.D. 258. + Valerian takes the Command in the East. Struggle between him and Sapor. + Defeat and Capture of Valerian, A.D. 260. Sapor invests Miriades with the + Purple. He takes Syria and Southern Cappadocia, but is shortly afterwards + attacked by Odenathus. Successes of Odenathus. Treatment of Valerian. + Further successes of Odenathus. Period of Tranquillity. Great Works of + Sapor. His Scriptures. His Dyke. His Inscriptions. His Coins. His + Religion. Religious Condition of the East in his Time. Rise into Notice of + Mani. His Rejection by Sapor. Sapor’s Death. His Character.</i> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/chapter4.jpg" width="100%" alt="Chapter-4 " /> + </div> + <p> + Artaxerxes appears to have died in A.D. 240. He was succeeded by his son, + Shahpuhri, or Sapor, the first Sassanian prince of that name. According to + the Persian historians, the mother of Sapor was a daughter of the last + Parthian king, Artabanus, whom Artaxerxes had taken to wife after his + conquest of her father. But the facts known of Sapor throw doubt on this + story, which has too many parallels in Oriental romance to claim implicit + credence. Nothing authentic has come down to us respecting Sapor during + his father’s lifetime; but from the moment that he mounted the throne, we + find him engaged in a series of wars, which show him to have been of a + most active and energetic character. Armenia, which Artaxerxes had + subjected, attempted (it would seem) to regain its independence at the + commencement of the new reign; but Sapor easily crushed the nascent + insurrection, and the Armenians made no further effort to free themselves + till several years after his death. Contemporaneously with this revolt in + the mountain region of the north, a danger showed itself in the plain + country of the south, where Manizen, king of Hatra, or El Hadhr, not only + declared himself independent, but assumed dominion over the entire tract + between the Euphrates and the Tigris, the Jezireh of the Arabian + geographers. The strength of Hatra was great, as had been proved by Trajan + and Severus; its thick walls and valiant inhabitants would probably have + defied every attempt of the Persian prince to make himself master of it by + force. He therefore condescended to stratagem. Manizen had a daughter who + cherished ambitious views. On obtaining a promise from Sapor that if she + gave Hatra into his power he would make her his queen, this unnatural + child turned against her father, betrayed him into Sapor’s hands, and thus + brought the war to an end. Sapor recovered his lost territory; but he did + not fulfil his bargain. Instead of marrying the traitress, he handed her + over to an executioner, to receive the death that she had deserved, though + scarcely at his hands. Encouraged by his success in these two lesser + contests, Sapor resolved (apparently in A.D. 241) to resume the bold + projects of his father, and engage in a great war with Rome. The confusion + and troubles which afflicted the Roman Empire at this time were such as + might well give him hopes of obtaining a decided advantage. Alexander, his + father’s adversary, had been murdered in A.D. 235 by Maximin, who from the + condition of a Thracian peasant had risen into the higher ranks of the + army. The upstart had ruled like the savage that he was; and, after three + years of misery, the whole Roman world had risen against him. Two emperors + had been proclaimed in Africa; on their fall, two others had been elected + by the Senate; a third, a mere boy, had been added at the demand of the + Roman populace. All the pretenders except the last had met with violent + deaths; and, after the shocks of a year unparalleled since A.D. 69, the + administration of the greatest kingdom in the world was in the hands of a + youth of fifteen. Sapor, no doubt, thought he saw in this condition of + things an opportunity that he ought not to miss, and rapidly matured his + plans lest the favorable moment should pass away. + </p> + <p> + Crossing the middle Tigris into Mesopotamia, the bands of Sapor first + attacked the important city of Nisibis. Nisibis, at this time a Roman + colony, was strongly situated on the outskirts of the mountain range which + traverses Northern Mesopotamia between the 37th and 38th parallels. The + place was well fortified and well defended; it offered a prolonged + resistance; but at last the Avails were breached, and it was forced to + yield itself. The advance was then made along the southern flank of the + mountains, by Carrhae (Harran) and Edessa to the Euphrates, which was + probably reached in the neighborhood of Birehjik, The hordes then poured + into Syria, and, spreading themselves over that fertile region, surprised + and took the metropolis of the Roman East, the rich and luxurious city of + Antioch. But meantime the Romans had shown a spirit which had not been + expected from them. Gordian, young as he was, had quitted Rome and marched + through Mossia and Thrace into Asia, accompanied by a formidable army, and + by at least one good general. Timesitheus, whose daughter Gordian had + recently married, though his life had hitherto been that of a civilian, + exhibited, on his elevation to the dignity of Praetorian prefect, + considerable military ability. The army, nominally commanded by Gordian, + really acted under his orders. With it Timesitheus attacked and beat the + bands of Sapor in a number of engagements, recovered Antioch, crossed the + Euphrates, retook Carrhae, defeated the Persian monarch in a pitched + battle near Resaina (Ras-el-Ain), recovered Nisibis, and once more planted + the Roman standards on the banks of the Tigris. Sapor hastily evacuated + most of his conquests, and retired first across the Euphrates and then + across the more eastern river; while the Romans advanced as he retreated, + placed garrisons in the various Mesopotamian towns, and even threatened + the great city of Ctesiphon. Gordian was confident that his general would + gain further triumphs, and wrote to the Senate to that effect; but either + disease or the arts of a rival cut short the career of the victor, and + from the time of his death the Romans ceased to be successful. The legions + had, it would seem, invaded Southern Mesopotamia when the Praetorian + prefect who had succeeded Timesitheus brought them intentionally into + difficulties by his mismanagement of the commissariat; and at last retreat + was determined on. The young emperor was approaching the Khabour, and had + almost reached his own frontier, when the discontent of the army, fomented + by the prefect, Philip, came to a head. Gordian was murdered at a place + called Zaitha, about twenty miles south of Circesium, and was buried where + he fell, the soldiers raising a tumulus in his honor. His successor, + Philip, was glad to make peace on any tolerable terms with the Persians; + he felt himself insecure upon his throne, and was anxious to obtain the + Senate’s sanction of his usurpation. He therefore quitted the East in A.D. + 244, having concluded a treaty with Sapor, by which Armenia seems to have + been left to the Persians, while Mesopotamia returned to its old condition + of a Roman province. + </p> + <p> + The peace made between Philip and Sapor was followed by an interval of + fourteen years, during which scarcely anything is known of the condition + of Persia. We may suspect that troubles in the north-east of his empire + occupied Sapor during this period, for at the end of it we find Bactria, + which was certainly subject to Persia during the earlier years of the + monarchy, occupying an independent position, and even assuming an attitude + of hostility towards the Persian monarch. Bactria had, from a remote + antiquity, claims to pre-eminence among the Aryan nations. She was more + than once inclined to revolt from the Achaemenidae; and during the later + Parthian period she had enjoyed a sort of semi-independence. It would seem + that she now succeeded in detaching herself altogether from her southern + neighbor, and becoming a distinct and separate power. To strengthen her + position she entered into relations with Rome, which gladly welcomed any + adhesions to her cause in this remote region. + </p> + <p> + Sapor’s second war with Rome was, like his first, provoked by himself. + After concluding his peace with Philip, he had seen the Roman world + governed successively by six weak emperors, of whom four had died violent + deaths, while at the same time there had been a continued series of + attacks upon the northern frontiers of the empire by Alemanni, Goths, and + Franks, who had ravaged at their will a number of the finest provinces, + and threatened the absolute destruction of the great monarchy of the West. + It was natural that the chief kingdom of Western Asia should note these + events, and should seek to promote its own interests by taking advantage + of the circumstances of the time. Sapor, in A.D. 258, determined on a + fresh invasion of the Roman provinces, and, once more entering + Mesopotamia, carried all before him, became master of Nisibis, Carrhae, + and Edessa, and, crossing the Euphrates, surprised Antioch, which was + wrapped in the enjoyment of theatrical and other representations, and only + knew its fate on the exclamation of a couple of actors “that the Persians + were in possession of the town.” The aged emperor, Valerian, hastened to + the protection of his more eastern territories, and at first gained some + successes, retaking Antioch, and making that city his headquarters during + his stay in the East. But, after this, the tide turned. Valerian entrusted + the whole conduct of the war to Macrianus, his Praetorian prefect, whose + talents he admired, and of whose fidelity he did not entertain a + suspicion. Macrianus, however, aspired to the empire, and intentionally + brought Valerian into difficulties, in the hope of disgracing or removing + him. His tactics were successful. The Roman army in Mesopotamia was + betrayed into a situation whence escape was impossible, and where its + capitulation was only a question of time. A bold attempt’ made to force a + way through the enemy’s lines failed utterly, after which famine and + pestilence began to do their work. In vain did the aged emperor send + envoys to propose a peace, and offer to purchase escape by the payment of + an immense sum in gold. Sapor, confident of victory, refused the overture, + and, waiting patiently till his adversary was at the last gasp, invited + him to a conference, and then treacherously seized his person. The army + surrendered or dispersed. Macrianus, the Praetorian prefect, shortly + assumed the title of emperor, and marched against Gallienus, the son and + colleague of Valerian, who had been left to direct affairs in the West. + But another rival started up in the East. Sapor conceived the idea of + complicating the Roman affairs by himself putting forward a pretender; and + an obscure citizen of Antioch, a certain Miriades or Cyriades, a refugee + in his camp, was invested with the purple, and assumed the title of + Caesar. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE. XIII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate013.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 13. " /> + </div> + <p> + The blow struck at Edessa laid the whole of Roman Asia open to attack, and + the Persian monarch was not slow to seize the occasion. His troops crossed + the Euphrates in force, and, marching on Antioch, once more captured that + unfortunate town, from which the more prudent citizens had withdrawn, but + where the bulk of the people, not displeased at the turn of affairs, + remained and welcomed the conqueror. Miriades was installed in power, + while Sapor himself, at the head of his irresistible squadrons, pressed + forward, bursting “like a mountain torrent” into Cilicia and thence into + Cappadocia. Tarsus, the birthplace of St. Paul, at once a famous seat of + learning and a great emporium of commerce, fell; Cilicia Campestris was + overrun; and the passes of Taurus, deserted or weakly defended by the + Romans, came into Sapor’s hands. Penetrating through them and entering the + champaign country beyond, his bands soon formed the siege of Caesarea + Mazaca, the greatest city of these parts, estimated, at this time to have + contained a population of four hundred thousand souls. Demosthenes, the + governor of Caesarea, defended it bravely, and, had force only been used + against him, might have prevailed; but Sapor found friends within the + walls, and by their help made himself master of the place, while its bold + defender was obliged to content himself with escaping by cutting his way + through the victorious host. All Asia Minor now seemed open to the + conqueror; and it is difficult to understand why he did not at any rate + attempt a permanent occupation of the territory which he had so easily + overrun. But it seems certain that he entertained no such idea. + Devastation and plunder, revenge and gain, not permanent conquest, were + his objects; and hence his course was everywhere marked by ruin and + carnage, by smoking towns, ravaged fields, and heaps of slain. His + cruelties have no doubt been exaggerated; but when we hear that he filled + the ravines and valleys of Cappadocia with dead bodies, and so led his + cavalry across them; that he depopulated Antioch, killing or carrying off + into slavery almost the whole population; that he suffered his prisoners + in many cases to perish of hunger, and that he drove them to water once a + day like beasts, we may be sure that the guise in which he showed himself + to the Romans was that of a merciless scourge—an avenger bent on + spreading the terror of his name—not of one who really sought to + enlarge the limits of his empire. + </p> + <p> + During the whole course of this plundering expedition, until the retreat + began, we hear but of one check that the bands of Sapor received. It had + been determined to attack Emesa (now Hems), one of the most important of + the Syrian towns, where the temple of Venus was known to contain a vast + treasure. The invaders approached, scarcely expecting to be resisted; but + the high priest of the temple, having collected a large body of peasants, + appeared, in his sacerdotal robes, at the head of a fanatic multitude + armed with slings, and succeeded in beating off the assailants. Emesa, its + temple, and its treasure, escaped the rapacity of the Persians; and an + example of resistance was set, which was not perhaps without important + consequences. + </p> + <p> + For it seems certain that the return of Sapor across the Euphrates was not + effected without considerable loss and difficulty. On his advance into + Syria he had received an embassy from a certain Odenathus, a Syrian or + Arab chief, who occupied a position of semi-independence at Palmyra, + which, through the advantages of its situation, had lately become a + flourishing commercial town. Odenathus sent a long train of camels laden + with gifts, consisting in part of rare and precious merchandise, to the + Persian monarch, begging him to accept them, and claiming his favorable + regard on the ground that he had hitherto refrained from all acts of + hostility against the Persians. It appears that Sapor took offence at the + tone of the communication, which was not sufficiently humble to please + him. Tearing the letter to fragments and trampling it beneath his feet, he + exclaimed—“Who is this Odenathus, and of what country, that he + ventures thus to address his lord? Let him now, if he would lighten his + punishment, come here and fall prostrate before me with his hands tied + behind his back. Should he refuse, let him be well assured that I will + destroy himself, his race, and his land.” At the same time he ordered his + servants to cast the costly presents of the Palmyrene prince into the + Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + This arrogant and offensive behavior naturally turned the willing friend + into an enemy. Odenathus, finding himself forced into a hostile position, + took arms and watched his opportunity. So long as Sapor continued to + advance, he kept aloof. As soon, however, as the retreat commenced, and + the Persian army, encumbered with its spoil and captives, proceeded to + make its way back slowly and painfully to the Euphrates, Odenathus, who + had collected a large force, in part from the Syrian villages, in part + from the wild tribes of Arabia, made his appearance in the field. His + light and agile horsemen hovered about the Persian host, cut off their + stragglers, made prize of much of their spoil, and even captured a portion + of the seraglio of the Great King. The harassed troops were glad when they + had placed the Euphrates between themselves and their pursuer, and + congratulated each other on their escape. So much had they suffered, and + so little did they feel equal to further conflicts, that on their march + through Mesopotamia they consented to purchase the neutrality of the + people of Edessa by making over to them all the coined money that they had + carried off in their Syrian raid. After this it would seem that the + retreat was unmolested, and Sapor succeeded in conveying the greater part + of his army, together with his illustrious prisoner, to his own country. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the treatment that Valerian received at the hands of his + conqueror, it is difficult to form a decided opinion. The writers nearest + to the time speak vaguely and moderately, merely telling us that he grew + old in his captivity, and was kept in the condition of a slave. It is + reserved for authors of the next generation to inform us that he was + exposed to the constant gaze of the multitude, fettered, but clad in the + imperial purple; and that Sapor, whenever he mounted on horseback, placed + his foot upon his prisoner’s neck. Some add that, when the unhappy captive + died, about the year A.D. 265 or 266, his body was flayed, and the skin + inflated and hung up to view in one of the most frequented temples of + Persia, where it was seen by Roman envoys on their visits to the Great + King’s court. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to deny that Oriental barbarism may conceivably have gone + to these lengths; and it is in favor of the truth of the details that + Roman vanity would naturally have been opposed to their invention. But, on + the other hand, we have to remember that in the East the person of a king + is generally regarded as sacred, and that self-interest restrains the + conquering monarch from dishonoring one of his own class. We have also to + give due weight to the fact that the earlier authorities are silent with + respect to any such atrocities and that they are first related half a + century after the time when they are said to have occurred. Under these + circumstances the scepticism of Gibbon with respect to them is perhaps + more worthy of commendation than the ready faith of a recent French + writer. + </p> + <p> + It may be added that Oriental monarchs, when they are cruel, do not show + themselves ashamed of their cruelties, but usually relate them openly in + their inscriptions, or represent them in their bas-reliefs. The remains + ascribed on good grounds to Sapor do not, however, contain anything + confirmatory of the stories which we are considering. Valerian is + represented on them in a humble attitude, but not fettered, and never in + the posture of extreme degradation commonly associated with his name. He + bends his knee, as no doubt he would be required to do, on being brought + into the Great King’s presence; but otherwise he does not appear to be + subjected to any indignity. It seems thus to be on the whole most probable + that the Roman emperor was not more severely treated than the generalty of + captive princes, and that Sapor has been unjustly taxed with abusing the + rights of conquest. + </p> + <p> + The hostile feeling of Odenathus against Sapor did not cease with the + retreat of the latter across the Euphrates. The Palmyrene prince was bent + on taking advantage of the general confusion of the times to carve out for + himself a considerable kingdom, of which Palmyra should be the capital. + Syria and Palestine on the one hand, Mesopotamia on the other, were the + provinces that lay most conveniently near to him, and that he especially + coveted. But Mesopotamia had remained in the possession of the Persians as + the prize of their victory over Valerian, and could only be obtained by + wresting it from the hands into which it had fallen. Odenathus did not + shrink from this contest. It had been with some reason conjectured that + Sapor must have been at this time occupied with troubles which had broken + out on the eastern side of his empire. At any rate, it appears that + Odenathus, after a short contest with Macriarius and his son, Quietus, + turned his arms once more, about A.D. 263, against the Persians, crossed + the Euphrates into Mesopotamia, took Oarrhee and Nisibis, defeated Sapor + and some of his sons in a battle, and drove the entire Persian host in + confusion to the gates of Ctesiphon. He even ventured to form the siege of + that city; but it was not long before effectual relief arrived; from all + the provinces flocked in contingents for the defence of the Western + capital; several engagements were fought, in some of which Odenathus was + defeated; and at last he found himself involved in difficulties through + his ignorance of the localities, and so thought it best to retire. + Apparently his retreat was undisturbed; he succeeded in carrying off his + booty and his prisoners, among whom were several satraps, and he retained + possession of Mesopotamia, which continued to form a part of the Palmyrene + kingdom until the capture of Zenobia by Aurelian (A.D. 273). + </p> + <p> + The successes of Odenathus in A.D. 263 were followed by a period of + comparative tranquillity. That ambitious prince seems to have been content + with ruling from the Tigris to the Mediterranean, and with the titles of + “Augustus,” which he received from the Roman emperor, Gallienus, and “king + of kings,” which he assumed upon his coins. He did not press further upon + Sapor; nor did the Roman emperor make any serious attempt to recover his + father’s person or revenge his defeat upon the Persians. An expedition + which he sent out to the East, professedly with this object, in the year + A.D. 267, failed utterly, its commander, Heraclianus, being completely + defeated by Zenobia, the widow and successor of Odenathus. Odenathus + himself was murdered by a kinsman three or four years after his great + successes; and, though Zenobia ruled his kingdom almost with a man’s + vigor, the removal of his powerful adversary must have been felt as a + relief by the Persian monarch. It is evident, too, that from the time of + the accession of Zenobia, the relations between Rome and Palmyra had + become unfriendly; the old empire grew jealous of the new kingdom which + had sprung up upon its borders; and the effect of this jealousy, while it + lasted, was to secure Persia from any attack on the part of either. + </p> + <p> + It appears that Sapor, relieved from any further necessity of defending + his empire in arms, employed the remaining years of his life in the + construction of great works, and especially in the erection and + ornamentation of a new capital. The ruins of Shahpur, which still exist + near Kazerun, in the province of Fars, commemorate the name, and afford + some indication of the grandeur, of the second Persian monarch. Besides + remains of buildings, they comprise a number of bas-reliefs and rock + inscriptions, some of which were beyond a doubt set up by Sapor I. In one + of the most remarkable the Persian monarch is represented on horseback, + wearing the crown usual upon his coins, and holding by the hand a tunicked + figure, probably Miriades, whom he is presenting to the captured Romans as + their sovereign. Foremost to do him homage is the kneeling figure of a + chieftain, probably Valerian, behind whom are arranged in a double line + seventeen persons, representing apparently the different corps of the + Roman army. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE XIV.]</a> All these persons + are on foot, while in contrast with them are arranged behind Sapor ten + guards on horseback, who represent his irresistible cavalry. Another + bas-relief at the same place gives us a general view of the triumph of + Sapor on his return to Persia with his illustrious prisoner. Here + fifty-seven guards are ranged behind him, while in front are thirty-three + tribute-bearers, having with them an elephant and a chariot. In the centre + is a group of seven figures, comprising Sapor, who is on horseback in his + usual costume; Valerian, who is under the horse’s feet; Miriades, who + stands by Sapor’s side; three principal tribute-bearers in front of the + main figure; and a Victory which floats in the sky. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate014.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 14. " /> + </div> + <p> + Another important work, assigned by tradition to Sapor I., is the great + dyke at Shuster. This is a dam across the river Karun, formed of cut + stones, cemented by lime, and fastened together by clamps of iron; it is + twenty feet broad, and no less than twelve hundred feet in length. The + whole is a solid mass excepting in the centre, where two small arches have + been constructed for the purpose of allowing a part of the stream to flow + in its natural bed. The greater portion of the water is directed eastward + into a canal cut for it; and the town of Shuster is thus defended on both + sides by a water barrier, whereby the position becomes one of great + strength. Tradition says that Sapor used his power over Valerian to obtain + Roman engineers for this work; and the great dam is still known as the + Bund-i-Kaisar, or “dam of Caesar,” to the inhabitants of the neighboring + country. + </p> + <p> + Besides his works at Shahpur and Shuster, Sapor set up memorials of + himself at Haji-abad, Nakhsh-i-Rajab, and Nakhsh-i-Rustam, near + Persepolis, at Darabgerd in South-eastern Persia, and elsewhere; most of + which still exist and have been described by various travellers. At + Nakhsh-i-Rustam Valerian is seen making his submission in one tablet, + while another exhibits the glories of Sapor’s court. The sculptures are in + some instances accompanied by inscriptions. One of these is, like those of + Artaxerxes, bilingual, Greek and Persian. The Greek inscription runs as + follows: + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page289.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 289 " /> + </div> + <p> + In the main, Sapor, it will be seen, follows the phrases of his father + Artaxerxes; but he claims a wider dominion. Artaxerxes is content to rule + over Ariana (or Iran) only; his son calls himself lord both of the Arians + and the non-Arians, or of Iran and Turan. We may conclude from this as + probable that he held some Scythic tribes under his sway, probably in + Segestan, or Seistan, the country south and east of the Hamoon, or lake in + which the Helmend is swallowed up. Scythians had been settled in these + parts, and in portions of Afghanistan and India, since the great invasion + of the Yue-chi, about B.C. 200; and it is not unlikely that some of them + may have passed under the Persian rule during the reign of Sapor, but we + have no particulars of these conquests. + </p> + <p> + Sapor’s coins resemble those of Artaxerxes in general type, but may be + distinguished from them, first, by the head-dress, which is either a cap + terminating in the head of an eagle, or else a mural crown surmounted by + an inflated ball; and, secondly, by the emblem on the reverse, which is + almost always a fire-altar between two supporters <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE + XV., Fig. 2.]</a> The ordinary legend on the coins is “Mazdisn bag + Shahpuhri, malkan malka Airan, minuchitri minyazdan,” on the obverse; and + on the reverse “Shahpuhri nuvazi.” + </p> + <p> + It appears from these legends, and from the inscription above given, that + Sapor was, like his father, a zealous Zoroastrian. His faith was exposed + to considerable trial. Never was there a time of greater religious ferment + in the East, or a crisis which more shook men’s belief in ancestral + creeds. The absurd idolatry which had generally prevailed through Western + Asia for two thousand years—a nature-worship which gave the sanction + of religion to the gratification of men’s lowest propensities—was + shaken to its foundation; and everywhere men were striving after something + higher, nobler, and truer than had satisfied previous generations for + twenty centuries. The sudden revivification of Zoroastrianism, after it + had been depressed and almost forgotten for five hundred years, was one + result of this stir of men’s minds. Another result was the rapid progress + of Christianity, which in the course of the third century overspread large + portions of the East, rooting itself with great firmness in Armenia, and + obtaining a hold to some extent on Babylonia, Bactria, and perhaps even on + India. Judaism, also, which had long had a footing in Mesopotamia, and + which after the time of Hadrian may be regarded as having its headquarters + at Babylon—Judaism itself, usually so immovable, at this time showed + signs of life and change, taking something like a new form in the schools + wherein was compiled the vast and strange work known as “the Babylonian + Talmud.” + </p> + <p> + Amid the strife and jar of so many conflicting systems, each having a root + in the past, and each able to appeal with more or less of force to noble + examples of virtue and constancy among its professors in the present, we + cannot be surprised that in some minds the idea grew up that, while all + the systems possessed some truth, no one of them was perfect or indeed + much superior to its fellows. Eclectic or syncretic views are always + congenial to some intellects; and in times when religious thought is + deeply stirred, and antagonistic creeds are brought into direct collision, + the amiable feeling of a desire for peace comes in to strengthen the + inclination for reconciling opponents by means of a fusion, and producing + harmony by a happy combination of discords. It was in Persia, and in the + reign of Sapor, that one of the most remarkable of these well-meaning + attempts at fusion and reconciliation that the whole of history can show + was made, and with results which ought to be a lasting warning to the + apostles of comprehension. A certain Mani (or Manes, as the ecclesiastical + writers call him), born in Persia about A.D. 240, grew to manhood under + Sapor, exposed to the various religious influences of which we have + spoken. With a mind free from prejudice and open to conviction, he studied + the various systems of belief which he found established in Western Asia—the + Cabalism of the Babylonian Jews, the Dualism of the Magi, the mysterious + doctrines of the Christians, and even the Buddhism of India. At first he + inclined to Christianity, and is said to have been admitted to priest’s + orders and to have ministered to a congregation; but after a time he + thought that he saw his way to the formation of a new creed, which should + combine all that was best in the religious systems which he was acquainted + with, and omit what was superfluous or objectionable. He adopted the + Dualism of the Zoroastrians, the metempsychosis of India, the angelism and + demonism of the Talmud, and the Trinitarianism of the Gospel of Christ. + Christ himself he identified with Mithra, and gave Him his dwelling in the + sun. He assumed to be the Paraclete promised by Christ, who should guide + men into all truth, and claimed that his “Ertang,” a sacred book + illustrated by pictures of his own painting, should supersede the New + Testament. Such pretensions were not likely to be tolerated by the + Christian community; and Manes had not put them forward very long when he + was expelled from the church and forced to carry his teaching elsewhere. + Under these circumstances he is said to have addressed himself to Sapor, + who was at first inclined to show him some favor; but when he found out + what the doctrines of the new teacher actually were, his feelings + underwent a change, and Manes, proscribed, or at any rate threatened with + penalties, had to retire into a foreign country. + </p> + <p> + The Zoroastrian faith was thus maintained in its purity by the Persian + monarch, who did not allow himself to be imposed upon by the specious + eloquence of the new teacher, but ultimately rejected the strange + amalgamation that was offered to his acceptance. It is scarcely to be + regretted that he so determined. Though the morality of the Manichees was + pure, and though their religion is regarded by some as a sort of + Christianity, there were but few points in which it was an improvement on + Zoroastrianism. Its Dualism was pronounced and decided; its Trinitarianism + was questionable; its teaching with respect to Christ destroyed the + doctrines of the incarnation and atonement; its “Ertang “ was a poor + substitute for Holy Scripture. Even its morality, being deeply penetrated + with asceticism, was of a wrong type and inferior to that preached by + Zoroaster. Had the creed of Manes been accepted by the Persian monarch, + the progress of real Christianity in the East would, it is probable, have + been impeded rather than forwarded—the general currency of the + debased amalgam would have checked the introduction of the pure metal. + </p> + <p> + It must have been shortly after his rejection of the teaching of Manes + that Sapor died, having reigned thirty-one years, from A.D. 240 to A.D. + 271. He was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable princes of the + Sassanian series. In military talent, indeed, he may not have equalled his + father; for though he defeated Valerian, he had to confess himself + inferior to Odenathus. But in general governmental ability he is among the + foremost of the Neo-Persian monarchs, and may compare favorably with + almost any prince of the series. He baffled Odenathus, when he was not + able to defeat him, by placing himself behind walls, and by bringing into + play those advantages which naturally belonged to the position of a + monarch attacked in his own country. He maintained, if he did not + permanently advance, the power of Persia in the west; while in the east it + is probable that he considerably extended the bounds of his dominion. In + the internal administration of his empire he united works of usefulness + with the construction of memorial which had only a sentimental and + aesthetic value. He was a liberal patron of art, and is thought not to + have confined his patronage to the encouragement of native talent. On the + subject of religion he did not suffer himself to be permanently led away + by the enthusiasm of a young and bold freethinker. He decided to maintain + the religious system that had descended to him from his ancestors, and + turned a deaf ear to persuasions that would have led him to revolutionize + the religious opinion of the East without placing it upon a satisfactory + footing. The Orientals add to these commendable features of character, + that he was a man of remarkable beauty, of great personal courage, and of + a noble and princely liberality. According to them, “he only desired + wealth that he might use it for good and great purposes.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Short Reign of Hormisdas I. His dealings with Manes. Accession of + Varahran I. He puts Manes to Death. Persecutes the Manichaeans and the + Christians. His Relations with Zenobia. He is threatened by Aurelian. His + Death. Reign of Varahran II. His Tyrannical Conduct. His Conquest of + Seistan, and War with India. His war with the Roman Emperors Cams and + Diocletian. His Loss of Armenia. His Death. Short Reign of Varahran III.</i> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/chapter5.jpg" height="41" width="527" alt="Chapter-5 " /> + </div> + <p> + The first and second kings of the Neo-Persian Empire were men of mark and + renown. Their successors for several generations were, comparatively + speaking, feeble and insignificant. The first burst of vigor and freshness + which commonly attends the advent to power of a new race in the East, or + the recovery of its former position by an old one, had passed away, and + was succeeded, as so often happens, by reaction and exhaustion, the + monarchs becoming luxurious and inert, while the people willingly + acquiesced in a policy of which the principle was “Rest and be thankful.” + It helped to keep matters in this quiescent state, that the kings who + ruled during this period had, in almost every instance, short reigns, four + monarchs coming to the throne and dying within the space of a little more + than twenty-one years. The first of these four was Hormisdates, Hormisdas, + or Hormuz, the son of Sapor, who succeeded his father in A.D. 271. His + reign lasted no more than a year and ten days, and was distinguished by + only a single event of any importance. Mani, who had fled from Sapor, + ventured to return to Persia on the accession of his son, and was received + with respect and favor. Whether Hormisdas was inclined to accept his + religious teaching or no, we are not told; but at any rate he treated him + kindly, allowed him to propagate his doctrines, and even assigned him as + his residence a castle named Arabion. From this place Mani proceeded to + spread his views among the Christians of Mesopotamia, and in a short time + succeeded in founding the sect which, under the name of Manichaeans or + Manichaes, gave so much trouble to the Church for several centuries. + Hormisdas, who, according to some founded the city of Ram-Hormuz in + Eastern Persia, died in A.D.272, and was succeeded by his son or brother, + Vararanes or Varahran. He left no inscriptions, and it is doubted whether + we possess any of his coins. + </p> + <p> + Varahran I., whose reign lasted three years only, from A.D. 272 to 275, is + declared by the native historians to have been a mild and amiable prince; + but the little that is positively known of him does not bear out this + testimony. It seems certain that he put Mani to death, and probable that + he enticed him to leave the shelter of his castle by artifice, thus + showing himself not only harsh but treacherous towards the unfortunate + heresiarch. If it be true that he caused him to be flayed alive, we can + scarcely exonerate him from the charge of actual cruelty, unless indeed we + regard the punishment as an ordinary mode of execution in Persia. Perhaps, + however, in this case, as in other similar ones, there is no sufficient + evidence that the process of flaying took place until the culprit was + dead, the real object of the excoriation being, not the infliction of + pain, but the preservation of a memorial which could be used as a warning + and a terror to others. The skin of Mani, stuffed with straw, was no doubt + suspended for some time after his execution over one of the gates of the + great city of Shahpur; and it is possible that this fact may have been the + sole ground of the belief (which, it is to be remembered, was not + universal) that he actually suffered death by flaying. + </p> + <p> + The death of the leader was followed by the persecution of his disciples. + Mani had organized a hierarchy, consisting of twelve apostles, seventy-two + bishops, and a numerous priesthood; and his sect was widely established at + the time of his execution. Varahran handed over these unfortunates, or at + any rate such of them as he was able to seize, to the tender mercies of + the Magians, who put to death great numbers of Manichseans. Many + Christians at the same time perished, either because they were confounded + with the followers of Mani, or because the spirit of persecution, once let + loose, could not be restrained, but passed on from victims of one class to + those of another, the Magian priesthood seizing the opportunity of + devoting all heretics to a common destruction. + </p> + <p> + Thus unhappy in his domestic administration, Varahran was not much more + fortunate in his wars. Zenobia, the queen of the East, held for some time + to the policy of her illustrious husband, maintaining a position inimical + alike to Rome and Persia from the death of Odenathus in A.D. 267 to + Aurelian’s expedition against her in A.D. 272. When, however, in this + year, Aurelian marched to attack her with the full forces of the empire, + she recognized the necessity of calling to her aid other troops besides + her own. It was at this time that she made overtures to the Persians, + which were favorably received; and, in the year A.D. 273, Persian troops + are mentioned among those with whom Aurelian contended in the vicinity of + Palmyra. But the succors sent were inconsiderable, and were easily + overpowered by the arts or arms of the emperor. The young king had not the + courage to throw himself boldly into the war. He allowed Zenobia to be + defeated and reduced to extremities without making anything like an + earnest or determined effort to save her. He continued her ally, indeed, + to the end, and probably offered her an asylum at his court, if she were + compelled to quit her capital; but even this poor boon he was prevented + from conferring by the capture of the unfortunate princess just as she + reached the banks of the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + In the aid which he lent Zenobia, Varahran, while he had done too little + to affect in any degree the issue of the struggle, had done quite enough + to provoke Rome and draw down upon him the vengeance of the Empire, It + seems that he quite realized the position in which circumstances had + placed him. Feeling that he had thrown out a challenge to Rome, and yet + shrinking from the impending conflict, he sent an embassy to the + conqueror, deprecating his anger and seeking to propitiate him by rare and + costly gifts. Among these were a purple robe from Cashmere, or some other + remote province of India, of so brilliant a hue that the ordinary purple + of the imperial robes could not compare with it, and a chariot like to + those in which the Persian monarch was himself wont to be carried. + Aurelian accepted these gifts; and it would seem to follow that he + condoned Varahran’s conduct, and granted him terms of peace. Hence, in the + triumph which Aurelian celebrated at Rome in the year A.D. 274, no Persian + captives appeared in the procession, but Persian envoys were exhibited + instead, who bore with them the presents wherewith their master had + appeased the anger of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + A full year, however, had not elapsed from the time of the triumph when + the master of the Roman world thought fit to change his policy, and, + suddenly declaring war against the Persians, commenced his march towards + the East. We are not told that he discovered, or even sought to discover, + any fresh ground of complaint. His talents were best suited for employment + in the field, and he regarded it as expedient to “exercise the restless + temper of the legions in some foreign war.” Thus it was desirable to find + or make an enemy; and the Persians presented themselves as the foe which + could be attacked most conveniently. There was no doubt a general desire + to efface the memory of Valerian’s disaster by some considerable success; + and war with Persia was therefore likely to be popular at once with the + Senate, with the army, and with the mixed multitude which was dignified + with the title of “the Roman people.” + </p> + <p> + Aurelian, therefore, set out for Persia at the head of a numerous, but + still a manageable, force. He proceeded through Illyricum and Macedonia + towards Byzantium, and had almost reached the straits, when a conspiracy, + fomented by one of his secretaries, cut short his career, and saved the + Persian empire from invasion. Aurelian was murdered in the spring of A.D. + 275, at Coenophrurium, a small station between Heraclea (Perinthus) and + Byzantium. The adversary with whom he had hoped to contend, Varahran, + cannot have survived him long, since he died (of disease as it would seem) + in the course of the year, leaving his crown to a young son who bore the + same name with himself, and is known in history as Varahran the Second. + </p> + <p> + Varahran II. is said to have ruled at first tyrannically, and to have + greatly disgusted all his principal nobles, who went so far as to form a + conspiracy against him, and intended to put him to death. The chief of the + Magians, however, interposed, and, having effectually alarmed the king, + brought him to acknowledge himself wrong and to promise an entire change + of conduct. The nobles upon this returned to their allegiance; and + Varahran, during the remainder of his reign, is said to have been + distinguished for wisdom and moderation, and to have rendered himself + popular with every class of his subjects. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate016.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 16. " /> + </div> + <p> + It appears that this prince was not without military ambition. He engaged + in a war with the Segestani (or Sacastani), the inhabitants of Segestan or + Seistan, a people of Scythic origin, and after a time reduced them to + subjection <a href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE XVII]</a>. He then became + involved in a quarrel with some of the natives of Afghanistan, who were at + this time regarded as “Indians.” A long and desultory contest followed + without definite result, which was not concluded by the year A.D. 283, + when he found himself suddenly engaged in hostilities on the opposite side + of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate017.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 17 " /> + </div> + <p> + Rome, in the latter part of the third century, had experienced one of + those reactions which mark her later history, and which alone enabled her + to complete her predestined term of twelve centuries. Between the years + A.D. 274 and 282, under Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus, she showed + herself once more very decidedly the first military power in the world, + drove back the barbarians on all sides, and even ventured to indulge in an + aggressive policy. Aurelian, as we have seen, was on the point of invading + Persia when a domestic conspiracy brought his reign and life to an end. + Tacitus, his successor, scarcely obtained such a firm hold upon the throne + as to feel that he could with any prudence provoke a war. But Probus, the + next emperor, revived the project of a Persian expedition, and would + probably have led the Roman armies into Mesopotamia, had not his career + been cut short by the revolt of the legions in Illyria (A.D. 282). Carus, + who had been his praetorian prefect, and who became emperor at his death, + adhered steadily to his policy. It was the first act of his reign to march + the forces of the empire to the extreme east, and to commence in earnest + the war which had so long been threatened. Led by the Emperor in person, + the legions once more crossed the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + Mesopotamia was rapidly overrun, since the Persians (we are told) were at + variance among themselves, and a civil war was raging. The bulk of their + forces, moreover, were engaged on the opposite side of the empire in a + struggle with the Indians, probably those of Afghanistan. Under these + circumstances, no effectual resistance was possible; and, if we may + believe the Roman writers, not only was the Roman province of Mesopotamia + recovered, but the entire tract between the rivers as far south as the + latitude of Bagdad was ravaged, and even the two great cities of Seleucia + and Ctesiphon were taken without the slightest difficulty. Persia Proper + seemed to lie open to the invader, and Carus was preparing to penetrate + still further to the east, when again an opportune death checked the + progress of the Roman arms, and perhaps saved the Persian monarchy from + destruction. Carus had announced his intention of continuing his march; + some discontent had shown itself; and an oracle had been quoted which + declared that a Roman emperor would never proceed victoriously beyond + Ctesiphon, Carus was not convinced, but he fell sick, and his projects + were delayed; he was still in his camp near Ctesiphon, when a terrible + thunderstorm broke over the ground occupied by the Roman army. A weird + darkness was spread around, amid which flash followed flash at brief + intervals, and peal upon peal terrified the superstitious soldiery. + Suddenly, after the most violent clap of all, the cry arose that the + Emperor was dead. Some said that his tent had been struck by lightning, + and that his death was owing to this cause; others believed that he had + simply happened to succumb to his malady at the exact moment of the last + thunder-clap; a third theory was that his attendants had taken advantage + of the general confusion to assassinate him, and that he merely added + another to the long list of Roman emperors murdered by those who hoped to + profit by their removal. It is not likely that the problem of what really + caused the death of Carus will ever be solved. That he died very late in + A.D. 283, or within the first fortnight of A.D. 284, is certain; and it is + no less certain that his death was most fortunate for Persia, since it + brought the war to an end when it had reached a point at which any further + reverses would have been disastrous, and gave the Persians a + breathing-space during which they might, at least partially, recover from + their prostration. + </p> + <p> + Upon the death of Carus, the Romans at once determined on retreat. It was + generally believed that the imperial tent had been struck by lightning; + and it was concluded that the decision of the gods against the further + advance of the invading army had been thereby unmistakably declared. The + army considered that it had done enough, and was anxious to return home; + the feeble successor of Carus, his son Numerian, if he possessed the will, + was at any rate without the power to resist the wishes of the troops; and + the result was that the legions quitted the East without further fighting, + and without securing, by the conclusion of formal terms of peace, any + permanent advantage from their victories. + </p> + <p> + A pause of two years now occurred, during which Varahran had the + opportunity of strengthening his position while Rome was occupied by civil + wars and distracted between the claims of pretenders. No great use seems, + however, to have been made of this interval. When, in A.D. 286, the + celebrated Diocletian determined to resume the war with Persia, and, + embracing the cause of Tiridates, son of Chosroes, directed his efforts to + the establishment of that prince, as a Roman feudatory, on his father’s + throne. Varahran found himself once more overmatched, and could offer no + effectual resistance. Armenia had now been a province of Persia for the + space of twenty-six (or perhaps forty-six) years; but it had in no degree + been conciliated or united with the rest of the empire. The people had + been distrusted and oppressed; the nobles had been deprived of employment; + a heavy tribute had been laid on the land; and a religious revolution had + been violently effected. It is not surprising that when Tiridates, + supported by a Roman <i>corps d’armee</i>, appeared upon the frontiers, + the whole population received him with transports of loyalty and joy. All + the nobles flocked to his standard, and at once acknowledged him for their + king. The people everywhere welcomed him with acclamations. A native + prince of the Arsacid dynasty united the suffrages of all; and the nation + threw itself with enthusiastic zeal into a struggle which was viewed as a + war of independence. It was forgotten that Tiridates was in fact only a + puppet in the hand of the Roman emperor, and that, whatever the result of + the contest, Armenia would remain at its close, as she had been at its + commencement, a dependant upon a foreign power. + </p> + <p> + The success of Tiridates at the first was such as might have been expected + from the forces arrayed in his favor. He defeated two Persian armies in + the open field, drove out the garrisons which held the more important of + the fortified towns, and became undisputed master of Armenia. He even + crossed the border which separated Armenia from Persia, and gained signal + victories on admitted Persian ground. According to the native writers, his + personal exploits were extraordinary; he defeated singly a corps of + giants, and routed on foot a large detachment mounted on elephants! The + narrative is here, no doubt, tinged with exaggeration; but the general + result is correctly stated. Tiridates, within a year of his invasion, was + complete master of the entire Armenian highland, and was in a position to + carry his arms beyond his own frontiers. + </p> + <p> + Such seems to have been the position of things, when Varahran II. suddenly + died, after a reign of seventeen years,52 A.D. 292. He is generally said + to have left behind him two sons, Varahran and Narsehi, or Narses, of whom + the elder, Varahran, was proclaimed king. This prince was of an amiable + temper, but apparently of a weakly constitution. He was with difficulty + persuaded to accept the throne, and anticipated from the first an early + demise. No events are assigned to his short reign, which (according to the + best authorities) did not exceed the length of four months. It is evident + that he must have been powerless to offer any effectual opposition to + Tiridates, whose forces continued to ravage, year after year, the + north-western provinces of the Persian empire. Had Tiridates been a prince + of real military talent, it could scarcely have been difficult for him to + obtain still greater advantages. But he was content with annual raids, + which left the substantial power of Persia untouched. He allowed the + occasion of the throne’s being occupied by a weak and invalid prince to + slip by. The consequences of this negligence will appear in the next + chapter. Persia, permitted to escape serious attack in her time of + weakness, was able shortly to take the offensive and to make the Armenian + prince regret his indolence or want of ambition. The son of Chosroes + became a second time a fugitive; and once more the Romans were called in + to settle the affairs of the East. We have now to trace the circumstances + of this struggle, and to show how Rome under able leaders succeeded in + revenging the defeat and captivity of Valerian, and in inflicting, in her + turn, a grievous humiliation upon her adversary. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Civil War of Narses and his Brother Hormisdas. Narses victorious. He + attacks and expels Tiridates. War declared against him by Diocletian. + First Campaign of Galerius, A.D. 297. Second Campaign, A.D. 298. Defeat + suffered by Narses. Negotiations. Conditions of Peace. Abdication and + Death of Narses.</i> + </p> + <p> + It appears that on the death of Varahran III., probably without issue, + there was a contention for the crown between two brothers, Narses and + Hormisdas. We are not informed which of them was the elder, nor on what + grounds they respectively rested their claims; but it seems that Narses + was from the first preferred by the Persians, and that his rival relied + mainly for success on the arms of foreign barbarians. Worsted in + encounters wherein none but Persians fought on either side, Hormisdas + summoned to his aid the hordes of the north—Gelli from the shores of + the Caspian, Scyths from the Oxus or the regions beyond, and Russians, now + first mentioned by a classical writer. But the perilous attempt to settle + a domestic struggle by the swords of foreigners was not destined on this + occasion to prosper. Hormisdas failed in his endeavor to obtain the + throne; and, as we hear no more of him, we may regard it as probable that + he was defeated and slain. At any rate Narses was, within a year or two of + his accession, so firmly settled in his kingdom that he was able to turn + his thoughts to the external affairs of the empire, and to engage in a + great war. All danger from internal disorder must have been pretty + certainly removed before Narses could venture to affront, as he did, the + strongest of existing military powers. <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE + XVIII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate018 (109K)" src="images/plate018.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + Narses ascended the throne in A.D. 292 or 293. It was at least as early as + A.D. 296 that he challenged Rome to an encounter by attacking in force the + vassal monarch whom her arms had established in Armenia. Tiridates had, it + is evident, done much to provoke the attack by his constant raids into + Persian territory, which were sometimes carried even to the south of + Ctesiphon. He was probably surprised by the sudden march and vigorous + assault of an enemy whom he had learned to despise; and, feeling himself + unable to organize an effectual resistance, he had recourse to flight, + gave up Armenia to the Persians, and for a second time placed himself + under the protection of the Roman emperor. The monarch who held this proud + position was still Diocletian, the greatest emperor that had occupied the + Roman throne since Trajan, and the prince to whom Tiridates was indebted + for his restoration to his kingdom. It was impossible that Diocletian + should submit to the affront put upon him without an earnest effort to + avenge it. His own power rested, in a great measure, on his military + prestige; and the unpunished insolence of a foreign king would have + seriously endangered an authority not very firmly established. The + position of Diocletian compelled him to declare war against Narses in the + year A.D. 296, and to address himself to a struggle of which he is not + likely to have misconceived the importance. It might have been expected + that he would have undertaken the conduct of the war in person; but the + internal condition of the empire was far from satisfactory, and the chief + of the State seems to have felt that he could not conveniently quit his + dominions to engage in war beyond his borders. He therefore committed the + task of reinstating Tiridates and punishing Narses to his favorite and + son-in-law, Galerius, while he himself took up a position within the + limits of the empire, which at once enabled him to overawe his domestic + adversaries and to support and countenance his lieutenant. + </p> + <p> + The first attempts of Galerius were unfortunate. Summoned suddenly from + the Danube to the Euphrates, and placed at the head of an army composed + chiefly of the levies of Asia, ill-disciplined, and unacquainted with + their commander, he had to meet an adversary of whom he knew little or + nothing, in a region the character of which was adverse to his own troops + and favorable to those of the enemy. Narses had invaded the Roman province + of Mesopotamia, had penetrated to the Khabour, and was threatening to + cross the Euphrates into Syria. Galerius had no choice but to encounter + him on the ground which he had chosen. Now, though Western Mesopotamia is + ill-described as a smooth and barren surface of sandy desert, without a + hillock, without a tree, and without a spring of fresh water, it is + undoubtedly an open country, possessing numerous plains, where, in a + battle, the advantage of numbers is likely to be felt, and where there is + abundant room for the evolutions of cavalry. The Persians, like their + predecessors the Parthians, were especially strong in horse; and the host + which Narses had brought into the field greatly outnumbered the troops + which Diocletian had placed at the disposal of Galerius. Yet Galerius took + the offensive. Fighting under the eye of a somewhat stern master, he was + scarcely free to choose his plan of campaign. Diocletian expected him to + drive the Persians from Mesopotamia, and he was therefore bound to make + the attempt. He accordingly sought out his adversary in this region, and + engaged him in three great battles. The first and second appear to have + been indecisive; but in the third the Roman general suffered a complete + defeat. The catastrophe of Crassus was repeated almost upon the same + battle-field, and probably almost by the same means. But, personally, + Galerius was more fortunate than his predecessor. He escaped from the + carnage, and, recrossing the Euphrates, rejoined his father-in-law in + Syria. A conjecture, not altogether destitute of probability, makes + Tiridates share both the calamity and the good fortune of the Roman + Caesar. Like Galerius, he escaped from the battle-field, and reached the + banks of the Euphrates. But his horse, which had received a wound, could + not be trusted to pass the river. In this emergency the Armenian prince + dismounted, and, armed as he was, plunged into the stream. The river was + both wide and deep; the current was rapid; but the hardy adventurer, + inured to danger and accustomed to every athletic exercise, swam across + and reached the opposite bank in safety. + </p> + <p> + Thus, while the rank and file perished ignominiously, the two personages + of most importance on the Roman side were saved. Galerius hastened towards + Antioch, to rejoin his colleague and sovereign. The latter came out to + meet him, but, instead of congratulating him on his escape, assumed the + air of an offended master, and, declining to speak to him or to stop his + chariot, forced the Caesar to follow him on foot for nearly a mile before + he would condescend to receive his explanations and apologies for defeat. + The disgrace was keenly felt, and was ultimately revenged upon the prince + who had contrived it. But, at the time, its main effect doubtless was to + awake in the young Caesar the strongest desire of retrieving his honor, + and wiping out the memory of his great reverse by a yet more signal + victory. Galerius did not cease through the winter of A.D. 297 to + importune his father-in-law for an opportunity of redeeming the past and + recovering his lost laurels. + </p> + <p> + The emperor, having sufficiently indulged his resentment, acceded to the + wishes of his favorite. Galerius was continued in his command. A new army + was collected during the winter, to replace that which had been lost; and + the greatest care was taken that its material should be of good quality, + and that it should be employed where it had the best chance of success. + The veterans of Illyria and Moesia constituted the flower of the force now + enrolled; and it was further strengthened by the addition of a body of + Gothic auxiliaries. It was determined, moreover, that the attack should + this time be made on the side of Armenia, where it was felt that the + Romans would have the double advantage of a friendly country, and of one + far more favorable for the movements of infantry than for those of an army + whose strength lay in its horse. The number of the troops employed was + still small. Galerius entered Armenia at the head of only 25,000 men; but + they were a picked force, and they might be augmented, almost to any + extent, by the national militia of the Armenians. He was now, moreover, as + cautious as he had previously been rash; he advanced slowly, feeling his + way; he even personally made reconnaissances, accompanied by only one or + two horsemen, and, under the shelter of a flag of truce, explored the + position of his adversary. Narses found himself overmatched alike in art + and in force. He allowed himself to be surprised in his camp by his active + enemy, and suffered a defeat by which he more than lost all the fruits of + his former victory. Most of his army was destroyed; he himself received a + wound, and with difficulty escaped by a hasty flight. Galerius pursued, + and, though he did not succeed in taking the monarch himself, made prize + of his wives, his sisters, and a number of his children, besides capturing + his military chest. He also took many of the most illustrious Persians + prisoners. How far he followed his flying adversary is uncertain; but it + is scarcely probable that he proceeded much southward of the Armenian + frontier. He had to reinstate Tiridates in his dominions, to recover + Eastern Mesopotamia, and to lay his laurels at the feet of his colleague + and master. It seems probable that having driven Narses from Armenia, and + left Tiridates there to administer the government, he hastened to rejoin + Diocletian before attempting any further conquests. + </p> + <p> + The Persian monarch, on his side, having recovered from his wound, which + could have been but slight, set himself to collect another army, but at + the same time sent an ambassador to to the camp of Galerius, requesting to + know the terms on which Rome would consent to make peace. A writer of good + authority has left us an account of the interview which followed between + the envoy of the Persian monarch and the victorious Roman. Apharban (so + was the envoy named) opened the negotiations with the following speech: + </p> + <p> + “The whole human race knows,” he said, “that the Roman and Persian + kingdoms resemble two great luminaries, and that, like a man’s two eyes, + they ought mutually to adorn and illustrate each other, and not in the + extremity of their wrath to seek rather each other’s destruction. So to + act is not to act manfully, but is indicative rather of levity and + weakness; for it is to suppose that our inferiors can never be of any + service to us, and that therefore we had bettor get rid of them. Narses, + moreover, ought not to be accounted a weaker prince than other Persian + kings; thou hast indeed conquered him, but then thou surpassest all other + monarchs; and thus Narses has of course been worsted by thee, though he is + no whit inferior in merit to the best of his ancestors. The orders which + my master has given me are to entrust all the rights of Persia to the + clemency of Rome; and I therefore do not even bring with me any conditions + of peace, since it is for the emperor to determine everything. I have only + to pray, on my master’s behalf, for the restoration of his wives and male + children; if he receives them at your hands, he will be forever beholden + to you, and will be better pleased than if he recovered them by force of + arms. Even now my master cannot sufficiently thank you for the kind + treatment which he hears you have vouchsafed them, in that you have + offered them no insult, but have behaved towards them as though on the + point of giving them back to their kith and kin. He sees herein that you + bear in mind the changes of fortune and the instability of all human + affairs.” + </p> + <p> + At this point Galerius, who had listened with impatience to the long + harangue, burst in with a movement of anger that shook his whole frame—“What? + Do the Persians dare to remind us of the vicissitudes of fortune, as + though we could forget how they behave when victory inclines to them? Is + it not their wont to push their advantage to the uttermost and press as + heavily as may be on the unfortunate? How charmingly they showed the + moderation that becomes a victor in Valerian’s time! They vanquished him + by fraud; they kept him a prisoner to advanced old age; they let him die + in dishonor; and then when he was dead they stripped off his skin, and + with diabolical ingenuity made of a perishable human body an imperishable + monument of our shame. Verily, if we follow this envoy’s advice, and look + to the changes of human affairs, we shall not be moved to clemency, but to + anger, when we consider the past conduct of the Persians. If pity be shown + them, if their requests be granted, it will not be for what they have + urged, but because it is a principle of action with us—a principle + handed down to us from our ancestors—to spare the humble and + chastise the proud.” Apharban, therefore, was dismissed with no definite + answer to his question, what terms of peace Rome would require; but he was + told to assure his master that Rome’s clemency equalled her valor, and + that it would not be long before he would receive a Roman envoy authorized + to signify the Imperial pleasure, and to conclude a treaty with him. + </p> + <p> + Having held this interview with Apharban, Galerius hastened to meet and + consult his colleague. Diocletian had remained in Syria, at the head of an + army of observation, while Galerius penetrated into Armenia and engaged + the forces of Persia. When he heard of his son-in-law’s great victory he + crossed the Euphrates, and advancing through Western Mesopotamia, from + which the Persians probably retired, took up his residence at Nisibis, now + the chief town of these parts. It is perhaps true that his object was “to + moderate, by his presence and counsels, the pride of Galarius.” That + prince was bold to rashness, and nourished an excessive ambition. He is + said to have at this time entertained a design of grasping at the conquest + of the East, and to have even proposed to himself to reduce the Persian + Empire into the form of a Roman province. But the views of Diocletian were + humbler and more prudent. He held to the opinion of Augustus and Hadrian, + that Rome did not need any enlargement of her territory, and that the + absorption of the East was especially undesirable. When he and his + son-in-law met and interchanged ideas at Nisibis, the views of the elder + ruler naturally prevailed; and it was resolved to offer to the Persians + tolerable terms of peace. A civilian of importance, Sicorius Probus, was + selected for the delicate office of envoy, and was sent, with a train of + attendants, into Media, where Narses had fixed his headquarters. We are + told that the Persian monarch received him with all honor, but, under + pretence of allowing him to rest and refresh himself after his long + journey, deferred his audience from day to day; while he employed the time + thus gained in collecting from various quarters such a number of + detachments and garrisons as might constitute a respectable army. He had + no intention of renewing the war, but he knew the weight which military + preparation ever lends to the representations of diplomacy. Accordingly it + was not until he had brought under the notice of Sicorius a force of no + inconsiderable size that he at last admitted him to an interview. The + Roman ambassador was introduced into an inner chamber of the royal palace + in Media, where he found only the king and three others—Apharban, + the envoy sent to Galerius, Archapetes, the captain of the guard, and + Barsaborsus, the governor of a province on the Armenian frontier. He was + asked to unfold the particulars of his message, and say what were the + terms on which Rome would make peace. Sicorius complied. The emperors, he + said, required five things:—(i.) The cession to Rome of five + provinces beyond the river Tigris, which are given by one writer as + Intilene, Sophene, Arzanene, Carduene, and Zabdicene; by another as + Arzanene, Moxoene, Zabdicene, Rehimene, and Corduene; (ii.) the + recognition of the Tigris, as the general boundary between the two + empires; (iii.) the extension of Armenia to the fortress of Zintha, in + Media; (iv.) the relinquishment by Persia to Rome of her protectorate over + Iberia, including the right of giving investiture to the Iberian kings; + and (v.) the recognition of Nisibis as the place at which alone commercial + dealings could take place between the two nations. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that the Persians were surprised at the moderation of these + demands. Their exact value and force will require some discussion; but at + any rate it is clear that, under the circumstances, they were not felt to + be excessive. Narses did not dispute any of them except the last: and it + seems to have been rather because he did not wish it to be said that he + had yielded everything, than because the condition was really very + onerous, that he made objection in this instance. Sicorius was fortunately + at liberty to yield the point. He at once withdrew the fifth article of + the treaty, and, the other four being accepted, a formal peace was + concluded between the two nations. + </p> + <p> + To understand the real character of the peace now made, and to appreciate + properly the relations thereby established between Rome and Persia, it + will be necessary to examine at some length the several conditions of the + treaty, and to see exactly what was imported by each of them. There is + scarcely one out of the whole number that carries its meaning plainly upon + its face; and on the more important very various interpretations have been + put, so that a discussion and settlement of some rather intricate points + is here necessary. + </p> + <p> + (i.) There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the five + provinces ceded to Rome by the first article of the treaty, as to their + position and extent, and consequently as to their importance. By some they + are put on the right, by others on the left, bank of the Tigris; while of + those who assign them this latter position some place them in a cluster + about the sources of the river, while others extend them very much further + to the southward. Of the five provinces three only can be certainly named, + since the authorities differ as to the two others. These three are + Arzanene, Cordyene, and Zabdicene, which occur in that order in Patricius. + If we can determine the position of these three, that of the others will + follow, at least within certain limits. + </p> + <p> + Now Arzanene was certainly on the left bank of the Tigris. It adjoined + Armenia, and is reasonably identified with the modern district of Kherzan, + which lies between Lake Van and the Tigris, to the west of the Bitlis + river. All the notices of Arzanene suit this locality; and the name + “Kherzan” may be regarded as representing the ancient appellation. + </p> + <p> + Zabdicene was a little south and a little east of this position. It was + the tract about a town known as Bezabda (perhaps a corruption of + Beit-Zabda), which had been anciently called Phoenica. This town is almost + certainly represented by the modern Fynyk, on the left bank of the Tigris, + a little above Jezireh. The province whereof it was the capital may + perhaps have adjoined Arzanene, reaching as far north as the Bitlis river. + </p> + <p> + If these two tracts are rightly placed, Cordyene must also be sought on + the left bank of the Tigris. The word is no doubt the ancient + representative of the modern Kurdistan, and means a country in which Kurds + dwelt. Now Kurds seem to have been at one time the chief inhabitants of + the Mons Masius, the modern Jebel Kara j ah Dagh and Jebel Tur, which was + thence called Oordyene, Gordyene, or the Gordisean mountain chain. But + there was another and a more important Cordyene on the opposite side of + the river. The tract to this day known as Kurdistan, the high mountain + region south and south-east of Lake Van between Persia and Mesopotamia, + was in the possession of Kurds from before the time of Xenophon, and was + known as the country of the Carduchi, as Cardyene, and as Cordyene. This + tract, which was contiguous to Arzanene and Zabdicene, if we have rightly + placed those regions, must almost certainly have been the Cordyene of the + treaty, which, if it corresponded at all nearly in extent with the modern + Kurdistan, must have been by far the largest and most important of the + five provinces. + </p> + <p> + The two remaining tracts, whatever their names, must undoubtedly have lain + on the same side of the Tigris with these three. As they are otherwise + unknown to us (for Sophene, which had long been Roman, cannot have been + one of them), it is impossible that they should have been of much + importance. No doubt they helped to round off the Roman dominion in this + quarter; but the great value of the entire cession lay in the acquisition + of the large and fruitful province of Cordyene, inhabited by a brave and + hardy population, and afterwards the seat of fifteen fortresses which + brought the Roman dominion to the very edge of Adiabene, made them masters + of the passes into Media, and laid the whole of Southern Mesopotamia open + to their incursions. It is probable that the hold of Persia on the + territory had never been strong; and in relinquishing it she may have + imagined that she gave up no very great advantage; but in the hands of + Rome Kurdistan became a standing menace to the Persian power, and we shall + find that on the first opportunity the false step now taken was retrieved, + Cordyene with its adjoining districts was pertinaciously demanded of the + Romans, was grudgingly surrendered, and was then firmly re-attached to the + Sassanian dominions. + </p> + <p> + (ii.) The Tigris is said by Patricius and Festus to have been made the + boundary of the two empires. Gibbon here boldly substitutes the Western + Khabour and maintains that “the Roman frontier traversed, but never + followed, the course of the Tigris.” He appears not to be able to + understand how the Tigris could be the frontier, when five provinces + across the Tigris were Roman. But the intention of the article probably + was, first, to mark the complete cession to Rome of Eastern as well as + Western Mesopotamia, and, secondly, to establish the Tigris as the line + separating the empires below the point down to which the Romans held both + banks. Cordyene may not have touch the Tigris at all, or may have touched + it only about the 37th parallel. From this point southwards, as far as + Mosul, or Nimrud, or possibly Kileh Sherghat, the Tigris was probably now + recognized as the dividing line between the empires. By the letter of the + treaty the whole Euphrates valley might indeed have been claimed by Rome; + but practically she did not push her occupation of Mesopotamia below + Circeshim. The real frontier from this point was the Mesopotamian desert, + which extends from Kerkesiyeh to Nimrud, a distance of 150 miles. Above + this it was the Tigris, as far probably as Feshapoor; after which it + followed the line, whatever it was, which divided Oordyene from Assyria + and Media. + </p> + <p> + (iii.) The extension of Armenia to the fortress of Zintha, in Media, seems + to have imported much more than would at first sight appear from the + words. Gibbon interprets it as implying the cession of all Media + Atropatene, which certainly appears a little later to be in the possession + of the Armenian monarch, Tiridates. A large addition to the Armenian + territory out of the Median is doubtless intended; but it is quite + impossible to determine definitely the extent or exact character of the + cession. + </p> + <p> + (iv.) The fourth article of the treaty is sufficiently intelligible. So + long as Armenia had been a fief of the Persian empire, it naturally + belonged to Persia to exercise influence over the neighboring Iberia, + which corresponded closely to the modern Georgia, intervening between + Armenia and the Caucasus. Now, when Armenia had become a dependency of + Rome, the protectorate hitherto exercised by the Sassanian princes passed + naturally to the Caesars; and with the protectorate was bound up the right + of granting investiture to the kingdom, whereby the protecting power was + secured against the establishment on the throne of an unfriendly person. + Iberia was not herself a state of much strength; but her power of opening + or shutting the passes of the Caucasus gave her considerable importance, + since by the admission of the Tatar hordes, which were always ready to + pour in from the plains of the North, she could suddenly change the whole + face of affairs in North-Western Asia, and inflict a terrible revenge on + any enemy that had provoked her. It is true that she might also bring + suffering on her friends, or even on herself, for the hordes, once + admitted, were apt to make little distinction between friend and foe; but + prudential considerations did not always prevail over the promptings of + passion, and there had been occasions when, in spite of them, the gates + had been thrown open and the barbarians invited to enter. It was well for + Rome to have it in her power to check this peril. Her own strength and the + tranquillity of her eastern provinces were confirmed and secured by the + right which she (practically) obtained of nominating the Iberian monarchs. + </p> + <p> + (v.) The fifth article of the treaty, having been rejected by Narses and + then withdrawn by Sicorius, need not detain us long. By limiting the + commercial intercourse of the two nations to a single city, and that a + city within their own dominions, the Romans would have obtained enormous + commercial advantages. While their own merchants remained quietly at home, + the foreign merchants would have had the trouble and expense of bringing + their commodities to market a distance of sixty miles from the Persian + frontier and of above a hundred from any considerable town; they would of + course have been liable to market dues, which would have fallen wholly + into Roman hands; and they would further have been chargeable with any + duty, protective or even prohibitive, which Rome chose to impose. It is + not surprising that Narses here made a stand, and insisted on commerce + being left to flow in the broader channels which it had formed for itself + in the course of ages. + </p> + <p> + Rome thus terminated her first period of struggle with the newly revived + monarchy of Persia by a great victory and a great diplomatic success. If + Narses regarded the terms—and by his conduct he would seem to have + done so—as moderate under the circumstances, our conclusion must be + that the disaster which he had suffered was extreme, and that he knew the + strength of Persia to be, for the time, exhausted. Forced to relinquish + his suzerainty over Armenia and Iberia, he saw those countries not merely + wrested from himself, but placed under the protectorate, and so made to + minister to the strength, of his rival. Nor was this all. Rome had + gradually been advancing across Mesopotamia and working her way from the + Euphrates to the Tigris. Narses had to acknowledge, in so many words, that + the Tigris, and not the Euphrates, was to be regarded as her true + boundary, and that nothing consequently was to be considered as Persian + beyond the more eastern of the two rivers. Even this concession was not + the last or the worst. Narses had finally to submit to see his empire + dismembered, a portion of Media attached to Armenia, and five provinces, + never hitherto in dispute, torn from Persia and added to the dominion of + Rome. He had to allow Rome to establish herself in force on the left bank + of the Tigris, and so to lay open to her assaults a great portion of his + northern besides all his western frontier. He had to see her brought to + the very edge of the Iranic plateau, and within a fortnight’s march of + Persia Proper. The ambition to rival his ancestor Sapor, if really + entertained, was severely punished; and the defeated prince must have felt + that he had been most ill-advised in making the venture. + </p> + <p> + Narses did not long continue on the throne after the conclusion of this + disgraceful, though, it may be, necessary, treaty. It was made in A.D. + 297. He abdicated in A.D. 301. It may have been disgust at his + ill-success, it may have been mere weariness of absolute power, which + caused him to descend from his high position and retire into private life. + He was so fortunate as to have a son of full age in whose favor he could + resign, so that there was no difficulty about the succession. His + ministers seem to have thought it necessary to offer some opposition to + his project; but their resistance was feeble, perhaps because they hoped + that a young prince would be more entirely guided by their counsels. + Narses was allowed to complete his act of self-renunciation, and, after + crowning his son Hormisdas with his own hand, to spend the remainder of + his days in retirement. According to the native writers, his main object + was to contemplate death and prepare himself for it. In his youth he had + evinced some levity of character, and had been noted for his devotion to + games and to the chase; in his middle age he laid aside these pursuits, + and, applying himself actively to business, was a good administrator, as + well as a brave soldier. But at last it seemed to him that the only life + worth living was the contemplative, and that the happiness of the hunter + and the statesman must yield to that of the philosopher. It is doubtful + how long he survived his resignation of the throne, but tolerably certain + that he did not outlive his son and successor, who reigned less than eight + years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Hormisdas II. His Disposition. General Character of his Reign. + His Taste for Building. His new Court of Justice. His Marriage with a + Princess of Cabul. Story of his Son Hormisdas. Death of Hormisdas II., and + Imprisonment of his Son Hormisdas. Interregnum. Crown assigned to Sapor + II. before his Birth. Long Reign of Sapor. First Period of his Reign, from + A.D. 309 to A.D. 337. Persia plundered by the Arabs and the Turks. + Victories of Sapor over the Arabs. Persecution of the Christians. Escape + of Hormisdas. Feelings and Conduct of Sapor.</i> + </p> + <p> + Hormisdas II., who became king on the abdication of his father, Narses, + had, like his father, a short reign. He ascended the throne A.D. 301; he + died A.D. 309, not quite eight years later. To this period historians + assign scarcely any events. The personal appearance of Hormisdas, if we + may judge by a gem, was pleasing; <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE XVIII., + Fig. 4.]</a> he is said, however, to have been of a harsh temper by + nature, but to have controlled his evil inclinations after he became king, + and in fact to have then neglected nothing that could contribute to the + welfare of his subjects. He engaged in no wars; and his reign was thus one + of those quiet and uneventful intervals which, furnishing no materials for + history, indicate thereby the happiness of a nation. We are told that he + had a strong taste for building, and could never see a crumbling edifice + without instantly setting to work to restore it. Ruined towns and + villages, so common throughout the East in all ages, ceased to be seen in + Persia while he filled the throne. An army of masons always followed him + in his frequent journeys throughout his empire, and repaired dilapidated + homesteads and cottages with as much care and diligence as edifices of a + public character. According to some writers he founded several entirely + new towns in Khuzistan or Susiana, while, according to others, he built + the important city of Hormuz, or (as it is sometimes called) Ram-Aormuz, + in the province of Kerman, which is still a flourishing place. Other + authorities ascribe this city, however, to the first Hormisdas, the son of + Sapor I. and grandson of Artaxerxes. + </p> + <p> + Among the means devised by Hormisdas II. for bettering the condition of + his people the most remarkable was his establishment of a new Court of + Justice. In the East the oppression of the weak by the powerful is the + most inveterate and universal of all evils, and the one that + well-intentioned monarchs have to be most careful in checking and + repressing. Hormisdas, in his anxiety to root out this evil, is said to + have set up a court expressly for the hearing of causes where complaint + was made by the poor of wrongs done to them by the rich. The duty of the + judges was at once to punish the oppressors, and to see that ample + reparation was made to those whom they had wronged. To increase the + authority of the court, and to secure the impartiality of its sentences, + the monarch made a point of often presiding over it himself, of hearing + the causes, and pronouncing the judgments in person. The most powerful + nobles were thus made to feel that, if they offended, they would be likely + to receive adequate punishment; and the weakest and poorest of the people + were encouraged to come forward and make complaint if they had suffered + injury. + </p> + <p> + Among his other wives, Hormisdas, we are told, married a daughter of the + king of Cabul. It was natural that, after the conquest of Seistan by + Varahran II., about A.D. 280, the Persian monarchs should establish + relations with the chieftains ruling in Afghanistan. That country seems, + from the first to the fourth century of our era, to have been under the + government of princes of Scythian descent and of considerable wealth and + power. Kadphises, Kanerki, Kenorano. Ooerki, Baraoro, had the main seat of + their empire in the region about Cabul and Jellalabad; but from this + centre they exercised an extensive sway, which at times probably reached + Candahar on the one hand, and the Punjab region on the other. Their large + gold coinage proves them to have been monarchs of great wealth, while + their use of the Greek letters and language indicates a certain amount of + civilization. The marriage of Hormisdas with a princess of Cabul implies + that the hostile relations existing under Varahran II. had been superseded + by friendly ones. Persian aggression had ceased to be feared. The reigning + Indo-Scythic monarch felt no reluctance to give his daughter in marriage + to his Western neighbor, and sent her to his court (we are told) with a + wardrobe and ornaments of the utmost magnificence and costliness. + </p> + <p> + Hormisdas II. appears to have had a son, of the same name with himself, + who attained to manhood while his father was still reigning. This prince, + who was generally regarded, and who, of course, viewed himself, as the + heir-apparent, was no favorite with the Persian nobles, whom he had + perhaps offended by an inclination towards the literature and civilization + of the Greeks. It must have been upon previous consultation and agreement + that the entire body of the chief men resolved to vent their spite by + insulting the prince in the most open and public way at the table of his + father. The king was keeping his birthday, which was always, in Persia, + the greatest festival of the year, and so the most public occasion + possible. All the nobles of the realm were invited to the banquet; and all + came and took their several places. The prince was absent at the first, + but shortly arrived, bringing with him, as the excuse for his late + appearance, a quantity of game, the produce of the morning’s chase. Such + an entrance must have created some disturbance and have drawn general + attention; but the nobles, who were bound by etiquette to rise from their + seats, remained firmly fixed in them, and took not the slightest notice of + the prince’s arrival. This behavior was an indignity which naturally + aroused his resentment. In the heat of the moment he exclaimed aloud that + “those who had insulted him should one day suffer for it—their fate + should be the fate of Marsyas.” At first the threat was not understood; + but one chieftain, more learned than his fellows, explained to the rest + that, according to the Greek myth, Marsyas was flayed alive. Now, flaying + alive was a punishment not unknown to the Persian law; and the nobles, + fearing that the prince really entertained the intention which he had + expressed, became thoroughly alienated from him, and made up their minds + that they would not allow him to reign. During his father’s lifetime, they + could, of course, do nothing; but they laid up the dread threat in their + memory, and patiently waited for the moment when the throne would become + vacant, and their enemy would assert his right to it. + </p> + <p> + Apparently, their patience was not very severely taxed. Hormisdas II. died + within a few years; and Prince Hormisdas, as the only son whom he had left + behind him, thought to succeed as a matter of course. But the nobles rose + in insurrection, seized his person, and threw him into a dungeon, + intending that he should remain there for the rest of his life. They + themselves took the direction of affairs, and finding that, though King + Hormisdas had left behind him no other son, yet one of his wives was + pregnant, they proclaimed the unborn infant king, and even with the utmost + ceremony proceeded to crown the embryo by suspending the royal diadem over + the womb of the mother. A real interregnum must have followed; but it did + not extend beyond a few months. The pregnant widow of Hormisdas + fortunately gave birth to a boy, and the difficulties of the succession + were thereby ended. All classes acquiesced in the rule of the infant + monarch, who received the name of Sapor—whether simply to mark the + fact that he was believed to be the late king’s son, or in the hope that + he would rival the glories of the first Sapor, is uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Sapor II. is estimated variously, at 69, 70, 71, and 72 + years; but the balance of authority is in favor of seventy. He was born in + the course of the year A.D. 309, and he seems to have died in the year + after the Roman emperor Valens, or A.D. 379. He thus reigned nearly + three-quarters of a century, being contemporary with the Roman emperors, + Galerius, Constantine, Constantius and Constans, Julian, Jovian, + Valentinian I., Valens, Gratian, and Valentinian II. + </p> + <p> + This long reign is best divided into periods. The first period of it + extended from A.D. 309 to A.D. 337, or a space of twenty-eight years. This + was the time anterior to Sapor’s wars with the Romans. It included the + sixteen years of his minority and a space of twelve years during which he + waged successful wars with the Arabs. The minority of Sapor was a period + of severe trial to Persia. On every side the bordering nations endeavored + to take advantage of the weakness incident to the rule of a minor, and + attacked and ravaged the empire at their pleasure. The Arabs were + especially aggressive, and made continual raids into Babylonia, Khuzistan, + and the adjoining regions, which desolated these provinces and carried the + horrors of war into the very heart of the empire. The tribes of Beni-Ayar + and Abdul-Kais, which dwelt on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, + took the lead in these incursions, and though not attempting any permanent + conquests, inflicted terrible sufferings on the inhabitants of the tracts + which they invaded. At the same time a Mesopotamian. chieftain, called + Tayer or Thair, made an attack upon Otesiphon, took the city by storm, and + captured a sister or aunt of the Persian monarch. The nobles, who, during + Sapor’s minority, guided the helm of the State, were quite incompetent to + make head against these numerous enemies. For sixteen years the marauding + bands had the advantage, and Persia found herself continually weaker, more + impoverished, and less able to recover herself. The young prince is said + to have shown extraordinary discretion and intelligence. He diligently + trained himself in all manly exercises, and prepared both his mind and + body for the important duties of his station. But his tender years forbade + him as yet taking the field; and it is not unlikely that his ministers + prolonged the period of his tutelage in order to retain, to the latest + possible moment, the power whereto they had become accustomed. At any + rate, it was not till he was sixteen, a later age than Oriental ideas + require, that Sapor’s minority ceased—that he asserted his manhood, + and, placing himself at the head of his army, took the entire direction of + affairs, civil and military, into his own hands. + </p> + <p> + From this moment the fortunes of Persia began to rise. Content at first to + meet and chastise the marauding bands on his own territory, Sapor, after a + time, grew bolder, and ventured to take the offensive. Having collected a + fleet of considerable size, he placed his troops on board, and conveyed + them to the city of El-Katif, an important place on the south coast of the + Persian Gulf, where he disembarked and proceeded to carry fire and sword + through the adjacent region. Either on this occasion, or more probably in + a long series of expeditions, he ravaged the whole district of the Hejer, + gaining numerous victories over the tribes of the Temanites, the + Beni-Wa’iel, the Abdul-Kais, and others, which had taken a leading part in + the invasion of Persia. His military genius and his valor were everywhere + conspicuous; but unfortunately these excellent qualities were + unaccompanied by the humanity which has been the crowning virtue o£ many a + conqueror. Sapor, exasperated by the sufferings of his countrymen during + so many years, thought that he could not too severely punish those who had + inflicted them. He put to the sword the greater part of every tribe that + he conquered; and, when his soldiers were weary of slaying, he made them + pierce the shoulders of their prisoners, and insert in the wound a string + or thong by which to drag them into captivity. The barbarity of the age + and nation approved these atrocities; and the monarch who had commanded + them was, in consequence, saluted as Dhoulacta, or “Lord of the + Shoulders,” by an admiring people. Cruelties almost as great, but of a + different character, were at the same time sanctioned by Sapor in regard + to one class of his own subjects—viz., those who had made profession + of Christianity. The Zoroastrian zeal of this king was great, and he + regarded it as incumbent on him to check the advance which Christianity + was now making in his territories. He issued severe edicts against the + Christians soon after attaining his majority; and when they sought the + protection of the Roman emperor, he punished their disloyalty by imposing + upon them a fresh tax, the weight of which was oppressive. When Symeon, + Archbishop of Seleucia, complained of this additional burden in an + offensive manner, Sapor retaliated by closing the Christian churches, + confiscating the ecclesiastical property, and putting the complainant to + death. Accounts of these severities reached Constantine, the Roman + emperor, who had recently embraced the new religion (which, in spite of + constant persecution, had gradually overspread the empire), and had + assumed the character of a sort of general protector of the Christians + throughout the world. He remonstrated with Sapor, but to no purpose. Sapor + had formed the resolution to renew the contest terminated so unfavorably + forty years earlier by his grandfather. He made the emperor’s interference + with Persian affairs, and encouragement of his Christian subjects in their + perversity, a ground of complaint, and began to threaten hostilities. Some + negotiations, which are not very clearly narrated, followed. Both sides, + apparently, had determined on war, but both wished to gain time. It is + uncertain what would have been the result had Constantine lived. But the + death of that monarch in the early summer of A.D. 337, on his way to the + eastern frontier, dispelled the last chance of peace by relieving Sapor + from the wholesome fear which had hitherto restrained his ambition. The + military fame of Constantine was great, and naturally inspired respect; + his power was firmly fixed, and he was without competitor or rival. By his + removal the whole face of affairs was changed; and Sapor, who had almost + brought himself to venture on a rupture with Rome during Constantine’s + life, no longer hesitated on receiving news of his death, but at once + commenced hostilities. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that among the motives which determined the somewhat + wavering conduct of Sapor at this juncture was a reasonable fear of the + internal troubles which it seemed to be in the power of the Romans to + excite among the Persians, if from friends they became enemies. Having + tested his own military capacity in his Arab wars, and formed an army on + whose courage, endurance, and attachment he could rely, he was not afraid + of measuring his strength with that of Rome in the open field; but he may + well have dreaded the arts which the Imperial State was in the habit of + employing, to supplement her military shortcomings, in wars with her + neighbors. There was now at the court of Constantinople a Persian refugee + of such rank and importance that Constantine had, as it were, a pretender + ready made to his hand, and could reckon on creating dissension among the + Persians whenever he pleased, by simply proclaiming himself this person’s + ally and patron. Prince Hormisdas, the elder brother of Sapor, and + rightful king of Persia, had, after a long imprisonment, contrived, by the + help of his wife, to escape from his dungeon, and had fled to the court of + Constantine as early as A.D. 323. He had been received by the emperor with + every mark of honor and distinction, had been given a maintenance suited + to his rank, and had enjoyed other favors. Sapor must have felt himself + deeply aggrieved by the undue attention paid to his rival; and though he + pretended to make light of the matter, and even generously sent Hormisdas + the wife to whom his escape was due, he cannot but have been uneasy at the + possession, by the Roman emperor, of his brother’s person. In weighing the + reasons for and against war he cannot but have assigned considerable + importance to this circumstance. It did not ultimately prevent him from + challenging Rome to the combat; but it may help to account for the + hesitation, the delay, and the fluctuations of purpose, which we remark in + his conduct during the four or five years which immediately preceded the + death of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Position of Affairs on the Death of Constantine. First War of Sapor + with Rome, A.D. 337-350. First Siege of Nisibis. Obscure Interval. + Troubles in Armenia, and Recovery of Armenia by the Persians. Sapor’s + Second Siege of Nisibis. Its Failure. Great Battle of Singara. Sapor’s Son + made Prisoner and murdered in cold blood. Third Siege of Nisibis. Sapor + called away by an Invasion of the Massagatae.</i> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/chapter8.jpg" height="49" width="559" alt="Chapter-8 " /> + </div> + <p> + “Constantius adversus Persas et Saporem, qui Mesopotamiam vastaverant, + novem prasliis parum prospere decertavit.”—Orosius, Hist. vii. 39. + </p> + <p> + The death of Constantine was followed by the division of the Roman world + among his sons. The vast empire with which Sapor had almost made up his + mind to contend was partitioned out into three moderate-sized kingdoms. In + place of the late brave and experienced emperor, a raw youth, who had + given no signs of superior ability, had the government of the Roman + provinces of the East, of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, and + Egypt. Master of one third of the empire only, and of the least warlike + portion, Constantius was a foe whom the Persian monarch might well + despise, and whom he might expect to defeat without much difficulty. + Moreover, there was much in the circumstances of the time that seemed to + promise success to the Persian arms in a struggle with Rome. The removal + of Constantme had been followed by an outburst of licentiousness and + violence among the Roman soldiery in the capital; and throughout the East + the army had cast off the restraints of discipline, and given indications + of a turbulent and seditious spirit. The condition of Armenia was also + such as to encourage Sapor in his ambitious projects. Tiridates, though a + persecutor of the Christians in the early part of his reign, had been + converted by Gregory the Illuminator, and had then enforced Christianity + on his subjects by fire and sword. A sanguinary conflict had followed. A + large portion of the Armenians, firmly attached to the old national + idolatry, had resisted determinedly. Nobles, priests, and people had + fought desperately in defence of their temples, images, and altars; and, + though the persistent will of the king overbore all opposition, yet the + result was the formation of a discontented faction, which rose up from + time to time against its rulers, and was constantly tempted to ally itself + with any foreign power from which it could hope the re-establishment of + the old religion. Armenia had also, after the death of Tiridates (in A.D. + 314), fallen under the government of weak princes. Persia had recovered + from it the portion of Media Atropatene ceded by the treaty between + Galerius and Narses. Sapor, therefore, had nothing to fear on this side; + and he might reasonably expect to find friends among the Armenians + themselves, should the general position of his affairs allow him to make + an effort to extend Persian influence once more over the Armenian + highland. + </p> + <p> + The bands of Sapor crossed the Roman frontier soon after, if not even + before, the death of Constantine; and after an interval of forty years the + two great powers of the world were once more engaged in a bloody conflict. + Constantius, having paid the last honors to his father’s remains, hastened + to the eastern frontier, where he found the Roman army weak in numbers, + badly armed and badly provided, ill-disposed towards himself, and almost + ready to mutiny. It was necessary, before anything could be done to resist + the advance of Sapor, that the insubordination of the troops should be + checked, their wants supplied, and their good-will conciliated. + Constantius applied himself to effect these changes. Meanwhile Sapor set + the Arabs and Armenians in motion, inducing the Pagan party among the + latter to rise in insurrection, deliver their king, Tiranus, into his + power, and make incursions into the Roman territory, while the latter + infested with their armed bands the provinces of Mesopotamia and Syria. He + himself was content, during the first year of the war, A.D. 337, with + moderate successes, and appeared to the Romans to avoid rather than seek a + pitched battle. Constantius was able, under these circumstances, not only + to maintain his ground, but to gain certain advantages. He restored the + direction of affairs in Armenia to the Roman party, detached some of the + Mesopotamian Arabs from the side of his adversary, and attached them to + his own, and even built forts in the Persian territory on the further side + of the Tigris. But the gains made were slight; and in the ensuing year + (A.D. 338) Sapor took the field in greater force than before, and + addressed himself to an important enterprise. He aimed, it is evident, + from the first, at the recovery of Mesopotamia, and at thrusting back the + Romans from the Tigris to the Euphrates. He found it easy to overrun the + open country, to ravage the crops, drive off the cattle, and burn the + villages and homesteads. But the region could not be regarded as + conquered, it could not be permanently held, unless the strongly fortified + posts which commanded it, and which were in the hands of Rome, could be + captured. Of all these the most important was Nisibis. This ancient town, + known to the Assyrians as Nazibina, was, at any rate from the time of + Lucullus, the most important city of Mesopotamia. It was situated at the + distance of about sixty miles from the Tigris, at the edge of the Mons + Masius, in a broad and fertile plain, watered by one of the affluents of + the river Khabour, or Aborrhas. The Romans, after their occupation of + Mesopotamia, had raised it to the rank of a colony; and its defences, + which were of great strength, had always been maintained by the emperors + in a state of efficiency. Sapor regarded it as the key of the Roman + position in the tract between the rivers, and, as early as A.D. 338, + sought to make himself master of it. + </p> + <p> + The first siege of Nisibis by Sapor lasted, we are told, sixty-three days. + Few particulars of it have come down to us. Sapor had attacked the city, + apparently, in the absence of Constantius, who had been called off to + Pannonia to hold a conference with his brothers. It was defended, not only + by its garrison and inhabitants, but by the prayers and exhortations of + its bishop, St. James, who, if he did not work miracles for the + deliverance of his countrymen, at any rate sustained and animated their + resistance. The result was that the bands of Sapor were repelled with + loss, and he was forced, after wasting two months before the walls, to + raise the siege and own himself baffled. + </p> + <p> + After this, for some years the Persian war with Rome languished. It is + difficult to extract from the brief statements of epitomizers, and the + loose invectives or panegyrics of orators, the real circumstances of the + struggle; but apparently the general condition of things was this. The + Persians were constantly victorious in the open field; Constantius was + again and again defeated; but no permanent gain was effected by these + successes. A weakness inherited by the Persians from the Parthians—an + inability to conduct sieges to a prosperous issue—showed itself; and + their failures against the fortified posts which Rome had taken care to + establish in the disputed regions were continual. Up to the close of A.D. + 340 Sapor had made no important gain, had struck no decisive blow, but + stood nearly in the same position which he had occupied at the + commencement of the conflict. + </p> + <p> + But the year A.D. 341 saw a change. Sapor, after obtaining possession of + the person of Tiranus, had sought to make himself master of Armenia, and + had even attempted to set up one of his own relatives as king. But the + indomitable spirit of the inhabitants, and their firm attachment to their + Arsacid princes, caused his attempts to fail of any good result, and + tended on the whole to throw Armenia into the arms of Rome. Sapor, after a + while, became convinced of the folly of his proceedings, and resolved on + the adoption of a wholly new policy. He would relinquish the idea of + conquering, and would endeavor instead to conciliate the Armenians, in the + hope of obtaining from their gratitude what he had been unable to extort + from their fears. Tiranus was still living; and Sapor, we are told, + offered to replace him upon the Armenian throne; but, as he had been + blinded by his captors, and as Oriental notions did not allow a person + thus mutilated to exercise royal power, Tiranus declined the offer made + him, and suggested the substitution of his son, Arsaces, who was, like + himself, a prisoner in Persia. Sapor readily consented; and the young + prince, released from captivity, returned to his country, and was + installed as king by the Persians, with the good-will of the natives, who + were satisfied so long as they could feel that they had at their head a + monarch of the ancient stock. The arrangement, of course, placed Armenia + on the Persian side, and gave Sapor for many years a powerful ally in his + struggle with Rome. + </p> + <p> + Thus Sapor had, by the, year A.D. 341, made a very considerable gain. He + had placed a friendly sovereign on the Armenian throne, had bound him to + his cause by oaths, and had thereby established his influence, not only + over Armenia itself, but over the whole tract which lay between Armenia + and the Caucasus. But he was far from content with these successes. It was + still his great object to drive the Romans from Mesopotamia; and with that + object in view it continued to be his first wish to obtain possession of + Nisibis. Accordingly, having settled Armenian affairs to his liking, he + made, in A.D. 346, a second attack on the great city of Northern + Mesopotamia, again investing it with a large body of troops, and this time + pressing the siege during the space of nearly three months. Again, + however, the strength of the walls and the endurance of the garrison + baffled him. Sapor was once more obliged to withdraw from, before the + place, having suffered greater loss than those whom he had assailed, and + forfeited much of the prestige which he had acquired by his many + victories. + </p> + <p> + It was, perhaps, on account of the repulse from Nisibis, and in the hope + of recovering his lost laurels, that Sapor, in the next year but one, A.D. + 348, made an unusual effort. Calling out the entire military force of the + empire, and augmenting it by large bodies of allies and mercenaries, the + Persian king, towards the middle of summer, crossed the Tigris by three + bridges, and with a numerous and well-appointed army invaded Central + Mesopotamia, probably from Adiabene, or the region near and a little south + of Nineveh. Constantius, with the Roman army, was posted on and about the + Sinjax range of hills, in the vicinity of the town of Singara, which is + represented by the modern village of Sinjar. The Roman emperor did not + venture to dispute the passage of the river, or to meet his adversary in + the broad plain which, intervenes between the Tigris and the mountain + range, but clung to the skirts of the hills, and commanded his troops to + remain wholly on the defensive. Sapor was thus enabled to choose his + position, to establish a fortified camp at a convenient distance from the + enemy, and to occupy the hills in its vicinity—some portion of the + Sinjar range—with his archers. It is uncertain whether, in making + these dispositions, he was merely providing for his own safety, or whether + he was laying a trap into which he hoped to entice the Roman army. Perhaps + his mind was wide enough to embrace both contingencies. At any rate, + having thus established a <i>point d’appui</i> in his rear, he advanced + boldly and challenged the legions to an encounter. The challenge was at + once accepted, and the battle commenced about midday; but now the + Persians, having just crossed swords with the enemy, almost immediately + began to give ground, and retreating hastily drew their adversaries along, + across the thirsty plain, to the vicinity of their fortified camp, where a + strong body of horse and the flower of the Persian archers were posted. + The horse charged, but the legionaries easily defeated them, and elated + with their success burst into the camp, despite the warnings of their + leader, who strove vainly to check their ardor and to induce them to put + off the completion of their victory till the next day. A small detachment + found within the ramparts was put to the sword; and the soldiers scattered + themselves among the tents, some in quest of booty, others only anxious + for some means of quenching their raging thirst. Meantime the sun had gone + down, and the shades of night fell rapidly. Regarding the battle as over, + and the victory as assured, the Romans gave themselves up to sleep or + feasting. But now Sapor saw his opportunity—the opportunity for + which he had perhaps planned and waited. His light troops on the adjacent + hills commanded the camp, and, advancing on every side, surrounded it. + They were fresh and eager for the fray; they fought in the security + afforded by the darkness; while the fires of the camp showed them their + enemies, worn out with fatigue, sleepy, or drunken. The result, as might + have been expected, was a terrible carnage. The Persians overwhelmed the + legionaries with showers of darts and arrows; flight, under the + circumstances, was impossible; and the Roman soldiers mostly perished + where they stood. They took, however, ere they died, an atrocious revenge. + Sapor’s son had been made prisoner in the course of the day; in their + desperation the legionaries turned their fury against this innocent youth; + they beat him with whips, wounded him with the points of their weapons, + and finally rushed upon him and killed him with a hundred blows. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Singara, though thus disastrous to the Romans, had not any + great effect in determining the course or issue of the war. Sapor did not + take advantage of his victory to attack the rest of the Roman forces in + Mesopotamia, or even to attempt the siege of any large town. Perhaps he + had really suffered large losses in the earlier part of the day; perhaps + he was too much affected by the miserable death of his son to care, till + time had dulled the edge of his grief, for military glory. At any rate, we + hear of his undertaking no further enterprise till the second year after + the battle, A.D. 350, when he made his third and most desperate attempt to + capture Nisibis. + </p> + <p> + The rise of a civil war in the West, and the departure of Constantius for + Europe with the flower of his troops early in the year no doubt encouraged + the Persian monarch to make one more effort against the place which had + twice repulsed him with ignominy. He collected a numerous native army, and + strengthened it by the addition of a body of Indian allies, who brought a + large troop of elephants into the field. With this force he crossed the + Tigris in the early summer, and, after taking several fortified posts, + march northwards and invested Nisibis. The Roman commander in the place + was the Count Lucilianus, afterwards the father-in-law of Jovian, a man of + resource and determination. He is said to have taken the best advantage of + every favorable turn of fortune in the course of the siege, and to have + prolonged the resistance by various subtle stratagems. But the real + animating spirit of the defence was once more the bishop, St. James, who + raised the enthusiasm of the inhabitants to the highest pitch by his + exhortations, guided them by his counsels, and was thought to work + miracles for them by his prayers. Sapor tried at first the ordinary + methods of attack; he battered the walls with his rams, and sapped them + with mines. But finding that by these means he made no satisfactory + progress, he had recourse shortly to wholly novel proceedings. The river + Mygdonius (now the Jerujer), swollen by the melting of the snows in the + Mons Masius, had overflowed its banks and covered with an inundation the + plain in which Nisibis stands. Sapor saw that the forces of nature might + be employed to advance his ends, and so embanked the lower part of the + plain that the water could not run off, but formed a deep lake round the + town, gradually creeping up the walls till it had almost reached the + battlements. Having thus created an artificial sea, the energetic monarch + rapidly collected, or constructed, a fleet of vessels, and, placing his + military engines on board, launched the ships upon the waters, and so + attacked the walls of the city at great advantage. But the defenders + resisted stoutly, setting the engines on fire with torches, and either + lifting the ships from the water by means of cranes, or else shattering + them with the huge stones which they could discharge from their balistics. + Still, therefore, no impression was made; but at last an unforeseen + circumstance brought the besieged into the greatest peril, and almost gave + Nisibis into the enemy’s hands. The inundation, confined by the mounds of + the Persians, which prevented it from running off, pressed with + continually increasing force against the defences of the city, till at + last the wall, in one part, proved too weak to withstand the tremendous + weight which bore upon it, and gave way suddenly for the space of a + hundred and fifty feet. What further damage was done to the town we know + not; but a breach was opened through which the Persians at once made ready + to pour into the place, regarding it as impossible that so huge a gap + should be either repaired or effectually defended. Sapor took up his + position on an artificial eminence, while his troops rushed to the + assault. First of all marched the heavy cavalry, accompanied by the + horse-archers; next came the elephants, bearing iron towers upon their + backs, and in each tower a number of bowmen; intermixed with the elephants + were a certain amount of heavy-armed foot. It was a strange column with + which to attack a breach; and its composition does not say much for + Persian siege tactics, which were always poor and ineffective, and which + now, as usually, resulted in failure. The horses became quickly entangled + in the ooze and mud which the waters had left behind them as they + subsided; the elephants were even less able to overcome these + difficulties, and as soon as they received a wound sank down—never + to rise again—in the swamp. Sapor hastily gave orders for the + assailing column to retreat and seek the friendly shelter of the Persian + camp, while he essayed to maintain his advantage in a different way. His + light archers were ordered to the front, and, being formed into divisions + which were to act as reliefs, received orders to prevent the restoration + of the ruined wall by directing an incessant storm of arrows into the gap + made by the waters. But the firmness and activity of the garrison and + inhabitants defeated this well-imagined proceeding. While the heavy-armed + troops stood in the gap receiving the flights of arrows and defending + themselves as they best could, the unarmed multitude raised a new wall in + their rear, which, by the morning of the next day, was six feet in height. + This last proof of his enemies’ resolution and resource seems to have + finally convinced Sapor of the hopelessness of his enterprise. Though he + still continued the siege for a while, he made no other grand attack, and + at length drew off his forces, having lost twenty thousand men before the + walls, and wasted a hundred days, or more than three months. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps he would not have departed so soon, but would have turned the + siege into a blockade, and endeavored to starve the garrison into + submission, had not alarming tidings reached him from his north-eastern + frontier. Then, as now, the low flat sandy region east of the Caspian was + in the possession of nomadic hordes, whose whole life was spent in war and + plunder. The Oxus might be nominally the boundary of the empire in this + quarter; but the nomads were really dominant over the entire desert to the + foot of the Hyrcanian and Parthian hills. Petty plundering forays into the + fertile region south and east of the desert were no doubt constant, and + were not greatly regarded; but from time to time some tribe or chieftain + bolder than the rest made a deeper inroad and a more sustained attack than + usual, spreading consternation around, and terrifying the court for its + safety. Such an attack seems to have occurred towards the autumn of A.D. + 350. The invading horde is said to have consisted of Massagatae; but we + can hardly be mistaken in regarding them as, in the main, of Tatar, or + Turkoman blood, akin to the Usbegs and other Turanian tribes which still + inhabit the sandy steppe. Sapor considered the crisis such as to require + his own presence; and thus, while civil war summoned one of the two rivals + from Mesopotamia to the far West, where he had to contend with the + self-styled emperors, Magnentius and Vetranio, the other was called away + to the extreme East to repel a Tatar invasion. A tacit truce was thus + established between the great belligerents—a truce which lasted for + seven or eight years. The unfortunate Mesopotamians, harassed by constant + war for above twenty years, had now a breathing-space during which to + recover from the ruin and desolation that had overwhelmed them. Rome and + Persia for a time suspended their conflict. Rivalry, indeed, did not + cease; but it was transferred from the battlefield to the cabinet, and the + Roman emperor sought and found in diplomatic triumphs a compensation for + the ill-success which had attended his efforts in the field. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Revolt of Armenia and Acceptance by Arsaces of the Position of a Roman + Feudatory. Character and Issue of Sapor’s Eastern Wars. His negotiations + with Constantius. His Extreme Demands. Circumstances under which he + determines to renew the War. His Preparations. Desertion to him of + Antoninus. Great Invasion of Sapor. Siege of Amida. Sapor’s Severities. + Siege and Capture of Singara; of Bezabde. Attack on Virtu fails. + Aggressive Movement of Constantius. He attacks Bezabde, but fails Campaign + of A.D. 361. Death of Constantius.</i> + </p> + <p> + Evenerat . . . quasi fatali constellatione . . . ut Constantium dimicantem + cum Persis fortuna semper sequeretur afflictior.—Amm. Marc. xx. 9, + ad fin. + </p> + <p> + It seems to have been soon after the close of Sapor’s first war with + Constantius that events took place in Armenia which once more replaced + that country under Roman influence. Arsaces, the son of Tiranus, had been, + as we have seen, established as monarch, by Sapor, in the year A.D. 341, + under the notion that, in return for the favor shown him, he would + administer Armenia in the Persian interest. But gratitude is an unsafe + basis for the friendships of monarchs. Arsaces, after a time, began to + chafe against the obligations under which Sapor had laid him, and to wish, + by taking independent action, to show himself a real king, and not a mere + feudatory. He was also, perhaps, tired of aiding Sapor in his Roman war, + and may have found that he suffered more than he gained by having Rome for + an enemy. At any rate, in the interval between A.D. 351 and 359, probably + while Sapor was engaged in the far East, Arsaces sent envoys to + Constantinople with a request to Constantius that he would give him in + marriage a member of the Imperial house. Constantius was charmed with the + application made to him, and at once accepted the proposal. He selected + for the proffered honor a certain Olympias, the daughter of Ablabius, a + Praetorian prefect, and lately the betrothed bride of his own brother, + Constans; and sent her to Armenia, where Arsaces welcomed her, and made + her (as it would seem) his chief wife, provoking thereby the jealousy and + aversion of his previous sultana, a native Armenian, named Pharandzem. The + engagement thus entered into led on, naturally, to the conclusion of a + formal alliance between Rome and Armenia—an alliance which Sapor + made fruitless efforts to disturb, and which continued unimpaired down to + the time A.D. 359 when hostilities once more broke out between Rome and + Persia. + </p> + <p> + Of Sapor’s Eastern wars we have no detailed account. They seem to have + occupied him from A.D. 350 to A.D. 357, and to have been, on the whole, + successful. They were certainly terminated by a peace in the last-named + year—a peace of which it must have been a condition that his late + enemies should lend him aid in the struggle which he was about to renew + with Rome. Who these enemies exactly were, and what exact region they + inhabited, is doubtful. They comprised certainly the Chionites and Gelani, + probably the Euseni and the Vertse. The Chionites are thought to have been + Hiongnu or Huns; and the Euseni are probably the Usiun, who, as early as + B.C. 200, are found among the nomadic hordes pressing towards the Oxus. + The Vertse are wholly unknown. The Gelani should, by their name, be the + inhabitants of Ghilan, or the coast tract south-west of the Caspian; but + this locality seems too remote from the probable seats of the Chionites + and Euseni to be the one intended. The general scene of the wars was + undoubtedly east of the Caspian, either in the Oxus region, or still + further eastward, on the confines of India and Scythia. The result of the + wars, though not a conquest, was an extension of Persian influence and + power. Troublesome enemies were converted into friends and allies. The + loss of a predominating influence over Armenia was thus compensated, or + more than compensated, within a few years, by a gain of a similar kind in + another quarter. + </p> + <p> + While Sapor was thus engaged in the far East, he received letters from the + officer whom he had left in charge of his western frontier, informing him + that the Romans were anxious to exchange the precarious truce which + Mesopotamia had been allowed to enjoy during the last five or six years + for a more settled and formal peace. Two great Roman officials, Cassianus, + duke of Mesopotamia, and Musonianus, Praetorian prefect, understanding + that Sapor was entangled in a bloody and difficult war at the eastern + extremity of his empire, and knowing that Constantius was fully occupied + with the troubles caused by the inroads of the barbarians into the more + western of the Roman provinces, had thought that the time was favorable + for terminating the provisional state of affairs in the Mesopotamian + region by an actual treaty. They had accordingly opened negotiations with + Tamsapor, satrap of Adiabene, and suggested to him that he should sound + his master on the subject of making peace with Rome. Tamsapor appears to + have misunderstood the character of these overtures, or to have + misrepresented them to Sapor; in his despatch he made Constantius himself + the mover in the matter, and spoke of him as humbly supplicating the great + king to grant him conditions. It happened that the message reached Sapor + just as he had come to terms with his eastern enemies, and had succeeded + in inducing them to become his allies. He was naturally elated at his + success, and regarded the Roman overture as a simple acknowledgment of + weakness. Accordingly he answered in the most haughty style. His letter, + which was conveyed to the Roman emperor at Sirmium by an ambassador named + Narses, was conceived in the following terms: + </p> + <p> + “Sapor, king of kings, brother of the sun and moon, and companion of the + stars, sends salutation to his brother, Constantius Caesar. It glads me to + see that thou art at last returned to the right way, and art ready to do + what is just and fair, having learned by experience that inordinate greed + is oft-times punished by defeat and disaster. As then the voice of truth + ought to speak with all openness, and the more illustrious of mankind + should make their words mirror their thoughts, I will briefly declare to + thee what I propose, not forgetting that I have often said the same things + before. Your own authors are witness that the entire tract within the + river Strymon and the borders of Macedon was once held by my ancestors; if + I required you to restore all this, it would not ill become me (excuse the + boast), inasmuch as I excel in virtue and in the splendor of my + achievements the whole line of our ancient monarchs. But as moderation + delights me, and has always been the rule of my conduct—wherefore + from my youth up I have had no occasion to repent of any action—I + will be content to receive Mesopotamia and Armenia, which was fraudulently + extorted from my grandfather. We Persians have never admitted the + principle, which you proclaim with such effrontery, that success in war is + always glorious, whether it be the fruit of courage or trickery. In + conclusion, if you will take the advice of one who speaks for your good, + sacrifice a small tract of territory, one always in dispute and causing + continual bloodshed, in order that you may rule the remainder securely. + Physicians, remember, often cut and burn, and even amputate portions of + the body, that the patient may have the healthy use of what is left to + him; and there are animals which, understanding why the hunters chase + them, deprive themselves of the thing coveted, to live thenceforth without + fear. I warn you, that, if my ambassador returns in vain, I will take the + field against you, so soon as the winter is past, with all my forces, + confiding in my good fortune and in the fairness of the conditions which I + have now offered.” + </p> + <p> + It must have been a severe blow to Imperial pride to receive such a + letter: and the sense of insult can scarcely have been much mitigated by + the fact that the missive was enveloped in a silken covering, or by the + circumstance that the bearer, Narses, endeavored by his conciliating + manners to atone for his master’s rudeness. Constantius replied, however, + in a dignified and calm tone. “The Roman emperor,” he said, “victorious by + land and sea, saluted his brother, King Sapor. His lieutenant in + Mesopotamia had meant well in opening a negotiation with a Persian + governor; but he had acted without orders, and could not bind his master. + Nevertheless, he (Constantius) would not disclaim what had been done, + since he did not object to a peace, provided it were fair and honorable. + But to ask the master of the whole Roman world to surrender territories + which he had successfully defended when he ruled only over the provinces + of the East was plainly indecent and absurd. He must add that the + employment of threats was futile, and too common an artifice; more + especially as the Persians themselves must know that Rome always defended + herself when attacked, and that, if occasionally she was vanquished in a + battle, yet she never failed to have the advantage in the event of every + war.” Three envoys were entrusted with the delivery of this reply—Prosper, + a count of the empire; Spectatus, a tribune and notary; and Eustathius, an + orator and philosopher, a pupil of the celebrated Neo-Platonist, + Jamblichus, and a friend of St. Basil. Constantius was most anxious for + peace, as a dangerous war threatened with the Alemanni, one of the most + powerful tribes of Germany. He seems to have hoped that, if the unadorned + language of the two statesmen failed to move Sapor, he might be won over + by the persuasive eloquence of the professor of rhetoric. + </p> + <p> + But Sapor was bent on war. He had concluded arrangements with the natives + so long his adversaries in the East, by which they had pledged themselves + to join his standard with all their forces in the ensuing spring. He was + well aware of the position of Constantius in the West, of the internal + corruption of his court, and of the perils constantly threatening him from + external enemies. A Roman official of importance, bearing the once honored + name of Antoninus, had recently taken refuge with him from the claims of + pretended creditors, and had been received into high favor on account of + the information which he was able to communicate with respect to the + disposition of the Roman forces and the condition of their magazines. This + individual, ennobled by the royal authority, and given a place at the + royal table, gained great influence over his new master, whom he + stimulated by alternately reproaching him with his backwardness in the + past, and putting before him the prospect of easy triumphs over Rome in + the future. He pointed out that the emperor, with the bulk of his troops + and treasures, was detained in the regions adjoining the Danube, and that + the East was left almost undefended; he magnified the services which he + was himself competent to render; he exhorted Sapor to bestir himself, and + to put confidence in his good fortune. He recommended that the old plan of + sitting down before walled towns should be given up, and that the Persian + monarch, leaving the strongholds of Mesopotamia in his rear, should press + forward to the Euphrates, pour his troops across it, and overrun the rich + province of Syria, which he would find unguarded, and which had not been + invaded by an enemy for nearly a century. The views of Antoninus were + adopted; but, in practice, they were overruled by the exigencies of the + situation. A Roman army occupied Mesopotamia, and advanced to the banks of + the Tigris. When the Persians in full force crossed the river, accompanied + by Chionite and Albanian allies, they found a considerable body of troops + prepared to resist them. Their opponents did not, indeed offer battle, but + they laid waste the country as the Persians took possession of it; they + destroyed the forage, evacuated the indefensible towns (which fell, of + course, into the enemy’s hands), and fortified the line of the Euphrates + with castles, military engines, and palisades. Still the programme of + Antoninus would probably have been carried out, had not the swell of the + Euphrates exceeded the average, and rendered it impossible for the Persian + troops to ford the river at the usual point of passage into Syria. On + discovering this obstacle, Antoninus suggested that, by a march to the + north-east through a fertile country, the “Upper Euphrates” might be + reached, and easily crossed, before its waters had attained any + considerable volume. Sapor agreed to adopt this suggestion. He marched + from Zeugma across the Mons Masius towards the Upper Euphrates, defeated + the Romans in an important battle near Arnida, took, by a sudden assault, + two castles which defended the town, and then somewhat hastily resolved + that he would attack the place, which he did not imagine capable of making + much resistance. + </p> + <p> + Amida, now Diarbekr, was situated on the right bank of the Upper Tigris, + in a fertile plain, and was washed along the whole of its western side by + a semi-circular bend of the river. It had been a place of considerable + importance from a very ancient date, and had recently been much + strengthened by Constantius, who had made it an arsenal for military + engines, and had repaired its towers and walls. The town contained within + it a copious fountain of water, which was liable, however, to acquire a + disagreeable odor in the summer time. Seven legions, of the moderate + strength to which legions had been reduced by Constantine, defended it; + and the garrison included also a body of horse-archers, composed chiefly + or entirely of noble foreigners. Sapor hoped in the first instance to + terrify it into submission by his mere appearance, and boldly rode up to + the gates with a small body of his followers, expecting that they would be + opened to him. But the defenders were more courageous than he had + imagined. They received him with a shower of darts and arrows that were + directed specially against his person, which was conspicuous from its + ornaments; and they aimed their weapons so well that one of them passed + through a portion of his dress and was nearly wounding him. Persuaded by + his followers, Sapor upon this withdrew, and committed the further + prosecution of the attack to Grumbates, the king of the Chionites, who + assaulted the walls on the next day with a body of picked troops, but was + repulsed with great loss, his only son, a youth of great promise, being + killed at his side by a dart from a balista. The death of this prince + spread dismay through the camp, and was followed by a general mourning; + but it now became a point of honor to take the town which had so injured + one of the great king’s royal allies; and Grumbates was promised that + Amida should become the funeral pile of his lost darling. + </p> + <p> + The town was now regularly invested. Each nation was assigned its place. + The Chionites, burning with the desire to avenge their late defeat, were + on the east; the Vertse on the south; the Albanians, warriors from the + Caspian region, on the north; the Segestans, who were reckoned the bravest + soldiers of all, and who brought into the field a large body of elephants, + held the west. A continuous line of Persians, five ranks deep, surrounded + the entire city, and supported the auxiliary detachments. The entire + besieging army was estimated at a hundred thousand men; the besieged, + including the unarmed multitude, were under 30,000. After the pause of an + entire day, the first general attack was made. Grumbates gave the signal + for the assault by hurling a bloody spear into the space before the walls, + after the fashion of a Roman fetialis. A cloud of darts and arrows from + every side followed the flight of this weapon, and did severe damage to + the besieged, who were at the same time galled with discharges from Roman + military engines, taken by the Persians in some capture of Singara, and + now employed against their former owners. Still a vigorous resistance + continued to be made, and the besiegers, in their exposed positions, + suffered even more than the garrison; so that after two days the attempt + to carry the city by general assault was abandoned, and the slow process + of a regular siege was adopted. Trenches were opened at the usual distance + from the walls, along which the troops advanced under the cover of hurdles + towards the ditch, which they proceeded to fill up in places. Mounds were + then thrown up against the walls; and movable towers were constructed and + brought into play, guarded externally with iron, and each mounting a + balista. It was impossible long to withstand these various weapons of + attack. The hopes of the besieged lay, primarily, in their receiving + relief from without by the advance of an army capable of engaging their + assailants and harassing them or driving them off; secondarily, in + successful sallies, by means of which they might destroy the enemy’s works + and induce him to retire from before the place. + </p> + <p> + There existed, in the neighborhood of Amida, the elements of a relieving + army, under the command of the new prefect of the East, Sabinianus. Had + this officer possessed an energetic and enterprising character, he might, + without much difficulty, have collected a force of light and active + soldiers, which might have hung upon the rear of the Persians, intercepted + their convoys, cut off their stragglers, and have even made an occasional + dash upon their lines. Such was the course of conduct recommended by + Ursicinus, the second in command, whom Sabinianus had recently superseded; + but the latter was jealous of his subordinate, and had orders from the + Byzantine court to keep him unemployed. He was himself old and rich, alike + disinclined to and unfit for military enterprise; he therefore absolutely + rejected the advice of Ursicinus, and determined on making no effort. He + had positive orders, he said, from the court to keep on the defensive and + not endanger his troops by engaging them in hazardous adventures. Amida + must protect itself, or at any rate not look to him for succor. Ursicinus + chafed terribly, it is said, against this decision, but was forced to + submit to it. His messengers conveyed the dispiriting intelligence to the + devoted city, which learned thereby that it must rely wholly upon its own + exertions. + </p> + <p> + Nothing now remained but to organize sallies on a large scale and attack + the besieger’s works. Such attempts were made from time to time with some + success; and on one occasion two Gaulish legions, banished to the East for + their adherence to the cause of Magnentius, penetrated, by night, into the + heart of the besieging camp, and brought the person of the monarch into + danger. This peril was, however, escaped; the legions were repulsed with + the loss of a sixth of their number; and nothing was gained by the + audacious enterprise beyond a truce of three days, during which each side + mourned its dead, and sought to repair its losses. + </p> + <p> + The fate of the doomed city drew on. Pestilence was added to the + calamities which the besieged had to endure. Desertion and treachery were + arrayed against them. One of the natives of Amida, going over to the + Persians, informed them that on the southern side of the city a neglected + staircase led up from the margin of the Tigris through underground + corridors to one of the principal bastions; and under his guidance seventy + archers of the Persian guard, picked men, ascended the dark passage at + dead of night, occupied the tower, and when morning broke displayed from + it a scarlet flag, as a sign to their countrymen that a portion of the + wall was taken. The Persians were upon the alert, and an instant assault + was made. But the garrison, by extraordinary efforts, succeeded in + recapturing the tower before any support reached its occupants; and then, + directing their artillery and missiles against the assailing columns, + inflicted on them tremendous losses, and soon compelled them to return + hastily to the shelter of their camp. The Verte, who maintained the siege + on the south side of the city, were the chief sufferers in this abortive + attempt. + </p> + <p> + Sapor had now spent seventy days before the place, and had made no + perceptible impression. Autumn was already far advanced, and the season + for military operations would, soon be over. It was necessary, therefore, + either to take the city speedily or to give up the siege and retire. Under + these circumstances Sapor resolved on a last effort. He had constructed + towers of such a height that they overtopped the wall, and poured their + discharges on the defenders from a superior elevation. He had brought his + mounds in places to a level with the ramparts, and had compelled the + garrison to raise countermounds within the walls for their protection. He + now determined on pressing the assault day after day, until he either + carried the town or found all his resources exhausted. His artillery, his + foot, and his elephants were all employed in turn or together; he allowed + the garrison no rest. Not content with directing the operations, he + himself took part in the supreme struggle, exposing his own person freely + to the enemy’s weapons, and losing many of his attendants. After the + contest had lasted three continuous days from morn to night, fortune at + last favored him. One of the inner mounds, raised by the besieged behind + their wall, suddenly gave way, involving its defenders in its fall, and at + the same time filling up the entire space between the wall and the mound + raised outside by the Persians. A way into the town was thus laid open, + and the besiegers instantly occupied it. It was in vain that the flower of + the garrison threw itself across the path of the entering columns—nothing + could withstand the ardor of the Persian troops. In a little time all + resistance was at an end; those who could quitted the city and fled—the + remainder, whatever their sex, age, or calling, whether armed or unarmed, + were slaughtered like sheep by the conquerors. + </p> + <p> + Thus fell Amida after a siege of seventy-three days. Sapor, who on other + occasions showed himself not deficient in clemency, was exasperated by the + prolonged resistance and the losses which he had sustained in the course + of it. Thirty thousand of his best soldiers had fallen; the son of his + chief ally had perished; he himself had been brought into imminent danger. + Such audacity on the part of a petty town seemed no doubt to him to + deserve a severe retribution. The place was therefore given over to the + infuriated soldiery, who were allowed to slay and plunder at their + pleasure. Of the captives taken, all belonging to the five provinces + across the Tigris, claimed as his own by Sapor, though ceded to Rome by + his grandfather, were massacred in cold blood. The Count Elian, and the + commanders of the legions who had conducted the gallant defence, were + barbarously crucified. Many other Romans of high rank were subjected to + the indignity of being manacled, and were dragged into Persia as slaves + rather than as prisoners. + </p> + <p> + The campaign of A.D. 359 terminated with this dearly bought victory. The + season was too far advanced for any fresh enterprise of importance; and + Sapor was probably glad to give his army a rest after the toils and perils + of the last three months. Accordingly he retired across the Tigris, + without leaving (so far as appears) any garrisons in Mesopotamia, and + began preparations for the campaign of A.D. 360. Stores of all kinds were + accumulated during the winter; and, when the spring came, the + indefatigable monarch once more invaded the enemy’s country, pouring into + Mesopotamia an army even more numerous and better appointed than that + which he had led against Amida in the preceding year. His first object now + was to capture Singara, a town of some consequence, which was, however, + defended by only two Roman legions and a certain number of native + soldiers. After a vain attempt to persuade the garrison to a surrender, + the attack was made in the usual way, chiefly by scaling parties with + ladders, and by battering parties which shook the walls with the ram. The + defenders kept the sealers at bay by a constant discharge of stones and + darts from their artillery, arrows from their bows, and leaden bullets + from their slings. They met the assaults of the ram by attempts to fire + the wooden covering which protected it and those who worked it. For some + days these efforts sufficed; but after a while the besiegers found a weak + point in the defences of the place—a tower so recently built that + the mortar in which the stones were laid was still moist, and which + consequently crumbled rapidly before the blows of a strong and heavy + battering-ram, and in a short time fell to the ground. The Persians poured + in through the gap, and were at once masters of the entire town, which + ceased to resist after the catastrophe. This easy victory allowed Sapor to + exhibit the better side of his character; he forbade the further shedding + of blood, and ordered that as many as possible of the garrisons and + citizens should be taken alive. Reviving a favorite policy of Oriental + rulers from very remote times, he transported these captives to the + extreme eastern parts of his empire, where they might be of the greatest + service to him in defending his frontier against the Scythians and + Indians. + </p> + <p> + It is not really surprising, though the historian of the war regards it as + needing explanation, that no attempt was made to relieve Singara by the + Romans. The siege was short; the place was considered strong; the nearest + point held by a powerful Roman force was Nisibis, which was at least sixty + miles distant from Singara. The neighborhood of Singara was, moreover, ill + supplied with water; and a relieving army would probably have soon found + itself in difficulties. Singara, on the verge of the desert, was always + perilously situated. Rome valued it as an outpost from which her enemy + might be watched, and which might advertise her of a sudden danger, but + could not venture to undertake its defence in case of an attack in force, + and was prepared to hear of its capture with equanimity. + </p> + <p> + From Singara Sapor directed his march almost due northwards, and, leaving + Nisibis unassailed upon his left, proceeded to attack the strong fort + known indifferently as Phoenica or Bezabde. This was a position on the + east bank of the Tigris, near the point where that river quits the + mountains and debouches upon the plain; though not on the site, it may be + considered the representative of the modern Jezireh, which commands the + passes from the low country into the Kurdish mountains. Bezabde was the + chief city of the province, called after it Zabdicene, one of the five + ceded by Narses and greatly coveted by his grandson. It was much valued by + Rome, was fortified in places with a double wall, and was guarded by three + legions and a large body of Kurdish archers. Sapor, having reconnoitred + the place, and, with his usual hardihood, exposed himself to danger in + doing so, sent a flag of truce to demand a surrender, joining with the + messengers some prisoners of high rank taken at Singara, lest the enemy + should open fire upon his envoys. The device was successful; but the + garrison proved stanch, and determined on resisting to the last. Once more + all the known resources of attack and defence were brought into play; and + after a long siege, of which the most important incident was an attempt + made by the bishop of the place to induce Sapor to withdraw, the wall was + at last breached, the city taken, and its defenders indiscriminately + massacred. Regarding the position as one of first-rate importance, Sapor, + who had destroyed Singara, carefully repaired the defences of Bezabde, + provisioned it abundantly, and garrisoned it with some of his best troops. + He was well aware that the Romans would feel keenly the loss of so + important a post, and expected that it would not be long before they made + an effort to recover possession of it. + </p> + <p> + The winter was now approaching, but the Persian monarch still kept the + field. The capture of Bezabde was followed by that of many other less + important strongholds, which offered little resistance. At last, towards + the close of the year, an attack was made upon a place called Virta, said + to have been a fortress of great strength, and by some moderns identified + with Tekrit, an important city upon the Tigris between Mosul and Bagdad. + Here the career of the conqueror was at last arrested. Persuasion and + force proved alike unavailing to induce or compel a surrender; and, after + wasting the small remainder of the year, and suffering considerable loss, + the Persian monarch reluctantly gave up the siege, and returned to his own + country. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the movements of the Roman emperor had been slow and uncertain. + Distracted between a jealous fear of his cousin Julian’s proceedings in + the West, and a desire of checking the advance of his rival Sapor in the + East, he had left Constantinople in the early spring, but had journeyed + leisurely through Cappadocia and Armenia Minor to Samosata, whence, after + crossing the Euphrates, he had proceeded to Edessa, and there fixed + himself. While in Cappadocia he had summoned to his presence Arsaces, the + tributary king of Armenia, had reminded him of his engagements, and had + endeavored to quicken his gratitude by bestowing on him liberal presents. + At Edessa he employed himself during the whole of the summer in collecting + troops and stores; nor was it till the autumnal equinox was past that he + took the field, and, after weeping over the smoking ruins of Amida, + marched to Bezabde, and, when the defenders rejected his overtures of + peace, formed the siege of the place. Sapor was, we must suppose, now + engaged before Virta, and it is probable that he thought Bezabde strong + enough to defend itself. At any rate, he made no effort to afford it any + relief; and the Roman emperor was allowed to employ all the resources at + his disposal in reiterated assaults upon the walls. The defence, however, + proved stronger than the attack. Time after time the bold sallies of the + besieged destroyed the Roman works. At last the rainy season set in, and + the low ground outside the town became a glutinous and adhesive marsh. It + was no longer possible to continue the siege; and the disappointed emperor + reluctantly drew off his troops, recrossed the Euphrates, and retired into + winter quarters at Antioch. + </p> + <p> + The successes of Sapor in the campaigns of A.D. 359 and 360, his captures + of Amida, Singara, and Bezabde, together with the unfortunate issue of the + expedition made by Constantius against the last-named place, had a + tendency to shake the fidelity of the Roman vassal-kings, Arsaces of + Armenia, and Meribanes of Iberia. Constantius, therefore, during the + winter of A.D. 360-1, which he passed at Antioch, sent emissaries to the + courts of these monarchs, and endeavored to secure their fidelity by + loading them with costly presents. His policy seems to have been so far + successful that no revolt of these kingdoms took place; they did not as + yet desert the Romans or make their submission to Sapor. Their monarchs + seem to have simply watched events, prepared to declare themselves + distinctly on the winning side so soon as fortune should incline + unmistakably to one or the other combatant. Meanwhile they maintained the + fiction of a nominal dependence upon Rome. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that the year A.D. 361 would have been a + turning-point in the war, and that, if Rome did not by a great effort + assert herself and recover her prestige, the advance of Persia would have + been marked and rapid. But the actual course of events was far different. + Hesitation and diffidence characterize the movements of both parties to + the contest, and the year is signalized by no important enterprise on the + part of either monarch. Constantius reoccupied Edessa, and had (we are + told) some thoughts of renewing the siege of Bezabde; actually, however, + he did not advance further, but contented himself with sending a part of + his army to watch Sapor, giving them strict orders not to risk an + engagement. Sapor, on his side, began the year with demonstrations which + were taken to mean that he was about to pass the Euphrates; but in reality + he never even brought his troops across the Tigris, or once set foot in + Mesopotamia. After wasting weeks or months in a futile display of his + armed strength upon the eastern bank of the river, and violently alarming + the officers sent by Constantius to observe his movements, he suddenly, + towards autumn, withdrew his troops, having attempted nothing, and quietly + returned to his capital! It is by no means difficult to understand the + motives which actuated Constantius. He was, month after month, receiving + intelligence from the West of steps taken by Julian which amounted to open + rebellion, and challenged him to engage in civil war. So long as Sapor + threatened invasion he did not like to quit Mesopotamia, lest he might + appear to have sacrificed the interests of his country to his own private + quarrels; but he must have been anxious to return to the seat of empire + from the first moment that intelligence reached him of Julian’s assumption + of the imperial name and dignity; and when Sapor’s retreat was announced + he naturally made all haste to reach his capital. Meanwhile the desire of + keeping his army intact caused him to refrain from any movement which + involved the slightest risk of bringing on a battle, and, in fact, reduced + him to inaction. So much is readily intelligible. But what at this time + withheld Sapor, when he had so grand an opportunity of making an + impression upon Rome—what paralyzed his arm when it might have + struck with such effect it is far from easy to understand, though perhaps + not impossible to conjecture. The historian of the war ascribes his + abstinence to a religious motive, telling us that the auguries were not + favorable for the Persians crossing the Tigris. But there is no other + evidence that the Persians of this period were the slaves of any such + superstition as that noted by Ammianus, nor any probability that a monarch + of Sapor’s force of character would have suffered his military policy to + be affected by omens. We must therefore ascribe the conduct of the Persian + king to some cause not recorded by the historian—same failure of + health, or some peril from internal or external enemies which called him + away from the scene of his recent exploits, just at the time when his + continued presence there was most important. Once before in his lifetime, + an invasion of his eastern provinces had required his immediate presence, + and allowed his adversary to quit Mesopotamia and march against + Magnentius. It is not improbable that a fresh attack of the same or some + other barbarians now again happened opportunely for the Romans, calling + Sapor away, and thus enabling Constantius to turn his hack upon the East, + and set out for Europe in order to meet Julian. + </p> + <p> + The meeting, however, was not destined to take place. On his way from + Antioch to Constantinople the unfortunate Constantius, anxious and perhaps + over-fatigued, fell sick at Mopsucrene, in Cilicia, and died there, after + a short illness, towards the close of A.D. 361. Julian the Apostate + succeeded peacefully to the empire whereto he was about to assert his + right by force of arms; and Sapor found that the war which he had provoked + with Rome, in reliance upon his adversary’s weakness and incapacity, had + to be carried on with a prince of far greater natural powers and of much + superior military training. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Julian becomes Emperor of Rome. His Resolution to invade Persia. His + Views and Motives. His Proceedings. Proposals of Sapor rejected. Other + Embassies. Relations of Julian with Armenia. Strength of his Army. His + invasion of Mesopotamia. His Line of March. Siege of Perisabor; of + Maogamalcha. Battle of the Tigris. Further Progress of Julian checked by + his Inability to invest Ctesiphon. His Retreat. His Death. Retreat + continued by Jovian. Sapor offers Terms of Peace. Peace made by Jovian. + Its Conditions. Reflections on the Peace and on the Termination of the + Second Period of Struggle between Rome and Persia.</i> + </p> + <p> + “Julianus, redacta ad unum se orbis Romani curatione, glorise nimis + cupidus, in Persas proficiscitur.”—Aurel. Viet. Epit. §43. + </p> + <p> + The prince on whom the government of the Roman empire, and consequently + the direction of the Persian war, devolved by the death of Constantius, + was in the flower of his age, proud, self-confident, and full of energy. + He had been engaged for a period of four years in a struggle with the rude + and warlike tribes of Germany, had freed the whole country west of the + Rhine from the presence of those terrible warriors, and had even carried + fire and sword far into the wild and savage districts on the right bank of + the river, and compelled the Alemanni and other powerful German tribes to + make their submission to the majesty of Rome. Personally brave, by + temperament restless, and inspired with an ardent desire to rival or + eclipse the glorious deeds of those heroes of former times who had made + themselves a name in history, he viewed the disturbed condition of the + East at the time of his accession not as a trouble, not as a drawback upon + the delights of empire, but as a happy circumstance, a fortunate + opportunity for distinguishing himself by some great achievement. Of all + the Greeks, Alexander appeared to him the most illustrious; of all his + predecessors on the imperial throne, Trajan and Marcus Aurelius were those + whom he most wished to emulate. But all these princes had either led or + sent expeditions into the far East, and had aimed at uniting in one the + fairest provinces of Europe and Asia. Julian appears, from the first + moment that he found himself peaceably established upon the throne, to + have resolved on undertaking in person a great expedition against Sapor, + with the object of avenging upon Persia the ravages and defeats of the + last sixty years, or at any rate of obtaining such successes as might + justify his assuming the title of “Persicus.” Whether he really + entertained any hope of rivalling Alexander, or supposed it possible that + he should effect “the final conquest of Persia,” may be doubted. + Acquainted, as he must have been, with the entire course of Roman warfare + in these parts from the attack of Crassus to the last defeat of his own + immediate predecessor, he can scarcely have regarded the subjugation of + Persia as an easy matter, or have expected to do much more than strike + terror into the “barbarians” of the East, or perhaps obtain from them the + cession of another province. The sensible officer, who, after accompanying + him in his expedition, wrote the history of the campaign, regarded his + actuating motives as the delight that he took in war, and the desire of a + new title. Confident in his own military talent, in his training, and in + his power to inspire enthusiasm in an army, he no doubt looked to reap + laurels sufficient to justify him in making his attack; but the wild + schemes ascribed to him, the conquest of the Sassanian kingdom, and the + subjugation of Hyrcania and India, are figments (probably) of the + imagination of his historians. + </p> + <p> + Julian entered Constantinople on the 11th of December, A.D. 361; he + quitted it towards the end of May,12 A.D. 362, after residing there less + than six months. During this period, notwithstanding the various important + matters in which he was engaged, the purifying of the court, the + depression of the Christians, the restoration and revivification of + Paganism, he found time to form plans and make preparations for his + intended eastern expedition, in which he was anxious to engage as soon as + possible. Having designated for the war such troops as could be spared + from the West, he committed them and their officers to the charge of two + generals, carefully chosen, Victor, a Roman of distinction, and the + Persian refugee, Prince Hormisdas, who conducted the legions without + difficulty to Antioch. There Julian himself arrived in June or July 14 + after having made a stately progress through Asia Minor; and it would seem + that he would at once have marched against the enemy, had not his + counsellors strongly urged the necessity of a short delay, during which + the European troops might be rested, and adequate preparations made for + the intended invasion. It was especially necessary to provide stores and + ships, since the new emperor had resolved not to content himself with an + ordinary campaign upon the frontier, but rather to imitate the examples of + Trajan and Severus, who had carried the Roman eagles to the extreme south + of Mesopotamia. Ships, accordingly, were collected, and probably built + during the winter of A.D. 362-3; provisions were laid in; warlike stores, + military engines, and the like accumulated; while the impatient monarch, + galled by the wit and raillery of the gay Antiochenes, chafed at his + compelled inaction, and longed to exchange the war of words in which he + was engaged with his subjects for the ruder contests of arms wherewith use + had made him more familiar. + </p> + <p> + It must have been during the emperor’s stay at Antioch that he received an + embassy from the court of Persia, commissioned to sound his inclinations + with regard to the conclusion of a peace. Sapor had seen, with some + disquiet, the sceptre of the Roman world assumed by an enterprising and + courageous youth, inured to warfare and ambitious of military glory. He + was probably very well informed as to the general condition of the Roman + State and the personal character of its administrator; and the tidings + which he received concerning the intentions and preparations, of the new + prince were such as caused him some apprehension, if not actual alarm. + Under these circumstance she sent an embassy with overtures, the exact + nature of which is not known, but which, it is probable, took for their + basis the existing territorial limits of the two countries. At least, we + hear of no offer of surrender or submission on Sapor’s part; and we can + scarcely suppose that, had such offers been made, the Roman writers would + have passed them over in silence. It is not surprising that Julian lent no + favorable ear to the envoys, if these were their instructions; but it + would have been better for his reputation had he replied to them with less + of haughtiness and rudeness. According to one authority, he tore up before + their faces the autograph letter of their master; while, according to + another, he responded, with a contemptuous smile, that “there was no + occasion for an exchange of thought between him and the Persian king by + messengers, since he intended very shortly to treat with him in person.” + Having received this rebuff, the envoys of Sapor took their departure, and + conveyed to their sovereign the intelligence that he must prepare himself + to resist a serious invasion. + </p> + <p> + About the same time various offers of assistance reached the Roman emperor + from the independent or semi-independent princes and chieftains of the + regions adjacent to Mesopotamia. Such overtures were sure to be made by + the heads of the plundering desert tribes to any powerful invader, since + it would be hoped that a share in the booty might be obtained without much + participation in the danger. We are told that Julian promptly rejected + these offers, grandly saying that it was for Rome rather to give aid to + her allies than to receive assistance from them. It appears, however, that + at least two exceptions were made to the general principle thus + magniloquently asserted. Julian had taken into his service, ere he quitted + Europe, a strong body of Gothic auxiliaries; and, while at Antioch, he + sent to the Saracens, reminding them of their promise to lend him troops, + and calling upon them to fulfil it. If the advance on Persia was to be + made by the line of the Euphrates, an alliance with these agile sons of + the desert was of first-rate importance, since the assistance which they + could render as friends was considerable, and the injury which they could + inflict as enemies was almost beyond calculation. It is among the faults + of Julian in this campaign that he did not set more store by the Saracen + alliance, and make greater efforts to maintain it; we shall find that + after a while he allowed the brave nomads to become disaffected, and to + exchange their friendship with him for hostility. Had he taken more care + to attach them cordially to the side of Rome, it is quite possible that + his expedition might have had a prosperous issue. + </p> + <p> + There was another ally, whose services Julian regarded himself as entitled + not to request, but to command. Arsaces, king of Armenia, though placed on + his throne by Sapor, had (as we have seen) transferred his allegiance to + Constantius, and voluntarily taken up the position of a Roman feudatory. + Constantius had of late suspected his fidelity; but Arsaces had not as + yet, by any overt act, justified these suspicions, and Julian seems to + have regarded him as an assured friend and ally. Early in A.D. 363 he + addressed a letter to the Armenian monarch, requiring him to levy a + considerable force, and hold himself in readiness to execute such orders + as he would receive within a short time. The style, address, and purport + of this letter were equally distasteful to Arsaces, whose pride was + outraged, and whose indolence was disturbed, by the call thus suddenly + made upon him. His own desire was probably to remain neutral; he felt no + interest in the standing quarrel between his two powerful neighbors; he + was under obligations to both of them; and it was for his advantage that + they should remain evenly balanced. We cannot ascribe to him any earnest + religious feeling; but, as one who kept up the profession of Christianity, + he could not but regard with aversion the Apostate, who had given no + obscure intimation of his intention to use his power to the utmost in + order to sweep the Christian religion from the face of the earth. The + disinclination of their monarch to observe the designs of Julian was + shared, or rather surpassed, by his people, the more educated portion of + whom were strongly attached to the new faith and worship. If the great + historian of Armenia is right in stating that Julian at this time offered + an open insult to the Armenian religion, we must pronounce him strangely + imprudent. The alliance of Armenia was always of the utmost importance to + Rome in any attack upon the East. Julian seems to have gone out of his way + to create offence in this quarter, where his interests required that he + should exercise all his powers of conciliation. + </p> + <p> + The forces which the emperor regarded as at his disposal, and with which + he expected to take the field, were the following. His own troops amounted + to 83,000 or (according to another account) to 95,000 men. They consisted + chiefly of Roman legionaries, horse and foot, but included a strong body + of Gothic auxiliaries. Armenia was expected to furnish a considerable + force, probably not less than 20,000 men; and the light horse of the + Saracens would, it was thought, be tolerably numerous. Altogether, an army + of above a hundred thousand men was about to be launched on the devoted + Persia, which was believed unlikely to offer any effectual, if even any + serious, resistance. + </p> + <p> + The impatience of Julian scarcely allowed him to await the conclusion of + the winter. With the first breath of spring he put his forces in motion, + and, quitting Antioch, marched with all speed to the Euphrates. Passing + Litarbi, and then Hiapolis, he crossed the river by a bridge of boats in + the vicinity that place, and proceeded by Batnee to the important city of + Carrhae, once the home of Abraham. Here he halted for a few days and + finally fixed his plans. It was by this time well known to the Romans that + there were two, and two only, convenient roads whereby Southern + Mesopotamia was to be reached, one along the line of the Mons Masius to + the Tigris, and then along the banks of that stream, the other down the + valley of the Euphrates to the great alluvial plain on the lower course of + the rivers. Julian had, perhaps, hitherto doubted which line he should + follow in person. The first had been preferred by Alexander and by Trajan, + the second by the younger Cyrus, by Avidius Cassius, and by Severus. Both + lines were fairly practicable; but that of the Tigris was circuitous, and + its free employment was only possible under the condition of Armenia being + certainly friendly. If Julian had cause to suspect, as it is probable that + he had, the fidelity o£ the Armenians, he may have felt that there was one + line only which he could with prudence pursue. He might send a subsidiary + force by the doubtful route which could advance to his aid if matters went + favorably, or remain on the defensive if they assumed a threatening + aspect; but his own grand attack must be by the other. Accordingly he + divided his forces. Committing a body of troops, which is variously + estimated at from 18,000 to 30,000, into the hands of Procopius, a + connection of his own, and Sebastian, Duke of Egypt, with orders that they + should proceed by way of the Mons Masius to Armenia, and, uniting + themselves with the forces of Arsaces, invade Northern Media, ravage it, + and then join him before Ctesiphon by the line of the Tigris, he reserved + for himself and for his main army the shorter and more open route down the + valley of the Euphrates. Leaving Carrhae on the 26th of March, after about + a week’s stay, he marched southward, at the head of 65,000 men, by Davana + and along the course of the Belik, to Callinicus or Nicophorium, near the + junction of the Belik with the Euphrates. Here the Saracen chiefs came and + made their submission, and were graciously received by the emperor, to + whom they presented a crown of gold. At the same time the fleet made its + appearance, numbering at least 1100 vessels, of which fifty were ships of + war, fifty prepared to serve as pontoons, and the remaining thousand, + transports laden with provisions, weapons, and military engines. + </p> + <p> + From Callinicus the emperor marched along the course of the Euphrates to + Circusium, or Circesium, at the junction of the Khabour with the + Euphrates, arriving at this place early in April. Thus far he had been + marching through his own dominions, and had had no hostility to dread. + Being now about to enter the enemy’s country, he made arrangements for the + march which seem to have been extremely judicious. The cavalry was placed + under the command of Arinthseus and Prince Hormisdas, and was stationed at + the extreme left, with orders to advance on a line parallel with the + general course of the river. Some picked legions under the command of + Nevitta formed the right wing, and, resting on the Euphrates, maintained + communication with the fleet. Julian, with the main part of his troops, + occupied the space intermediate between these two extremes, marching in a + loose column which from front to rear covered a distance of above nine + miles. A flying corps of fifteen hundred men acted as an avant-guard under + Count Lucilianus, and explored the country in advance, feeling on all + sides for the enemy. The rear was covered by a detachment under + Secundinus, Duke of Osrhoene, Dagalaiphus, and Victor. + </p> + <p> + Having made his dispositions, and crossed the broad stream of the Khabour, + on the 7th of April, by a bridge of boats, which he immediately broke up, + Julian continued his advance along the course of the Euphrates, supported + by his fleet, which was not allowed either to outstrip or to lag behind + the army. The first halt was at Zaitha, famous as the scene of the murder + of Gordian, whose tomb was in its vicinity. Here Julian encouraged his + soldiers by an eloquent speech, in which he recounted the past successes + of the Roman arms, and promised them an easy victory over their present + adversary. He then, in a two days’ march, reached Dura, a ruined city, + destitute of inhabitants, on the banks of the river; from which a march of + four days more brought him to Anathan, the modern Anah, a strong fortress + on an island in the mid-stream, which was held by a Persian garrison. An + attempt to surprise the place by a night attack having failed, Julian had + recourse to persuasion, and by the representations of Prince Hormisdas + induced its defenders to surrender the fort and place themselves at his + mercy. It was, perhaps, to gall the Antiochenes with an indication of his + victorious progress that he sent his prisoners under escort into Syria, + and settled them in the territory of Chalcis, at no great distance from + the city of his aversion. Unwilling further to weaken his army by + detaching a garrison to hold his conquest, he committed Anathan to the + flames before proceeding further down the river. + </p> + <p> + About eight miles below Anathan, another island and another fortress were + held by the enemy. Thilutha is described as stronger than Anathan, and + indeed as almost impregnable. Julian felt that he could not attack it with + any hope of success, and therefore once more submitted to use persuasion. + But the garrison, feeling themselves secure, rejected his overtures; they + would wait, they said, and see which party was superior in the approaching + conflict, and would then attach themselves to the victors. Meanwhile, if + unmolested by the invader, they would not interfere with his advance, but + would maintain a neutral attitude. Julian had to determine whether he + would act in the spirit of an Alexander, and, rejecting with disdain all + compromise, compel by force of arms an entire submission, or whether he + would take lower ground, accept the offer made to him, and be content to + leave in his rear a certain number of unconquered fortresses. He decided + that prudence required him to take the latter course, and left Thilutha + unassailed. It is not surprising that, having admitted the assumption of a + neutral position by one town, he was forced to extend the permission to + others, and so to allow the Euphrates route to remain, practically, in the + hands of the Persians. + </p> + <p> + A. five days’ march from Thilutha brought the army to a point opposite + Diacira, or Hit, a town of ancient repute, and one which happened to be + well provided with stores and provisions. Though the place lay on the + right bank of the river, it was still exposed to attack, as the fleet + could convey any number of troops from one shore to the other. Being + considered untenable, it was deserted by the male inhabitants, who, + however, left some of their women behind them. We obtain an unpleasant + idea of the state of discipline which the philosophic emperor allowed to + prevail, when we find that his soldiers, “without remorse and without + punishment, massacred these defenceless persons.” The historian of the war + records this act without any appearance of shame, as if it were a usual + occurrence, and no more important than the burning of the plundered city + which followed. + </p> + <p> + From Hit the army pursued its march, through Sitha and Megia, to + Zaragardia or Ozogardana, where the memory of Trajan’s expedition still + lingered, a certain pedestal or pulpit of stone being known to the natives + as “Trajan’s tribunal.” Up to this time nothing had been seen or heard of + any Persian opposing army; one man only on the Roman side, so far as we + hear, had been killed. No systematic method of checking the advance had + been adopted; the corn was everywhere found standing; forage was + plentiful; and there were magazines of grain in the towns. No difficulties + had delayed the invaders but such as Nature had interposed to thwart them, + as when a violent storm on one occasion shattered the tents, and on + another a sudden swell of the Euphrates wrecked some of the corn + transports, and interrupted the right wing’s line of march. But this + pleasant condition of things was not to continue. At Hit the rolling + Assyrian plain had come to an end, and the invading army had entered upon + the low alluvium of Babylonia, a region of great fertility, intersected by + numerous canals, which in some places were carried the entire distance + from the one river to the other. The change in the character of the + country encouraged the Persians to make a change in their tactics. + Hitherto they had been absolutely passive; now at last they showed + themselves, and commenced the active system of perpetual harassing warfare + in which they were adepts. A surena, or general of the first rank, + appeared in the field, at the head of a strong body of Persian horse, and + accompanied by a sheikh of the Saracenic Arabs, known as Malik (or “King”) + Rodoseces. Retreating as Julian advanced, but continually delaying his + progress, hanging on the skirts of his army, cutting off his stragglers, + and threatening every unsupported detachment, this active force changed + all the conditions of the march, rendering it slow and painful, and + sometimes stopping it altogether. We are told that on one occasion Prince + Hormisdas narrowly escaped falling into the surena’s hands. On another, + the Persian force, having allowed the Roman vanguard to proceed + unmolested, suddenly showed itself on the southern bank of one of the + great canals connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris, and forbade the + passage of Julian’s main army. It was only after a day and a night’s delay + that the emperor, by detaching troops under Victor to make a long circuit, + cross the canal far to the east, recall Lucilianus with the vanguard, and + then attack the surena’s troops in the rear, was able to overcome the + resistance in his front, and carry his army across the cutting. + </p> + <p> + Having in this way effected the passage, Julian continued his march along + the Euphrates, and in a short time came to the city of Perisabor (Mruz + Shapur), the most important that he had yet reached, and reckoned not much + inferior to Otesiphon. As the inhabitants steadily refused all + accommodation, and insulted Hormisdas, who was sent to treat with them, by + the reproach that he was a deserter and a traitor, the emperor determined + to form the siege of the place and see if he could not compel it to a + surrender. Situated between the Euphrates and one of the numerous canals + derived from it, and further protected by a trench drawn across from the + canal to the river, Perisabor occupied a sort of island, while at the same + time it was completely surrounded with a double wall. The citadel, which + lay towards the north, and overhung the Euphrates, was especially strong; + and the garrison was brave, numerous, and full of confidence. The walls, + however, composed in part of brick laid in bitumen, were not of much + strength; and the Roman soldiers found little difficulty in shattering + with the ram one of the corner towers, and so making an entrance into the + place. But the real struggle now began. The brave defenders retreated into + the citadel, which was of imposing height, and from this vantage-ground + galled the Romans in the town with an incessant shower of arrows, darts, + and stones. The ordinary catapults and balistae of the Romans were no + match for such a storm descending from such a height; and it was plainly + necessary, if the place was to be taken, to have recourse to some other + device. Julian, therefore, who was never sparing of his own person, took + the resolution, on the second day of the siege, of attempting to burst + open one of the gates. Accompanied by a small band, who formed a roof over + his head with their shields, and by a few sappers with their tools, he + approached the gate-tower, and made his men commence their operations. The + doors, however, were found to be protected with iron, and the fastenings + to be so strong that no immediate impression could be made; while the + alarmed garrison, concentrating its attention on the threatened spot, kept + up a furious discharge of missiles on their daring assailants. Prudence + counselled retreat from the dangerous position which had been taken up; + and the emperor, though he felt acutely the shame of having failed, + retired. But his mind, fertile in resource, soon formed a new plan. He + remembered that Demetrius Poliorcetes had acquired his surname by the + invention and use of the “Helepolis,” a movable tower of vast height, + which placed the assailants on a level with the defenders even of the + loftiest ramparts. He at once ordered the construction of such a machine; + and, the ability of his engineers being equal to the task, it rapidly grew + before his eyes. The garrison saw its growth with feelings very opposite + to those of their assailant; they felt that they could not resist the new + creation, and anticipated its employment by a surrender, Julian agreed to + spare their lives, and allowed them to withdraw and join their countrymen, + each man taking with him a spare garment and a certain sum of money. The + other stores contained within the walls fell to the conquerors, who found + them to comprise a vast quantity of corn, arms, and other valuables. + Julian distributed among his troops whatever was likely to be serviceable; + the remainder, of which he could make no use, was either burned or thrown + into the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + The latitude of Ctesiphon was now nearly reached, but Julian still + continued to descend the Euphrates, while the Persian cavalry made + occasional dashes upon his extended line, and sometimes caused him a + sensible loss. At length he came to the point where the Nahr-Malcha, or + “Royal river,” the chief of the canals connecting the Euphrates with the + Tigris, branched off from the more western stream, and ran nearly due east + to the vicinity of the capital. The canal was navigable by his ships, and + he therefore at this point quitted the Euphrates, and directed his march + eastward along the course of the cutting, following in the footsteps of + Severus, and no doubt expecting, like him, to capture easily the great + metropolitan city. But his advance across the neck of land which here + separates the Tigris from the Euphrates was painful and difficult, since + the enemy laid the country under water, and at every favorable point + disputed his progress. Julian, however, still pressed forward, and + advanced, though slowly. By felling the palms which grew abundantly in + this region, and forming with them rafts supported by inflated skins, he + was able to pass the inundated district, and to approach within about + eleven miles of Ctesiphon. Here his further march was obstructed by a + fortress, built (as it would seem) to defend the capital, and fortified + with especial care. Ammianus calls this place Maoga-malcha, while Zosimus + gives it the name of Besuchis; but both agree that it was a large town, + commanded by a strong citadel, and held by a brave and numerous garrison. + Julian might perhaps have left it unassailed, as he had left already + several towns upon his line of march; but a daring attempt made against + himself by a portion of the garrison caused him to feel his honor + concerned in taking the place; and the result was that he once more + arrested his steps, and, sitting down before the walls, commenced a formal + siege. All the usual arts of attack and defence were employed on either + side for several days, the chief novel feature in the warfare being the + use by the besieged of blazing balls of bitumen, which they shot from + their lofty towers against the besiegers’ works and persons. Julian, + however, met this novelty by a device on his side which was uncommon; he + continued openly to assault the walls and gates with his battering rams, + but he secretly gave orders that the chief efforts of his men should be + directed to the formation of a mine, which should be carried under both + the walls that defended the place, and enable him to introduce suddenly a + body of troops into the very heart of the city. His orders were + successfully executed; and while a general attack upon the defences + occupied the attention of the besieged, three corps introduced through the + mine suddenly showed themselves in the town itself, and rendered further + resistance hopeless. Maogamalcha, which a little before had boasted of + being impregnable, and had laughed to scorn the vain efforts of the + emperor, suddenly found itself taken by assault and undergoing the + extremities of sack and pillage. Julian made no efforts to prevent a + general massacre, and the entire population, without distinction of age or + sex, seems to have been put to the sword. The commandant of the fortress, + though he was at first spared, suffered death shortly after on a frivolous + charge. Even a miserable remnant, which had concealed itself in caves and + cellars, was hunted out, smoke and fire being used to force the fugitives + from their hiding-places, or else cause them to perish in the darksome + dens by suffocation. Thus there was no extremity of savage warfare which + was not used, the fourth century anticipating some of the horrors which + have most disgraced the nineteenth. + </p> + <p> + Nothing now but the river Tigris intervened between Julian and the great + city of Ctesiphon, which was plainly the special object of the expedition. + Ctesiphon, indeed, was not to Persia what it had been to Parthia; but + still it might fairly be looked upon as a prize of considerable + importance. Of Parthia it had been the main, in later times perhaps the + sole, capital; to Persia it was a secondary rather than a primary city, + the ordinary residence of the court being Istakr, or Persepolis. Still the + Persian kings seem occasionally to have resided at Ctesiphon; and among + the secondary cities of the empire it undoubtedly held a high rank. In the + neighborhood were various royal hunting-seats, surrounded by shady + gardens, and adorned with paintings or bas-reliefs; while near them were + parks or “paradises,” containing the game kept for the prince’s sport, + which included lions, wild boars, and bears of remarkable fierceness. As + Julian advanced, these pleasaunces fell, one after another, into his + hands, and were delivered over to the rude soldiery, who trampled the + flowers and shrubs under foot, destroyed the wild beasts, and burned the + residences. No serious resistance was as yet made by any Persian force to + the progress of the Romans, who pressed steadily forward, occasionally + losing a few men or a few baggage animals, but drawing daily nearer to the + great city, and on their way spreading ruin and desolation over a most + fertile district, from which they drew abundant supplies as they passed + through it, while they left it behind them blackened, wasted, and almost + without inhabitant. The Persians seem to have had orders not to make, as + yet, any firm stand. One of the sons of Sapor was now at their head, but + no change of tactics occurred. As Julian drew near, this prince indeed + quitted the shelter of Ctesiphon, and made a reconnaissance in force; but + when he fell in with the Roman advanced guard under Victor, and saw its + strength, he declined an engagement, and retired without coming to blows. + </p> + <p> + Julian had now reached the western suburb of Ctesiphon, which had lost its + old name of Seleucia and was known as Coche. The capture of this place + would, perhaps, not have been difficult; but, as the broad and deep stream + of the Tigris flowed between it and the main town, little would have been + gained by the occupation. Julian felt that, to attack Ctesiphon with + success, he must, like Trajan and Severus, transport his army to the left + bank of the Tigris, and deliver his assault upon the defences that lay + beyond that river. For the safe transport of his army he trusted to his + fleet, which he had therefore caused to enter the Nahr-Malcha, and to + accompany his troops thus far. But at Coche he found that the Nahr-Malcha, + instead of joining the Tigris, as he had expected, above Ctesiphon, ran + into it at some distance below. To have pursued this line with both fleet + and army would have carried him too far into the enemy’s country, have + endangered his communications, and especially have cut him off from the + Armenian army under Procopius and Sebastian, with which he was at this + time looking to effect a junction. To have sent the fleet into the Tigris + below Coche, while the army occupied the right bank of the river above it, + would, in the first place, have separated the two, and would further have + been useless, unless the fleet could force its way against the strong + current through the whole length of the hostile city. In this difficulty + Julian’s book-knowledge was found of service. He had studied with care the + campaigns of his predecessors in these regions, and recollected that one + of them at any rate had made a cutting from the Nahr-Malcha, by which he + had brought his fleet into the Tigris above Ctesiphon. If this work could + be discovered, it might, he thought, in all probability be restored. Some + of the country people were therefore seized, and, inquiry being made of + them, the line of the canal was pointed out, and the place shown at which + it had been derived from the Nahr-Malcha. Here the Persians had erected a + strong dam, with sluices, by means of which a portion of the water could + occasionally be turned into the Roman cutting. Julian had the cutting + cleared out, and the dam torn down; whereupon the main portion of the + stream rushed at once into the old channel, which rapidly filled, and was + found to be navigable by the Roman vessels. The fleet was thus brought + into the Tigris above Coche; and the army advancing with it encamped upon + the right bank of the river. + </p> + <p> + The Persians now for the first time appeared in force. As Julian drew near + the great stream, he perceived that his passage of it would not be + unopposed. Along the left bank, which was at this point naturally higher + than the right, and which was further crowned by a wall built originally + to fence in one of the royal parks, could be seen the dense masses of the + enemy’s-horse and foot, stretching away to right and left, the former + encased in glittering armor, the latter protected by huge wattled shields. + Behind these troops were discernible the vast forms of elephants, looking + (says the historian) like moving mountains, and regarded by the + legionaries with extreme dread. Julian felt that he could not ask his army + to cross the stream openly in the face of a foe thus advantageously + posted. He therefore waited the approach of night. When darkness had + closed in, he made his dispositions; divided his fleet into portions; + embarked a number of his troops; and, despite the dissuasions of his + officers, gave the signal for the passage to commence. Five ships, each of + them conveying eighty soldiers, led the way, and reached the opposite + shore without accident. Here, however, the enemy received them with a + sharp fire of burning darts, and the two foremost were soon in flames. At + the ominous sight the rest of the fleet wavered, and might have refused to + proceed further, had not Julian, with admirable presence of mind, + exclaimed aloud—“Our men have crossed and are masters of the bank—that + fire is the signal which I bade them make if they were victorious.” Thus + encouraged, the crews plied their oars with vigor, and impelled the + remaining vessels rapidly across the stream. At the same time, some of the + soldiers who had not been put on board, impatient to assist their + comrades, plunged into the stream, and swam across supported by their + shields. Though a stout resistance was offered by the Persians, it was + found impossible to withstand the impetuosity of the Roman attack. Not + only were the half-burned vessels saved, the flames extinguished, and the + men on board rescued from their perilous position, but everywhere the + Roman troops made good their landing, fought their way up the bank against + a storm of missile weapons, and drew up in good order upon its summit. A + pause probably now occurred, as the armies could not see each other in the + darkness; but, at dawn of day, Julian, having made a fresh arrangement of + his troops, led them against the dense array of the enemy, and engaged in + a hand-to-hand combat, which lasted from morning to midday, when it was + terminated by the flight of the Persians. Their leaders, Tigranes, + Narseus, and the Surena, are said to have been the first to quit the field + and take refuge within the defences of Ctesiphon. The example thus set was + universally followed; and the entire Persian army, abandoning its camp and + baggage, rushed in the wildest confusion across the plain to the nearest + of the city gates, closely pursued by its active foe up to the very foot + of the walls. The Roman writers assert that Ctesiphon might have been + entered and taken, had not the general, Victor, who was wounded by a dart + from a catapult, recalled his men as they were about to rush in through + the open gateway. It is perhaps doubtful whether success would really have + crowned such audacity. At any rate the opportunity passed—the + runaways entered the town—the gate closed upon them; and Ctesiphon + was safe unless it were reduced by the operations of a regular siege. + </p> + <p> + But the fruits of the victory were still considerable. The entire Persian + army collected hitherto for the defence of Ctesiphon had been defeated by + one-third of the Roman force under Julian. The vanquished had left 2,500 + men dead upon the field, while the victors had lost no more than + seventy-five. A rich spoil had fallen into the hands of the Romans, who + found in the abandoned camp couches and tables of massive silver, and on + the bodies of the slain, both men and horses, a profusion of gold and + silver ornaments, besides trappings and apparel of great magnificence. A + welcome supply of provisions was also furnished by the lands and houses in + the neighborhood of Ctesiphon; and the troops passed from a state of + privation to one of extreme abundance, so that it was feared lest they + might suffer from excess. + </p> + <p> + Affairs had now reached a point when it was necessary to form a definite + resolution as to what should be the further aim and course of the + expedition. Hitherto all had indicated an intention on the part of Julian + to occupy Ctesiphon, and thence dictate a peace. His long march, his + toilsome canal-cutting, his orders to his second army, his crossing of the + Tigris, his engagement with the Persians in the plain before Ctesiphon, + were the natural steps conducting to such a result, and are explicable on + one hypothesis and one hypothesis only. He must up to this time have + designed to make himself master of the great city, which had been the goal + of so many previous invasions, and had always fallen whenever Rome + attacked it. But, having overcome all the obstacles in his path, and + having it in his power at once to commence the siege, a sudden doubt + appears to have assailed him as to the practicability of the undertaking. + It can scarcely be supposed that the city was really stronger now than it + had been under the Parthians; much less can it be argued that Julian’s + army was insufficient for the investment of such a place. It was probably + the most powerful army with which the Romans had as yet invaded Southern + Mesopotamia; and it was amply provided with all the appurtenances of war. + If Julian did not venture to attempt what Trajan and Avidius Cassius and + Septimius Severus had achieved without difficulty, it must have been + because the circumstances under which he would have had to make the attack + were different from those under which they had ventured and succeeded. And + the difference—a most momentous one—was this. They besieged + and captured the place after defeating the greatest force that Parthia + could bring into the field against them. Julian found himself in front of + Ctesiphon before he had crossed swords with the Persian king, or so much + as set eyes on the grand army which Sapor was known to have collected. To + have sat down before Ctesiphon under such circumstances would have been to + expose himself to great peril; while he was intent upon the siege, he + might at any time have been attacked by a relieving army under the Great + King, have been placed between two fires, and compelled to engage at + extreme disadvantage. It was a consideration of this danger that impelled + the council of war, whereto he submitted the question, to pronounce the + siege of Ctesiphon too hazardous an operation, and to dissuade the emperor + from attempting it. + </p> + <p> + But, if the city were not to be besieged, what course could with any + prudence be adopted? It would have been madness to leave Ctesiphon + unassailed, and to press forward against Susa and Persepolis. It would + have been futile to remain encamped before the walls without commencing a + siege. The heats of summer had arrived, and the malaria of autumn was not + far off. The stores brought by the fleet were exhausted; and there was a + great risk in the army’s depending wholly for its subsistence on the + supplies that it might be able to obtain from the enemy’s country. Julian + and his advisers must have seen at a glance that if the Romans were not to + attack Ctesiphon, they must retreat. And accordingly retreat seems to have + been at once determined on. As a first step, the whole fleet, except some + dozen vessels, was burned, since twelve was a sufficient number to serve + as pontoons, and it was not worth the army’s while to encumber itself with + the remainder. They could only have been tracked up the strong stream of + the Tigris by devoting to the work some 20,000 men; thus greatly weakening + the strength of the armed force, and at the same time hampering its + movements. Julian, in sacrificing his ships, suffered simply a pecuniary + loss—they could not possibly have been of any further service to him + in the campaign. + </p> + <p> + Retreat being resolved upon, it only remained to determine what route + should be followed, and on what portion of the Roman territory the march + should be directed. The soldiers clamored for a return by the way whereby + they had come; but many valid objections to this course presented + themselves to their commanders. The country along the line of the + Euphrates had been exhausted of its stores by the troops in their advance; + the forage had been consumed, the towns and villages desolated. There + would be neither food nor shelter for the men along this route; the season + was also unsuitable for it, since the Euphrates was in full flood, and the + moist atmosphere would be sure to breed swarms of flies and mosquitoes. + Julian saw that by far the best line of retreat was along the Tigris, + which had higher banks than the Euphrates, which was no longer in flood, + and which ran through a tract that was highly productive and that had for + many years not been visited by an enemy. The army, therefore, was ordered + to commence its retreat through the country lying on the left bank of the + Tigris, and to spread itself over the fertile region, in the hope of + obtaining ample supplies. The march was understood to be directed on + Cordyene (Kurdistan), a province now in the possession of Rome, a rich + tract, and not more than about 250 miles distant from Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + Before, however, the retreat commenced, while Julian and his victorious + army were still encamped in sight of Ctesiphon, the Persian king, + according to some writers, sent an embassy proposing terms of peace. + Julian’s successes are represented as having driven Sapor to despair—“the + pride of his royalty was humbled in the dust; he took his repasts on the + ground; and the grief and anxiety of his mind were expressed by the + disorder of his hair.” He would, it is suggested, have been willing “to + purchase, with one half of his kingdom, the safety of the remainder, and + would have gladly subscribed himself, in a treaty of peace, the faithful + and dependent ally of the Roman conqueror.” Such are the pleasing fictions + wherewith the rhetorician of Antioch, faithful to the memory of his friend + and master, consoled himself and his readers after Julian’s death. It is + difficult to decide whether there underlies them any substratum of truth. + Neither Ammianus nor Zosimus makes the slightest allusion to any + negotiations at all at this period; and it is thus open to doubt whether + the entire story told by Libanius is not the product of his imagination. + But at any rate it is quite impossible that the Persian king can have made + any abject offers of submission, or have been in a state of mind at all + akin to despair. His great army, collected from all quarters, was intact; + he had not yet condescended to take the field in person; he had lost no + important town, and his adversary had tacitly confessed his inability to + form the siege of a city which was far from being the greatest in the + empire. If Sapor, therefore, really made at this time overtures of peace, + it must have been either with the intention of amusing Julian, and + increasing his difficulties by delaying his retreat, or because he thought + that Julian’s consciousness of his difficulties would induce him to offer + terms which he might accept. + </p> + <p> + The retreat commenced on June 16. Scarcely were the troops set in motion, + when an ominous cloud of dust appeared on the southern horizon, which grew + larger as the day advanced; and, though some suggested that the appearance + was produced by a herd of wild asses, and others ventured the conjecture + that it was caused by the approach of a body of Julian’s Saracenic allies, + the emperor himself was not deceived, but, understanding that the Persians + had set out in pursuit, he called in his stragglers, massed his troops, + and pitched his camp in a strong position. Day-dawn showed that he had + judged aright, for the earliest rays of the sun were reflected from the + polished breastplates and cuirasses of the Persians, who had drawn up at + no great distance during the night. A combat followed in which the Persian + and Saracenic horse attacked the Romans vigorously, and especially + threatened the baggage, but were repulsed by the firmness and valor of the + Roman foot. Julian was able to continue his retreat after a while, but + found himself surrounded by enemies, some of whom, keeping in advance of + his troops, or hanging upon his flanks, destroyed the corn and forage that + his men so much needed; while others, pressing upon his rear, retarded his + march, and caused him from time to time no inconsiderable losses. The + retreat under these circumstances was slow; the army had to be rested and + recruited when it fell in with any accumulation of provisions; and the + average progress made seems to have been not much more than ten miles a + day. This tardy advance allowed the more slow-moving portion of the + Persian army to close in upon the retiring Romans; and Julian soon found + himself closely followed by dense masses of the enemy’s troops, by the + heavy cavalry clad in steel panoplies, and armed with long spears, by + large bodies of archers, and even by a powerful corps of elephants. This + grand army was under the command of a general whom the Roman writers call + Meranes, and of two sons of Sapor. It pressed heavily upon the Roman + rearguard; and Julian, after a little while, found it necessary to stop + his march, confront his pursuers, and offer them battle. The offer was + accepted, and an engagement took place in a tract called Maranga. The + enemy advanced in two lines—the first composed of the mailed + horsemen and the archers intermixed, the second of the elephants. Julian + prepared his army to receive the attack by disposing it in the form of a + crescent, with the centre drawn back considerably; but as the Persians + advanced into the hollow space, he suddenly led his troops forward at + speed, allowing the archers scarcely time to discharge their arrows before + he engaged them and the horse in close combat. A long and bloody struggle + followed; but the Persians were unaccustomed to hand-to-hand fighting and + disliked it; they gradually gave ground, and at last broke up and fled, + covering their retreat, however, with the clouds of arrows which they knew + well how to discharge as they retired. The weight of their arms, and the + fiery heat of the summer sun, prevented the Romans from carrying the + pursuit very far. Julian recalled them quickly to the protection of the + camp, and suspended his march for some days while the wounded had their + hurts attended to. + </p> + <p> + The Persian troops, having suffered heavily in the battle, made no attempt + to storm the Roman camp. They were content to spread themselves on all + sides, to destroy or carry off all the forage and provisions, and to make + the country, through which the Roman army must retire, a desert. Julian’s + forces were already suffering severely from scarcity of food, and the + general want was but very slightly relieved by a distribution of the + stores set apart for the officers and for the members of the imperial + household. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that Julian’s + firmness deserted him, and that he began to give way to melancholy + forebodings, and to see visions and omens which portended disaster and + death. In the silence of his tent, as he studied a favorite philosopher + during the dead of night, he thought he saw the Genius of the State, with + veiled head and cornucopia, stealing away through the hangings slowly and + sadly. Soon afterwards, when he had just gone forth into the open air to + perform averting sacrifices, the fall of a shooting star seemed to him a + direct threat from Mars, with whom he had recently quarrelled. The + soothsayers were consulted, and counselled abstinence from all military + movement; but the exigencies of the situation caused their advice to be + for once contemned. It was only by change of place that there was any + chance of obtaining supplies of food; and ultimate extrication from the + perils that surrounded the army depended on a steady persistence in + retreat. + </p> + <p> + At dawn of day, therefore, on the memorable 26th of June, A.D. 363, the + tents were struck, and the Roman army continued its march across the + wasted plain, having the Tigris at some little distance on its left, and + some low hills upon its right. The enemy did not anywhere appear; and the + troops advanced for a time without encountering opposition. But, as they + drew near the skirts of the hills, not far from Samarah, suddenly an + attack was made upon them. The rearguard found itself violently assailed; + and when Julian hastened to its relief, news came that the van was also + engaged with the enemy, and was already in difficulties. The active + commander now hurried towards the front, and had accomplished half the + distance, when the main Persian attack was delivered upon his right + centre, and to his dismay he found himself entangled amid the masses of + heavy horse and elephants, which had thrown his columns into confusion. + The suddenness of the enemy’s appearance had prevented him from donning + his complete armor; and as he fought without a breastplate, and with the + aid of his light-armed troops restored the day, falling on the foe from + behind and striking the backs and houghs of the horses and elephants, the + javelin of a horseman, after grazing the flesh of his arm, fixed itself in + his right side, penetrating-through the ribs to the liver. Julian, + grasping the head of the weapon, attempted to draw it forth, but in vain—the + sharp steel cut his fingers, and the pain and loss of blood caused him to + fall fainting from his steed. His guards, who had closed around him, + carefully raised him up, and conveyed him to the camp, where the surgeons + at once declared the wound mortal. The sad news spread rapidly among the + soldiery, and nerved them to desperate efforts—if they must lose + their general, he should, they determined, be avenged. Striking their + shields with their spears, they everywhere rushed upon the enemy with + incredible ardor, careless whether they lived or died, and only seeking to + inflict the greatest possible loss on those opposed to them. But the + Persians, who had regarded the day as theirs, resisted strenuously, and + maintained the fight with obstinacy till evening closed in and darkness + put a stop to the engagement. The losses were large on both sides; the + Roman right wing had suffered greatly; its commander, Anatolius, master of + the offices, was among the slain, and the prefect Sallust was with + difficulty saved by an attendant. The Persians, too, lost their generals + Meranes and Nohodares; and with them no fewer than fifty satraps and great + nobles are said to have perished. The rank and file no doubt suffered in + proportion; and the Romans were perhaps justified in claiming that the + balance of advantage upon the day rested with them. But such advantage as + they could reasonably assert was far more than counterbalanced by the loss + of their commander, who died in his tent towards midnight on the day of + the battle. Whatever we may think of the general character of Julian, or + of the degree of his intellectual capacity, there can be no question as to + his excellence as a soldier, or his ability as a commander in the field. + If the expedition which he had led into Persia was to some extent rash—if + his preparations for it had been insufficient, and his conduct of it not + wholly faultless; if consequently he had brought the army of the East into + a situation of great peril and difficulty—yet candor requires us to + acknowledge that of all the men collected in the Roman camp he was the + fittest to have extricated the army from its embarrassments, and have + conducted it, without serious disaster or loss of honor, into a position + of safety. No one, like Julian, possessed the confidence of the troops; no + one so combined experience in command with the personal activity and vigor + that was needed under the circumstances. When the leaders met to consult + about the appointment of a successor to the dead prince, it was at once + apparent how irreparable was their loss. The prefect Sallust, whose + superior rank and length of service pointed him out for promotion to the + vacant post, excused himself on account of his age and infirmities. The + generals of the second grade—Arinthseus, Victor, Nevitta, + Dagalaiphus—had each their party among the soldiers, but were + unacceptable to the army generally. None could claim any superior merit + which might clearly place him above the rest; and a discord that might + have led to open strife seemed impending, when a casual voice pronounced + the name of Jovian, and, some applause following the suggestion, the rival + generals acquiesced in the choice; and this hitherto insignificant officer + was suddenly invested with the purple and saluted as “Augustus” and + “Emperor.” Had there been any one really fit to take the command, such an + appointment could not have been made; but, in the evident dearth of + warlike genius, it was thought best that one whose rank was civil rather + than military should be preferred, for the avoidance of jealousies and + contentions. A deserter carried the news to Sapor, who was not now very + far distant, and described the new emperor to him as effeminate and + slothful. A fresh impulse was given to the pursuit by the intelligence + thus conveyed; the army engaged in disputing the Roman retreat was + reinforced by a strong body of cavalry; and Sapor himself pressed forward + with all haste, resolved to hurl his main force on the rear of the + retreating columns. + </p> + <p> + It was with reluctance that Jovian, on the day of his elevation to the + supreme power (June 27, A.D. 363), quitted the protection of the camp, and + proceeded to conduct his army over the open plain, where the Persians were + now collected in great force, prepared to dispute the ground with him inch + by inch. Their horse and elephants again fell upon the right wing of the + Romans, where the Jovians and Herculians were now posted, and, throwing + those renowned corps into disorder, pressed on, driving them across the + plain in headlong flight and slaying vast numbers of them. The corps would + probably have been annihilated, had they not in their flight reached a + hill occupied by the baggage train, which gallantly came to their aid, + and, attacking the horse and elephants from higher ground, gained a signal + success. The elephants, wounded by the javelins hurled down upon them from + above, and maddened with the pain, turned upon their own side, and, + roaring frightfully, carried confusion among the ranks of the horse, which + broke up and fled. Many of the frantic animals were killed by their own + riders or by the Persians on whom they were trampling, while others + succumbed to the blows dealt them by the enemy. There was a frightful + carnage, ending in the repulse of the Persians and the resumption of the + Roman march. Shortly before night fell, Jovian and his army reached + Samarah, then a fort of no great size upon the Tigris, and, encamping in + its vicinity, passed the hours of rest unmolested. The retreat now + continued for four days along the left bank of the Tigris, the progress + made each day being small, since the enemy incessantly obstructed the + march, pressing on the columns as they retired, but when they stopped + drawing off, and declining an engagement at close quarters. On one + occasion they even attacked the Roman camp, and, after insulting the + legions with their cries, forced their way through the preatorian gate, + and had nearly penetrated to the royal tent, when they were met and + defeated by the legionaries. The Saracenic Arabs were especially + troublesome. Offended by the refusal of Julian to continue their + subsidies, they had transferred their services wholly to the other side, + and pursued the Romans with a hostility that was sharpened by indignation + and resentment. It was with difficulty that the Roman army, at the close + of the fourth day, reached Dura, a small place upon the Tigris, about + eighteen miles north of Samarah. Here a new idea seized the soldiers. As + the Persian forces were massed chiefly on the left bank of the Tigris, and + might find it difficult to transfer themselves to the other side, it + seemed to the legionaries that they would escape half their difficulties + if they could themselves cross the river, and place it between them and + their foes. They had also a notion that on the west side of the stream the + Roman frontier was not far distent, but might be reached by forced marches + in a few days. They therefore begged Jovian to allow them to swim the + stream. It was in vain that he and his officers opposed the project; + mutinous cries arose; and, to avoid worse evils, he was compelled to + consent that five hundred Gauls and Sarmatians, known to be expert + swimmers, should make the attempt. It succeeded beyond his hopes. The + corps crossed at night, surprised the Persians who held the opposite bank, + and established themselves in a safe position before the dawn of day. By + this bold exploit the passage of the other troops, many of whom could not + swim, was rendered feasible, and Jovian proceeded to collect timber, + brushwood, and skins for the formation of large rafts on which he might + transport the rest of his army. + </p> + <p> + These movements were seen with no small disquietude by the Persian king. + The army which he had regarded as almost a certain prey seemed about to + escape him. He knew that his troops could not pass the Tigris by swimming; + he had, it is probable, brought with him no boats, and the country about + Dura could not supply many; to follow the Romans, if they crossed the + stream, he must construct a bridge, and the construction of a bridge was, + to such unskilful engineers as the Persians, a work of time. Before it was + finished the legions might be beyond his reach, and so the campaign would + end, and he would have gained no advantage from it. Under these + circumstances he determined to open negotiations with the Romans, and to + see if he could not extract from their fears some important concessions. + They were still in a position of great peril, since they could not expect + to embark and cross the stream without suffering tremendous loss from the + enemy before whom they would be flying. And it was uncertain what perils + they might not encounter beyond the river in traversing the two hundred + miles that still separated them from Roman territory. The Saracenic allies + of Persia were in force on the further side of the stream; and a portion + of Sapor’s army might be conveyed across in time to hang on the rear of + the legions and add largely to their difficulties. At any rate, it was + worth while to make overtures and see what answer would be returned. If + the idea of negotiating were entertained at all, something would be + gained; for each additional day of suffering and privation diminished the + Roman strength, and brought nearer the moment of absolute and complete + exhaustion. Moreover, a bridge might be at once commenced at some little + distance, and might be pushed forward, so that, if the negotiations + failed, there should be no great delay in following the Romans across the + river. + </p> + <p> + Such were probably the considerations which led Sapor to send as envoys to + the Roman camp at Dura the Surena and another great noble, who announced + that they came to offer terms of peace. The great king, they said, having + respect to the mutability of human affairs, was desirous of dealing + mercifully with the Romans, and would allow the escape of the remnant + which was left of their army, if the Caesar and his advisers accepted the + conditions that he required. These conditions would be explained to any + envoys whom Jovian might empower to discuss them with the Persian + plenipotentiaries. The Roman emperor and his council gladly caught at the + offer; and two officers of high rank, the general Arinthseus and the + prefect Sallust, were at once appointed to confer with Sapor’s envoys, and + ascertain the terms on which peace would be granted. They proved to be + such as Roman pride felt to be almost intolerable; and great efforts were + made to induce Sapor to be content with less. The negotiations lasted for + four days; but the Persian monarch was inexorable; each day diminished his + adversary’s strength and bettered his own position; there was no reason + why he should make any concession at all; and he seems, in fact, to have + yielded nothing of his original demands, except points of such exceedingly + slight moment that to insist on them would have been folly. + </p> + <p> + The following were the terms of peace to which Jovian consented. First, + the five provinces east of the Tigris, which had been ceded to Rome by + Narses, the grandfather of Sapor, after his defeat by Galerius, were to be + given back to Persia, with their fortifications, their inhabitants, and + all that they contained of value. The Romans in the territory were, + however, to be allowed to withdraw and join their countrymen. Secondly, + three places in Eastern Mesopotamia, Nisibis, Singara, and a fort called + “the Camp of the Moors,” were to be surrendered, but with the condition + that not only the Romans, but the inhabitants generally, might retire ere + the Persians took possession, and carry with them such of their effects as + were movable. The surrender of these places necessarily involved that of + the country which they commanded, and can scarcely imply less than the + withdrawal of Rome from any claim to dominion over the region between the + Tigris and the Khabour. Thirdly, all connection between Armenia and Rome + was to be broken off; Arsaces was to be left to his own resources; and in + any quarrel between him and Persia Rome was precluded from lending him + aid. On these conditions a peace was concluded for thirty years; oaths to + observe it faithfully were interchanged; and hostages were given and + received on either side, to be retained until the stipulations of the + treaty were executed. + </p> + <p> + The Roman historian who exclaims that it would have been better to have + fought ten battles than to have conceded a single one of these shameful + terms, commands the sympathy of every reader, who cannot fail to recognize + in his utterance the natural feeling of a patriot. And it is possible that + Julian, had he lived, would have rejected so inglorious a peace, and have + preferred to run all risks rather than sign it. But in that case there is + every reason to believe that the army would have been absolutely + destroyed, and a few stragglers only have returned to tell the tale of + disaster. The alternative which Ammianus suggests—that Jovian, + instead of negotiating, should have pushed on to Cordyene, which he might + have reached in four days—is absurd; for Cordyeno was at least a + hundred and fifty miles distant from Dura, and, at the rate of retreat + which Jovian had found possible (four and a half miles a day), would have + been reached in three days over a month! The judgment of Eutropius, who, + like Ammianus, shared in the expedition, is probably correct—that + the peace, though disgraceful, was necessary. Unless Jovian was prepared + to risk not only his own life, but the lives of all his soldiers, it was + essential that he should come to terms; and the best terms that he could + obtain were those which he has been blamed for accepting. + </p> + <p> + It is creditable to both parties that the peace, once made, was faithfully + observed, all its stipulations being honestly and speedily executed. The + Romans were allowed to pass the river without molestation from Sapor’s + army, and, though they suffered somewhat from the Saracens when landing on + the other side, were unpursued in their retreat, and were perhaps even, at + first, supplied to some extent with provisions. Afterwards, no doubt, they + endured for some days great privations; but a convoy with stores was + allowed to advance from Roman Mesopotamia into Persian territory, which + met the famished soldiers at a Persian military post, called Ur or Adur, + and relieved their most pressing necessities. On the Roman side, the ceded + provinces and towns were quietly surrendered; offers on the part of the + inhabitants to hold their own against the Persians without Roman aid were + refused; the Roman troops were withdrawn from the fortresses; and the + Armenians were told that they must henceforth rely upon themselves, and + not look to Rome for help or protection. Thus Jovian, though strongly + urged to follow ancient precedent, and refuse to fulfil the engagements + contracted under the pressure of imminent peril, stood firm, and honorably + performed all the conditions of the treaty. The second period of struggle + between Rome and Persia had thus a termination exactly the reverse of the + first. Rome ended the first period by a great victory and a great + diplomatic success. At the close of the second she had to relinquish all + her gains, and to draw back even behind the line which she occupied when + hostilities first broke out. Nisibis, the great stronghold of Eastern + Mesopotamia, had been in her possession ever since the time of Verus. + Repeatedly attacked by Parthia and Persia, it had never fallen; but once, + after which it had been soon recovered; and now for many years it had come + to be regarded as the bulwark of the Roman power in the East, and as + carrying with it the dominion of Western Asia.102 A fatal blow was dealt + to Roman prestige when a city held for near two hundred years, and one + honored with the name of “colony,” was wrested from the empire and + occupied by the most powerful of its adversaries. Not only Amida and + Carrhae, but Antioch itself, trembled at a loss which was felt to lay open + the whole eastern frontier to attack, and which seemed ominous of further + retrogression. Although the fear generally felt proved to be groundless, + and the Roman possessions in the East were not, for 200 years, further + curtailed by the Persians, yet Roman influence in Western Asia from this + time steadily declined, and Persia came to be regarded as the first power + in these regions. Much credit is due to Sapor II. for his entire conduct + of the war with Constantius, Julian, and Jovian. He knew when to attack + and when to remain upon the defensive, when to press on the enemy and when + to hold himself in reserve and let the enemy follow his own devices. He + rightly conceived from the first the importance of Nisibis, and resolutely + persisted in his determination to acquire possession of it, until at last + he succeeded. When, in A.D. 337, he challenged Rome to a trial of + strength, he might have seemed rash and presumptuous. But the event + justified him. In a war which lasted twenty-seven years, he fought + numerous pitched battles with the Romans, and was never once defeated. He + proved himself greatly superior as a general to Constantius and Jovian, + and not unequal to Julian. By a combination of courage, perseverance, and + promptness, he brought the entire contest to a favorable issue, and + restored Persia, in A.D. 363, to a higher position than that from which + she had descended two generations earlier. If he had done nothing more + than has already come under our notice, he would still have amply deserved + that epithet of “Great” which, by the general consent of historians, has + been assigned to him. He was undoubtedly among the greatest of the + Sassanian monarchs, and may properly be placed above all his predecessors, + and above all but one of those who succeeded him. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Attitude of Armenia during the War between Sapor and Julian. Sapor’s + Treachery towards Arsaces. Sapor conquers Armenia. He attacks Iberia, + deposes Sauromaces, and sets up a new King. Resistance and Capture of + Artogerassa. Difficulties of Sapor. Division of Iberia between the Roman + and Persian Pretenders. Renewal of Hostilities between Rome and Persia. + Peace made with Valens. Death of Sapor. His Coins.</i> + </p> + <p> + “Rex Persidis, longaevus ille Sapor, post imperatoris Juliani excessum et + pudendse pacis icta foedera . . . irqectabat Armeniae manum.”—Amm. + Marc, xxvii. 18. + </p> + <p> + The successful issue of Sapor’s war with Julian and Jovian resulted in no + small degree from the attitude which was assumed by Armenia soon after + Julian commenced his invasion. We have seen that the emperor, when he set + out upon his expedition, regarded Armenia as an ally, and in forming his + plans placed considerable dependence on the contingent which he expected + from Arsaces, the Armenian monarch. It was his intention to attack + Ctesiphon with two separate armies, acting upon two converging lines. + While he himself advanced with his main force by way of the Euphrates + valley and the Nahr-Malcha, he had arranged that his two generals, + Procopius and Sebastian, should unite their troops with those of the + Armenian king, and, after ravaging a fertile district of Media, make their + way towards the great city, through Assyria and Adiabene, along the left + bank of the Tigris. It was a bitter disappointment to him when, on nearing + Ctesiphon, he could see no signs and hear no tidings of the northern army, + from which he had looked for effectual aid at this crisis of the campaign. + We have now to consider how this failure came about, what circumstances + induced that hesitation and delay on the part of Sebastian and Procopius + which had at any rate a large share in frustrating Julian’s plans and + causing the ill-success of his expedition. + </p> + <p> + It appears that the Roman generals, in pursuance of the orders given them, + marched across Northern Mesopotamia to the Armenian borders, and were + there joined by an Armenian contingent which Arsaces sent to their + assistance. The allies marched together into Media, and carried fire and + sword through the fruitful district known as Chiliacomus, or “the district + of the Thousand Villages.” They might easily have advanced further; but + the Armenians suddenly and without warning drew off and fell back towards + their own country. According to Moses of Chorene, their general, Zurseus, + was actuated by a religious motive; it seemed to him monstrous that + Armenia, a Christian country, should embrace the cause of an apostate, and + he was prepared to risk offending his own sovereign rather than lend help + to one whom he regarded as the enemy of his faith. The Roman generals, + thus deserted by their allies, differed as to the proper course to pursue. + While one was still desirous of descending the course of the Tigris, and + making at least an attempt to effect a junction with Julian, the other + forbade his soldiers to join in the march, and insisted on falling back + and re-entering Mesopotamia. As usual in such cases, the difference of + opinion resulted in a policy of inaction. The attempt to join Julian was + given up; and the second army, from which he had hoped so much, played no + further part in the campaign of A.D. 363. + </p> + <p> + We are told that Julian heard of the defection of the Armenians while he + was still on his way to Ctesiphon, and immediately sent a letter to + Arsacos, complaining of his general’s conduct, and threatening to exact a + heavy retribution on his return from the Persian war, if the offence of + Zurseus were not visited at once with condign punishment. Arsaces was + greatly alarmed at the message; and, though he made no effort to supply + the shortcomings of his officer by leading or sending fresh troops to + Julian’s assistance, yet he hastened to acquit himself of complicity in + the misconduct of Zurseus by executing him, together with his whole + family. Having thus, as he supposed, secured himself against Julian’s + anger, he took no further steps, but indulged his love of ease and his + distaste for the Roman alliance by remaining wholly passive during the + rest of the year. + </p> + <p> + But though the attitude taken by Armenia was thus, on the whole, favorable + to the Persians,and undoubtedly contributed to Sapor’s success, he was + himself so far from satisfied with the conduct of Arsaces that he resolved + at once to invade his country and endeavor to strip him of his crown. As + Rome had by the recent treaty relinquished her protectorate over Armenia, + and bound herself not to interfere in any quarrel between the Armenians + and the Persians, an opportunity was afforded for bringing Armenia into + subjection which an ambitious monarch like Sapor was not likely to let + slip. He had only to consider whether he would employ art or violence, or + whether he would rather prefer a judicious admixture of the two. Adopting + the last-named course as the most prudent, he proceeded to intrigue with a + portion of the Armenian satraps, while he made armed incursions on the + territories of others, and so harassed the country that after a while the + satraps generally went over to his side, and represented to Arsaces that + no course was open to him but to make his submission. Having brought + matters to this point, Sapor had only further to persuade Arsaces to + surrender himself, in order to obtain the province which he coveted, + almost without striking a blow. He therefore addressed Arsaces a letter + which, according to the only writer who professes to give its terms, was + expressed as follows: + </p> + <p> + “Sapor, the offspring of Ormazd, comrade of the sun, king of kings, sends + greeting to his dear brother, Arsaces, king of Armenia, whom he holds in + affectionate remembrance. It has come to our knowledge that thou hast + approved thyself our faithful friend, since not only didst thou decline to + invade Persia with Caesar, but when he took a contingent from thee thou + didst send messengers and withdraw it. Moreover, we have not forgotten how + thou actedst at the first, when thou didst prevent him from passing + through thy territories, as he wished. Our soldiers, indeed, who quitted + their post, sought to cast on thee the blame due to their own cowardice. + But we have not listened to them: their leader we punished with death, and + to thy realm, I swear by Mithra, we have done no hurt. Arrange matters + then so that thou mayest come to us with all speed, and consult with us + concerning our common advantage. Then thou canst return home.” + </p> + <p> + Arsaces, on receiving this missive, whatever suspicions he may have felt, + saw no course open to him but to accept the invitation. He accordingly + quitted Armenia and made his way to the court of Sapor, where he was + immediately seized and blinded. He was then fettered with chains of + silver, according to a common practice of the Persians with prisoners of + distinction, and was placed in strict confinement in a place called “the + Castle of Oblivion.” + </p> + <p> + But the removal of their head did not at once produce the submission of + the people. A national party declared itself under, Pharandzem, the wife, + and Bab (or Para), the son of Arsaces, who threw themselves into the + strong fortress of Artogerassa (Ardakers), and there offered to Sapor a + determined resistance. Sapor committed the siege of this place to two + renegade Armenians, Cylaces and Artabannes, while at the same time he + proceeded to extend his influence beyond the limits of Armenia into the + neighboring country of Iberia, which was closely connected with Armenia, + and for the most part followed its fortunes. + </p> + <p> + Iberia was at this time under the government of a king bearing the name of + Sauromaces, who had received his investiture from Rome, and was + consequently likely to uphold Roman interests. Sapor invaded Iberia, drove + Sauromaces from his kingdom, and set up a new monarch in the person of a + certain Aspacures, on whose brow he placed the coveted diadem. He then + withdrew to his own country, leaving the complete subjection of Armenia to + be accomplished by his officers, Cylaces and Artabannes, or, as the + Armenian historians call them, Zig and Garen. + </p> + <p> + Cylaces and Artabannes commenced the siege of Artogerassa, and for a time + pressed it with vigor, while they strongly urged the garrison to make + their submission. But, having entered within the walls to negotiate, they + were won over by the opposite side, and joined in planning a treacherous + attack on the besieging force, which was surprised at night and compelled + to retire. Para took advantage of their retreat to quit the town and throw + himself on the protection of Valens, the Roman emperor, who permitted him + to reside in regal state at Neocaesarea. Shortly afterwards, however, by + the advice of Cylaces and Artabannes, he returned into Armenia, and was + accepted by the patriotic party as their king, Rome secretly countenancing + his proceedings. Under these circumstances the Persian monarch once more + took the field, and, entering Armenia at the head of a large army, drove + Para, with his counsellors Cylaces and Artabannes, to the mountains, + renewed the siege of Artogerassa, and forced it to submit, captured the + queen Pharandzem, together with the treasure of Arsaces, and finally + induced Para to come to terms, and to send him the heads of the two + arch-traitors. The resistance of Armenia would probably now have ceased, + had Rome been content to see her old enemy so aggrandized, or felt her + hands absolutely tied by the terms of the treaty of Dura. + </p> + <p> + But the success of Sapor thus far only brought him into greater + difficulties. The Armenians and Iberians, who desired above all things + liberty and independence, were always especially hostile to the power from + which they felt that they had for the time being most to fear. As + Christian nations, they had also at this period an additional ground of + sympathy with Rome, and of aversion from the Persians, who were at once + heathens and intolerant. The patriotic party in both countries was thus + violently opposed to the establishment of Sapor’s authority over them, and + cared little for the artifices by which he sought to make it appear that + they still enjoyed freedom and autonomy. Above all, Rome, being ruled by + monarchs who had had no hand in making the disgraceful peace of A.D. 363, + and who had no strong feeling of honor or religious obligation in the + matter of treaties with barbarians, was preparing herself to fly in the + face of her engagements, and, regarding her own interest as her highest + law, to interfere effectually in order to check the progress of Persia in + North-Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + Rome’s first open interference was in Ibera. Iberia had perhaps not been + expressly named in the treaty, and support might consequently be given to + the expelled Sauromaces without any clear infraction of its conditions. + The duke Terentius was ordered, therefore, towards the close of A.D. 370, + to enter Iberia with twelve legions and replace upon his throne the old + Roman feudatory. Accordingly he invaded the country from Lazica, which + bordered it upon the north, and found no difficulty in conquering it as + far as the river Cyrus. On the Cyrus, however, he was met by Aspacures, + the king of Sapor’s choice, who made proposals for an accommodation. + Representing himself as really well-inclined to Rome, and only prevented + from declaring himself by the fact that Sapor held his son as a hostage, + he asked Terentius’ consent to a division of Iberia between himself and + his rival, the tract north of the Cyrus being assigned to the Roman + claimant, and that south of the river remaining under his own government. + Terentius, to escape further trouble, consented to the arrangement; and + the double kingdom was established. The northern and western portions of + Iberia were made over to Sauromaces; the southern and eastern continued to + be ruled by Aspacures. + </p> + <p> + When the Persian king received intelligence of these transactions he was + greatly excited. To him it appeared clear that by the spirit, if not by + the letter, of the treaty of Dura, Rome had relinquished Iberia equally + with Armenia; and he complained bitterly of the division which had been + made of the Iberian territory, not only without his consent, but without + his knowledge. He was no doubt aware that Rome had not really confined her + interference to the region with which she had some excuse for + intermeddling, but had already secretly intervened in Armenia, and was + intending further intervention. The count Arinthseus had been sent with an + army to the Armenian frontier about the same time that Terentius had + invaded Iberia, and had received positive instructions to help the + Armenians if Sapor molested them. It was in vain that the Persian monarch + appealed to the terms of the treaty of Dura—Rome dismissed his + ambassadors with contempt, and made no change in her line of procedure. + Upon this Sapor saw that war was unavoidable; and accordingly he wasted no + more time in embassies, but employed himself during the winter, which had + now begun, in collecting as large a force as he could, in part from his + allies, in part from his own subjects, resolving to take the field in the + spring, and to do his best to punish Rome for her faithlessness. + </p> + <p> + Rome on her part made ready to resist the invasion which she knew to be + impending. A powerful army was sent to guard the East under count Trajan, + and Vadomair, ex-king of the Alemanni; but so much regard for the terms of + the recent treaty was still felt, or pretended, that the generals received + orders to be careful not to commence hostilities, but to wait till an + attack was made on them. They were not kept long in expectation. As soon + as winter was over, Sapor crossed the frontier (A.D. 371) with a large + force of native cavalry and archers, supported by numerous auxiliaries, + and attacked the Romans near a place called Vagabanta. The Roman commander + gave his troops the order to retire; and accordingly they fell back under + a shower of Persian arrows, until, several having been wounded, they felt + that they could with a good face declare that the rupture of the peace was + the act of the Persians. The retreat was then exchanged for an advance, + and after a brief engagement the Romans were victorious, and inflicted a + severe loss upon their adversaries. But the success was not followed by + results of any importance. Neither side seems to have been anxious for + another general encounter; and the season for hostilities was occupied by + a sort of guerilla warfare, in which the advantage rested alternately with + the Persians and the Romans. At length, when the summer was ended, the + commanders on either side entered into negotiations; and a truce was made + which allowed Sapor to retire to Ctesiphon, and the Roman emperor, who was + now personally directing the war, to go into winter quarters at Antioch. + </p> + <p> + After this the war languished for two or three years. Valens was wholly + deficient in military genius, and was quite content if he could maintain a + certain amount of Roman influence in Armenia and Iberia, while at the same + time he protected the Roman frontier against Persian invasion. Sapor was + advanced in years, and might naturally desire repose, having been almost + constantly engaged in military expeditions since he reached the age of + sixteen. Negotiations seem to have alternated with hostilities during the + interval between A.D. 371 and 376; but they resulted in nothing, until, in + this last-named year, a peace was made, which gave tranquillity to the + East during the remainder of the reign of Sapor. + </p> + <p> + The terms upon which this peace was concluded are obscure. It is perhaps + most probable that the two contracting powers agreed to abstain from + further interference with Iberia and Armenia, and to leave those countries + to follow their own inclinations. Armenia seems by the native accounts to + have gravitated towards Rome under these circumstances, and Iberia is + likely to have followed her example. The tie of Christianity attached + these countries to the great power of the West; and, except under + compulsion, they were not likely at this time to tolerate the yoke of + Persia for a day. When Jovian withdrew the Roman protection from them, + they were forced for a while to submit to the power which they disliked; + but no sooner did his successors reverse his policy, and show themselves + ready to uphold the Armenians and Iberians against Persia, than they + naturally reverted to the Roman side, and formed an important support to + the empire against its Eastern rival. + </p> + <p> + The death of Sapor followed the peace of A.D. 376 within a few years. He + died A.D. 379 or 380, after having reigned seventy years. It is curious + that, although possessing the crown for so long a term, and enjoying a + more brilliant reign than any preceding monarch, he neither left behind + him any inscriptions, nor any sculptured memorials. The only material + evidences that we possess of his reign are his coins, which are + exceedingly numerous. According to Mordtmann, they may be divided into + three classes, corresponding to three periods in his life. The earliest + have on the reverse the fire-altar, with two priests, or guards, looking + towards the altar, and with the flame rising from the altar in the usual + way. The head on the obverse is archaic in type, and very much resembles + that of Sapor I. The crown has attached to it, in many cases, that + “cheek-piece” which is otherwise confined to the first three monarchs of + the line. These coins are the best from an artistic point of view; they + greatly resemble those of the first Sapor, but are distinguishable from + them, first, by the guards looking towards the altar instead of away from + it; and, secondly, by a greater profusion of pearls about the king’s + person. The coins of the second period lack the “cheek-piece,” and have on + the reverse the fire-altar without supporters; they are inferior as works + of art to those of the first period, but much superior to those of the + third. These last, which exhibit a marked degeneracy, are especially + distinguished by having a human head in the middle of the flames that rise + from the altar. Otherwise they much resemble in their emblems the early + coins, only differing from them in being artistically inferior. The + ordinary legends upon the coins are in no respect remarkable; but + occasionally we find the monarch taking the new and expressive epithet of + Toham, “the Strong.” <a href="#linkimage-0015">[PLATE XIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate019.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 19 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Short Reigns of Artaxerxes II. and Sapor III. Obscurity of their + History. Their Relations with Armenia. Monument of Sapor III. at + Tdkht-i-Bostan. Coins of Artaxerxes II. and Sapor III. Reign of Varahran + IV. His Signets. His Dealings with Armenia. His Death.</i> + </p> + <p> + The glorious reign of Sapor II., which carried the New Persian Empire to + the highest point whereto it had yet attained, is followed by a time which + offers to that remarkable reign a most complete contrast. Sapor had + occupied the Persian throne for a space approaching nearly to + three-quarters of a century; the reigns of his next three successors + amounted to no more than twenty years in the aggregate. Sapor had been + engaged in perpetual wars, had spread the terror of the Persian arms on + all sides, and ruled more gloriously than any of his predecessors. The + kings who followed him were pacific and unenterprising; they were almost + unknown to their neighbors, and are among the least distinguished of the + Sassanian monarchs. More especially does this character attach to the two + immediate successors of Sapor II., viz. Artaxerxes II. and Sapor III. They + reigned respectively four and five years; and their annals during this + period are almost a blank. Artaxerxes II., who is called by some the + brother of Sapor II., was more probably his son. He succeeded his father + in A.D. 379, and died at Ctesiphon in A.D. 383. He left a character for + kindness and amiability behind him, and is known to the Persians as + Nihoukar, or “the Beneficent,” and to the Arabs as Al Djemil, “the + Virtuous.” According to the “Modjmel-al-Tewarikh,” he took no taxes from + his subjects during the four years of his reign, and thereby secured to + himself their affection and gratitude. He seems to have received overtures + from the Armenians soon after his accession, and for a time to have been + acknowledged by the turbulent mountaineers as their sovereign. After the + murder of Bab, or Para, the Romans had set up, as king over Armenia, a + certain Varaztad (Pharasdates), a member of the Arsacid family, but no + near relation of the recent monarchs, assigning at the same time the real + direction of affairs to an Armenian noble named Moushegh, who belonged to + the illustrious family of the Mamigonians. Moushegh ruled Armenia with + vigor, but was suspected of maintaining over-friendly relations with the + Roman emperor, Valens, and of designing to undermine and supplant his + master. Varaztad, after a while, having been worked on by his counsellors, + grew suspicious of him, and caused him to be executed at a banquet. This + treachery roused the indignation of Moushegh’s brother Manuel, who raised + a rebellion against Varaztad, defeated him in open fight, and drove him + from his kingdom. Manuel then brought forward the princess Zermandueht, + widow of the late king Para, together with her two young sons, Arsaces and + Valarsaces, and, surrounding all three with royal pomp, gave to the two + princes the name of king, while he took care to retain in his own hands + the real government of the country. Under these circumstances he naturally + dreaded the hostility of the Roman emperor, who was not likely to see with + patience a monarch, whom he had set upon the throne, deprived of his + kingdom by a subject. To maintain the position which he had assumed, it + was necessary that he should contract some important alliance; and the + alliance always open to Armenia when she had quarrelled with Rome was with + the Persians. It seems to have been soon after Artaxerxes II. succeeded + his father, that Manuel sent an embassy to him, with letters and rich + gifts, offering, in return for his protection, to acknowledge him as + lord-paramount of Armenia, and promising him unshakable fidelity. The + offer was, of course, received with extreme satisfaction; and terms were + speedily arranged. Armenia was to pay a fixed tribute, to receive a + garrison of ten thousand Persians and to provide adequately for their + support, to allow a Persian satrap to divide with Manuel the actual + government of the country, and to furnish him with all that was necessary + for his court and table. On the other hand, Arsacos and Valarsaces, + together (apparently) with their mother, Zermandueht, were to be allowed + the royal title and,honors; Armenia was to be protected in case of + invasion; and Manuel was to be maintained in his office of Sparapet or + generalissimo of the Armenian forces. We cannot say with certainty how + long this arrangement remained undisturbed; most probably, however, it did + not continue in force more than a few years. It was most likely while + Artaxerxes still ruled Persia, that the rupture described by Faustus + occurred. A certain Meroujan, an Armenian, noble, jealous of the power and + prosperity of Manuel, persuaded him that the Persian commandant in Armenia + was about to seize his person, and either to send him a prisoner to + Artaxerxes, or else to put him to death. Manuel, who was so credulous as + to believe the information, thought it necessary for his own safety to + anticipate the designs of his enemies, and, falling upon the ten thousand + Persians with the whole of the Armenian army, succeeded in putting them + all to the sword, except their commander, whom he allowed to escape. War + followed between Persia and Armenia with varied success, but on the whole + Manuel had the advantage; he repulsed several Persian invasions, and + maintained the independence and integrity of Armenia till his death, + without calling in the aid of Rome. When, however, Manuel died, about A.D. + 383, Armenian affairs fell into confusion; the Romans were summoned to + give help to one party, the Persians to render assistance to the other; + Armenia became once more the battle-ground between the two great powers, + and it seemed as if the old contest, fraught with so many calamities, was + to be at once renewed. But the circumstances of the time were such that + neither Rome nor Persia now desired to reopen the contest. Persia was in + the hands of weak and unwarlike sovereigns, and was perhaps already + threatened by Scythic hordes upon the east. Rome was in the agonies of a + struggle with the ever-increasing power of the Goths; and though, in the + course of the years A.D. 379-382, the Great Theodosius had established + peace in the tract under his rule, and delivered the central provinces of + Macedonia and Thrace from the intolerable ravages of the barbaric + invaders, yet the deliverance had been effected at the cost of introducing + large bodies of Goths into the heart of the empire, while still along the + northern frontier lay a threatening cloud, from which devastation and ruin + might at any time burst forth and overspread the provinces upon the Lower + Danube. Thus both the Roman emperor and the Persian king were well + disposed towards peace. An arrangement was consequently made, and in A.D. + 384, five years after he had ascended the throne, Theodosius gave audience + in Constantinople to envoys from the court of Persepolis, and concluded + with them a treaty whereby matters in Armenia were placed on a footing + which fairly satisfied both sides, and the tranquillity of the East was + assured. The high contracting powers agreed that Armenia should be + partitioned between them. After detaching from the kingdom various + outlying districts, which could be conveniently absorbed into their own + territories, they divided the rest of the country into two unequal + portions. The smaller of these, which comprised the more western + districts, was placed under the protection of Rome, and was committed by + Theodosius to the Arsaces who had been made king by Manuel, the son of the + unfortunate Bab, or Para, and the grandson of the Arsaces contemporary + with Julian. The larger portion, which consisted of the regions lying + towards the east, passed under the suzerainty of Persia, and was confided + by Sapor III., who had succeeded Artaxerxes II., to an Arsacid, named + Chosroes, a Christian, who was given the title of king, and received in + marriage at the same time one of Sapor’s sisters. Such were the terms on + which Rome and Persia brought their contention respecting Armenia to a + conclusion. Friendly relations were in this way established between the + two crowns, which continued undisturbed for the long space of thirty-six + years (A.D. 384-420). + </p> + <p> + Sapor III. appears to have succeeded his brother Artaxerxes in A.D. 383, + the year before the conclusion of the treaty. It is uncertain whether + Artaxerxes vacated the throne by death, or was deposed in consequence of + cruelties whereof he was guilty towards the priests and nobles. Tabari and + Macoudi, who relate his deposition, are authors on whom much reliance + cannot be placed; and the cruelties reported accord but ill with the + epithets of “the Beneficent” and “the Virtuous,” assigned to this monarch + by others. Perhaps it is most probable that he held the throne till his + death, according to the statements of Agathias and Eutychius. Of Sapor + III., his brother and successor, two facts only are recorded—his + conclusion of the treaty with the Romans in A.D. 384, and his war with the + Arabs of the tribe of Yad, which must have followed shortly afterwards. It + must have been in consequence of his contest with the latter, whom he + attacked in their own country, that he received from his countrymen the + appellation of “the Warlike,” an appellation better deserved by either of + the other monarchs who had borne the same name. + </p> + <p> + Sapor III. left behind him a sculptured memorial, which is still to be + seen in the vicinity of Kermanshah. <a href="#linkimage-0016">[PLATE XX.]</a> + It consists of two very similar figures, looking towards each other, and + standing in an arched frame. On either side of the figures are + inscriptions in the Old Pehlevi character, whereby we are enabled to + identify the individuals represented with the second and the third Sapor. + The inscriptions run thus:—<i>“Pathkell zani mazdisn shahia + Shahpuhri, malkan malJca Allan ve Anilan, minuchitli min yazdan, bari + mazdisn shahia Auhr-mazdi, malkan malka Allan ve Anilan, minuchitli min + yazdan, napi shahia Narshehi malkan malka;”</i> and <i>“Pathkeli mazdisn + shahia Shahpuhri, malkan mallca Allan ve Anilan, minuchitli min yazdan, + bari mazdisn shahia Shahpuhri, malkan malka Allan ve Anilan, minuchitli + min yazdan, napi shahia Auhrmazdi, malkan malka.”</i> They are, it will be + seen, identical in form, with the exception that the names in the + right-hand inscription are “Sapor, Hormisdas, Narses,” while those in the + left-hand one are “Sapor, Sapor, Hormisdas.” It has been supposed that the + right-hand figure was erected by Sapor II., and the other afterwards added + by Sapor III.; but the unity of the whole sculpture, and its inclusion + under a single arch, seem to indicate that it was set up by a single + sovereign, and was the fruit of a single conception. If this be so, we + must necessarily ascribe it to the later of the two monarchs commemorated, + i.e. to Sapor III., who must be supposed to have possessed more than usual + filial piety, since the commemoration of their predecessors upon the + throne is very rare among the Sassanians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate020.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 20 " /> + </div> + <p> + The taste of the monument is questionable. An elaborate finish of all the + details of the costume compensates but ill for a clumsiness of contour and + a want of contrast and variety, which indicate a low condition of art, and + compare unfavorably with the earlier performances of the Neo-Persian + sculptors. It may be doubted whether, among all the reliefs of the + Sassanians, there is one which is so entirely devoid of artistic merit as + this coarse and dull production. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Sapor III. and his predecessor, Artaxerxes II., have little + about them that is remarkable. Those of Artaxerxes bear a head which is + surmounted with the usual inflated ball, and has the diadem, but is + without a crown—a deficiency in which some see an indication that + the prince thus represented was regent rather than monarch of Persia. <a + href="#linkimage-0015">[PLATE XIX. Fig. 2.]</a> The legends upon the coins + are, however, in the usual style of royal epigraphs, running commonly—<i>“Mazdisn + bag Artah-shetri malkan malka Air an ve Aniran,”</i> or “the + Ormazd-worshipping divine Artaxerxes, king of the kings of Iran and + Turan.” They are easily distinguishable from those of Artaxerxes I., both + by the profile, which is far less marked, and by the fire-altar on the + reverse, which has always two supporters, looking towards the altar. The + coins of Sapor III. present some unusual types. <a href="#linkimage-0015">[PLATE + XIX. Fig. 6.]</a> On some of them the king has his hair bound with a + simple diadem, without crown or cap of any kind. On others he wears a cap + of a very peculiar character, which has been compared to a biretta, but is + really altogether <i>sui generis</i>. The cap is surmounted by the + ordinary inflated ball, is ornamented with jewels, and is bound round at + bottom with the usual diadem. The legend upon the obverse of Sapor’s coins + is of the customary character; but the reverse bears usually, besides the + name of the king, the word <i>atur</i>, which has been supposed to stand + for Aturia or Assyria; this explanation, however, is very doubtful. + </p> + <p> + The coins of both kings exhibit marks of decline, especially on the + reverse, where the drawing of the figures that support the altar is very + inferior to that which we observe on the coins of the kings from Sapor I. + to Sapor II. The characters on both obverse and reverse are also + carelessly rendered, and can only with much difficulty be deciphered. + </p> + <p> + Sapor III. died A.D. 388, after reigning a little more than five years. He + was a man of simple tastes, and is said to have been fond of exchanging + the magnificence and dreary etiquette of the court for the freedom and + ease of a life under tents. On an occasion when he was thus enjoying + himself, it happened that one of those violent hurricanes, to which Persia + is subject, arose, and, falling in full force on the royal encampment, + blew down the tent wherein he was sitting. It happened unfortunately that + the main tent-pole struck him, as it fell, in a vital part, and Sapor died + from the blow. Such at least was the account given by those who had + accompanied him, and generally believed by his subjects. There were not, + however, wanting persons to whisper that the story was untrue—that + the real cause of the catastrophe which had overtaken the unhappy monarch + was a conspiracy of his nobles, or his guards, who had overthrown his tent + purposely, and murdered him ere he could escape from them. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Sapor III. was Varahran IV., whom some authorities call + his brother and others his son. This prince is known to the oriental + writers as “Varahran Kerm-an-sh-ah,” or “Varahran, king of Carmania.” + Agathias tells us that during the lifetime of his father he was + established as governor over Kerman or Carmania, and thus obtained the + appellation which pertinaciously adhered to him. A curious relic of + antiquity, fortunately preserved to modern times amid so much that has + been lost, confirms this statement. It is the seal of Varahran before he + ascended the Persian throne, and contains, besides his portrait, + beautifully cut, an inscription, which is read as follows:—<i>“Varahran + Kerman malka, bari mazdisn bag Shahpuh-rimalkan malka Axran ve Aniran, + minuchitri min yazclan,”</i> or “Varahran, king of Kerman, son of the + Ormazd-worshipping divine Sapor, king of the kings of Iran and Turan, + heaven-descended of the race of the gods.” <a href="#linkimage-0015">[PLATE + XIX. Fig. 5.]</a> Another seal, belonging to him probably after he had + become monarch of Persia, contains his full-length portrait, and exhibits + him as trampling under foot a prostrate figure, supposed to represent a + Roman, by which it would appear that he claimed to have gained victories + or advantages over Rome. <a href="#linkimage-0015">[PLATE XIX. Figs. 3 and + 4.]</a> It is not altogether easy to understand how this could have been. + Not only do the Roman writers mention no war between the Romans and + Persians at this time, but they expressly declare that the East remained + in profound repose during the entire reign of Varahran, and that Rome and + Persia continued to be friends. The difficulty may, however, be perhaps + explained by a consideration of the condition of affairs in Armenia at + this time; for in Armenia Rome and Persia had still conflicting interests, + and, without having recourse to arms, triumphs might be obtained in this + quarter by the one over the other. + </p> + <p> + On the division of Armenia between Arsaces and Chosroes, a really good + understanding had been established, which had lasted for about six years. + Arsaces had died two years after he became a Roman feudatory; and, at his + death, Rome had absorbed his territories into her empire, and placed the + new province under the government of a count. No objection to the + arrangement had been made by Persia, and the whole of Armenia had remained + for four years tranquil and without disturbance. But, about A.D. 390, + Chosroes became dissatisfied with his position, and entered into relations + with Rome which greatly displeased the Armenian monarch. Chosroes obtained + from Theodosius his own appointment to the Armenian countship, and thus + succeeded in uniting both Roman and Persian Armenia under his government. + Elated with this success, he proceeded further to venture on + administrative acts which trenched, according to Persian views, on the + rights of the lord paramount. Finally, when Varahran addressed to him a + remonstrance, he replied in insulting terms, and, renouncing his + authority, placed the whole Armenian kingdom under the suzerainty and + protection of Rome. War between the two great powers must now have seemed + imminent, and could indeed only have been avoided by great moderation and + self-restraint on the one side or the other. Under these circumstances it + was Rome that drew back. Theodosius declined to receive the submission + which Chosroes tendered, and refused to lift a finger in his defence. The + unfortunate prince was forced to give himself up to Varahan, who consigned + him to the Castle of Oblivion, and placed his brother, Varabran-Sapor, + upon the Armenian throne. These events seem to have fallen into the year + A.D. 391, the third year of Varahran, who may well have felt proud of + them, and have thought that they formed a triumph over Rome which deserved + to be commemorated. + </p> + <p> + The character of Varahran IV. is represented variously by the native + authorities. According to some of them, his temper was mild, and his + conduct irreproachable. Others say that he was a hard man, and so + neglected the duties of his station that he would not even read the + petitions or complaints which were addressed to him. It would seem that + there must have been some ground for these latter representations, since + it is generally agreed that the cause of his death was a revolt of his + troops, who surrounded him and shot at him with arrows. One shaft, better + directed than the rest, struck him in a vital part, and he fell and + instantly expired. Thus perished, in A.D. 399, the third son of the Great + Sapor, after a reign of eleven years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Isdigerd I. Peaceful Character of his Reign. His Alleged + Guardianship of Theodosius II. His leaning towards Christianity, and + consequent Unpopularity with his Subjects. His Change of view and + Persecution of the Christians. His relations with Armenia. II. Coins. His + Personal Character. His Death.</i> + </p> + <p> + Varahran IV. was succeeded (A.D. 399) by his son, Izdikerti or Isdigerd I. + whom the soldiers, though they had murdered his father, permitted to + ascend the throne without difficulty. He is said, at his accession, to + have borne a good character for prudence and moderation, a character which + he sought to confirm by the utterance on various occasions of + high-sounding moral sentiments. The general tenor of his reign was + peaceful; and we may conclude therefore that he was of an unwarlike + temper, since the circumstances of the time were such as would naturally + have induced a prince of any military capacity to resume hostilities + against the Romans. After the arrangement made with Rome by Sapor III. in + A.D. 384, a terrible series of calamities had befallen the empire. + Invasions of Ostrogoths and Franks signalized the years A.D. 386 and 388; + in A.D. 387 the revolt of Maximus seriously endangered the western moiety + of the Roman state; in the same year occurred an outburst of sedition at + Antioch, which was followed shortly by the more dangerous sedition, and + the terrible massacre of Thessalonica; Argobastes and Eugenius headed a + rebellion in A.D. 393; Gildo the Moor detached Africa from the empire in + A.D. 386, and maintained a separate dominion on the southern shores of the + Mediterranean for twelve years, from A.D. 386 to 398; in A.D. 395 the + Gothic warriors within and without the Roman frontier took arms, and under + the redoubtable Alaric threatened at once the East and the West, ravaged + Greece, captured Corinth, Argos, and Sparta, and from the coasts of the + Adriatic already marked for their prey the smiling fields of Italy. The + rulers of the East and West, Arcadius and Honorius, were alike weak and + unenterprising; and further, they were not even on good terms, nor was + either likely to trouble himself very greatly about attacks upon the + territories of the other. Isdigerd might have crossed the Euphrates, and + overrun or conquered the Asiatic provinces of the Eastern Empire, without + causing Honorious a pang, or inducing him to stir from Milan. It is true + that Western Rome possessed at this time the rare treasure of a capable + general; but Stilicho was looked upon with fear and aversion by the + emperor of the East, and was moreover fully occupied with the defence of + his own master’s territories. Had Isdigerd, on ascending the throne in + A.D. 399, unsheathed the sword and resumed the bold designs of his + grandfather, Sapor II., he could scarcely have met with any serious or + prolonged resistance. He would have found the East governed practically by + the eunuch Eutropius, a plunderer and oppressor, universally hated and + feared; he would have had opposed to him nothing but distracted counsels + and disorganized forces; Asia Minor was in possession of the Ostrogoths, + who, under the leadership of Tribigild, were ravaging and destroying far + and wide; the armies of the State were commanded by Gainas, the Goth, and + Leo, the wool-comber, of whom the one was incompetent, and the other + unfaithful; there was nothing, apparently, that could have prevented him + from overrunning Roman Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Syria, or even from + extending his ravages, or his dominion, to the shores of the AEgean. But + the opportunity was either not seen, or was not regarded as having any + attractions. Isdigerd remained tranquil and at rest within the walls of + his capital. Assuming as his special title the characteristic epithet of + “Ramashtras,” “the most quiet,” or “the most firm,” he justified his + assumption of it by a complete abstinence from all military expeditions. + </p> + <p> + When Isdigerd had reigned peaceably for the space of nine years, he is + said to have received a compliment of an unusual character. Arcadius, the + emperor of the East, finding his end approaching, and anxious to secure a + protector for his son Theodosius, a boy of tender age, instead of + committing him to the charge of his uncle Honorius, or selecting a + guardian for him from among his own subjects, by a formal testamentary + act, we are told, placed his child under the protection of the Persian + monarch. He accompanied the appointment by a solemn appeal to the + magnanimity of Isdigerd, whom he exhorted at some length to defend with + all his force, and guide with his best wisdom, the young king and his + kingdom. According to one writer, he further appended to this trust a + valuable legacy—no less than a thousand pounds weight of pure gold, + which he begged his Persian brother to accept as a token of his goodwill. + When Arcadius died, and the testament was opened, information of its + contents was sent to Isdigerd, who at once accepted the charge assigned to + him, and addressed a letter to the Senate of Constantinople, in which he + declared his determination to punish any attempt against his ward with the + extremest severity. Unable to watch over his charge in person, he selected + for his guide and instructor a learned eunuch of his court, by name + Antiochus, and sent him to Constantinople, where for several years he was + the young prince’s constant companion. Even after his death or expulsion, + which took place in consequence of the intrigues of Pulcheria, + Theodosius’s elder sister, the Persian monarch continued faithful to his + engagements. During the whole of his reign he not only remained at peace + with the Romans, but avoided every act that they could have regarded as in + the least degree unfriendly. + </p> + <p> + Such is the narrative which has come down to us on the authority of + historians, the earliest of whom wrote a century and a half after + Arcadius’s death. Modern criticism has, in general, rejected the entire + story, on this account, regarding the silence of the earlier writers as + outweighing the positive statements of the later ones. It should, however, + be borne in mind, first that the earlier writers are few in number, and + that their histories are very meagre and scanty; secondly, that the fact, + if fact it were, was one not very palatable to Christians; and thirdly, + that, as the results, so far as Rome was concerned, were negative, the + event might not have seemed to be one of much importance, or that required + notice. The character of Procopius, with whom the story originates, should + also be taken into consideration, and the special credit allowed him by + Agathias for careful and diligent research. It may be added, that one of + the main points of the narrative—the position of Antiochus at + Constantinople during the early years of Theodosius—is corroborated + by the testimony of a contemporary, the bishop Synesius, who speaks of a + man of this name, recently in the service of a Persian, as all-powerful + with the Eastern emperor. It has been supposed by one writer that the + whole story grew out of this fact; but the basis scarcely seems to be + sufficient; and it is perhaps most probable that Arcadius did really by + his will commend his son to the kind consideration of the Persian monarch, + and that that monarch in consequence sent him an adviser, though the + formal character of the testamentary act, and the power and position of + Antiochus at the court of Constantinople, may have been overstated. + Theodosius no doubt owed his quiet possession of the throne rather to the + good disposition towards him of his own subjects than to the protection of + a foreigner; and Isdigerd refrained from all attack on the territories of + the young prince, rather by reason of his own pacific temper than in + consequence of the will of Arcadius. + </p> + <p> + The friendly relations established, under whatever circumstances, between + Isdigerd and the Roman empire of the East seemed to have inclined the + Persian monarch, during a portion of his reign, to take the Christians + into his favor, and even to have induced him to contemplate seeking + admission into the Church by the door of baptism. Antiochus, his + representative at the Court of Arcadius, openly wrote in favor of the + persecuted sect; and the encouragement received from this high quarter + rapidly increased the number of professing Christians in the Persian + territories. The sectaries, though oppressed, had long been allowed to + have their bishops; and Isdigerd is said to have listened with approval to + the teaching of two of them, Marutha, bishop of Mesopotamia, and Abdaas, + bishop of Ctesiphon. Convinced of the truth of Christianity, but unhappily + an alien from its spirit, he commenced a persecution of the Magians and + their most powerful adherents, which caused him to be held in detestation + by his subjects, and has helped to attach to his name the epithets of + “Al-Khasha,” “the Harsh,” and “Al-Athim,” “the Wicked.” But the’ + persecution did not continue long. The excessive zeal of Abdaas after a + while provoked a reaction; and Isdigerd, deserting the cause which he had + for a time espoused, threw himself (with all the zeal of one who, after + nearly embracing truth, relapses into error) into the arms of the opposite + party. Abdaas had ventured to burn down the great Fire-Temple of + Ctesiphon, and had then refused to rebuild it. Isdigerd authorized the + Magian hierarchy to retaliate by a general destruction of the Christian + churches throughout the Persian dominions, and by the arrest and + punishment of all those who acknowledged themselves to believe the Gospel. + A fearful slaughter of the Christians in Pergia followed during five + years; some, eager for the earthly glory and the heavenly rewards of + martyrdom, were forward to proclaim themselves members of the obnoxious + sect; others, less courageous or less inclined to self-assertion, sought + rather to conceal their creed; but these latter were carefully sought out, + both in the towns and in the country districts, and when convicted were + relentlessly put to death. Nor was mere death regarded as enough. The + victims were subjected, besides, to cruel sufferings of various kinds, and + the greater number of them expired under torture. Thus Isdigerd + alternately oppressed the two religious professions, to one or other of + which belonged the great mass of his subjects; and, having in this way + given both parties reason to hate him, earned and acquired a unanimity of + execration which has but seldom been the lot of persecuting monarchs. + </p> + <p> + At the same time that Isdigerd allowed this violent persecution of the + Christians in his own kingdom of Persia, he also sanctioned an attempt to + extirpate Christianity in the dependent country of Armenia. + Varahran-Sapor, the successor of Chosroes, had ruled the territory quietly + and peaceably for twenty-one years. He died A.D. 413, leaving behind him a + single son, Artases, who was at his father’s death aged no more than ten + years. Under these circumstances, Isaac, the Metropolitan of Armenia, + proceeded to the court of Ctesiphon, and petitioned Isdigerd to replace on + the Armenian throne the prince who had been deposed twenty-one years + earlier, and who was still a prisoner on parole in the “Castle of + Oblivion”—viz. Chosroes. Isdigerd acceded to the request; and + Chosroes was released from confinement and restored to the throne from + which he had been expelled by Varahran IV. in A.D. 391. He, however, + survived his elevation only a year. Upon his decease, A.D. 413, Isdigerd + selected for the viceroyship, not an Arsacid, not even an Armenian, but + his own son, Sapor, whom he forced upon the reluctant provincials, + compelling them to acknowledge him as monarch (A.D. 413-414). Sapor was + instructed to ingratiate himself with the Armenian nobles, by inviting + them to visit him, by feasting them, making them presents, holding + friendly converse with them, hunting with them; and was bidden to use such + influence as he might obtain to convert the chiefs from Christianity to + Zoroastrianism. The young prince appears to have done his best; but the + Armenians were obstinate, resisted his blandishments, and remained + Christians in spite of all his efforts. He reigned from A.D. 414 to 418, + at the end of which time, learning that his father had fallen into ill + health, he quitted Armenia and returned to the Persian court, in order to + press his claims to the succession. Isdigerd died soon afterwards (A.D. + 419 or 420); and Sapor made an attempt to seize the throne; but there was + another pretender whose partisans had more strength, and the viceroy of + Armenia was treacherously assassinated in the palace of his father. + Armenia remained for three years in a state of anarchy; and it was not + till Varahran V. had been for some time established upon the Persian + throne that Artases was made viceroy, under the name of Artasiris or + Artaxerxes. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Isdigerd I. are not remarkable as works of art; but they + possess some features of interest. They are numerous, and appear to have + been issued from various mints, but all bear a head of the same type. <a + href="#linkimage-0017">[PLATE XXI., Fig. 1.]</a> It is that of a + middle-aged man, with a short beard and hair gathered behind the head in a + cluster of curls. The distinguishing mark is the headdress, which has the + usual inflated ball above a fragment of the old mural crown, and further + bears a crescent in front. The reverse has the usual fire-altar with + supporters, and is for the most part very rudely executed. The ordinary + legend is, on the obverse, <i>“Mazdisn bag ramashtras Izdikerti, malkan + malka Airan,”</i> or “the Ormazd-worshipping divine most peaceful + Isdigerd, king of the kings of Iran;” and on the reverse, <i>Ramashtras + Izdikerti,</i> “the most peaceful Isdigerd.” In some cases, there is a + second name, associated with that of the monarch, on the reverse, a name + which reads either “Ardashatri” (Artaxerxes) or, “Varahran.” It has been + conjectured that, where the name of “Artaxerxes” occurs, the reference is + to the founder of the empire; while it is admitted that the “Varahran” + intended is almost certainly Isdigerd’s son and successor, Varahran V., + the “Bahram-Grur” of the modern Persians. Perhaps a more reasonable + account of the matter would be that Isdigerd had originally a son + Artaxerxes, whom he intended to make his successor, but that this son died + or offended him, and that then he gave his place to Varahran. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate021.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 21. " /> + </div> + <p> + The character of Isdigerd is variously represented. According to the + Oriental writers, he had by nature an excellent disposition, and at the + time of his accession was generally regarded as eminently sage, prudent, + and virtuous; but his conduct after he became king disappointed all the + hopes that had been entertained of him. He was violent, cruel, and + pleasure-seeking; he broke all laws human and divine; he plundered the + rich, ill-used the poor, despised learning, left those who did him a + service unrewarded, suspected everybody. He wandered continually about his + vast empire, not to benefit his subjects, but to make them all suffer + equally. In curious contrast with these accounts is the picture drawn of + him by the Western authors, who celebrate his magnanimity and his virtue, + his peaceful temper, his faithful guardianship of Theodosius, and even his + exemplary piety. A modern writer has suggested that he was in fact a wise + and tolerant prince, whose very mildness and indulgence offended the + bigots of his own country, and caused them to represent his character in + the most odious light, and do their utmost to blacken his memory. But this + can scarcely be accepted as the true explanation of the discrepancy. It + appears from the ecclesiastical historians that, whatever other good + qualities Isdigerd may have possessed, tolerance at any rate was not among + his virtues. Induced at one time by Christian bishops almost to embrace + Christianity, he violently persecuted the professors of the old Persian + religion. Alarmed at a later period by the excessive zeal of his Christian + preceptors, and probably fearful of provoking rebellion among his + Zoroastrian subjects, he turned around upon his late friends, and treated + them with a cruelty even exceeding that previously exhibited towards their + adversaries. It was probably this twofold persecution that, offending both + professions, attached to Isdigerd in his own country the character of a + harsh and bad monarch. Foreigners, who did not suffer from his caprices or + his violence, might deem him magnanimous and a model of virtue. His own + subjects with reason detested his rule, and branded his memory with the + well-deserved epithet of Al-Athim, “the Wicked.” + </p> + <p> + A curious tale is told as to the death of Isdigerd. He was still in the + full vigor of manhood when one day a horse of rare beauty, without bridle + or caparison, came of its own accord and stopped before the gate of his + palace. The news was told to the king, who gave orders that the strange + steed should be saddled and bridled, and prepared to mount it. But the + animal reared and kicked, and would not allow any one to come near, till + the king himself approached, when the creature totally changed its mood, + appeared gentle and docile, stood perfectly still, and allowed both saddle + and bridle to be put on. The crupper, however, needed some arrangement, + and Isdigerd in full confidence proceeded to complete his task, when + suddenly the horse lashed out with one of his hind legs, and dealt the + unfortunate prince a blow which killed him on the spot. The animal then + set off at speed, disembarrassed itself of its accoutrements, and + galloping away was never seen any more. The modern historian of Persia + compresses the tale into a single phrase, and tells us that “Isdigerd died + from the kick of a horse:” but the Persians of the time regarded the + occurrence as an answer to their prayers, and saw in the wild steed an + angel sent by God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Internal Troubles on the Death of Isdigerd I. Accession of Varahran V. + His Persecution of the Christians. His War with Rome. His Relations with + Armenia from A.D. 422 to A.D. 428. His Wars with the Scythic Tribes on his + Eastern Frontier. His Strange Death. His Coins. His Character.</i> + </p> + <p> + It would seem that at the death of Isdigerd there was some difficulty as + to the succession. Varahran, whom he had designated as his heir, appears + to have been absent from the capital at the time; while another son, + Sapor, who had held the Armenian throne from A.D. 414 to 418, was present + at the seat of government, and bent on pushing his claims. Varahran, if we + may believe the Oriental writers, who are here unanimous, had been + educated among the Arab tribes dependent on Persia, who now occupied the + greater portion of Mesopotamia. His training had made him an Arab rather + than a Persian; and he was believed to have inherited the violence, the + pride, and the cruelty of his father. His countrymen were therefore + resolved that they would not allow him to be king. Neither were they + inclined to admit the claims of Sapor, whose government of Armenia had not + been particularly successful, and whose recent desertion of his proper + post for the advancement of his own private interests was a crime against + his country which deserved punishment rather than reward. Armenia had + actually revolted as soon as he quitted it, had driven out the Persian + garrison, and was a prey to rapine and disorder. We cannot be surprised + that, under these circumstances, Sapor’s machinations and hopes were + abruptly terminated, soon after his father’s demise, by his own murder. + The nobles and chief Magi took affairs into their own hands. Instead of + sending for Varahran, or awaiting his arrival, they selected for king a + descendant of Artaxerxes I. only remotely related to Isdigerd—a + prince of the name of Chosroes—and formally placed him upon the + throne. But Varahran was not willing to cede his rights. Having persuaded + the Arabs to embrace his cause, he marched upon Ctesiphon at the head of a + large force, and by some means or other, most probably by the terror of + his arms, prevailed upon Chosroes, the nobles, and the Magi, to submit to + him. The people readily acquiesced in the change of masters; Chosroes + descended into a private station, and Varahran, son of Isdigerd, became + king. + </p> + <p> + Varahran seems to have ascended the throne in A.D. 420. He at once threw + himself into the hands of the priestly party, and, resuming the + persecution of the Christians which his father had carried on during his + later years, showed himself, to one moiety of his subjects at any rate, as + bloody and cruel as the late monarch. Tortures of various descriptions + were employed; and so grievous was the pressure put upon the followers of + Christ that in a short time large numbers of the persecuted sect quitted + the country, and placed themselves under the protection of the Romans. + Varahran had to consider whether he would quietly allow the escape of + these criminals, or would seek to enforce his will upon them at the risk + of a rupture with Rome. He preferred the bolder line of conduct. His + ambassadors were instructed to require the surrender of the refugees at + the court of Constantinople; and when Theodosius, to his honor, + indignantly rejected the demand, they had orders to protest against the + emperor’s decision, and to threaten him with their master’s vengeance. + </p> + <p> + It happened that at the time there were some other outstanding disputes, + which caused the relations of the two empires to be less amicable than was + to be desired. The Persians had recently begun to work their gold mines, + and had hired experienced persons from the Romans, whose services they + found so valuable that when the period of the hiring was expired they + would not suffer the miners to quit Persia and return to their homes. They + are also said to have ill-used the Roman merchants who traded in the + Persian territories, and to have actually robbed them of their + merchandise. + </p> + <p> + These causes of complaint were not, however, it would seem, brought + forward by the Romans, who contented themselves with simply refusing the + demand for the extradition of the Christian fugitives, and refrained from + making any counter-claims. But their moderation was not appreciated; and + the Persian monarch, on learning that Rome would not restore the refugees, + declared the peace to be at an end, and immediately made preparations for + war. The Romans had, however, anticipated his decision, and took the field + in force before the Persians were ready. The command was entrusted to a + general bearing the strange name of Ardaburius, who marched his troops + through Armenia into the fertile province of Arzanene, and there defeated + Narses, the leader whom Varahran had sent against him. Proceeding to + plunder Arzanene, Ardaburius suddenly heard that his adversary was about + to enter the Roman province of Mesopotamia, which was denuded of troops, + and seemed to invite attack. Hastily concluding his raid, he passed from + Arzanene into the threatened district, and was in time to prevent the + invasion intended by Narses, who, when he found his designs forestalled, + threw himself into the fortress of Nisibis, and there stood on the + defensive. Ardaburius did not feel himself strong enough to invest the + town; and for some time the two adversaries remained inactive, each + watching the other. It was during this interval that (if we may credit + Socrates) the Persian general sent a challenge to the Roman, inviting him + to fix time and place for a trial of strength between the two armies. + Ardaburius prudently declined the overture, remarking that the Romans were + not accustomed to fight battles when their enemies wished, but when it + suited themselves. Soon afterwards he found himself able to illustrate his + meaning by his actions. Having carefully abstained from attacking Nisibis + while his strength seemed to him insufficient, he suddenly, upon receiving + large reinforcements from Theodosius, changed his tactics, and, invading + Persian Mesopotamia, marched upon the stronghold held by Narses, and + formally commenced its siege. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto Varahran, confident in his troops or his good fortune, had left + the entire conduct of the military operations to his general; but the + danger of Nisibis—that dearly won and highly prized possession—seriously + alarmed him, and made him resolve to take the field in person with all his + forces. Enlisting on his side the services of his friends the Arabs, under + their great sheikh, Al-Amundarus (Moundsir), and collecting together a + strong body of elephants, he advanced to the relief of the beleaguered + town. Ardaburius drew off on his approach, burned his siege artillery, and + retired from before the place. Nisibis was preserved; but soon afterwards + a disaster is said to have befallen the Arabs, who, believing themselves + about to be attacked by the Roman force, were seized with a sudden panic, + and, rushing in headlong flight to the Euphrates (!) threw themselves into + its waters, encumbered with their clothes and arms, and there perished to + the number of a hundred thousand. + </p> + <p> + The remaining circumstances of the war are not related by our authorities + in chronological sequence. But as it is certain that the war lasted only + two years, and as the events above narrated certainly belong to the + earlier portion of it, and seem sufficient for one campaign, we may + perhaps be justified in assigning to the second year, A.D. 421, the other + details recorded—viz., the siege of Theodosiopolis, the combat + between Areobindus and Ardazanes, the second victory of Ardaburius, and + the destruction of the remnant of the Arabs by Vitianus. + </p> + <p> + Theodosiopolis was a city built by the reigning emperor, Theodosius II., + in the Roman portion of Armenia, near the sources of the Euphrates. It was + defended by strong walls, lofty towers, and a deep ditch. Hidden channels + conducted an unfailing supply of water into the heart of the place, and + the public granaries were large and generally well stocked with + provisions. This town, recently built for the defence of the Roman + Armenia, was (it would seem) attacked in A.D. 421 by Varahran in person. + He besieged it for above thirty days, and employed against it all the + means of capture which were known to the military art of the period. But + the defence was ably conducted by the bishop of the city, a certain + Eunomius, who was resolved that, if he could prevent it, an infidel and + persecuting monarch should never lord it over his see. Eunomius not merely + animated the defenders, but took part personally in the defence, and even + on one occasion discharged a stone from a balista with his own hand, and + killed a prince who had not confined himself to his military duties, but + had insulted the faith of the besieged. The death of this officer is said + to have induced Varahran to retire, and not further molest Theodosiopolis. + </p> + <p> + While the fortified towns on either side thus maintained themselves + against the attacks made on them, Theodosius, we are told, gave an + independent command to the patrician Procopius, and sent him at the head + of a body of troops to oppose Varahran. The armies met, and were on the + point of engaging when the Persian monarch made a proposition to decide + the war, not by a general battle, but by a single combat. Procopius + assented; and a warrior was selected on either side, the Persians choosing + for their champion a certain Ardazanes, and the Romans “Areobindus the + Goth,” count of the “Foederati.” In the conflict which followed the + Persian charged his adversary with his spear, but the nimble Goth avoided + the thrust by leaning to one side, after which he entangled Ardazanes in a + net, and then despatched him with his sword. The result was accepted by + Varahran as decisive of the war, and he desisted, from any further + hostilities. Areobindus received the thanks of the emperor for his + victory, and twelve years later was rewarded with the consulship. + </p> + <p> + But meanwhile, in other portions of the wide field over which the war was + raging, Rome had obtained additional successes. Ardaburius, who probably + still commanded in Mesopotamia, had drawn the Persian force opposed to him + into an ambuscade, and had destroyed it, together with its seven generals. + Vitianus, an officer of whom nothing more is known, had exterminated the + remnant of the Arabs not drowned in the Euphrates. The war had gone + everywhere against the Persians; and it is not improbable that Varahran, + before the close of A.D. 421, proposed terms of peace. + </p> + <p> + Peace, however, was not exactly made till the next year. Early in A.D. + 422, a Roman envoy, by name Maximus, appeared in the camp of Varahran, + and, when taken into the presence of the great king, stated that he was + empowered by the Roman generals to enter into negotiations, but had had no + communication with the Roman emperor, who dwelt so far off that he had not + heard of the war, and was so powerful that, if he knew of it, he would + regard it as a matter of small account. It is not likely that Varahran was + much impressed by these falsehoods; but he was tired of the war; he had + found that Rome could hold her own, and that he was not likely to gain + anything by prolonging it; and he was in difficulties as to provisions, + whereof his supply had run short. He was therefore well inclined to + entertain Maximus’s proposals favorably. The corps of the “Immortals,” + however, which was in his camp, took a different view, and entreated to be + allowed an opportunity of attacking the Romans unawares, while they + believed negotiations to be going on, considering that under such + circumstances they would be certain of victory. Varahran, according to the + Roman writer who is here our sole authority, consented. The Immortals made + their attack, and the Romans were at first in some danger; but the + unexpected arrival of a reinforcement saved them, and the Immortals were + defeated and cut off to a man. After this, Varahran made peace with Rome + through the instrumentality of Maximus, consenting, it would seem, not + merely that Rome should harbor the Persian Christians, if she pleased, but + also that all persecution of Christians should henceforth cease throughout + his own empire. + </p> + <p> + The formal conclusion of peace was accompanied, and perhaps helped + forward, by the well-judging charity of an admirable prelate. Acacius, + bishop of Amida, pitying the condition of the Persian prisoners whom the + Romans had captured during their raid into Arzanene, and were dragging off + into slavery, interposed to save them; and, employing for the purpose all + the gold and silver plate that he could find in the churches of his + diocese, ransomed as many as seven thousand captives, supplied their + immediate wants with the utmost tenderness, and sent them to Varahran, who + can scarcely have failed to be impressed by an act so unusual in ancient + times. Our sceptical historian remarks, with more apparent sincerity than + usual, that this act was calculated “to inform, the Persian king of the + true spirit of the religion which he persecuted,” and that the name of the + doer might well “have dignified the saintly calendar.” These remarks are + just; and it is certainly to be regretted that, among the many unknown or + doubtful names of canonized Christians to which the Church has given her + sanction, there is no mention made of Acacius of Amida. + </p> + <p> + Varahran was perhaps the more disposed to conclude his war with Rome from + the troubled condition of his own portion of Armenia, which imperatively + required his attention. Since the withdrawal from that region of his + brother Sapor in A.D. 418 or 419, the country had had no king. It had + fallen into a state of complete anarchy and wretchedness; no taxes were + collected; the roads were not safe; the strong robbed and oppressed the + weak at their pleasure. Isaac, the Armenian patriarch, and the other + bishops, had quitted their sees and taken refuge in Roman Armenia, where + they were received favorably by the prefect of the East, Anatolius, who no + doubt hoped by their aid to win over to his master the Persian division of + the country. Varahran’s attack on Theodosiopolis had been a counter + movement, and had been designed to make the Romans tremble for their own + possessions, and throw them back on the defensive. But the attack had + failed; and on its failure the complete loss of Armenia probably seemed + imminent. Varahran therefore hastened to make peace with Rome, and, having + so done, proceeded to give his attention to Armenia, with the view of + placing matters there on a satisfactory footing. Convinced that he could + not retain Armenia unless with the good-will of the nobles, and believing + them to be deeply attached to the royal stock of the Arsacids, he brought + forward a prince of that noble house, named Artases, a son of + Varahran-Sapor, and, investing him with the ensigns of royalty, made him + take the illustrious name of Artaxerxes, and delivered into his hands the + entire government of the country. These proceedings are assigned to the + year A.D. 422, the year of the peace with Rome, and must have followed + very shortly after the signature of the treaty. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that this arrangement would have satisfied the + nobles of Armenia, and have given that unhappy country a prolonged period + of repose. But the personal character of Artaxerxes was, unfortunately, + bad; the Armenian nobles were, perhaps, capricious; and after a trial of + six years it was resolved that the rule of the Arsacid monarch could not + be endured, and that Varahran should be requested to make Armenia a + province of his empire, and to place it under the government of a Persian + satrap. The movement was resisted with all his force by Isaac, the + patriarch, who admitted the profligacy of Artaxerxes and deplored it, but + held that the role of a Christian, however lax he might be, was to be + preferred to that of a heathen, however virtuous. The nobles, however, + were determined; and the opposition of Isaac had no other result than to + involve him in the fall of his sovereign. Appeal was made to the Persian + king and Varahran, in solemn state, heard the charges made against + Artaxerxes by his subjects, and listened to his reply to them. At the end + he gave his decision. Artaxerxes was pronounced to have forfeited his + crown, and was deposed; his property was confiscated, and his person + committed to safe custody. The monarchy was declared to be at an end; and + Persarmenia was delivered into the hands of a Persian governor. The + patriarch Isaac was at the same time degraded from his office and detained + in Persia as a prisoner. It was not till some years later that he was + released, allowed to return into Armenia, and to resume, under certain + restrictions, his episcopal functions. + </p> + <p> + The remaining circumstances of the reign of Varahran V. come to us wholly + through the Oriental writers, amid whose exaggerations and fables it is + very difficult to discern the truth. There can, however, be little doubt + that it was during the reign of this prince that those terrible struggles + commenced between the Persians and their neighbors upon the north-east + which continued, from the early part of the fifth till the middle of the + sixth century, to endanger the very existence of the empire. Various names + are given to the people with whom Persia waged her wars during this + period. They are called Turks, Huns, sometimes even Chinese, but these + terms seem, to be used in a vague way, as “Scythian” was by the ancients; + and the special ethnic designation of the people appears to be quite a + different name from any of them. It is a name the Persian form of which is + <i>Haithal</i> or <i>Haiathleh</i>, the Armenian Hephthagh, and the Greek + “Ephthalites,” or sometimes “Nephthalites.” Different conjectures have + been formed as to its origin: but none of them can be regarded as more + than an ingenious theory. All that we know of the Ephthalites is, that + they were established in force, during the fifth and sixth centuries of + our era, in the regions east of the Caspian, especially in those beyond + the Oxus river, and that they were generally regarded as belonging to the + Scythic or Finno-Turkic population, which, at any rate from B.C. 200, had + become powerful in that region. They were called “White Huns” by some of + the Greeks; but it is admitted that they were quite distinct from the Huns + who invaded Europe under Attila; and it may be doubted whether the term + “Hun” is more appropriate to them than that of Turk or even of Chinese. + The description of their physical character and habits left us by + Procopius, who wrote when they were at the height of their power, is + decidedly adverse to the view that they were really Huns. They were a + light-complexioned race, whereas the Huns were decidedly swart; they were + not ill-looking, whereas the Huns were hideous; they were an agricultural + people, while the Huns were nomads; they had good laws, and were tolerably + well civilized, but the Huns were savages. It is probable that they + belonged to the Thibetic or Turkish stock, which has always been in + advance of the Finnic, and has shown a greater aptitude for political + organization and social progress. + </p> + <p> + We are told that the war of Varahran V. with this people commenced with an + invasion of his kingdom by their Khacan, or Kahn, who crossed the Oxus + with an army of 35,000 (or, according to others, of 250,000) men, and + carried fire and sword into some of the most fertile provinces of Persia. + The rich oasis, known as Meru or Merv, the ancient Margiana, is especially + mentioned as overrun by his troops, which are said by some to have crossed + the Elburz range into Khorassan and to have proceeded westward as far as + Kei, or Rhages. When news of the invasion reached the Persian court, the + alarm felt was great; Varahran was pressed to assemble his forces at once + and encounter the unknown enemy; he, however, professed complete + indifference, said that the Almighty would preserve the empire, and that, + for his own part, he was going to hunt in Azerbijan, or Media Atropatene. + During his absence the government could be conducted by Narses, his + brother. All Persia was now thrown into consternation; Varahran was + believed to have lost his senses; and it was thought that the only prudent + course was to despatch an embassy to the Khacan, and make an arrangement + with him by which Persia should acknowledge his suzerainty and consent to + pay him a tribute. Ambassadors accordingly were sent; and the invaders, + satisfied with the offer of submission, remained in the position which + they had taken up, waiting for the tribute, and keeping slack guard, since + they considered that they had nothing to fear. Varahran, however, was all + the while preparing to fall upon them unawares. He had started for + Azerbijan with a small body of picked warriors; he had drawn some further + strength from Armenia; he proceeded along the mountain line through + Taberistan, Hyrcania, and Nissa (Nishapur), marching only by night, and + carefully masking his movements. In this way he reached the neighborhood + of Merv unobserved. He then planned and executed a night attack on the + invading army which was completely successful. Attacking his adversaries + suddenly and in the dark—alarming them, moreover, with strange + noises, and at the same time assaulting them with the utmost vigor—he + put to flight the entire Tatar army. The Khan himself was killed; and the + flying host was pursued to the banks of the Oxus. The whole of the camp + equipage fell into the hands of the victors; and Khatoun, the wife of the + great Khan, was taken. The plunder was of enormous value, and comprised + the royal crown with its rich setting of pearls. After this success, + Varahran, to complete his victory, sent one of his generals across the + Oxus at the head of a large force, and falling upon the Tatars in their + own country defeated them a second time with great slaughter. The enemy + then prayed for peace, which was granted them by the victorious Varahran, + who at the same time erected a column to mark the boundary of his empire + in this quarter, and, appointing his brother Narses governor of Khorassan, + ordered him to fix his residence at Balkh, and to prevent the Tatars from + making incursions across the Oxus. It appears that these precautions were + successful, for we hear nothing of any further hostilities in this quarter + during the remainder of Varahran’s reign. + </p> + <p> + The adventures of Varahran in India, and the enlargement of his dominions + in that direction by the act of the Indian king, who is said so have + voluntarily ceded to him Mekran and Scinde in return for his services + against the Emperor of China, cannot be regarded as historical. Scarcely + more so is the story that Persia had no musicians in his day, for which + reason he applied to the Indian monarch, and obtained from him twelve + thousand performers, who became the ancestors of the Lurs. After a reign + which is variously estimated at nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, and + twenty-three years, Varahran died by a death which would have been thought + incredible, had not a repetition of the disaster, on the traditional site, + been witnessed by an English traveller in comparatively recent times. The + Persian writers state that Varahran was engaged in the hunt of the wild + ass, when his horse came suddenly upon a deep pool, or spring of water, + and either plunged into it or threw his rider into it, with the result + that Varahran sank and never reappeared. The supposed scene of the + incident is a valley between Ispahan and Shiraz. Here, in 1810, an English + soldier lost his life through bathing in the spring traditionally declared + to be that which proved fatal to Varahran. The coincidence has caused the + general acceptance of a tale which would probably have been otherwise + regarded as altogether romantic and mythical. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Varahran V. are chiefly remarkable for their rude and coarse + workmanship and for the number of the mints from which they were issued. + The mint-marks include Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, Isaphan, Arbela, Ledan, + Nehavend, Assyria, Chuzistan, Media, and Kerman, or Carmania. The ordinary + legend is, upon the obverse, <i>Mazdisn bag Varahran malha,</i> or <i>Mazdisn + bag Varahran rasti malha,</i> and on the reverse, “Yavahran,” together + with a mint-mark. The head-dress has the mural crown in front and behind, + but interposes between these two detached fragments a crescent and a + circle, emblems, no doubt, of the sun and moon gods. The reverse shows the + usual fire-altar, with guards, or attendants, watching it. The king’s head + appears in the flame upon the altar. <a href="#linkimage-0017">[PLATE XXI. + Fig. 2]</a>. + </p> + <p> + According to the Oriental writers, Varahran V. was one of the best of the + Sassanian princes. He carefully administered justice among his numerous + subjects, remitted arrears of taxation, gave pensions to men of science + and letters, encouraged agriculture, and was extremely liberal in the + relief of poverty and distress. His faults were, that he was over-generous + and over-fond of amusements, especially of the chase. The nickname of + “Bahram-Gur,” by which he is known to the Orientals, marks this last-named + predilection, transferring to him, as it does, the name of the animal + which was the especial object of his pursuit. But he was almost equally + fond of dancing and of games. Still it does not appear that his + inclination for amusements rendered him neglectful of public affairs, or + at all interfered with his administration of the State. Persia is said to + have been in a most flourishing condition during his reign. He may not + have gained all the successes that are ascribed to him; but he was + undoubtedly an active prince, brave, energetic, and clear-sighted. He + judiciously brought the Roman war to a close when a new and formidable + enemy appeared on his north-eastern frontier; he wisely got rid of the + Armenian difficulty, which had been a stumbling block in the way of his + predecessors for two hundred years; he inflicted a check on the aggressive + Tatars, which indisposed them to renew hostilities with Persia for a + quarter of a century. It would seem that he did not much appreciate art + but he encouraged learning, and did his best to advance science. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTERS XV. TO XXVIII. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkB2H_4_0002" id="linkB2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </h2> + <h1> + THE SEVENTH MONARCHY + </h1> + <h2> + HISTORY OF THE SASSANIAN OR NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0001" id="linkBimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/sassian_empire.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="sassian_empire_th (154K)" src="images/sassian_empire_th.jpg" + width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0002" id="linkB2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Isdigerd II. His War with Rome. His Nine Years’ War with the + Ephthalites. His Policy towards Armenia. His Second Ephthalite War. His + Character. His Coins.</i> + </p> + <p> + The successor of Varahan V. was his son, Isdigerd the Second, who ascended + the Persian throne without opposition in the year A.D. 440. His first act + was to declare war against Rome. The Roman forces were, it would seem, + concentrated in the vicinity of Nisibis; and Isdigerd may have feared that + they would make an attack upon the place. He therefore anticipated them, + and invaded the empire with an army composed in part of his own subjects, + but in part also of troops from the surrounding nations. Saracens, Tzani, + Isaurians, and Huns (Ephthalites?) served under his standard; and a sudden + incursion was made into the Roman territory, for which the imperial + officers were wholly unprepared. A considerable impression would probably + have been produced, had not the weather proved exceedingly unpropitious. + Storms of rain and hail hindered the advance of the Persian troops, and + allowed the Roman generals a breathing space, during which they collected + an army. But the Emperor Theodosius was anxious that the flames of war + should not be relighted in this quarter; and his instructions to the + prefect of the East, the Count Anatolius, were such as speedily led to the + conclusion, first of a truce for a year, and then of a lasting treaty. + Anatolius repaired as ambassador to the Persian camp, on foot and alone, + so as to place himself completely in Isdigerd’s power—an act which + so impressed the latter that (we are told) he at once agreed to make peace + on the terms which Anatolius suggested. The exact nature of these terms is + not recorded; but they contained at least one unusual condition. The + Romans and Persians agreed that neither party should construct any new + fortified post in the vicinity of the other’s territory—a loose + phrase which was likely to be variously interpreted, and might easily lead + to serious complications. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to understand this sudden conclusion of peace by a young + prince, evidently anxious to reap laurels, who in the first year of his + reign had, at the head of a large army, invaded the dominions of a + neighbor. The Roman account, that he invaded, that he was practically + unopposed, and that then, out of politeness towards the prefect of the + East, he voluntarily retired within his own frontier, “having done nothing + disagreeable,” is as improbable a narrative as we often meet with, even in + the pages of the Byzantine historians. Something has evidently been kept + back. If Isdigerd returned, as Procopius declares, without effecting + anything, he must have been recalled by the occurrence of troubles in some + other part of his empire. But it is, perhaps, as likely that he retired, + simply because he had effected the object with which he engaged in the + war. It was a constant practice of the Romans to advance their frontier by + building strong towns on or near a debatable border, which attracted to + them the submission of the neighboring district. The recent building of + Theodosiopolis in the eastern part of Roman Armenia had been an instance + of this practice. It was perhaps being pursued elsewhere along the Persian + border, and the invasion of Isdigerd may have been intended to check it. + If so, the proviso of the treaty recorded by Procopius would have afforded + him the security which he required, and have rendered it unnecessary for + him to continue the war any longer. + </p> + <p> + His arms shortly afterwards found employment in another quarter. The + Tatars of the Transoxianian regions were once more troublesome; and in + order to check or prevent the incursions which they were always ready to + make, if they were unmolested, Isdigerd undertook a long war on his + northeastern frontier, which he conducted with a resolution and + perseverance not very common in the East. Leaving his vizier, Mihr-Narses, + to represent him at the seat of government, he transferred his own + residence to Nishapm, in the mountain region between the Persian and + Kharesmian deserts, and from that convenient post of observation directed + the military operations against his active enemies, making a campaign + against them regularly every year from A.D. 443 to 451. In the year last + mentioned he crossed the Oxus, and, attacking the Ephthalites in their own + territory, obtained a complete success, driving the monarch from the + cultivated portion of the country, and forcing him to take refuge in the + desert. So complete was his victory that he seems to have been satisfied + with the result, and, regarding the war as terminated, to have thought the + time was come for taking in hand an arduous task, long contemplated, but + not hitherto actually attempted. + </p> + <p> + This was no less a matter than the forcible conversion of Armenia to the + faith of Zoroaster. It has been already noted that the religious + differences which—from the time when the Armenians, anticipating + Constantine, adopted as the religion of their state and nation the + Christian faith (ab. A.D. 300)—separated the Armenians from the + Persians, were a cause of weakness to the latter, more especially in their + contests with Rome. Armenia was always, naturally, upon the Roman side, + since a religious sympathy united it with the the court of Constantinople, + and an exactly opposite feeling tended to detach it from the court of + Ctesiphon. The alienation would have been, comparatively speaking, + unimportant, after the division of Armenia between the two powers, had + that division been regarded by either party as final, or as precluding the + formation of designs upon the territory which each had agreed should be + held by the other. But there never yet had been a time when such designs + had ceased to be entertained; and in the war which Isdigerd had waged with + Theodosius at the beginning of his reign, Roman intrigues in Persarmenia + had forced him to send an army into that country. The Persians felt, and + felt with reason, that so long as Armenia remained Christian and Persia + held to the faith of Zoroaster, the relations of the two countries could + never be really friendly; Persia would always have a traitor in her own + camp; and in any time of difficulty—especially in any difficulty + with Rome—might look to see this portion of her territory go over to + the enemy. We cannot be surprised if Persian statesmen were anxious to + terminate so unsatisfactory a state of things, and cast about for a means + whereby Armenia might be won over, and made a real friend instead of a + concealed enemy. + </p> + <p> + The means which suggested itself to Isdigerd as the simplest and most + natural was, as above observed, the conversion of the Armenians to the + Zoroastrian religion. In the early part of his reign he entertained a hope + of effecting his purpose by persuasion, and sent his vizier, Mihr-Narses, + into the country, with orders to use all possible peaceful means—gifts, + blandishments, promises, threats, removal of malignant chiefs—to + induce Armenia to consent to a change of religion. Mihr-Narses did his + best, but failed signally. He carried off the chiefs of the Christian + party, not only from Armenia, but from Iberia and Albania, telling them + that Isdigerd required their services against the Tatars, and forced them + with their followers to take part in the Eastern war. He committed Armenia + to the care of the Margrave, Vasag, a native prince who was well inclined + to the Persian cause, and gave him instructions to bring about the change + of religion by a policy of conciliation. But the Armenians were obstinate. + Neither threats, nor promises, nor persuasions had any effect. It was in + vain that a manifesto was issued, painting the religion of Zoroaster in + the brightest colors, and requiring all persons to conform to it. It was + to no purpose that arrests were made, and punishments threatened. The + Armenians declined to yield either to argument or to menace; and no + progress at all was made in the direction of the desired conversion. + </p> + <p> + In the year A.D. 450, the patriarch Joseph, by the general desire of the + Armenians, held a great assembly, at which it was carried by acclamation + that the Armenians were Christians, and would continue such, whatever it + might cost them. If it was hoped by this to induce Isdigerd to lay aside + his proselytizing schemes, the hope was a delusion. Isdigerd retaliated by + summoning to his presence the principal chiefs, viz., Vasag, the Margrave; + the Sparapet, or commander-in-chief, Vartan, the Mamigonian; Vazten, + prince of Iberia; Vatche, king of Albania, etc.; and having got them into + his power, threatened them with immediate death, unless they at once + renounced Christianity and made profession of Zoroastrianism. The chiefs, + not having the spirit of martyrs, unhappily yielded, and declared + themselves converts; whereupon Isdigerd sent them back to their respective + countries, with orders to force everywhere on their fellow-countrymen a + similar change of religion. + </p> + <p> + Upon this, the Armenians and Iberians broke out in open revolt. Vartan, + the Mamigonian, repenting of his weakness, abjured his new creed, resumed + the profession of Christianity, and made his peace with Joseph, the + patriarch. He then called the people to arms, and in a short time + collected a force of a hundred thousand men. Three armies were formed, to + act separately under different generals. One watched Azerbijan, or Media + Atropatene, whence it was expected that their main attack would be made by + the Persians; another, under Vartan, proceeded to the relief of Albania, + where proceedings were going on similar to those which had driven Armenia + into rebellion; the third, under Vasag, occupied a central position in + Armenia, and was intended to move wherever danger should threaten. An + attempt was at the same time made to induce the Roman emperor, Marcian, to + espouse the cause of the rebels, and send troops to their assistance; but + this attempt was unsuccessful. Marcian had but recently ascended the + throne, and was, perhaps, scarcely fixed in his seat. He was advanced in + years, and naturally unenterprising. Moreover, the position of affairs in + Western Europe was such that Marcian might expect at any moment to be + attacked by an overwhelming force of northern barbarians, cruel, warlike, + and unsparing. Attila was in A.D. 451 at the height of his power; he had + not yet been worsted at Chalons; and the terrible Huns, whom he led, might + in a few months destroy the Western, and be ready to fall upon the Eastern + empire. Armenia, consequently, was left to her own resources, and had to + combat the Persians single-handed. Even so, she might probably have + succeeded, have maintained her Christianity, or even recovered her + independence, had her people been of one mind, and had no defection from + the national cause manifested itself. But Vasag, the Marzpan, had always + been half-hearted in the quarrel; and, now that the crisis was come, he + determined on going wholly over to the Persians. He was able to carry with + him the army which he commanded; and thus Armenia was divided against + itself; and the chance of victory was well-nigh lost before the struggle + had begun. When the Persians took the field they found half Armenia ranged + upon their side; and, though a long and bloody contest followed, the end + was certain from the beginning. After much desultory warfare, a great + battle was fought in the sixteenth year of Isdigerd (A.D. 455 or 456) + between the Christian Armenians on the one side, and the Persians, with + their Armenian abettors, on the other. The Persians were victorious; + Vartan, and his brother, Hemaiiag, were among the slain; and the patriotic + party found that no further resistance was possible. The patriarch, + Joseph, and the other bishops, were seized, carried off to Persia, and + martyred. Zoroastrianism was enforced upon the Armenian nation. All + accepted it, except a few, who either took refuge in the dominions of + Rome, or fled to the mountain fastnesses of Kurdistan. + </p> + <p> + The resistance of Armenia was scarcely overborne, when war once more broke + out in the East, and Isdigerd was forced to turn his attention to the + defence of his frontier against the aggressive Ephthalites, who, after + remaining quiet for three or four years, had again flown to arms, had + crossed the Oxus, and invaded Khorassan in force. On his first advance the + Persian monarch was so far successful that the invading hordes seems to + have retired, and left Persia to itself; but when Isdigerd, having + resolved to retaliate, led his own forces into the Ephthalite country, + they took heart, resisted him, and, having tempted him into an ambuscade, + succeeded in inflicting upon him a severe defeat. Isdigerd was forced to + retire hastily within his own borders, and to leave the honors of victory + to his assailants, whose triumph must have encouraged them to continue + year after year their destructive inroads into the north-eastern provinces + of the empire. + </p> + <p> + It was not long after the defeat which he suffered in this quarter that + Isdigerd’s reign came to an end. He died A.D. 457, after having held the + throne for seventeen or (according to some) for nineteen years. He was a + prince of considerable ability, determination, and courage. That his + subjects called him “the Clement” is at first sight surprising, since + clemency is certainly not the virtue that any modern writer would think of + associating with his name. But we may assume from the application of the + term that, where religious considerations did not come into play, he was + fair and equitable, mild-tempered, and disinclined to harsh punishments. + Unfortunately, experience tells us that natural mildness is no security + against the acceptance of a bigot’s creed; and, when a policy of + persecution has once been adopted, a Trajan or a Valerian will be as + unsparing as a Maximin or a Galerius. Isdigerd was a bitter and successful + persecutor of Christianity, which he—for a time at any rate—stamped + out, both from his own proper dominions, and from the newly-acquired + province of Armenia. He would have preferred less violent means; but, when + they failed, he felt no scruples in employing the extremest and severest + coercion. He was determined on uniformity; and uniformity he secured, but + at the cost of crushing a people, and so alienating them as to make it + certain that they would, on the first convenient occasion, throw off the + Persian yoke altogether. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Isdigerd II. nearly resemble those of his father, Varahran + V., differing only in the legend, and in the fact that the mural crown of + Isdigerd is complete. The legend is remarkably short, being either <i>Masdisn + kadi Tezdikerti</i>, or merely <i>Kadi Yezdikerti</i>—i.e. “the + Ormazd-worshipping great Isdigerd;” or “Isdigord the Great.” The coins are + not very numerous, and have three mint-marks only, which are interpreted + to mean “Khuzistan,” “Ctesiphon,” and “Nehavend.” <a + href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE XXI., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0002" id="linkBimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate021.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxi. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0003" id="linkB2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Right of Succession disputed between the two Sons of Isdigerd II., + Perozes (or Firuz) and Hormisdas. Civil War for two years. Success of + Perozes, through aid given him by the Ephthalites. Great Famine. Perozes + declares War against the Ephthalites, and makes an Expedition into their + Country. His ill success. Conditions of Peace granted him. Armenian Revolt + and War. Perozes, after some years, resumes the Ephthalite War. His attack + fails, and he is slain in battle. Summary of his Character. Coins of + Hormisdas III. and Perozes. Vase of Perozes.</i> + </p> + <p> + On the death of Isdigerd II. (A.D. 457) the throne was seized by his + younger son Hormisdas, who appears to have owed his elevation, in a great + measure, to the partiality of his father. That monarch, preferring his + younger son above his elder, had made the latter governor of the distant + Seistan, and had thus removed him far from the court, while he retained + Hormisdas about his own person. The advantage thus secured to Hormisdas + enabled him when his father died to make himself king; and Perozes was + forced, we are told, to fly the country, and place himself under the + protection of the Ephthalite monarch, who ruled in the valley of the Oxus, + over Bactria, Tokaristan, Badakshan, and other neighboring districts. This + king, who bore the name of Khush-newaz, received him favorably, and though + at first, out of fear for the power of Persia, he declined to lend him + troops, was induced after a while to adopt a bolder policy. Hormisdas, + despite his epithet of Ferzan, “the Wise,” was soon at variance with his + subjects, many of whom gathered about Perozes at the court which he was + allowed to maintain in Taleqan, one of the Ephthalite cities. Supported by + this body of refugees, and by an Ephthalite contingent, Perozes ventured + to advance against his brother. His army, which was commanded by a certain + Raham, or Ram, a noble of the Mihran family, attacked the forces of + Hormisdas, defeated them, and made Hormisdas himself a prisoner. The + troops of the defeated monarch, convinced by the logic of success, + deserted their late leader’s cause, and went over in a body to the + conqueror. Perozes, after somewhat more than two years of exile, was + acknowledged as king by the whole Persian people, and, quitting Taleqan, + established himself at Ctesiphon, or Al Modain, which had now become the + main seat of government. It is uncertain what became of Hormisdas. + According to the Armenian writers, Raham, after defeating him, caused him + to be put to death; but the native historian, Mirkhond, declares that, on + the contrary, Perozes forgave him for having disputed the succession, and + amiably spared his life. + </p> + <p> + The civil war between the two brothers, short as it was, had lasted long + enough to cost Persia a province. Vatche, king of Aghouank (Albania) took + advantage of the time of disturbance to throw off his allegiance, and + succeeded in making himself independent. It was the first object of + Perozes, after establishing himself upon the throne, to recover this + valuable territory. He therefore made war upon Vatche, thought that prince + was the son of his sister, and with the help of his Ephthalite allies, and + of a body of Alans whom he took into his service, defeated the rebellious + Albanians and completely subjugated the revolted country. + </p> + <p> + A time of prosperity now ensued. Perozes ruled with moderation and + justice. He dismissed his Ephthalite allies with presents that amply + contented them, and lived for five years in great peace and honor. But in + the seventh year, from the death of his father, the prosperity of Persia + was suddenly and grievously interrupted by a terrible drought, a calamity + whereto Asia has in all ages been subject, and which often produces the + most frightful consequences. The crops fail; the earth becomes parched and + burnt up; smiling districts are change into wildernesses; fountains and + brooks cease to flow; then the wells have no water; finally even the great + rivers are reduced to threads, and contain only the scantiest supply of + the life-giving fluid in their channels. Famine under these circumstances + of necessity sets in; the poor die by hundreds; even the rich have a + difficulty in sustaining life by means of food imported from a distance. + We are told that the drought in the reign of Perozes was such that at last + there was not a drop of water either in the Tigris or the Oxus; all the + sources and fountains, all the streams and brooks failed; vegetation + altogether ceased; the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air + perished; nowhere through the whole empire was a bird to be seen; the wild + animals, even the reptiles, disappeared altogether. The dreadful calamity + lasted for seven years, and under ordinary circumstances the bulk of the + population would have been swept off; but such were the “wisdom and the + beneficence of the Persian monarch,” that during the entire duration of + the scourge not a single person, or, according to another account, but one + person, perished of hunger. Perozes began by issuing general orders that + the rich should come to the relief of their poorer brethren; he required + the governors of towns, and the head-men of villages, to see that food was + supplied to those in need, and threatened that for each poor man in a town + or village who died of want he would put a rich man to death. At the end + of two years, finding that the drought continued, he declined to take any + revenue from his subjects, remitting taxes of all kinds, whether they were + money imposts or contributions in kind. In the fourth year, not content + with these measures, he went further: opened the treasury doors and made + distributions of money from his own stores to those in need. At the same + time he imported corn from Greece, from India, from the valley of the + Oxus, and from Abyssinia, obtaining by these means such ample supplies + that he was able to furnish an adequate sustenance to all his subjects. + The result was that not only did the famine cause no mortality among the + poorer classes, but no one was even driven to quit the country in order to + escape the pressure of the calamity. + </p> + <p> + Such is the account which is given by the Oriental authors of the terrible + famine which they ascribe to the early part of the reign of Perozes. It is + difficult, however, to suppose that the matter has not been very much + exaggerated, since we find that, as early as A.D. 464-5, when the famine + should have been at its height, Perozes had entered upon a great war and + was hotly engaged in it, his ambassadors at the same time being sent to + the Greek court, not to ask supplies of food, but to request a subsidy on + account of his military operations. The enemy which had provoked his + hostility was the powerful nation of the Ephthalites, by whose aid he had + so recently obtained the Persian crown. According to a contemporary Greek + authority, more worthy of trust than most writers of his age and nation, + the origin of the war was a refusal on the part of the Ephthalites to make + certain customary payments which the Persians viewed in the light of a + tribute. Perozes determined to enforce his just rights, and marched his + troops against the defaulters with this object. But in his first + operations he was unsuccessful, and after a time he thought it best to + conclude the war, and content himself with taking a secret revenge upon + his enemy, by means of an occult insult. He proposed to Khush-newaz to + conclude a treaty of peace, and to strengthen the compact by adding to it + a matrimonial alliance. Khush-newaz should take to wife one of his + daughters, and thus unite the interests of the two reigning families. The + proposal was accepted by the Ephthalite monarch; and he readily espoused + the young lady who was sent to his court apparelled as became a daughter + of Persia. In a little time, however, he found that he had been tricked: + Perozes had not sent him his daughter, but one of his female slaves; and + the royal race of the Ephthalite kings had been disgraced by a matrimonial + union with a person of servile condition. Khush-newaz was justly + indignant; but dissembled his feelings, and resolved to repay guile with + guile. He wrote to Perozes that it was his intention to make war upon a + neighboring tribe, and that he wanted officers of experience to conduct + the military operations. The Persian monarch, suspecting nothing, complied + with the request, and sent three hundred of his chief officers to + Khush-newaz, who immediately seized them, put some to death, and, + mutilating the remainder, commanded them to return to their sovereign, and + inform him that the king of the Ephthalites now felt that he had + sufficiently avenged the trick of which he had been the victim. On + receiving this message Perozes renewed the war, advanced towards the + Ephthalite country, and fixed his head-quarters in Hyrcania, at the city + of Gurgan, He was accompanied by a Greek of the name of Eusebius, an + ambassador from the Emperor Zeno, who took back to Constantinople the + following account of the campaign. + </p> + <p> + When Perozes, having invaded the Ephthalite territory, fell in with the + army of the enemy, the latter pretended to be seized with a panic, and at + once took to flight. The retreat was directed upon a portion of the + mountain region, where a broad and good road led into a spacious plain, + surrounded on all sides by wooded hills, steep and in places precipitous. + Here the mass of the Ephthalite troops was cunningly concealed amid the + foliage of the woods, while a small number, remaining visible, led the + Persians into the cul-de-sac, the whole army unsuspectingly entering, and + only learning their danger when they saw the road whereby they had entered + blocked up by the troops from the hills. The officers then apprehended the + true state of the case, and perceived that they had been cleverly + entrapped; but none of them, it would seem, dared to inform the monarch + that he had been deceived by a stratagem. Application was made to + Eusebius, whose ambassadorial character would protect him from an + outbreak, and he was requested to let Perozes know how he was situated, + and exhort him to endeavor to extricate himself by counsel rather than by + a desperate act. Eusebius upon this employed the Oriental method of + apologue, relating to Perozes how a lion in pursuit of a goat got himself + into difficulties, from which all his strength could not enable him to + make his escape. Perozes apprehended his meaning, understood the + situation, and, desisting from the pursuit, prepared to give battle where + he stood. But the Ephthalite monarch had no wish to push matters to + extremities. Instead of falling on the Persians from every side, he sent + an embassy to Perozes and offered to release him from his perilous + situation, and allow him to return with all his troops to Persia, if he + would swear a perpetual peace with the Ephthalites and do homage to + himself as his lord and master, by prostration. Perozes felt that he had + no choice but to accept these terms, hard as he might think them. + Instructed by the Magi, he made the required prostration at the moment of + sunrise, with his face turned to the east, and thought thus to escape the + humiliation of abasing himself before a mortal by the mental reservation + that the intention of his act was to adore the great Persian divinity. He + then swore to the peace, and was allowed to return with his army intact + into Persia. + </p> + <p> + It seems to have been soon after the conclusion of his disgraceful treaty + that serious troubles once more broke out in Armenia. Perozes, following + out the policy of his father, Isdigerd, incessantly persecuted the + Christians of his northern provinces, especially those of Armenia, + Georgia, and Albania. So severe were his measures that vast numbers of the + Armenians quitted their country, and, placing themselves under the + protection of the Greek Emperor, became his subjects, and entered into his + service. Armenia was governed by Persian officials, and by apostate + natives who treated their Christian fellow-countrymen with extreme + rudeness, insolence, and injustice. Their efforts were especially directed + against the few noble families who still clung to the faith of Christ, and + had not chosen to expatriate themselves. Among these the most important + was that of the Mamigonians, long celebrated in Armenian history, and at + this time reckoned chief among the nobility. The renegades sought to + discredit this family with the Persians; and Vahan, son of Hemaiiag, its + head, found himself compelled to visit, once and again, the court of + Persia, in order to meet the charges of his enemies and counteract the + effect of their calumnies. Successful in vindicating himself, and received + into high favor by Perozes, he allowed the sunshine of prosperity to + extort from him what he had guarded firmly against all the blasts of + persecution—to please his sovereign, he formally abjured the + Christian faith, and professed himself a disciple of Zoroaster. The + triumph of the anti-Christian party seemed now secured; but exactly at + this point a reaction set in. Vahan became a prey to remorse, returned + secretly to his old creed and longed for an opportunity of wiping out the + shame of his apostasy by perilling his life for the Christian cause. The + opportunity was not long in presenting itself. In A.D. 481 Perozes + suffered a defeat at the hand of the barbarous Koushans, who held at this + time the low Caspian tract extending from Asterabad to Derbend. Iberia at + once revolted, slew its Zoroastrian king, Vazken, and placed a Christian, + Vakhtang, upon the throne. The Persian governor of Armenia, having + received orders to quell the Iberian rebellion, marched with all the + troops that he could muster into the northern province, and left the + Armenians free to follow their own devices. A rising immediately took + place. Vahan at first endeavored to check the movement, being doubtful of + the power of Armenia to cope with Persia, and feeling sure that the aid of + the Greek emperor could not be counted on. But the the popular enthusiasm + overleaped all resistance; everywhere the Christian party rushed to arms, + and swore to free itself; the Persians with their adherents fled the + country; Artaxata, the capital, was besieged and taken; the Christians + were completely victorious, and, having made themselves masters of all + Persarmenia, proceeded to establish a national government, placing at + their head as king, Sahag, the Bagratide, and appointing Vahan, the + Mamigonian, to be Sparapet, or “Commander-in-Chief.” + </p> + <p> + Intelligence of these events recalled the Persian governor, Ader-Veshnasp, + from Iberia. Returning into his province at the head of an army of no + great size, composed of Atropatenians, Medes, and Cadusians, he was + encountered by Vasag, a brother of Vahan, on the river Araxes, with a + small force, and was completely defeated and slain. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the campaign of A.D. 481. In A.D. 482 the Persians made a + vigorous attempt to recover their lost ground by sending two armies, one + under Ader-Nerseh against Armenia, and the other under Mihran into Iberia. + Vahan met the army of Ader-Nerseh in the plain of Ardaz, engaged it, and + defeated it after a sharp struggle, in which the king, Sahag, particularly + distinguished himself. Mihran was opposed by Vakhtang, the Iberian king, + who, however, soon found himself overmatched, and was forced to apply to + Armenia for assistance. The Armenians came to his aid in full force; but + their generosity was ill rewarded. Vakhtang plotted to make his peace with + Persia by treacherously betraying his allies into their enemies’ hands; + and the Armenians, forced to fight at tremendous disadvantage, suffered a + severe defeat. Sahag, the king, and Vasag, one of the brothers of Vahan, + were slain; Vahan himself escaped, but at the head of only a few + followers, with whom he fled to the highland district of Daik, on the + borders of Home and Iberia. Here he was “hunted upon the mountains” by + Mihran, and would probably have been forced to succumb before the year was + out, had not the Persian general suddenly received a summons from his + sovereign, who needed his aid against the Roushans of the low Caspian + region. Mihran, compelled to obey this call, had to evacuate Armenia, and + Vahan in a few weeks recovered possession of the whole country. + </p> + <p> + The year A.D. 483 now arrived, and another desperate attempt was made to + crush the Armenian revolt. Early in the spring a Persian army invaded + Armenia, under a general called Hazaravougd. Vahan allowed himself to be + surprised, to be shut up in the city of Dovin, and to be there besieged. + After a while he made his escape, and renewed the guerilla warfare in + which he was an adept; but the Persians recovered most of the country, and + he was himself, on more than one occasion, driven across the border and + obliged to seek refuge in Roman Armenia, whither his adversary had no + right to follow him. Even here, however, he was not safe. Hazaravougd, at + the risk of a rupture with Rome, pursued his flying foe across the + frontier; and Vahan was for some time in the greatest danger. But the + Persian system of constantly changing the commands of their chief officers + saved him. Hazaravougd received orders from the court to deliver up + Armenia to a newly appointed governor, named Sapor, and to direct his own + efforts to the recovery of Iberia, which was still in insurrection. In + this latter enterprise he was successful; Iberia submitted to him; and + Vakhtang fled to Colchis. But in Armenia the substitution of Sapor for + Hazaravougd led to disaster. After a vain attempt to procure the + assassination of Vahan by two of his officers, whose wives were Roman + prisoners, Sapor moved against him with a strong body of troops; but the + brave Mamigonian, falling upon his assailant unawares, defeated him with + great loss, and dispersed his army. A second battle was fought with a + similar result; and the Persian force, being demoralized, had to retreat; + while Vajian, taking the offensive, established himself in Dovin, and once + more rallied to his side the great mass of the nation. Affairs were in + this state, when suddenly there arrived from the east intelligence of the + most supreme importance, which produced a pause in the Armenian conflict + and led to the placing of Armenian affairs on a new footing. + </p> + <p> + Perozes had, from the conclusion of his treaty with the Ephthalite monarch + (ab. A.D. 470), been tormented with the feeling that he had suffered + degradation and disgrace. He had, perhaps, plunged into the Armenian and + other wars in the hope of drowning the recollection of his shame, in his + own mind as well as in the minds of others. But fortune had not greatly + smiled on him in these struggles; and any credit that he obtained from + them was quite insufficient to produce forgetfulness of his great + disaster. Hence, as time went on, he became more and more anxious to wipe + out the memory of the past by a great and signal victory over his + conquerors. He therefore after some years determined to renew the war. It + was in vain that the chief Mobed opposed himself to this intention; it was + in vain that his other counsellors sought to dissuade him, that his + general, Bahram, declared against the infraction of the treaty, and that + the soldiers showed themselves reluctant to fight. Perozes had resolved, + and was not to be turned from his resolution. He collected from all parts + of the empire a veteran force, amounting, it is said, 50 to 100,000 men, + and 500 elephants, placed the direction of affairs at the court in the + hands of Balas (Palash), his son or brother, and then marched upon the + north-eastern frontier, with the determination to attack and defeat the + Ephthalites or perish in the attempt. According to some Oriental writers + he endeavored to escape the charge of having falsified his engagements by + a curious subterfuge. The exact terms of his oath to Khush-newaz, the + Ephthalite king, had been that he would never march his forces past a + certain pillar which that monarch had erected to mark the boundary line + between the Persian and Ephthalite dominions. Perozes persuaded himself + that he would sufficiently observe his engagement if he kept its letter; + and accordingly he lowered the pillar, and placed it upon a number of + cars, which were attached together and drawn by a train of fifty + elephants, in front of his army. Thus, however deeply he invaded the + Ephthalite country, he never “passed beyond” the pillar which he had sworn + not to pass. In his own judgment he kept his vow, but not in that of his + natural advisers. It is satisfactory to find that the Zoroastrian + priesthood, speaking by the mouth of the chief Mobed, disclaimed and + exposed the fallacy of this wretched casuistry. + </p> + <p> + The Ephthalite monarch, on learning the intention of Perozes, prepared to + meet his attack by stratagem. He had taken up his position in the plain + near Balkh, and had there established his camp, resolved to await the + coming of the enemy. During the interval he proceeded to dig a deep and + broad trench in front of his whole position, leaving only a space of some + twenty or thirty yards, midway in the work, untouched. Having excavated + the trench, he caused it to be filled with water, and covered carefully + with boughs of trees, reeds, and earth, so as to be undistinguishable from + the general surface of the plain on which he was encamped. On the arrival + of the Persians in his front, he first of all held a parley with Perozes, + in which, after reproaching him with his ingratitude and breach of faith, + he concluded by offering to renew the peace. Perozes scornfully refused; + whereupon the Ephthalite prince hung on the point of a lance the broken + treaty, and, parading it in front of the Persian troops, exhorted them to + avoid the vengeance which was sure to fall on the perjured by deserting + their doomed monarch. Upon this, half the army, we are told, retired; and + Khush-newaz proceeded to effect the destruction of the remainder by means + of the plan which he had so carefully prepared beforehand. He sent a + portion of his troops across the ditch, with orders to challenge the + Persians to an engagement, and, when the fight began, to fly hastily, and, + returning within the ditch by the sound passage, unite themselves with the + main army. The entire Persian host, as he expected, pursued the fugitives, + and coming unawares upon the concealed trench plunged into it, was + inextricably entangled, and easily destroyed. Perozes himself, several of + his sons, and most of his army perished. Mruz-docht, his daughter, the + chief Mobed, and great numbers of the rank and file were made prisoners. A + vast booty was taken. Khush-newaz did not tarnish the glory of his victory + by any cruelties; he treated the captives tenderly, and caused search to + be made for the body of Perozes, which was found and honorably interred. + </p> + <p> + Thus perished Perozes, after a reign of (probably) twenty-six years. He + was undoubtedly a brave prince, and entitled to the epithet of Al + Merdaneh, “the Courageous,” which he received from his subjects. But his + bravery, unfortunately, verged upon rashness, and was unaccompanied (so + far as appears) by any other military quality. Perozes had neither the + sagacity to form a good plan of campaign, nor the ability to conduct a + battle. In all the wars wherein he was personally engaged he was + unsuccessful, and the only triumphs which gilded his arms wore gained by + his generals. In his civil administration, on the contrary, he obtained a + character for humanity and justice; and, if the Oriental accounts of his + proceedings during the great famine are to be regarded as trustworthy, we + must admit that his wisdom and benevolence were such as are not commonly + found in those who bear rule in the East. His conduct towards Khush-newaz + has generally been regarded as the great blot upon his good fame; and it + is certainly impossible to justify the paltry casuistry by which he + endeavored to reconcile his actions with his words at the time of his + second invasion. But his persistent hostility towards the Ephthalites is + far from inexcusable, and its motive may have been patriotic rather than + personal. He probably felt that the Ephthalite power was among those from + which Persia had most to fear, and that it would have been weak in him to + allow gratitude for a favor conferred upon himself to tie his hands in a + matter where the interests of his country were vitally concerned. The + Ephthalites continued for nearly a century more to be among the most + dangerous of her neighbors to Persia; and it was only by frequent attacks + upon them in their own homes that Persia could reasonably hope to ward off + their ravages from her territory. + </p> + <p> + It is doubtful whether we possess any coins of Hormisdas III., the brother + and predecessor of Perozes. Those which are assigned to him by Mordtmann + bear a name which has no resemblance to his; and those bearing the name of + Ram, which Mr. Taylor considers to be coins of Hormisdas, cannot have been + issued under his authority, since Ram was the guardian and general, not of + Hormisdas, but of his brother. Perhaps the remarkable specimen figured by + M. Longperier in his valuable work, which shows a bull’s head in place of + the usual inflated ball, may really belong to this prince. The legend upon + it is read without any doubt as Auhrimazd, or “Hormisdas;” and in general + character it is certainly Sassanian, and of about this period. <a + href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE XXI., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The coins of Perozes are undoubted, and are very numerous. They are + distinguished generally by the addition to the ordinary crown of two + wings, one in front of the crown, and the other behind it, and bear the + legend, <i>Kadi Piruzi</i>, or <i>Mazdisn Kadi Piruzi</i>, i.e., “King + Perozes,” or “the Ormazd-worshipping king Perozes.” The earring of the + monarch is a triple pendant. On the reverse, besides the usual fire-altar + and supporters, we see on either side of the altar-flame a star and a + crescent. The legend here is M—probably for malka, “king”—or + else Kadi, together with a mint-mark. The mints named are numerous, + comprising (according to Mordtmann) Persepolis, Ispahan, Rhages, Nehavend, + Darabgherd, Zadracarta, Nissa, Behistun, Chuzistan, Media, Kerman, and + Azerbijan; or (according to Mr. Thomas) Persepolis, Rasht, Nehavend, + Darabgherd, Baiza, Modai’n, Merv, Shiz, Iran, Kerman, Yezd, and fifteen + others. The general character of the coinage is rude and coarse, the + reverse of the coins showing especial signs of degradation. <a + href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE XXI., Fig. 6.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Besides his coins, one other memorial of the reign of Perozes has escaped + the ravages of time. This is a cup or vase, of antique and elegant form, + engraved with a hunting-scene, which has been thus described by a recent + writer: “This cup, which comes from Russia, has a diameter of thirty-one + centimetres, and is shaped like a ewer without handles. At the bottom + there stands out in relief the figure of a monarch on horseback, pursuing + at full speed various wild animals; before him fly a wild boar and wild + sow, together with their young, an ibex, an antelope, and a buffalo. Two + other boars, an ibex, a buffalo, and an antelope are strewn on the ground, + pierced with arrows. The king has an aquiline nose, an eye which is very + wide open, a short beard, horizontal moustaches of considerable length, + the hair gathered behind the head in quite a small knot, and the ear + ornamented with a double pendant, pear-shaped; the head of the monarch + supports a crown, which is mural at the side and back, while it bears a + crescent in front; two wings surmounting a globe within a crescent form + the upper part of the head-dress. On his right the king carries a short + dagger and a quiver full of arrows, on his left a sword. Firuz, who has + the finger-guard of an archer on his right hand, is represented in the act + of bending a large bow made of horn.” There would seem to be no doubt that + the work thus described is rightly assigned to Perozes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0004" id="linkB2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Balas or Palash. His Relationship to Perozes. Peace made + with the Ephthalites. Pacification of Armenia and General Edict of + Toleration. Revolt of Zareh, Son of Perozes, and Suppression of the Revolt + with the help of the Armenians. Flight of Kobad to the Ephthalites. + Further Changes in Armenia. Vahan made Governor. Death of Balas; his + Character. Coins ascribed to him.</i> + </p> + <p> + Perozes was succeeded by a prince whom the Greeks call Balas, the Arabs + and later Persians Palash, but whose real name appears to have been + Valakhesh or Volagases. Different accounts are given of his relationship + to his predecessor, the native writers unanimously representing him as the + son of Perozes and brother of Kobad, while the Greeks and the contemporary + Armenians declare with one voice that he was Kobad’s uncle and Perozes’s + brother. It seems on the whole most probable that the Greeks and Armenians + are right and we may suppose that Perozes, having no son whom he could + trust to take his place when he quitted his capital in order to take the + management of the Ephthalite war, put the regency and the guardianship of + his children into the hands of his brother, Valakhesh, who thus, not + unnaturally, became king when it was found that Perozes had fallen. + </p> + <p> + The first efforts of the new monarch were of necessity directed towards an + arrangement with the Ephthalites, whose signal victory over Perozes had + laid the north-eastern frontier of Persia open to their attack. Balas, we + are told, employed on this service the arms and arts of an officer named + Sukhra or Sufraii, who was at the time governor of Seistan. Sukhra + collected an imposing force, and conducted it to the Ephthalite border, + where he alarmed Khush-newaz by a display of his own skill with the bow. + He then entered into negotiations and obtained the release of Firuz-docht, + of the Grand Mobed, and of the other important prisoners, together with + the restoration of a large portion of the captured booty, but was probably + compelled to accept on the part of his sovereign some humiliating + conditions. Procopius informs us that, in consequence of the defeat of + Perozes, Persia became subject to the Ephthalites and paid them tribute + for two years; and this is so probable a result, and one so likely to have + been concealed by the native writers, that his authority must be regarded + as outweighing the silence of Mirkhond and Tabari. Balas, we must suppose, + consented to become an Ephthalite tributary, rather than renew the war + which had proved fatal to his brother. If he accepted this position, we + can well understand that Khush-newaz would grant him the small concessions + of which the Persian writers boast; while otherwise the restoration of the + booty and the prisoners without a battle is quite inconceivable. + </p> + <p> + Secure, so long as he fulfilled his engagements, from any molestation in + this quarter, Balas was able to turn his attention to the north-western + portion of his dominions, and address himself to the difficult task of + pacifying Armenia, and bringing to an end the troubles which had now for + several years afflicted that unhappy province. His first step was to + nominate as Marzpan, or governor, of Armenia, a Persian who bore the name + of Nikhor, a man eminent for justice and moderation. Nikhor, instead of + attacking Vahan, who held almost the whole of the country, since the + Persian troops had been withdrawn on the news of the death of Perozes, + proposed to the Armenian prince that they should discuss amicably the + terms upon which his nation would be content to end the war and resume its + old position of dependence upon Persia. Vahan expressed his willingness to + terminate the struggle by an arrangement, and suggested the following as + the terms on which he and his adherents would be willing to lay down their + arms: + </p> + <p> + (1) The existing fire-altars should be destroyed, and no others should be + erected in Armenia. + </p> + <p> + (2) The Armenians should be allowed the full and free exercise of the + Christian religion, and no Armenians should be in future tempted or bribed + to declare themselves disciples of Zoroaster. + </p> + <p> + (3) If converts were nevertheless made from Christianity to + Zoroastrianism, places should not be given to them. + </p> + <p> + (4) The Persian king should in person, and not by deputy, administer the + affairs of Armenia. Nikhor expressed himself favorable to the acceptance + of these terms; and, after an exchange of hostages, Vahan visited his camp + and made arrangements with him for the solemn ratification of peace on the + aforesaid conditions. An edict of toleration was issued, and it was + formally declared that “every one should be at liberty to adhere to his + own religion, and that no one should be driven to apostatize.” Upon these + terms peace was concluded between Vahan and Nikhor, and it was only + necessary that the Persian monarch should ratify the terms for them to + become formally binding. + </p> + <p> + While matters were in this state, and the consent of Balas to the terms + agreed upon had not yet been positively signified, an important revolution + took place at the court of Persia. Zareh, a son of Perozes, preferred a + claim to the crown, and was supported in his attempt by a considerable + section of the people. A civil war followed; and among the officers + employed to suppress it was Nikhor, the governor of Armenia. On his + appointment he suggested to Vahan that it would lend great force to the + Armenian claims if under the existing circumstances the Armenians would + furnish effective aid to Balas, and so enable him to suppress the + rebellion. Vahan saw the importance of the conjuncture, and immediately + sent to Nikhor’s aid a powerful body of cavalry under the command of his + own nephew, Gregory. Zareh was defeated, mainly in consequence of the + great valor and excellent conduct of the Armenian contingent. He fled to + the mountains, but was pursued, and was very shortly afterwards made + prisoner and slain. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this, Kobad, son of Perozes, regarding the crown as rightfully + his, put forward a claim to it, but, meeting with no success, was + compelled to quit Persia and throw himself upon the kind protection of the + Ephthalites, who were always glad to count among their refugees a Persian + pretender. The Ephthalites, however, made no immediate stir—it would + seem, that so long as Balas paid his tribute they were content, and felt + no inclination to disturb what seemed to them a satisfactory arrangement. + </p> + <p> + The death of Zareh and the flight of Kobad left Balas at liberty to resume + the work which their rebellions had interrupted—the complete + pacification of Armenia. Knowing how much depended upon Vahan, he summoned + him to his court, received him with the highest honors, listened + attentively to his representations, and finally agreed to the terms which + Vahan had formulated. At the same time he replaced Nikhor by a governor + named Antegan, a worthy successor, “mild, prudent, and equitable;” and, to + show his confidence in the Mamigonian prince, appointed him to the high + office of Commander-in-Chief, or “Sparapet.” This arrangement did not, + however, last long. Antegan, after ruling Armenia for a few months, + represented to his royal master that it would be the wisest course to + entrust Vahan with the government, that the same head which had conceived + the terms of the pacification might watch over and ensure their execution. + Antegan’s recommendation approved itself to the Persian monarch, who + proceeded to recall his self-denying councillor, and to install Vahan in + the vacant office. The post of Sparapet was assigned to Vart, Vahan’s + brother. Christianity was then formally reestablished as the State + religion of Armenia; the fire-altars were destroyed; the churches + reclaimed and purified; the hierarchy restored to its former position and + powers. A reconversion of almost the whole nation to the Christian faith + was the immediate result; the apostate Armenians recanted their errors, + and abjured Zoroastrianism; Armenia, and with it Iberia, were pacified; + and the two provinces which had been so long a cause of weakness to Persia + grew rapidly into main sources of her strength and prosperity. + </p> + <p> + The new arrangement had not been long completed when Balas died (A.D. + 487). It is agreed on all hands that he held the throne for no more than + four years, and generally allowed that he died peaceably by a natural + death. He was a wise and just prince, mild in his temper, averse to + military enterprises, and inclined to expect better results from pacific + arrangements than from wars and expeditions. His internal administration + of the empire gave general satisfaction to his subjects; he protected and + relieved the poor, extended cultivation, and punished governors who + allowed any men in their province to fall into indigence. His prudence and + moderation are especially conspicuous in his arrangement of the Armenian + difficulty, whereby he healed a chronic sore that had long drained, the + resources of his country. His submission to pay tribute to the Ephthalites + may be thought to indicate a want of courage or of patriotism; but there + are times when the purchase of a peace is a necessity; and it is not clear + that Balas was minded to bear the obligation imposed on him a moment + longer than was necessary. The writers who record the fact that Persia + submitted for a time to pay a tribute limit the interval during which the + obligation held to a couple of years. It would seem, therefore, that + Balas, who reigned four years, must, a year at least before his demise, + have shaken off the Ephthalite yoke and ceased to make any acknowledgment + of dependence. Probably it was owing to the new attitude assumed by him + that the Ephthalites, after refusing to give Kobad any material support + for the space of three years, adopted a new policy in the year of Balas’s + death (A.D. 487), and lent the pretender a force with which he was about + to attack his uncle when news reached him that attack was needless, since + Balas was dead and his own claim to the succession undisputed. Balas + nominated no successor upon his death-bed, thus giving in his last moments + an additional proof of that moderation and love of peace which had + characterized his reign. + </p> + <p> + Coins, which possess several points of interest, are assigned to Balas by + the best authorities. They bear on the obverse the head of the king with + the usual mural crown surmounted by a crescent and inflated ball. The + beard is short and curled. The hair falls behind the head, also in curls. + The earring, wherewith the ear is ornamented, has a double pendent. Flames + issue from the left shoulder, an exceptional peculiarity in the Sassanian + series, but one which is found also among the Indo-Scythian kings with + whom Balas was so closely connected. The full legend upon the coins + appears to be <i>Hur Kadi Valdk-dshi,</i> “Volagases, the Fire King.” The + reverse exhibits the usual fire-altar, but with the king’s head in the + flames, and with the star and crescent on either side, as introduced by + Pe-rozes. It bears commonly the legend, <i>ValaJcdshi</i>, with a + mint-mark. The mints employed are those of Iran, Kerman, Ispahan, Nisa, + Ledan, Shiz, Zadracarta, and one or two others. <a href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE + XXI., Fig. 4]</a>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0005" id="linkB2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>First reign of Kobad. His Favorites, Sufral and Sapor. His Khazar War. + Rise, Teaching, and influence of Mazdak. His Claim to Miraculous Powers. + Kobad adopts the new Religion, and attempts to impose it on the Armenians. + Revolt of Armenia under Vahan, successful. Kobad yields. General Rebellion + in Persia, and Deposition of Kobad. Escape of Mazdak. Short Reign of + Zamasp. His Coins.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="chapter28 (3K)" src="images/chapter28.jpg" height="32" + width="355" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + When Kobad fled to the Ephthalites on the failure of his attempt to seize + the crown, he was received, we are told, with open arms; but no material + aid was given to him for the space of three years. However, in the fourth + year of his exile, a change came over the Ephthalite policy, and he + returned to his capital at the head of an army, with which Khush-newaz had + furnished him. The change is reasonably connected with the withholding of + his tribute by Balas; and it is difficult to suppose that Kobad, when he + accepted Ephthalite aid, did not pledge himself to resume the subordinate + position which his uncle had been content to hold for two years. It seems + certain that he was accompanied to his capital by an Ephthalite + contingent, which he richly rewarded before dismissing it. Owing his + throne to the aid thus afforded him, he can scarcely have refused to make + the expected acknowledgment. Distinct evidence on the point is wanting; + but there can be little doubt that for some years Kobad held the Persian + throne on the condition of paying tribute to Khush-newaz, and recognizing + him as his lord paramount. + </p> + <p> + During the early portion of his first reign, which extended from A.D. 487 + to 498, we are told that he entrusted the entire administration of affairs + to Suklira, or Sufrai, who had been the chief minister of his uncle. + Sufrai’s son, Zer-Mihr, had faithfully adhered to him throughout the whole + period of his exile, and Kobad did not regard it as a crime that the + father had opposed his ambition, and thrown the weight of his authority + into the scale against him. He recognized fidelity as a quality that + deserved reward, and was sufficiently magnanimous to forgive an opposition + that had sprung from a virtuous motive, and, moreover, had not succeeded. + Sufrai accordingly governed Persia for some years; the army obeyed him, + and the civil administration was completely in his hands. Under these + circumstances it is not surprising that Kobad after a while grew jealous + of his subordinate, and was anxious to strip him of the quasi-regal + authority which he exercised and assert his own right to direct affairs. + But, alone, he felt unequal to such a task. He therefore called in the + assistance of an officer who bore the name of Sapor, and had a command in + the district of Rhages. Sapor undertook to rid his sovereign of the + incubus whereof he complained, and, with the tacit sanction of the + monarch, he contrived to fasten a quarrel on Sufrai which he pushed to + such an extremity that, at the end of it, he dragged the minister from the + royal apartment to a prison, had him heavily ironed, and in a few days + caused him to be put to death. Sapor, upon this, took the place previously + occupied by Sufrai; he was recognized at once as Prime Minister, and + Sipehbed, or commander-in-chief of the troops. Kobad, content to have + vindicated his royal power by the removal of Sufrai, conceded to the + second favorite as much as he had allowed to the first, and once more + suffered the management of affairs to pass wholly into the hands of a + subject. + </p> + <p> + The only war in which Persia seems to have been engaged during the first + reign of Kobad was one with the Khazars. This important people, now heard + of for the first time in Persian history, appears to have occupied, in the + reign of Kobad, the steppe country between the Wolga and the Don, whence + they made raids through the passes of the Caucasus into the fertile + provinces of Iberia, Albania, and Armenia. Whether they were Turks, as is + generally believed, or Circassians, as has been ingeniously argued by a + living writer, is doubtful; but we cannot be mistaken in regarding them as + at this time a race of fierce and terrible barbarians, nomadic in their + habits, ruthless in their wars, cruel and uncivilized in their customs, a + fearful curse to the regions which they overrun and desolated. We shall + meet with them again, more than once, in the later history, and shall have + to trace to their hostility some of the worst disasters that befel the + Persian arms. On this occasion it is remarkable that they were repulsed + with apparent ease. Kobad marched against their Khan in person, at the + head of a hundred thousand men, defeated him in a battle, destroyed the + greater portion of his army, and returned to his capital with an enormous + booty. To check their incursions, he is said to have built on the Armenian + frontier a town called Amid, by which we are probably to understand, not + the ancient Amida (or Diarbekr), but a second city of the name, further to + the east and also further to the north, on the border line which separated + Armenia from Iberia. + </p> + <p> + The triumphant return of Kobad from his Khazar war might have seemed + likely to secure him a long and prosperous reign; but at the moment when + fortune appeared most to smile upon him, an insidious evil, which had been + gradually but secretly sapping the vitals of his empire, made itself + apparent, and, drawing the monarch within the sphere of its influence, + involved him speedily in difficulties which led to the loss of his crown. + Mazdak, a native of Persepolis, or, according to others, of Nishapur, in + Khorassan, and an Archimagus, or High Priest of the Zoroastrian religion, + announced himself, early in the reign of Kobad, as a reformer of + Zoroastrianism, and began to make proselytes to the new doctrines which he + declared himself commissioned to unfold. All men, he said, were, by God’s + providence, born equal—none brought into the world any property, or + any natural right to possess more than another. Property and marriage were + mere human inventions, contrary to the will of God, which required an + equal division of the good things of this world among all, and forbade the + appropriation of particular women by individual men. In communities based + upon property and marriage, men might lawfully vindicate their natural + rights by taking their fair share of the good things wrongfully + appropriated by their fellows Adultery, incest, theft, were not really + crimes, but necessary steps towards re-establishing the laws of nature in + such societies. To these communistic views, which seem to have been the + original speculations of his own mind, the Magian reformer added tenets + borrowed from the Brahmins or from some other Oriental ascetics, such as + the sacredness of animal life, the necessity of abstaining from animal + food, other than milk, cheese, or eggs, the propriety of simplicity in + apparel, and the need of abstemiousness and devotion. He thus presented + the spectacle of an enthusiast who preached a doctrine of laxity and + self-indulgence, not from any base or selfish motive, but simply from a + conviction of its truth. We learn without surprise that the doctrines of + the new teacher were embraced with ardor by large classes among the + Persians, by the young of all ranks, by the lovers of pleasure, by the + great bulk of the lower orders. But it naturally moves our wonder that + among the proselytes to the new religion was the king. Kobad, who had + nothing to gain from embracing a creed which levelled him with his + subjects, and was scarcely compatible with the continuance of monarchical + rule, must have been sincere in his profession; and we inquire with + interest, what were the circumstances which enabled Mazdak to attach to + his cause so important and so unlikely a convert. + </p> + <p> + The explanation wherewith we are furnished by our authorities is, that + Mazdak claimed to authenticate his mission by the possession and + exhibition of miraculous powers. In order to impose on the weak mind of + Kobad he arranged and carried into act an elaborate and clever imposture. + He excavated a cave below the fire-altar, on which he was in the habit of + offering, and contrived to pass a tube from the cavern to the upper + surface of the altar, where the sacred flame was maintained perpetually. + Having then placed a confederate in the cavern, he invited the attendance + of Kobad, and in his presence appeared to hold converse with the fire + itself, which the Persians viewed as the symbol and embodiment of + divinity. The king accepted the miracle as an absolute proof of the divine + authority of the new teacher, and became thenceforth his zealous adherent + and follower. + </p> + <p> + It may be readily imagined that the conversion of the monarch to such a + creed was, under a despotic government, the prelude to disorders, which + soon became intolerable. Not content with establishing community of + property and of women among themselves, the sectaries claimed the right to + plunder the rich at their pleasure, and to carry off for the gratification + of their own passions the inmates of the most illustrious harems. In vain + did the Mobeds declare that the new religion was false, was monstrous, + ought not to be tolerated for an hour. The followers of Mazdak had the + support of the monarch, and this protection secured them complete + impunity. Each day they grew bolder and more numerous. Persia became too + narrow a field for their ambition, and they insisted on spreading their + doctrines into the neighboring countries. We find traces of the acceptance + of their views in the distant West; and the historians of Armenia relate + that in that unhappy country they so pressed their religion upon the + people that an insurrection broke out, and Persia was in danger of losing, + by intolerance, one of her most valued dependencies. + </p> + <p> + Vatian, the Mamigonian, who had been superseded in his office by a fresh + Marzpan, bent on forcing the Armenians to adopt the new creed, once more + put himself forward as his country’s champion, took arms in defence of the + Christian faith, and endeavored to induce the Greek emperor, Anastasius, + to accept the sovereignty of Persarmenia, together with the duty of + protecting it against its late masters. Fear of the consequences, if he + provoked the hostility of Persia, caused Anastasius to hesitate; and + things might have gone hardly with the unfortunate Armenians, had not + affairs in Persia itself come about this time to a crisis. + </p> + <p> + The Mobeds and the principal nobles had in vain protested against the + spread of the new religion and the patronage lent it by the Court. At + length appeal was made to the chief Mobed, and he was requested to devise + a remedy for the existing evils, which were generally felt to have passed + the limits of endurance. The chief Mobed decided that, under the + circumstances of the time, no remedy could be effectual but the deposition + of the head of the State, through whose culpable connivance the disorders + had attained their height. His decision was received with general + acquiescence. The Persian nobles agreed with absolute unanimity to depose + Kobad, and to place upon the throne another member of the royal house. + Their choice fell upon Zamasp, a brother of Kobad, who was noted for his + love of justice and for the mildness of his disposition. The necessary + arrangements having been made, they broke out into universal insurrection, + arrested Kobad, and committed him to safe custody in the “Castle of + Oblivion,” proclaimed Zamasp, and crowned him king with all the usual + formalities. An attempt was then made to deal the new religion a fatal + blow by the seizure and execution of the heresiarch, Mazdak. But here the + counter-revolution failed. Mazdak was seized indeed and imprisoned; but + his followers rose at once, broke open his prison doors, and set him at + liberty. The government felt itself too weak to insist on its intended + policy of coercion. Mazdak was allowed to live in retirement unmolested, + and to increase the number of his disciples. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Zamasp appears to have lasted from A.D. 498 to A.D. 501, or + between two and three years. He was urged by the army to put Kobad to + death, but hesitated to adopt so extreme a course, and preferred retaining + his rival as a prisoner. The “Castle of Oblivion” was regarded as a place + of safe custody; but the ex-king contrived in a short time to put a cheat + on his guards and effect his escape from confinement. Like other claimants + of the Persian throne, he at once took refuge with the Ephthalites, and + sought to persuade the Great Khan to embrace his cause and place an army + at his disposal. The Khan showed himself more than ordinarily complaisant. + He can scarcely have sympathized with the religious leanings of his + suppliant; but he remembered that he had placed him upon the throne, and + had found him a faithful feudatory and a quiet neighbor. He therefore + received him with every mark of honor, betrothed him to one of his own + daughters, and lent him an army of 30,000 men. With this force Kobad + returned to Persia, and offered battle to Zamasp. Zamasp declined the + conflict. He had not succeeded in making himself popular with his + subjects, and knew that a large party desired the return of his brother. + It is probable that he did not greatly desire a throne. At any rate, when + his brother reached the neighborhood of the capital, at the head of the + 30,000 Ephthalites and of a strong body of Persian adherents, Zamasp + determined upon submission. He vacated the throne in favor of Kobad, + without risking the chance of a battle, and descended voluntarily into a + private station. Different stories are told of his treatment by the + restored monarch. According to Procopius, he was blinded after a cruel + method long established among the Persians; but Mirkhond declares that he + was pardoned, and even received from his brother marked signs of affection + and favor. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Zamasp have the usual inflated ball and mural crown, but with + a crescent in place of the front limb of the crown. The ends of the diadem + appear over the two shoulders. On either side of the head there is a star, + and over either shoulder a crescent. Outside the encircling ring, or + “pearl border,” we see, almost for the first time, three stars with + crescents. The reverse bears the usual fire-altar, with a star and + crescent on either side of the flame. The legend is extremely brief, being + either <i>Zamasp</i> or <i>Bag Zamasp</i>, i.e. “Zamaspes,” or “the divine + Zamaspes.” <a href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0003" id="linkBimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate022.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxii. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0006" id="linkB2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Second Reign of Kobad. His Change of Attitude towards the Followers of + Mazdak. His Cause of Quarrel with Rome. First Roman War of Kobad. Peace + made A.D. 505. Rome fortifies Daras and Theodosiopolis. Complaint made by + Persia. Negotiations of Kobad with Justin: Proposed Adoption of Chosroes + by the Latter. Internal Troubles in Persia. Second Roman War of Kobad, + A.D. 524-531. Death of Kobad. His Character. His coins.</i> + </p> + <p> + The second reign of Kobad covered a period of thirty years, extending from + A.D. 501 to A.D. 531. He was contemporary, during this space, with the + Roman emperors Anastasius, Justin, and Justinian, with Theodoric, king of + Italy, with Cassiodorus, Symmachus, Boethius, Procopius, and Belisarius. + The Oriental writers tell us but little of this portion of his history. + Their silence, however, is fortunately compensated by the unusual + copiousness of the Byzantines, who deliver, at considerable length, the + entire series of transactions in which Kobad was engaged with the + Constantinopolitan emperors, and furnish some interesting notices of other + matters which occupied him. Procopius especially, the eminent rhetorician + and secretary of Belisarius, who was born about the time of Kobad’s + restoration to the Persian thrones and became secretary to the great + general four years before Kobad’s death, is ample in his details of the + chief occurrences, and deserves a confidence which the Byzantines can + rarely claim, from being at once a contemporary and a man of remarkable + intelligence. “His facts,” as Gibbon well observes, “are collected from + the personal experience and free conversation of a soldier, a statesman, + and a traveller; his style continually aspires, and often attains, to the + merit of strength and elegance; his, reflections, more especially in the + speeches, which he too frequently inserts, contain a rich fund of + political knowledge; and the historian, excited by the generous ambition + of pleasing and instructing posterity, appears to disdain the prejudices + of the people and the flattery of courts.” + </p> + <p> + The first question which Kobad had to decide, when, by the voluntary + cession of his brother, Zamasp, he remounted his throne, was the attitude + which he should assume towards Mazdak and his followers. By openly + favoring the new religion and encouraging the disorders of its votaries, + he had so disgusted the more powerful classes of his subjects that he had + lost his crown and been forced to become a fugitive in a foreign country. + He was not prepared to affront this danger a second time. Still, his + attachment to the new doctrine was not shaken; he held the views + propounded to be true, and was not ashamed to confess himself an + unwavering adherent of the communistic prophet. He contrived, however, to + reconcile his belief with his interests by separating the individual from + the king. As a man, he held the views of Mazdak; but, as a king, he let it + be known that he did not intend to maintain or support the sectaries in + any extreme or violent measures. The result was that the new doctrine + languished; Mazdak escaped persecution and continued to propagate his + views; but, practically, the progress of the new opinions was checked; + they had ceased to command royal advocacy, and had consequently ceased to + endanger the State; they still fermented among the masses, and might cause + trouble in the future; but for the present they were the harmless + speculations of a certain number of enthusiasts who did not venture any + more to carry their theories into practice. + </p> + <p> + Kobad had not enjoyed the throne for more than a year before his relations + with the great empire on his western frontier became troubled, and, after + some futile negotiations, hostilities once more broke out. It appears that + among the terms of the peace concluded in A.D. 442 between Isdigerd II. + and the younger Theodosius, the Romans had undertaken to pay annually a + certain sum of money as a contribution towards the expenses of a fortified + post which the two powers undertook to maintain in the pass of Derbend, + between the last spurs of the Caucasus and the Caspian. This fortress, + known as Juroi-pach or Biraparach, commanded the usual passage by which + the hordes of the north were accustomed to issue from their vast arid + steppes upon the rich and populous regions of the south for the purpose of + plundering raids, if not of actual conquests. Their incursions threatened + almost equally Roman and Persian territory, and it was felt that the two + nations were alike interested in preventing them. The original agreement + was that both parties should contribute equally, alike to the building and + to the maintaining of the fortress; but the Romans were so occupied in + other wars that the entire burden actually fell upon the Persians. These + latter, as was natural, made from time to time demands upon the Romans for + the payment of their share of the expenses; but it seems that these + efforts were ineffectual, and the debt accumulated. It was under these + circumstances that Kobad. finding himself in want of money to reward + adequately his Ephthalite allies, sent an embassy to Anastasius, the Roman + emperor, with a peremptory demand for a remittance. The reply of + Anastasius was a refusal. According to one authority he declined + absolutely to make any payment; according to another, he expressed his + willingness to lend his Persian brother a sum of money on receiving the + customary acknowledgment, but refused an advance on any other terms. Such + a response was a simple repudiation of obligations voluntarily contracted, + and could scarcely fail to rouse the indignation of the Persian monarch. + If he learned further that the real cause of the refusal was a desire to + embroil Persia with the Ephthalites, and to advance the interests of Rome + by leading her enemies to waste each other’s strength in an internecine + conflict, he may have admired the cunning of his rival, but can scarcely + have felt the more amicably disposed towards him. + </p> + <p> + The natural result followed. Kobad at once declared war. The two empires + had now been uninterruptedly at peace for sixty, and, with the exception + of a single campaign (that of A.D. 441), for eighty years. They had ceased + to feel that respect for each other’s arms and valor which experience + gives, and which is the best preservative against wanton hostilities. + Kobad was confident in his strength, since he was able to bring into the + field, besides the entire force of Persia, a largo Ephthalite contingent, + and also a number of Arabs. Anastasius, perhaps, scarcely thought that + Persia would go to war on account of a pecuniary claim which she had + allowed to be disregarded for above half a century. The resolve of Kobad + evidently took him by surprise; but he had gone too far to recede. The + Roman pride would not allow him to yield to a display of force what he had + refused when demanded peacefully; and he was thus compelled to maintain by + arms the position which he had assumed without anticipating its + consequences. + </p> + <p> + The war began by a sudden inroad of the host of Persia into Roman Armenia, + where Theodosiopolis was still the chief stronghold and the main support + of the Roman power. Unprepared for resistance, this city was surrendered + after a short siege by its commandant, Constantine, after which the + greater part of Armenia was overrun and ravaged. From Armenia Kobad + conducted his army into Northern Mesopotamia, and formed the siege of + Amida about the commencement of the winter. The great strength of Amida + has been already noticed in this volume. Kobad found it ungarrisoned, and + only protected by a small force, cantoned in its neighborhood, under the + philosopher, Alypius. But the resolution of the townsmen, and particularly + of the monks, was great; and a most strenuous resistance met all his + efforts to take the place. At first his hope was to effect a breach in the + defences by means of the ram; but the besieged employed the customary + means of destroying his engines, and, where these failed, the strength and + thickness of the walls was found to be such that no serious impression + could be made on them by the Persian battering train. It was necessary to + have recourse to some other device; and Kobad proceeded to erect a mound + in the immediate neighborhood of the wall, with a view of dominating the + town, driving the defenders from the battlements, and then taking the + place by escalade. He raised an immense work; but it was undermined by the + enemy, and at last fell in with a terrible crash, involving hundreds in + its ruin. It is said that after this failure Kobad despaired of success, + and determined to draw off his army; but the taunts and insults of the + besieged, or confidence in the prophecies of the Magi, who saw an omen of + victory in the grossest of all the insults, caused him to change his + intention and still continue the siege. His perseverance was soon + afterwards rewarded. A soldier discovered in the wall the outlet of a + drain or sewer imperfectly blocked up with rubble, and, removing this + during the night, found himself able to pass through the wall into the + town. He communicated his discovery to Kobad, who took his measures + accordingly. Sending, the next night, a few picked men through the drain, + to seize the nearest tower, which happened to be slackly guarded by some + sleepy monks, who the day before had been keeping festival, he brought the + bulk of his troops with scaling ladders to the adjoining portion of the + wall, and by his presence, exhortations, and threats, compelled them to + force their way into the place. The inhabitants resisted strenuously, but + were overpowered by numbers, and the carnage in the streets was great. At + last an aged priest, shocked at the indiscriminate massacre, made bold to + address the monarch himself and tell him that it was no kingly act to + slaughter captives. “Why, then, did you elect to fight?” said the angry + prince. “It was God’s doing,” replied the priest, astutely; “He willed + that thou shouldest owe thy conquest of Amida, not to our weakness, but to + thy own valor.” The flattery pleased Kobad, and induced him to stop the + effusion of blood; but the sack was allowed to continue; the whole town + was pillaged; and the bulk of the inhabitants were carried off as slaves. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Amida lasted eighty days, and the year A.D. 503 had commenced + before it was over. Anastasius, on learning the danger of his frontier + town, immediately despatched to its aid a considerable force, which he + placed under four commanders—Areobindus, the grandson of the Gothic + officer of the same name who distinguished himself in the Persian war of + Theodosius; Celer, captain of the imperial guard; Patricius, the Phrygian; + and Hypatius, one of his own nephews. The army, collectively, is said to + have been more numerous than any that Rome had ever brought into the field + against the Persians but it was weakened by the divided command, and it + was moreover broken up into detachments which acted independently of each + other. Its advent also was tardy. Not only did it arrive too late to save + Amida, but it in no way interfered with the after-movements of Kobad, who, + leaving a small garrison to maintain his new conquest, carried off the + whole of his rich booty to his city of Nisibis, and placed the bulk of his + troops in a good position upon his own frontier. When Areobindus, at the + head of the first division, reached Amida and heard that the Persians had + fallen back, he declined the comparatively inglorious work of a siege, and + pressed forward, anxious to carry the war into Persian territory. He seems + actually to have crossed the border and invaded the district of Arzanene, + when news reached him that Kobad was marching upon him with all his + troops, whereupon he instantly fled, and threw himself into Constantia, + leaving his camp and stores to be taken by the enemy. Meanwhile another + division of the Roman army, under Patrilcius and Hypatius, had followed in + the steps of Areobindus, and meeting with the advance-guard of Kobad, + which consisted of eight hundred Ephthalites, had destroyed it almost to a + man. + </p> + <p> + Ignorant, however, of the near presence of the main Persian army, this + body of troops allowed itself soon afterwards to be surprised on the banks + of a stream, while some of the men were bathing and others were taking + their breakfast, and was completely cut to pieces by Kobad, scarcely any + but the generals escaping. + </p> + <p> + Thus far success had been wholly on the side of the Persians; and if + circumstances had permitted Kobad to remain at the seat of war and + continue to direct the operations of his troops in person, there is every + to reason to believe that he would have gained still greater advantages. + The Roman generals were incompetent; they were at variance among + themselves; and they were unable to control the troops under their + command. The soldiers were insubordinate, without confidence in their + officers, and inclined to grumble at such an unwonted hardship as a + campaign prolonged into the winter. Thus all the conditions of the war + were in favor of Persia. But unfortunately for Kobad, it happened that, at + the moment when his prospects were the fairest, a danger in another + quarter demanded his presence, and required him to leave the conduct of + the Roman war to others. An Ephthalite invasion called him to the defence + of his north-eastern frontier before the year A.D. 503 was over, and from + this time the operations in Mesopotamia were directed, not by the king in + person, but by his generals. A change is at once apparent. In A.D. 504 + Celer invaded Arzanene, destroyed a number of forts, and ravaged the whole + province with fire and sword. Thence marching southward, he threated + Nisibis, which is said, to have been within a little of yielding itself. + Towards winter Patricius and Hypatius took heart, and, collecting an army, + commenced the siege of Amida, which they attempted to storm on several + occasions, but without success. After a while they turned the siege into a + blockade, entrapped the commander of the, Persian garrison, Glones, by a + stratagem, and reduced the defenders of the place to such distress that it + would have been impossible to hold put much longer. It seems to have been + when matters were at this point that an ambassador of high rank arrived + from Kobad, empowered to conclude a peace, and instructed to declare his + master’s willingness to surrender all his conquests, including Amida, on + the payment of a considerable sum of money. The Roman generals, regarding + Amida as impregnable, and not aware of the exhaustion of its stores, + gladly consented. They handed over to the Persians a thousand pounds’ + weight of gold, and received in exchange the captured city and territory. + A treaty was signed by which the contracting powers undertook to remain at + peace and respect each other’s dominions for the space of seven years. No + definite arrangement seems to have been made with respect to the yearly + payment on account of the fortress, Birapa-rach, the demand for which had + occasioned the war. This claim remained in abeyance, to be pressed or + neglected, as Persia might consider her interests to require. + </p> + <p> + The Ephthalite war, which compelled Kobad to make peace with Anastasius, + appears to have occupied him uninterruptedly for ten years. During its + continuance Rome took advantage of her rival’s difficulties to continue + the system (introduced under the younger Theodosius) of augmenting her own + power, and crippling that of Persia, by establishing strongly fortified + posts upon her border in the immediate vicinity of Persian territory. Not + content with restoring Theodosiopolis and greatly strengthening it + defences, Anastasius erected an entirely new fortress at Daras, on the + southern skirts of the Mons Masius, within twelve miles of Nisibis, at the + edge of the great Mesopotamian plain. This place was not a mere fort, but + a city; it contained churches, baths, porticoes, large granaries, and + extensive cisterns. It constituted a standing menace to Persia; and its + erection was in direct violation of the treaty made by Theodosius with + Isdigerd II., which was regarded as still in force by both nations. + </p> + <p> + We cannot be surprised that Kobad, when his Ephthalite war was over, made + formal complaint at Constantinople (ab. A.D. 517); of the infraction of + the treaty. Anastasius was unable to deny the charge. He endeavored at + first to meet it by a mixture of bluster with professions of friendship; + but when this method did not appear effectual he had recourse to an + argument whereof the Persians on most occasions acknowledged the force. By + the expenditure of a large sum of money he either corrupted the + ambassadors of Kobad, or made them honestly doubt whether the sum paid + would not satisfy their master. + </p> + <p> + In A.D. 518 Anastasius died, and the imperial authority was assumed by the + Captain of the Guard, the “Dacian peasant,” Justin. With him Kobad very + shortly entered jinto negotiations. He had not, it is clear, accepted the + pecuniary sacrifice of Anastasius as a complete satisfaction. He felt that + he had many grounds of quarrel with the Romans, There was the old matter + of the annual payment due on account of the fortress of Biraparach; there + was the recent strengthening of Theodosiopolis, and building of Daras; + there was moreover an interference of Rome at this time in the region + about the Caucasus which was very galling to Persia and was naturally + resented by her monarch. One of the first proceedings of Justin after he + ascended the throne was to send an embassy with rich gifts to the court of + a certain Hunnic chief of these parts, called Ziligdes or Zilgibis, and to + conclude a treaty with him by which the Hun bound himself to assist the + Romans against the Persians. Soon afterwards a Lazic prince, named Tzath, + whose country was a Persian dependency, instead of seeking inauguration + from Kobad, proceeded on the death of his father to the court of + Constantinople, and expressed his wish to become a Christian, and to hold + his crown as one of Rome’s vassal monarchs. Justin gave this person a warm + welcome, had him baptized, married him to a Roman lady of rank, and sent + him back to Lazica adorned with a diadem and robes that sufficiently + indicated his dependent position. The friendly relations established + between Rome and Persia by the treaty of A.D. 505 were, under these + circumstances, greatly disturbed, and on both sides it would seem that war + was expected to break out. But neither Justin nor Kobad was desirous of a + rupture. Both were advanced in years, and both had domestic troubles to + occupy them. Kobad was at this time especially anxious about the + succession. He had four sons, Kaoses, Zames, Phthasuarsas, and Chosroes, + of whom Kaoses was the eldest. This prince, however, did not please him. + His affections were fixed on his fourth son, Chosroes, and he had no + object more at heart than to secure the crown for this favorite child. The + Roman writers tell us that instead of resenting the proceedings of Justin + in the years A.D. 520-522, Kobad made the strange proposal to him about + this time that he should adopt Chosroes, in order that that prince might + have the aid of the Romans against his countrymen, if his right of + succession should be disputed. It is, no doubt, difficult to believe that + such a proposition should have been made; but the circumstantial manner in + which Procopius, writing not forty years after, relates the matter, + renders it almost impossible for us to reject the story as a pure + fabrication. There must have been some foundation for it. In the + negotiations between Justin and Kobad during the early years of the + former, the idea of Rome pledging herself to acknowledge Chosroes as his + father’s successor must have been brought forward. The proposal, whatever + its exact terms, led however to no result. Rome declined to do as Kobad + desired; and thus another ground of estrangement was added to those which + had previously made the renewal of the Roman war a mere question of time. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that the rupture would have occurred earlier than it did + had not Persia about the year A.D. 523 become once more the scene of + religious discord and conspiracy. The followers of Mazdak had been + hitherto protected by Kobad, and had lived in peace and multiplied + throughout all the provinces of the empire. Content with the toleration + which they enjoyed, they had for above twenty years created no + disturbance, and their name had almost disappeared from the records of + history. But as time went on they began to feel that their position was + insecure. Their happiness, their very safety, depended upon a single life; + and as Kobad advanced in years they grew to dread more and more the + prospect which his death would open. Among his sons there was but one who + had embraced their doctrine; and this prince, Phthasuarsas, had but little + chance of being chosen to be his father’s successor. Kaoses enjoyed the + claim of natural right; Chosroes was his father’s favorite; Zames had the + respect and good wishes of the great mass of the people; Phthasuarsas was + disliked by the Magi, and, if the choice lay with them, was certain to be + passed over. The sectaries therefore determined not to wait the natural + course of events, but to shape them to their own purposes. They promised + Phthasuarsas to obtain by their prayers his father’s abdication and his + own appointment to succeed him, and asked him to pledge himself to + establish their religion as that of the State when he became king. The + prince consented; and the Mazdakites proceeded to arrange their plans, + when, unfortunately for them, Kobad discovered, or suspected, that a + scheme was on foot to deprive him of his crown. Whether the designs of the + sectaries were really treasonable or not is uncertain; but whatever they + were, an Oriental monarch was not likely to view them with favor. In the + East it is an offence even to speculate on the death of the king; and + Kobad saw in the intrigue which had been set on foot a criminal and + dangerous conspiracy. He determined at once to crush the movement. + Inviting the Mazdakites to a solemn assembly, at which he was to confer + the royal dignity on Phthasuarsas, he caused his army to surround the + unarmed multitude and massacre the entire number. + </p> + <p> + Relieved from this peril, Kobad would at once have declared war against + Justin, and have marched an army into Roman territory, had not troubles + broken out in Iberia, which made it necessary for him to stand on the + defensive. Adopting the intolerant policy so frequently pursued, and + generally with such ill results, by the Persian kings, Kobad had commanded + Gurgenes, the Iberian monarch, to renounce Christianity and profess the + Zoroastrian religion. Especially he had required that the Iberian custom + of burying the dead should be relinquished, and that the Persian practice + of exposing corpses to be devoured by dogs and birds of prey should + supersede the Christian rite of sepulture. Gurgenes was too deeply + attached to his faith to entertain these propositions for a moment. He at + once shook off the Persian yoke, and, declaring himself a vassal of Rome, + obtained a promise from Justin that he would never desert the Iberian + cause. Rome, however, was not prepared to send her own armies into this + distant and inhospitable region; her hope was to obtain aid from the + Tatars of the Crimea, and to play off these barbarians against the forces + wherewith Kobad might be expected shortly to vindicate his authority. An + attempt to engage the Crimeans generally in this service was made, but it + was not successful. A small force was enrolled and sent to the assistance + of Gurgenes. But now the Persians took the field in strength. A large army + was sent into Iberia by Kobad, under a general named Boes. Gurgenes saw + resistance to be impossible. He therefore fled the country, and threw + himself into Lazica, where the difficult nature of the ground, the favor + of the natives, and the assistance of the Romans enabled him to maintain + himself. Iberia, however, was lost, and passed once more under the + Persians, who even penetrated into Lazic territory and occupied some forts + which commanded the passes between Lazica and Iberia. + </p> + <p> + Rome, on her part, endeavored to retaliate (A.D. 526) by invading + Persarmenia and Mesopotamia. The campaign is remarkable as that in which + the greatest general of the age, the renowned and unfortunate Belisarius, + first held a command and thus commenced the work of learning by experience + the duties of a military leader. Hitherto a mere guardsman, and still + quite a youth, trammelled moreover by association with a colleague, he did + not on this occasion reap any laurels. A Persian force under two generals, + Narses and Aratius, defended Persarmenia, and, engaging the Romans under + Sittas and Belisarius, succeeded in defeating them. At the same time, + Licelarius, a Thracian in the Roman service, made an incursion into the + tract about Nisibis, grew alarmed without cause and beat a speedy retreat. + Hereupon Justin recalled him as incompetent, and the further conduct of + the war in Mesopotamia was entrusted to Belisarius, who took up his + headquarters at Daras. + </p> + <p> + The year A.D. 527 seems to have been one in which nothing of importance + was attempted on either side. At Constantinople the Emperor Justin had + fallen into ill health, and, after associating his nephew Justinian on the + 1st of April, had departed this life on the 1st of August. About the same + time Kobad found his strength insufficient for active warfare, and put the + command of his armies into the hands of his sons. The struggle continued + in Lazica, but with no decisive result. At Daras, Belisarius, apparently, + stood on the defensive. It was not till A.D. 528 had set in that he + resumed operations in the open field, and prepared once more to measure + his strength against that of Persia. + </p> + <p> + Belisarius was stirred from his repose by an order from court. Desirous of + carrying further the policy of gaining ground by means of fortified posts, + Justinian, who had recently restored and strengthened the frontier city of + Martyropolis, on the Nymphius, sent instructions to Belisarius, early in + A.D. 528, to the effect that he was to build a new fort at a place called + Mindon, on the Persian border a little to the left of Nisibis. The work + was commenced, but the Persians would not allow it to proceed. An army + which numbered 30,000 men, commanded by Xerxes, son of Kobad, and Perozes, + the Mihran, attacked the Roman workmen; and when Belisarius, reinforced by + fresh troops from Syria and Phoenicia, ventured an engagement, he was + completely defeated and forced to seek safety in flight. The attempted + fortification was, upon this, razed to the ground; and the Mihran + returned, with numerous prisoners of importance, into Persia. + </p> + <p> + It is creditable to Justinian that he did not allow the ill-success of his + lieutenant to lead to his recall or disgrace. On the contrary, he chose + exactly the time of his greatest depression to give him the title of + “General of the East.” Belisarius upon this assembled at Daras an imposing + force, composed of Romans and allies, the latter being chiefly Massagetse. + The entire number amounted to 25,000 men; and with this army he would + probably have assumed the offensive, had not the Persian general of the + last campaign, Perozes the Mihran, again appeared in the field, at the + head of 40,000 Persians and declared his intention of besieging and taking + Daras. With the insolence of an Oriental he sent a message to Belisarius, + requiring him to have his bath prepared for the morrow, as after taking + the town he would need that kind of refreshment. Belisarius contented + himself, in reply, with drawing out his troops in front of Daras in a + position carefully prepared beforehand, where both his centre and his + flanks would be protected by a deep ditch, outside of which there would be + room to act for his cavalry. Perozes, having reconnoitred the position, + hesitated to attack it without a greater advantage of numbers, and sent + hastily to Nisibis for 10,000 more soldiers, while he allowed the day to + pass without anything more serious than a demonstration of his calvary + against the Roman left, and some insignificant single combats. + </p> + <p> + The next morning his reinforcement arrived; and after some exchange of + messages with Belisarius, which led to no result, he commenced active + operations. Placing his infantry in the centre, and his horse upon either + wing, as the Romans had likewise done, and arranging his infantry so that + one half should from time to time relieve the other, he assaulted the + Roman line with a storm of darts and arrows. The Romans replied with their + missile weapons; but the Persians had the advantage of numbers; they were + protected by huge wattled shields; and they were more accustomed to this + style of warfare than their adversaries. Still the Romans held out; but it + was a relief to them when the missile weapons were exhausted on both + sides, and a closer fight began along the whole line with swords and + spears. After a while the Roman left was in difficulties. Here the + Cadiseni (Cadusians?) under Pituazes routed their opponents, and were + pursuing them hastily when the Massagetic horse, commanded by Sunicas and + Aigan, and three hundred Heruli under a chief called Pharas, charged them + on their right flank, and at once threw them into disorder. Three thousand + fell, and the rest were driven back upon their main body, which, still + continued to fight bravely. The Romans did not push their advantage, but + were satisfied to reoccupy the ground from which they had been driven. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely was the battle re-established in this quarter when the Romans + found themselves in still greater difficulties upon their right. Here + Perozes had determined to deliver his main attack. The corps of Immortals, + which he had kept in reserve, and such troops as he could spare from his + centre, were secretly massed upon his own left, and charged the Roman + right with such fury that it was broken and began a hasty retreat. The + Persians pursued in a long column, and were carrying all before them, when + once more an impetuous flank charge of the barbarian cavalry, which now + formed an important element in the Roman armies, changed the face of + affairs, and indeed decided the fortune of the day. The Persian column was + actually cut in two by the Massagetic horse; those who had advanced the + furthest were completely separated from their friends, and were at once + surrounded and slain. Among them was the standard-bearer of Baresmanes, + who commanded the Persian left. The fall of this man increased the general + confusion. In vain did the Persian column, checked in its advance, attempt + an orderly retreat. The Romans assaulted it in front and on both flanks, + and a terrible carnage ensued. The crowning disaster was the death of + Baresmanes, who was slain by Sunicas, the Massa-Goth; whereupon the whole + Persian army broke and fled without offering any further resistance. Here + fell 5000, including numbers of the “Immortals.” The slaughter would have + been still greater, had not Belisarius and his lieutenant, Termogenes, + with wise caution restrained the Roman troops and recalled them quickly + from the pursuit of the enemy, content with the success which they had + achieved. It was so long since a Roman army had defeated a Persian one in + the open field that the victory had an extraordinary value, and it would + have been foolish to risk a reverse in the attempt to give it greater + completeness. + </p> + <p> + While these events took place in Mesopotamia, the Persian arms were also + unsuccessful in the Armenian highlands, whither Kobad had sent a second + army to act offensively against Rome, under the conduct of a certain + Mermeroes. The Roman commanders in this region were Sittas, the former + colleague of Belisarius, and Dorotheas, a general of experience. Their + troops did not amount to more than half the number of the enemy, yet they + contrived to inflict on the Persians two defeats, one in their own + territory, the other in Roman Armenia. The superiority thus exhibited by + the Romans encouraged desertions to their side; and in some instances the + deserters were able to carry over with them to their new friends small + portions of Persian territory. + </p> + <p> + In the year A.D. 531, after a vain attempt at negotiating terms of peace + with Rome, the Persians made an effort to recover their laurels by + carrying the war into a new quarter and effecting a new combination. + Alamandarus, sheikh of the Saracenic Arabs, had long been a bitter enemy + of the Romans, and from his safe retreat in the desert had been accustomed + for fifty years to ravage, almost at his will, the eastern provinces of + the empire. Two years previously he had carried fire and sword through the + regions of upper Syria, had burned the suburbs of Chalcis, and threatened + the Roman capital of the East, the rich and luxurious Antioch. He owed, it + would seem, some sort of allegiance to Persia, although practically he was + independent, and made his expeditions when and where he pleased. However, + in A.D. 531, he put himself at the disposal of Persia, proposed a joint + expedition, and suggested a new plan of campaign. “Mesopotamia and + Osrhoene,” he said, “on which the Persians were accustomed to make their + attacks, could better resist them than almost any other part of the Roman + territory, In these provinces were the strongest of the Roman cities, + fortified according to the latest rules of art, and plentifully supplied + with every appliance of defensive warfare. There, too, were the best and + bravest of the Roman troops, and an army more numerous than Rome had ever + employed against Persia before. It would be most perilous to risk an + encounter on this ground. Let Persia, however, invade the country beyond + the Euphrates, and she would find but few obstacles. In that region there + were no strong fortresses, nor was there any army worth mention. Antioch + itself, the richest and most populous city of the Roman East, was without + a garrison, and, if it were suddenly assaulted, could probably be taken. + The incursion might be made, Antioch sacked, and the booty carried off + into Persian territory before the Romans in Mesopotamia received + intelligence of what was happening.” Kobad listened with approval, and + determined to adopt the bold course suggested to him. He levied a force of + 15,000 cavalry, and, placing it under the command of a general named + Azarethes, desired him to take Alamandarus for his guide and make a joint + expedition with him across the Euphrates. It was understood that the great + object of the expedition was the capture of Antioch. + </p> + <p> + The allied army crossed the Euphrates below Circesium, and ascended the + right bank of the river till they neared the latitude of Antioch, when + they struck westward and reached Gabbula (the modern Jabul), on the north + shore of the salt lake now known as the Sabakhah. Here they learned to + their surprise that the movement, which they had intended to be wholly + unknown to the Romans, had come to the ears of Belisarius, who had at once + quitted Daras, and proceeded by forced marches to the defence of Syria, + into which he had thrown himself with an army of 20,000 men, Romans, + Isaurians, Lycaonians, and Arabs. His troops were already interposed + between the Persians and their longed-for prey, Belisarius having fixed + his headquarters at Chalcis, half a degree to the west of Gabbula, and + twenty-five miles nearer to Antioch. Thus balked of their purpose, and + despairing of any greater success than they had already achieved, the + allies became anxious to return to Persia with the plunder of the Syrian + towns and villages which they had sacked on their advance. Belisarius was + quite content that they should carry off their spoil, and would have + considered it a sufficient victory to have frustrated the expedition + without striking a blow. But his army was otherwise minded; they were + eager for battle, and hoped doubtless to strip the flying foe of his rich + booty. Belisarius was at last forced, against his better judgment, to + indulge their desires and allow an engagement, which was fought on the + banks of the Euphrates, nearly opposite Callinicus. Here the conduct of + the Roman troops in action corresponded but ill to the anxiety for a + conflict. The infantry indeed stood firm, notwithstanding that they fought + fasting; but the Saracenic Arabs, of whom a portion were on the Roman + side, and the Isaurian and Lycaonian horse, who had been among the most + eager for the fray, offered scarcely any resistance; and, the right wing + of the Romans being left exposed by their flight, Belisarius was compelled + to make his troops turn their faces to the enemy and their backs to the + Euphrates, and in this position, where defeat would have been ruin, to + meet and resist all the assaults of the foe until the shades of evening + fell, and he was able to transport his troops in boats across the river. + The honors of victory rested with the Persians, but they had gained no + substantial advantage; and when Azarethes returned to his master he was + not unjustly reproached with having sacrificed many lives for no + appreciable result. The raid into Syria had failed of its chief object; + and Belisarius, though defeated, had returned, with the main strength of + his army intact, into Mesopotamia. The battle of Callinicus was fought on + Easter Eve, April 19. + </p> + <p> + Azarethes probably reached Ctesiphon and made his report to Kobad towards + the end of the month. Dissatisfied with what Azarethes had achieved, and + feeling that the season was not too far advanced for a second campaign, + Kobad despatched an army under three chiefs, into Mesopotamia, where + Sittas was now the principal commander on the Roman side, as Belisarius + had been hastily summoned to Byzantium in order to be employed against the + “Vandals” in Africa. This force found no one to resist in the open field, + and was therefore able to invade Sophene and lay siege to the Roman + fortress of Martyropolis. Martyropolis was ill provisioned, and its walls + were out of repair. The Persians must soon have taken it, had not Sittas + contrived to spread reports of a diversion which the Huns were about to + make as Roman allies. Fear of being caught between two fires paralyzed the + Persian commanders; and before events undeceived them, news arrived in the + camp that Kobad was dead, and that a new prince sat upon the throne. Under + these circumstances, Chanaranges, the chief of the Persian commanders, + yielded to representations made by Sittas, that peace would now probably + be made between the contending powers, and withdrew his army into Persian + territory. + </p> + <p> + Kobad had, in fact, been seized with paralysis on the 8th of September, + and after an illness which lasted only five days, had expired. Before + dying, he had communicated to his chief minister, Mebodes, his earnest + desire that Chosroes should succeed him upon the throne, and, acting under + the advice of Mebodes, had formally left the crown to him by a will duly + executed. He is said by a contemporary to have been eighty-two years old + at his death, an age very seldom attained by an Oriental monarch. His long + life was more than usually eventful, and he cannot be denied the praise of + activity, perseverance, fertility of resource, and general military + capacity. But he was cruel and fickle; he disgraced his ministers and his + generals on insufficient grounds; he allowed himself, from considerations + of policy, to smother his religious convictions; and he risked subjecting + Persia to the horrors of a civil war, in order to gratify a favoritism + which, however justified by the event, seems to have rested on no worthy + motive. Chosroes was preferred on account of his beauty, and because he + was the son of Kobad’s best-loved wife, rather than for any good + qualities; and inherited the kingdom, not so much because he had shown any + capacity to govern as because he was his father’s darling. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Kobad are, as might be expected from the length of his reign, + very numerous. In their general appearance they resemble those of Zamasp, + but do not exhibit quite so many stars and crescents. The legend on the + obverse is either “Kavdt” or “Kavdt” afzui, i.e. “Kobad,” or “May Kobad be + increased.” The reverse shows the regnal year, which ranges from eleven to + forty-three, together with a mint-mark. The mint-marks, which are nearly + forty in number, comprise almost all those of Perozes, together with about + thirteen others. <a href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXII. Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0007" id="linkB2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Chosroes I. (Anushirwari). Conspiracy to dethrone him + crushed. General Severity of his Government. He concludes Peace with Rome, + A.D. 533. Terms of the Peace. Causes Which led to its Rupture. First Roman + War of Chosroes, A.D. 540-544. Second Roman War, A.D. 549-557. Eastern + Wars. Conquest of Arabia Felix. Supposed Campaign in India. War with the + Turks. Revolt of Persarmenia. Third Roman War, A.D. 572-579. Death of + Chosroes.</i> + </p> + <p> + The accession of Chosroes was not altogether undisputed, Kaoses, the + eldest of the sons of Kobad, regarding himself as entitled to the crown by + right of birth, assumed the insignia of royalty on the death of his + father, and claimed to be acknowledged as monarch. But Mebodes, the Grand + Vizier, interposed with the assertion of a constitutional axiom, that no + one had the right of taking the Persian crown until it was assigned to him + by the assembly of the nobles. Kaoses, who thought he might count on the + goodwill of the nobles, acquiesced; and the assembly being convened, his + claims were submitted to it. Hereupon Mebodes brought forward the formal + testament of Kobad, which he had hitherto concealed, and, submitting it to + the nobles, exhorted them to accept as king the brave prince designated by + a brave and successful father. His eloquence and authority prevailed; the + claims of Kaoses and of at least one other son of Kobad were set aside; + and, in accordance with his father’s will, Chosroes was proclaimed lawful + monarch of Persia. + </p> + <p> + But a party among the nobles were dissatisfied with the decision to which + the majority had come. They dreaded the restlessness, and probably feared + the cruelty, of Chosroes. It might have been expected that they would have + espoused the cause of the disappointed Kaoses, which had a solid basis of + legality to rest upon; but, apparently, the personal character of Kaoses + was unsatisfactory, or at any rate, there was another prince whose + qualities conciliated more regard and aroused more enthusiasm. Zanies, the + second son of Kobad, had distinguished himself repeatedly in the field, + and was the idol of a considerable section of the nation, who had long + desired that he should govern them. Unfortunately, however, he possessed a + disqualification fatal in the eyes of Orientals; he had, by disease or + mischance, lost one of his eyes, and this physical blemish made it + impossible that he should occupy the Persian throne. Under these + circumstances an ingenious plan was hit upon. In order to combine respect + for law and usage with the practical advantage of being governed by the + man of their choice, the discontented nobles conceived the idea of + conferring the crown on a son of Zames, a boy named after his grandfather + Kobad, on whose behalf Zames would naturally be regent. Zames readily came + into the plot; several of his brothers, and, what is most strange, + Chosroes’ maternal uncle, the Aspebed, supported him; the conspiracy + seemed nearly sure of success, when by some accident it was discovered, + and the occupant of the throne took prompt and effectual measures to crush + it. Zames, Kaoses, and all the other sons of Kobad were seized by order of + Chosroes, and, together with their entire male offspring, were condemned + to death. The Aspebed, and the other nobles found to have been accessory + to the conspiracy, were, at the same time, executed. One prince alone, the + intended puppet-king, Kobad, escaped, through the compassion of the + Persian who had charge of him, and, after passing many years in + concealment, became a refugee at the Court of Constantinople, where he was + kindly treated by Justinian. + </p> + <p> + When Chosroes had by these means secured himself against the claims of + pretenders, he proceeded to employ equal severity in repressing the + disorders, punishing the crimes, and compelling the abject submission of + his subjects. The heresiarch Mazdak, who had escaped the persecution + instituted in his later years by Kobad, and the sect of the Mazdakites, + which, despite that persecution, was still strong and vigorous, were the + first to experience the oppressive weight of his resentment; and the + corpses of a hundred thousand martyrs blackening upon gibbets proved the + determination of the new monarch to make his will law, whatever the + consequences. In a similar spirit the hesitation of Mebodes to obey + instantaneously an order sent him by the king was punished capitally, and + with circumstances of peculiar harshness, by the stern prince, who did not + allow gratitude for old benefits to affect the judgments which he passed + on recent offences. Nor did signal services in the field avail to save + Chanaranges, the nobleman who preserved the young Kobad, from his master’s + vengeance. The conqueror of twelve nations, betrayed by an unworthy son, + was treacherously entrapped and put to death on account of a single humane + act which had in no way harmed or endangered the jealous monarch. + </p> + <p> + The fame of Chosroes rests especially on his military exploits and + successes. On first ascending the throne he seems, however, to have + distrusted his capacity for war; and it was with much readiness that he + accepted the overtures for peace made by Justinian, who was anxious to + bring the Eastern war to a close, in order that he might employ the + talents of Belisarius in the reduction of Africa and Italy. A truce was + made between Persia and Rome early in A.D. 532; and the truce was followed + after a short interval by a treaty—known as “the endless peace”—whereby + Rome and Persia made up their differences and arranged to be friends on + the following conditions: (1) Rome was to pay over to Persia the sum of + eleven thousand pounds of gold, or about half a million of our money, as + her contribution towards the maintenance of the Caucasian defences, the + actual defence being undertaken by Persia; (2) Daras was to remain a + fortified post, but was not to be made the Roman head-quarters in + Mesopotamia, which were to be fixed at Constantia; (3) the district of + Pharangium and the castle of Bolon, which Rome had recently taken from + Persia, were to be restored, and Persia on her part was to surrender the + forts which she had captured in Lazica; (4) Rome and Persia were to be + eternal friends and allies, and were to aid each other whenever required + with supplies of men and money. Thus was terminated the thirty years’ war, + which, commencing in A.D. 502 by the attack of Kobad on Annastasius, was + brought to a close in A.D. 532, and ratified by Justinian in the year + following. + </p> + <p> + When Chosroes consented to substitute close relations of amity with Rome + for the hereditary enmity which had been the normal policy of his house, + he probably expected that no very striking or remarkable results would + follow. He supposed that the barbarian neighbors of the empire on the + north and on the west would give her arms sufficient employment, and that + the balance of power in Eastern Europe and Western Asia would remain much + as before. But in these expectations he was disappointed. Justinian no + sooner found his eastern frontier secure than he directed the whole force + of the empire upon his enemies in the regions of the west, and in the + course of half a dozen years (A.D. 533-539), by the aid of his great + general, Belisarius, he destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals in the region + about Carthage and Tunis, subdued the Moors, and brought to its last gasp + the power of the Ostrogoths in Italy. The territorial extent of his + kingdom was nearly doubled by these victories; his resources were vastly + increased; the prestige of his arms was enormously raised; veteran armies + had been formed which despised danger, and only desired to be led against + fresh enemies; and officers had been trained capable of conducting + operations of every kind, and confident, under all circumstances, of + success. It must have been with feelings of dissatisfaction and alarm not + easily to be dissembled that the Great King heard of his brother’s long + series of victories and conquests, each step in which constituted a fresh + danger to Persia by aggrandizing the power whom she had chiefly to fear. + At first his annoyance found a vent in insolent demands for a share of the + Roman spoils, which Justinian thought it prudent to humor but, as time + went on, and the tide of victory flowed more and more strongly in one + direction, he became less and less able to contain himself, and more and + more determined to renounce his treaty with Rome and renew the old + struggle for supremacy. His own inclination, a sufficiently strong motive + in itself, was seconded and intensified by applications made to him from + without on the part of those who had especial reasons for dreading the + advance of Rome, and for expecting to be among her next victims. Witiges, + the Ostrogoth king of Italy, and Bassaces, an Armenian chief, were the + most important of these applicants. Embassies from these opposite quarters + reached Chosroes in the same year, A.D. 539, and urged him for his own + security to declare war against Justinian before it was too late. + “Justinian,” the ambassadors said, “aimed at universal empire. His + aspirations had for a while been kept in check by Persia, and by Persia + alone, the sole power in the world that he feared. Since the ‘endless + peace’ was made, he had felt himself free to give full vent to his + ambitious greed, had commenced a course of aggression upon all the other + conterminous nations, and had spread war and confusion on all sides. He + had destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, conquered the Moors, + deceived the Goths of Italy by professions of friendship, and then fallen + upon them with all his forces, violated the rights of Armenia and driven + it to rebellion, enslaved the Tzani and the Lazi, seized the Greek city of + Bosporus, and the ‘Isle of Palms’ on the shores of the Red Sea, solicited + the alliance of barbarous Huns and Ethiopians, striven to sow discord + between the Persian monarch and his vassals, and in every part of the + world shown himself equally grasping and restless. What would be the + consequence if Persia continued to hold aloof? Simply that all the other + nations would in turn be destroyed, and she would find herself face to + face with their destroyer, and would enjoy the poor satisfaction of being + devoured last. But did she fear to be reproached with breaking the treaty + and forfeiting her pledged word? Rome had already broken it by her + intrigues with the Huns, the Ethiopians, and the Saracens; and Persia + would therefore be free from reproach if she treated the peace as no + longer existing. The treaty-breaker is not he who first draws the sword, + but he who sets the example of seeking the other’s hurt. Or did Persia + fear the result of declaring war? Such fear was unreasonable, for Rome had + neither troops, nor generals to oppose to a sudden Persian attack. Sittas + was dead; Belisarius and the best of the Roman forces were in Italy. If + Justinian recalled Belisarius, it was not certain that he would obey; and, + in the worst case, it would be in favor of Persia that the Goths of Italy, + and the Armenians who for centuries had been subjects of Rome, were now + ready to make common cause with her.” Thus urged, the Persian king + determined on openly declaring war and making an attack in force on the + eastern provinces of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The scene of contest in the wars between Rome and Persia had been usually + either Mesopotamia or Armenia. On rare occasions only had the traditional + policy been departed from, and attempts made to penetrate into the richer + parts of the Roman East, and to inflict serious injury on the empire by + carrying fire and sword into peaceful and settled provinces. Kobad, + however, had in his later years ventured to introduce a new system, and + had sent troops across the Euphrates into Syria in the hope of ravaging + that fertile region and capturing its wealthy metropolis, Antioch. This + example Chosroes now determined to follow. Crossing the great stream in + the lower portion of its course, he led his troops up its right bank, past + Circesium, Zenobia, and Callinicus, to Suron, a Roman town on the west + side of the river. As this small place ventured to resist him, Chosroes, + bent upon terrifying the other towns into submission, resolved to take a + signal revenge. Though the garrison, after losing their commandant, made + overtures for a surrender, he insisted on entering forcibly at one of the + gates, and then, upon the strength of this violent entrance, proceeded to + treat the city as one taken by storm, pillaged the houses, massacred a + large portion of the inhabitants, enslaved the others, and in conclusion + set the place on fire and burned it to the ground. It was perhaps in a fit + of remorse, though possibly only under the influence of greed, that + shortly afterwards he allowed the neighboring bishop of Sergiopolis to + ransom these unfortunate captives, twelve thousand, in number, for the + modest sum of two hundred pounds of gold. + </p> + <p> + From Suron the invading army advanced to Hierapolis, without encountering + the enemy, who did not dare to make any resistance in the open field, but + sought the protection of walls and strongholds. The defences of Hierapolis + were in tolerable order; its garrison was fairly strong; and the Great + King therefore prudently resolved to allow the citizens to ransom + themselves and their city at a moderate price. Two thousand pounds of + silver was the amount fixed upon; and this sum was paid without any + complaint by the Hierapolites. Plunder, not conquest, was already + distinctly set before the invader’s mind as his aim; and it is said that + he even offered at this period to evacuate the Roman territory altogether + upon receiving a thousand pounds of gold. But the Romans were not yet + brought so low as to purchase a peace; it was thought that Antioch and the + other important towns might successfully defy the Persian arms, and hoped + that Justinian would soon send into the field an army strong enough to + cope with that of his adversary. The terms, therefore, which Chosroes + offered by the mouth of Megas, bishop of Berhcea, were rejected; the + Antiochenes were exhorted to remain firm; Ephraim, the bishop, was + denounced to the authorities for counselling submission; and it was + determined to make no pacific arrangement, but to allow Chosroes to do his + worst. The Persian, on his side, was not slack or remiss. No sooner had he + received the ransom of Hierapolis than he advanced upon Berhoea (now + Aleppo), which he reached in four days. Observing that the defences were + weak, he here demanded twice the ransom that he had accepted from the + Hierapolites, and was only induced to forego the claim by the tears and + entreaties of the good bishop, who convinced him at length that the + Berhoeans could not pay so large a sum, and induced him to accept the half + of it. A few more days’ march brought him from Aleppo to the outskirts of + Antioch; and after an interval of nearly three centuries the “Queen of the + East,” the richest and most magnificent of Oriental cities, was once more + invested by Persian troops and threatened by a Sassanian monarch. + </p> + <p> + A great calamity had fallen upon Antioch only fourteen years previously. + The entire town had been ruined by a succession of terrible earthquakes, + which commenced in October, A.D. 525, and terminated in August of the + ensuing year. All for a time was havoc and disorder. A landslip had + covered a portion of the city, and in the remainder almost every house was + overthrown. But the liberality of Justinian, the spirit of the + inhabitants, and the efforts of the governor, had effaced these disasters; + and the city, when the Persians appeared before it, was in most respects + grander and more magnificent than ever. The defences were, however, it + would seem, imperfect. The citadel especially, which was on the high + ground south of the city, had been constructed with small attention to the + rules of engineering art, and was dominated by a height at a little + distance, which ought to have been included within the walls. Nor was this + deficiency compensated by any strength in the garrison, or any weight of + authority or talent among those with whom rested the command. Justinian + had originally sent his nephew, Germanus, to conduct the defence of the + Syrian capital, while Buzes, an officer who had gained some repute in the + Armenian war, was entrusted with the general protection of the East until + Belisarius should arrive from Italy; but Germanus, after a brief stay, + withdrew from Antioch into Cilicia, and Buzes disappeared without any one + knowing whither he had betaken himself. Antioch was left almost without a + garrison; and had not Theoctistus and Molatzes, two officers who commanded + in the Lebanon, come to the rescue and brought with them a body of six + thousand disciplined troops, it is scarcely possible that any resistance + should have been made. As it was, the resistance was brief and + ineffectual. Chosroes at once discerned the weak point in the defences, + and, having given a general order to the less trusty of his troops to make + attacks upon the lower town in various places, himself with the flower of + the army undertook the assault upon the citadel. Here the commanding + position so unaccountably left outside the walls enabled the Persians to + engage the defenders almost on a level, and their superior skill in the + use of missile weapons soon brought the garrison into difficulties. The + assailants, however, might perhaps still have been repulsed, had not an + unlucky accident supervened, which, creating a panic, put it in the power + of the Persians by a bold movement to enter the place. The Romans, cramped + for room upon the walls, had extemporized some wooden stages between the + towers, which they hung outside by means of ropes. It happened that, in + the crush and tumult, one of these stages gave way; the ropes broke, and + the beams fell with a crash to the earth, carrying with them a number of + the defenders. The noise made by the fall was great, and produced a + general impression that the wall itself had been broken down; the towers + and battlements were at once deserted; the Roman soldiers rushed to the + gates and began to quit the town; while the Persians took advantage of the + panic to advance their scaling ladders, to mount the walls, and to make + themselves masters of the citadel. Thus Antioch was taken. The prudence of + Chosroes was shown in his quietly allowing the armed force to withdraw; + his resolve to trample down all resistance appeared in his slaughter of + the Antiochone youth, who with a noble recklessness continued the conflict + after the soldiers had fled; his wish to inspire terror far and wide made + him deliver the entire city, with few exceptions, to the flames; while his + avarice caused him to plunder the churches, and to claim as his own the + works of art, the marbles, bronzes, tablets, and pictures, with which the + Queen of the Roman East was at this time abundantly provided. But, while + thus gratifying his most powerful passions, he did not lose sight of the + opportunity to conclude an advantageous peace. Justinian’s ambassadors had + long been pressing him to come to terms with their master. He now + consented to declare the conditions on which he was ready to make peace + and withdraw his army. Rome must pay him, as an indemnity for the cost of + the war, the sum of five thousand pounds of gold, and must also contract + to make a further payment of five hundred pounds of gold annually, not as + a tribute, but as a fair contribution towards the expense of maintaining + the Caspian Gates and keeping out the Huns. If hostages were given him, he + would consent to abstain from further acts of hostility while Justinian + was consulted on these proposals, and would even begin at once to withdraw + his army. The ambassadors readily agreed to these terms, and it was + understood that a truce would be observed until Justinian’s answer should + be delivered to Chosroes. + </p> + <p> + But the Great King, in thus formulating the terms on which he would be + content to make peace, did not intend to tie his own hands, or to allow + the Syrian cities before which he had not yet appeared to be quit of him + without the payment of ransom. After visiting Seleucia, the port of + Antioch at the mouth of the Orontes, bathing in the blue waters of the + Mediterranean, and offering sacrifice to the (setting?) sun upon the + shore, he announced his intention of proceeding to Apameia, a city on the + middle Orontes, which was celebrated for its wealth, and particularly for + its possession of a fragment of the “true cross,” enshrined in a case + which the pious zeal of the faithful had enriched with gold and jewels of + extraordinary value. Received peacefully into the city by the submissive + inhabitants, instead of fixing their ransom at a definite sum, he demanded + and obtained all the valuables of the sacred treasury, including the + precious relic which the Apamaeans regarded as the most important of their + possessions. As, however, it was the case, and not its contents, that he + coveted, while he carried off the former, he readily restored the latter + to the prayers of the bishop and inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + From Apameia Chosroes returned to Antioch, and after witnessing the games + of the amphitheatre and securing victory to the green champion because + Justinian preferred the blue, he set out at last on his return to Persia, + taking care to visit, upon his way to the Euphrates, the city of Chalcis, + the only important place in Northern Syria that had hitherto escaped him. + The Chalcidians were required not only to ransom themselves by a sum of + money, but to give up to Chosroes the Roman soldiers who garrisoned their + town. By a perjury that may well be forgiven them, they avoided the more + important concession, but they had to satisfy the avarice of the conqueror + by the payment of two hundred pounds of gold. The Persian host then + continued its march, and reaching the Euphrates at Obbane, in the + neighborhood of Barbalissus, crossed by a bridge of boats in three days. + The object of Chosroes in thus changing his return line of march was to + continue in Roman Mesopotamia the course which he had adopted in Syria + since the conclusion of the truce—i.e. to increase his spoil by + making each important city ransom itself. Edessa, Constantina, and Daras + were successively visited, and purchased their safety by a contribution. + According to Procopius, the proceedings before Daras were exceptional. + Although Chosroes, before he quitted Edossa, had received a communication + from Justinian accepting the terms arranged with the Roman envoys at + Antioch, yet, when he reached Daras, he at once resolved upon its siege. + The city was defended by two walls, an outer one of moderate strength, and + an inner one sixty feet high, with towers at intervals, whose height was a + hundred feet. Chosroes, having invested the place, endeavored to penetrate + within the defences by means of a mine; but, his design having been + betrayed, the Romans met him with a countermine, and completely foiled his + enterprise. Unwilling to spend any more time on the siege, the Persian + monarch upon this desisted from his attempt, and accepted the contribution + of a thousand pounds of silver as a sufficient redemption for the great + fortress. + </p> + <p> + Such is the account of the matter given to us by Procopius, who is our + only extant authority for the details of this war. But the account is + violently improbable. It represents Chosroes as openly flying in the face + of a treaty the moment that he had concluded it, and as departing in a + single instance from the general tenor of his proceedings in all other + cases. In view of the great improbability of such a course of action, it + is perhaps allowable to suppose that Procopius has been for once carried + away by partisanship, and that the real difference between the case of + Daras and the other towns consisted in this, that Daras alone refused to + pay its ransom, and Chosroes had, in consequence, to resort to hostilities + in order to enforce it. + </p> + <p> + Still, no doubt, the whole conduct of Chosroes in enforcing ransoms from + the towns after the conclusion of the truce was open to serious question, + and Justinian was quite justified in treating his proceedings as a + violation of his recent engagements. It is not unlikely that, even without + any such excuse, he would shortly have renewed the struggle, since the + return of Belisarius in triumph from the Italian war had placed at his + service for employment in the East a general from whose abilities much was + naturally expected. As it was, Justinian was able, on receiving + intelligence of the fines levied on Apameia, Chalcis, Edessa, Constantina, + and Daras, and of the hostile acts committed against the last-named place, + with great show of reason and justice, to renounce the recently concluded + peace, and to throw on the ill faith of Chosroes the blame of the rupture. + </p> + <p> + The Persian prince seems to have paid but little heed to the denunciation. + He passed the winter in building and beautifying a Persian Antioch in the + neighborhood of Ctesiphon, assigning it as a residence to his Syrian + captives, for whose use he constructed public baths and a spacious + hippodrome, where the entertainments familiar to them from their youth + were reproduced by Syrian artists. The new city was exempt from the + jurisdiction of Persian satraps, and was made directly dependent upon the + king, who supplied it with corn gratuitously, and allowed it to become an + inviolable asylum for all such Greek slaves as should take shelter in it, + and be acknowledged as their kinsmen by any of the inhabitants. A model of + Greek civilization was thus brought into close contact with the Persian + court, which could amuse itself with the contrasts, if it did not learn + much from the comparison, of European and Asiatic manners and modes of + thought. + </p> + <p> + The campaign of A.D. 540 was followed by one of a very different character + in A.D. 541. An unexpected offer suddenly made to the Persian king drew + him from his capital, together with the bulk of his troops, to one of the + remotest portions of the Persian territory, and allowed the Romans, + instead of standing on their defence, to assume an aggressive in + Mesopotamia, and even to retaliate the invasion which the year before + Chosroes had conducted into the heart of their empire. The hostile + operations of A.D. 541 had thus two distinct and far-distant scenes; in + the one set the Persians, in the other the Romans, took the offensive; the + two wars, for such they in reality were, scarcely affected one another; + and it will therefore be convenient to keep the accounts of them distinct + and separate. To commence with. + </p> + <p> + I. The LAZIO WAR.—Lazica had been a dependency of Rome from the time + when Tzath, upon his conversion to Christianity, professed himself the + vassal of Justin, and received the insignia of royalty from his new patron + (A.D. 522). The terms of the connection had been at the first honorable to + the weaker nation, which paid no tribute, admitted no Roman garrison, and + was troubled by no Roman governor. As time went on, however, the Romans + gradually encroached upon the rights of their dependants; they seized and + fortified a strong post, called Petra, upon the coast, appointed a + commandant who claimed an authority as great as that of the Lazic king, + and established a commercial monopoly which pressed with great severity + upon the poorer classes of the Lazi. Under these circumstances the nation + determined on revolt; and in the winter of A.D. 540-1 Lazic ambassadors + visited the court of Persia, exposed the grievances of their countrymen, + and besought Chosroes to accept their submission, and extend to them the + protection of his government. The province was distant, and possessed few + attractions; whatever the tales told of its ancient wealth, or glories, or + trade, in the time of Chosroes it was poor and unproductive, dependent on + its neighbors for some of the necessaries and all the conveniences of + life, and capable of exporting nothing but timber, slaves, and skins. It + might have been expected, under such circumstances, that the burden of the + protectorate would have been refused; but there was an advantage, apparent + or real, in the position of the country, discovered by the sagacity of + Chosroes or suggested to him by the interested zeal of the envoys, which + made its possession seem to the Persian king a matter of the highest + importance, and induced him to accept the offer made him without a + moment’s delay. Lazica, the ancient Colchis and the modern Mingrelia and + Imeritia, bordered upon the Black Sea, which the Persian dominions did not + as yet touch. Once in possesion of this tract, Chosroes conceived that he + might launch a fleet upon the Euxine, command its commerce, threaten or + ravage its shores, and even sail against Constantinople and besiege the + Roman emperor in his capital. The Persian king therefore acceded to the + request of the envoys, and, pretending to be called into Iberia by a + threatened invasion of the Huns, led a large army to the Lazic border, was + conducted into the heart of the country by the envoys, received the + submission of Gubazes, the king, and then, pressing on to the coast, + formed the siege of Petra, where the Roman forces were collected. Petra + offered a stout resistance, and repulsed more than one Persian assault; + but it was impossible for the small garrison to cope with the numbers, the + engineering skill, and the ardor of the assailants. After the loss of + their commandant, Johannes, and the fall of one of the principal towers, + the soldiers capitulated; Petra was made over to the Persians, who + restored and strengthened its defences, and Lazica became for the time a + Persian province. + </p> + <p> + II. The War in Mesopotamia.—Belisarius, on reaching the eastern + frontier, fixed his head-quarters at Daras, and, finding that the Persians + had no intention of invading Syria or Roman Mesopotamia, resolved to lead + his troops into the enemy’s territory. As his forces were weak in numbers, + ill-armed, and ill-supplied, he could scarcely hope to accomplish any + great enterprise; but it was important to recover the Roman prestige after + the occurrences of the preceding year, and to show that Rome was willing + to encounter in the open field any force that the Persians could bring + against her. He therefore crossed the frontier and advanced in the + direction of Nisibis, less with the intention of attacking the town than + of distinctly offering battle to the troops collected within it. His + scheme succeeded; a small force, which he threw out in advance, drew the + enemy from the walls; and their pursuit of this detachment brought them + into contact with the main army of Belisarius, which repulsed them and + sent them flying into the town. Having thus established his superiority in + the field, the Roman general, though he could not attack Nisibis with any + prospect of success, was able to adopt other offensive measures. He + advanced in person a day’s march beyond Nisibis, and captured the fort of + Sisauranon. Eight hundred Persian cavalry of the first class were made + prisoners, and sent by Belisarius to Byzantium, where they were despatched + by Justinian to Italy, where they served against the Goths. Arethas, the + chief of the Saracens who fought on the side of Rome, was sent still + further in advance. The orders given him were to cross the Tigris into + Assyria, and begin to ravage it, but to return within a short time to the + camp, and bring a report of the strength of the Persians beyond the river. + If the report was favorable, Belisarius intended to quit Mesopotamia, and + take the whole Roman force with him into Assyria. His plans, however, were + frustrated by the selfish Arab, who, wishing to obtain the whole Assyrian + spoil for himself, dismissed his Roman troops, proceeded to plunder the + rich province on his own account, and sent Belisarius no intelligence of + what he was so doing. After waiting at Sisauranon till the heats of summer + had decimated his army, the Roman general was compelled to retreat by the + discontent of the soldiery and the representations of his principal + officers. He withdrew his forces within the Roman frontier without + molestation from the enemy, and was shortly afterwards summoned to + Constantinople to confer on the state of affairs with, the emperor. + </p> + <p> + The military operations of the next year (A.D. 542) were comparatively + unimportant. Chosroes collected a large army, and, repeating the movement + of A.D. 540, made his appearance in Commagene early in the year, intending + to press forward through Syria into Palestine, and hoping to make himself + master of the sacred treasures which he knew to be accumulated in the Holy + City of Jerusalem. He found the provincial commanders, Buzes and Justus, + despondent and unenterprising, declined to meet him in the field, and + content to remain shut up within the walls of Hierapolis. Had these been + his only opponents the campaign would probably have proved a success; but, + at the first news of his invasion, Justinian despatched Belisarius to the + East, for the second time, and this able general, by his arts or by his + reputation, succeeded in arresting the steps of Chosroes and frustrating + his expedition. Belisarius took up his head-quarters at Europus, on the + Euphrates, a little to the south of Zeugma, and, spreading his troops on + both banks of the river, appeared both to protect the Roman province and + to threaten the return of the enemy. Chosroes having sent an emissary to + the Roman camp under the pretence of negotiating, but really to act the + part of a spy, was so impressed (if we may believe Procopius) by the + accounts which he received of the ability of the general and the warlike + qualities of his soldiers, that he gave up the idea of advancing further, + and was content to retire through Roman Mesopotamia into his own + territories. He is said even to have made a convention that he would + commit no hostile act as he passed through the Roman province; but if so, + he did not keep the engagement. The city of Callinicus lay in his way; its + defences were undergoing repairs, and there was actually a gap in one + place where the old wall had been pulled down and the new one had not yet + been built. The Persian king could not resist the temptation of seizing + this easy prey; he entered the undefended town, enslaved all whom he found + in it, and then razed the place to the ground. Such is the account which + the Byzantine historian gives of the third campaign of Chosroes against + the Romans, and of the motive and manner of his retreat. Without taxing + him with falsehood, we may suspect that, for the glorification of his + favorite hero, he has kept back a portion of the truth. The retreat of + Chosroes may be ascribed with much probability to the advance of another + danger, more formidable than Belisarius, which exactly at this time made + its appearance in the country whereto he was hastening. It was in the + summer of A.D. 542 that the plague broke out at Pelusium, and spread from + that centre rapidly into the rest of Egypt and also into Palestine. + Chosroes may well have hesitated to confront this terrible foe. He did not + ultimately escape it; but he might hope to do so, and it would clearly + have been the height of imprudence to have carried out his intention of + invading Palestine when the plague was known to be raging there. + </p> + <p> + The fourth year of the Roman war (A.D. 543) opened with a movement of the + Persian troops toward the Armenian frontier, consequent upon the desertion + of the Persian cause by the Roman Armenians in the course of the winter. + Chosroes in person once more led the attack, and proceeded as far as + Azerbijan; but, the pestilence breaking out in his army, he hastily + retreated, after some futile attempts at negotiation with the Roman + officers opposed to him. Belisarius had this year been sent to Italy, and + the Roman army of the East, amounting to thirty thousand men, was + commanded by as many as fifteen generals, almost of equal rank, among whom + there was little concert or agreement. Induced to take the offensive by + the retirement of the Persian king, these incapable officers invaded + Persarmenia with all their troops, and proceeded to plunder its rich + plains and fertile valleys. Encountering suddenly and unexpectedly the + Persian general Nabedes, who, with a small force, was strongly posted at a + village called Anglon, they were compelled to engage at disadvantage; + their troops, entangled in difficult ground, found themselves attacked in + their rear by an ambush; Narses, the bravest of them, fell; and, a general + panic seizing the entire multitude, they fled in the extremest disorder, + casting away their arms, and pressing their horses till they sank and + expired. The Persians pursued, but with caution, and the carnage was not + so great as might have been expected; but vast numbers of the disarmed + fugitives were overtaken and made prisoners by the enemy; and the arms, + animals, and camp equipment which fell into the hands of the Persians + amply compensated all previous losses, and left Persarmenia the richer for + the inroad. + </p> + <p> + The ravages of the pestilence having ceased, Chosroes, in the following + year (A.D. 544), again marched westward in person, and laid siege to the + city of Edessa. It would seem that he had now resolved not to be content + with plundering raids, but to attempt at any rate the permanent conquest + of some portion of the Roman territory. Edessa and Daras were the two + towns on which the Roman possession of Western Mesopotamia at this time + mainly depended. As the passing of Nisibis, in A.D. 363, from Roman into + Persian hands, had given to Persia a secure hold on the eastern portion of + the country between the rivers, so the occupation of Edessa and Daras + could it have been effected, would have carried with it dominion over the + more western regions. The Roman frontier would in this way have been + thrown back to the Euphrates. Chosroes must be understood as aiming at + this grand result in the siege which he so pertinaciously pressed, and + which Edessa so gallantly resisted, during the summer of A.D. 544. The + elaborate account which Procopius gives of the siege may be due to a sense + of its importance. Chosroes tried, not force only, but every art known to + the engineering science of the period; he repeated his assaults day after + day; he allowed the defenders no repose; yet he was compelled at last to + own himself baffled by the valor of the small Roman garrison and the + spirit of the native inhabitants, to burn his works, and to return home. + The five hundred pounds of gold which he extorted at last from Martinus, + the commandant of the place, may have been a salve to his wounded pride; + but it was a poor set-off against the loss of men, of stores, and of + prestige, which he had incurred by his enterprise. + </p> + <p> + It was, perhaps, his repulse from the walls of Edessa that induced + Chosroes, in A.D. 545, seriously to entertain the proposals for an + arrangement which were made to him by the ambassadors of Justinian. + Throughout the war their had been continual negotiations; but hitherto the + Persian king had trifled with his antagonist, and had amused himself with + discussing terms of accommodation without any serious purpose. Now at + last, after five years of incessant hostilities, in which he had gained + much glory but little profit, he seems to have desired a breathing-space. + Justinian’s envoys visited him at Ctesiphon, and set forth their master’s + desire to conclude a regular peace. Chosroes professed to think that the + way for a final arrangement would be best prepared by the conclusion, in + the first instance, of a truce. He proposed, in lieu of a peace, a + cessation of hostilities for five years, during the course of which the + causes of quarrel between the two nations might be considered, and a good + understanding established. It shows the weakness of the Empire, that + Justinian not only accepted this proposal, but was content to pay for the + boon granted him. Chosroes received as the price of the five years truce + the services of a Greek physician and two thousand pounds of gold. + </p> + <p> + The five years’ truce seems to have been observed with better faith by the + Persian than by the Roman monarch. Alamundarus indeed, though a Persian + vassal, regarded himself as entitled, despite the truce, to pursue his + quarrel with his natural enemy, Arethas, who acknowledged the suzerainty + of Rome; but Chosroes is not even accused of instigating his proceedings; + and the war between the vassals was carried on without dragging either of + the two lords-paramount into its vortex. Thus far, then, neither side had + any cause of complaint against the other. If we were bound to accept the + Roman story of a project formed by Chosroes for the surprise and seizure + of Daras, we should have to admit that circumstances rather than his own + will saved the Persian monarch from the guilt of being the first to break + the agreement. But the tale told by Procopius is improbable; and the Roman + belief of it can have rested at best only upon suspicion. Chosroes, it is + allowed, committed no hostile act; and it may well be doubted whether he + really entertained the design ascribed to him. At any rate, the design was + not executed, nor even attempted; and the peace was thus not broken on his + part. It was reserved for Rome in the fourth year of the truce (A.D. 549) + expressly, to break its provisions by accepting the Lazi into alliance and + sending them a body of eight thousand men to help them against the + Persians. + </p> + <p> + Very soon after their submission to Persia the Lazi had repented of their + rash and hasty action. They found that they had gained nothing, while in + some respects they had lost, by their change of masters. The general + system of the Persian administration was as arbitrary and oppressive as + the Roman. If the commercial monopoly, whereof they so bitterly + complained, had been swept away, commerce itself had gone with it, and + they could neither find a market for their own products, nor obtain the + commodities which they required. The Persian manners and customs + introduced into their country, if not imposed upon themselves, were + detestable to the Lazi, who were zealous and devout Christians, and + possessed by the spirit of intolerance. Chosroes, after holding the + territory for a few years, became convinced that Persia could not retain + it unless the disaffected population were removed and replaced by faithful + subjects. He designed therefore, we are told, to deport the entire Lazic + nation, and to plant the territory with colonies of Persians and others, + on whose fidelity he could place full reliance. As a preliminary step, he + suggested to his lieutenant in Lazica that he should contrive the + assassination of Gubazes, the Lazic king, in whom he saw an obstacle to + his project. Phabrizus, however, failed in his attempt to execute this + commission; and his failure naturally produced the immediate revolt of the + province, which threw itself once more into the arms of Rome, and, despite + the existing treaty with the Persians, was taken by Justinian under his + protection. + </p> + <p> + The Lazic war, which commenced in consequence of this act of Justinian’s, + continued almost without intermission for nine years—from A.D. 549 + to 557. Its details are related at great length by Procopius and Agathias, + who view the struggle as one which vitally concerned the interests of + their country. According to them, Chosroes was bent upon holding Lazica in + order to construct at the mouth of the Phasis a great naval station and + arsenal, from which his fleets might issue to command the commerce or + ravage the shores of the Black Sea. There is no doubt that the country was + eminently fitted for such a purpose. The soil is for the most part richly + fertile; the hills are everywhere covered with forests of noble trees; the + Rion (Phasis) is deep and broad towards its mouth; and there are other + streams also which are navigable. If Chosroes entertained the intentions + ascribed to him, and had even begun the collection of timber for + ship-building at Petra on the Euxine as early as A.D. 549, we cannot be + surprised at the attitude assumed by Rome, or at her persistent efforts to + recover possession of the Lazic territory. + </p> + <p> + The war was opened by an attack upon the great centre of the Persian + power, Petra. This place, which was strongly situated on a craggy rock + projecting into the sea, had been carefully fortified by Justinian before + Lazica passed into the possession of Chosroes, and had since received + important additions to its defences at the hands of the Persians. It was + sufficiently provisioned, and was defended by a body of fifteen hundred + men. Dagisthseus, the Roman commander, besieged it with his entire force + of eight thousand men, and succeeded by his constant attacks in reducing + the garrison to little more than a fourth of its original number. Baffled + in one attempt to effect a breach by means of a mine, he had contrived to + construct another, and might have withdrawn his props, destroyed the wall, + and entered the place, had he not conceived the idea of bargaining with + the emperor for a specific reward in case he effected the capture. Whilst + he waited for his messenger to bring a reply, the Persian general, + Memeroes, forced the passes from Iberia into Lazica, and descended the + valley of the Phasis with an army of 30,000 men. Dagisthalus in alarm + withdrew, and Petra was relieved and revictualled. The walls were repaired + hastily with sandbags, and the further defence was entrusted to a fresh + garrison of 3000 picked soldiers. Mermeroes then, finding it difficult to + obtain supplies for his large army, retired into Persarmenia, leaving only + five thousand Persians in the country besides the garrison of Petra. This + small force was soon afterwards surprised by the combined Romans and Lazi, + who completely defeated it, destroying or making prisoners almost the + entire number. + </p> + <p> + In the ensuing year, A.D. 550, the Persians took the field under a fresh + general, Chorianes, who brought with him a considerable army, composed of + Persians and Alans. The allied Romans and Lazi, under Dagisthseus and + Gubazes, gave battle to this new foe on the banks of the Hippis (the + Tschenikal?); and though the Lazi, who had insisted on taking the lead and + fighting separately, were at the first encounter routed by the Persian + horse, yet in the end Roman discipline and stubbornness triumphed. Their + solid line of footmen, bristling with spears, offered an impervious + barrier to the cavalry of the enemy, which did not dare to charge, but had + recourse to volleys of missiles. The Romans responded with the same; and + the battle raged for a while on something like even terms, the superior + rapidity of the Asiatics being counterbalanced by the better protection + which their shields gave to the Europeans, until at last, by a stroke of + fortune, Rome obtained the victory. A chance arrow killed Chorianes, and + his army instantly fled. There was a short struggle at the Persian camp; + but the Romans and Lazi captured it. Most of the Persians were here put to + the sword; the few who escaped quitted Lazica and returned to their own + country. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards Dagisthseus was superseded by Bessas, and the siege of + Petra was recommenced. The strength of the place had been considerably + increased since the former attack upon it. A new wall of great height and + solidity had been built upon a framework of wood in the place which + Dagisthaeus had so nearly breached; the Roman mines had been filled up + with gravel; arms, offensive and defensive, had been collected in + extraordinary abundance; a stock of flour and of salted meat had been laid + in sufficient to support the garrison of 3000 men for five years; and a + store of vinegar, and of the pulse from which it was made, had likewise + been accumulated. The Roman general began by attempting to repeat the + device of his predecessor, attacking the defences in the same place and by + the same means; but, just as his mine was completed, the new wall with its + framework of wood sank quietly into the excavation, without suffering any + disturbance of its parts, while enough of it still remained above the + surface to offer an effectual bar to the assailants. It seemed hopeless to + recommence the mine in this place, and elsewhere the nature of the ground + made mining impossible; some other mode of attack had therefore to be + adopted, or the siege must have been abandoned. Rome generally took towns + by the battering-ram; but the engines in use were of such heavy + construction that they could not be dragged up an ascent like that upon + which Petra stood. Bessas was in extreme perplexity, when some Hunnic + allies, who happened to be in his camp, suggested a mode of constructing a + ram, as effective as the ordinary one, which should nevertheless be so + light that it could be carried on the shoulders of forty men. Three such + machines were quickly made; and under their blows the wall would soon have + given way, had not the defenders employed against them the terrible agency + of fire, showering upon them from the walls lighted casks of sulphur, + bitumen, and naphtha, which last was known to the Greeks of Colchis as + “Medea’s oil.” Uncertain of succeeding in this attack, the Roman general + gallantly led a scaling party to another portion of the walls, and, + mounting at the head of his men, attempted to make good his footing on the + battlements. Thrown headlong to the ground, but undeterred by his fall, he + was about to repeat his attempt, when he found it needless. Almost + simultaneously his troops had in two other places penetrated into the + town. One band had obtained an entrance by scaling the rocks in a place + supposed to be inaccessible; a second owed its success to a combination of + accidents. First, it had happened that a gap had shown itself in the piece + of the wall which sank into the Roman mine, and a violent struggle had + ensued between the assailants and defenders at this place. + </p> + <p> + Then, while this fight was going on, the fire which the Persians were + using against the Roman battering-rams had been by a shift of wind blown + back upon themselves, and the wooden structure from which they fought had + been ignited, and in a short time entirely consumed, together with its + inmates. At sight of the conflagration, the Persians who stood in the gap + had lost heart, and had allowed the Roman troops to force their way + through it into Petra. Thus fell the great Lazic fortress, after a + resistance which is among the most memorable in history. Of the three + thousand defenders, seven hundred had been killed in the siege; one + thousand and seventy were destroyed in the last assault. Only seven + hundred and thirty were made prisoners; and of these no fewer than seven + hundred and twelve were found to be wounded. The remaining five hundred + threw themselves into the citadel, and there resisted to the last + extremity, refusing all terms of capitulation, and maintaining themselves + against an overwhelming force, until at last by sword and fire they + perished to a man. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Petra was prolonged far into the winter, and the year A.D. + 551 had begun ere the resistance ceased. Could the gallant defenders have + maintained themselves for a few more weeks, they might not improbably have + triumphed. Mermeroes, the Persian commander of two years previously, took + the field with the commencement of spring, and, at the head of a large + body of cavalry, supported by eight elephants, began his march to the + coast, hoping to relieve the beleaguered garrison. Unfortunately he was + too late. On his march he heard of the capture of Petra, and of its + complete destruction by Bessas, who feared lest the Persians should again + occupy the dangerous post. Mermeroes had no difficulty in establishing + Persian rule through almost the whole of Lazica. The Romans did not dare + to meet him in the field. Archssopolis, indeed, repulsed his attack; but + no other important place in the entire country remained subject to the + Empire. Qubazes and his followers had to hide themselves in the recesses + of the mountains. Quartering his troops chiefly on the upper Phasis, about + Kutais and its neighborhood, Mermeroes strengthened his hold on the + country by building forts or receiving their submission, and even extended + the Persian dominion beyond Lazica into Scymnia and Suania. Still Rome, + with her usual tenacity, maintained a hold upon certain tracts; and + Gubazes, faithful to his allies even in the extremity of their depression, + maintained a guerilla war, and hoped that some day fortune would cease to + frown on him. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, at Byzantium, fresh negotiations were in progress, and hopes + were entertained of an arrangement by which all the differences between + the two great powers would be satisfactorily adjusted. Isdigunas again + represented his master at the Byzantine court, and conducted the + diplomatic contest with skill and ability. Taxing Justinian with more than + one infraction of the truce concluded in A.D. 545, he demanded the payment + of a lump sum of two thousand six hundred pounds of gold, and expressed + the willingness of Chosroes to conclude on these terms a fresh truce for + five years, to take effect from the delivery of the money. With regard to + the extent of country whereto the truce should apply, he agreed to an + express limitation of its range—the settled provinces of both + empires should be protected by it, but Lazica and the country of the + Saracens should be excluded from its operation. Justinian consented to + these terms, despite the opposition of many of his subjects, who thought + that Rome degraded herself by her repeated payments of money to Persia, + and accepted a position little better than that of a Persian tributary. + </p> + <p> + Thus the peace of A.D. 551 did nothing towards ending the Lazic war, + which, after languishing through the whole of A.D. burst out again with + renewed vigor in the spring of A.D. 553. Mermeroes in that year advanced + from Kutais against Telephis, a strong fort in the possession of Rome, + expelled the commandant, Martinus, by a stratagem, pressed forward against + the combined Roman forces, which fled before him from Ollaria, and finally + drove them to the coast and cooped them up in “the Island,” a small tract + near the mouth of the Phasis between that stream and the Doconus. On his + return he was able to reinforce a garrison which he had established at + Onoguris in the immediate neighborhood of Archseopolis, as a means of + annoying and weakening that important station. He may naturally have hoped + in one or two more campaigns to have driven the last Roman out of the + country and to have attached Lazica permanently to the empire of the great + king. + </p> + <p> + Unluckily, however, for Persia, the fatigues which the gallant veteran had + undergone in the campaign of A.D. 553 proved more than his aged frame + could endure, and he had scarcely reached Kutais when he was seized with a + fatal malady, to which he succumbed in the course of the winter. Chosroes + appointed as his successor a certain Nachoragan, who is said to have been + a general of repute, but who proved himself quite unequal to the position + which he was called upon to fill, and in the course of two years ruined + the Persian cause in Lazica. The failure was the more signal from the fact + that exactly at the time of his appointment circumstances occurred which + seriously shook the Roman influence over the Lazi, and opened a prospect + to Persia transcending aught that she could reasonably have hoped. This + was nothing less than a most serious quarrel between Gubazes, the Lazic + king, and some of the principal Roman commanders—a quarrel which + involved consequences fatal to both parties. Gubazes, disgusted with the + negligence or incapacity of the Roman chiefs, had made complaint of them + to Justinian; they had retaliated by accusing him of meditating desertion, + and had obtained the emperor’s consent to his arrest, and to the use of + violence if he offered resistance. Armed with this mandate, they contrived + in a little time to fasten a quarrel upon him; and, when he declined to do + as they required, they drew their swords upon him and slew him. The Lazic + nation was, naturally enough, alienated by this outrage, and manifested an + inclination to throw itself absolutely into the arms of Persia. The + Romans, dispirited at the attitude of their allies, and at variance among + themselves, could for some months after Gubazes’ death have offered but + little resistance to an enterprising enemy. So demoralized were they that + an army of 50,000 is said to have fled in dismay when attacked by a force + of Persians less than a twelfth of their number, and to have allowed their + camp to be captured and plundered. During this critical time Nachoragan + remained inactive in Iberia, and contented himself with sending messengers + into Lazica to announce his near approach and to animate and encourage his + party. The result was such as might have been expected. The Lazi, finding + that Persia made no effort to take advantage of their abstention, and that + Rome despite of it maintained possession of the greater portion of their + country, came to the conclusion that it would be unwise to desert their + natural allies on account of a single outrage, however monstrous, and + agreed to renew their close alliance with Rome on condition that the + murderers of Gubazes should be punished, and his brother, Tzathes, + appointed king in his place. Justinian readily gave his consent; and the + year A.D. 555 saw the quarrel ended, and the Lazi once more heartily in + accord with, their Roman protectors. + </p> + <p> + It was when affairs were in this state, and he had exactly missed his + opportunity, that Nachoragan took the field, and, advancing from Iberia + into the region about Kutai’s with an army amounting to 60,000 men,1 made + preparations for carrying on the war with vigor. He was opposed by + Martinus, Justin, and Babas, the two former of whom with the bulk of the + Roman forces occupied the region on the lower Phasis, known as “the + Island,” while Babas held the more central position of Archseopolis. + Nachoragan, after losing about 2,000 of his best troops in the vicinity of + this last-named place, resolved to challenge the Romans to a decisive + encounter by attacking the important post of Phasis at the mouth of the + river. With some skill he succeeded in passing the Roman camp on the + island, and in establishing himself in the plain directly south of Phasis + before the Roman generals guessed his purpose. They, however, were able by + a quick movement to throw themselves into the town, and the struggle + became one between fairly balanced forces, and was conducted with great + obstinacy. The town was defended on the south by an outer palisade, a + broad ditch protected by sharp stakes and full of water, and an inner + bulwark of considerable height but constructed wholly of wood. The Phasis + guarded it on the north; and here a Roman fleet was stationed which lent + its aid to the defenders at the two extremities of their line. The yards + of the ships were manned with soldiers, and boats were hung from them + containing slingers, archers, and even workers of catapults, who delivered + their weapons from an elevation exceeding that of the towers. But + Nachoragan had the advantage of numbers; his men soon succeeded in filling + up part of the ditch; and the wooden bulwark could scarcely have long + resisted his attacks, if the contest had continued to be wholly one of + brute strength. But the Roman commander, Martinus, finding himself + inferior in force, brought finesse and stratagem to his aid. Pretending to + receive intelligence of the sudden arrival of a fresh Roman army from + Byzantium, he contrived that the report should reach Nachoragan and + thereby cause him to divide his troops, and send half of them to meet the + supposed reinforcements. Then, when the Persian general nevertheless + renewed his assault, Martinus sent secretly 5,000 men under Justin to a + short distance from Phasis; and this detachment, appearing suddenly when + the contest was going on at the wall, was naturally taken for the newly + arrived army, and caused a general panic. The Persians, one and all, took + to flight; a general sally was made by the Romans in Phasis; a rout and a + carnage followed, which completely disheartened the Persian leader, and + led him to give up his enterprise. Having lost nearly one-fourth of his + army, Nachoragan drew off to Kutai’s, and shortly afterwards, leaving the + command of the Persians in Lazica to Vaphrizes, retired to winter quarters + in Iberia. + </p> + <p> + The failure of Nachoragan, following closely upon the decision of the Lazi + to maintain their alliance with Rome in spite of the murder of Gubazes, + seems to have convinced the Persian monarch that, in endeavoring to annex + Lazica, he had engaged in a hopeless enterprise, and that it would be the + most prudent and judicious course to yield to the inevitable, and + gradually withdraw from a position which was untenable. Having meted out + to Nachoragan the punishment usually assigned to unsuccessful commanders + in Persia, he sent an ambassador to Byzantium in the spring of A.D. 556, + and commenced negotiations which he intended to be serious. Diplomacy + seems to have been as averse in the days of Chosroes as in our own to an + undignified rapidity of proceeding. Hence, though there could be little to + debate where both parties were substantially at one, the negotiations + begun in May A.D. 556 were not concluded till after the commencement of + the following year. A complete suspension of hostilities was then agreed + upon, to extend to Lazica no less than to the other dominions of the two + monarchs. In Lazica each party was to keep what it possessed, territory, + cities, and castles. As this joint occupation was scarcely suitable for a + permanent arrangement, it was provided that the two belligerents should, + during the continuance of the truce, proceed to settle the terms on which + a lasting peace might be established. + </p> + <p> + An interval of five years elapsed before the happy result, for which both + parties had expressed themselves anxious, was accomplished. It is + uncertain how Chosroes was occupied during this period; but there are some + grounds for believing that he was engaged in the series of Oriental wars + whereof we shall have to speak presently. Success appears to have crowned + his arms wherever he directed them; but he remained undazzled by his + victories, and still retained the spirit of moderation which had led him + in A.D. 557 to conclude the general truce. He was even prepared, after + five years of consideration, to go further in the line of pacific policy + on which he had then entered, and, in order to secure the continuance of + his good relations with Rome, was willing to relinquish all claim to the + sovereignty of Lazica. Under these circumstances, ambassadors of the + highest rank, representing the two powers, met on the frontier between + Daras and Nisibis, proclaimed the power and explained the motives of their + respective sovereigns, and after a lengthy conference formulated a treaty + of peace. The terms, which are given at length by a writer of the + succeeding generation, may be briefly expressed as follows: (1) the + Persians were to withdraw from Lazica, to give up all claim to it, and to + hand over its possession to the Romans; (2) they were in return to receive + from Rome an annual sum of 30,000 pieces of gold, the amount due for the + first seven years being paid in advance; (3) the Christians in Persia were + guaranteed the full and free exercise of their religion, but were + forbidden to make converts from the disciples of Zoroaster; (4) commercial + intercourse was to be allowed between the two empires, but the merchants + were restricted to the use of certain roads and certain emporia; (5) + diplomatic intercourse was to be wholly free, and the goods of ambassadors + were to be exempt from duty; (6) Daras was to continue a fortified town, + but no new fortresses were to be built upon the frontier by either nation, + and Daras itself was not to be made the headquarters of the Prefect of the + East, or to be held by an unnecessarily large garrison; (7) all disputes + arising between the two nations were to be determined by courts of + arbitration; (8) the allies of the two nations were to be included in the + treaty, and to participate in its benefits and obligations; (9) Persia was + to undertake the sole charge of maintaining the Caspian Gates against the + Huns and Alans; (10) the peace was made for a period of fifty years. It + has been held that by this treaty Justinian consented to become a + tributary of the Persian Empire; and undoubtedly it was possible for + Oriental vanity to represent the arrangement made in this light. But the + million and a half, which Rome undertook to pay in the course of the next + fifty years, might well be viewed by the Romans as an outlay for which + they received an ample return in the cession to them of the Persian part + of Lazica, and in the termination of their obligation to contribute + towards the maintenance of the Caspian Gates. If there was any real danger + of those results following from the Persian occupation of Lazica which + both nations anticipated, the sum must be considered to have been one of + the best investments ever made by a State. Even if we believe the dangers + apprehended to have been visionary, yet it cannot be viewed as an + exorbitant price to have paid for a considerable tract of fertile country, + a number of strong fortresses, and the redemption of an obligation which + could not with honor be disowned. + </p> + <p> + To Chosroes the advantage secured by the treaty was similar to that which + Rome had obtained by the peace of A.D. 532. Being no longer under any + necessity of employing his forces against the Romans in the north-west, he + found himself free to act with greatly increased effect against his + enemies in the east and in the south. Already, in the interval between the + conclusion of the general truce and of the fifty years’ peace, he had, as + it seems, invaded the territories of the Ephthalites, and, with the help + of the Great Khan of the Turks, inflicted upon this people, so long one of + Persia’s most formidable enemies, a severe defeat. According to Tabari, he + actually slew the Ephthalite monarch, ravaged his territory, and pillaged + his treasures. About the same time he had also had a war with the Khazars, + had overrun their country, wasted it with fire and sword, and massacred + thousands of the inhabitants. He now entertained designs against Arabia + and perhaps India, countries on which he could not hope to make an + impression without earnest and concentrated effort. It was doubtless with + the view of extending his influence into these quarters that the Persian + monarch evacuated Lazica, and bound his country to maintain peace with + Rome for the next half-century. + </p> + <p> + The position of affairs in Arabia was at the time abnormal and + interesting. For the most part that vast but sterile region has been the + home of almost countless tribes, living independently of one another, each + under its own sheikh or chief, in wild and unrestrained freedom. Native + princes have seldom obtained any widely extended dominion over the + scattered population; and foreign powers have still more rarely exercised + authority for any considerable period over the freedom-loving descendants + of Ishmael. But towards the beginning of the sixth century of our era the + Abyssinians of Axum, a Christian people, “raised” far “above the ordinary + level of African barbarism” by their religion and by their constant + intercourse with Rome, succeeded in attaching to their empire a large + portion of the Happy Arabia, and ruled it at first from their African + capital, but afterwards by means of a viceroy, whose dependence on the + Negus of Abyssinia was little more than nominal. Abraha, an Abyssinian of + high rank, being deputed by the Negus to re-establish the authority of + Abyssinia over the Yemen when it was shaken by a great revolt, made + himself master of the country, assumed the crown, established Abyssinians + in all the chief cities, built numerous churches, especially one of great + beauty at Sana, and at his death left the kingdom to his eldest son, + Yaksoum. An important Christian state was thus established in the Great + Peninsula; and it was natural that Justinian should see with satisfaction, + and Chosroes with some alarm, the growth of a power in this quarter which + was sure to side with Rome and against Persia, if their rivalry should + extend into these parts. Justinian had hailed with pleasure the original + Abyssinian conquest, and had entered into amicable relations with both the + Axumites and their colonists in the Yemen. Chosroes now resolved upon a + counter movement. He would employ the quiet secured to him by the peace of + A.D. 562 in a great attack upon the Abyssinian power in Arabia. He would + drive the audacious Africans from the soil of Asia, and would earn the + eternal gratitude of the numerous tribes of the desert. He would extend + Persian influence to the shores of the Arabian Gulf, and so confront the + Romans along the whole line of their eastern boundary. He would destroy + the <i>point d’appui</i> which Rome had acquired in South-western Asia, + and so at once diminish her power and augment the strength and glory of + Persia. + </p> + <p> + The interference of Chosroes in the affairs of a country so distant as + Western Arabia involved considerable difficulties; but his expedition was + facilitated by an application which he received from a native of the + district in question. Saif, the son of Dsu-Yezm, descended from the race + of the old Homerite kings whom the Abyssinians had conquered, grew up at + the court of Abraha in the belief that that prince, who had married his + mother, was not his step-father, but his father. Undeceived by an insult + which Masrouq, the true son of Abraha and successor of Yaksoum, offered + him, Saif became a refugee at the court of Chosroes, and importuned the + Great King to embrace his quarrel and reinstate him on the throne of his + fathers. He represented the Homerite population of Yemen as groaning under + the yoke of their oppressors and only waiting for an opportunity to rise + in revolt and shake it off. A few thousand Persian troops, enough to form + the nucleus of an army, would suffice; they might be sent by sea to the + port of Aden, near the mouth of the Arabian Gulf, where the Homerites + would join them in large numbers; the combined forces might then engage in + combat with the Abyssinians, and destroy them or drive them from the land. + Chosroes took the advice tendered him, so far at any rate as to make his + expedition by sea. His ships were assembled in the Persian Gulf; a certain + number of Persian troops were embarked on board them; and the flotilla + proceeded, under the conduct of Saif, first to the mouth of the Gulf, and + then along the southern coast of Arabia to Aden. Encouraged by their + presence, the Plomerites rose against their foreign oppressors; a war + followed, of which the particulars have been disfigured by romance; but + the result is undoubted—the Abyssinian strangers were driven from + the soil of Arabia; the native race recovered its supremacy; and Saif, the + descendant of the old Homerite kings, was established, as the vassal or + viceroy of Chosroes, on the throne of his ancestors. This arrangement, + however, was not lasting. Saif, after a short reign, was murdered by his + body-guard; and Chosroes then conferred the government of Yemen upon a + Persian officer, who seems to have borne the usual title of Marzpan, and + to have been in no way distinguished above other rulers of provinces. Thus + the Homerites in the end gained nothing by their revolt but a change of + masters. They may, however, have regarded the change as one worth making, + since it gave them the mild sway of a tolerant heathen in lieu of the + persecuting rule of Christian bigots. + </p> + <p> + According to some writers, Chosroes also, in his later years, sent an + expedition by sea against some portion of Hindustan, and received a + cession of territory from an Indian monarch. But the country of the + monarch is too remote for belief, and the ceded provinces seem to have + belonged to Persia previously. It is therefore, perhaps, most probable + that friendly intercourse has been exaggerated into conquest, and the + reception of presents from an Indian potentate metamorphosed into the gain + of territory. Some authorities do not assign to Chosroes any Indian + dominion; and it is at least doubtful whether he made any expedition in + this direction. + </p> + <p> + A war, however, appears certainly to have occupied Chosroes about this + period on his north-eastern frontier. The Turks had recently been + advancing in strength and drawing nearer to the confines of Persia. They + had extended their dominion over the great Ephthalite kingdom, partly by + force of arms, partly through the treachery of Katulphus, an Ephthalite + chieftain; they had received the submission of the Sogdians, and probably + of other tribes of the Transoxianian region, previously held in subjection + by the Ephthalites; and they aspired to be acknowledged as a great power, + the second, if not the first, in this part of Asia. It was perhaps rather + with the view of picking a quarrel than in the hope of any valuable + pacific result, that, about the close of A.D. 567, Diza-bul, the Turkish + Khan, sent ambassadors to Chosroes with proposals for the establishment of + free commercial intercourse between the Turks and Persians, and even for + the conclusion of a treaty of friendship and alliance between the two + nations. Chosroes suspected the motive for the overture, but was afraid + openly to reject it. He desired to discourage intercourse between his own + nation and the Turks, but could devise no better mode of effecting his + purpose than by burning the Turkish merchandise offered to him after he + had bought it, and by poisoning the ambassadors and giving out that they + had fallen victims to the climate. His conduct exasperated the Turkish + Khan, and created a deep and bitter hostility between the Turks and + Persians. It was at once resolved to send an embassy to Constantinople and + offer to the Greek emperor the friendship which Chosroes had scorned. The + embassy reached the Byzantine court early in A.D. 568, and was graciously + received by Justin, the nephew of Justinian, who had succeeded his uncle + on the imperial throne between three and four years previously. A treaty + of alliance was made between the two nations; and a Roman embassy, + empowered to ratify it, visited the Turkish court in the Altai mountains + during the course of the next year (A.D. 569), and drew closer the bonds + of friendship between the high contracting powers. But meanwhile Dizabul, + confident in his own strength, had determined on an expedition into + Persia. The Roman ambassador, Zemarchus, accompanied him on a portion of + his march, and witnessed his insulting treatment of a Persian envoy, sent + by Chosroes to meet him and deprecate his attack. Beyond this point exact + information fails us; but we may suspect that this is the expedition + commemorated by Mirk-hond, wherein the Great Khan, having invaded the + Persian territory in force, made himself master of Shash, Ferghana, + Samarkand, Bokhara, Kesh, and Nesf, but, hearing that Hornisdas, son of + Chosroes, was advancing against him at the head of a numerous army, + suddenly fled, evacuating all the country that he had occupied, and + retiring to the most distant portion of Turkestan. At any rate the + expedition cannot have had any great success; for shortly afterwards (A.D. + 571) we find Turkish ambassadors once more visiting the Byzantine court, + and entreating Justin to renounce the fifty years’ peace and unite with + them in a grand attack upon the common enemy, which, if assaulted + simultaneously on either side, might (they argued) be almost certainly + crushed. Justin gave the ambassadors no definite reply, but renewed the + alliance with Dizabul, and took seriously into consideration the question + whether he should not yield to the representations made to him, and renew + the war which Justinian had terminated nine years previously. + </p> + <p> + There were many circumstances which urged him towards a rupture. The + payments to be made under the fifty years’ peace had in his eyes the + appearance of a tribute rendered by Rome to Persia, which was, he thought, + an intolerable disgrace. A subsidy, not very dissimilar, which Justinian + had allowed the Saracenic Arabs under Persian rule, he had already + discontinued; and hostilities had, in consequence, already commenced + between the Persian and the Roman Saracens. The successes of Chosroes in + Western Arabia had at once provoked his jealousy, and secured to Rome, in + that quarter, an important ally in the great Christian kingdom of + Abyssinia. The Turks of Central Asia had sought his friendship and offered + to combine their attacks with his, if he would consent to go to war. + Moreover, there was once more discontent and even rebellion in Armenia, + where the proselytizing zeal of the Persian governors had again driven the + natives to take up arms and raise the standard of independence. Above all, + the Great King, who had warred with such success for twenty years against + his uncle, was now in advanced age, and seemed to have given signs of + feebleness, inasmuch as in his recent expeditions he had individually + taken no part, but had entrusted the command of his troops to others. + Under these circumstances, Justin, in the year A.D. 572, determined to + renounce the peace made ten years earlier with the Persians, and to + recommence the old struggle. Accordingly he at once dismissed the Persian + envoy, Sebocthes, with contempt, refused wholly to make the stipulated + payment, proclaimed his intention of receiving the Armenian insurgents + under his protection, and bade Chosroes lay a finger on them at his peril. + He then appointed Marcian to the prefecture of the East, and gave him the + conduct of the war which was now inevitable. + </p> + <p> + No sooner did the Persian monarch find his kingdom seriously menaced than, + despite his advanced age, he immediately took the field in person. Giving + the command of a flying column of 6000 men to Adarman, a skilful general, + he marched himself against the Romans, who under Marcian had defeated a + Persian force, and were besieging Nisibis, forced them to raise the siege, + and, pressing forward as they retired, compelled them to seek shelter + within the walls of Daras, which he proceeded to invest with his main + army. Meanwhile Adarman, at the head of the troops entrusted to him, + crossed the Euphrates near Circesium, and, having entered Syria, carried + fire and sword far and wide over that fertile province. Repulsed from + Antioch, where, however, he burnt the suburbs of the town, he invaded + Coelesyria, took and destroyed Apamea, and then, recrossing the great + river, rejoined Chosroes before Daras. The renowned fortress made a brave + defence. For about five months it resisted, without obtaining any relief, + the entire force of Chosroes, who is said to have besieged it with 40,000 + horse and 100,000 foot. At last, on the approach of winter, it could no + longer hold out; enclosed within lines of circumvallation, and deprived of + water by the diversion of its streams into new channels, it found itself + reduced to extremity, and forced to submit towards the close of A.D. 573. + Thus the great Roman fortress in these parts was lost in the first year of + the renewed war; and Justin, alarmed at his own temerity, and recognizing + his weakness, felt it necessary to retire from the conduct of affairs, and + deliver the reins of empire to stronger hands. He chose as his coadjutor + and successor the Count Tiberius, a Thracian by birth, who had long stood + high in his confidence; and this prince, in conjunction with the Empress + Sophia, now took the direction of the war. + </p> + <p> + The first need was to obtain a breathing-space. The Persian king having + given an opening for negotiations, advantage was taken of it by the joint + rulers to send an envoy, furnished with an autograph letter from the + empress, and well provided with the best persuasives of peace, who was to + suggest an armistice for a year, during which a satisfactory arrangement + of the whole quarrel might be agreed upon. Tiberius thought that within + this space he might collect an army sufficiently powerful to re-establish + the superiority of the Roman arms in the east; Chosroes believed himself + strong enough to defeat any force that Rome could now bring into the + field. A truce for a year was therefore concluded, at the cost to Rome of + 45,000 aurei; and immense efforts were at once made by Tiberius to levy + troops from his more distant, provinces, or hire them from the lands + beyond his borders. An army of 150,000 men was, it is said, collected from + the banks of the Danube and the Rhine, from Scythia, Pannonia, Moesia, + Illyricum, and Isauria; a general of repute, Justinian, the son of + Germanus, was selected to command them; and the whole force was + concentrated upon the eastern frontier but, after all these preparations, + the Caesar’s heart failed him, and, instead of offering battle to the + enemy, Tiberius sent a second embassy to the Persian head-quarters, early + in A.D. 575, and besought an extension of the truce. The Romans desired a + short term of peace only, but wished for a general suspension of + hostilities between the nations; the Persians advocated a longer interval, + but insisted that the truce should not extend to Armenia. The dispute + continued till the armistice for a year had run out; and the Persians had + resumed hostilities and threatened Constantina before the Romans would + give way. At length it was agreed that there should be peace for three + years, but that Armenia should be exempt from its operation. Rome was to + pay to Persia, during the continuance of the truce, the sum of 30,000 + aurei annually. + </p> + <p> + No sooner was the peace concluded than Chosroes put himself at the head of + his army, and, entering Armenia Proper, proceeded to crush the revolt, and + to re-establish the Persian authority throughout the entire region. No + resistance was offered to him; and he was able, before the close of the + year, to carry his arms into the Roman territory of Armenia Minor, and + even to threaten Cappadocia. Here Justinian opposed his progress; and in a + partial engagement, Kurs (or Cursus), a leader of Scythians in the Roman + service, obtained an advantage over the Persian rear-guard, captured the + camp and the baggage, but did not succeed in doing any serious damage. + Chosroes soon afterwards revenged himself by surprising and destroying a + Roman camp during the night; he then took and burnt the city of Melitene + (Malatiyeh); after which, as winter was approaching, he retired across the + Euphrates, and returned into his own country. Hereupon Justinian seems to + have invaded Persian Armenia, and to have enriched his troops with its + plunder; according to some writers, he even penetrated as far as the + Caspian Sea, and embarked upon its waters; he continued on Persian soil + during the whole of the winter, and it was not till the spring came that + he re-entered Roman territory (A.D. 576). + </p> + <p> + The campaign of A.D. 576 is somewhat obscure. The Romans seem to have + gained certain advantages in Northern Armenia and Iberia, while Chosroes + on his part carried the war once more into Armenia Minor, and laid siege + to Theodosiopolis, which, however, he was unable to take. Negotiations + were upon this resumed, and had progressed favorably to a certain, point, + when news arrived of a great disaster to the Roman arms in Armenia, which + changed the face of affairs and caused the Persian negotiators to break up + the conference. Tam-chosro, a Persian general, had completely defeated the + Roman army under Justinian. Armenia had returned to its allegiance. There + seemed every reason to believe that more was to be gained by arms than by + diplomacy, and that, when the three years peace had run out, the Great + King might renew the general war with a prospect of obtaining important + successes. + </p> + <p> + There are no military events which can be referred to the year A.D. 577. + The Romans and Persians amused each other with alternate embassies during + its course, and with negotiations that were not intended to have any + result. The two monarchs made vast preparations; and with the spring of + A.D. 578 hostilities recommenced. Chosroes is accused of having + anticipated the expiration of the truce by a period of forty days; but it + is more probable that he and the Romans estimated the date of its + expiration differently. However this was, it is certain that his generals, + Mebodes and Sapoes, took the field in early spring with 20,000 horse, and + entering the Roman Armenia laid waste the country, at the same time + threatening Constantina and Theodosiopolis. Simultaneously Tamchosro, + quitting Persarmenia, marched westward and plundered the country about + Amida (Diarbekr). The Roman commander Maurice, who had succeeded + Justinian, possessed considerable military ability. On this occasion, + instead of following the ordinary plan of simply standing on the defensive + and endeavoring to repulse the invaders, he took the bolder course of + making a counter movement. Entering Persarmenia, which he found denuded of + troops, he carried all before him, destroying the forts, and plundering + the country. Though the summer heats brought on him an attack of fever, he + continued without pause his destructive march; invaded and occupied + Arzanene, with its stronghold, Aphumon, carried off the population to the + number of 10,090, and, pressing forwards from Arzanene into Eastern + Mesopotamia, took Singara, and carried fire and sword over the entire + region as far as the Tigris. He even ventured to throw a body of + skirmishers across the river into Cordyene (Kurdistan); and these + ravagers, who were commanded by Kurs, the Scythian, spread devastation + over a district where no Roman soldier had set foot since its cession by + Jovian. Agathias tells us that Chosroes was at the time enjoying his + summer villeggiatura in the Kurdish hills, and saw from his residence the + smoke of the hamlets which the Roman troops had fired. He hastily fled + from the danger, and shut himself up within the walls of Ctesiphon, where + he was soon afterwards seized with the illness which brought his life to a + close. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Kurs, unconscious probably of the prize that had been so near + his grasp, recrossed the Tigris with his booty and rejoined Maurice, who + on the approach of winter withdrew into Roman territory, evacuating all + his conquests excepting Arzanene. The dull time of winter was, as usual, + spent in negotiations; and it was thought that a peace might have been + concluded had Chosroes lived. Tiberius was anxious to recover Daras, and + was willing to withdraw the Roman forces wholly from Persarmenia and + Iberia, and to surrender Arzanene and Aphumon, if Daras were restored to + him. He would probably have been content even to pay in addition a sum of + money. Chosroes might perhaps have accepted these terms; but while the + envoys empowered to propose them were on their way to his court, early in + the year A.D. 579, the aged monarch died in his palace at Ctesiphon after + a reign of forty-eight years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0008" id="linkB2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Administration of Persia under Chosroes I. Fourfold Division of the + Empire. Careful Surveillance of those entrusted with Poiver. Severe + Punishment of Abuse of Trust. New System of Taxation introduced. + Correction of Abuse connected with the Military Service. Encouragement of + Agriculture and Marriage. Belief of Poverty. Care for Travellers. + Encouragement of Learning. Practice of Toleration within certain Limits. + Domestic Life of Chosroes. His Wives. Revolt and Death of his Son, + Nushizad. Coins of Chosroes. Estimate of his Character.</i> + </p> + <p> + A general consensus of the Oriental writers marks the reign of the first + Chosroes as a period not only of great military activity, but also of + improved domestic administration. Chosroes found the empire in a + disordered and ill-regulated condition, taxation arranged on a bad system, + the people oppressed by unjust and tyrannical governors, the military + service a prey to the most scandalous abuses, religious fanaticism + rampant, class at variance with class, extortion and wrong winked at, + crime unpunished, agriculture languishing, and the masses throughout + almost the whole of the country sullen and discontented. It was his + resolve from the first to carry out a series of reforms—to secure + the administration of even-handed justice, to put the finances on a better + footing, to encourage agriculture, to relieve the poor and the distressed, + to root out the abuses that destroyed the efficiency of the army, and to + excise the gangrene of fanaticism which was eating into the heart of the + nation. How he effected the last named object by his wholesale destruction + of the followers of Mazdak has been already related; but it appeared + unadvisable to interrupt, the military history of the reign by combining + with it any account of the numerous other reforms which he accomplished. + It remains therefore to consider them in this place, since they are + certainly not the least remarkable among the many achievements of this + great monarch. + </p> + <p> + Persia, until the time of Anushirwan, had been divided into a multitude of + provinces, the satraps or governors of which held their office directly + under the crown. It was difficult for the monarch to exercise a sufficient + superintendence over so large a number of rulers, many of them remote from + the court, and all united by a common interest. Chosroes conceived the + plan of forming four great governments, and entrusting them to four + persons in whom he had confidence, whose duty it should be to watch the + conduct of the provincial satraps to control them, direct them, or report + their misconduct to the crown. The four great governments were those of + the east, the north, the south, and the west. The east comprised + Khorassan, Seistan, and Kirman; the north, Armenia, Azer-bijan, Ghilan, + Koum, and Isfahan; the south, Fars and Ahwaz; the west, Irak, or + Babylonia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. + </p> + <p> + It was not the intention of the monarch, however, to put a blind trust in + his instruments. He made personal progresses through his empire from, time + to time, visiting each province in turn and inquiring into the condition + of the inhabitants. He employed continually an army of inspectors and + spies, who reported to him from all quarters the sufferings or complaints + of the oppressed, and the neglects or misdoings of those in authority. On + the occurrence of any specially suspicious circumstance, he appointed + extraordinary commissions of inquiry, which, armed with all the power of + the crown, proceeded to the suspected quarter, took evidence, and made a + careful report of whatever wrongs or malpractices they discovered. + </p> + <p> + When guilt was brought home to incriminated persons or parties, the + punishment with which they were visited was swift and signal. We have seen + how harsh were the sentences passed by Chosroes upon those whose offences + attacked his own person or dignity. An equal severity appears in his + judgments, where there was no question of his own wrongs, but only of the + interests of his subjects. On one occasion he is said to have executed no + fewer than eighty collectors of taxes on the report of a commission + charging them with extortion. Among the principal reforms which Chosroes + is said to have introduced was his fresh arrangement of the taxation. + Hitherto all lands had paid to the State a certain proportion of their + produce, a proportion which varied, according to the estimated richness of + the soil, from a tenth to one-half. The effect was to discourage all + improved cultivation, since it was quite possible that the whole profit of + any increased outlay might be absorbed by the State, and also to cramp and + check the liberty of the cultivators in various ways, since the produce + could not be touched until the revenue official made his appearance and + carried off the share of the crop which he had a right to take. Chosroes + resolved to substitute a land-tax for the proportionate payments in kind, + and thus at once to set the cultivator at liberty with respect to + harvesting his crops and to allow him the entire advantage of any + augumented production which might be secured by better methods of farming + his land. His tax consisted in part of a money payment, in part of a + payment in kind; but both payments were fixed and invariable, each measure + of ground being rated in the king’s books at one dirhem and one measure of + the produce. Uncultivated land, and land lying fallow at the time, were + exempt; and thus the scheme involved, not one survey alone, but a + recurring (annual) survey, and an annual registration of all cultivators, + with the quantity of land under cultivation held by each, and the nature + of the crop or crops to be grown by them. The system was one of much + complication, and may have pressed somewhat hardly upon the poorer and + less productive soils; but it was an immense improvement upon the + previously existing practice, which had all the disadvantages of the + modern tithe system, aggravated by the high rates exacted and by the + certainty that, in any disputed case, the subject would have had a poor + chance of establishing his right against the crown. It is not surprising + that the caliphs, when they conquered Persia, maintained unaltered the + land system of Chosroes which they found established, regarding it as, if + not perfect, at any rate not readily admitting of much improvement. + </p> + <p> + Besides the tax upon arable lands, of which we have hitherto spoken, + Chosroes introduced into into Persia various other imposts. The fruit + trees were everywhere counted, and a small payment required for each. The + personality of the citizens was valued, and a graduated property-tax + established, which, however, in the case of the most opulent, did not + exceed the moderate sum of forty-eight dirhems (about twenty-seven + shillings). A poll-tax was required of Jews and Christians, whereof we do + not know the amount. From all these burdens liberal exemptions were made + on account of age and sex; no female paid anything; and males above fifty + years of age or under twenty were also free of charge. Due notice was + given to each individual of the sum for which he was liable, by the + publication in each province, town, and village, of a tax table, in which + each citizen or alien could see against his name the amount about to be + claimed of him, with the ground upon which it was regarded as due. Payment + had to made by instalments, three times each year, at the end of every + four months. + </p> + <p> + In order to prevent the unfair extortion, which in the ancient world was + always, with reason or without, charged upon collectors of revenue, + Chosroes, by the advice of the Grand Mobed, authorized the Magian priests + everywhere to exercise a supervision over the receivers of taxes, and to + hinder them from exacting more than their due. The priests were only too + happy to discharge this popular function; and extortion must have become + rare under a system which comprised so efficient a safeguard. + </p> + <p> + Another change ascribed to Chosroes is a reform of the administration of + the army. Under the system previously existing, Chosroes found that the + resources of the state were lavishly wasted, and the result was a military + force inefficient and badly accoutred. No security was taken that the + soldiers possessed their proper equipments or could discharge the duties + appropriate to their several grades. Persons came before the paymaster, + claiming the wages of a cavalry soldier, who possessed no horse, and had + never learned to ride. Some, who called themselves soldiers, had no + knowledge of the use of any weapon at all; others claimed for higher + grades of the service than those whereto they really belonged; those who + drew the pay of cuirassiers were destitute of a coat of mail; those who + professed themselves archers were utterly incompetent to draw the bow. The + established rates of pay varied between a hundred dirhems a year and four + thousand, and persons entitled to the lowest rate often received an amount + not much short of the highest. The evil was not only that the treasury was + robbed by unfair claims and unfounded pretences, but that artifice and + false seeming were encouraged, while at the same time the army was brought + into such a condition that no dependence could be placed upon it. If the + number who actually served corresponded to that upon the rolls, which is + uncertain, at any rate all the superior arms of the service fell below + their nominal strength, and the lower grades were crowded with men who + were only soldiers in name. + </p> + <p> + As a remedy against these evils, Chosroes appointed a single + paymaster-general, and insisted on his carefully inspecting and reviewing + each body of troops before he allowed it to draw its pay. Each man was to + appear before him fully equipped and to show his proficiency with his + weapon or weapons; horse soldiers were to bring their horses, and to + exhibit their mastery over the animals by putting them through their + paces, mounting and dismounting, and performing the other usual exercises. + If any clumsiness were noted, or any deficiency in the equipment, the pay + was to be withheld until the defect observed had been made good. Special + care was to be taken that no one drew the pay of a class superior to that + whereto he really belonged—of an archer, for instance, when he was + in truth a common soldier, or of a trooper when he served not in the + horse, but in the foot. + </p> + <p> + A curious anecdote is related in connection with these military reforms. + When Babek, the new paymaster, was about to hold his first review, he + issued an order that all persons belonging to the army then present in the + capital should appear before him on a certain day. The troops came; but + Babek dismissed them on the ground that a certain person whose presence + was indispensable had not made his appearance. Another day was appointed, + with the same result, except that Babek on this occasion plainly intimated + that it was the king whom he expected to attend. Upon this Chosroes, when + a third summons was issued, took care to be present, and came fully + equipped, as he thought, for battle. But the critical eye of the reviewing + officer detected an omission, which he refused to overlook—the king + had neglected to bring with him two extra bow-strings. Chosroes was + required to go back to his palace and remedy the defect, after which he + was allowed to pass muster, and then summoned to receive his pay. Babek + affected to consider seriously what the pay of the commander-in-chief + ought to be, and decided that it ought to exceed that of any other person + in the army. He then, in the sight of all, presented the king with four + thousand and one dirhems, which Chosroes received and carried home. Thus + two important principles were thought to be established—that no + defect of equipment whatsoever should be overlooked in any officer, + however high his rank, and that none should draw from the treasury a + larger amount of pay than 4,000 dirhems (L112. of our money). + </p> + <p> + The encouragement of agriculture was an essential element in the system of + Zoroaster; and Chosroes, in devoting his attention to it, was at once + performing a religious duty and increasing the resources of the state. It + was his earnest desire to bring into cultivation all the soil which was + capable of it; and with this object he not only issued edicts commanding + the reclamation of waste lands, but advanced from the treasury the price + of the necessary seed-corn, implements, and beasts to all poor persons + willing to carry out his orders. Other poor persons, especially the infirm + and those disabled by bodily defect, were relieved from his privy purse; + mendicancy was forbidden, and idleness made an offence. The lands + forfeited by the followers of Mazdak were distributed to necessitous + cultivators. The water system was carefully attended to; river and torrent + courses were cleared of obstructions and straightened; the superfluous + water of the rainy season was stored, and meted out with a wise economy to + those who tilled the soil, in the spring and summer. + </p> + <p> + The prosperity of a country depends in part upon the laborious industry of + the inhabitants, in part upon their numbers. Chosroes regarded Persia as + insufficiently peopled, and made efforts to increase the population by + encouraging and indeed compelling marriage. All marriageable females were + required to provide themselves with husbands; if they neglected this duty, + the government interfered, and united them to unmarried men of their own + class. The pill was gilt to these latter by the advance of a sufficient + dowry from the public treasury, and by the prospect that, if children + resulted from the union, their education and establishment in life would + be undertaken by the state. Another method of increasing the population, + adopted by Chosroes to a certain extent, was the settlement within his own + territories of the captives whom he carried off from foreign countries in + the course of his military expeditions. The most notorious instance of + this policy was the Greek settlement, known as Rumia (Rome), established + by Chosroes after his capture of Antioch (A.D. 540), in the near vicinity + of Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + Oriental monarchs, in many respects civilized and enlightened, have often + shown a narrow and unworthy jealousy of foreigners. Chosroes had a mind + which soared above this petty prejudice. He encouraged the visits of all + foreigners, excepting only the barbarous Turks, readily received them at + his court, and carefully provided for their safety. Not only were the + roads and bridges kept in the most perfect order throughout his + territories, so as to facilitate locomotion, but on the frontiers and + along the chief lines of route guard-houses were built and garrisons + maintained for the express purpose of securing the safety of travellers. + The result was that the court of Chosroes was visited by numbers of + Europeans, who were hospitably treated, and invited, or even pressed, to + prolong their visits. + </p> + <p> + To the proofs of wisdom and enlightenment here enumerated Chosroes added + another, which is more surprising than any of them. He studied philosophy, + and was a patron of science and learning. Very early in his reign he gave + a refuge at his court to a body of seven Greek sages whom a persecuting + edict, issued by Justinian, had induced to quit their country and take up + their abode on Persian soil. Among the refugees was the erudite Damascius, + whose work De Principiis is well known, and has recently been found to + exhibit an intimate acquaintance with some of the most obscure of the + Oriental religions. Another of the exiles was the eclectic philosopher + Simplicius, “the most acute and judicious of the interpreters of + Aristotle.” Chosroes gave the band of philosophers a hospitable reception, + entertained them at his table, and was unwilling that they should leave + his court. They found him acquainted with the writings of Aristotle and + Plato, whose works he had caused to be translated into the Persian tongue. + If he was not able to enter very deeply into the dialectical and + metaphysical subtleties which characterize alike the Platonic Dialogues + and the Aristotelian treatises, at any rate he was ready to discuss with + them such questions as the origin of the world, its destructibility or + indestructibility, and the derivation of all things from one First Cause + or from more. Later in his reign, another Greek, a sophist named Uranius, + acquired his especial favor, became his instructor in the learning of his + country, and was presented by him with a large sum of money. Further, + Chosroes maintained at his court, for the space of a year, the Greek + physician, Tribunus, and offered him any reward that he pleased at his + departure. He also instituted at Gondi-Sapor, in the vicinity of Susa, a + sort of medical school, which became by degrees a university, wherein + philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry were also studied. Nor was it Greek + learning alone which attracted his notice and his patronage. Under his + fostering care the history and jurisprudence of his native Persia were + made special objects of study; the laws and maxims of the first + Artaxerxes, the founder of the monarchy, were called forth from the + obscurity which had rested on them for ages, were republished and declared + to be authoritative; while at the same time the annals of the monarchy + were collected and arranged, and a “Shah-nameh,” or “Book of the Kings,” + composed, which it is probable formed the basis of the great work of + Firdausi. Even the distant land of Hindustan was explored in the search + after varied knowledge, and contributed to the learning and civilization + of the time the fables of Bidpai and the game of chess. + </p> + <p> + Though a fierce persecutor of the deluded followers of Mazdak, Chosroes + admitted and practised, to some extent, the principles of toleration. On + becoming king, he laid it down as a rule of his government that the + actions of men alone, and not their thoughts, were subject to his + authority. He was therefore bound not to persecute opinion; and we may + suppose that in his proceedings against the Mazdakites he intended to + punish their crimes rather than their tenets. Towards the Christians, who + abounded in his empire, he certainly showed himself, upon the whole, mild + and moderate. He married a Christian wife, and allowed her to retain her + religion. When one of his sons became a Christian, the only punishment + which he inflicted on him was to confine him to the palace. He augumented + the number of the Christians in his dominions by the colonies which he + brought in from abroad. He allowed to his Christian subjects the free + exercise of their religion, permitted them to build churches, elect + bishops, and conduct services at their pleasure, and even suffered them to + bury their dead, though such pollution of the earth was accounted + sacrilegious by the Zoroastrians. No unworthy compliances with the + established cult were required of them. Proselytism, however, was not + allowed; and all Christian sects were perhaps not viewed with equal favor. + Chosroes, at any rate, is accused of persecuting the Catholics and the + Monophysites, and compelling them to join the Nestorians, who formed the + predominant sect in his dominions. Conformity, however, in things outward, + is compatible with a wide diversity of opinion; and Chosroes, while he + disliked differences of practice, seems certainly to have encouraged, at + least in his earlier years, a freedom of discussion in religious matters + which must have tended to shake the hereditary faith of his subjects. He + also gave on one occasion a very remarkable indication of liberal and + tolerant views. When he made his first peace with Rome, the article on + which he insisted the most was one whereby the free profession of their + known opinions and tenets in their own country was secured to the seven + Grecian sages who had found at his court, in their hour of need, a refuge + from persecution. + </p> + <p> + In his domestic relations Chosroes was unfortunate. With his chief wife, + indeed, the daughter of the great Khan of the Turks, he seems to have + lived always on excellent terms; and it was his love for her which induced + him to select the son whom she had borne him for his successor on the + throne. But the wife who stood next in his favor displeased him by her + persistent refusal to renounce the religion of Christ and adopt that of + her husband in its stead; and the quarrel between them must have been + aggravated by the conduct of their child, Nushizad, who, when he came to + years of discretion, deliberately preferred the faith of his mother to + that of his father and of the nation. With this choice Chosroes was + naturally offended; but he restrained his anger within moderate limits, + and was content to punish the young prince by forbidding him to quit the + precincts of the palace. Unhappy results followed. Nushizad in his + confinement heard a rumor that his father, who had started for the Syrian + war, was struck with sickness, was not likely to recover, was dead. It + seemed to him a golden opportunity, of which he would be foolish not to + make the most. He accordingly quitted his prison, spread the report of his + father’s death, seized the state treasure, and scattered it with a liberal + hand among the troops left in the capital, summoned the Christians + throughout the empire to his aid, assumed the title and state of king, was + acknowledged by the whole of the southern province, and thought himself + strong enough to take the offensive and attempt the subjugation of Irak. + Here, however, he was met by Phabrizus (Firuz?), one of his father’s + generals, who completely defeated his army in a pitched battle. According + to one account, Nushizad fell in the thick of the fight, mortally wounded + by a chance arrow. According to another, he was made prisoner, and carried + to Chosroes, who, instead of punishing him with death, destroyed his hopes + of reigning by inflicting on him a cruel disfigurement. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Chosroes are very numerous, and offer one or two novel and + curious types. The most remarkable have on the obverse the head of the + king, presenting the full face, and surmounted by a mural crown with a low + cap. The beard is close, and the hair arranged in masses on either side. + There are two stars above the crown, and two crescents, one over either + shoulder, with a star and crescent on the dress in front of each shoulder. + The kings wears a necklace, from which hang three pendants. On the reverse + these coins have a full-length figure of the king, standing to the front, + with his two hands resting on the hilt of his straight sword, and its + point placed between his feet. The crown worn resembles that on the + obverse; and there is a star and crescent on either side of the head. The + legend on the obverse is <i>Khusludi afzum</i>, “May Chosroes increase;” + the reverse has, on the left <i>Khusludi</i>, with the regnal year; on the + right, a longer legend which has not yet been satisfactorily interpreted. + <a href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXII., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The more ordinary type on the coins of Chosroes I. is one differing but + little from those of his father, Kobad, and his son, Hormazd IV. The + obverse has the king’s head in profile, and the reverse the usual + fire-altar and supporters. The distinguishing mark of these coins is, in + addition to the legend, that they have three simple crescents in the + margin of the obverse, instead of three crescents with stars. <a + href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + A relic of Chosroes has come down to us, which is of great beauty. This is + a cup composed of a number of small disks of colored glass, united by a + gold setting, and having at the bottom a crystal, engraved with a figure + of the monarch. As late as 1638 it was believed that the disks of glass + were jacynths, garnets, and emeralds, while the stone which forms the base + was thought to be a white sapphire. The original owner of so rare a + drinking-vessel could (it was supposed) only be Solomon; and the figure at + the bottom was accordingly supposed to represent the Jewish king. + Archaeologists are now agreed that the engraving on the gem, which exactly + resembles the figure upon the peculiar coins above described, represents + Chosroes Anushirwan, and is of his age. There is no sufficient reason to + doubt but that the cup itself is one out of which he was accustomed to + drink. + </p> + <p> + It is the great glory of Anushirwan that the title which his subjects gave + him was “the Just.” According to European, and especially to modern ideas, + this praise would seem to have undeserved; and thus the great historian of + the Byzantine period has not scrupled to declare that in his external + policy Chosroes was actuated by mere ambition, and that “in his domestic + administration he deserved the appellation of a tyrant.” Undoubtedly the + punishments which he inflicted were for the most part severe; but they + were not capricious, nor uniform, nor without reference to the character + of the offence. Plotting against his crown or his person, when the + conspirators were of full age, treasonable correspondence with the enemy, + violation of the sanctity of the harem, and the proselytism which was + strictly forbidden by the laws, he punished with death. But, when the + rebel was a mere youth, he was content to inflict a disfigurement; whence + the offence was less, he could imprison, or confine to a particular spot, + or simply banish the culprit from his presence. Instances on record of his + clemency to offenders, and others which show that, when his own interests + were at stake, he steadily refused to make use of his unlimited power for + the oppression of individuals. It is unlikely that Anushirwan was + distinguished as “the Just” without a reason; and we may safely conclude + from his acknowledged title that his subjects found his rule more fair and + equitable than that of any previous monarch. + </p> + <p> + That the administration of Chosroes was wise, and that Persia prospered + under his government, is generally admitted. His vigilance, his activity, + his care for the poor, his efforts to prevent or check oppression, are + notorious, and cannot be gainsaid. Nor can it be doubted that he was + brave, hardy, temperate, prudent, and liberal. Whether he possessed the + softer virtues, compassion, kindliness, a tender and loving heart, is + perhaps open to question. He seems, however, to have been a good husband + and a good father, not easily offended, and not over-severe whence offence + was given him. His early severities against his brothers and their + followers may be regarded as caused by the advice of others, and perhaps + as justified by state policy. In his later life, when he was his own + master, he was content to chastise rebellion more mildly. + </p> + <p> + Intellectually, there is no reason to believe that Chosroes rose very high + above the ordinary Oriental level. The Persians, and even many Greeks, in + his own day, exalted him above measure, as capable of apprehending the + most subtle arguments and the deepest problems of philosophy; but the + estimate of Agathias is probably more just, and this reduces him to a + standard about which there is nothing surprising. It is to his credit that + although engaged in almost perpetual wars, and burdened moreover with the + administration of a mighty empire, he had a mind large enough to entertain + the consideration also of intellectual problems, and to enjoy and take + part in their discussion; but it could scarcely be expected that, with his + numerous other employments, he should really sound to their utmost depths + the profundities of Greek thought, or understand the speculative + difficulties which separated the various schools one from another. No + doubt his knowledge was superficial, and there may have been ostentation + in the parade which he made of it; but we must not deny him the praise of + a quick, active intellect, and a width of view rarely found in an + Oriental. + </p> + <p> + It was not, however, in the field of speculative thought, but in that of + practical effort, that Chosroes chiefly distinguished himself and gained + his choicest laurels. The excellence of his domestic administration has + been already noticed. But, great as he was in peace, he was greater in + war. Engaged for nearly fifty years in almost uninterrupted contests, he + triumphed in every quarter, and scarcely experienced a reverse. Victorious + over the Romans, the Abyssinians, the Ephthalites, and the Turks, he + extended the limits of his empire on all sides, pacified the discontented + Armenia, crushed internal revolt, frustrated the most threatening + combinations, and established Persia in a position which she had scarcely + occupied since the days of Darius Hystaspis. Personally engaged in above a + score of fights, by the admission of his enemies he was never defeated but + once; and there are circumstances which make it probable that this single + check was of slight importance. The one real failure that can be laid to + his charge was in another quarter, and involved no military, but only a + political blunder. In recoiling from the difficulties of the Lazic war, + Chosroes had not to deplore any disgrace to his arms, but simply to + acknowledge that he had misunderstood the temper of the Lazic people. In + depreciation of his military talents it may be said that he was never + opposed to any great general. With Belisarius it would certainly seem that + he never actually crossed swords; but Justinian and Maurice (afterwards + emperor), to whom he was opposed in his later years, were no contemptible + antagonists. It may further be remarked that the collapse of Persia in her + struggle with Rome as soon as Chosroes was in his grave is a tolerably + decisive indication that she owed her long career of victory under his + guidance to his possession of uncommon military ability. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0009" id="linkB2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Hormisdas IV. His good Government in the Earlier Portion + of his Reign. Invasion of Persia by the Romans under Maurice. Defeats of + Adarman and Tamchosro. Campaign of Johannes. Campaigns of Philippicus and + Heraclius. Tyranny of Hormisdas. He is attacked by the Arabs, Khazars, and + Turks. Bahram defeats the Turks. His Attack on Lazica. He suffers a + Defeat. Disgrace of Bahram. Dethronement of Hormisdas IV. and Elevation of + Chosroes II. Character of Hormisdas. Coins of Hormisdas.</i> + </p> + <p> + At the death of Chosroes the crown was assumed without dispute or + difficulty by his son, Hormazd, who is known to the Greek and Latin + writers as Hormisdas IV. Hormazd was the eldest, or perhaps the only, son + borne to Chosroes by the Turkish princess, Fakim, who, from the time of + her marriage, had held the place of sultana, or principal wife. His + illustrious descent on both sides, added to the express appointment of his + father, caused him to be universally accepted as king; and we do not hear + that even his half-brothers, several of whom were older than himself, put + forward any claims in opposition to his, or caused him any anxiety or + trouble. He commenced his reign amid the universal plaudits and + acclamations of his subjects, whom he delighted by declaring that he would + follow in all things the steps of his father, whose wisdom so much + exceeded his own, would pursue his policy, maintain his officers in power, + and endeavor in all respects to govern as he had governed. When the mobeds + attempted to persuade him to confine his favor to Zoroastrians and + persecute such of his subjects as were Jews or Christians he rejected + their advice with the remark that, as in an extensive territory there were + sure to be varieties of soil, so it was fitting that a great empire should + embrace men of various opinions and manners. In his progresses from one + part of his empire to another he allowed of no injury being done to the + lands or gardens along the route, and punished severely all who infringed + his orders. According to some, his good dispositions lasted only during + the time that he enjoyed the counsel and support of Abu-zurd-mihir, one of + the best advisers of his father; but when this venerated sage was + compelled by the infirmities of age to quit his court he fell under other + influences, and soon degenerated into the cruel tyrant which, according to + all the authorities, he showed himself in his later years. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, however, he was engaged in important wars, particularly with + the Roman emperors Tiberius and Maurice, who, now that the great Chosroes + was dead, pressed upon Persia with augmented force, in the confident hope + of recovering their lost laurels. On the first intelligence of the great + king’s death, Tiberius had endeavored to negotiate a peace with his + successor, and had offered to relinquish all claim on Armenia, and to + exchange Arzanene with its strong fortress, Aphumon, for Daras; but + Hormisdas had absolutely rejected his proposals, declared that he would + surrender nothing, and declined to make peace on any other terms than the + resumption by Rome of her old system of paying an annual subsidy. The war + consequently continued; and Maurice, who still held the command, + proceeded, in the summer of A.D. 579, to take the offensive and invade the + Persian territory. He sent a force across the Tigris under Romanus, + Theodoric, and Martin, which ravaged Kurdistan, and perhaps penetrated + into Media, nowhere encountering any large body of the enemy, but carrying + all before them and destroying the harvest at their pleasure. In the next + year, A.D. 580, he formed a more ambitious project. Having gained over, as + he thought, Alamundarus, the leader of the Saracens dependent on Persia, + and collected a fleet to carry his stores, he marched from Gircesium down + the course of the Euphrates, intending to carry the war into Southern + Mesopotamia, and perhaps hoping to capture Ctesiphon. He expected to take + the Persians unawares, and may not unnaturally have looked to gain an + important success; but, unhappily for his plans, Alamundarus proved + treacherous. The Persian king was informed of his enemy’s march, and steps + were at once taken to render it abortive. Adarman was sent, at the head of + a large army, into Roman Mesopotamia, where he threatened the important + city of Callinicus in Maurice’s rear. That general dared advance no + further. On the contrary, he felt constrained to fall back, to give up his + scheme, burn his fleet, and return hastily within the Roman frontier. On + his arrival, he engaged Adarman near the city which he was attacking, + defeated him, and drove him back into Persia. + </p> + <p> + In the ensuing spring, after another vain attempt at negotiation, the + offensive was taken by the Persians, who, early in A.D. 581, crossed the + frontier under Tam-chosro, and attacked the Roman city of Constantia, or + Constantina. Maurice hastened to its relief; and a great battle was fought + in the immediate vicinity of the city, wherein the Persians were + completely defeated, and their commander lost his life. Further advantages + might have been gained; but the prospect of the succession drew Maurice to + Constantinople, where Tiberius, stricken with a mortal disease, received + him with open arms, gave his daughter and the state into his care, and, + dying soon after, left him the legacy of the empire, which he administered + with success for above twenty years. + </p> + <p> + On quitting the East, Maurice devolved his command upon an officer who + bore the very common name of Johannes, but was distinguished further by + the epithet of Mustacon, on account of his abundant moustache. This seems + to have been a bad appointment. Mustacon was unequal to the position. He + gave the Persians battle at the conjunction of the Nymphius with the + Tigris, but was defeated with considerable loss, partly through the + misconduct of one of his captains. He then laid siege to Arbas, a strong + fort on the Persian side of the Nymphius, while the main body of the + Persians were attacking Aphumon in the neighboring district of Arzanene. + The garrison of Arbas made signals of distress, which speedily brought the + Persian army to their aid; a second battle was fought at Arbas, and + Mustacon was again defeated, and forced to retire across the Nymphius into + Roman territory. His incapacity was now rendered so clearly evident that + Maurice recalled him, and gave the command of the army of the East to a + new general, Philippicus, his brother-in-law. + </p> + <p> + The first and second campaigns of Philippicus, in the years A.D. 584 and + 585, were of the most commonplace character. He avoided any general + engagement, and contended himself with plundering inroads into the Persian + territory on either side of the Upper Tigris, occasionally suffering + considerably from want of water and provisions. The Persians on their part + undertook no operations of importance until late in A.D. 585, when + Philippicus had fallen sick. They then made attempts upon Monocartum and + Martyropolis, which were unsuccessful, resulting only in the burning of a + church and a monastery near the latter town. Neither side seemed capable + of making any serious impression upon the other; and early the next year + negotiations were resumed, which, however, resulted in nothing. + </p> + <p> + In his third campaign Philippicus adopted a bolder line of proceeding. + Commencing by an invasion of Eastern Mesopotamia, he met and defeated the + Persians in a great battle near Solachon, having first roused the + enthusiasm of his troops by carrying along their ranks a miraculous + picture of our Lord, which no human hand had painted. Hanging on the rear + of the fugitives, he pursued them to Daras, which declined to receive + within its walls an army that had so disgraced itself. The Persian + commander withdrew his troops further inland; and Philippicus, believing + that he had now no enemy to fear, proceeded to invade Arzanene, to besiege + the stronghold of Chlomaron, and at the same time to throw forward troops + into the more eastern parts of the country. He expected them to be + unopposed; but the Persian general, having rallied his force and augmented + it by fresh recruits, had returned towards the frontier, and, hearing of + the danger of Arzanene, had flown to its defence. Philippicus was taken by + surprise, compelled to raise the siege of Chlomaron, and to fall back in + disorder. The Persians pressed on his retreat, crossed the Nymphius after + him, and did not desist from the pursuit until the imperial general threw + himself with his shattered army into the strong fortress of Amida. + Disgusted and discredited by his ill-success, Philippicus gave over the + active prosecution of the war to Heraclius, and, remaining at + head-quarters, contented himself with a general supervision. + </p> + <p> + Heraclius, on receiving his appointment, is said to have at once assumed + the offensive, and to have led an army, consisting chiefly or entirely of + infantry, into Persian territory, which devastated the country on both + sides of the Tigris, and rejoined Philippicus, without having suffered any + disaster, before the winter. Philippicus was encouraged by the success of + his lieutenant to continue him in command for another year; but, through + prudence or jealousy, he was induced to intrust a portion only of the + troops to his care, while he assigned to others the supreme authority over + no less than one third of the Roman army. The result was, as might have + been expected, inglorious for Rome. During A.D. 587 the two divisions + acted separately in different quarters; and, at the end of the year, + neither could boast of any greater success than the reduction, in each + case, of a single fortress. Philippicus, however, seems to have been + satisfied; and at the approach of winter he withdrew from the East + altogether, leaving Heraclius as his representative, and returned to + Constantinople. + </p> + <p> + During the earlier portion of the year A.D. 588 the mutinous temper of the + Roman army rendered it impossible that any military operations should be + undertaken. Encouraged by the disorganization of their enemies, the + Persians crossed the frontier, and threatened Constantina, which was + however saved by Germanus. Later in the year, the mutinous spirit having + been quelled, a counter-expedition was made by the Romans into Arzanene. + Here the Persian general, Maruzas, met them, and drove them from the + province; but, following up his success too ardently, he received a + complete defeat near Martyropolis, and lost his life in the battle. His + head was cut off by the civilized conquerors, and sent as a trophy to + Maurice. + </p> + <p> + The campaign of A.D. 589 was opened by a brilliant stroke on the part of + the Persians, who, through the treachery of a certain Sittas, a petty + officer in the Roman army, made themselves masters of Martyropolis. It was + in vain that Philippicus twice besieged the place; he was unable to make + any impression upon it, and after a time desisted from the attempt. On the + second occasion the garrison was strongly reinforced by the Persians under + Mebodos and Aphraates, who, after defeating Philippicus in a pitched + battle, threw a large body of troops into the town. Philippicus was upon + this deprived of his office, and replaced by Comentiolus, with Heraclius + as second in command. The new leaders, instead of engaging in the tedious + work of a siege, determined on re-establishing the Roman prestige by a + bold counter-attack. They invaded the Persian territory in force, ravaged + the country about Nisibis, and brought Aphraates to a pitched battle at + Sisarbanon, near that city. Victory seemed at first to incline to the + Persians; Comentiolus was defeated and fled; but Horaclius restored the + battle, and ended by defeating the whole Persian army, and driving it from + the field, with the loss of its commander, who was slain in the thick of + the fight. The next day the Persian camp was taken, and a rich booty fell + into the hands of the conquerors, besides a number of standards. The + remnant of the defeated army found a refuge within the walls of Nisibis. + Later in the year Comentiolus recovered to some extent his tarnished + laurels by the siege and capture of Arbas, whose strong situation in the + immediate vicinity of Martyropolis rendered the position of the Persian + garrison in that city insecure, if not absolutely untenable. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition of affairs in the western provinces of the Persian + Empire, when a sudden danger arose in the east, which had strange and most + important consequences. According to the Oriental writers, Hormisdas had + from a just monarch gradually become a tyrant; under the plea of + protecting the poor had grievously oppressed the rich; through jealousy or + fear had put to death no fewer than thirteen thousand of the upper + classes, and had thus completely alienated all the more powerful part of + the nation. Aware of his unpopularity, the surrounding tribes and peoples + commenced a series of aggressions, plundered the frontier provinces, + defeated the detachments sent against them under commanders who were + disaffected, and everywhere brought the empire into the greatest danger. + The Arabs crossed the Euphrates and spread themselves over Mesopotamia; + the Khazars invaded Armenia and Azerbijan; rumor said that the Greek + emperor had taken the field and was advancing on the side of Syria, at the + head of 80,000 men; above all, it was quite certain that the Great Khan of + the Turks had put his hordes in motion, had passed the Oxus with a + countless host, occupied Balkh and Herat, and was threatening to penetrate + into the very heart of Persia. The perilous character of the crisis is + perhaps exaggerated; but there can be little doubt that the advance of the + Turks constituted a real danger. Hormisdas, however, did not even now quit + the capital, or adventure his own person. He selected from among his + generals a certain Varahran or Bahram, a leader of great courage and + experience, who had distinguished himself in the wars of Anushirwan, and, + placing all the resources of the empire at his disposal, assigned to him + the entire conduct of the Turkish struggle. Bahram is said to have + contented himself with a small force of picked men, veterans between forty + and fifty years of age, to have marched with them upon Balkh, contended + with the Great Khan in several partial engagements, and at last entirely + defeated him in a great battle, wherein the Khan lost his life. This + victory was soon followed by another over the Khan’s son, who was made + prisoner and sent to Hormisdas. An enormous booty was at the same time + despatched to the court; and Bahram himself was about to return, when he + received his master’s orders to carry his arms into another quarter. + </p> + <p> + It is supposed, by some that, while the Turkish hordes were menacing + Persia upon the north-east, a Roman army, intended to act in concert with + them, was sent by Maurice into Albania, which proceeded to threaten the + common enemy in the north-west. But the Byzantine writers know of no + alliance at this time between the Romans and Turks; nor do they tell of + any offensive movement undertaken by Rome in aid of the Turkish invasion, + or even simultaneously with it. According to them, the war in this + quarter, which certainly broke out in A.D. 589, was provoked by Hormisdas + himself, who, immediately after his Turkish victories, sent Bahram with an + army to invade Colchis and Suania, or in other words to resume the Lazic + war, from which Anushirwan had desisted twenty-seven years previously. + Bahram found the province unguarded, and was able to ravage it at his + will; but a Roman force soon gathered to its defence, and after some + manoeuvres a pitched battle was fought on the Araxes, in which the Persian + general suffered a defeat. The military results of the check were + insignificant; but it led to an internal revolution. Hormisdas had grown + jealous of his too successful lieutenant, and was glad of an opportunity + to insult him. No sooner did he hear of Bahram’s defeat than he sent off a + messenger to the camp upon the Araxes, who deprived the general of his + command, and presented to him, on the part of his master, a distaff, some + cotton, and a complete set of women’s garments. Stung to madness by the + undeserved insult, Bahram retorted with a letter, wherein he addressed + Hormisdas, not as the son, but as the daughter of Chosroes. Shortly + afterwards, upon the arrival of a second messenger from the court, with + orders to bring the recalcitrant commander home in chains, Bahram openly + revolted, caused the envoy to be trampled upon by an elephant, and either + by simply putting before the soldiers his services and his wrongs, or by + misrepresenting to them the intentions of Hormisdas towards themselves, + induced his whole army with one accord to embrace his cause. + </p> + <p> + The news of the great general’s revolt was received with acclamations by + the provinces. The army of Mesopotamia, collected at Nisibis, made common + cause with that of Albania; and the united force, advancing on the capital + by way of Assyria, took up a position upon the Upper Zab river. Hormisdas + sent a general, Pherochanes, to meet and engage the rebels; but the + emissaries of Bahram seduced his troops from their allegiance; Pherochanes + was murdered; and the insurgent army, augmented by the force sent to + oppose it, drew daily nearer to Ctesiphon. Meanwhile Hormisdas, distracted + between hate and fear, suspecting every one, trusting no one, confined + himself within the walls of the capital, where he continued to exercise + the severities which had lost him the affections of his subjects. + According to some, he suspected his son, Chosroes, of collusion with the + enemy, and drove him into banishment, imprisoning at the same time his own + brothers in-law, Bindoes and Bostam, who would be likely, he thought, to + give their support to their nephew. These violent measures precipitated + the evils which he feared; a general revolt broke out in the palace; + Bostam and Bindoes, released from prison, put themselves at the head of + the malcontents, and, rushing into the presence-chamber, dragged the + tyrant from his throne, stripped him of the diadem, and committed him to + the dungeon from which they had themselves escaped. The Byzantine + historians believed that, after this, Hormisdas was permitted to plead his + cause before an assembly of Persian nobles, to glorify his own reign, + vituperate his eldest son, Chosroes, and express his willingness to + abdicate in favor of another son, who had never offended him. They + supposed that this ill-judged oration had sealed the fate of the youth + recommended and of his mother, who were cut to pieces before the fallen + monarch’s eyes, while at the same time the rage of the assembly was vented + in part upon Hormisdas himself, who was blinded, to make his restoration + impossible. But a judicious critic will doubt the likelihood of rebels, + committed as were Bindoes and Bostam, consenting to allow such an appeal + as is described by Theophylact; and a perusal of the speeches assigned to + the occasion will certainly not diminish his scepticism. The probability + would seem to be that Hormisdas was blinded as soon as committed to + prison, and that shortly afterwards he suffered the general fate of + deposed sovereigns, being assassinated in his place of confinement. + </p> + <p> + The deposition of Hormisdas was followed almost immediately by the + proclamation of his eldest son, Chosroes, the prince known in history as + “Eberwiz” or “Parviz,” the last great Persian monarch. The rebels at + Ctesiphon had perhaps acted from first to last with his cognizance: at any + rate, they calculated on his pardoning proceedings which had given him + actual possession of a throne whereto, without their aid, he might never + have succeeded. They accordingly declared him king of Persia without + binding him by conditions, and without negotiating with Bahram, who was + still in arms and at no great distance. + </p> + <p> + Before passing to the consideration of the eventful reign with which we + shall now have to occupy ourselves, a glance at the personal character of + the deceased monarch will perhaps be expected by the reader. Hormuzd is + pronounced by the concurrent voice of the Greeks and the Orientals one of + the worst princes that ever ruled over Persia. The fair promise of his + early years was quickly clouded over; and during the greater portion of + his reign he was a jealous and capricious tyrant, influenced by unworthy + favorites, and stimulated to ever-increasing severities by his fears. + Eminence of whatsoever kind roused his suspicions; and among his victims + were included, besides the noble and the great, a large number of + philosophers and men of science. His treatment of Bahram was at once a + folly and a crime—an act of black ingratitude, and a rash step, + whereof he had not counted the consequences. To his other vices he added + those of indolence and effeminacy. From the time that he became king + nothing could drag him from the soft life of the palace; in no single + instance did he take the field, either against his country’s enemies or + his own. Miserable as was his end, we can scarcely deem him worthy of our + pity, since there never lived a man whose misfortunes were more truly + brought on him by his own conduct. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Hormisdas IV. are in no respect remarkable. The head seems + modelled on that of Chosroes, his father, but is younger. The field of the + coin within the border is somewhat unduly crowded with stars and + crescents. Stars and crescents also occur outside the border, replacing + the simple crescents of Chosroes, and reproducing the combined stars and + crescents of Zamasp. The legend on the obverse is <i>Auhramazdi afzud</i>, + or sometimes <i>Auhramazi afzun</i>; on the reverse are commonly found, + besides the usual fire-altar and supporters, a regnal year and a + mint-mark. The regnal years range from one to thirteen; the number of the + mint-marks is about thirty. <a href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE XXIII., Fig. + 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0004" id="linkBimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate023.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxiii. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0010" id="linkB2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Chosroes II. (Eberwiz). Bahram rejects his Terms. Contest + between Chosroes and Bahram. Flight of Chosroes. Short Reign of Bahram + (Varahran VI). Campaign of A.D. 591. Recovery of the Throne by Chosroes. + Coins of Bahram.</i> + </p> + <p> + The position of Chosroes II. on his accession was one of great difficulty. + Whether actually guilty of parricide or not, he was at any rate suspected + by the greater part of his subjects of complicity in his father’s murder. + A rebel, who was the greatest Persian general of the time, at the head of + a veteran army, stood arrayed against his authority. He had no established + character to fall back upon, no merits to plead, nothing in fact to urge + on his behalf but that he was the eldest son of his father, the legitimate + representative of the ancient line of the Sassanidae. A revolution had + placed him on the throne in a hasty and irregular manner; nor is it clear + that he had ventured on the usual formality of asking the consent of the + general assembly of the nobles to his coronation. Thus perils surrounded + him on every side; but the most pressing danger of all, that which + required to be immediately met and confronted, was the threatening + attitude of Bahram, who had advanced from Adiabene to Holwan, and occupied + a strong position not a hundred and fifty miles from the capital. Unless + Bahram could be conciliated or defeated, the young king could not hope to + maintain himself in power, or feel that he had any firm grasp of the + sceptre. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances he took the resolution to try first the method + of conciliation. There seemed to be a fair opening for such a course. It + was not he, but his father, who had given the offence which drove Bahram + into rebellion, and almost forced him to vindicate his manhood by + challenging his detractor to a trial of strength. Bahram could have no + personal ground of quarrel with him. Indeed that general had at the first, + if we may believe the Oriental writers, proclaimed Chosroes as king, and + given out that he took up arms in order to place him upon the throne. It + was thought, moreover, that the rebel might feel himself sufficiently + avenged by the death of his enemy, and might be favorably disposed towards + those who had first blinded Hormisdas and then despatched him by the + bowstring. Chosroes therefore composed a letter in which he invited Bahram + to his court, and offered him the second place in the kingdom, if he would + come in and make his submission. The message was accompanied by rich + presents, and by an offer that if the terms proposed wera accepted they + should be confirmed by oath. + </p> + <p> + The reply of Bahram was as follows: “Bahram, friend of the gods, + conqueror, illustrious, enemy of tyrants, satrap of satraps, general of + the Persian host, wise, apt for command, god-fearing, without reproach, + noble, fortunate, successful, venerable, thrifty, provident, gentle, + humane, to Chosroes the son of Hormisdas (sends greeting). I have received + the letter which you wrote with such little wisdom, but have rejected the + presents which you sent with such excessive boldness. It had been better + that you should have abstained from sending either, more especially + considering the irregularity of your appointment, and the fact that the + noble and respectable took no part in the vote, which was carried by the + disorderly and low-born. If then it is your wish to escape your father’s + fate, strip off the diadem which you have assumed and deposit it in some + holy place, quit the palace, and restore to their prisons the criminals + whom you have set at liberty, and whom you had no right to release until + they had undergone trial for their crimes. When you have done all this, + come hither, and I will give you the government of a province. Be well + advised, and so farewell. Else, be sure you will perish like your father.” + So insolent a missive might well have provoked the young prince to some + hasty act or some unworthy show of temper. It is to the credit of Chosroes + that he restrained himself, and even made another attempt to terminate the + quarrel by a reconciliation. While striving to outdo Bahram in the + grandeur of his titles, he still addressed him as his friend. He + complimented him on his courage, and felicitated him on his excellent + health. “There were certain expressions,” he said, “in the letter that he + had received, which he was sure did not speak his friend’s real feelings. + The amanuensis had evidently drunk more wine than he ought, and, being + half asleep when he wrote, had put down things that were foolish and + indeed monstrous. But he was not disturbed by them. He must decline, + however, to send back to their prisons those whom he had released, since + favors granted by royalty could not with propriety be withdrawn; and he + must protest that in the ceremony of his coronation all due formalities + had been observed. As for stripping himself of his diadem, he was so far + from contemplating it that he looked forward rather to extending his + dominion over new worlds. As Bahram had invited him, he would certainly + pay him a visit; but he would be obliged to come as a king, and if his + persuasions did not produce submission he would have to compel it by force + of arms. He hoped that Bahram would be wise in time, and would consent to + be his friend and helper.” + </p> + <p> + This second overture produced no reply; and it became tolerably evident + that the quarrel could only be decided by the arbitrament of battle. + Chosroes accordingly put himself at the head of such troops as he could + collect, and marched against his antagonist, whom he found encamped on the + Holwan River. The place was favorable for an engagement; but Chosroes had + no confidence in his soldiers. He sought a personal interview with Bahram, + and renewed his offers of pardon and favor; but the conference only led to + mutual recriminations, and at its close both sides appealed to arms. + During six days the two armies merely skirmished, since Chosroes bent all + his efforts towards avoiding a general engagement; but on the seventh day + Bahram surprised him by an attack after night had fallen,a threw his + troops into confusion, and then, by a skilful appeal to their feelings, + induced them to desert their leader and come over to his side. Chosroes + was forced to fly. He fell back on Ctesiphon; but despairing of making a + successful defence, with the few troops that remained faithful to him, + against the overwhelming force which Bahram had at his disposal, he + resolved to evacuate the capital, to quit Persia, and to throw himself on + the generosity of some one of his neighbors. It is said that his choice + was long undetermined between the Turks, the Arabs, the Khazars of the + Caucasian region, and the Romans. According to some writers, after leaving + Ctesiphon, with his wives and children, his two uncles, and an escort of + thirty men, he laid his reins on his horse’s neck, and left it to the + instinct of the animal to determine in what direction he should flee. The + sagacious beast took the way to the Euphrates; and Chosroes, finding + himself on its banks, crossed the river, and, following up its course, + reached with much difficulty the well-known Roman station of Circesium. He + was not unmolested in his retreat. Bahram no sooner heard of his flight + than he sent off a body of 4000 horse, with orders to pursue and capture + the fugitive. They would have succeeded, had not Bindoes devoted himself + on behalf of his nephew, and, by tricking the officer in command, enabled + Chosroes to place such a distance between himself and his pursuers that + the chase had to be given up, and the detachment to return, with no more + valuable capture than Bindoes, to Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + Chosroes was received with all honor by Probus, the governor of Circesium, + who the next day communicated intelligence of what had happened to + Comentiolus, Prefect of the East, then resident at Hierapolis. At the same + time he sent to Comentiolus a letter which Chosroes had addressed to + Maurice, imploring his aid against his enemies. Comentiolus approved what + had been done, despatched a courier to bear the royal missive to + Constantinople, and shortly afterwards, by the direction of the court, + invited the illustrious refugee to remove to Hierapolis, and there take up + his abode, till his cause should be determined by the emperor. Meanwhile, + at Constantinople, after the letter of Chosroes had been read, a serious + debate arose as to what was fittest to be done. While some urged with much + show of reason that it was for the interest of the empire that the civil + war should be prolonged, that Persia should be allowed to waste her + strength and exhaust her resources in the contest, at the end of which it + would be easy to conquer her, there were others whose views were less + selfish or more far-sighted. The prospect of uniting the East and West + into a single monarchy, which had been brought to the test of experiment + by Alexander and had failed, did not present itself in a very tempting + light to these minds. They doubted the ability of the declining empire to + sway at once the sceptre of Europe and of Asia. They feared that if the + appeal of Chosroes were rejected, the East would simply fall into anarchy, + and the way would perhaps be prepared for some new power to rise up, more + formidable than the kingdom of the Sassanidae. The inclination of Maurice, + who liked to think himself magnanimous, coincided with the views of these + persons: their counsels were accepted; and the reply was made to Chosroes + that the Roman emperor accepted him as his guest and son, undertook his + quarrel, and would aid him with all the forces of the empire to recover + his throne. At the same time Maurice sent him some magnificent presents, + and releasing the Persian prisoners in confinement at Constantinople, bade + them accompany the envoys of Chosroes and resume the service of their + master. Soon afterwards more substantial tokens of the Imperial friendship + made their appearance. An army of 70,000 men arrived under Narses; and a + subsidy was advanced by the Imperial treasury, amounting (according to one + writer) to about two millions sterling. + </p> + <p> + But this valuable support to his cause was no free gift of a generous + friend; on the contrary, it had to be purchased by great sacrifices. + Chosroes had perhaps at first hoped that aid would be given him + gratuitously, and had even regarded the cession of a single city as one + that he might avoid making. But he learnt by degrees that nothing was to + be got from Rome without paying for it; and it was only by ceding + Persarmenia and Eastern Mesopotamia, with its strong towns of Martyropolis + and Daras, that he obtained the men and money that were requisite. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Bahram, having occupied Ctesiphon, had proclaimed himself king, + and sent out messengers on all sides to acquaint the provinces with the + change of rulers. The news was received without enthusiasm, but with a + general acquiescence; and, had Maurice rejected the application of + Chosroes, it is probable that the usurper might have enjoyed a long and + quiet reign. As soon, however, as it came to be known that the Greek + emperor had espoused, the cause of his rival, Bahram found himself in + difficulties: conspiracy arose in his own court, and had to be suppressed + by executions; murmurs were heard in some of the more distant provinces; + Armenia openly revolted and declared for Chosroes; and it soon appeared + that in places the fidelity of the Persian troops was doubtful. This was + especially the case in Mesopotamia, which would have to bear the brunt of + the attack when the Romans advanced. Bahram therefore thought it + necessary, though it was now the depth of winter, to strengthen his hold + on the wavering province, and sent out two detachments, under commanders + upon whom he could rely, to occupy respectively Anatho and Nisibis, the + two strongholds of greatest importance in the suspected region. Miraduris + succeeded in entering and occupying Anatho. Zadesprates was less + fortunate; before he reached the neighborhood of Nisibis, the garrison + which held that place had deserted the cause of the usurper and given in + its adhesion to Chosroes; and, when he approached to reconnoitre, he was + made the victim of a stratagem and killed by an officer named Rosas. + Miraduris did not long survive him; the troops which he had introduced + into Anatho caught the contagion of revolt, rose up against him, slew him, + and sent his head to Chosroes. + </p> + <p> + The spring was now approaching, and the time for military operations on a + grand scale drew near. Chosroes, besides his supporters in Mesopotamia, + Roman and Persian, had a second army in Azerbijan, raised by his uncles + Bindoes and Bostam, which was strengthened by an Armenian contingent. The + plan of campaign involved the co-operation of these two forces. With this + object Chosroes proceeded early in the spring, from Hierapolis to + Constantina, from Constantina to Daras, and thence by way of Ammodion to + the Tigris, across which he sent a detachment, probably in the + neighborhood of Mosul. This force fell in with Bryzacius, who commanded in + these parts for Bahram, and surprising him in the first watch of the + night, defeated his army and took Bryzacius himself prisoner. The sequel, + which Theophylact appears to relate from the information of an + eye-witness, furnishes a remarkable evidence of the barbarity of the + times. Those who captured Bryzacius cut off his nose and his ears, and in + this condition sent him to Chosroes. The Persian prince was overjoyed at + the success, which no doubt he accepted as a good omen; he at once led his + whole army across the river, and having encamped for the night at a place + called Dinabadon, entertained the chief Persian and Roman nobles at a + banquet. When the festivity was at its height, the unfortunate prisoner + was brought in loaded with fetters, and was made sport of by the guests + for a time, after which, at a signal from the king, the guards plunged + their swords into his body, and despatched him in the sight of the + feasters. Having amused his guests with this delectable interlude, the + amiable monarch concluded the whole by anointing them with perfumed + ointment, crowning them with flowers, and bidding them drink to the + success of the war. “The guests,” says Theophylact, “returned, to their + tents, delighted with the completeness of their entertainment, and told + their friends how handsomely they had been treated, but the crown of all + (they said) was the episode of Bryzacius.” + </p> + <p> + Chosroes next day advanced across the Greater Zab, and, after marching + four days, reached Alexandrian a position probably not far from Arbela, + after which, in two days more, he arrived at Chnaethas, which was a + district upon the Zab Asfal, or Lesser Zab River. Here he found himself in + the immediate vicinity of Bahram, who had taken up his position on the + Lesser Zab, with the intention probably of blocking the route up its + valley, by which he expected that the Armenian army would endeavor to + effect a junction with the army of Chosroes. Here the two forces watched + each other for some days, and various manoeuvres were executed, which it + is impossible to follow, since Theophylact, our only authority, is not a + good military historian. The result, however, is certain. Bahram was + out-manoeuvred by Chosroes and his Roman allies; the fords of the Zab were + seized; and after five days of marching and counter-marching, the + longed-for junction took place. Chosroes had the satisfaction of embracing + his uncles Bindoes and Bostam, and of securing such a reinforcement as + gave him a great superiority in numbers over his antagonist. + </p> + <p> + About the same time he received intelligence of another most important + success. Before quitting Daras, he had despatched Mebodes, at the head of + a small body of Romans, to create a diversion on the Mesopotomian side of + the Tigris by a demonstration from Singara against Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + He can hardly have expected to do more than distract his enemy and perhaps + make him divide his forces. Bahram, however, was either indifferent as to + the fate of the capital, or determined not to weaken the small army, which + was all that he could muster, and on which his whole dependence was + placed. He left Seleucia and Ctesiphon to their fate. Mebodes and his + small force marched southward without meeting an enemy, obtained + possession of Seleucia without a blow after the withdrawal of the + garrison, received the unconditional surrender of Ctesiphon, made + themselves masters of the royal palace and treasures, proclaimed Chosroes + king, and sent to him in his camp the most precious emblems of the Persian + sovereignty. Thus, before engaging with his antagonist, Chosroes recovered + his capital and found his authority once more recognized in the seat of + government. + </p> + <p> + The great contest had, however, to be decided, not by the loss and gain of + cities, nor by the fickle mood of a populace, but by trial of arms in the + open field. Bahram was not of a temper to surrender his sovereignty unless + compelled by defeat. He was one of the greatest generals of the age, and, + though compelled to fight under every disadvantage, greatly outnumbered by + the enemy, and with troops that were to a large extent disaffected, he was + bent on resisting to the utmost, and doing his best to maintain his own + rights. He seems to have fought two pitched battles with the combined + Romans and Persians, and not to have succumbed until treachery and + desertion disheartened him and ruined his cause. The first battle was in + the plain country of Adiabene, at the foot of the Zagros range. Here the + opposing armies were drawn out in the open field, each divided into a + centre and two wings. In the army of Chosroes the Romans were in the + middle, on the right the Persians, and the Armenians on the left. Narses, + together with Chosroes, held the central position: Bahram was directly + opposed to them. When the conflict began the Romans charged with such + fierceness that Bahram’s centre at once gave way; he was obliged to + retreat to the foot of the hills, and take up a position on their slope. + Here the Romans refused to attack him; and Chosroes very imprudently + ordered the Persians who fought on his side to advance up the ascent. They + were repulsed, and thrown into complete confusion; and the battle would + infallibly have been lost, had not Narses come to their aid, and with his + steady and solid battalions protected their retreat and restored the + fight. Yet the day terminated with a feeling on both sides that Bahram had + on the whole had the advantage in the engagement; the king <i>de facto</i> + congratulated himself; the king <i>de jure</i> had to bear the insulting + pity of his allies, and the reproaches of his own countrymen for + occasioning them such a disaster. + </p> + <p> + But though Bahram might feel that the glory of the day was his, he was not + elated by his success, nor rendered blind to the difficulties of his + position. Fighting with his back to the mountains, he was liable, if he + suffered defeat, to be entangled in their defiles and lose his entire + force. Moreover, now that Ctesiphon was no longer his, he had neither + resources nor <i>point d’appui</i> in the low country, and by falling back + he would at once be approaching nearer to the main source of his own + supplies, which was the country about Rei, south of the Caspian, and + drawing his enemies to a greater distance from the sources of theirs. He + may even have thought there was a chance of his being unpursued if he + retired, since the Romans might not like to venture into the mountain + region, and Chosroes might be impatient to make a triumphal entry into his + capital. Accordingly, the use which Bahram made of his victory was quietly + to evacuate his camp, to leave the low plain region, rapidly pass the + mountains, and take up his quarters in the fertile upland beyond them, the + district where the Lesser Zab rises, south of Lake Urumiyeh. + </p> + <p> + If he had hoped that his enemies would not pursue him, Bahram was + disappointed. Chosroes himself, and the whole of the mixed army which + supported his cause, soon followed on his footsteps, and pressing forward + to Canzaca, or Shiz, near which he had pitched his camp, offered him + battle for the second time. Bahram declined the offer, and retreated to a + position on the Balarathus, where, however, after a short time, he was + forced to come to an engagement. He had received, it would seem, a + reinforcement of elephants from the provinces bordering on India, and + hoped for some advantage from the employment of this new arm. He had + perhaps augmented his forces, though it must be doubted whether he really + on this occasion outnumbered his antagonist. At any rate, the time seemed + to have come when he must abide the issue of his appeal to arms, and + secure or lose his crown by a supreme effort. Once more the armies were + drawn up in three distinct bodies; and once more the leaders held the + established central position. The engagement began along the whole line, + and continued for a while without marked result. Bahram then strengthened + his left, and, transferring himself to this part of the field, made an + impression on the Roman right. But Narses brought up supports to their + aid, and checked the retreat, which had already begun, and which might + soon have become general. Hereupon Bahram suddenly fell upon the Roman + centre and endeavored to break it and drive it from the field; but Narses + was again a match for him, and met his assault without flinching, after + which, charging in his turn, he threw the Persian centre into confusion. + Seeing this, the wings also broke, and a general flight began, whereupon + 6000 of Bahram’s troops deserted, and, drawing aside, allowed themselves + to be captured. The retreat then became a rout. Bahram himself fled with + 4,000 men. His camp, with all its rich furniture, and his wives and + children, were taken. The elephant corps still held out and fought + valiantly; but it was surrounded and forced to surrender. The battle was + utterly lost; and the unfortunate chief, feeling that all hope was gone, + gave the reins to his horse and fled for his life. Chosroes sent ten + thousand men in pursuit, under Bostam, his uncle; and this detachment + overtook the fugitives, but was repulsed and returned. Bahram continued + his flight, and passing through Rei and Damaghan, reached the Oxus and + placed himself under the protection of the Turks. Chosroes, having + dismissed his Roman allies, re-entered Ctesiphon after a year’s absence, + and for the second time took his place upon the throne of his ancestors. + </p> + <p> + The coins of Bahram possess a peculiar interest. While there is no + numismatic evidence which confirms the statement that he struck money in + the name of the younger Chosroes, there are extant three types of his + coins, two of which appear to belong to the time before he seated himself + upon the throne, while one—the last—belongs to the period of + his actual sovereignty. In his preregnal coins, he copied the devices of + the last sovereign of his name who had ruled over Persia. He adopted the + mural crown in a decided form, omitted the stars and crescents, and placed + his own head amid the flames of the fire-altar. His legends were either <i>Varahran + Chub</i>, “Bahram of the mace,” or <i>Varahran, maljcan malka, mazdisn, + bagi, ramashtri</i>, “Bahram, king of kings, Ormazd-worshipping, divine, + peaceful.” <a href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE XXIII, Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The later coins follow closely the type of his predecessor, Hormisdas IV., + differing only in the legend, which is, on the obverse, <i>Varahran afzun</i>, + or “Varahran (may he be) greater;” and on the reverse the regnal year, + with a mint-mark. The regnal year is uniformly “one;” the mint-marks are + Zadracarta, Iran, and Nihach, an unknown locality. <a + href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE XXIII., Fig 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0011" id="linkB2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Second Reign of Chosroes II. (Eberwiz). His Rule at first Unpopular, + His Treatment of his Uncles, Bindoes and Bostam. His vindictive + Proceedings against Bahram. His supposed Leaning towards Christianity. His + Wives, Shirin and Kurdiyeh. His early Wars. His Relations with the Emperor + Maurice. His Attitude towards Phocas. Great War of Chosroes with Phocas, + A.D. 603-610. War continued with Heraclius. Immense Successes of Chosroes, + A.D. 611-620. Aggressive taken by Heraclius A.D. 622. His Campaigns in + Persian Territory A.D. 622-628. Murder of Chosroes. His Character. His + Coins</i>. + </p> + <p> + The second reign of Chosroes II., who is commonly known as Chosroes + Eberwiz or Parwiz, lasted little short of thirty-seven years—from + the summer of A.D. 591 to the February of A.D. 628. Externally considered, + it is the most remarkable reign in the entire Sassanian series, embracing + as it does the extremes of elevation and depression. Never at any other + time did the Neo-Persian kingdom extend itself so far, or so distinguish + itself by military achievements, as in the twenty years intervening + between A.D. 602 and A.D. 622. Seldom was it brought so low as in the + years immediately anterior and immediately subsequent to this space, in + the earlier and in the later portions of the reign whose central period + was so glorious. + </p> + <p> + Victorious by the help of Rome, Chosroes began his second reign amid the + scarcely disguised hostility of his subjects. So greatly did he mistrust + their sentiments towards him that he begged and obtained of Maurice the + support of a Roman bodyguard, to whom he committed the custody of his + person. To the odium always attaching in the minds of a spirited people to + the ruler whose yoke is imposed upon them by a foreign power, he added + further the stain of a crime which is happily rare at all times, and of + which (according to the general belief of his subjects) no Persian monarch + had ever previously been guilty. It was in vain that he protested his + innocence: the popular belief held him an accomplice in his father’s + murder, and branded the young prince with the horrible name of + “parricide.” + </p> + <p> + It was no doubt mainly in the hope of purging himself from this imputation + that, after putting to death the subordinate instruments by whom his + father’s life had been actually taken, he went on to institute proceedings + against the chief contrivers of the outrage—the two uncles who had + ordered, and probably witnessed, the execution. So long as the success of + his arms was doubtful, he had been happy to avail himself of their + support, and to employ their talents in the struggle against his enemies. + At one moment in his flight he had owed his life to the self-devotion of + Bindoes; and both the brothers had merited well of him by the efforts + which they had made to bring Armenia over to his cause, and to levy a + powerful army for him in that region. But to clear his own character it + was necessary that he should forget the ties both of blood and gratitude, + that he should sink the kinsman in the sovereign, and the debtor in the + stern avenger of blood. Accordingly, he seized Bindoes, who resided at the + court, and had him drowned in the Tigris. To Bostam, whom he had appointed + governor of Rei and Khorassan, he sent an order of recall, and would + undoubtedly have executed him, had he obeyed; but Bostam, suspecting his + intentions, deemed it the wisest course to revolt, and proclaim himself + independent monarch of the north country. Here he established himself in + authority for some time, and is even said to have enlarged his territory + at the expense of some of the border chieftains; but the vengeance of his + nephew pursued him unrelentingly, and ere long accomplished his + destruction. According to the best authority, the instrument employed was + Bostam’s wife, the sister of Bahram, whom Chosroes induced to murder her + husband by a promise to make her the partner of his bed. + </p> + <p> + Intrigues not very dissimilar in their character had been previously + employed to remove Bahram, whom the Persian monarch had not ceased to + fear, notwithstanding that he was a fugitive and an exile. The Khan of the + Turks had received him with honor on the occasion of his flight, and, + according to some authors, had given him his daughter in marriage. + Chosroes lived in dread of the day when the great general might reappear + in Persia, at the head of the Turkish hordes, and challenge him to renew + the lately-terminated contest. + </p> + <p> + He therefore sent an envoy into Turkestan, well supplied with rich gifts, + whose instructions were to procure by some means or other the death of + Bahram. Having sounded the Khan upon the business and met with a rebuff, + the envoy addressed himself to the Khatun, the Khan’s wife, and by liberal + presents induced her to come into his views. A slave was easily found who + undertook to carry out his mistress’s wishes, and Bahram was despatched + the same day by means of a poisoned dagger. It is painful to find that one + thus ungrateful to his friends and relentless to his enemies made, to a + certain extent, profession of Christianity. Little as his heart can have + been penetrated by its spirit, Chosroes seems certainly, in the earlier + part of his reign, to have given occasion for the suspicion, which his + subjects are said to have entertained, that he designed to change his + religion, and confess himself a convert to the creed of the Greeks. During + the period of his exile, he was, it would seem, impressed by what he saw + and heard, of the Christian worship and faith; he learnt to feel or + profess a high veneration for the Virgin; and he adopted the practice, + common at the time, of addressing his prayers and vows to the saints and + martyrs, who were practically the principal objects of the Oriental + Christians’ devotions. Sergius, a martyr, hold in high repute by the + Christians of Osrhoene and Mesopotamia, was adopted by the superstitious + prince as a sort of patron saint; and it became his habit, in + circumstances of difficulty, to vow some gift or other to the shrine of + St. Sergius at Sergiopolis, in case of the event corresponding to his + wishes. Two occasions are recorded where, on sending his gift, he + accompanied it with a letter explaining the circumstances of his vow and + its fulfilment; and even the letters themselves have come down to us, but + in a Greek version. In one, Chosroes ascribes the success of his arms on a + particular occasion to the influence of his self-chosen patron; in the + other, he credits him with having procured by his prayers the pregnancy of + Sira (Shirin), the most beautiful and best beloved of his wives. It + appears that Sira was a Christian, and that in marrying her Chosroes had + contravened the laws of his country, which forbade the king to have a + Christian wife. Her influence over him was considerable, and she is said + to have been allowed to build numerous churches and monasteries in and + about Ctesiphon. When she died, Chosroes called in the aid of sculpture to + perpetuate her image, and sent her statue to the Roman Emperor, to the + Turkish Khan, and to various other potentates. + </p> + <p> + Chosroes is said to have maintained an enormous seraglio; but of these + secondary wives, none is known to us even by name, except Kurdiyeh, the + sister of Bahram and widow of Bostam, whom she murdered at Chosroes’s + suggestion. + </p> + <p> + During the earlier portion of his reign Chosroes seems to have been + engaged in but few wars, and those of no great importance. According to + the Armenian writers, he formed a design of depopulating that part of + Armenia which he had not ceded to the Romans, by making a general levy of + all the males, and marching them off to the East, to fight against the + Ephthalites; but the design did not prosper, since the Armenians carried + all before them, and under their native leader, Smbat, the Bagratunian, + conquered Hyrcania and Tabaristan, defeated repeatedly the Koushans and + the Ephthalites, and even engaged with success the Great Khan of the + Turks, who came to the support of his vassals at the head of an army + consisting of 300.000 men. By the valor and conduct of Smbat, the Persian + dominion was re-established in the north-eastern mountain region, from + Mount Demavend to the Hindu Kush; the Koushans, Turks, and Ephthalitos + were held in check; and the tide of barbarism, which had threatened to + submerge the empire on this side, was effectually resisted and rolled + back. + </p> + <p> + With Rome Chosroes maintained for eleven years the most friendly and + cordial relations. Whatever humiliation he may have felt when he accepted + the terms on which alone Maurice was willing to render him aid, having + once agreed to them, he stifled all regrets, made no attempt to evade his + obligations, abstained from every endeavor to undo by intrigue what he had + done, unwillingly indeed, but yet with his eyes open. Once only during the + eleven years did a momentary cloud arise between him and his benefactor. + In the year A.D. 600 some of the Saracenic tribes dependent on Rome made + an incursion across the Euphrates into Persian territory, ravaged it far + and wide, and returned with their booty into the desert. Chosroes was + justly offended, and might fairly have considered that a <i>casus belli</i> + had arisen; but he allowed himself to be pacified by the representations + of Maurice’s envoy, George, and consented not to break the peace on + account of so small a matter. George claimed the concession as a tribute + to his own amiable qualities; but it is probable that the Persian monarch + acted rather on the grounds of general policy than from any personal + predilection. + </p> + <p> + Two years later the virtuous but perhaps over-rigid Maurice was deposed + and murdered by the centurion, Phocas, who, on the strength of his + popularity with the army, boldly usurped the throne. Chosroes heard with + indignation of the execution of his ally and friend, of the insults + offered to his remains, and of the assassination of his numerous sons, and + of his brother. One son, he heard, had been sent off by Maurice to implore + aid from the Persians; he had been overtaken and put to death by the + emissaries of the usurper; but rumor, always busy where royal personages + are concerned, asserted that he lived, that he had escaped his pursuers, + and had reached Ctesiphon. Chosroes was too much interested in the + acceptance of the rumor to deny it; he gave out that Theodosius was at his + court, and notified that it was his intention to assert his right to the + succession. When, five months after his coronation, Phocas sent an envoy + to announce his occupation of the throne, and selected the actual murderer + of Maurice to fill the post, Chosroes determined on an open rupture. He + seized Lilius, the envoy, threw him into prison, announced his intention + of avenging his deceased benefactor, and openly declared war against Rome. + </p> + <p> + The war burst out the next year (A.D. 603). On the Roman side there was + disagreement, and even civil war; for Narses, who had held high command in + the East ever since he restored Chosroes to the throne of his ancestors, + on hearing of the death of Maurice, took up arms against Phocas, and, + throwing himself into Edessa, defied the forces of the usurper. Germanus, + who commanded at Daras, was a general of small capacity, and found himself + quite unable to make head, either against Narses in Edessa, or against + Chosroes, who led his troops in person into Mesopotamia. Defeated by + Chosroes in a battle near Daras, in which he received a mortal wound, + Germanus withdrew to Constantia, where he died eleven days afterwards. A + certain Leontius, a eunuch, took his place, but was equally unsuccessful. + Chosroes defeated him at Arxamus, and took a great portion of his army + prisoners; whereupon he was recalled by Phocas, and a third leader, + Domentziolus, a nephew of the emperor, was appointed to the command. + Against him the Persian monarch thought it enough to employ generals. The + war now languished for a short space; but in A.D. 605 Chosroes came up in + person against Daras, the great Roman stronghold in these parts, and + besieged it for the space of nine months, at the end of which time it + surrendered. The loss was a severe blow to the Roman prestige, and was + followed in the next year by a long series of calamities. Chosroes took + Tur-abdin, Hesen-Cephas, Mardin, Capher-tuta, and Amida. Two years + afterwards, A.D. 607, he captured Harran (Carrhse), Ras-el-ain (Resaina), + and Edessa, the capital of Osrhoene, after which he pressed forward to the + Euphrates, crossed with his army into Syria, and fell with fury on the + Roman cities west of the river. Mabog or Hierapolis, Kenneserin, and + Berhoea (now Aleppo), were invested and taken in the course of one or at + most two campaigns; while at the same time (A.D. 609) a second Persian + army, under a general whose name is unknown, after operating in Armenia, + and taking Satala and Theodosiopolis, invaded Cappadocia and threatened + the great city of Caesarea Mazaca, which was the chief Roman stronghold in + these parts. Bands of marauders wasted the open country, carrying terror + through the fertile districts of Phyrgia and Galatia, which had known + nothing of the horrors of war for centuries, and were rich with the + accumulated products of industry. According to Theophanes, some of the + ravages even penetrated as far as Chalcedon, on the opposite side of the + straits from Constantinople; but this is probably the anticipation of an + event belonging to a later time. No movements of importance are assigned + to A.D. 610; but in the May of the next year the Persians once more + crossed the Euphrates, completely defeated and destroyed the Roman army + which protected Syria, and sacked the two great cities of Apameia and + Antioch. + </p> + <p> + Meantime a change had occurred at Constantinople. The double revolt of + Heraclius, prefect of Egypt, and Gregory, his lieutenant, had brought the + reign of the brutal and incapable Phocas to an end, and placed upon the + imperial throne a youth of promise, innocent of the blood of Maurice, and + well inclined to avenge it. Chosroes had to consider whether he should + adhere to his original statement, that he took up arms to punish the + murderer of his friend, and benefactor, and consequently desist from + further hostilities now that Phocas was dead, or whether, throwing + consistency to the winds, he should continue to prosecute the war, + notwithstanding the change of rulers, and endeavor to push to the utmost + the advantage which he had already obtained. He resolved on this latter + alternative. It was while the young Heraclius was still insecure in his + seat that he sent his armies into Syria, defeated the Roman troops, and + took Antioch and Apameia. Following up blow with blow, he the next year + (A.D. 612) invaded Cappadocia a second time and captured Csesarea Mazaca. + Two years later (A.D. 614) he sent his general Shahr-Barz, into the region + east of the Antilibanus, and took the ancient and famous city of Damascus. + From Damascus, in the ensuing year, Shahr-Barz advanced against Palestine, + and, summoning the Jews to his aid, proclaimed a Holy War against the + Christian misbelievers, whom he threatened to enslave or exterminate. + Twenty-six thousand of these fanatics flocked to his standard; and having + occupied the Jordan region and Galileee, Shahr-Barz in A.D. 615 invested + Jerusalem, and after a siege of eighteen days forced his way into the + town, and gave it over to plunder and rapine. The cruel hostility of the + Jews had free vent. The churches of Helena, of Constantine, of the Holy + Sepulchre, of the Resurrection, and many others, were burnt or ruined; the + greater part of the city was destroyed; the sacred treasuries were + plundered; the relics scattered or carried off; and a massacre of the + inhabitants, in which the Jews took the chief part, raged throughout the + whole city for some days. As many as seventeen thousand or, according to + another account, ninety thousand, were slain. Thirty-five thousand were + made prisoners. Among them was the aged Patriarch, Zacharius, who was + carried captive into Persia, where he remained till his death. + </p> + <p> + The Cross found by Helena, and believed to be “the True Cross,” was at the + same time transported to Ctesiphon, where it was preserved with care and + duly venerated by the Christian wife of Chosroes. + </p> + <p> + A still more important success followed. In A.D. 616 Shahr-Barz proceeded + from Palestine into Egypt, which had enjoyed a respite from foreign war + since the time of Julius Caesar, surprised Pelusium, the key of the + country, and, pressing forward across the Delta, easily made himself + master of the rich and prosperous Alexandria. John the Merciful, who was + the Patriarch, and Nicetas the Patrician, who was the governor, had + quitted the city before his arrival, and had fled to Cyprus. Hence + scarcely any resistance was made. The fall of Alexandria was followed at + once by the complete submission of the rest of Egypt. Bands of Persians + advanced up the Nile valley to the very confines of Ethiopia, and + established the authority of Chosroes over the whole country—a + country in which no Persian had set foot since it was wrested by Alexander + of Macedon from Darius Codomannus. + </p> + <p> + While this remarkable conquest was made in the southwest, in the + north-west another Persian army under another general, Saina or Shahen, + starting from Cappadocia, marched through Asia Minor to the shores of the + Thracian Bosphorus, and laid siege to the strong city of Chalcedon, which + lay upon the strait, just opposite Constantinople. Chalcedon made a + vigorous resistance; and Heraclius, anxious to save it, had an interview + with Shahen, and at his suggestion sent three of his highest nobles as + ambassadors to Chosroes, with a humble request for peace. The overture was + ineffectual. Chosroes imprisoned the ambassadors and entreated them + cruelly; threatened Shahen with death for not bringing Heraclius in chains + to the foot of his throne; and declared in reply that he would grant no + terms of peace—the empire was his, and Heraclius must descend from + his throne. Soon afterwards (A.D. 617) Chalcedon, which was besieged + through the winter, fell; and the Persians established themselves in this + important stronghold, within a mile of Constantinople. Three years + afterwards, Ancyra (Angora), which had hitherto resisted the Persian arms, + was taken; and Rhodes, though inaccessible to an enemy who was without a + naval force, submitted. + </p> + <p> + Thus the whole of the Roman possessions in Asia and Eastern Africa were + lost in the space of fifteen years. The empire of Persia was extended from + the Tigris and Euphrates to the Egean and the Nile, attaining once more + almost the same dimensions that it had reached under the first and had + kept until the third Darius. It is difficult to say how far their newly + acquired provinces wore really subdued, organized, and governed from + Ctesiphon, how far they were merely overrun, plundered, and then left to + themselves. On the one hand, we have indications of the existence of + terrible disorders and of something approaching to anarchy in parts of the + conquered territory during the time that it was held by the Persians; on + the other, we seem to see an intention to retain, to govern, and even to + beautify it. Eutychius relates that, on the withdrawal of the Romans from + Syria, the Jews resident in Tyre, who numbered four thousand, plotted with + their co-religionists of Jerusalem, Cyprus, Damascus, and Galilee, a + general massacre of the Tyrian Christians on a certain day. The plot was + discovered; and the Jews of Tyre were arrested and imprisoned by their + fellow-citizens, who put the city in a state of defence; and when the + foreign Jews, to the number of 26,000, came at the appointed time, + repulsed them from the walls, and defeated them with great slaughter. This + story suggests the idea of a complete and general disorganization. But on + the other hand we hear of an augmentation of the revenue under Chosroes + II., which seems to imply the establishment in the regions conquered of a + settled government; and the palace at Mashita, discovered by a recent + traveller, is a striking proof that no temporary occupation was + contemplated, but that Chosroes regarded his conquests as permanent + acquisitions, and meant to hold them and even visit them occasionally. + </p> + <p> + Heraclius was now well-nigh driven to despair. The loss of Egypt reduced + Constantinople to want, and its noisy populace clamored for food. The + Avars overran Thrace, and continually approached nearer to the capital. + The glitter of the Persian arms was to be seen at any moment, if he looked + from his palace windows across the Bosphorus. No prospect of assistance or + relief appeared from any quarter. The empire was reduced to the walls of + Constantinople, with the remnant of Greece, Italy, and Africa, and some + maritime cities, from Tyre to Trebizond, of the Asiatic Coast. It is not + surprising that under the circumstances the despondent monarch determined + on flight, and secretly made arrangements for transporting himself and his + treasures to the distant Carthage, where he might hope at least to find + himself in safety. His ships, laden with their precious freight, had put + to sea, and he was about to follow them, when his intention became known + or was suspected; the people rose; and the Patriarch, espousing their + side, forced the reluctant prince to accompany him to the church of St. + Sophia, and there make oath that, come what might, he would not separate + his fortunes from those of the imperial city. + </p> + <p> + Baffled in his design to escape from his difficulties by flight, Heraclius + took a desperate resolution. He would leave Constantinople to its fate, + trust its safety to the protection afforded by its walls and by the strait + which separated it from Asia, embark with such troops as he could collect, + and carry the war into the enemy’s country. The one advantage which he had + over his adversary was his possession of an ample navy, and consequent + command of the sea and power to strike his blows unexpectedly in different + quarters. On making known his intention, it was not opposed, either by the + people or by the Patriarch. He was allowed to coin the treasures of the + various churches into money, to collect stores, enroll troops, and, on the + Easter Monday of A.D. 622, to set forth on his expedition. + </p> + <p> + His fleet was steered southward, and, though forced to contend with + adverse gales, made a speedy and successful voyage through the Propontis, + the Hellespont, the Egean, and the Cilician Strait, to the Gulf of Issus, + in the angle between Asia Minor and Syria. The position was well chosen, + as one where attack was difficult, where numbers would give little + advantage, and where consequently a small but resolute force might easily + maintain itself against a greatly superior enemy. At the same time it was + a post from which an advance might conveniently be made in several + directions, and which menaced almost equally Asia Minor, Syria, and + Armenia. Moreover, the level tract between the mountains and the sea was + broad enough for the manoeuvres of such an army as Heraclius commanded, + and allowed him to train his soldiers by exercises and sham fights to a + familiarity with the sights and sounds and movements of a battle. He + conjectured, rightly enough, that he would not long be left unmolested by + the enemy. Shahr-Barz, the conqueror of Jerusalem and Egypt, was very soon + sent against him; and, after various movements, which it is impossible to + follow, a battle was fought between the two armies in the mountain country + towards the Armenian frontier, in which the hero of a hundred fights was + defeated and the Romans, for the first time since the death of Maurice, + obtained a victory. After this, on the approach of winter, Heraclius, + accompanied probably by a portion of his army, returned by sea to + Constantinople. + </p> + <p> + The next year the attack was made in a different quarter. Having concluded + alliances with the Khan of the Khazars and some other chiefs of inferior + power, Heraclius in the month of March embarked with 5000 men, and + proceeded from Constantinople by way of the Black Sea first to Trebizond, + and then to Mingrelia or Lazica. There he obtained contingents from his + allies, which, added to the forces collected from. Trebizond and the other + maritime towns, may perhaps have raised his troops to the number of + 120,000, at which we find them estimated. With this army, he crossed the + Araxes, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes, on receiving the intelligence, + proceeded into Azorbijan with 40,000 men, and occupied the strong city of + Canzaca, the site of which is probably marked by the ruins known as + Takht-i-Suleiman. At the same time he ordered two other armies, which he + had sent on in advance, one of them commanded by Shahr-Barz, the other by + Shahen, to effect a junction and oppose themselves to the further progress + of the emperor. The two generals were, however, tardy in their movements, + or at any rate were outstripped by the activity of Heraclius, who, + pressing forward from Armenia into Azerbijan, directed his march upon + Canzaca, hoping to bring the Great King to a battle. His advance-guard of + Saracens did actually surprise the picquets of Chosroes; but the king + himself hastily evacuated the Median stronghold, and retreated southwards + through Ardelan towards the Zagros mountains, thus avoiding the engagement + which was desired by his antagonist. The army, on witnessing the flight of + their monarch, broke up and dispersed. Heraclius pressed upon the flying + host and slew all whom he caught, but did not suffer himself to be + diverted from his main object, which was to overtake Chosroes. His + pursuit, however, was unsuccessful. Chosroes availed himself of the rough + and difficult country which lies between Azerbijan and the Mesopotamian + lowland, and by moving from, place to place contrive to baffle his enemy. + Winter arrived, and Heraclius had to determine whether he would continue + his quest at the risk of having to pass the cold season in the enemy’s + country, far from all his resources, or relinquish it and retreat to a + safe position. Finding his soldiers divided in their wishes, he trusted + the decision to chance, and opening the Gospel at random settled the doubt + by applying the first passage that met his eye to its solution. The + passage suggested retreat; and Heraclius, retracing his steps, recrossed + the Araxes, and wintered in Albania. + </p> + <p> + The return of Heraclius was not unmolested. He had excited the fanaticism + of the Persians by destroying, wherever he went, the temples of the + Magians, and extinguishing the sacred fire, which it was a part of their + religion to keep continually burning. He had also everywhere delivered the + cities and villages to the flames, and carried off many thousands of the + population. The exasperated enemy consequently hung upon his rear, impeded + his march, and no doubt caused him considerable loss, though, when it came + to fighting, Heraclius always gained the victory. He reached Albania + without sustaining any serious disaster, and even brought with him 50,000 + captives; but motives of pity, or of self-interest, caused him soon + afterwards to set these prisoners free. It would have been difficult to + feed and house them through the long and severe winter, and disgraceful to + sell or massacre them. + </p> + <p> + In the year A.D. 624 Chosroes took the offensive, and, before Heraclius + had quitted his winter quarters, sent a general, at the head of a force of + picked troops, into Albania, with the view of detaining him in that remote + province during the season of military operations. But Sarablagas feared + his adversary too much to be able very effectually to check his movements; + he was content to guard the passes, and hold the high ground, without + hazarding an engagement. Heraclius contrived after a time to avoid him, + and penetrated into Persia through a series of plains, probably those + along the course and about the mouth of the Araxes. It was now his wish to + push rapidly southward; but the auxiliaries on whom he greatly depended + were unwilling; and, while he doubted what course to take, three Persian + armies, under commanders of note, closed in upon him, and threatened his + small force with destruction. Heraclius feigned a disordered flight, and + drew on him an attack from two out of the three chiefs, which he easily + repelled. Then he fell upon the third, Shahen, and completely defeated + him. A way seemed to be thus opened for him into the heart of Persia, and + he once more set off to seek Chosroes; but now his allies began to desert + his standard, and return to their homes; the defeated Persians rallied and + impeded his march; he was obliged to content himself with a third, + victory, at a place which Theophanes calls Salban, where he surprised + Shahr-Barz in the dead of the night, massacred his troops, his wives, his + officers, and the mass of the population, which fought from the flat roofs + of the houses, took the general’s arms and equipage, and was within a + little of capturing Shahr-barz himself. The remnant of the Persian army + fled in disorder, and was hunted down by Heraclius, who pursued the + fugitives unceasingly till the cold season approached, and he had to + retire into cantonments. The half-burnt Salban afforded a welcome shelter + to his troops during the snows and storms of an Armenian winter. + </p> + <p> + Early in the ensuing spring the indefatigable emperor again set his troops + in motion, and, passing the lofty range which separates the basin of Lake + Van from the streams that flow into the upper Tigris, struck that river, + or rather its large affluent, the Bitlis Chai, in seven days from Salban, + crossed into Arzanene, and proceeding westward recovered Martyropolis and + Amida, which had now been in the possession of the Persians for twenty + years. At Amida he made a halt, and wrote to inform the Senate of + Constantinople of his position and his victories, intelligence which they + must have received gladly after having lost sight of him for above a + twelvemonth. But he was not allowed to remain long undisturbed. Before the + end of March Shahr-Barz had again taken the field in force, had occupied + the usual passage of the Euphrates, and threatened the line of retreat + which Heraclius had looked upon as open to him. Unable to cross the + Euphrates by the bridge, which Shahr-barz had broken, the emperor + descended the stream till he found a ford, when he transported his army to + the other bank, and hastened by way of Samosata and Germanicaea into + Cilicia. Here he was once more in his own territory, with the sea close at + hand, ready to bring him supplies or afford him a safe retreat, in a + position with whose advantages he was familiar, where broad plains gave an + opportunity for skilful maneuvers, and deep rapid rivers rendered defence + easy. Heraclius took up a position on the right bank of the Sarus + (Syhuri), in the immediate vicinity of the fortified bridge by which alone + the stream could be crossed. Shahr-Barz followed, and ranged his troops + along the left bank, placing the archers in the front line, while he made + preparations to draw the enemy from the defence of the bridge into the + plain on the other side. He was so far successful that the Roman + occupation of the bridge was endangered; but Heraclius, by his personal + valor and by almost superhuman exertions, restored the day; with his own + hand he struck down a Persian of gigantic stature and flung him from the + bridge into the river; then pushing on with a few companions, he charged + the Persian host in the plain, receiving undaunted a shower of blows, + while he dealt destruction on all sides. The fight was prolonged until the + evening and even then was undecided; but Shahr-Barz had convinced himself + that he could not renew the combat with any prospect of victory. He + therefore retreated during the night, and withdrew from Cilicia. + Heraclius, finding himself free to march where he pleased, crossed the + Taurus, and proceeded to Sebaste (Sivas), upon the Halys, where he + wintered in the heart of Cappadocia, about half-way between the two seas. + According to Theophanes the Persian monarch was so much enraged at this + bold and adventurous march, and at the success which had attended it, + that, by way of revenging himself on Heraclius, he seized the treasures of + all the Christian churches in his dominions, and compelled the orthodox + believers to embrace the Nestorian heresy. The twenty-fourth year of the + war had now arrived, and it was difficult to say on which side lay the + balance of advantage. If Chosroes still maintained his hold on Syria, + Egypt, and Asia Minor as far as Chalcedon, if his troops still flaunted + their banners within sight of Constantinople, yet on the other hand he had + seen his hereditary dominions deeply penetrated by the armies of his + adversary; he had had his best generals defeated, his cities and palaces + burnt, his favorite provinces wasted; Heraclius had proved himself a most + formidable opponent; and unless some vital blow could be dealt him at + home, there was no forecasting the damage that he might not inflict on + Persia by a fresh invasion. Chosroes therefore made a desperate attempt to + bring the war to a close by an effort, the success of which would have + changed the history of the world. Having enrolled as soldiers, besides + Persians, a vast number of foreigners and slaves, and having concluded a + close alliance with the Khan of the Avars, he formed two great armies, one + of which was intended to watch Heraclius in Asia Minor, while the other + co-operated with the Avars and forced Constantinople to surrender. The + army destined to contend with the emperor was placed under the command of + Shahen; that which was to bear a part in the siege of Constantinople was + committed to Shahr-Barz. It is remarkable that Heraclius, though quite + aware of his adversary’s plans, instead of seeking to baffle them, made + such arrangements as facilitated the attempt to put them into execution. + He divided his own troops into three bodies, one only of which he sent to + aid in the defence of his capital. The second body he left with his + brother Theodore, whom he regarded as a sufficient match for Shahen. With + the third division he proceeded eastward to the remote province of Lazica, + and there engaged in operations which could but very slightly affect the + general course of the war. The Khazars were once more called in as allies; + and their Khan, Ziebel, who coveted the plunder of Tiflis, held an + interview with the emperor in the sight of the Persians who guarded that + town, adored his majesty, and received from his hands the diadem that + adorned his own brow. Richly entertained, and presented with all the plate + used in the banquet, with a royal robe, and a pair of pearl earrings, + promised moreover the daughter of the emperor (whose portrait he was + shown) in marriage, the barbarian chief, dazzled and flattered, readily + concluded an alliance, and associated his arms with those of the Romans. A + joint attack was made upon Tiflis, and the town was reduced to + extremities; when Sarablagas, with a thousand men, contrived to throw + himself into it, and the allies, disheartened thereby, raised the siege + and retired. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, in Asia Minor, Theodore engaged the army of Shahen; and, a + violent hailstorm raging at the time, which drove into the enemy’s face, + while the Romans were, comparatively speaking, sheltered from its force, + he succeeded in defeating his antagonist with great slaughter. Chosroes + was infuriated; and the displeasure of his sovereign weighed so heavily + upon the mind of Shahen that he shortly afterwards sickened and died. The + barbarous monarch gave orders that his corpse should be embalmed and sent + to the court, in order that he might gratify his spleen by treating it + with the grossest indignity. + </p> + <p> + At Constantinople the Persian cause was equally unsuccessful. Shahr-Barz, + from Chalcedon, entered into negotiations with the Khan of the Avars, and + found but little difficulty in persuading him to make an attempt upon the + imperial city. From their seats beyond the Danube a host of barbarians—Avars, + Slaves, Gepidas, Bulgarians, and others—advanced through the passes + of Heemus into the plains of Thrace, destroying and ravaging. The + population fled before them and sought the protection of the city walls, + which had been carefully strengthened in expectation of the attack, and + were in good order. The hordes forced the outer works; but all their + efforts, though made both by land and sea, were unavailing against the + main defences; their attempt to sap the wall failed; their artillery was + met and crushed by engines of greater power; a fleet of Slavonian canoes, + which endeavored to force an entrance by the Golden Horn, was destroyed or + driven ashore; the towers with which they sought to overtop the walls were + burnt; and, after ten days of constantly repeated assaults, the barbarian + leader became convinced that he had undertaken an impossible enterprise, + and, having burnt his engines and his siege works, he retired. The result + might have been different had the Persians, who were experienced in the + attack of walled places, been able to co-operate with him; but the narrow + channel which flowed between Chalcedon and the Golden Horn proved an + insurmountable barrier; the Persians had no ships, and the canoes of the + Slavonians were quite unable to contend with the powerful galleys of the + Byzantines, so that the transport of a body of Persian troops from Asia to + Europe by their aid proved impracticable. Shahr-Barz had the annoyance of + witnessing the efforts and defeat of his allies, without having it in his + power to take any active steps towards assisting the one or hindering the + other. + </p> + <p> + The war now approached its termination; for the last hope of the Persians + had failed; and Heraclius, with his mind set at rest as regarded his + capital, was free to strike at any part of Persia that he pleased, and, + having the prestige of victory and the assistance of the Khazars, was + likely to carry all before him. It is not clear how he employed himself + during the spring and summer of A.D. 627; but in the September of that + year he started from Lazica with a large Roman army and a contingent of + 40,000 Khazar horse, resolved to surprise his adversary by a winter + campaign, and hoping to take him at a disadvantage. Passing rapidly + through Armenia and Azerbijan without meeting an enemy that dared to + dispute his advance, suffering no loss except from the guerilla warfare of + some bold spirits among the mountaineers of those regions, he resolved, + notwithstanding the defection of the Khazars, who declined to accompany + him further south than Azerbijan, that he would cross the Zagros mountains + into Assyria, and make a dash at the royal cities of the Mesopotamian + region, thus retaliating upon Chosroes for the Avar attack upon + Constantinople of the preceding year, undertaken at his instigation. + Chosroes himself had for the last twenty-four years fixed his court at + Dastagherd in the plain country, about seventy miles to the north of + Ctesiphon. It seemed to Heraclius that this position might perhaps be + reached, and an effective blow struck against the Persian power. He + hastened, therefore, to cross the mountains; and the 9th of October saw + him at Chnaethas, in the low country, not far from Arbela, where he + refreshed his army by a week’s rest. He might now easily have advanced + along the great post-road which connected Arbela with Dastagherd and + Ctesiphon; but he had probably by this time received information of the + movements of the Persians, and was aware that by so doing he would place + himself between two fires, and run the chance of being intercepted in his + retreat. For Chosroes, having collected a large force, had sent it, under + Ehazates, a new general, into Azerbijan; and this force, having reached + Canzaca, found itself in the rear of Heraclius, between him and Lazica. + Heraclius appears not to have thought it safe to leave this enemy behind + him, and therefore he idled away above a month in the Zab region, waiting + for Ehazates to make his appearance. That general had strict orders from + the Great King to fight the Romans wherever he found them, whatever might + be the consequence; and he therefore followed, as quickly as he could, + upon Heraclius’s footsteps, and early in December came up with him in the + neighborhood of Nineveh. Both parties were anxious for an immediate + engagement, Rhazates to carry out his master’s orders, Heraclius because + he had heard that his adversary would soon receive a reinforcement. The + battle took place on the 12th of December, in the open plain to the north + of Nineveh. It was contested from early dawn to the eleventh hour of the + day, and was finally decided, more by the accident that Rhazates and the + other Persian commanders were slain, than by any defeat of the soldiers. + Heraclius is said to have distinguished himself personally during the + fight by many valiant exploits; but he does not appear to have exhibited + any remarkable strategy on the occasion. The Persians lost their generals, + their chariots, and as many as twenty-eight standards; but they were not + routed, nor driven from the field. They merely drew off to the distance of + two bowshots, and there stood firm till after nightfall. During the night + they fell back further upon their fortified camp, collected their baggage, + and retired to a strong position at the foot of the mountains. Here they + were joined by the reinforcement which Chosroes had sent to their aid; and + thus strengthened they ventured to approach Heraclius once more, to hang + on his rear, and impede his movements. He, after his victory, had resumed + his march southward, had occupied Nineveh, recrossed the Groat Zab, + advanced rapidly through Adiabene to the Lesser Zab, seized its bridges by + a forced march of forty-eight (Roman) miles, and conveyed his army safely + to its left bank, where he pitched his camp at a place called Yesdem, and + once more allowed his soldiers a brief repose for the purpose of keeping + Christmas. Chosroes had by this time heard of the defeat and death of + Rhazates, and was in a state of extreme alarm. Hastily recalling + Shahr-Barz from Chalcedon, and ordering the troops lately commanded by + Rhazates to outstrip the Romans, if possible, and interpose themselves + between Heraclius and Dastaghord, he took up a strong position near that + place with his own army and a number of elephants, and expressed an + intention of there awaiting his antagonist. A broad and deep river, or + rather canal, known as the Baras-roth or Barazrud, protected his front; + while at some distance further in advance was the Torna, probably another + canal, where he expected that the army of Rhazates would make a stand. But + that force, demoralized by its recent defeat, fell back from the line of + the Torna, without even destroying the bridge over it; and Chosroes, + finding the foe advancing on him, lost heart, and secretly fled from + Dastagherd to Ctesiphon, whence he crossed the Tigris to Guedeseer or + Seleucia, with his treasure and the best-loved of his wives and children. + The army lately under Rhazates rallied upon the line of the Nahr-wan + canal, three miles from Ctesiphon; and here it was largely reinforced, + though with a mere worthless mob of slaves and domestics. It made however + a formidable show, supported by its elephants, which numbered two hundred; + it had a deep and wide cutting in its front; and, this time, it had taken + care to destroy all the bridges by which the cutting might have been + crossed. Heraclius, having plundered the rich palace of Dastagherd, + together with several less splendid royal residences, and having on the + 10th of January encamped within twelve miles of the Nahrwan, and learnt + from the commander of the Armenian contingent, whom he sent forward to + reconnoitre, that the canal was impassable, came to the conclusion that + his expedition had reached its extreme limit, and that prudence required + him to commence his retreat. The season had been, it would seem, + exceptionally mild, and the passes of the mountains were still open; but + it was to be expected that in a few weeks they would be closed by the + snow, which always falls heavily during some portion of the winter. + Heraclius, therefore, like Julian, having come within sight of Ctesiphon, + shrank from the idea of besieging it, and, content with the punishment + that he had inflicted on his enemy by wasting and devastation, desisted + from his expedition, and retraced his steps. In his retreat he was more + fortunate than his great predecessor. The defeat which he had inflicted on + the main army of the Persians paralyzed their energies, and it would seem + that his return march was unmolested. He reached Siazurus (<i>Shehrizur</i>) + early in February, Barzan (<i>Berozeh</i>) probably on the 1st of + March,176 and on the 11th of March Canzaca, where he remained during the + rest of the winter. + </p> + <p> + Chosroes had escaped a great danger, but he had incurred a terrible + disgrace. He had fled before his adversary without venturing to give him + battle. He had seen palace after palace destroyed, and had lost the + magnificent residence where he had held his court for the last + four-and-twenty years. The Romans had recovered 300 standards, trophies + gained in the numerous victories of his early years. They had shown + themselves able to penetrate into the heart of his empire, and to retire + without suffering any loss. Still, had he possessed a moderate amount of + prudence, Chosroes might even now have surmounted the perils of his + position, and have terminated his reign in tranquillity, if not in glory. + Heraclius was anxious for peace, and willing to grant it on reasonable + conditions. He did not aim at conquests, and would have been contented at + any time with the restoration of Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. The + Persians generally were weary of the war, and would have hailed with joy + almost any terms of accommodation. But Chosroes was obstinate; he did not + know how to bear the frowns of fortune; the disasters of the late + campaign, instead of bending his spirit, had simply exasperated him, and + he vented upon his own subjects the ill-humor which the successes of his + enemies had provoked. Lending a too ready ear to a whispered slander, he + ordered the execution of Shahr-Barz, and thus mortally offended that + general, to whom the despatch was communicated by the Romans. He + imprisoned the officers who had been defeated by, or had fled before + Heraclius. Several other tyrannical acts are alleged against him; and it + is said that he was contemplating the setting aside of his legitimate + successor, Siroes, in favor of a younger son, Merdasas, his offspring by + his favorite wife, the Christian Shirin, when a rebellion broke out + against his authority. Gurdanaspa, who was in command of the Persian + troops at Ctesiphon, and twenty-two nobles of importance, including two + sons of Shahr-Barz, embraced the cause of Siroes, and seizing Chosroes, + who meditated flight, committed him to “the House of Darkness,” a strong + place where he kept his money. Here he was confined for four days, his + jailers allowing him daily a morsel of bread and a small quantity of + water; when he complained of hunger, they told him, by his son’s orders, + that he was welcome to satisfy his appetite by feasting upon his + treasures. The officers whom he had confined were allowed free access to + his prison, where they insulted him and spat upon him. Merdasas, the son + whom he preferred, and several of his other children, were brought into + his presence and put to death before his eyes. After suffering in this way + for four days he was at last, on the fifth day from his arrest (February + 28), put to death in some cruel fashion, perhaps, like St. Sebastian, by + being transfixed with arrows. Thus perished miserably the second Chosroes, + after having reigned thirty-seven years (A.D. 591-628), a just but tardy + Nemesis overtaking the parricide. + </p> + <p> + The Oriental writers represent the second Chosroes as a monarch whose + character was originally admirable, but whose good disposition was + gradually corrupted by the possession of sovereign power. “Parviz,” says + Mirkhond, “holds a distinguished rank among the kings of Persia through + the majesty and firmness of his government, the wisdom of his views, and + his intrepidity in carrying them out, the size of his army, the amount of + his treasure, the flourishing condition of the provinces during his reign, + the security of the highways, the prompt and exact obedience which he + enforced, and his unalterable adherence to the plans which he once + formed.” It is impossible that these praises can have been altogether + undeserved; and we are bound to assign to this monarch, on the authority + of the Orientals, a vigor of administration, a strength of will, and a + capacity for governing, not very commonly possessed by princes born in the + purple. To these merits we may add a certain grandeur of soul, and power + of appreciating the beautiful and the magnificent, which, though not + uncommon in the East, did not characterize many of the Sassanian + sovereigns. The architectural remains of Chosroes, which will be noticed + in a future chapter, the descriptions which have come down to us of his + palaces at Dastagherd and Canzaca, the accounts which we have of his + treasures, his court, his seraglio, even his seals, transcend all that is + known of any other monarch of his line. The employment of Byzantine + sculptors and architects, which his works are thought to indicate, implies + an appreciation of artistic excellence very rare among Orientals. But + against these merits must be set a number of most serious moral defects, + which may have been aggravated as time went on, but of which we see + something more than the germ, even while he was still a youth. The murder + of his father was perhaps a state necessity, and he may not have commanded + it, or have been accessory to it before the fact; but his ingratitude + towards his uncles, whom he deliberately put to death, is wholly + unpardonable, and shows him to have been cruel, selfish, and utterly + without natural affection, even in the earlier portion of his reign. In + war he exhibited neither courage nor conduct; all his main military + successes were due to his generals; and in his later years he seems never + voluntarily to have exposed himself to danger. In suspecting his generals, + and ill-using them while living, he only followed the traditions of his + house; but the insults offered to the dead body of Shahen, whose only + fault was that he had suffered a defeat, were unusual and outrageous. The + accounts given of his seraglio imply either gross sensualism or extreme + ostentation; perhaps we may be justified in inclining to the more lenient + view, if we take into consideration the faithful attachment which he + exhibited towards Shirin. The cruelties which disgraced his later years + are wholly without excuse; but in the act which deprived him of his + throne, and brought him to a miserable end—his preference of + Merdasas as his successor—he exhibited no worse fault than an + amiable weakness, a partiality towards the son of a wife who possessed, + and seems to have deserved, his affection. + </p> + <p> + The coins of the second Chosroes are numerous in the extreme, and present + several peculiarities. The ordinary type has, on the obverse, the king’s + head in profile, covered by a tiara, of which the chief ornament is a + crescent and star between two outstretched wings. The head is surrounded + by a double pearl bordering, outside of which, in the margin, are three + crescents and stars. The legend is <i>Khusrui afzud</i>, with a monogram + of doubtful meaning. The reverse shows the usual fire altar and + supporters, in a rude form, enclosed by a triple pearl bordering. In the + margin, outside the bordering, are four crescents and stars. The legend is + merely the regnal year and a mint-mark. Thirty-four mint-marks have been + ascribed to Chosroes II. <a href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE XXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + A rarer and more curious type of coin, belonging to this monarch, presents + on the obverse the front face of the king, surmounted by a mural crown, + having the star and crescent between outstretched wings at top. The legend + is <i>Khusrui mallean malka—afzud</i>. “Chosroes, king of kings—increase + (be his).” The reverse has a head like that of a woman, also fronting the + spectator, and wearing a band enriched with pearls across the forehead, + above which the hair gradually converges to a point. <a + href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE XXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> A head very similar to + this is found on Indo-Sassanian coins. Otherwise we might have supposed + that the uxorious monarch had wished to circulate among his subjects the + portrait of his beloved Shirin. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate024.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxiv. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0012" id="linkB2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Siroe’s, or Kobad II. His Letter to Heraclius. Peace made + with Rome. Terms of the Peace. General Popularity of the new Reign. + Dissatisfaction of Shahr-Barz. Kobad, by the advice of the Persian Lords, + murders his Brothers. His Sisters reproach him with their Death. He falls + into low spirits and dies. Pestilence in his Reign. His coins. Accession + of Artaxerxes III. Revolt of Shahr-Barz. Reign of Shahr-Barz. His Murder. + Reign of Purandocht. Rapid Succession of Pretenders. Accession of Isdigerd + III.</i> + </p> + <p> + “Kobades, regno prefectus, justitiam prae se tulit, et injuriam qua + oppressa fuerat amovit.”—Eutychius, <i>Annales</i>, vol, ii. p. 253. + </p> + <p> + Siroes, or Kobad the Second, as he is more properly termed, was proclaimed + king on the 25th of February, 2 A.D. 628, four days before the murder of + his father. According to the Oriental writers, he was very unwilling to + put his father to death, and only gave a reluctant consent to his + execution on the representations of his nobles that it was a state of + necessity. His first care, after this urgent matter had been settled, was + to make overtures of peace to Heraclius, who, having safely crossed the + Zagros mountains, was wintering at Canzaca. The letter which he addressed + to the Roman Emperor on the occasion is partially extant; but the formal + and official tone which it breathes renders it a somewhat disappointing + document. Kobad begins by addressing Heraclius as his brother, and giving + him the epithet of “most clement,” thus assuming his pacific disposition. + He then declares, that, having been elevated to the throne by the especial + favor of God, he has resolved to do his utmost to benefit and serve the + entire human race. He has therefore commenced his reign by throwing open + the prison doors, and restoring liberty to all who were detained in + custody. With the same object in view, he is desirous of living in peace + and friendship with the Roman emperor and state as well as with all other + neighboring nations and kings. Assuming that his accession will be + pleasing to the emperor, he has sent Phaeak, one of his privy councillors, + to express the love and friendship that he feels towards his brother, and + learn the terms upon which peace will be granted him. The reply of + Heraclius is lost; but we are able to gather from a short summary which + has been preserved, as well as from the subsequent course of events, that + it was complimentary and favorable; that it expressed the willingness of + the emperor to bring the war to a close, and suggested terms of + accommodation that were moderate and equitable. The exact formulation of + the treaty seems to have been left to Eustathius, who, after Heraclius had + entertained Phaeak royally for nearly a week, accompanied the ambassador + on his return to the Persian court. + </p> + <p> + The general principle upon which peace was concluded was evidently the <i>status + quo ante bellum</i>. Persia was to surrender Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Asia + Minor, Western Mesopotamia, and any other conquests that she might have + made from Rome, to recall her troops from them, and to give them back into + the possession of the Romans. She was also to surrender all the captives + whom she had carried off from the conquered countries; and, above all, she + was to give back to the Romans the precious relic which had been taken + from Jerusalem, and which was believed on all hands to be the veritable + cross whereon Jesus Christ suffered death. As Rome had merely made + inroads, but not conquests, she did not possess any territory to + surrender; but she doubtless set her Persian prisoners free, and she made + arrangements for the safe conduct and honorable treatment of the Persians, + who evacuated Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, on their way to the frontier. + The evacuation was at once commenced; and the wood of the cross, which had + been carefully preserved by the Persian queen, Shirin, was restored. In + the next year, Heraclius made a grand pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and + replaced the holy relic in the shrine from which it had been taken. + </p> + <p> + It is said that princes are always popular on their coronation day. Kobad + was certainly no exception to the general rule. His subjects rejoiced at + the termination of a war which had always been a serious drain on the + population, and which latterly had brought ruin and desolation upon the + hearths and homes of thousands. The general emptying of the prisons was an + act that cannot be called statesman-like; but it had a specious appearance + of liberality, and was probably viewed with favor by the mass of the + people. A still more popular measure must have been the complete remission + of taxes with which Kobad inaugurated his reign—a remission which, + according to one authority, was to have continued for three years, had the + generous prince lived so long. In addition to these somewhat questionable + proceedings, Kobad adopted also a more legitimate mode of securing the + regard of his subjects by a careful administration of justice, and a mild + treatment of those who had been the victims of his father’s severities. He + restored to their former rank the persons whom Chosroes had degraded or + imprisoned, and compensated them for their injuries by a liberal donation + of money. + </p> + <p> + Thus far all seemed to promise well for the new reign, which, though it + had commenced under unfavorable auspices, bid fair to be tranquil and + prosperous. In one quarter only was there any indication of coming + troubles. Shahr-Barz, the great general, whose life Chosroes had attempted + shortly before his own death, appears to have been dissatisfied with the + terms on which Kobad had concluded peace with Rome; and there is even + reason to believe that he contrived to impede and delay the full execution + of the treaty. He held under Kobad the government of the western provinces + and was at the head of an army which numbered sixty thousand men. Kobad + treated him with marked favor; but still he occupied a position almost + beyond that of a subject, and one which could not fail to render him an + object of fear and suspicion. For the present, however, though he may have + nurtured ambitious thoughts, he made no movement, but bided his time, + remaining quietly in his province, and cultivating friendly relations with + the Roman emperor. + </p> + <p> + Kobad had not been seated on the throne many months when he consented to a + deed by which his character for justice and clemency was seriously + compromised, if not wholly lost. This was the general massacre of all the + other sons of Chosroes II., his own brothers or half-brothers—a + numerous body, amounting to forty according to the highest estimate, and + to fifteen according to the lowest. We are not told of any circumstances + of peril to justify the deed, or even account for it. There have been + Oriental dynasties, where such a wholesale murder upon the accession of a + sovereign has been a portion of the established system of government, and + others where the milder but little less revolting expedient has obtained + of blinding all the brothers of the reigning prince; but neither practice + was in vogue among the Sassanians; and we look vainly for the reason which + caused an act of the kind to be resorted to at this conjuncture. Mirkhond + says that Piruz, the chief minister of Kobad, advised the deed; but even + he assigns no motive for the massacre, unless a motive is implied in the + statement that the brothers of Kobad were “all of them distinguished by + their talents and their merit.” Politically speaking, the measure might + have been harmless, had Kobad enjoyed a long reign, and left behind him a + number of sons. But as it was, the rash act, by almost extinguishing the + race of Sassan, produced troubles which greatly helped to bring the empire + into a condition of hopeless exhaustion and weakness. + </p> + <p> + While thus destroying all his brothers, Kobad allowed his sisters to live. + Of these there were two, still unmarried, who resided in the palace, and + had free access to the monarch. Their names were Purandocht and + Azermidocht, Purandocht being the elder. Bitterly grieved at the loss of + their kindred, these two princesses rushed into the royal presence, and + reproached the king with words that cut him to the soul. “Thy ambition of + ruling,” they said, “has induced thee to kill thy father and thy brothers. + Thou hast accomplished thy purpose within the space of three or four + months. Thou hast hoped thereby to preserve thy power forever. Even, + however, if thou shouldst live long, thou must die at last. May God + deprive thee of the enjoyment of this royalty!” His sisters’ words sank + deep into the king’s mind. He acknowledged their justice, burst into + tears, and flung his crown on the ground. After this he fell into a + profound melancholy, ceased to care for the exercise of power, and in a + short time died. His death is ascribed by the Orientals to his mental + sufferings; but the statement of a Christian bishop throws some doubt on + this romantic story. Eutychius, Patriarch of Alexandria, tells us that, + before Kobad had reigned many months, the plague broke out in his country. + Vast numbers of his subjects died of it; and among the victims was the + king himself, who perished after a reign which is variously estimated at + six, seven, eight, and eighteen months. + </p> + <p> + There seems to be no doubt that a terrible pestilence did afflict Persia + at this period. The Arabian writers are here in agreement with Eutychius + of Alexandria, and declare that the malady was of the most aggravated + character, carrying off one half, or at any rate one third, of the + inhabitants of the provinces which were affected, and diminishing the + population of Persia by several hundreds of thousands. Scourges of this + kind are of no rare occurrence in the East; and the return of a mixed + multitude to Persia, under circumstances involving privation, from the + cities of Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, was well calculated to + engender such a calamity. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Kobad II. appears from his coins to have lasted above a year. + He ascended the throne in February, A.D. 628; he probably died about July, + A.D. 629. The coins which are attributed to him resemble in their + principal features those of Ohosroes II. and Artaxerxes III., but are + without wings, and have the legend <i>Kavat-Firuz</i>. The bordering of + pearls is single on both obverse and reverse, but the king wears a double + pearl necklace. The eye is large, and the hair more carefully marked than + had been usual since the time of Sapor II. <a href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE + XXIV., Figs. 2 and 3].</a> + </p> + <p> + At the death of Kobad the crown fell to his son, Artaxerxes III., a child + of seven, or (according to others) of one year only. The nobles who + proclaimed him took care to place him under the direction of a governor or + regent, and appointed to the office a certain Mihr-Hasis, who had been the + chief purveyor of Kobad. Mihr-Hasis is said to have ruled with justice and + discretion; but he was not able to prevent the occurrence of those + troubles and disorders which in the East almost invariably accompany the + sovereignty of a minor, and render the task of a regent a hard one. + Shahr-Barz, who had scarcely condescended to comport himself as a subject + under Kobad, saw in the accession of a boy, and in the near extinction of + the race of Sassan, an opportunity of gratifying his ambition, and at the + same time of avenging the wrong which had been done him by Chosroes. + Before committing himself, however, to the perils of rebellion, he + negotiated with Heraclius, and secured his alliance and support by the + promise of certain advantages. The friends met at Heraclea on the + Propontis. Shahr-Barz undertook to complete the evacuation of Egypt, + Syria, and Asia Minor, which he had delayed hitherto, and promised, if he + were successful in his enterprise, to pay Heraclius a large sum of money + as compensation for the injuries inflicted on Rome during the recent war. + Heraclius conferred on Nicetas, the son of Shahr-Barz, the title of + “Patrican,” consented to a marriage between Shahr-Barz’s daughter, Nike, + and his own son, Theodosius, and accepted Gregoria, the daughter of + Nicetas, and grand-daughter of Shahr-Barz, as a wife for Constantine, the + heir to the empire. He also, it is probable, supplied Shahr-Barz with a + body of troops, to assist him in his struggle with Artaxerxes and + Mihr-Hasis. + </p> + <p> + Of the details of Sharhr-Barz’s expedition we know nothing. He is said to + have marched on Ctesiphon with an army of sixty thousand men; to have + taken the city, put to death Artaxerxes, Mihr-Hasis, and a number of the + nobles, and then seized the throne. We are not told what resistance was + made by the monarch in possession, or how it was overcome, or even whether + there was a battle. It would seem certain, however, that the contest was + brief. The young king was of course powerless; Mihr-Hasis, though + well-meaning, must have been weak; Shahr-Barz had all the rude strength of + the animal whose name he bore, and had no scruples about using his + strength to the utmost. The murder of a child of two, or at the most of + eight, who could have done no ill, and was legitimately in possession of + the throne, must be pronounced a brutal act, and one which sadly tarnishes + the fair fame, previously unsullied, of one of Persia’s greatest generals. + </p> + <p> + It was easy to obtain the crown, under the circumstances of the time; but + it was not so easy to keep what had been wrongfully gained. Shahr-Barz + enjoyed the royal authority less than two months. During this period he + completed the evacuation of the Roman provinces occupied by Chosroes II., + restored perhaps some portions of the true cross which had been kept back + by Kobad, and sent an expeditionary force against the Khazars who had + invaded Armenia, which was completely destroyed by the fierce barbarians. + He is said by the Armenians to have married Purandocht, the eldest + daughter of Chosroes, for the purpose of strengthening his hold on the + crown; but this attempt to conciliate his subjects, if it was really made, + proved unsuccessful. Ere he had been king for two months, his troops + mutinied, drew their swords upon him, and killed him in the open court + before the palace. Having so done, they tied a cord to his feet and + dragged his corpse through the streets of Ctesiphon, making proclamation + everywhere as follows: “Whoever, not being of the blood-royal, seats + himself upon the Persian throne, shall share the fate of Shahr-Barz.” They + then elevated to the royal dignity the princess Purandocht, the first + female who had ever sat in the seat of Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + The rule of a woman was ill calculated to restrain the turbulent Persian + nobles. Two instances had now proved that a mere noble might ascend the + throne of the son of Babek; and a fatal fascination was exercised on the + grandees of the kingdom by the examples of Bahram-Chobin and Shahr-Barz. + </p> + <p> + Pretenders sprang up in all quarters, generally asserting some connection, + nearer or more remote, with the royal house, but relying on the arms of + their partisans, and still more on the weakness of the government. It is + uncertain whether Purandocht died a natural death; her sister, + Azermidocht, who reigned soon after her, was certainly murdered. The crown + passed rapidly from one noble to another, and in the course of the four or + five years which immediately succeeded the death of Chosroes II. it was + worn by nine or ten different persons. Of these the greater number reigned + but a few days or a few months; no actions are ascribed to them; and it + seems unnecessary to weary the reader with their obscure names, or with + the still more obscure question concerning the order of their succession. + It may be suspected that, in some cases two or more were contemporary, + exercising royal functions in different portions of the empire at the same + time. Of none does the history or the fate possess any interest; and the + modern historical student may well be content with the general knowledge + that for four years and a half after the death of Chosroes II. the + government was in the highest degree unsettled; anarchy everywhere + prevailed; the distracted kingdom was torn in pieces by the struggles of + pretenders; and “every province, and almost each city of Persia, was the + scene of independence, of discord, and of bloodshed.” + </p> + <p> + At length, in June, A.D. 632, an end was put to the internal commotions by + the election of a young prince, believed to be of the true blood of + Sassan, in whose rule the whole nation acquiesced without much difficulty. + Yezdigerd (or Isdigerd) the Third was the son of Shahriar and the grandson + of Chosroes II. He had been early banished from the Court, and had been + brought up in obscurity, his royal birth being perhaps concealed, since if + known it might have caused his destruction. The place of his residence was + Istakr, the ancient capital of Persia, but at this time a city of no great + importance. Here he had lived unnoticed to the age of fifteen, when his + royal rank having somehow been discovered, and no other scion of the stock + of Chosroes being known to exist, he was drawn forth from his retirement + and invested with the sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + But the appointment of a sovereign in whose rule all could acquiesce came + too late. While Rome and Persia, engaged in deadly struggle, had no + thought for anything but how most to injure each other, a power began to + grow up in an adjacent country, which had for long ages been despised and + thought incapable of doing any harm to its neighbors. Mohammed, half + impostor, half enthusiast, enunciated a doctrine, and by degrees worked + out a religion, which proved capable of uniting in one the scattered + tribes of the Arabian desert, while at the same time it inspired them with + a confidence, a contempt for death, and a fanatic valor, that rendered + them irresistible by the surrounding nations. Mohammed’s career as prophet + began while Heraclius and Chosroes II. were flying at each other’s + throats; by the year of the death of Chosroes (A.D. 628) he had acquired a + strength greater than that of any other Arab chief; two years later he + challenged Rome to the combat by sending a hostile expedition into Syria; + and before his death (A.D. 632) he was able to take the field at the head + of 30,000 men. During the time of internal trouble in Persia he procured + the submission of the Persian governor of the Yemen; as well as that of Al + Mondar, or Alamundarus, King of Bahrein, on the west coast of the Persian + Gulf. Isdigerd, upon his accession, found himself menaced by a power which + had already stretched out one arm towards the lower Euphrates, while with + the other it was seeking to grasp Syria and Palestine. The danger was + imminent; the means of meeting it insufficient, for Persia was exhausted + by foreign war and internal contention; the monarch himself was but ill + able to cope with the Arab chiefs, being youthful and inexperienced; we + shall find, however, that he made a strenuous resistance. Though + continually defeated, he prolonged the fight for nearly a score of years, + and only succumbed finally when, to the hostility of open foes, was added + the treachery of pretended friends and allies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0013" id="linkB2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Death of Mohammed and Collapse of Mohammedanism. Recovery under + Abu-bekr. Conquest of the Kingdom of Hira. Conquest of Obolla. Invasion of + Mesopotamia. Battle of the Bridge—the Arabs suffer a Reverse. Battle + of El Bow-eib—Mihran defeated by El Mothanna. Fresh Effort made by + Persia—Battle of Cadesia—Defeat of the Persians. Pause in the + War. March of Sa’ad on Ctesiphon. Flight of Isdigerd. Capture of + Ctesiphon. Battle of Jalula. Conquest of Susiana and invasion of Persia + Proper. Recall of Sa’ad. Isdigerd assembles an Army at Nehawend. Battle of + Nehawend. Flight of Isdigerd. Conquest of the various Persian Provinces. + Isdigerd murdered. Character of Isdigerd. Coins of Isdigerd.</i> + </p> + <p> + “Yazdejird, Persarum rex.... Rostamum misit oppugnatum Saadum... neque + unquam belloram et dissentionum expers fuit, donee oecideretur. Regnavit + autem annos viginti.”—Eutychius, <i>Annales</i>, vol. ii. pp. 295-6. + </p> + <p> + The power which Mohammed had so rapidly built up fell to pieces at his + decease. Isdigerd can scarcely have been well settled upon this throne + when the welcome tidings must have reached him that the Prophet was dead, + that the Arabs generally were in revolt, that Al Mondar had renounced + Islamism and resumed a position of independence. For the time + Mohammedanism was struck down. It remained to be seen whether the movement + had derived its strength solely from the genius of the Prophet, or whether + minds of inferior calibre would suffice to renew and sustain the impulse + which had proceeded from him, and which under him had proved of such + wonderful force and efficacy. + </p> + <p> + The companions of Mohammed lost no time in appointing his successor. Their + choice fell upon Abu-bekr, his friend and father-in-law, who was a person + of an energetic character, brave, chaste, and temperate. Abu-bekr proved + himself quite equal to the difficulties of the situation. Being unfit for + war himself, as he was above sixty years of age, he employed able + generals, and within a few months of his accession struck such a series of + blows that rebellion collapsed everywhere, and in a short time the whole + Arab nation, except the tribe of Gassan, acknowledged themselves his + subjects. Among the rivals against whom he measured himself, the most + important was Moseilama. Moseilama, who affected the prophetic character, + had a numerous following, and was able to fight a pitched battle with the + forces of Abu-bekr, which numbered 40,000 men. At the first encounter he + even succeeded in repulsing this considerable army, which lost 1200 + warriors; but in a second engagement the Mohammedans were victorious—Moseilama + was slain—and Kaled, “the Sword of God,” carried back to Medina the + news of his own triumph, and the spoils of the defeated enemy. Soon after + the fall of Moseilama, the tribes still in rebellion submitted themselves, + and the first of the Caliphs found himself at liberty to enter upon + schemes of foreign conquest. + </p> + <p> + Distracted between the temptations offered to his arms by the East and by + the West, Abu-bekr in his first year (A.D. 633) sent expeditions in both + directions, against Syria, and against Hira, where Iyas, the Persian + feudatory, who had succeeded Noman, son of Al Mondar, held his court, on + the western branch of the Euphrates. For this latter expedition the + commander selected was the irresistible Kaled, who marched a body of 2000 + men across the desert to the branch stream,s which he reached in about + latitude 30°. Assisted by Al Mothanna, chief of the Beni Sheiban, who had + been a subject of Iyas, but had revolted and placed himself under the + protection of Abu-bekr, Kaled rapidly reduced the kingdom of Hira, took + successively Banikiya, Barasuilia, and El Lis, descended the river to the + capital, and there fought an important battle with the combined Persian + and Arab forces, the first trial of arms between the followers of Mohammed + and those of Zoroaster. The Persian force consisted entirely of horse, and + was commanded by a general whom the Arab writers call Asadsubeh. Their + number is not mentioned, but was probably small. Charged furiously by Al + Mothanna, they immediately broke and fled; Hira was left with no other + protection than its walls; and Iyas, yielding to necessity, made his + submission to the conqueror, and consented to pay a tribute of 290,000 + dirhems. + </p> + <p> + The splendid success of his pioneer induced Abu-bekr to support the war in + this quarter with vigor. Reinforcements joined Kaled from every side, and + in a short time he found himself at the head of an army of 18,000 men. + With this force he proceeded southwards bent on reducing the entire tract + between the desert and the Eastern or real Euphrates. The most important + city of the southern region was at the time Obolla which was situated on a + canal or backwater derived from the Euphrates, not far from the modern + Busrah. It was the great emporium for the Indian trade, and was known as + the <i>limes Indorum</i> or “frontier city towards India.” The Persian + governor was a certain Hormuz or Hormisdas who held the post with 20,000 + men. Kaled fought his second great battle with this antagonist, and was + once more completely victorious, killing Hormuz, according to the Arabian + accounts, with his own hands. Obolla surrendered; a vast booty was taken; + and, after liberally rewarding his soldiers Kaled sent the fifth part of + the spoils, together with a captured elephant, to Abu-bekr at Medina. The + strange animal astonished the simple natives, who asked one another + wonderingly “Is this indeed one of God’s works, or did human art make it.” + </p> + <p> + The victories of Kaled Over Asadsubeh and Hormuz were followed by a number + of other successes, the entire result being that the whole of the fertile + region on the right bank of the Euphrates from Hit to the Persian Gulf, + was for the time reduced, made a portion of Ahu-bekr’s dominions, and + parcelled out among Mohammedan governors. Persia was deprived of the + protection which a dependent Arab kingdom to the west of the river had + hitherto afforded her, and was brought into direct contact with the great + Mohammedan monarchy along almost the whole of her western frontier. + Henceforth she was open to attack on this side for a distance of above + four hundred miles, with no better barrier than a couple of rivers + interposed between her enemy and her capital. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his conquest of the kingdom of Hira, Kaled was recalled from + the Euphrates to the Syrian war, and was employed in the siege of + Damascus, while Persia enjoyed a breathing-space. Advantage was taken of + this interval to stir up disaffection in the newly-conquered province. + Rustam appointed to the command against the Arabs by Isdigerd sent + emissaries to the various towns of the Sawad, urging them to rise in + revolt and promising to support such a movement with a Persian army. The + situation was critical; and if the Mohammedans had been less tenacious, or + the Persians more skilfully handled, the whole of the Sawad might have + been recovered. But Rustam allowed his troops to be defeated in detail. Al + Mothanna and Abu Obediah, in three separate engagements, at Namarik, + Sakatiya, and Barusma, overcame the Persian leaders, Jaban, Narses, and + Jalenus, and drove their shattered armies back on the Tigris. The + Mohammedan authority was completely re-established in the tract between + the desert and the Euphrates; it was even extended across the Euphrates + into the tract watered by the Shat-el-Hie; and it soon became a question + whether Persia would be able to hold the Mesopotamian region, or whether + the irrepressible Arabs would not very shortly wrest it from her grasp. + But at this point in the history the Arabs experienced a severe reverse. + On learning the defeat of his lieutenants, Rustam sent an army to watch + the enemy, under the command of Bahman-Dsul-hadjib, or “Bahman the + beetle-browed,” which encamped upon the Western Euphrates at Kossen-natek, + not far from the site of Kufa. At the same time, to raise the courage of + the soldiers, he entrusted to this leader the sacred standard of Persia, + the famous <i>durufsh-kawani</i>, or leathern apron of the blacksmith + Kawah, which was richly adorned with silk and gems, and is said to have + measured, eighteen feet long by twelve feet broad. Bahman had with him, + according to the Persian tradition, 30,000 men and thirty elephants; the + Arabs under Abu Obediah numbered no more than 9000, or at the most 10,000. + Bahman is reported to have given his adversary the alternative of passing + the Euphrates or allowing the Persians to cross it. Abu Obediah preferred + the bolder course, and, in spite of the dissuasions of his chief officers, + threw a bridge of boats across the stream, and so conveyed his troops to + the left bank. Here he found the Persian horse-archers covered with their + scale armor, and drawn up in a solid line behind their elephants. Galled + severely by the successive flights of arrows, the Arab cavalry sought to + come to close quarters; but their horses, terrified by the unwonted sight + of the huge animals, and further alarmed by the tinkling of the bells hung + round their necks, refused to advance. It was found necessary to dismount, + and assail the Persian line on foot. A considerable impression had been + made, and it was thought that the Persians would take to flight, when Abu + Obediah, in attacking the most conspicuous of the elephants, was seized by + the infuriated animal and trampled under his feet. Inspirited by this + success, the Persians rushed upon their enemies, who, disheartened by the + loss of their commander, began a retrograde movement, falling back upon + their newly-made bridge. This, however, was found to have been broken, + either by the enemy, or by a rash Arab who thought, by making retreat + impossible, to give his own side the courage of despair. Before the damage + done could be repaired, the retreating host suffered severely. The + Persians pressed closely upon them, slew many, and drove others into the + stream, where they were drowned. Out of the 9000 or 10,000 who originally + passed the river, only 5000 returned, and of these 2000 at once dispersed + to their homes. Besides Abu Obediah, the veteran Salit was slain; and Al + Mothanna, who succeeded to the command on Abu Obediah’s death, was + severely wounded. The last remnant of the defeated army might easily have + been destroyed, had not a dissension arisen among the Persians, which + induced Bahman to return to Otesiphon. + </p> + <p> + The Arabs, upon this repulse, retired to El Lis; and Al Mothanna sent to + Omar for reinforcements, which speedily arrived under the command of + Jarir, son of Abdallah. Al Mothanna was preparing to resume the offensive + when the Persians anticipated him. A body of picked troops, led by Mihran + a general of reputation, crossed the Euphrates, and made a dash at Hira. + Hastily collecting his men, who were widely dispersed, Al Mothanna gave + the assailants battle on the canal El Boweib, in the near vicinity of the + threatened town, and though the Persians fought with desperation from noon + to sunset, succeeded in defeating them and in killing their commander. The + beaten army recrossed the Euphrates, and returned to Otesiphon without + suffering further losses, since the Arabs were content to have baffled + their attack, and did not pursue them many miles from the field of battle. + All Mesopotamia, however, was by this defeat laid open to the invaders, + whose ravages soon extended to the Tigris and the near vicinity of the + capital. + </p> + <p> + The year A.D. 636 now arrived, and the Persians resolved upon an + extraordinary effort. An army of 120,000 men was enrolled, and Rustam, + reckoned the best general of the day, was placed at its head. The + Euphrates was once more crossed, the Sawad entered, its inhabitants + invited to revolt, and the Arab force, which had been concentrated at + Cadesia (Kadisiyeh), where it rested upon a fortified town, was sought out + and challenged to the combat. The Caliph Omar had by great efforts + contrived to raise his troops in the Sawad to the number of 30,000, and + had entrusted the command of them to Sa’ad, the son of Wakas, since Al + Mothanna had died of his wound. Sa’ad stood wholly on the defensive. His + camp was pitched outside the walls of Cadesia, in a position protected on + either side by a canal, or branch stream, derived from the Euphrates, and + flowing to the south-east out of the Sea of Nedjef. He himself, prevented + by boils from sitting on his horse, looked down on his troops, and sent + them directions from the Oadesian citadel. Rustam, in order to come to + blows, was obliged to fill up the more eastern of the branch streams (El + Atik), with reeds and earth, and in this way to cross the channel. The + Arabs made no attempt to hinder the operation; and the Persian general, + having brought his vast army directly opposite to the enemy, proceeded to + array his troops as he thought most expedient. Dividing his army into a + centre and two wings, he took himself the position of honor in, the + mid-line with nineteen elephants and three fifths of his forces, while he + gave the command of the right wing to Jalenus, and of the left to + Bendsuwan; each of whom we may suppose to have had 24,000 troops and seven + elephants. The Arabs, on their side, made no such division. Kaled, son of + Orfuta, was the sole leader in the fight, though Sa’ad from his + watch-tower observed the battle and gave his orders. The engagement began + at mid-day and continued till sunset. At the signal of <i>Allah akbar</i>, + “God is great,” shouted by Sa’ad from his tower, the Arabs rushed to the + attack. Their cavalry charged; but the Persians advanced against them + their line of elephants, repeating with excellent effect the tactics of + the famous “Battle of the Bridge.” The Arab horse fled; the foot alone + remained firm; victory seemed inclining to the Persians, who were + especially successful on either wing; Toleicha, with his “lions” failed to + re-establish the balance; and all would have been lost, had not Assem, at + the command of Sa’ad, sent a body of archers and other footmen to close + with the elephants, gall them with missiles, cut their girths, and so + precipitate their riders to the ground. Relieved from this danger, the + Arab horse succeeded in repulsing the Persians, who as evening approached + retired in good order to their camp. The chief loss on this, the “day of + concussion,” was suffered by the Arabs, who admit that they had 500 + killed, and must have had a proportional number of wounded. + </p> + <p> + On the morning of the second day the site of the battle was somewhat + changed, the Persians having retired a little during the night. + Reinforcements from Syria kept reaching the Arab camp through most of the + day; and hence it is known to the Arab writers as the “day of succors.” + The engagement seems for some time not to have been general, the Arabs + waiting for more troops to reach them, while the Persians abstained + because they had not yet repaired the furniture of their elephants. Thus + the morning passed in light skirmishes and single combats between the + champions of either host, who went out singly before the lines and + challenged each other to the encounter. The result of the duels was + adverse to the Persians, who lost in the course of them two of their best + generals, Bendsuwan and Bahman-Dsulhadjib. After a time the Arabs, + regarding themselves as sufficiently reinforced, attacked the Persians + along their whole line, partly with horse, and partly with camels, dressed + up to resemble elephants. The effect on the Persian cavalry was the same + as had on the preceding day been produced by the real elephants on the + horse of the Arabs; it was driven off the field and dispersed, suffering + considerable losses. But the infantry stood firm, and after a while the + cavalry rallied; Rustam, who had been in danger of suffering capture, was + saved; and night closing in, defeat was avoided, though the advantage of + the day rested clearly with the Arabs. The Persians had lost 10,000 in + killed and wounded, the Arabs no more than 2000. + </p> + <p> + In the night which followed “the day of succors” great efforts were made + by the Persians to re-equip their elephants, and when morning dawned they + were enabled once more to bring the unwieldy beasts into line. But the + Arabs and their horses had now grown more familiar with the strange + animals; they no longer shrank from meeting them; and some Persian + deserters gave the useful information that, in order to disable the brutes + it was only necessary to wound them on the proboscis or in the eye. Thus + instructed, the Arabs made the elephants the main object of their attack, + and, having wounded the two which were accustomed to lead the rest, caused + the whole body on a sudden to take to flight, cross the canal El Atik, and + proceed at full speed to Ctesiphon. The armies then came to close + quarters; and the foot and horse contended through the day with swords and + spears, neither side being able to make any serious impression upon the + other. As night closed in, however, the Persians once more fell back, + crossing the canal El Atik, and so placing that barrier between themselves + and their adversaries. + </p> + <p> + Their object in this manoeuvre was probably to obtain the rest which they + must have greatly needed. The Persians were altogether of a frame less + robust, and of a constitution less hardy, than the Arabs. Their army at + Kadisiyeh was, moreover, composed to a large extent of raw recruits; and + three consecutive days of severe fighting must have sorely tried its + endurance. The Persian generals hoped, it would seem, by crossing the Atik + to refresh their troops with a quiet night before renewing the combat on + the morrow. But the indefatigable Arabs, perhaps guessing their intention, + determined to frustrate it, and prevented the tired host from enjoying a + moment’s respite. The “day of embittered war,” as it was called, was + followed by the “night of snarling”—a time of horrid noise and + tumult, during which the discordant cries of the troops on either side + were thought to resemble the yells and barks of dogs and jackals. Two of + the bravest of the Arabs, Toleicha and Amr, crossed the Atik with small + bodies of troops, and under cover of the darkness entered the Persian + camp, slew numbers, and caused the greatest confusion. By degrees a + general engagement was brought on, which continued into the succeeding + day, so that the “night of snarling” can scarcely be separated from the + “day of cormorants”—the last of the four days’ Kadisiyeh fight. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that the Persians must on the fourth day have had for a time + the advantage, since we find them once more fighting upon the old ground, + in the tract between the two canals, with the Atik in their rear. About + noon, however, a wind arose from the west, bringing with it clouds of + sand, which were blown into the faces and eyes of the Persians, while the + Arabs, having their backs to the storm, suffered but little from its fury. + Under these circumstances the Moslems made fresh efforts, and after a + while a part of the Persian army was forced to give ground. Hormuzan, + satrap of Susiana, and Firuzan, the general who afterwards commanded at + Nehavend, fell back. The line of battle was dislocated; the person of the + commander became exposed to danger; and about the same time a sudden + violent gust tore away the awning that shaded his seat, and blew it into + the Atik, which was not far off. Rustam sought a refuge from the violence + of the storm among his baggage mules, and was probably meditating flight, + when the Arabs were upon him. Hillal, son of Alkama, intent upon plunder, + began to cut the cords of the baggage and strew it upon the ground. A bag + falling severely injured Rustam, who threw himself into the Atik and + attempted to swim across. Hillal, however, rushed after him, drew him to + shore, and slew him; after which he mounted the vacant throne, and shouted + as loudly as he could, “By the lord of the Kaaba, I have killed Rustam.” + The words created a general panic. Everywhere the Persian courage fell; + the most part despaired wholly, and at once took to flight; a few cohorts + alone stood firm and were cut to pieces; the greater number of the men + rushed hastily to the Atik; some swam the stream others crossed where it + had been filled up; but as many as 30,000 perished in the waves. Ten + thousand had fallen on the field of battle in the course of the preceding + night and day, while of the Mohammedans as many as 6000 had been slain. + Thus the last day of the Kadisiyeh fight was stoutly contested; and the + Persian defeat was occasioned by no deficiency of courage, but by the + occurrence of a sand-storm and by the almost accidental death of the + commander. Among the Persian losses in the battle that of the national + standard, the <i>durufsh-kawani</i> was reckoned the most serious. + </p> + <p> + The retreat of the defeated army was conducted by Jalenus. Sa’ad, anxious + to complete his victory, sent three bodies of troops across the Atik, to + press upon the flying foe. One of these, commanded by Sohra, came up with + the Persian rear-guard under Jalenus at Harrar, and slaughtered it, + together with its leader. The other two seem to have returned without + effecting much. The bulk of the fugitives traversed Mesopotamia in safety, + and found a shelter behind the walls of Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + By the defeat of Kadisiyeh all hope of recovering the territory on the + right bank of the Euphrates was lost; but Persia did not as yet despair of + maintaining her independence. It was evident, indeed, that the permanent + maintenance of the capital was henceforth precarious; and a wise + forethought would have suggested the removal of the Court from so exposed + a situation and its transference to some other position, either to Istakr, + the ancient metropolis of Persia Proper, or to Hamadan, the capital city + of Media. But probably it was considered that to retire voluntarily from + the Tigris would be a confession of weakness, as fatal to the stability of + the empire as to be driven back by the Arabs; and perhaps it may have been + hoped that the restless nomads would be content with their existing + conquests, or that they might receive a check at the hands of Rome which + would put a stop to their aggressions elsewhere. It is remarkable that, + during the pause of a year and a half which intervened between the battle + of Kadisiyeh and the resumption of hostilities by the Arabs, nothing seems + to have been done by Persia in the way of preparation against her terrible + assailants. + </p> + <p> + In the year A.D. 637 the Arabs again took the offensive. They had employed + the intervening year and a half in the foundation of Busrah and Kufam and + in the general consolidation of their sway on the right bank of the + Euphrates. They were now prepared for a further movement. The conduct of + the war was once more entrusted to Sa’ad. Having collected an army of + 20,000 men, this general proceeded from Kufa to Anbar (or Perisabor), + where he crossed the Euphrates, and entered on the Mesopotamian region. + Isdigerd. learning that he had put his forces in motion, and was bent upon + attacking Ctesiphon, called a council of war, and asked its advice as to + the best course to be pursued under the circumstances. It was generally + agreed that the capital must be evacuated, and a stronger situation in the + more mountainous part of the country occupied; but Isdigerd was so + unwilling to remove that he waited till the Arabian general, with a force + now raised to 60,000, had reached Sabat, which was only a day’s march from + the capital, before he could be induced to commence his retreat. He then + abandoned the town hastily, without carrying off more than a small portion + of the treasures which his ancestors had during four centuries accumulated + at the main seat of their power, and retired to Holwan, a strong place in + the Zagros mountain-range. Sa’ad, on learning his movement, sent a body of + troops in pursuit, which came up with the rear-guard of the Persians, and + cut it in pieces, but effected nothing really important. Isdigerd made + good his retreat, and in a short time concentrated at Holwan an army of + above 100,000 men. Sa’ad, instead of pushing forward and engaging this + force, was irresistibly attracted by the reputed wealth of the Great + Ctesiphon, and, marching thither, entered the unresisting city, with his + troops, in the sixteenth year of the Hegira, the four hundred and eleventh + from the foundation of the Sassanian kingdom by Artaxerxes, son of Babek. + </p> + <p> + Ctesiphon was, undoubtedly, a rich prize. Its palaces and its gardens, its + opulent houses and its pleasant fields, its fountains and its flowers, are + celebrated by the Arabian writers, who are never weary of rehearsing the + beauty of its site, the elegance of the buildings, the magnificence and + luxury of their furniture, or the amount of the treasures which were + contained in them. The royal palace, now known as the Takht-i-Khosru, + especially provoked their admiration. It was built of polished stone, and + had in front of it a portico of twelve marble pillars, each 150 feet high. + The length of the edifice was 450 feet, its breadth 180, its height 150. + In the centre was the hall of audience, a noble apartment, 115 feet long + and 85 high, with a magnificent vaulted roof, bedecked with golden stars, + so arranged as to represent the motions of the planets among the twelve + signs of the Zodiac, where the monarch was accustomed to sit on a golden + throne, hearing causes and dispensing justice to his subjects. The + treasury and the various apartments were full of gold and silver, of + costly robes and precious stones, of jewelled arms and dainty carpets. The + glass vases of the spice magazine contained an abundance of musk, camphor, + amber, gums, drugs, and delicious perfumes. In one apartment was found a + carpet of white brocade, 450 feet long and 90 broad, with a border worked + in precious stones of various hues, to represent a garden of all kinds of + beautiful flowers. The leaves were formed of emeralds, the blossoms and + buds of pearls, rubies, sapphires, and other gems of immense value. Among + the objects found in the treasury were a horse made entirely of gold, + bearing a silver saddle set with a countless multitude of jewels, and a + camel made of silver, accompanied by a foal of which the material was + gold. A coffer belonging to Isdigerd was captured at the bridge over the + Nahrwan canal as its guardians were endeavoring to carry it off. Among its + contents were a robe of state embroidered with rubies and pearls, several + garments made of tissue of gold, the crown and seal of Chosroes + (Anushirwan?), and ten pieces of silk brocade. The armory of Chosroes also + fell into the conqueror’s hands. It contained his helmet, breastplate, + greaves, and arm-pieces, all of solid gold adorned with pearls, six + “cuirasses of Solomon,” and ten costly scimitars. The works of art, and a + fifth part of the entire booty, were set apart for the Caliph Omar, and + sent by trusty messengers to Medina; the value of the remainder was so + enormous that when Sa’ad divided it among his 60,000 soldiers the share of + each amounted to 12,000 dirhems (L312.). + </p> + <p> + It is said that Sa’ad, after capturing Ctesiphon, was anxious to set out + in pursuit of Isdigerd, but was restrained by dispatches received from + Omar, which commanded him to remain at the Persian capital, and to employ + his brother Hashem, and the experienced general, El Kakaa, in the further + prosecution of the war. Hashem was, therefore, sent with 12,000 men, + against the fugitive monarch, whose forces, said to have exceeded 100,000 + men, and commanded by a Mihran, were drawn up at Jalula, not far from + Holwan. The disparity of numbers forced Hashem to condescend to + maneuvering; and it was six months before he ventured on a general + engagement with his antagonist. Again the Mohammedans proved victorious; + and this time the carnage was excessive; 100,000 Persians are said to have + lain dead on the battle-field; the commander was himself among the slain. + Jalula at once surrendered; and fresh treasures were obtained. Among other + precious articles, a figure of a camel, with its rider, in solid gold, was + found in one of the tents. Altogether the booty is reckoned at about four + millions of our money—the share of each soldier engaged being 10,000 + dirhems, or about L260. sterling. + </p> + <p> + Isdigerd, on learning the result of the battle of Jalula, quitted Holwan, + and retired to Rei, a large town near the Caspian sea, at a short distance + from the modern Teheran, thus placing the entire Zagros range between + himself and his irresistible foes. A general named Khosru-sum was left + behind with a large body of troops, and was bidden to defend Holwan to the + last extremity. Instead of remaining, however, within the walls of the + stronghold, Khosru-sum rashly led his force to meet that of El Kakaa, who + defeated him at Kasr-i-Shirin and entirely dispersed his army. Holwan, + being left without protection, surrendered; the conquest of Shirwan, + Mahsabadan, and Tekrit followed; and by the close of the year A.D. 637 the + banner of the Prophet waved over the whole tract west of Zagros, from + Nineveh almost to Susa, or from the Kurnib to the Kuran river. + </p> + <p> + Another short pause in the Arabian aggressions upon Persia now occurred; + but in the year A.D. 639 their attacks were resumed, and the Persians had + to submit to further losses. Otba, governor of Busrah, sent an expedition + across the Shat-el-Arab into. Susiana, and, supported by the Arab + population of the province, which deserted the Persian side, engaged + Horrmuzan, the satrap, in two battles, defeated him, and forced him to + cede a portion of his territory, including the important city of Ahwaz. + Soon afterwards, Ala, governor of Bahrein, conducted in person an + expedition into Persia Proper, crossing the Gulf in the rude vessels of + the time, and attacking Shehrek, the Persian satrap, who acknowledged the + authority of Isdigerd. Here, the Arabs were for once unsuccessful. Shehrek + collected a force which Ala was afraid to encounter; the Arab chief + retreated to the coast, but found his fleet engulfed by the waves; and it + was only with great difficulty that he made his escape by land from the + country which he had ventured to invade. He owed his escape to Otba, who + sent troops from Busrah to his aid, defeated Shehrek, and rescued his + fellow governor from the peril which threatened, him. + </p> + <p> + In the next year (A.D. 640) Hormuzan, incited by Isdigerd, made a + desperate attempt to recover the territory which he had been compelled to + cede. Assisted by Shehrek, governor of Persia Proper, he attacked the + Arabs unawares, but was speedily met, driven from Ram-Hormuz to Shuster, + and there besieged for the space of six months. As many as eighty + engagements are said to have taken place before the walls, with no decided + advantage to either side. At length Al-Bera, son of Malik, one of the + companions of the Prophet, and believed by many to possess the prophetic + spirit, announced that victory was about to incline to the Moslems, but + that he himself would be slain. A chance arrow having fulfilled one-half + of the prediction, the Arabs felt an assurance that the other half would + follow, and fought with such fanatic ardor that their expectations were + soon fulfilled. The town was won; but Hormuzan retired into the citadel, + and there successfully maintained himself, till Abu-Sabra, the Mohammedan + general, consented to spare his life, and send him to Medina, where his + fate should be determined by the Caliph. Hormuzan, on obtaining an + audience, pretended thirst and asked for a cup of water, which was given + him: he then looked suspiciously around, as if he expected to be stabbed + while drinking. “Fear nothing,” said Omar; “your life is safe till you + have drunk the water.” The crafty Persian flung the cup to the ground, and + Omar felt that he had been outwitted, but that he must keep his word. + Hormuzan became an Arab pensionary, and shortly afterwards embraced + Islamism. His territories were occupied by the Moslems, whose dominions + were thereby extended from the Kuran to the Tab river. + </p> + <p> + The Arab conquests on the side of Persia had hitherto been effected and + maintained by the presiding genius of one of the ablest of the Mohammedan + commanders, the victor of Kadi-siyeh, Sa’ad Ibn Abi Wakas. From Kufa, + where he built himself a magnificent palace, which Omar however caused to + be destroyed, this great general and skilful administrator directed the + movements of armies, arranged the divisions of provinces, apportioned the + sums to be paid to the revenue, dealt out justice, and generally + superintended affairs throughout the entire region conquered by the Arabs + to the east of the desert. A man in such a position necessarily made + himself enemies; and complaints were frequently carried to Omar of his + lieutenant’s pride, luxury, and injustice. What foundation there may have + been for these charges is uncertain; but it seems that Omar was persuaded, + towards the close of A.D. 640, or very early in A.D. 641, that they were + of sufficient weight to make it necessary that they should be + investigated. He accordingly recalled Sa’ad from his government to Medina, + and replaced him at Kufa by Ammar Ibn Yaser. + </p> + <p> + The news of this change was carried to Isdigerd at Rei, and caused him to + conceive hopes of recovering his lost territory. The event shows that he + attributed too much to the personal ability of his great antagonist; but + the mistake was not unnatural; and it was a noble impulse which led him to + seize the first promising occasion, in order to renew the struggle and + make a last desperate effort to save his empire and repulse the barbarous + nomads. The facts are not as the Arabian historians represent them. There + was no intention on the part of the Mohammedans to be content with the + conquests which they made, or to remain within the boundary line of the + mountains that separate the Mesopotaraian region from the high plateau of + Iran. Mohammedanism had an insatiable ambition, and was certain to spread + itself in all directions until its forces were expended, or a bound was + set to it by resistance which it could not overcome. Isdigerd, by + remaining quiet, might perhaps have prolonged the precarious existence of + Persia for half a dozen years, though even this is uncertain, and it is + perhaps as probable that the tide of conquest would have flowed eastward + in A.D. 641 or 642, even had he attempted nothing. What alone we can be + sure of his, that no acquiescence on his part, no abstention from warlike + enterprise, no submission short of the acceptance of Islamism, would have + availed to save his country for more than a very brief space from the + tramp of the hordes that were bent on enriching themselves with the + plunder of the whole civilized world, and imposing on all the nations of + the earth their dominion and their religion. + </p> + <p> + From the citadel of Rei, Isdigerd, in A.D. 641, sounded the call to battle + with no uncertain note. His envoys spread themselves through Media, + Azerbijan, Khorassan, Gurgan, Tabaristan, Merv, Bactria, Seistan, Kerman, + and Farsistan (or Persia Proper), demanding contingents of troops, and + appointing, as the place of rendezvous, the small town of Nehavend, which + is in the mountain region, about fifty miles south of Hamadan. The call + was responded to with zeal; and in a short time there was gathered + together at the place named an army of 150,000 men. Firuzan, one of the + nobles who had commanded at Kadisiyeh, was made general-in-chief. The + design was entertained of descending on Holwan, and thence upon the + lowland region, of re-taking Ctesiphon, crossing the great rivers, and + destroying the rising cities of Kufa and Busrah. But the Arabs were upon + the alert, and anticipated the intended invasion. Noman, son of Mokarrin, + who commanded at Ahwaz, was hastily commissioned by Omar to collect the + Arab troops stationed in Irak, Khuzistan, and the Sawad, to put himself at + their head, and to prevent the outbreak by marching at once on Nehavend. + He succeeded in uniting under his standard about 30,000 soldiers, and with + this moderate force entered the mountain tract, passed Holwan and Merj, + and encamped at Tur, where he expected the attack of the enemy. But + Firuzan had now resolved to maintain the defensive. He had entrenched + himself strongly in front of Nehavend and was bent on wearing out the + patience of the Arabs by a prolonged resistance. Noman, finding himself + unmolested, advanced from Tur to the immediate neighborhood of Nehavend, + and endeavored to provoke his adversary to give battle, but without + effect. For two months the two hosts faced each other without fighting. At + last, the stores of the Arabs, as well as their patience, began to fail; + and it was necessary to employ some device, or to give up the war + altogether. Hereupon, Noman, by the advice of two of his captains, had + recourse to a stratagem. He spread a report that Omar was dead, and + breaking up from from his camp began a hasty retreat. The plan succeeded. + Firuzan quitted his entrenchments, and led his army on the traces of the + flying foe. It was two days before he reached them, and on the third day + the battle began. Noman, having addressed his soldiers and made + arrangements concerning the command in case of his own death, mounted a + milk-white steed, and gave the signal for the fight by thrice shouting the + famous tehbir, or battle-cry, “<i>Allah akbar</i>.” The Arabs charged with + fury, and for a while, amid the clouds of dust which rose beneath their + feet, nothing was heard but the clash of steel. At length the Persians + gave way; but, as Noman advanced his standard and led the pursuit, a + volley of arrows from the flying foe checked his movement, and at the same + time terminated his career. A shaft had struck him in a vital part, and he + fell at the moment of victory. For his men, maddened by the loss of their + commander, pressed on more furiously than before; the Persians were unable + to rally; and a promiscuous flight began. Then followed a dreadful + slaughter. The numbers of the Persians must have impeded their retreat; + and in the defiles of the mountains a rapid flight was impossible. Firuzan + himself, who, instead of falling back on Nehavend, took the road leading + north to Hamadan, was overtaken by El Kakaa in a narrow pass, and put to + the sword. More than 100,000 Persians are said to have perished.128 The + victors, pressing onwards, easily took Nehavend. Hamadan surrendered to + them shortly afterwards.120 + </p> + <p> + The defeat of Nehavend terminated the Sassanian power. Isdigerd indeed, + escaping from Rei, and flying continually from place to place, prolonged + an inglorious existence for the space of ten more years—from A.D. + 641 to A.D. 651; but he had no longer a kingdom. Persia fell to pieces on + the occasion of “the victory of victories,” and made no other united + effort against the Arabs. Province after province was occupied by the + fierce invaders; and, at length, in A.D. 651, their arms penetrated to + Merv, where the last scion of the house of Babek had for some years found + a refuge. It is said that during this interval he had made efforts to + engage the Khan of the Turks and the Emperor of the Chinese to embrace his + cause; but, if this were so, it was without success. Though they may have + lent him some encouragement, no real effort was made by either potentate + on his behalf. Isdigerd, at Merv, during his later years, experienced the + usual fate of sovereigns who have lost their kingdoms. He was alternately + flattered and coerced by pretended friends among his own people—induced + to cherish vain hopes, and driven to despair, by the fluctuating counsels + of the monarchs of neighboring nations. At last he was murdered by a + subject for the sake of his clothes, when he was flying from a combined + attack of treacherous subjects and offended foreigners. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to form a decided opinion as to the character of Isdigerd + III. He was but fifteen years of age at his accession, twenty-four at the + time of the battle of Nehavend, and thirty-four at his decease, A.D. 651. + It is in his favor that “history lays no crimes to his charge;” for this + can be said of very few Sassanian sovereigns. It is also to his credit + that he persevered so long in struggling against his fate, and in + endeavoring to maintain, or restore, the independence of his nation. But, + on the other hand, it must be confessed that there is little to be admired + in the measures which he took to meet the perils of the time, and that + personally he appears to have been weak and of luxurious habits. During + the whole of his long struggle with the Arabs he seems never once to have + placed himself at the head of his troops, much less to have crossed swords + with the enemy. He intrusted the defence of Persia to generals, and did + not even seek to inspire his soldiers with enthusiasm by his own presence + in their camp. Always occupying some secure fortress far in the rear of + his army, he fled from each as the enemy made a step in advance, quitting + Ctesiphon for Holwan, Holwan for Rei, and Rei for Merv, never venturing + upon a stand, never making an appeal to the loyalty which was amongst the + best qualities of the Persians, and which would have caused them to fight + with desperation in defence of a present king. Carrying with him in all + his wanderings the miserable pageant of an Oriental court, he suffered his + movements to be hampered and his resources crippled by a throng of 4000 + useless retainers, whom he could not bring himself to dismiss. Instead of + donning the armor which befitted one who was struggling for his crown, he + wore to the last the silken robes, the jewelled belt, the rings and + bracelets that were only suited for the quiet inmate of a palace, and by + this incongruous and misplaced splendor he provoked, and, perhaps we may + say, deserved his fate. A monarch who loses his crown for the most part + awakens interest and sympathy; but no historian has a word of + commiseration for the last of the Sassanidae, who is reproached with + feebleness, cowardice, and effeminacy. It must certainly be allowed that + he was no hero; but considering his extreme youth when his perils began, + the efforts which he made to meet them, and the impossibility of an + effective resistance in the effete and exhausted condition of the Persian + nation, history is scarcely justified in passing upon the unfortunate + prince a severe judgment. + </p> + <p> + The coins assigned to Isdigerd III. are neither numerous nor very + remarkable. The head is in general very similar to that of Artaxerxes III. + The pearl bordering around it is single, and in the margin are the usual + stars and crescents of the later Sassanian kings. The margin, however, + shows also in some instances a peculiar device behind the crown, and also + a legend, which has been read, but very doubtfully, as “Ormazd.” The + king’s name is given as Iskart or Iskarti. Among the regnal years marked + on the reverse have been found the numbers “nineteen” and “twenty.” Among + the mint-marks are Azer-bijan, Abiverd, and Merv. <a + href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE XXIV., Fig. 4]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0014" id="linkB2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Architecture of the Sassanians. Its Origin. Its Peculiarities. Oblong + Square Plan. Arched Entrance Halls. Domes resting on Pendentives. Suites + of Apartments. Ornamentation: Exterior, by Pilasters, Cornices, + String-courses, and shallow arched Recesses, with Pilasters between them; + Interior, by Pillars supporting Transverse Bibs,or by Door-ways and False + Windows, like the Persopolitan. Specimen Palaces at Serbistan, at + Firuzbad, at Ctesiphon, at Mashita. Elaborate Decoration at the last-named + Palace. Decoration Elsewhere. Arch of Takht-i-Bostan. Sassanian Statuary. + Sassanian Bas-reliefs. Estimate of their Artistic Value. Question of the + Employment by the Sassanians of Byzantine Artists. General Summary.</i> + </p> + <p> + “With the accession of the Sassanians, Persia regained much of that power + and stability to which she had been so long a stranger.... The improvement + in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity, and a degree of + security unknown since the fall of the Achaemenidae.”—Fergusson, <i>History + of Architecture</i>, vol. i. pp. 381-3, 3d edition. + </p> + <p> + When Persia under the Sassanian princes shook off the barbarous yoke to + which she had submitted for the space of almost five centuries, she found + architecture and the other fine arts at almost the lowest possible ebb + throughout the greater part of Western Asia. The ruins of the Achaemenian + edifices, which were still to be seen at Pasargadae, Persopolis, and + elsewhere, bore witness to the grandeur of idea, and magnificence of + construction, which had once formed part of the heritage of the Persian + nation; but the intervening period was one during which the arts had + well-nigh wholly disappeared from the Western Asiatic world; and when the + early sovereigns of the house of Sassan felt the desire, common with + powerful monarchs, to exhibit their greatness in their buildings, they + found themselves at the first without artists to design, without artisans + to construct, and almost without models to copy. The Parthians, who had + ruled over Persia for nearly four hundred years,’ had preferred country to + city life, tents to buildings, and had not themselves erected a single + edifice of any pretension during the entire period of their dominion. Nor + had the nations subjected to their sway, for the most part, exhibited any + constructive genius, or been successful in supplying the artistic + deficiencies of their rulers. In one place alone was there an exception to + this general paralysis of the artistic powers. At Hatra, in the middle + Mesopotamian region, an Arab dynasty, which held under the Parthian kings, + had thought its dignity to require that it should be lodged in a palace, + and had resuscitated a native architecture in Mesopotamia, after centuries + of complete neglect. When the Sassanians looked about for a foundation on + which they might work, and out of which they might form a style suitable + to their needs and worthy of their power and opulence, they found what + they sought in the Hatra edifice, which was within the limits of their + kingdom, and at no great distance from one of the cities where they held + their Court. + </p> + <p> + The early palaces of the Sassanians have ceased to exist. Artaxerxes, the + son of Babek, Sapor the first, and their immediate successors, undoubtedly + erected residences for themselves exceeding in size and richness the + buildings which had contented the Parthians, as well as those in which + their own ancestors, the tributary kings of Persia under Parthia, had + passed their lives. But these residences have almost wholly disappeared. + The most ancient of the Sassanian buildings which admit of being measured + and described are assigned to the century between A.D. 350 and 450; and we + are thus unable to trace the exact steps by which the Sassanian style was + gradually elaborated. We come upon it when it is beyond the stage of + infancy, when it has acquired a marked and decided character, when it no + longer hesitates or falters, but knows what it wants, and goes straight to + its ends. Its main features are simple, and are uniform from first to + last, the later buildings being merely enlargements of the earlier, by an + addition to the number or to the size of the apartments. The principal + peculiarities of the style are, first, that the plan of the entire + building is an oblong square, without adjuncts or projections; secondly, + that the main entrance is into a lofty vaulted porch or hall by an archway + of the entire width of the apartment; thirdly, that beside these oblong + halls, the building contains square apartments, vaulted with domes, which + are circular at their base, and elliptical in their section, and which + rest on pendentives of an unusual character; fourthly, that the apartments + are numerous and en suite, opening one into another, without the + intervention of passages; and fifthly, that the palace comprises, as a + matter of course, a court, placed towards the rear of the building, with + apartments opening into it. + </p> + <p> + The oblong square is variously proportioned. The depth may be a little + more than the breadth, or it may be nearly twice as much. In either case, + the front occupies one of the shorter sides, or ends of the edifice. The + outer wall is sometimes pierced by one entrance only; but, more commonly, + entrances are multiplied beyond the limit commonly observed in modern + buildings. The great entrance is in the exact centre of the front. This + entrance, as already noticed, is commonly by a lofty arch which (if we set + aside the domes) is of almost the full height of the building, and + constitutes one of its most striking, and to Europeans most extraordinary, + features. From the outer air, we look; as it were, straight into the heart + of the edifice, in one instance to the depth of 115 feet, a distance equal + to the length of Henry VII.‘s Chapel at Westminster. The effect is very + strange when first seen by the inexperienced traveller; but similar + entrances are common in the mosques of Armenia and Persia, and in the + palaces of the latter country. In the mosques “lofty and deeply-recessed + portals,” “unrivalled for grandeur and appropriateness,” are rather the + rule than the exception; and, in the palaces, “Throne-rooms” are commonly + mere deep recesses of this character, vaulted or supported by pillars, and + open at one end to the full width and height of the apartment. The height + of the arch varies in Sassanian buildings from about fifty to eighty-five + feet; it is generally plain, and without ornament; but in one case we meet + with a foiling of small arches round the great one, which has an effect + that is not unpleasing. + </p> + <p> + The domed apartments are squares of from twenty-five to forty feet, or a + little more. The domes are circular at their base; but a section of them + would exhibit a half ellipse, with its longest and shortest diameters + proportioned as three to two. The height to which they rise from the + ground is not much above seventy feet. A single building will have two or + three domes, either of the same size, or occasionally of different + dimensions. It is a peculiarity of their construction that they rest, not + on drums, but on pendentives of a curious character. A series of + semi-circular arches is thrown across the angles of the apartment, each + projecting further into it than the preceding, and in this way the corners + are got rid of, and the square converted into the circular shape. A + cornice ran round the apartment, either above or below the pendentives, or + sometimes both above and below. The domes were pierced by a number of + small holes, which admitted some light, and the upper part of the walls + between the pendentives was also pierced by windows. + </p> + <p> + There are no passages or corridors in the Sassanian palaces. The rooms for + the most part open one into the other. Where this is not the case, they + give upon a common meeting-ground, which is either an open court, or a + large vaulted apartment. The openings are in general doorways of moderate + size, but sometimes they are arches of the full width of the subordinate + room or apartment. As many as seventeen or eighteen rooms have been found + in a palace. + </p> + <p> + There is no appearance in any Sassanian edifice of a real second story. + The famous Takht-i-Khosru presents externally the semblance of such an + arrangement; but this seems to have been a mere feature of the external + ornamentation, and to have had nothing to do with the interior. + </p> + <p> + The exterior ornamentation of the Sassanian buildings was by pilasters, by + arched recesses, by cornices, and sometimes by string-courses. An + ornamentation at once simple and elegant is that of the lateral faces of + the palace at Firuzabad, where long reed-like pilasters are carried from + the ground to the cornice, while between them are a series of tall narrow + doubly recessed arches. Far less satisfactory is the much more elaborate + design adopted at Ctesiphon, where six series of blind arches of different + kinds are superimposed the one on the other, with string-courses between + them, and with pilasters, placed singly or in pairs, separating the arches + into groups, and not regularly superimposed, as pillars, whether real or + seeming, ought to be. + </p> + <p> + The interior ornamentation was probably, in a great measure, by stucco, + painting, and perhaps gilding. All this, however, if it existed, has + disappeared; and the interiors now present a bare and naked appearance, + which is only slightly relieved by the occasional occurrence of windows, + of ornamental doorways, and of niches, which recall well-known features at + Persepolis. In some instances, however, the arrangement of the larger + rooms was improved by means of short pillars, placed at some distance from + the walls, and supporting a sort of transverse rib, which broke the + uniformity of the roof. The pillars were connected with the side walls by + low arches. + </p> + <p> + Such are the main peculiarities of Sassanian palace architecture. The + general effect of the great halls is grand, though scarcely beautiful; + and, in the best specimens, the entire palace has an air of simple + severity which is striking and dignified. The internal arrangements do not + appear to be very convenient. Too much is sacrificed to regularity; and + the opening of each room into its neighbor must, one would think, have + been unsatisfactory. Still, the edifices are regarded as “indicating + considerable originality and power,” though they “point to a state of + society when attention to security hardly allowed the architect the free + exercise of the more delicate ornaments of his art.” + </p> + <p> + From this general account of the main features of the architecture it is + proposed now to proceed to a more particular description of the principal + extant Sassanian buildings—the palaces at Serbistan, Firuzabad, + Ctesiphon, and Mashita. + </p> + <p> + The palace at Serbistan is the smallest, and probably the earliest of the + four. It has been assigned conjecturally to the middle of the fourth + century, or the reign of Sapor II. The ground plan is an oblong but little + removed from a square, the length being 42 French metres, and the breadth + nearly 37 metres. <a href="#linkBimage-0006">[PLATE XXV., Fig. 1.]</a> The + building faces west, and is entered by three archways, between which are + groups of three semi-circular pilasters, while beyond the two outer arches + towards the angles of the building is a single similar pilaster. Within + the archways are halls or porches of different depths, the central one of + the three being the shallowest. <a href="#linkBimage-0006">[PLATE XXV., + Fig. 2.]</a> This opens by an arched doorway into a square chamber, the + largest in the edifice. It is domed, and has a diameter of about 42 feet + or, including recesses, of above 57 feet. The interior height of the dome + from the floor is 65 feet. Beyond the domed chamber is a court, which + measures 45 feet by 40, and has rooms of various sizes opening into it. + One of these is domed; and others are for the most part vaulted. The great + domed chamber opens towards the north, on a deep porch or hall, which was + entered from without by the usual arched portal. On the south it + communicates with a pillared hall, above 60 feet long by 30 broad. There + is another somewhat similar hall on the north side of the building, in + width about equal, but in length not quite 50 feet. In both halls the + pillars are short, not exceeding six feet. They support piers, which run + up perpendicularly for a considerable height, and then become ribs of the + vaulting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate025.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The Firuzabad palace has a length of above 390 and a width of above 180 + feet. Its supposed date is A.D. 450, or the reign of Isdigerd I. As usual + the ground plan is an oblong square. <a href="#linkBimage-0007">[PLATE + XXVI.]</a> It is remarkable that the entire building had but a single + entrance. This was by a noble arch, above 50 feet in height, which faced + north, and gave admission into a vaulted hall, nearly 90 feet long by 43 + wide, having at either side two lesser halls of a similar character, + opening into it by somewhat low semi-circular arches, of nearly the full + width of the apartments. Beyond these rooms, and communicating with them + by narrow, but elegant doorways, were three domed chambers precisely + similar, occupying together the full width of the building, each about 43 + feet square, and crowned by elliptical domes rising to the height of + nearly 70 feet. <a href="#linkBimage-0008">[PLATE XXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> The + ornamentation of these chambers was by their doorways, and by false + windows, on the Persepolitan model. The domed chambers opened into some + small apartments, beyond which was a large court, about 90 feet square, + surrounded by vaulted rooms of various sizes, which for the most part + communicated directly with it. False windows, or recesses, relieved the + interior of these apartments, but were of a less elaborate character than + those of the domed chambers. Externally the whole building was chastely + and tastefully ornamented by the tall narrow arches and reed-like + pilasters already mentioned. <a href="#linkBimage-0008">[PLATE XXVII., + Fig. 2.]</a> Its character, however, was upon the whole “simple and + severe;” nor can we quarrel with the judgment which pronounces it “more + like a gigantic bastile than the palace of a gay, pavilion-loving people + like the Persians.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate026.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate027.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxvii. " /> + </div> + <p> + It is difficult to form any very decided opinion upon the architectural + merits of the third and grandest of the Sassanian palaces, the well known + “Takht-i-Ehosru,” or palace of Chosroe’s Anushirwan, at Ctesiphon. What + remains of this massive erection is a mere fragment, which, to judge from + the other extant Sassanian ruins, cannot have formed so much as one fourth + part of the original edifice. <a href="#linkBimage-0009">[PLATE XXVIII., + Fig. 1.]</a> Nothing has come down to our day but a single vaulted hall on + the grandest scale, 72 feet wide, 85 high, and 115 deep, together with the + mere outer wall of what no doubt constituted the main facade of the + building. The apartments, which, according to all analogy, must have + existed at the two sides, and in the rear, of the great hall, some of + which should have been vaulted, have wholly perished. Imagination may + supply them from the Firuzabad, or the Mashita palace; but not a trace, + even of their foundations, is extant; and the details, consequently, are + uncertain, though the general plan can scarcely be doubted. At each side + of the great hall were probably two lateral ones, communicating with each + other, and capable of being entered either from the hall or from the outer + air. Beyond the great hall was probably a domed chamber, equalling it in + width, and opening upon a court, round which were a number of + moderate-sized apartments. The entire building was no doubt an oblong + square, of which the shorter sides seem to have measured 370 feet. It had + at least three, and may not improbably have had a larger number of + entrances, since it belongs to tranquil times and a secure locality. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate028.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The ornamentation of the existing facade of the palace is by doorways, + doubly-arched recesses, pilasters, and string-courses. These last divide + the building, externally, into an appearance of three or four distinct + stories. The first and second stories are broken into portions by + pilasters, which in the first or basement stories are in pairs, but in the + second stand singly. It is remarkable that the pilasters of the second + story are not arranged with any regard to those of the first, and are + consequently in many cases not superimposed upon the lower pilasters. In + the third and fourth stories there are no pilasters, the arched recesses + being here continued without any interruption. Over the great arch of the + central hall, a foiling of seventeen small semicircular arches constitutes + a pleasing and unusual feature. + </p> + <p> + The Mashita palace, which was almost certainly built between A.D. 614 and + A.D. 627, while on a smaller scale than that of Ctesiphon, was far more + richly ornamented. <a href="#linkBimage-0009">[PLATE XXVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + This construction of Chosroes II. (Parwiz) consisted of two distinct, + buildings (separated by a court-yard, in which was a fountain), extending + each of them about 180 feet along the front, with a depth respectively of + 140 and 150 feet. The main building, which lay to the north, was entered + from the courtyard by three archways, semicircular and standing side by + side, separated only by columns of hard, white stone, of a quality + approaching to marble. These columns were surmounted by debased Corinthian + capitals, of a type introduced by Justinian, and supported arches which + were very richly fluted, and which are said to have been “not unlike our + own late Norman work.” <a href="#linkBimage-0010">[PLATE XXIX., Fig. 2.]</a> + The archways gave entrance into an oblong court or hall, about 80 feet + long, by sixty feet wide, on which opened by a wide doorway the main room + of the building. This was a triapsal hall, built of brick, and surmounted + by a massive domed roof of the same material, which rested on pendentives + like those employed at Serbistan and at Firuzabad. The diameter of the + hall was a little short of 60 feet. On either side of the triapsal hall, + and in its rear, and again on either side of the court or hall on which it + opened, were rooms of a smaller size, generally opening into each other, + and arranged symmetrically, each side being the exact counterpart of the + other. The number of these smaller apartments was twenty-five. [PLATE + XXIX., Fig. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate029.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxix. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate030.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxx. " /> + </div> + <p> + The other building, which lies towards the south, and is separated from + the one just described by the whole length of the court-yard, a distance + of nearly 200 feet, appears to have been for the most part of an inferior + character. It comprised one large hall, or inner court, but otherwise + contained only small apartments, which, it is thought, may have been + “intended as guard-rooms for the soldiers.” Although, however, in most + respects so unpretending, this edifice was adorned externally with a + richness and magnificence unparalleled in the other remains of Sassanian + times, and scarcely exceeded in the architecture of any age or nation. + Forming, as it did, the only entrance by which the palace could be + approached, and possessing the only front which was presented to the gaze + of the outer world, its ornamentation was clearly an object of Chosroes’ + special care, who seems to have lavished upon it all the known resources + of art. The outer wall was built of finely-dressed hard stone; and on this + excellent material the sculptors of the time—whether Persian or + Byzantine, it is impossible to determine—proceeded to carve in the + most elaborate way, first a bold pattern of zigzags and rosettes, and + then, over the entire surface, a most delicate tracery of foliage, + animals, and fruits. The effect of the zigzags is to divide the wall into + a number of triangular compartments, each of which is treated separately, + covered with a decoration peculiar to itself, a fretwork of the richest + kind, in which animal and vegetable forms are most happily intermingled. + In one a vase of an elegant shape stands midway in the triangle at its + base; two doves are seated on it, back to back; from between them rises a + vine, which spreads its luxuriant branches over the entire compartment, + covering it with its graceful curves and abundant fruitage; on either side + of the vase a lion and a wild boar confront the doves with a friendly air; + while everywhere amid the leaves and grapes we see the forms of birds, + half revealed, half hidden by the foliage. Among the birds, peacocks, + parrots, and partridges have been recognized; among the beasts, besides + lions and wild boars, buffaloes, panthers, lynxes, and gazelles. In + another panel a winged lion, the “lineal descendant of those found at + Nineveh and Persepolis,” reflects the mythological symbolism of Assyria, + and shows how tenacious was its hold on the West-Asian mind. Nor is the + human form wholly wanting. In one place we perceive a man’s head, in close + juxtaposition with man’s inseparable companion, the dog; in another, the + entire figure of a man, who carries a basket of fruit. + </p> + <p> + Besides the compartments within the zigzags, the zigzags themselves and + the rosettes are ornamented with a patterning of large leaves, while the + moulding below the zigzags and the cornice, or string-course, above them + are covered with conventional designs, the interstices between them being + filled in with very beautiful adaptations of lesser vegetable forms. + </p> + <p> + Altogether, the ornamentation of this magnificent facade may be pronounced + almost unrivalled for beauty and appropriateness; and the entire palace + may well be called “a marvellous example of the sumptuousness and + selfishness of ancient princes,” who expended on the gratification of + their own taste and love of display the riches which would have been + better employed in the defence of their kingdoms, or in the relief of + their poorer subjects. + </p> + <p> + The exquisite ornamentation of the Mashita palace exceeds anything which + is found elsewhere in the Sassanian buildings, but it is not wholly + different in kind from that of other remains of their architecture in + Media and Persia Proper. The archivolte which adorns the arch of + Takht-i-Bostan <a href="#linkBimage-0012">[PLATE XXXI., Fig. 1.]</a> + possesses almost equal delicacy with the patterned cornice or + string-course of the Mashita building; and its flowered panels may compare + for beauty with the Mashita triangular compartments. <a + href="#linkBimage-0012">[PLATE XXXI., Fig. 2.]</a> Sassanian capitals are + also in many instances of lovely design, sometimes delicately diapered (A, + B), sometimes worked with a pattern of conventional leaves and flowers <a + href="#linkBimage-0013">[PLATE XXXII.]</a>, occasionally exhibiting the + human form (D, E), or a flowery patterning, like that of the + Takht-i-Bostan (F, Q). <a href="#linkBimage-0014">[PLATE XXXIII.]</a> In + the more elaborate specimens, the four faces—for the capitals are + square—present designs completely different; in other instances, two + of the four faces are alike, but on the other two the design is varied. + The shafts of Sassanian columns, so far as we can judge, appear to have + been fluted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate031.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxi. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate032.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxii. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate033.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxiii. " /> + </div> + <p> + A work not exactly architectural, yet possessing architectural features—the + well-known arch of Chosroes II. above alluded to—seems to deserve + description before we pass to another branch of our subject. <a + href="#linkBimage-0015">[PLATE XXXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> This is an archway or + grotto cut in the rock at Takht-i-Bostan, near Kerman-shah, which is + extremely curious and interesting. On the brink of a pool of clear water, + the sloping face of the rock has been cut into, and a recess formed, + presenting at its further end a perpendicular face. This face, which is + about 34 feet broad, by 31 feet high, and which is ornamented at the top + by some rather rude gradines, has been penetrated by an arch, cut into the + solid stone to the depth of above 20 feet, and elaborately ornamented, + both within and without. Externally, the arch is in the first place + surmounted by the archivolte already spoken of, and then, in the spandrels + on either side are introduced flying figures of angels or Victories, + holding chaplets in one hand and cups or vases in the other, which are + little inferior to the best Roman art. <a href="#linkBimage-0015">[PLATE + XXXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> Between the figures is a crescent, perhaps originally + enclosing a ball, and thus presenting to the spectator, at the culminating + point of the whole sculpture, the familiar emblems of two of the national + divinities. Below the spandrels and archivolte, on either side of the + arched entrance, are the flowered panels above-mentioned, alike in most + respects, but varying in some of their details. Within the recess, its two + sides, and its further end, are decorated with bas-reliefs, those on the + sides representing Chosroes engaged in the chase of the wild boar and the + stag, while those at the end, which are in two lines, one over the other, + show the monarch, above, in his robes of state, receiving wreaths from + ideal beings; below, in his war costume, mounted upon his favorite + charger, Sheb-Diz, with his spear poised in his hand, awaiting the + approach of the enemy. The modern critic regards this figure as “original + and interesting.” We shall have occasion to recur to it when we treat of + the “Manners and Customs” of the Neo-Persian people. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate034.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxiv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The glyptic art of the Sassanian is seen chiefly in their bas-reliefs; but + one figure “in the round” has come down to us from their times, which + seems to deserve particular description. This is a colossal statue of + Sapor I., hewn (it would seem) out of the natural rock, which still + exists, though overthrown and mutilated, in a natural grotto near the + ruined city of Shapur. <a href="#linkBimage-0016">[PLATE XXXV.]</a> The + original height of the figure, according to M. Texier, was 6 metres 7 + centimetres, or between 19 and. 20 feet. It was well proportioned, and + carefully wrought, representing the monarch in peaceful attire, but with a + long sword at his left side, wearing the mural crown which characterizes + him on the bas-reliefs, and dressed in a tunic and trousers of a light and + flexible material, apparently either silk or muslin. The hair, beard, and + mustachios, were neatly arranged and well rendered. The attitude of the + figure was natural and good. One hand, the right, rested upon the hip; the + other touched, but without grasping it, the hilt of the long straight + sword. If we may trust the representation of M. Texier’s artist, the folds + of the drapery were represented with much skill and delicacy; but the + hands and feet of the figure, especially the latter, were somewhat roughly + rendered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate035.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The bas-reliefs of the Sassanians are extremely numerous, and though + generally rude, and sometimes even grotesque, are not without a certain + amount of merit. Some of the earlier and coarser specimens have been + already given in this volume; and one more of the same class is here + appended <a href="#linkBimage-0017">[PLATE XXXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> but we + have now to notice some other and better examples, which seem to indicate + that the Persians of this period attained a considerable proficiency in + this branch of the glyptic art. The reliefs belonging to the time of Sapor + I. are generally poor in conception and ill-executed; but in one instance, + unless the modern artist has greatly flattered his original, a work of + this time is not devoid of some artistic excellence. This is a + representation of the triumph of Sapor over Valerian, comprising only four + figures—Sapor, an attendant, and two Romans—of which the three + principal are boldly drawn, in attitudes natural, yet effective, and in + good proportion. <a href="#linkBimage-0018">[PLATE XXXVII.]</a> The horse + on which Sapor rides is of the usual clumsy description, reminding us of + those which draw our brewers’ wains; and the exaggerated hair, floating + ribbons and uncouth head-dress of the monarch give an <i>outre</i> and + ridiculous air to the chief figure; but, if we deduct these defects, which + are common to almost all the Sassanian artists, the representation becomes + pleasing and dignified. Sapor sits his horse well, and thinks not of + himself, but of what he is doing. Cyriades, who is somewhat too short, + receives the diadem from his benefactor with a calm satisfaction. But the + best figure is that of the captive emperor, who kneels on one knee, and, + with outstretched arms, implores the mercy of the conqueror. The whole + representation is colossal, the figures being at least three times the + size of life; the execution seems to have been good; but the work has been + considerably injured by the effects of time. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate036.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate037.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxvii. " /> + </div> + <p> + Another bas-relief of the age of Sapor I. is on too large a scale, and too + complicated, to be represented here; but a description may be given of it, + and a specimen subjoined, from which the reader may judge of its + character. On a surface of rock at Shapur, carefully smoothed and prepared + for sculpture, the second Sassanian monarch appears in the centre of the + tablet, mounted on horseback, and in his usual costume, with a dead Roman + under his horse’s feet, and holding another (Cyriades?), by the hand. In + front of him, a third Roman, the representative of the defeated nation, + makes submission; and then follow thirteen tribute-bearers, bringing rings + of gold, shawls, bowls, and the like, and conducting also a horse and an + elephant. Behind the monarch, on the same line, are thirteen mounted + guardsmen. Directly above, and directly below the central group, the + tablet is blank; but on either side the subject is continued, above in two + lines, and below in one, the guardsmen towards the left amounting in all + to fifty-six, and the tribute-bearers on the right to thirty-five. The + whole tablet comprises ninety-five human and sixty-three animal figures, + besides a Victory floating in the sky. The illustration <a + href="#linkBimage-0019">[PLATE XXXVIII.]</a> is a representation of the + extreme right-hand portion of the second line. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate038.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + After the time of Sapor I. there is a manifest decline in Sassanian art. + The reliefs of Varahran II. and Varahran III., of Narses and Sapor III., + fall considerably below those of Sapor, son of Artaxerxes. It is not till + we arrive at the time of Varahran IV. (A.D. 388-399) that we once more + have works which possess real artistic merit. Indications have already + appeared in an earlier chapter of this monarch’s encouragement of artists, + and of a kind of art really meriting the name. We saw that his gems were + exquisitely cut, and embodied designs of first-rate excellence. It has now + to be observed further, that among the bas-reliefs of the greatest merit + which belong to Sassanian times, one at least must be ascribed to him; and + that, this being so, there is considerable probability that two others of + the same class belong also to his reign. The one which must undoubtedly be + his, and which tends to fix the date of the other two, exists at + Nakhsh-i-Kustam, near Persepolis, and has frequently been copied by + travellers. It represents a mounted warrior, with the peculiar head-dress + of Varahran IV., charging another at full speed, striking him with his + spear, and bearing both horse and rider to the ground. <a + href="#linkBimage-0020">[PLATE XXXIX.]</a> A standard-bearer marches a + little behind; and a dead warrior lies underneath Varahran’s horse, which + is clearing the obstacle in his bound. The spirit of the entire + composition is admirable; and though the stone is in a state of advanced + decay, travellers never fail to admire the vigor of the design and the + life and movement which characterize it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate039.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxix. " /> + </div> + <p> + The other similar reliefs to which reference has been made exist, + respectively, at Nakhsh-i-Eustam and at Firuzabad. The Nakhsh-i-Rustam + tablet is almost a duplicate of the one above described and represented, + differing from it mainly in the omission of the prostrate figure, in the + forms of the head-dresses borne by the two cavaliers, and in the shape of + the standard. It is also in better preservation than the other, and + presents some additional details. The head-dress of the Sassanian warrior + is very remarkable, being quite unlike any other known example. It + consists of a cap, which spreads as it rises, and breaks into three + points, terminating in large striped balls. <a href="#linkBimage-0007">[PLATE + XXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> His adversary wears a helmet crowned with a similar + ball. The standard, which is in the form of a capital T, displays also + five balls of the same sort, three rising from the cross-bar, and the + other two hanging from it. Were it not for the head-dress of the principal + figure, this sculpture might be confidently assigned to the monarch who + set up the neighboring one. As it is, the point must be regarded as + undecided, and the exact date of the relief as doubtful. It is, however, + unlikely to be either much earlier, or much later, than the time of + Varahran IV. + </p> + <p> + The third specimen of a Sassanian battle-scene exists at Firuzabad, in + Persia Proper, and has been carefully rendered by M. Flandin. It is in + exceedingly bad condition, but appears to have comprised the figures of + either five or six horsemen, of whom the two principal are a warrior whose + helmet terminates in the head of a bird, and one who wears a crown, above + which rises a cap, surmounted by a ball. <a href="#linkBimage-0021">[PLATE + XL.]</a> The former of these, who is undoubtedly a Sassanian prince, + pierces with his spear the right side of the latter, who is represented in + the act of falling to the ground. His horse tumbles at the same time, + though why he does so is not quite clear, since he has not been touched by + the other charger. His attitude is extravagantly absurd, his hind feet + being on a level with the head of his rider. Still more absurd seems to + have been the attitude of a horse at the extreme right, which turns in + falling, and exposes to the spectator the inside of the near thigh and the + belly. But, notwithstanding these drawbacks, the representation has great + merit. The figures live and breathe—that of the dying king expresses + horror and helplessness, that of his pursuer determined purpose and manly + strength. Even the very horses are alive, and manifestly rejoice in the + strife. The entire work is full of movement, of variety, and of artistic + spirit. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate040.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xl. " /> + </div> + <p> + If we have regard to the highest qualities of glyptic art, Sassanian + sculpture must be said here to culminate. There is a miserable falling + off, when about a hundred and fifty years later the Great Chosroes + (Anushirwan) represents himself at Shapur, seated on his throne, and + fronting to the spectator, with guards and attendants on one side, and + soldiers bringing in prisoners, human heads, and booty, on the other. <a + href="#linkBimage-0022">[PLATE XLI.]</a> The style here recalls that of + the tamer reliefs set up by the first Sapor, but is less pleasing. Some of + the prisoners appear to be well drawn; but the central figure, that of the + monarch, is grotesque; the human heads are ghastly; and the soldiers and + attendants have little merit. The animal forms are better—that of + the elephant especially, though as compared with the men it is strangely + out of proportion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate041.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xli. " /> + </div> + <p> + With Chosroes II. (Eberwiz or Parviz), the grandson of Anushirwan, who + ascended the throne only twelve years after the death of his grandfather, + and reigned from A.D. 591 to A.D. 628, a reaction set in. We have seen the + splendor and good taste of his Mashita palace, the beauty of some of his + coins, and the general excellence of his ornamentation. It remains to + notice the character of his reliefs, found at present in one locality + only, viz., at Takht-i-Bostan, where they constitute the main decorations + of the great triumphal arch of this monarch. <a href="#linkBimage-0023">[PLATE + XLII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate042.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlii. " /> + </div> + <p> + These reliefs consist of two classes of works, colossal figures and + hunting-pieces. The colossal figures, of which some account has been + already given, and which are represented in PLATE XLI., have but little + merit. They are curious on account of their careful elaboration, and + furnish important information with respect to Sassanian dress and + armature, but they are poor in design, being heavy, awkward, and ungainly. + Nothing can well be less beautiful than the three overstout personages, + who stand with their heads nearly or quite touching the crown of the arch, + at its further extremity, carefully drawn in detail, but in outline little + short of hideous. The least bad is that to the left, whose drapery is + tolerably well arranged, and whose face, judging by what remains of it, + was not unpleasing. Of the other two it is impossible to say a word in + commendation. + </p> + <p> + The mounted cavalier below them—Chosroes himself on his black war + horse, Sheb-Diz—is somewhat better. The pose of horse and horseman + has dignity; the general proportions are fairly correct, though (as usual) + the horse is of a breed that recalls the modern dray-horse rather than the + charger. The figure, being near the ground, has suffered much mutilation, + probably at the hands of Moslem fanatics; the off hind leg of the horse is + gone; his nose and mouth have disappeared; and the horseman has lost his + right foot and a portion of his lower clothing. But nevertheless, the + general effect is not altogether destroyed. Modern travellers admire the + repose and dignity of the composition, its combination of simplicity with + detail, and the delicacy and finish of some portions. It may be added that + the relief of the figure is high; the off legs of the horse were wholly + detached; and the remainder of both horse and rider was nearly, though not + quite, disengaged from the rock behind them. + </p> + <p> + The hunting-pieces, which ornament the interior of the arched recess on + either side, are far superior to the colossal figures, and merit an exact + description. On the right, the perpendicular space below the spring of the + arch contains the representation of a stag hunt, in which the monarch and + about a dozen other mounted horsemen take part, assisted by some ten or + twelve footmen, and by a detachment mounted on elephants. <a + href="#linkBimage-0024">[PLATE XLIII.]</a> The elephants, which are nine + in number, occupy the extreme right of the tablet, and seem to be employed + in driving the deer into certain prepared enclosures. Each of the beasts + is guided by three riders, sitting along their backs, of whom the central + one alone has the support of a saddle or howdah. The enclosures into which + the elephants drive the game are three in number; they are surrounded by + nets; and from the central one alone is there an exit. Through this exit, + which is guarded by two footmen, the game passes into the central field, + or main space of the sculpture, where the king awaits them. He is mounted + on his steed, with his bow passed over his head, his sword at his side, + and an attendant holding the royal parasol over him. It is not quite clear + whether he himself does more than witness the chase. The game is in the + main pursued and brought to the ground by horsemen without royal insignia, + and is then passed over into a further compartment—the extreme one + towards the left, where it is properly arranged and placed upon camels for + conveyance to the royal palace. During the whole proceeding a band of + twenty-six musicians, some of whom occupy an elevated platform, delights + with a “concord of sweet sounds” the assembled sportsmen. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate043.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xliii. " /> + </div> + <p> + On the opposite, or left-hand, side of the recess, is represented a + boar-hunt. <a href="#linkBimage-0025">[PLATE XLIV.]</a> Here again, + elephants, twelve in number, drive the game into an enclosure without + exit. Within this space nearly a hundred boars and pigs may be counted. + The ground being marshy, the monarch occupies a boat in the centre, and + from this transfixes the game with his arrows. No one else takes part in + the sport, unless it be the riders on a troop of five elephants, + represented in the lower middle portion of the tablet. When the pigs fall, + they are carried into a second enclosure, that on the right, where they + are upturned, disembowelled, and placed across the backs of elephants, + which convey them to the abode of the monarch. Once more, the scene is + enlivened by music. Two bands of harpers occupy boats on either side of + that which carries the king, while another harper sits with him in the + boat from which he delivers his arrows. In the water about the boats are + seen reeds, ducks, and numerous fishes. The oars by which the boats are + propelled have a singular resemblance to those which are represented in + some of the earliest Assyrian sculptures. Two other features must also be + noticed. Near the top of the tablet, towards the left, five figures + standing in a boat seem to be clapping their hands in order to drive the + pigs towards the monarch; while in the right centre of the picture there + is another boat, more highly ornamented than the rest, in which we seem to + have a second representation of the king, differing from the first only in + the fact that his arrow has flown, and that he is in the act of taking + another arrow from an attendant In this second representation the king’s + head is surrounded by a nimbus or “glory.” Altogether there are in this + tablet more than seventy-five human and nearly 150 animal forms. In the + other, the human forms are about seventy, and the animal ones about a + hundred. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate044.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xliv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The merit of the two reliefs above described, which would require to be + engraved on a large scale, in order that justice should be done to them, + consists in the spirit and truth of the animal forms, elephants, camels, + stags, boars, horses, and in the life and movement of the whole picture. + The rush of the pigs, the bounds of the stags and hinds, the heavy march + of the elephants, the ungainly movements of the camels, are well + portrayed; and in one instance, the foreshortening of a horse, advancing + diagonally, is respectably rendered. In general, Sassanian sculpture, like + most delineative art in its infancy, affects merely the profile; but here, + and in the overturned horse already described, and again in the Victories + which ornament the spandrels of the arch of Chosroes, the mere profile is + departed from with good effect, and a power is shown of drawing human and + animal figures in front or at an angle. What is wanting in the entire + Sassanian series is idealism, or the notion of elevating the + representation in any respects above the object represented; the highest + aim of the artist is to be true to nature; in this truthfulness is his + triumph; but as he often falls short of his models, his whole result, even + at the best, is unsatisfactory and disappointing. + </p> + <p> + Such must almost necessarily be the sentence of art critics, who judge the + productions of this age and nation according to the abstract rules, or the + accepted standards, of artistic effort. But if circumstances of time and + country are taken into account, if comparison is limited to earlier and + later attempts in the same region, or even in neighboring ones, a very + much more favorable judgment will be passed. The Saseanian reliefs need + not on the whole shrink from a comparison with those of the Achaemenian + Persians. If they are ruder and more grotesque, they are also more + spirited and more varied; and thus, though they fall short in some + respects, still they must be pronounced superior to the Achaemenian in + some of the most important artistic qualities. Nor do they fall greatly + behind the earlier, and in many respects admirable, art of the Assyrians. + They are less numerous and cover a lees variety of subjects; they have + less delicacy; but they have equal or greater fire. In the judgment of a + traveller not given to extravagant praise, they are, in some cases at any + rate, “executed in the most masterly style.” “I never saw,” observes Sir + R. Kerr Porter, “the elephant, the stag, or the boar portrayed with + greater truth and spirit. The attempts at detailed human form are,” he + adds, “far inferior.” + </p> + <p> + Before, however, we assign to the Sassanian monarchs, and to the people + whom they governed, the merit of having produced results so worthy of + admiration, it becomes necessary to inquire whether there is reason to + believe that other than native artists wore employed in their production. + It has been very confidently stated that Chosroes the Second “brought + Roman artists” to Takht-i-Bostan, and by their aid eclipsed the glories of + his great predecessors, Artaxerxes, son of Babek, and the two Sapors. + Byzantine forms are declared to have been reproduced in the moldings of + the Great Arch, and in the Victories. The lovely tracery of the Mashita + Palace is regarded as in the main the work of Greeks and Syrians.06 No + doubt it is quite possible that there may be some truth in these + allegations; but we must not forget, or let it be forgotten, that they + rest on conjecture and are without historical foundation. The works of the + first Chosroes at Ctesiphon, according to a respectable Greek writer, were + produced for him by foreign artists, sent to his court by Justinian. But + no such statement is made with respect to his grandson. On the contrary, + it is declared by the native writers that a certain Ferhad, a Persian, was + the chief designer of them; and modern critics admit that his hand may + perhaps be traced, not only at Takht-i-Bostan, but at the Mashita Palace + also. If then the merit of the design is conceded to a native artist, we + need not too curiously inquire the nationality of the workmen employed by + him. + </p> + <p> + At the worst, should it be thought that Byzantine influence appears so + plainly in the later Sassanian works, that Rome rather than Persia must be + credited with the buildings and sculptures of both the first and the + second Chosroes, still it will have to be allowed that the earlier palaces—those + at Ser-bistan and Firuzabad—and the spirited battle-scenes above + described, are wholly native; since they present no trace of any foreign + element. But, it is in these battle-scenes, as already noticed, that the + delineative art of the Sassanians culminates; and it may further be + questioned whether the Firuzabad palace is not the finest specimen of + their architecture, severe though it be in the character of its + ornamentation; so that, even should we surrender the whole of the later + works enough will still remain to show that the Sassanians, and the + Persians of their day, had merit as artists and builders, a merit the more + creditable to them inasmuch as for five centuries they had had no + opportunity of cultivating their powers, having been crushed by the + domination of a race singularly devoid of artistic aspirations. Even with + regard to the works for which they may have been indebted to foreigners, + it is to be remembered that, unless the monarchs had appreciated high art, + and admired it, they would not have hired, at great expense, the services + of these aliens. For my own part, I see no reason to doubt that the + Sassanian remains of every period are predominantly, if not exclusively, + native, not excepting those of the first Chosroes, for I mistrust the + statement of Theophylact. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0015" id="linkB2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. + </h2> + <p> + <> ON THE RELIGION, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ETC., OF THE LATER PERSIANS. + <br /> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="chapter28 (3K)" src="images/chapter28.jpg" height="32" + width="355" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + <i>Religion of the later Persians, Dualism of the extremest kind. Ideas + entertained with respect to Ormazd and Ahriman. Representations of them. + Ormazd the special Guardian of the Kings. Lesser Deities subject to + Ormazd: Mithra, Serosh, Vayu, Airyanam, Vitraha, etc. The six + Amshash-pands: Bahman, Ardibehesht, Shahravar, Isfand-armat, Khordad, and + Amerdat. Religion, how far idolatrous. Worship of Anaitis. Chief Evil + Spirits subject to Ahriman: Alcomano, Indra, Caurva, Naonhaitya, Taric, + and Zaric. Position of Man between the two Worlds of Good and Evil. His + Duties: Worship, Agriculture, Purity. Nature of the Worship. Hymns, + Invocations, the Homa Ceremony, Sacrifice. Agriculture a part of Religion. + Purity required: 1, Moral; 2, Legal. Nature of each. Man’s future + Prospects. Position of the Magi under the Sassanians; their Organization, + Dress, etc. The Fire-temples and Altars. The Barsom. The Khrafcthraghna. + Magnificence of the Sassanian Court; the Throne-room, the Seraglio, the + Attendants, the Ministers. Midttude of Palaces. Dress of the Monarch: 1, + in Peace; 2, in War, Favorite Pastimes of the Kings. Hunting. Maintenance + of Paradises. Stag and Boar-hunts. Music. Hawking. Games. Character of the + Persian Warfare under the Sassanians. Sassanian Chariots. The Elephant + Corps. The Cavalry. The Archers. The ordinary Infantry. Officers. + Standards. Tactics. Private Life of the later Persians. Agricultural + Employment of the Men. Non-seclusion of the Women. General Freedom from + Oppression of all Classes except the highest.</i> + </p> + <p> + The general character of the Persian religion, as revived by the founder + of the Sassanian dynasty, has been described in a former chapter; but it + is felt that the present work would be incomplete if it failed to furnish + the reader with a tolerably full account of so interesting a matter; more + especially, since the religious question lay at the root of the original + rebellion and revolution which raised the Sassanidae to power, and was to + a considerable extent the basis and foundation of their authority. An + access of religious fervor gave the Persians of the third century after + Christ the strength which enabled them to throw off the yoke of their + Parthian lords and recover the sceptre of Western Asia. A strong—almost + fanatical—religious spirit animated the greater number of the + Sassanian monarchs. When the end of the kingdom came, the old faith was + still flourishing; and, though its star paled before that of + Mohammedanism, the faith itself survived, and still survives at the + present day. + </p> + <p> + It has been observed that Dualism constituted the most noticeable feature + of the religion. It may now be added that the Dualism professed was of the + most extreme and pronounced kind. Ormazd and Ahriman, the principles of + Good and Evil, were expressly declared to be “twins.” They had “in the + beginning come together to create Life and Death, and to settle how the + world was to be.” There was no priority of existence of the one over the + other, and no decided superiority. The two, being coeval, had contended + from all eternity, and would, it was almost certain, continue to contend + to all eternity, neither being able to vanquish the other. Thus an eternal + struggle was postulated between good and evil; and the issue was doubtful, + neither side possessing any clear and manifest advantage. + </p> + <p> + The two principles were Persons. Ormazd was “the creator of life, the + earthly and the spiritual,” he who “made the celestial bodies, earth, + water, and trees.” He was “good,” “holy,” “pure,” “true,” “the Holy God,” + “the Holiest,” “the Essence of Truth,” “the father of all truth,” “the + being best of all,” “the master of purity.” He was supremely “happy,” + being possessed of every blessing, “health, wealth, virtue, wisdom, + immortality.” From him came every good gift enjoyed by man; on the pious + and the righteous he bestowed, not only earthly advantages, but precious + spiritual gifts, truth, devotion, “the good mind,” and everlasting + happiness; and, as he rewarded the good, so he also punished the bad, + though this was an aspect in which he was but seldom represented. + </p> + <p> + While Ormazd, thus far, would seem to be a presentation of the Supreme + Being in a form not greatly different from that wherein it has pleased him + to reveal Himself to mankind through the Jewish and Christian scriptures, + there are certain points of deficiency in the representation, which are + rightly viewed as placing the Persian very considerably below the Jewish + and Christian idea. Besides the limitation on the power and freedom of + Ormazd implied in the eternal co-existence with him of another and a + hostile principle, he is also limited by the independent existence of + space, time, and light, which appear in the Zenda vesta as “self-created,” + or “without beginning,” and must therefore be regarded as “conditioning” + the Supreme Being, who has to work, as best he may, under circumstances + not caused by himself. Again, Ormazd is not a purely spiritual being. He + is conceived of as possessing a sort of physical nature. The “light,” + which is one of his properties, seems to be a material radiance. He can be + spoken of as possessing health. The whole conception of him, though not + grossly material, is far from being wholly immaterial. His nature is + complex, not simple. He may not have a body, in the ordinary sense of the + word; but he is entangled with material accidents, and is far from + answering to the pure spirit, “without body, parts, or passions,” which + forms the Christian conception of the Deity. + </p> + <p> + Ahriman, the Evil Principle, is of course far more powerful and terrible + than the Christian and Jewish Satan. He is uncaused, co-eternal with + Ormazd, engaged in a perpetual warfare with him. Whatever good thing + Ormazd creates, Ahriman corrupts and ruins it. Moral and physical evils + are alike at his disposal. He blasts the earth with barrenness, or makes + it produce thorns, thistles, and poisonous plants; his are the earthquake, + the storm, the plague of hail, the thunderbolt; he causes disease and + death, sweeps off a nation’s flocks and herds by murrain, or depopulates a + continent by pestilence; ferocious wild beasts, serpents, toads, mice, + hornets, mosquitoes, are his creation; he invented and introduced into the + world the sins of witchcraft, murder, unbelief, cannibalism, sodomy; he + excites wars and tumults, stirs up the bad against the good, and labors by + every possible expedient to make vice triumph over virtue. Ormazd can + exercise no control over him; the utmost that he can do is to keep a + perpetual watch on his rival, and seek to baffle and defeat him. This he + is not always able to do. Despite his best endeavors, Ahriman is not + unfrequently victorious. + </p> + <p> + In the purer times of the Zoroastrian religion it would seem that neither + Ormazd nor Ahriman was represented by sculptured forms. A symbolism alone + was permitted, which none could mistake for a real attempt to portray + these august beings. But by the date of the Sassanian revival, the + original spirit of the religion had suffered considerable modification; + and it was no longer thought impious, or perilous, to exhibit the heads of + the Pantheon, in the forms regarded as appropriate to them, upon public + monuments. The great Artaxerxes, probably soon after his accession, set up + a memorial of his exploits, in which he represented himself as receiving + the insignia of royalty from Ormazd himself, while Ahriman, prostrate and + seemingly, though of course not really, dead, lay at the feet of the steed + on which Ormazd was mounted. In the form of Ormazd there is nothing very + remarkable; he is attired like the king, has a long beard and flowing + locks, and carries in his left hand a huge staff or baton, which he holds + erect in a slanting position. The figure of Ahriman possesses more + interest. The face wears an expression of pain and suffering; but the + features are calm, and in no way disturbed. They are regular, and at least + as handsome as those of Artaxerxes and his divine patron. He wears a band + or diadem across the brow, above which we see a low cap or crown. From + this escape the heads and necks of a number of vipers or snakes, fit + emblems of the poisonous and “death-dealing” Evil One. + </p> + <p> + Some further representations of Ormazd occur in the Sassanian sculptures; + but Ahriman seems not to be portrayed elsewhere. Ormazd appears on foot in + a relief of the Great Arta-xerxes, which contains two figures only, those + of himself and his divine patron. He is also to be seen in a sculpture + which belongs probably to Sapor I., and represents that monarch in the act + of receiving the diadem from Artaxerxes, his father. In the former of + these two tablets the type exhibited in the bas-relief just described is + followed without any variation; in the latter, the type is considerably + modified. Ormazd still carries his huge baton, and is attired in royal + fashion; but otherwise his appearance is altogether new and singular. His + head bears no crown, but is surrounded by a halo of streaming rays; he has + not much beard, but his hair, bushy and abundant, flows down on his two + shoulders; he faces the spectator, and holds his baton in both his hands; + finally, he stands upon a blossom, which is thought to be that of a + sim-flower. Perhaps the conjecture is allowable that here we have Ormazd + exhibited to us in a solar character, with the attributes of Mithra, from + whom, in the olden time, he was carefully distinguished. + </p> + <p> + Ormazd seems to have been regarded by the kings as their special guardian + and protector. No other deity (unless in one instance) is brought into + close proximity with them; no other obtains mention in their inscriptions; + from no other do they allow that they receive the blessing of offspring. + Whatever the religion of the common people, that of the kings would seem + to have been, in the main, the worship of this god, whom they perhaps + sometimes confused with Mithra, or associated with Anaitis, but whom they + never neglected, or failed openly to acknowledge. + </p> + <p> + Under the great Ormazd were a number of subordinate deities, the principal + of whom were Mithra and Serosh, Mithra, the Sun-God, had been from a very + early date an object of adoration in Persia, only second to Ormazd. The + Achaemenian kings joined him occasionally with Ormazd in their + invocations. In processions his chariot, drawn by milk-white horses, + followed closely on that of Ormazd. He was often associated with Ormazd, + as if an equal, though a real equality was probably not intended. He was + “great,” “pure,” “imperishable,” “the beneficent protector of all + creatures,” and “the beneficent preserver of all creatures.” He had a + thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. His worship was probably more widely + extended than that of Ormazd himself, and was connected in general with a + material representation. + </p> + <p> + In the early times this was a simple disk, or circle; but from the reign + of Artaxerxes Mnemon, a human image seems to have been substituted. Prayer + was offered to Mithra three times a day, at dawn, at noon, and at sunset; + and it was usual to worship him with sacrifice. The horse appears to have + been the victim which he was supposed to prefer. + </p> + <p> + Sraosha, or Serosh, was an angel of great power and dignity. He was the + special messenger of Ormazd, and the head of his celestial army. He was + “tall, well-formed, beautiful, swift, victorious, happy, sincere, true, + the master of truth.” It was his office to deliver revelations, to show + men the paths of happiness, and to bring them the blessings which Ormazd + had assigned to each. He invented the music for the five most ancient + Gathas, discovered the barsom or divining-rod, and first taught its use to + mankind. From his palace on the highest summit of the Elburz range, he + watched the proceedings of the evil genii, and guarded the world from + their attempts. The Iranians were his special care; but he lost no + opportunity of injuring the Powers of Darkness, and lessening their + dominion by teaching everywhere the true religion. In the other world it + was his business to conduct the souls of the faithful through the dangers + of the middle passage, and to bring them before the golden throne of + Ormazd. + </p> + <p> + Among minor angelic powers were Vayu, “the wind,” who is found also in the + Vedic system; Airyanam, a god presiding over marriages; Vitraha, a good + genius; Tistrya, the Dog Star, etc. The number of the minor deities was + not, however, great; nor do they seem, as in so many other polytheistic + religions, to have advanced in course of time from a subordinate to a + leading position. From first to last they are of small account; and it + seems, therefore, unnecessary to detain the reader by an elaborate + description of them. + </p> + <p> + From the mass, however, of the lower deities or genii must be + distinguished (besides Mithra and Serosh) the six Amesha Spentas, or + Amshashpands, who formed the council of Ormazd, and in a certain sense + reflected his glory. These were Vohu-mano or Bahman, Ashavahista or + Ardibehesht, Khsha-thra-vairya or Shahravar, Spenta-Armaiti or + Isfandarmat, Haurvatat or Khordad, and Ameretat or Amerdat. Vohu-mano, + “the Good Mind,” originally a mere attribute of Ormazd, came to be + considered a distinct being, created by him to be his attendant and his + councillor. He was, as it were, the Grand Vizier of the Almighty King, the + chief of the heavenly conclave. Ormazd entrusted to him especially the + care of animal life; and thus, as presiding over cattle, he is the patron + deity of the agriculturist. Asha-vahista, “the best truth,” or “the best + purity,” is the Light of the universe, subtle, pervading, omnipresent. He + maintains the splendor of the various luminaries, and presides over the + element of fire. Khsha-thra-vairya, “wealth,” has the goods of this world + at his disposal, and specially presides over metals, the conventional + signs of wealth; he is sometimes identified with the metal which he + dispenses. Spenta-Armaiti, “Holy Armaiti,” is at once the genius of the + Earth, and the goddess of piety. She has the charge of “the good + creation,” watches over it, and labors to convert the desolate and + unproductive portions of it into fruitful fields and gardens. Together + with Vohu-mano, she protects the agriculturist, blessing his land with + increase, as Vohu-mano does his cattle. She is called “the daughter of + Ormazd,” and is regarded as the agent through whom Ormazd created the + earth. Moreover, “she tells men the everlasting laws, which no one may + abolish,” or, in other words, imparts to them the eternal principles of + morality. She is sometimes represented as standing next to Ormazd in the + mythology, as in the profession of faith required of converts to + Zoroastrianism. The two remaining Amshashpands, Haurvatat and Ameretat, + “Health” and “Immortality,” have the charge of the vegetable creation; + Haurvatat causes the flow of water, so necessary to the support of + vegetable life in countries where little rain falls; Ameretat protects + orchards and gardens, and enables trees to bring their fruits to + perfection. + </p> + <p> + Another deity, practically perhaps as much worshipped as Ormazd and + Mithra, was Anaitis or Anahit. Anaiitis was originally an Assyrian and + Babylonian, not a Zoroastrian goddess; but her worship spread to the + Persians at a date anterior to Herodotus, and became in a short time + exceedingly popular. It was in connection with this worship that idolatry + seems first to have crept in, Artaxerxes Mnemon (ab. B.C. 400) having + introduced images of Anaitis into Persia, and set them up at Susa, the + capital, at Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactra, Babylon, Damascus, and Sardis. + Anaitis was the Babylonian Venus; and her rites at Babylon were + undoubtedly of a revolting character. It is to be feared that they were + introduced in all their grossness into Persia, and that this was the cause + of Anahitis great popularity. Her cult “was provided with priests and + hieroduli, and connected with mysteries, feasts, and unchaste ways.” + </p> + <p> + The Persian system was further tainted with idolatry in respect of the + worship of Mithra, and possibly of Vohu-mano (Batman), and of Amerdat; but + on the whole, and especially as compared with other Oriental cults, the + religion, even of the later Zoroastrians, must be regarded as retaining a + non-materialistic and anti-idolatrous character, which elevated it above + other neighboring religions, above Brahminism on the one hand and + Syro-Chaldaean nature-worship on the other. + </p> + <p> + In the kingdom of Darkness, the principal powers, besides Ahriman, were + Ako-mano, Indra, Qaurva, Naonhaitya, Taric, and Zaric. These six together + formed the Council of the Evil One, as the six Amshashpands formed the + council of Ormazd. Ako-mano, “the bad mind,” or (literally) “the naught + mind,” was set over against Vohu-mano, “the good mind,” and was Ahriman’s + Grand Vizier. His special sphere was the mind of man, where he suggested + evil thoughts, and prompted to bad words and wicked deeds. Indra, + identical with the Vedic deity, but made a demon by the Zoroastrians, + presided over storm and tempest, and governed the issues of war and + battle. Qaurva and Naonhaitya were also Vedic deities turned into devils. + It is difficult to assign them any distinct sphere. Taric and Zaric, + “Darkness” and “Poison,” had no doubt occupations corresponding with their + names. Besides these chief demons, a countless host of evil genii (<i>divs</i>) + and fairies (<i>pairicas</i>) awaited the orders and executed the behests + of Ahriman. + </p> + <p> + Placed between the two contending worlds of good and evil, man’s position + was one of extreme danger and difficulty. Originally set upon the earth by + Ormazd in order to maintain the good creation, he was liable to the + continual temptations and seductions of the divs or devas, who were + “wicked, bad, false, untrue, the originators of mischief, most baneful, + destructive, the basest of all things.” A single act of sin gave them a + hold upon him, and each subsequent act increased their power, until + ultimately he became their mere tool and slave. It was however possible to + resist temptation, to cling to the side of right, to defy and overcome the + deltas. Man might maintain his uprightness, walk in the path of duty, and + by the help of the asuras, or “good spirits,” attain to a blissful + paradise. + </p> + <p> + To arrive at this result, man had carefully to observe three principal + duties. These were worship, agriculture, and purity. Worship consisted in + the acknowledgment of the One True God, Ormazd, and of his Holy Angels, + the Amesha Spentas or Amshashpands, in the frequent offering of prayers, + praises, and thanksgivings, in the recitation of set hymns, the + performance of a certain ceremony called the Homa, and in the occasional + sacrifice of animals. The set hymns form a large portion of the + Zendavesta, where they occur in the shape of Gathas, or Yashts, sometimes + possessing considerable beauty. They are sometimes general, addressed to + Ormazd and the Amesha Spentas in common, sometimes special, containing the + praises of a particular deity. The Homa ceremony consisted in the + extraction of the juice of the Homa plant by the priests during the + recitation of prayers, the formal presentation of the liquor extracted to + the sacrificial fire, the consumption of a small portion of it by one of + the officiating priests, and the division of the remainder among the + worshippers. As the juice was drunk immediately after extraction and + before fermentation had set in, it was not intoxicating. The ceremony + seems to have been regarded, in part, as having a mystic force, securing + the favor of heaven; in part, as exerting a beneficial effect upon the + body of the worshipper through the curative power inherent in the Homa + plant. The animals which might be sacrificed were the horse, the ox, the + sheep, and the goat, the horse being the favorite victim. A priest always + performed the sacrifice, slaying the animal, and showing the flesh to the + sacred fire by way of consecration, after which it was eaten at a solemn + feast by the priest and people. + </p> + <p> + It is one of the chief peculiarities of Zoroastrianism that it regarded + agriculture as a religious duty. Man had been placed upon the earth + especially “to maintain the good creation,” and resist the endeavors of + Ahriman to injure, and if possible, ruin it. This could only be done by + careful tilling of the soil, eradication of thorns and weeds, and + reclamation of the tracts over which Ahriman had spread the curse of + barrenness. To cultivate the soil was thus incumbent upon all men; the + whole community was required to be agricultural; and either as proprietor, + as farmer, or as laboring man, each Zoroastrian was bound to “further the + works of life” by advancing tillage. + </p> + <p> + The purity which was required of the Zoroastrian was of two kinds, moral + and legal, Moral purity comprised all that Christianity includes under it—truth, + justice, chastity, and general sinlessness. It was coextensive with the + whole sphere of human activity, embracing not only words and acts, but + even the secret thoughts of the heart. Legal purity was to be obtained + only by the observance of a multitude of trifling ceremonies and the + abstinence from ten thousand acts in their nature wholly indifferent. + Especially, everything was to be avoided which could be thought to pollute + the four elements—all of them sacred to the Zoroastrian of Sassanian + times—fire, water, earth, and air. + </p> + <p> + Man’s struggle after holiness and purity was sustained in the Zoroastrian + system by the confident hope of a futurity of happiness. It was taught + that the soul of man was immortal, and would continue to possess for ever + a separate conscious existence. Immediately after death the spirits of + both good and bad had to proceed along an appointed path to “the bridge of + the gatherer” (<i>chinvat peretu</i>). This was a narrow road conducting + to heaven or paradise, over which the souls of the pious alone could pass, + while the wicked fell from it into the gulf below, where they found + themselves in the place of punishment. The steps of the good were guided + and supported by the angel Serosh—the “happy, well-formed, swift, + tall Serosh”—who conducted them across the difficult passage into + the heavenly region. There Bahman, rising from his throne, greeted them on + their entrance with the salutation, “Happy thou who art come here to us + from the mortality to the immortality!” Then they proceeded joyfully + onward to the presence of Ormazd, to the immortal saints, to the golden + throne, to paradise. As for the wicked, when they fell into the gulf, they + found themselves in outer darkness, in the kingdom of Ahriman, where they + were forced to remain and to feed on poisoned banquets. + </p> + <p> + The priests of the Zoroastrians, from a time not long subsequent to Darius + Hystaspis, were the Magi. This tribe, or caste, originally perhaps + external to Zoroastrianism, had come to be recognized as a true priestly + order; and was intrusted by the Sassanian princes with the whole control + and direction of the religion of the state. Its chief was a personage + holding a rank but very little inferior to the king. He bore the title of + Tenpet, “Head of the Religion,” or <i>Movpetan Movpet</i>, “Head of the + Chief Magi.” In times of difficulty and danger he was sometimes called + upon to conduct a revolution; and in the ordinary course of things he was + always reckoned among the monarch’s chief counsellors. Next in rank to him + were a number of <i>Movpets</i>, or “Chief Magi,” called also <i>destoors</i> + or “rulers,” who scarcely perhaps constituted an order, but still held an + exalted position. Under these were, finally, a large body of ordinary + Magi, dispersed throughout the empire, but especially congregated in the + chief towns. + </p> + <p> + The Magi officiated in a peculiar dress. This consisted of a tall peaked + cap of felt or some similar material, having deep lappets at the side, + which concealed the jaw and even the lips, and a long white robe, or + cloak, descending to the ankles. They assembled often in large numbers, + and marched in stately processions, impressing the multitude by a grand + and striking ceremonial. Besides the offerings which were lavished upon + them by the faithful, they possessed considerable endowments in land, + which furnished them with an assured subsistence. They were allowed by + Chosroes the First a certain administrative power in civil matters; the + collection of the revenue was to take place under their supervision; they + were empowered to interfere in cases of oppression, and protect the + subject against the tax-gatherer. + </p> + <p> + The Zoroastrian worship was intimately connected with fire-temples and + fire-altars. A fire-temple was maintained in every important city + throughout the empire; and in these a sacred flame, believed to have been + lighted from heaven, was kept up perpetually, by the care of the priests, + and was spoken of as “unextinguishable.” Fire-altars probably also + existed, independently of temples; and an erection of this kind maintained + from first to last an honorable position on the Sassanian coins, being the + main impress upon the reverse. It was represented with the flame rising + from it, and sometimes with a head in the flame; its stem was ornamented + with garlands or fillets; and on either side, as protectors or as + worshippers, were represented two figures, sometimes watching the flame, + sometimes turned from it, guarding it apparently from external enemies. + </p> + <p> + Besides the sacerdotal, the Magi claimed to exercise the prophetical + office. From a very early date they had made themselves conspicuous as + omen-readers and dream-expounders; but, not content with such occasional + exhibitions of prophetic power, they ultimately reduced divination to a + system, and, by the help of the barsom or bundle of divining rods, + undertook to return a true answer on all points connected with the future, + upon which they might be consulted. Credulity is never wanting among + Orientals; and the power of the priesthood was no doubt greatly increased + by a pretension which was easily made, readily believed, and not generally + discredited by failures, however numerous. + </p> + <p> + The Magian priest was commonly seen with the barsom in his hand; but + occasionally he exchanged that instrument for another, known as the <i>khrafgihraghna</i>. + It was among the duties of the pious Zoroastrian, and more especially of + those who were entrusted with the priestly office, to wage perpetual war + with Ahriman, and to destroy his works whenever opportunity offered. Now + among these, constituting a portion of “the bad creation,” were all such + animals as frogs, toads, snakes, newts, mice, lizards, flies, and the + like. The Magi took every opportunity of killing such creatures; and the + <i>Jchrafgthraghna</i> was an implement which they invented for the sake + of carrying out this pious purpose. + </p> + <p> + The court of the Sassanian kings, especially in the later period of the + empire, was arranged upon a scale of almost unexampled grandeur and + magnificence. The robes worn by the Great King were beautifully + embroidered, and covered with gems and pearls, which in some + representations may be counted by hundreds. <a href="#linkBimage-0026">[PLATE + XLV.]</a> The royal crown, which could not be worn, but was hung from the + ceiling by a gold chain exactly over the head of the king when he took his + seat in his throne-room, is said to have been adorned with a thousand + pearls, each as large as an egg. The throne itself was of gold, and was + supported on four feet, each formed of a single enormous ruby. The great + throne-room was ornamented with enormous columns of silver, between which + were hangings of rich silk or brocade. The vaulted roof presented to the + eye representations of the heavenly bodies, the sun, the moon, and the + stars;no while globes, probably of crystal, or of burnished metal, hung + suspended from it at various heights, lighting up the dark space as with a + thousand lustres. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate045.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The state observed at the court resembled that of the most formal and + stately of the Oriental monarchies. The courtiers were organized in seven + ranks. Foremost came the Ministers of the crown; next the Mobeds, or chief + Magi; after them, the hirbeds, or judges; then the sipehbeds, or + commanders-in chief, of whom there were commonly four; last of all the + singers, musicians, and men of science, arranged in three orders. The king + sat apart even from the highest nobles, who, unless summoned, might not + approach nearer than thirty feet from him. + </p> + <p> + A low curtain separated him from them, which was under the charge of an + officer, who drew it for those only with whom the king had expressed a + desire to converse. + </p> + <p> + An important part of the palace was the seraglio. The polygamy practised + by the Sassanian princes was on the largest scale that has ever been heard + of, Chosroes II. having maintained, we are told, three thousand + concubines. The modest requirements of so many secondary wives + necessitated the lodging and sustenance of twelve thousand additional + females, chiefly slaves, whose office was to attend on these royal + favorites, attire them, and obey their behests. Eunuchs are not mentioned + as employed to any large extent; but in the sculptures of the early + princes they seem to be represented as holding offices of importance, and + the analogy of Oriental courts does not allow us to doubt that the + seraglio was, to some extent at any rate, under their superintendence. + Each Sassanian monarch had one sultana or principal wife, who was + generally a princess by birth, but might legally be of any origin. In one + or two instances the monarch sets the effigy of his principal wife upon + his coins; but this is unusual, and when, towards the close of the empire, + females were allowed to ascend the throne, it is thought that they + refrained from parading themselves in this way, and stamped their coins + with the head of a male. + </p> + <p> + In attendance upon the monarch were usually his parasol-bearer, his + fan-bearer, who appears to have been a eunuch, the <i>Senelcapan,</i> or + “Lord Chamberlain,” the <i>Maypet</i>, or “Chief Butler,” the Andertzapet, + or “Master of the Wardrobe,” the <i>Alchorapet</i>, or “Master of the + Horse,” the <i>Taharhapet</i> or “Chief Cupbearer,” the <i>Shahpan</i>, or + “Chief Falconer,” and the __Krhogpet, or “Master of the Workmen.” Except + the parasol-bearer and fan-bearer, these officials all presided over + departments, and had under them a numerous body of subordinates. If the + royal stables contained even 8000 horses, which one monarch is said to + have kept for his own riding, the grooms and stable-boys must have been + counted by hundreds; and an equal or greater number of attendants must + have been required for the camels and elephants, which are estimated m + respectively at 1200 and 12,000. The “workmen” were also probably a corps + of considerable size, continually engaged in repairs or in temporary or + permanent erections. + </p> + <p> + Other great officials, corresponding more nearly to the “Ministers” of a + modern sovereign, were the <i>Vzourkhramanatar</i>, or “Grand Keeper of + the Royal Orders,” who held the post now known as that of <i>Grand Vizier</i>; + the <i>Dprapet Ariats</i>, or “Chief of the Scribes of Iran,” a sort of + Chancellor; the <i>Hazarapet dran Ariats</i>, or “Chiliarch of the Gate of + Iran,” a principal Minister; the <i>Hamarakar</i>, a “Chief Cashier” or + “Paymaster;” and the <i>Khohrdean dpir</i>, or “Secretary of Council,” a + sort of Privy Council clerk or registrar. The native names of these + officers are known to us chiefly through the Armenian writers of the fifth + and seventh centuries. + </p> + <p> + The Sassanian court, though generally held at Ctesiphon, migrated to other + cities, if the king so pleased, and is found established, at one time in + the old Persian capital, Persepolis, at another in the comparatively + modern city of Dastaghord. The monarchs maintained from first to last + numerous palaces, which they visited at their pleasure and made their + residence for a longer or a shorter period. Four such palaces have been + already described; and there is reason to believe that many others existed + in various parts of the empire. There was certainly one of great + magnificence at Canzaca; and several are mentioned as occupied by + Heraclius in the country between the Lower Zab and Ctesiphon. Chosroes II. + undoubtedly built one near Takht-i-Bostan; and Sapor the First must have + had one at Shapur, where he set up the greater portion of his monuments. + The discovery of the Mashita palace, in a position so little inviting as + the land of Moab, seems to imply a very general establishment of royal + residences in the remote provinces of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The costume of the later Persians is known to us chiefly from the + representations of the kings, on whose figures alone have the native + artists bestowed much attention. In peace, the monarch seems to have worn + a sort of pelisse or long coat, partially open in front, and with + close-fitting sleeves reaching to the wrist, under which he had a pair of + loose trousers descending to the feet and sometimes even covering them. A + belt or girdle encircled his waist. His feet were encased in patterned + shoes, tied with long flowing ribbons. Over his pelisse he wore + occasionally a long cape or short cloak, which was fastened with a brooch + or strings across the breast and flowed over the back and shoulders. The + material composing the cloak was in general exceedingly light and flimsy. + The head-dress commonly worn seems to have been a round cap, which was + perhaps ornamented with jewels. The vest and trousers were also in some + cases richly jewelled. Every king wore ear-rings, with one, two, or three + pendants. A collar or necklace was also commonly worn round the neck; and + this had sometimes two or more pendants in front. Occasionally the beard + was brought to a point and had a jewel hanging from it. The hair seems + always to have been worn long; it was elaborately curled, and hung down on + either shoulder in numerous ringlets. When the monarch rode out in state, + an attendant held the royal parasol over him. + </p> + <p> + In war the monarch encased the upper part of his person in a coat of mail, + composed of scales or links. Over this he wore three belts; the first, + which crossed the breast diagonally, was probably attached to his shield, + which might be hung from it; the second supported his sword; and the third + his quiver, and perhaps his bow-case. A stiff, embroidered trouser of + great fulness protected the leg, while the head was guarded by a helmet, + and a vizor of chain mail hid all the face but the eyes. The head and + fore-quarters of the royal charger were also covered with armor, which + descended below the animal’s knees in front, but was not carried back + behind the rider. The monarch’s shield was round, and carried on the left + arm; his main offensive weapon was a heavy spear, which he brandished in + his right hand. + </p> + <p> + One of the favorite pastimes of the kings was hunting. The Sassanian + remains show us the royal sportsmen engaged in the pursuit of the stag, + the wild boar, the ibex, the antelope, and the buffalo. To this catalogue + of their beasts of chase the classical writers add the lion, the tiger, + the wild ass, and the bear. Lions, tigers, bears, and wild asses were, it + appears, collected for the purpose of sport, and kept in royal parks or + paradises until a hunt was determined on. The monarchs then engaged in the + sport in person, either singly or in conjunction with a royal ambassador, + or perhaps of a favorite minister, or a few friends. The lion was engaged + hand to hand with sword or spear; the more dangerous tiger was attacked + from a distance with arrows. Stags and wild boars were sufficiently + abundant to make the keeping of them in paradises unnecessary. When the + king desired to hunt them, it was only requisite to beat a certain extent + of country in order to make sure of finding the game. This appears to have + been done generally by elephants, which entered the marshes or the + woodlands, and, spreading themselves wide, drove the animals before them + towards an enclosed space, surrounded by a net or a fence, where the king + was stationed with his friends and attendants. If the tract was a marsh, + the monarch occupied a boat, from which he quietly took aim at the beasts + that came within shot. Otherwise he pursued the game on horseback, and + transfixed it while riding at full speed. In either case he seems to have + joined to the pleasures of the chase the delights of music. Bands of + harpers and other musicians were placed near him within the enclosure, and + he could listen to their strains while he took his pastime. + </p> + <p> + The musical instruments which appear distinctly on the Sassanian + sculptures are the harp, the horn, the drum, and the flute or pipe. The + harp is triangular, and has seven strings; it is held in the lap, and + played apparently by both hands. The drum is of small size. The horns and + pipes are too rudely represented for their exact character to be apparent. + Concerted pieces seem to have been sometimes played by harpers only, of + whom as many as ten or twelve joined in the execution. Mixed bands were + more numerous. In one instance the number of performers amounts to + twenty-six, of whom seven play the harp, an equal number the flute or + pipe, three the horn, one the drum, while eight are too slightly rendered + for their instruments to be recognized. A portion of the musicians occupy + an elevated orchestra, to which there is access by a flight of steps. + </p> + <p> + There is reason to believe that the Sassanian monarchs took a pleasure + also in the pastime of hawking. It has been already noticed that among the + officers of the court was a “Head Falconer,” who must have presided over + this species of sport. Hawking was of great antiquity in the East, and + appears to have been handed down uninterruptedly from remote times to the + present day. We may reasonably conjecture that the ostriches and + pheasants, if not the peacocks also, kept in the royal preserves, were + intended to be used in this pastime, the hawks being flown at them if + other game proved to be scarce. + </p> + <p> + The monarchs also occasionally amused themselves in their leisure hours by + games. The introduction of chess from India by the great Chosroes + (Anushirwan) has already been noticed; and some authorities state that the + same monarch brought into use also a species of tric-trac or draughts. + Unfortunately we have no materials for determining the exact form of the + game in either case, the Sassanian remains containing no representation of + such trivial matters. + </p> + <p> + In the character of their warfare, the Persians of the Sassanian period + did not greatly differ from the same people under the Achaemenian kings. + The principal changes which time had brought about were an almost entire + disuse of the war chariot, <a href="#linkBimage-0027">[PLATE XLVI. Fig. 3.]</a> + and the advance of the elephant corps into a very prominent and important + position. Four main arms of the service were recognized, each standing on + a different level: viz. the elephants, the horse, the archers, and the + ordinary footmen. The elephant corps held the first position. It was + recruited from India, but was at no time very numerous. Great store was + set by it; and in some of the earlier battles against the Arabs the + victory was regarded as gained mainly by this arm of the service. It acted + with best effect in an open and level district; but the value put upon it + was such that, however rough, mountainous, and woody the country into + which the Persian arms penetrated, the elephant always accompanied the + march of the Persian troops, and care was taken to make roads by which it + could travel. The elephant corps was under a special chief, known as the + <i>Zend-hapet</i>, or “Commander of the Indians,” either because the + beasts came from that country, or because they were managed by natives of + Hindustan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate046.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + The Persian cavalry in the Sassanian period seems to have been almost + entirely of the heavy kind. <a href="#linkBimage-0027">[PLATE XLVI., Fig. + 4.]</a> We hear nothing during these centuries of those clouds of light + horse which, under the earlier Persian and under the Parthian monarchy, + hung about invading or retreating armies, countless in their numbers, + agile in their movements, a terrible annoyance at the best of times, and a + fearful peril under certain circumstances. The Persian troops which + pursued Julian were composed of heavily armed cavalry, foot archers, and + elephants; and the only light horse of which we have any mention during + the disastrous retreat of his army are the Saracenic allies of Sapor. In + these auxiliaries, and in the Cadusians from the Caspian region, the + Persians had always, when they wished it, a cavalry excellently suited for + light service; but their own horse during the Sassanian period seems to + have been entirely of the heavy kind, armed and equipped, that is, very + much as Chosroes II. is seen to bo at Takht-i-Bostan. The horses + themselves wore heavily armored about their head, neck, and chest; the + rider wore a coat of mail which completely covered his body as far as the + hips, and a strong helmet, with a vizor, which left no part of the face + exposed but the eyes. He carried a small round shield on his left arm, and + had for weapons a heavy spear, a sword, and a bow and arrows. He did not + fear a collision with the best Roman troops. The Sassanian horse often + charged the infantry of the legions with success, and drove it headlong + from the field of battle. In time of peace, the royal guards were more + simply accoutred. [See PLATE XLVI.] + </p> + <p> + The archers formed the elite of the Persian infantry. They were trained to + deliver their arrows with extreme rapidity, and with an aim that was + almost unerring. The huge wattled shields, adopted by the Achaemenian + Persians from the Assyrians, still remained in use; and from behind a row + of these, rested upon the ground and forming a sort of loop-holed wall, + the Sassanian bowmen shot their weapons with great effect; nor was it + until their store of arrows was exhausted that the Romans, ordinarily, + felt themselves upon even terms with their enemy. Sometimes the archers, + instead of thus fighting in line, were intermixed with the heavy horse, + with which it was not difficult for them to keep pace. They galled the foe + with their constant discharges from between the ranks of the horsemen, + remaining themselves in comparative security, as the legions rarely + ventured to charge the Persian mailed cavalry. If they were forced to + retreat, they still shot backwards as they fled; and it was a proverbial + saying with the Romans that they were then especially formidable. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary footmen seem to have been armed with swords and spears, + perhaps also with darts. They were generally stationed behind the archers, + who, however, retired through their ranks when close fighting began. They + had little defensive armor; but still seem to have fought with spirit and + tenacity, being a fair match for the legionaries under ordinary + circumstances, and superior to most other adversaries. + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain how the various arms of the service were organized + internally. We do not hear of any divisions corresponding to the Roman + legions or to modern regiments; yet it is difficult to suppose that there + were not some such bodies. Perhaps each satrap of a province commanded the + troops raised within his government, taking the actual lead of the cavalry + or the infantry at his discretion. The Crown doubtless appointed the + commanders-in-chief—the <i>Sparapets, Spaha-pets, or Sipehbeds</i>, + as well as the other generals (<i>arzbeds</i>), the head of the + commissariat (<i>hambarapet</i> or <i>hambarahapet</i>), and the commander + of the elephants (<i>zendkapet</i>). The satraps may have acted as + colonels of regiments under the arzbeds, and may probably have had the + nomination of the subordinate (regimental) officers. + </p> + <p> + The great national standard was the famous “leathern apron of the + blacksmith,” originally unadorned, but ultimately covered with jewels, + which has been described in a former chapter. This precious palladium was, + however, but rarely used, its place being supplied for the most part by + standards of a more ordinary character. These appear by the monuments to + have been of two kinds. Both consisted primarily of a pole and a + cross-bar; but in the one kind the crossbar sustained a single ring with a + bar athwart it, while below depended two woolly tassels; in the other, + three striated balls rose from the cross-bar, while below the place of the + tassels was taken by two similar balls. It is difficult to say what these + emblems symbolized, or why they were varied. In both the representations + where they appear the standards accompany cavalry, so that they cannot + reasonably be assigned to different arms of the service. That the number + of standards carried into battle was considerable may be gathered from the + fact that on one occasion, when the defeat sustained was not very + complete, a Persian army left in the enemy’s hands as many as twenty-eight + of them. + </p> + <p> + During the Sassanian period there was nothing very remarkable in the + Persian tactics. The size of armies generally varied from 30,000 to 60,000 + men, though sometimes 100,000, and on one occasion as many as 140,000, are + said to have been assembled. The bulk of the troops were footmen, the + proportion of the horse probably never equalling one third of a mixed + army. Plundering expeditions were sometimes undertaken by bodies of horse + alone; but serious invasions were seldom or never attempted unless by a + force complete in all arms; comprising, that is, horse, foot, elephants, + and artillery. To attack the Romans to any purpose, it was always + necessary to engage in the siege of towns; and although, in the earlier + period of the Sassanian monarchy, a certain weakness and inefficiency in + respect of sieges manifested itself, yet ultimately the difficulty was + overcome, and the Persian expeditionary armies, well provided with siege + trains, compelled the Roman fortresses to surrender within a reasonable + time. It is remarkable that in the later period so many fortresses were + taken with apparently so little difficulty—Daras, Mardin, Amida, + Carrhse, Edessa, Hierapolis, Berhasa, Theodosiopolis, Antioch, Damascus, + Jerusalem, Alexandria, Caesaraea Mazaca, Chalcedon; the siege of none + lasting more than a few months, or costing the assailants very dear. The + method used in sieges was to open trenches at a certain distance from the + walls, and to advance along them under cover of hurdles to the ditch, and + fill it up with earth and fascines. Escalade might then be attempted; or + movable towers, armed with rams or balistae, might be brought up close to + the walls, and the defences battered till a breach was effected. Sometimes + mounds were raised against the walls to a certain height, so that their + upper portion, which was their weakest part, might be attacked, and either + demolished or escaladed. If towns resisted prolonged attacks of this kind, + the siege was turned into a blockade, lines of circumvallation being drawn + round the place, water cut off, and provisions prevented from entering. + Unless a strong relieving army appeared in the field, and drove off the + assailants, this plan was tolerably sure to be successful. + </p> + <p> + Not much is known of the private life of the later Persians. Besides the + great nobles and court officials, the strength of the nation consisted in + its <i>dilchans</i> or landed proprietors, who for the most part lived on + their estates, seeing after the cultivation of the soil, and employing + thereon the free labor of the peasants. It was from these classes chiefly + that the standing army was recruited, and that great levies might always + be made in time of need. Simple habits appear to have prevailed among + them; polygamy, though lawful, was not greatly in use; the maxims of + Zoroaster, which commanded industry, purity, and piety, were fairly + observed. Women seem not to have been kept in seclusion, or at any rate + not in such seclusion as had been the custom under the Parthians, and as + again became usual under the Arabs. The general condition of the + population was satisfactory. Most of the Sassanian monarchs seem to have + been desirous of governing well; and the system inaugurated by Anushirwan, + and maintained by his successors, secured the subjects of the Great King + from oppression, so far as was possible without representative government. + Provincial rulers were well watched and well checked; tax-gatherers were + prevented from exacting more than their due by a wholesale dread that + their conduct would be reported and punished; great pains were taken that + justice should be honestly administered; and in all cases where an + individual felt aggrieved at a sentence an appeal lay to the king. On such + occasions the cause was re-tried in open court, at the gate, or in the + great square; the king, the Magi, and the great lords hearing it, while + the people were also present. The entire result seems to have been that, + so far as was possible under a despotism, oppression was prevented, and + the ordinary citizen had rarely any ground for serious complaint. + </p> + <p> + But it was otherwise with the highest class of all. The near relations of + the monarch, the great officers of the court, the generals who commanded + armies, were exposed without defence to the monarch’s caprice, and held + their lives and liberties at his pleasure. At a mere word or sign from him + they were arrested, committed to prison, tortured, blinded, or put to + death, no trial being thought necessary where the king chose to pronounce + sentence. The intrinsic evils of despotism thus showed themselves even + under the comparatively mild government of the Sassanians; but the class + exposed to them was a small one, and enjoyed permanent advantages, which + may have been felt as some compensation to it for its occasional + sufferings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/family_tree.jpg" width="100%" alt="Family-tree " /> + </div> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The +Ancient Eastern World, Vol 7. 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