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diff --git a/old/16166-h.htm.2021-01-25 b/old/16166-h.htm.2021-01-25 new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e834964 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/16166-h.htm.2021-01-25 @@ -0,0 +1,10168 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Seven Great Monarchies, by George Rawlinson, The Sixth Monarchy + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 20%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 25%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient +Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia, by George Rawlinson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia + The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, + Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian + or New Persian Empire; With Maps and Illustrations. + +Author: George Rawlinson + +Illustrator: George Rawlinson + +Release Date: July 1, 2005 [EBook #16166] +Last Updated: September 6, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES + </h1> + <p> + OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN WORLD; OR, THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND ANTIQUITIES + OF CHALDAEA, ASSYRIA BABYLON, MEDIA, PERSIA, PARTHIA, AND SASSANIAN, OR + NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. <b> BY </b> <b> GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., </b> CAMDEN + PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN THREE VOLUMES. + VOLUME III. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </p> + <h2> + A HISTORY OF PARTHIA <br /> <br /> THE SIXTH MONARCHY + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_parthia_proper.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL + SIZE"</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_parthia_proper_th (111K)" + src="images/map_parthia_proper_th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_parthian_empire.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL + SIZE"</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_parthian_empire_th (161K)" + src="images/map_parthian_empire_th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <h2> + CONTENTS + </h2> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + List of Illustrations + </h2> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Map of Parthia Proper </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Map of Parthia </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Plate 1. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Plate 2. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> Plate 3. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> Plate 4. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> Plate 5. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> Plate 6. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> Plate 7. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> Plate 8. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> Plate 9. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> Plate 10. </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + A HISTORY OF PARTHIA. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Geography of Parthia Proper, Character of the Region, Climate, + Character of the Surrounding Countries.</i> + </p> + <p> + The broad tract of desert which, eastward of the Caspian Sea, extends from + the Mougbojar hills to the Indian Ocean, a distance of above 1500 miles, + is interrupted about midway by a strip of territory possessing features of + much beauty and attraction. This strip, narrow compared to the desert on + either side of it, is yet, looked at by itself, a region of no + inconsiderable dimensions, extending, as it does from east to west, a + distance of 320, and from north to south of nearly 200 miles. The mountain + chain, which running southward of the Caspian, skirts the great plateau of + Iran, or Persia, on the north, broadens out, after it passes the + south-eastern corner of the sea, into a valuable and productive + mountain-region. Four or five distinct ranges here run parallel to one + another, having between them latitudinal valleys, with glens transverse to + their courses. The sides of the valleys are often well wooded; the flat + ground at the foot of the hills is fertile; water abounds; and the streams + gradually collect into rivers of a considerable size. + </p> + <p> + The fertile territory in this quarter is further increased by the + extension of cultivation to a considerable distance from the base of the + most southern of the ranges, in the direction of the Great Iranic desert. + The mountains send down a number of small streams towards the south; and + the water of these, judiciously husbanded by means of reservoirs and <i>kanats</i>, + is capable of spreading fertility over a broad belt at the foot of the + hills; which, left to nature, would be almost as barren as the desert + itself, into which it would, in fact, be absorbed. + </p> + <p> + It was undoubtedly in the region which has been thus briefly described + that the ancient home of the Parthians lay. In this neighborhood alone are + found the geographic names which the most ancient writers who mention the + Parthians connect with them. Here evidently the Parthians were settled at + the time when Alexander the Great overran the East, and first made the + Greeks thoroughly familiar with the Parthian name and territory. Here, + lastly, in the time of the highest Parthian splendor and prosperity, did a + province of the Empire retain the name of Parthyene, or Parthia Proper; + and here, also, in their palmiest days, did the Parthian kings continue to + have a capital and a residence. + </p> + <p> + Parthia Proper, however, was at no time coextensive with the region + described. A portion of that region formed the district called Hyrcania; + and it is not altogether easy to determine what were the limits between + the two. The evidence goes, on the whole, to show that, while Hyrcania lay + towards the west and north, the Parthian country was that towards the + south and east, the valleys of the Ettrek and Gurghan constituting the + main portions of the former, while the tracts east and south of those + valleys, as far as the sixty-first degree of E. longitude, constituted the + latter. + </p> + <p> + If the limits of Parthia Proper be thus defined, it will have nearly + corresponded to the modern Persian province of Khorasan. It will have + extended from about Damaghan (long. 54° 10’) upon the west, to the + Heri-rud upon the east, and have comprised the modern districts of + Damaghan, Shah-rud, Sebzawar, Nishapur, Meshed, Shebri-No, and Tersheez. + Its length from east to west will have been about 300 miles, and its + average width about 100 or 120. It will have contained an area of about + 33,000 square miles, being thus about equal in size to Ireland, Bavaria, + or St. Domingo. + </p> + <p> + The character of the district has been already stated in general terms; + but some further particulars may now be added. It consists, in the first + place, of a mountain and a plain region—the mountain region lying + towards the north and the plain region towards the south. The mountain + region is composed of three main ranges, the Daman-i-Koh, or Hills of the + Kurds, upon the north, skirting the great desert of Rharaem, the Alatagh + and Meerabee mountains in the centre; and the Jaghetai or Djuvein range, + upon the south, which may be regarded as continued in the hills above + Tersheez and Khaff. The three ranges are parallel, running east and west, + but with an inclination, more or less strong, to the north of west and the + south of east. The northern and central ranges are connected by a + water-shed, which runs nearly east and west, a little to the south of + Kooshan, and separates the head streams of the Ettrek from those of the + Meshed river. The central and southern ranges are connected by a more + decided, mountain line, a transverse ridge which runs nearly north and + south, dividing between the waters that flow westward into the Gurghan, + and those which form the river of Nishapur. This conformation of the + mountains leaves between the ranges three principal valleys, the valley of + Meshed towards the south-east, between the Kurdish range and the Alatagh + and Meerabee; that of Miyanabad towards the west, between the Alatagh and + the Jaghetai; and that of Nishapur towards the south, between the eastern + end of the Jaghetai and the western flank of the Meerabee. As the valleys + are three in number, so likewise are the rivers, which are known + respectively as the Tejend, or river of Meshed, the river of Nishapur, and + the river of Miyanabad. + </p> + <p> + The Tejend, which is the principal stream of the three, rises from several + sources in the hills south of Kooshan, and flows with a south-easterly + course down the valley of Meshed, receiving numerous tributaries from both + sides, until it reaches that city, when it bends eastward, and, finding a + way through the Kurdish range, joins the course of the Heri-rud, about + long. 01° 10’. Here its direction is completely changed. Turning at an + angle, which is slightly acute, it proceeds to flow to the west of north, + along the northern base of the Kurdish range, from which it receives + numerous small streams, till it ends finally in a large swamp or marsh, in + lat. 39°, long. 57°, nearly. The entire length of the stream, including + only main windings, is about 475 miles. In its later course, however, it + is often almost dry, the greater portion of the water being consumed in + irrigation in the neighborhood of Meshed. + </p> + <p> + The river of Nishapur is formed by numerous small streams, which descend + from the mountains that on three sides inclose that city. Its water is at + times wholly consumed in the cultivation of the plain; but the natural + course may be traced, running in a southerly and south-westerly direction, + until it debouches from the hills in the vicinity of Tersheez. The + Miyanabad stream is believed to be a tributary of the Gurghan. It rises + from several sources in the transverse range joining the Alatagh to the + Jaghetai, the streams from which all flow westward in narrow valleys, + uniting about long. 57° 35’. The course of the river from this point to + Piperne has not been traced, but it is believed to run in a general + westerly direction along the southern base of the Alatagh, and to form a + junction with the Gurghan a little below the ruins of the same name. Its + length to this point is probably about 200 miles. + </p> + <p> + The elevation of the mountain chains is not great. No very remarkable + peaks occur in them; and it may be doubted whether they anywhere attain a + height of above 6000 feet. They are for the most part barren and rugged, + very scantily supplied with timber, and only in places capable of + furnishing a tolerable pasturage to flocks and herds. The valleys, on the + other hand, are rich and fertile in the extreme; that of Meshed, which + extends a distance of above a hundred miles from north-west to south-east, + and is from twenty to thirty miles broad, has almost everywhere a good and + deep soil, is abundantly supplied with water, and yields a plentiful + return even to the simplest and most primitive cultivation. The plain + about Nishapur, which is in length from eighty to ninety miles, and in + width from forty to sixty, boasts a still greater fertility. + </p> + <p> + The flat country along the southern base of the mountains, which ancient + writers regard as Parthia, par excellence, is A strip of territory about + 300 miles long, varying in width ac cording to the labor and the skill + applied by its inhabitants to the perfecting of a system of irrigation. At + present the <i>kanats</i>, or underground water-courses, are seldom + carried to a distance of more than a mile or two from the foot of the + hills; but it is thought that anciently the cultivation was extended + considerably further. Ruined cities dispersed throughout the tract + sufficiently indicate its capabilities, and in a few places where much + attention is paid to agriculture the results are such as to imply that the + soil is more than ordinarily productive. The salt desert lies, however, in + most places within ten or fifteen miles of the hills; and beyond this + distance it is obviously impossible that the “Atak” or “Skirt” should at + any time have been inhabited. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that the entire tract above described must have been at all + times a valuable and much coveted region. Compared with the arid and + inhospitable deserts which adjoin it upon the north and south, Khorasan, + the ancient Parthia and Hyrcania, is a terrestrial Paradise. Parthia, + though scantily wooded, still produces in places the pine, the walnut, the + sycamore, the ash, the poplar, the willow, the vine, the mulberry, the + apricot, and numerous other fruit trees. Saffron, asafoetida, and the gum + ammoniac plant, are indigenous in parts of it. Much of the soil is suited + for the cultivation of wheat, barley, and cotton. The ordinary return upon + wheat and barley is reckoned at ten for one. Game abounds in the + mountains, and fish in the underground water-courses. Among the mineral + treasures of the region may be enumerated copper, lead, iron, salt, and + one of the most exquisite of gems, the turquoise. This gem does not appear + to be mentioned by ancient writers; but it is so easily obtainable that we + can scarcely suppose it was not known from very ancient times. + </p> + <p> + The severity of the climate of Parthia is strongly stated by Justin. + According to modern travellers, the winters, though protracted, are not + very inclement, the thermometer rarely sinking below ten or eleven degrees + of Fahrenheit during the nights, and during the daytime rising, even in + December and January, to 40° or 50°. The cold weather, however, which + commences about October, continues till nearly the end of March, when + storms of sleet and hail are common. Much snow falls in the earlier + portion of the winter, and the valleys are scarcely clear of it till + March. On the mountains it remains much longer, and forms the chief source + of supply to the rivers during the spring and the early summer time. In + summer the heat is considerable, more especially in the region known as + the “Atak;” and here, too, the unwholesome wind, which blows from the + southern desert, is felt from, time to time as a terrible scourge. But in + the upland country the heat is at no time very intense, and the natives + boast that they are not compelled by it to sleep on their house-tops + during more than one month in the year. + </p> + <p> + The countries by which Parthia Proper was bounded were the following: + Chorasmia, Margiana, Aria, Sarangia, Sagartia, and Hyrcania. + </p> + <p> + Chorasmia lay upon the north, consisting of the low tract between the most + northerly of the Parthian mountain chains and the old course of the Oxus. + This region, which is for the most part an arid and inhospitable desert, + can at no time have maintained more than a sparse and scanty population. + The Turkoman tribes which at the present day roam over the waste, feeding + their flocks and herds alternately on the banks of the Oxus and the + Tejend, or finding a bare subsistence for them about the ponds and pools + left by the winter rains, represent, it is probable, with sufficient + faithfulness, the ancient inhabitants, who, whatever their race, must + always have been nomads, and can never have exceeded a few hundred + thousands. On this side Parthia must always have been tolerably safe from + attacks, unless the Cis-Oxianian tribes were reinforced, as they sometimes + were, by hordes from beyond the river. + </p> + <p> + On the north-east was Margiana, sometimes regarded as a country by itself, + sometimes reckoned a mere district of Bactria. This was the tract of + fertile land upon the Murg-ab, or ancient Margus river, which is known + among moderns as the district of Merv. The Murg-ab is a stream flowing + from the range of the Paropamisus, in a direction which is a little east + of north; it debouches from the mountains in about lat. 36° 25’, and + thence makes its way through the desert. Before it reaches Merv, it is + eighty yards wide and five feet deep, thus carrying a vast body of water. + By a judicious use of dykes and canals, this fertilizing fluid was in + ancient times carried to a distance of more than twenty-five miles from + the natural course of the river; and by these means an oasis was created + with a circumference of above 170, and consequently a diameter of above + fifty miles. This tract, inclosed on every side by deserts, was among the + most fertile of all known regions; it was especially famous for its vines, + which grew to such a size that a single man could not encircle their stems + with his two arms, and bore clusters that were a yard long. Margiana + possessed, however, as a separate country, little military strength, and + it was only as a portion of some larger and more populous territory that + it could become formidable to the Parthians. + </p> + <p> + South of Margiana, and adjoining upon Parthia toward the east, was Aria, + the tract which lies about the modern Herat. This was for the most part a + mountain region, very similar in its general character to the mountainous + portion of Parthia, but of much smaller dimensions. Its people were fairly + warlike; but the Parthian population was probably double or triple their + number, and Parthia consequently had but little to fear in this quarter. + </p> + <p> + Upon the south-east Parthia was bordered by Sarangia, the country of the + Sarangae, or Drangae. This appears to have been the district south of the + Herat valley, reaching thence as far as the Hamoon, or Sea of Seistan. It + is a country of hills and downs, watered by a number of somewhat scanty + streams, which flow south-westward from the Paropamisus to the Hamoon. Its + population can never have been great, and they were at no time aggressive + or enterprising, so that on this side also the Parthians were secure, and + had to deal with no formidable neighbor. + </p> + <p> + Sagartia succeeded to Sarangia towards the west, and bordered Parthia + along almost the whole of its southern frontier. Excepting in the vicinity + of Tebbes and Toun (lat. 34°, long. 56° to 58°), this district is an + absolute desert, the haunt of the gazelle and the wild ass, dry, saline, + and totally devoid of vegetation. The wild nomads, who wandered over its + wastes, obtaining a scanty subsistence by means of the lasso, were few in + number, scattered, and probably divided by feuds. Southern Parthia might + occasionally suffer from their raids; but they were far too weak to + constitute a serious danger to the mountain country. + </p> + <p> + Lastly, towards the west and the north-west, Parthia was bordered by + Hyrcania, a region geographically in the closest connection with it, very + similar in general character, but richer, warmer, and altogether more + desirable. Hyrcania was, as already observed, the western and + north-western portion of that broad mountain region which has been + described as intervening between the eastern shores of the Caspian and the + river Arius, or Heri-rud. It consisted mainly of the two rich valleys of + the Gurghan and Ettrek, with the mountain chains inclosing or dividing + them. Here on the slopes of the hills grow the oak, the beech, the elm, + the alder, the wild cherry; here luxuriant vines spring from the soil on + every side, raising themselves aloft by the aid of their stronger sisters, + and hanging in wild festoons from tree to tree; beneath their shade the + ground is covered with flowers-of various kinds, primroses, violets, + lilies, hyacinths, and others of unknown species; while in the flat land + at the bottom of the valleys are meadows of the softest and the tenderest + grass, capable of affording to numerous flocks and herds an excellent and + unfailing pasture. Abundant game finds shelter in the forests, while + towards the mouths of the rivers, where the ground is for the most part + marshy, large herds of wild boars are frequent; a single herd sometimes + containing hundreds. Altogether Hyrcania was a most productive and + desirable country, capable of sustaining a dense population, and well + deserving Strabo’s description of it as “highly favored of Heaven.” The + area of the country was, however, small, probably not much exceeding one + half that of Parthia Proper; and thus the people were not sufficiently + numerous to cause the Parthians much apprehension. + </p> + <p> + The situation and character of Parthia thus, on the whole, favored her + becoming an imperial power. She had abundant resources within herself; she + had a territory apt for the production of a hardy race of men; and she had + no neighbors of sufficient strength to keep her down, when she once + developed the desire to become dominant. Surprise has been expressed at + her rise. But it is perhaps more astonishing that she passed so many + centuries in obscurity before she became an important state, than that she + raised herself at last to the first position among the Oriental nations. + Her ambition and her material strength were plants of slow growth; it took + several hundreds of years for them to attain maturity: when, however, this + point was reached, the circumstances of her geographical position stood + her in good stead, and enabled her rapidly to extend her way over the + greater portion of Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Early notices of the Parthians. Their Ethnic character and connections. + Their position under the Persian Monarchs, from Cyrus the Great to Darius + III. (Codomannus.)</i> + </p> + <p> + The Parthians do not appear in history until a comparatively recent + period. Their name occurs nowhere in the Old Testament Scriptures. They + obtain no mention in the Zendavesta. The Assyrian Inscriptions are wholly + silent concerning them. It is not until the time of Darius Hystaspis that + we have trustworthy evidence of their existence as a distinct people. In + the inscriptions of this king we find their country included under the + name of Parthva or Parthwa among the provinces of the Persian Empire, + joined in two places with Sarangia, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, and + Sogdiana, and in a third with these same countries and Sagartia. We find, + moreover, an account of a rebellion in which the Parthians took part. In + the troubles which broke out upon the death of the Pseudo-Smerdis, B.C. + 521, Parthia revolted, in conjunction (as it would seem) with Hyrcania, + espousing the cause of that Median pretender, who, declaring himself a + descendant of the old Median monarchs, set himself up as a rival to + Darius. Hytaspes, the father of Darius, held at this time the Parthian + satrapy. In two battles within the limits of his province he defeated the + rebels, who must have brought into the field a considerable force, since + in one of the two engagements they lost in killed and prisoners between + 10,000 and 11,000 men. After their second defeat the Parthians made their + submission, and once more acknowledged Darius for their sovereign. + </p> + <p> + With these earliest Oriental notices of the Parthians agree entirely such + passages as contain any mention of them in the more ancient literature of + the Greeks. Hecatseus of Miletus, who was contemporary with Darius + Hystaspis, made the Parthians adjoin upon the Chorasmians in the account + which he gave of the geography of Asia. Herodotus spoke of them as a + people subject to the Persians in the reign of Darius, and assigned them + to the sixteenth satrapy, which comprised also the Arians, the Sogdians, + and the Chorasmians. He said that they took part in the expedition of + Xerxes against Greece (B.C. 480), serving in the army on foot under the + same commander as the Chorasmians, and equipped like them with bows and + arrows, and with spears of no great length. In another passage he + mentioned their being compelled to pay the Persian water tax, and spoke of + the great need which they had of water for the irrigation of their millet + and sesame crops. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that these notices agree with the Persian accounts, both as + to the locality of the Parthians and as to the fact of their subjection to + the Persian government. They further agree in assigning to the Parthians a + respectable military character, yet one of no very special eminency. On + the ethnology of the nation, and the circumstances under which the country + became an integral part of the Persian dominions, they throw no light. We + have still to seek an answer to the questions, “Who were the Parthians?” + and “How did they become Persian subjects?” + </p> + <p> + Who were the Parthians? It is not until the Parthians have emerged from + obscurity and become a great people that ancient authors trouble + themselves with inquiries as to their ethnic character and remote + antecedents. Of the first writers who take the subject into their + consideration, some are content to say that the Parthians were a race of + Scyths, who at a remote date had separated from the rest of the nation, + and had occupied the southern portion of the Chorasmian desert, whence + they had gradually made themselves masters of the mountain region + adjoining it. Others added to this that the Scythic tribe to which they + belonged was called the Dahse; that their own proper name was Parni, or + Aparni; and that they had migrated originally from the country to the + north of the Palus Maeotis, where they had left the great mass of their + fellow tribesmen. Subsequently, in the time of the Antonines, the theory + was started that the Parthians were Scyths, whom Sesostris, on his return + from his Scythian expedition, brought into Asia and settled in the + mountain-tract lying east of the Caspian. + </p> + <p> + It can scarcely be thought that these notices have very much historical + value. Moderns are generally agreed that the Scythian conquests of + Sesostris are an invention of the Egyptian priests, which they palmed on + Herodotus and Diodorus. Could they be regarded as having really taken + place, still the march back from Scythia to Egypt round the north and east + of the Caspian Sea would be in the highest degree improbable. The + settlement of the Parthians in Parthia by the returning conqueror is, in + fact, a mere duplicate of the tale commonly told of his having settled the + Colchians in Colchis, and is equally worthless. The earlier authors, + moreover, know nothing of the story, which first appears in the second + century after our era, and as time goes on becomes more circumstantial. + </p> + <p> + Even the special connection of the Parthians with the Dahse, and their + migration from the shores of the Palus Mteotis, may be doubted. Strabo + admits it to be uncertain whether there were any Dahse at all about the + Mseotis; and, if there were, it would be open to question whether they + were of the same race with the Dahse of the Caspian. As the settlement of + the Parthians in the country called after their name dated from a time + anterior to Darius Hystaspis, and the Greeks certainly did not set on foot + any inquiries into their origin till at least two centuries later, it + would be unlikely that the Parthians could give them a true account. The + real groundwork of the stories told seems to have been twofold. First, + there was a strong conviction on the part of those who came in contact + with the Parthians that they were Scyths; and secondly, it was believed + that their name meant “exile.” Hence it was necessary to suppose that they + had migrated into their country from some portion of the tract known as + Scythia to the Greeks, and it was natural to invent stories as to the + particular circumstances of the migration. + </p> + <p> + The residuum of the truth, or at any rate the important conviction of the + ancient writers, which remains after their stories are sifted, is the + Scythic character of the Parthian people. On this point, Strabo, Justin, + and Arrian are agreed. The manners of the Parthians had, they tell us, + much that was Scythic in them. Their language was half Scythic, half + Median. They armed themselves in the Scythic fashion. They were, in fact, + Scyths in descent, in habits, in character. + </p> + <p> + But what are we to understand by this? May we assume at once that they + were a Turanian people, in race, habits, and language akin to the various + tribes of Turkomans who are at present dominant over the entire region + between the Oxus and the Parthian mountain-tract, and within that tract + have many settlements? May we assume that they stood in an attitude of + natural hostility to the Arian nations by which they were surrounded, and + that their revolt was the assertion of independence by a down-trodden + people after centuries of subjection to the yoke of a stranger? Did Turan, + in their persons, rise against Iean after perhaps a thousand years of + oppression, and renew the struggle for predominance in regions where the + war had been waged before, and where it still continues to be waged at the + present day? + </p> + <p> + Such conclusions cannot safely be drawn from the mere fact that the + Scythic character of the Parthians is asserted in the strongest terms by + the ancient writers. The term “Scythic” is not, strictly speaking, + ethnical. It designates a life rather a descent, habits rather than blood. + It is applied by the Greeks and Romans to Indo-European and Turanian races + indifferently, provided that they are nomads, dwelling in tents or carts, + living on the produce of their flocks and herds, uncivilized, and, perhaps + it may be added, accustomed to pass their lives on horseback. We cannot, + therefore, assume that a nation is Turanian simply because it is + pronounced “Scythic.” Still, as in fact the bulk of those races which have + remained content with the nomadic condition, and which from the earliest + times to the present day have led the life above described in the broad + steppes of Europe and Asia, appear to have been of the Turian type, a + presumption is raised in favor of a people being Turanian by decided and + concordant statements that it is Scythic. The presumption may of course be + removed by evidence to the contrary; but, until such evidence is produced + it has weight, and constitutes an argument, the force of which is + considerable. + </p> + <p> + In the present instance the presumption raised is met by no argument of + any great weight; while on the other hand it receives important + confirmation from several different quarters. It is said, indeed, that as + all, or almost all, the other nations of these parts were confessedly + Arians (e.g. the Bactrians, the Sogdians, the Chorasmians, the Margians, + the Arians of Herat, the Sagartians, the Sarangians, and the Hyrcanians), + it would be strange if the Parthians belonged to a wholly different ethnic + family. But, in the first place, the existence of isolated nationalities, + detached fragments of some greater ethnic mass, embodied amid alien + material, is a fact familiar to ethnologists; and, further, it is not at + all certain that there were not other Turanian races in these parts, as, + for instance, the Thamanasans. Again, it is said that the Parthians show + their Arian extraction by their names; but this argument may be turned + against those who adduce it. It is true that among the Parthian names a + considerable number are not only Arian, but distinctly Persian—e.g., + Mith-ridates, Tiridates, Artabanus, Orobazus, Rhodaspes—but the bulk + of the names have an entirely different character. There is nothing Arian + in such appellations as Amminapes, Bacasis, Pacorus, Vonones, Sinnaces, + Abdus, Abdageses, Gotarzes, Vologeses, Mnasciras, Sanatroeces; nor + anything markedly Arian in Priapatius, Himerus, Orodes, Apreetseus, + Ornos-pades, Parrhaces, Vasaces, Monesis, Exedares. If the Parthians were + Arians, what account is to be given of these words? That they employed a + certain number of Persian names is sufficiently explained by their + subjection during more than two centuries to the Persian rule. We are also + distinctly told that they affected Persian habits, and desired to be + looked upon as Persians. The Arian names borne by Parthians no more show + them to be Arians in race than the Norman names adopted so widely by the + Welsh show them to be Northmen. On the other hand, the non-Arian names in + the former case are like the non-Norman names in the latter, and equally + indicate a second source of nomenclature, in which should be contained the + key to the true ethnology of the people. + </p> + <p> + The non-Arian character of the Parthians is signified, if not proved, by + the absence of their name from the Zendavesta. The Zendavesta enumerates + among Arian nations the Bactrians, the Sogdians, the Margians, the + Hyrcanians, the Arians of Herat, and the Chorasmians, or all the important + nations of these parts except the Parthians. The Parthian country it + mentions under the name of Nisaya or Nisaea, implying apparently that the + Parthians were not yet settled in it. The only ready way of reconciling + the geography of the Zendavesta with that of later ages is to suppose the + Parthians a non-Arian nation who intruded themselves among the early Arian + settlements, coming probably from the north, the great home of the + Turanians. + </p> + <p> + Some positive arguments in favor of the Turanian origin of the Parthians + may be based upon their names. The Parthians affect, in their names, the + termination -ac or -ah, as, for instance, in Arsac-es, Sinnac-es, + Parrhaces, Vesaces, Sana-trseces, Phraataces, etc.—a termination + which characterizes the primitive Babylonian, the Basque, and most of the + Turanian tongues. The termination -geses, found in such names as + Volo-geses, Abda-geses, and the like, may be compared with the -ghiz of + Tenghiz. The Turanian root annap, “God,” is perhaps traceable in + Amm-inap-es. If the Parthian “Chos-roes” represents the Persian “Kurush” + or Cyrus, the corruption which the word has undergone is such as to + suggest a Tatar articulation. + </p> + <p> + The remains of the Parthian language, which we possess, beyond their + names, are too scanty and too little to be depended on to afford us any + real assistance in settling the question of their ethnic character. + Besides the words surena, “Commander-in-chief,” and Jcarta or Jcerta, + “city,” “fort,” there is scarcely one of which we can be assured that it + was really understood by the Parthians in the sense assigned to it. Of + these two, the latter, which is undoubtedly Arian, may have been adopted + from the Persians: the former is non-Arian, but has no known Turanian + congeners. + </p> + <p> + If, however, the consideration of the Parthian language does not help us + to determine their race, a consideration of their manners and customs + strengthens much the presumption that they were Turanians. Like the + Turkoman and Tatar tribes generally, they passed almost their whole lives + on horseback, conversing, transacting business, buying and selling, even + eating on their horses. They practised polygamy, secluded their women from + the sight of men, punished unfaithfulness with extreme severity, delighted + in hunting, and rarely ate any flesh but that which they obtained in this + way, were moderate eaters but great drinkers, did not speak much, but yet + were very unquiet, being constantly engaged in stirring up trouble either + at home or abroad. A small portion of the nation alone was free; the + remainder were the slaves of the privileged few. Nomadic habits continued + to prevail among a portion of those who remained in their primitive seats, + even in the time of their greatest national prosperity; and a coarse, + rude, and semi-barbarous character attached always even to the most + advanced part of the nation, to the king, the court, and the nobles + generally, a character which, despite a certain varnish of civilization, + was constantly showing itself in their dealings with each other and with + foreign nations. “The Parthian monarchs,” as Gibbon justly observes, “like + the Mogul (Mongol) sovereigns of Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life + of their Scythian ancestors, and the imperial camp was frequently pitched + in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris.” Niebuhr + seems even to doubt whether the Parthians dwelt in cities at all. He + represents them as maintaining from first to last their nomadic habits, + and regards the insurrection by which their empire was brought to an end + as a rising of the inhabitants of towns—the Tadjiks of those times—against + the Ilyats or wanderers, who had oppressed them for centuries. This is, no + doubt, an over statement; but it has a foundation in fact, since wandering + habits and even tent-life were affected by the Parthians during the most + flourishing period of their empire. + </p> + <p> + On the whole, the Turanian character of the Parthians, though not + absolutely proved, appears to be in the highest degree probable. If it be + accepted, we must regard them as in race closely allied to the vast hordes + which from a remote antiquity have roamed over the steppe region of upper + Asia, from time to time bursting upon the south, and harassing or + subjugating the comparatively unwarlike inhabitants of the warmer + countries. We must view them as the congeners of the Huns, Bulgarians, and + Comans of the ancient world; of the Kalmucks, Ouigurs, Usbegs, Eleuts, + etc., of the present day. Perhaps their nearest representatives will be, + if we look to their primitive condition at the founding of their empire, + the modern Turkomans, who occupy nearly the same districts; if we regard + them in the period of their great prosperity, the Osmanli Turks. Like the + Turks, they combined great military prowess and vigor with a capacity for + organization and government not very usual among Asiatics. Like them, they + remained at heart barbarians, though they put on an external appearance of + civilization and refinement. Like them, they never to any extent + amalgamated with the conquered races, but continued for centuries an + exclusive dominant race, encamped in the countries which they had overrun. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances under which the Parthians became subjects of the Persian + empire may readily be conjectured, but cannot be laid down positively. + According to Diodorus, who probably followed Ctesias, they passed from the + dominion of the Assyrians to that of the Medes, and from dependence upon + the Medes to a similar position under the Persians. But the balance of + evidence is against these views. It is, on the whole, most probable that + neither the Assyrian nor the Median empire extended so far eastward as the + country of the Parthians. The Parthians probably maintained their + independence from the time of their settlement in the district called + after their name until the sudden arrival in their country of the great + Persian conqueror, Cyrus. This prince, as Herodotus tells us, subdued the + whole of Western Asia, proceeding from nation to nation, and subjugating + one people after another. The order of his conquests is not traceable; but + it is clear that after his conquest of the Lydian empire (about B.C. 554) + he proceeded eastward, with the special object of subduing Bactria.43 To + reach Bactria, he would have to pass through, or close by, Parthia. Since, + as Herodotus says, “he conquered the whole way, as he went,” we may fairly + conclude that on his road to Bactria he subjugated the Parthians. It was + thus, almost certainly, that they lost their independence and became + Persian subjects. Competent enough to maintain themselves against the + comparatively small tribes in their near neighborhood, the Chorasmians, + Hyrcanians, Arians of Herat, Bactrians, and Sagartians, it was not + possible for them to make an effectual resistance to a monarch who brought + against them the entire force of a mighty empire. Cyrus had, it is + probable, little difficulty in obtaining their submission. It is possible + that they resisted; but perhaps it is more probable that their course on + this occasion was similar to that which they pursued when the Macedonian + conqueror swept across these same regions. The Parthians at that period + submitted without striking a blow. There is no reason to believe that they + caused any greater trouble to Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + When the Persian empire was organized by Darius Hystaspis into satrapies, + Parthia was at first united in the same government with Chorasmia, + Sogdiana, and Aria. Subsequently, however, when satrapies were made more + numerous, it was detached from these extensive countries and made to form + a distinct government, with the mere addition of the comparatively small + district of Hyrcania.40 It formed, apparently, one of the most tractable + and submissive of the Persian provinces. Except on the single occasion + already noticed, when it took part in a revolt that extended to nearly + one-half the empire, it gave its rulers no trouble; no second attempt was + made to shake off the alien yoke, which may indeed have galled, but which + was felt to be inevitable. In the final struggle of Persia against + Alexander, the Parthians were faithful to their masters. They fought on + the Persian side at Arbela; and though they submitted to Alexander + somewhat tamely when he invaded their country, yet, as Darius was then + dead, and no successor had declared himself, they cannot be taxed with + desertion. Probably they felt little interest in the event of the + struggle. Habit and circumstance caused them to send their contingent to + Arbela at the call of the Great King; but when the Persian cause was + evidently lost, they felt it needless to make further sacrifices. Having + no hope of establishing their independence, they thought it unnecessary to + prolong the contest. They might not gain, but they could scarcely lose, by + a change of masters. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Condition of Western Asia under the earlier Seleucidce. Revolts of + Bactria and Parthia. Conflicting accounts of the establishment of the + Parthian Kingdom. First War with Syria.</i> + </p> + <p> + The attempt of Alexander the Great to unite the whole civilized world in a + single vast empire might perhaps have been a success if the mind which + conceived the end, and which had to a considerable extent elaborated the + means, had been spared to watch over its own work, and conduct it past the + perilous period of infancy and adolescence. But the premature decease of + the great Macedonian in the thirty-third year of his age, when his plans + of fusion and amalgamation were only just beginning to develop themselves, + and the unfortunate fact that among his “Successors” there was not one who + inherited either his grandeur of conception or his powers of execution, + caused his scheme at once to collapse; and the effort to unite and + consolidate led only to division and disintegration. In lieu of Europe + being fused with Asia, Asia itself was split up. For nearly a thousand + years, from the formation of the great Assyrian empire to the death of + Darius Codomannus, Western Asia, from the Mediterranean to Affghanistan, + or even to India, had been united tinder one head, had acknowledged one + sovereign. Assyria, Media, Persia, had successively held the position of + dominant power; and the last of the three had given union, and + consequently peace, to a wider stretch of country and a vaster diversity + of peoples than either of her predecessors. Under the mild yoke of the + Achaemenian princes had been held together for two centuries, not only all + the nations of Western Asia, from the Indian and Thibetan deserts to the + AEgean and the Mediterranean, but a great part of Africa also, that is to + say, Egypt, north-eastern Libya, and the Greek settlements of Cyrene and + Barca. The practical effect of the conquests of Alexander was to break up + this unity, to introduce in the place of a single consolidated empire a + multitude of separate and contending kingdoms. The result was thus the + direct opposite of the great conqueror’s design, and forms a remarkable + instance of the contradiction which so often subsists between the + propositions of man and the dispositions of an overruling Providence. + </p> + <p> + The struggle for power which broke out almost immediately after his death + among the successors of Alexander may be regarded as having been brought + to a close by the battle of Ipsus. The period of fermentation was then + concluded, and something like a settled condition of things brought about. + A quadripartite division of Alexander’s dominions was recognized, + Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria (or south-western Asia) becoming + thenceforth distinct political entities. Asia Minor, the kingdom of + Lysimachus, had indeed less of unity than the other three states. It was + already disintegrated, the kingdoms of Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, + subsisting side by side with that of Lysimachus, which was thus limited to + western and south-western Asia Minor. After the death of Lysimachus, + further changes occurred; but the state of Pergamus, which sprang up this + time, may be regarded as the continuation of Lysimachus’s kingdom, and as + constituting from the time of Eumenes I. (B.C. 263) a fourth power in the + various political movements and combinations of the Graeco-Oriental world. + </p> + <p> + Of the four powers thus established, the most important, and that with + which we are here especially concerned, was the kingdom of Syria (as it + was called), or that ruled for 247 years by the Seleucidae. Seleucus + Nicator, the founder of this kingdom, was one of Alexander’s officers, but + served without much distinction through the various compaigns by which the + conquest of the East was effected. At the first distribution of provinces + (B.C. 323) among Alexander’s generals after his death, he received no + share; and it was not until B.C. 320, when upon the death of Perdiccas a + fresh distribution was made at Triparadisus, that his merits were + recognized, and he was given the satrapy of Babylon. In this position he + acquired a character for mildness and liberality, and made himself + generally beloved, both by his soldiers and by those who were under his + government. In the struggle between Antigonus and Eumenes (B.C. 317-316), + he embraced the side of the former, and did him some good service; but + this, instead of evoking gratitude, appears to have only roused in + Antigonus a spirit of jealousy. The ambitious aspirant after universal + dominion, seeing in the popular satrap a possible, and far from a + contemptible, rival, thought it politic to sweep him out of his way; and + the career of Seleucus would have been cut short had he not perceived his + peril in time, and by a precipitate flight secured his safety. Accompanied + by a body of no more than fifty horsemen, he took the road for Egypt, + escaped the pursuit of a detachment sent to overtake him, and threw + himself on the protection of Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + This event, untoward in appearance, proved the turning-point in Seleucus’s + fortunes. It threw him into irreconcilable hostility with Antigonus, while + it brought him forward before the eyes of men as one whom Antigonus + feared. It gave him an opportunity of showing his military talents in the + West, and of obtaining favor with Ptolemy, and with all those by whom + Antigonus was dreaded. When the great struggle came between the + confederate monarchs and the aspirant after universal dominion, it placed + him on the side of the allies. Having recovered Babylon (B.C. 312), + Seleucus led the flower of the eastern provinces to the field of Ipsus + (B.C. 301), and contributed largely to the victory, thus winning himself a + position among the foremost potentates of the day. By the terms of the + agreement made after Ipsus, Seleucus was recognized as monarch of all the + Greek conquests in Asia, with the sole exceptions of Lower Syria and Asia + Minor. + </p> + <p> + The monarchy thus established extended from the Holy Land and the + Mediterranean on the west, to the Indus valley and the Bolor + mountain-chain upon the east, and from the Caspian and Jaxartes towards + the north, to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean towards the south. It + comprised Upper Syria, Mesopotamia, parts of Cappadocia and Phrygia, + Armenia, Assyria, Media, Babylonia, Susiana, Persia, Carmania, Sagartia, + Hyrcania, Parthia, Bactria, Sogdiana, Aria, Zarangia, Arachosia, + Sacastana, Gedrosia, and probably some part of India. Its entire area + could not have been much less than 1,200,000 square miles. Of these, some + 300,000 or 400,000 may have been desert; but the remainder was generally + fertile, and comprised within its limits some of the very most productive + regions in the whole world. The Mesopotamian lowland, the Orontes valley, + the tract between the Caspian and the mountains, the regions about Merv + and Balkh, were among the richest in Asia, and produced grain and fruits + in incredible abundance. The rich pastures of Media and Armenia furnished + excellent horses. Bactria gave an inexhaustible supply of camels. + Elephants in large numbers were readily procurable from India. Gold, + silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, were furnished by several of the + provinces, and precious stones of various kinds abounded. Moreover, for + above ten centuries, the precious metals and the most valuable kinds of + merchandise had flowed from every quarter into the region; and though the + Macedonians may have carried off, or wasted, a considerable quantity of + both, yet the accumulations of ages withstood the drain, and the hoarded + wealth which had come down from Assyrian, Babylonian, and Median times was + to be found in the days of Seleucus chiefly within the limits of his + Empire. + </p> + <p> + The situation which nature pointed out as most suitable for the capital of + a kingdom having the extension that has been here indicated was some + portion of the Mesopotamian valley, which was at once central and fertile. + The empire of Seleucus might have been conveniently ruled from the site of + the ancient Nineveh, or from either of the two still existing and still + flourishing cities of Susa and Babylon. The impetus given to commerce by + the circumstances of the time rendered a site near the sea preferable to + one so remote as that of Nineveh, and the same consideration made a + position on the Tigris or Euphrates more advantageous than one upon a + smaller river. So far, all pointed to Babylon as the natural and best + metropolis; and it was further in favor of that place that its merits had + struck the Great Conqueror, who had designed to make it the capital of his + own still vaster Empire. Accordingly Babylon was Seleucus’s first choice; + and there his Court was held for some years previously to his march + against Antigonus. But either certain disadvantages were found to attach + to Babylon as a residence, or the mere love of variety and change caused + him very shortly to repent of his selection, and to transfer his capital + to another site. He founded, and built with great rapidity, the city of + Seleucia upon the Tigris, at the distance of about forty miles from + Babylon, and had transferred thither the seat of government even before + B.C. 301. Thus far, however, no fault had been committed. The second + capital was at least as conveniently placed as the first, and would have + served equally well as a centre from which to govern the Empire. But after + Ipsus a further change was made—a change that was injudicious in the + extreme. Either setting undue store by his newly-acquired western + provinces, or over-anxious to keep close watch on his powerful neighbors + in those parts, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, Seleucus once more transferred the + seat of empire, exchanging this time the valley of the Tigris for that of + the Orontes, and the central position of Lower Mesopotamia for almost the + extreme western point of his vast territories. Antioch arose in + extraordinary beauty and magnificence during the first few years that + succeeded Ipsus, and Seleucus in a short time made it his ordinary + residence. The change weakened the ties which bound the Empire together, + offended the bulk of the Asiatics, who saw their monarch withdraw from + them into a remote region, and particularly loosened the grasp of the + government on those more eastern districts which were at once furthest + from the new metropolis and least assimilated to the Hellenic character. + Among the causes which led to the disintegration of the Seleucid kingdom, + there is none that deserves so well to be considered the main cause as + this. It was calculated at once to produce the desire to revolt, and to + render the reduction of revolted provinces difficult, if not impossible. + The evil day, however, might have been indefinitely delayed had the + Seleucid princes either established and maintained through their Empire a + vigorous and effective administration, or abstained from entangling + themselves in wars with their neighbors in the West, the Ptolemies and the + princes of Asia Minor. + </p> + <p> + But the organization of the Empire was unsatisfactory. Instead of pursuing + the system inaugurated by Alexander and seeking to weld the heterogeneous + elements of which his kingdom was composed into a homogeneous whole, + instead of at once conciliating and elevating the Asiatics by uniting them + with the Macedonians and the Greeks, by promoting intermarriage and social + intercourse between the two classes of his subjects, educating the + Asiatics in Greek ideas and Greek schools, opening his court to them, + promoting them to high employments, making them feel that they were as + much valued and as well cared for as the people of the conquering race, + the first Seleucus, and after him his successors, fell back upon the old + simpler, ruder system, the system pursued before Alexander’s time by the + Persians, and before them perhaps by the Medes—the system most + congenial to human laziness and human pride—that of governing a + nation of slaves by means of a class of victorious aliens. Seleucus + divided his empire into satrapies, seventy-two in number. He bestowed the + office of satrap on none but Macedonians and Greeks. The standing army, by + which he maintained his authority, was indeed composed in the main of + Asiatics, disciplined after the Greek model; but it was officered entirely + by men of Greek or Macedonian parentage. Nothing was done to keep up the + self-respect of Asiatics, or to soften the unpleasantness that must always + attach to being governed by foreigners. Even the superintendence over the + satraps seems to have been insufficient. According to some writers, it was + a gross outrage offered by a satrap to an Asiatic subject that stirred up + the Parthians to their revolt. The story may not be true; but its currency + shows of what conduct towards those under their government the satraps of + the Seleucidae were thought, by such as lived near the time, to have been + capable. + </p> + <p> + It would, perhaps, have been difficult for the Seleucid princes, even had + they desired it, to pursue a policy of absolute abstention in the wars of + their western neighbors. So long as they were resolute to maintain their + footing on the right bank of the Euphrates, in Phrygia, Cappadocia, and + upper Syria, they were of necessity mixed up with the quarrels of the + west. Could they have been content to withdraw within the Euphrates, they + might have remained for the most part clear of such entanglements; but + even then there would have been occasions when they must have taken the + field in self-defence. As it was, however, the idea of abstention seems + never to have occurred to them. It was the fond dream of each “Successor” + of Alexander that in his person might, perhaps, be one day united all the + territories of the great Conqueror. Seleucus would have felt that he + sacrificed his most cherished hopes if he had allowed the west to go its + own way, and had contented himself with consolidating a great power in the + regions east of the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + And the policy of the founder of the house was followed by his successors. + The three Seleucid sovereigns who reigned prior to the Parthian revolt + were, one and all, engaged in frequent, if not continual, wars with the + monarchs of Egypt and Asia Minor. The first Seleucus, by his claim to the + sovereignty of Lower Syria, established a ground of constant contention + with the Ptolemies; and though he did not prosecute the claim to the + extent of actual hostility, yet in the reign of his son, Antiochus I., + called Soter, the smothered quarrel broke out. Soter fomented the + discontent of Cyrene with its subjection to Egypt, and made at least one + expedition against Ptolemy Philadelphus in person (B.C. 264). His efforts + did not meet with much success; but they were renewed by his son, + Antiochus II., surnamed “the God”, who warred with Philadelphus from B.C. + 260 to B.C. 250, contending with him chiefly in Asia Minor. These wars + were complicated with others. The first Antiochus aimed at adding the + kingdom of Bithynia to his dominions, and attacked successively the + Bythynian monarchs, Zipcetas and Nicomedes I. (B.C. 280-278). This + aggression brought him into collision with the Gauls, whom Nicomedes + called to his aid, and with whom Antiochus had several struggles, some + successful and some disastrous. He also attacked Eumenes of Pergamus (B.C. + 263), but was defeated in a pitched battle near Sardis. The second + Antiochus was not engaged in so great a multiplicity of contests; but we + hear of his taking a part in the internal affairs of Miletus, and + expelling a certain Timachus, who had made himself tyrant of that city. + There is also some ground for thinking that he had a standing quarrel with + the king of Media Atropatene. Altogether it is evident that from B.C. 280 + to B.C. 250 the Seleucid princes were incessantly occupied with wars in + the west, in Asia Minor and in Syria Proper, wars which so constantly + engaged them that they had neither time nor attention to spare for the + affairs of the far east. So long as the Bactrian and Parthian satraps paid + their tributes, and supplied the requisite quotas of troops for service in + the western wars, the Antiochi were content. The satraps were left to + manage affairs at their own discretion; and it is not surprising that the + absence of a controlling hand led to various complications and disorders. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, the personal character of the second Antiochus must be taken + into account. The vanity and impiety, which could accept the name of + “Theus” for a service that fifty other Greeks had rendered to oppressed + towns without regarding themselves as having done anything very + remarkable, would alone indicate a weak and contemptible morale, and might + justify us, did we know no more, in regarding the calamities of his reign + as the fruit of his own unfitness to rule an empire. But there is + sufficient evidence that he had other, and worse, vices. He was noted, + even among Asiatic sovereigns, for luxury and debauchery; he neglected all + state affairs in the pursuit of pleasure; his wives and male favorites + were allowed to rule his kingdom at their will; and their most flagrant + crimes were neither restrained nor punished. Such a character could have + inspired neither respect nor fear. The satraps, to whom the conduct of + their sovereign could not but become known, would be partly encouraged to + follow the bad example, partly provoked by it to shake themselves free of + so hateful and yet contemptible a master. + </p> + <p> + It was, probably, about the year B.C. 256, the fifth of the second + Antiochus, when that prince, hard pressed by Philadelphus in the west, was + also, perhaps, engaged in a war with the king of Atropatene in the north, + that the standard of revolt was first actually raised in the eastern + provinces, and a Syrian satrap ventured to declare himself an independent + sovereign. This was Diodotus, satrap of Bactria a Greek, as his name + shows. Suddenly assuming the state and style of king he issued coins + stamped with his own name, and established himself without difficulty as + sovereign over the large and flourishing province of Bactria, or the tract + of fertile land about the upper and middle Oxus. This district had from a + remote antiquity been one with special pretensions. The country was + fertile, and much of it strong; the people were hardy and valiant; they + were generally treated with exceptional favor by the Persian monarchs; and + they seem to have had traditions which assigned them a pre-eminence among + the Arian tribes at some indefinitely distant period. We may presume that + they would gladly support the bold enterprise of their new monarch; they + would feel their vanity flattered by the establishment of an independent + Bactria, even though it were under Greek kings; and they would + energetically second him in an enterprise which gratified their pride, + while it held out to them hopes of a career of conquest, with its + concomitants of plunder and glory. The settled quiet which they had + enjoyed under the Achaemenide and the Seleucidae was probably not much to + their taste; and they would gladly exchange so tame and dull a life for + the pleasures of independence and the chances of empire. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that Antiochus, sunk in luxury at his capital, could not + bring himself to make even an effort to check the spirit of rebellion, and + recover his revolted subjects. Bactria was allowed to establish itself as + an independent monarchy, without having to undergo the ordeal of a bloody + struggle. Antiochus neither marched against Diodotus in person, nor sent a + general to contend with him. The authority of Diodotus was confirmed and + riveted on his subjects by an undisturbed reign of eighteen years before a + Syrian army even showed itself in his neighborhood. + </p> + <p> + The precedent of successful revolt thus set could not well be barren of + consequences. If one province might throw off the yoke of its feudal lord + with impunity, why might not others? Accordingly, within a few years the + example set by Bactria was followed in the neighboring country of Parthia, + but with certain very important differences. In Bactria the Greek satrap + took the lead, and the Bactrian kingdom was, at any rate at its + commencement, as thoroughly Greek as that of the Seleucidae. But in + Parthia Greek rule was from the first cast aside. The natives rebelled + against their masters. An Asiatic race of a rude and uncivilized type, + coarse and savage, but brave and freedom-loving, rose up against the + polished but effeminate Greeks who held them in subjection, and claimed + and established their independence. The Parthian kingdom was thoroughly + anti-Hellenic. It appealed to patriotic feelings, and to the hate + universally felt towards the stranger. It set itself to undo the work of + Alexander, to cast out the Europeans, to recover to the Asiatics the + possession of Asia. It was naturally almost as hostile to Bactria as to + Syria, although danger from a common enemy might cause it sometimes to + make a temporary alliance with that kingdom. It had, no doubt, the general + sympathy of the populations in the adjacent countries, and represented to + them the cause of freedom and autonomy. + </p> + <p> + The exact circumstances under which the Parthian revolt took place are + involved in much obscurity. According to one account the leader of the + revolt, Arsaces, was a Bactrian, to whom the success of Diodotus was + disagreeable, and who therefore quitted the newly-founded kingdom, and + betook himself to Parthia, where he induced the natives to revolt and to + accept him for their monarch. Another account, which is attractive from + the minute details into which it enters, is the following:—“Arsaces + and Tiridates were brothers, descendants of Phriapites, the son of + Arsaces. Pherecles, who had been made satrap of their country by Antiochus + Theus, offered a gross insult to one of them, whereupon, as they could not + brook the indignity, they took five men into counsel, and with their aid + slew the insolent one. They then induced their nation to revolt from the + Macedonians, and set up a government of their own, which attained to great + power.” A third version says that the Arsaces, whom all represent as the + first king, was in reality a Scythian, who at the head of a body of + Parnian Dahce, nomads inhabiting the valley of the Attrek (Ochus), invaded + Parthia, soon after the establishment of Bactrian independence, and + succeeded in making himself master of it. With this account, which Strabo + seems to prefer, agrees tolerably well that of Justin, who says that + “Arsaces, having been long accustomed to live by robbery and rapine, + attacked the Parthians with a predatory band, killed their satrap, + Andragoras, and seized the supreme authority.” As there was in all + probability a close ethnic connection between the Dahae and the Parthians, + it would be likely enough that the latter might accept for a king a + chieftain of the former who had boldly entered their country, challenged + the Greek satrap to an encounter, and by defeating and killing him freed + them—at any rate for the time—from the Greek yoke. An + oppressed people gladly adopts as chief the head of an allied tribe if he + has shown skill and daring, and offers to protect them from their + oppressors. + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Arsaces has been placed by some as early as the year B.C. + 256. The Bactrian revolt is assigned by most historians to that year; and + the Parthian, according to some, was contemporary. The best authorities, + however, give a short interval between the two insurrections; and, on the + whole, there is perhaps reason to regard the Parthian independence as + dating from about B.C. 250. This year was the eleventh of Antiochus Theus, + and fell into the time when he was still engaged in his war with Ptolemy + Philadelphus. It might have been expected that when he concluded a peace + with the Egyptian monarch in B.C. 249, he would have turned his arms at + once towards the east, and have attempted at any rate the recovery of his + lost dominions. But, as already stated, his personal character was weak, + and he preferred the pleasures of repose at Antioch to the hardships of a + campaign in the Caspian region. So far as we hear, he took no steps to + re-establish his authority; and Arsaces, like Diodotus, was left + undisturbed to consolidate his power at his leisure. + </p> + <p> + Arsaces lived, however, but a short time after obtaining the crown. His + authority was disputed within the limits of Parthia itself; and he had to + engage in hostilities with a portion of his own subjects. We may suspect + that the malcontents were chiefly, if not solely, those of Greek race, who + may have been tolerably numerous, and whose strength would lie in the + towns. Hecatompylos, the chief city of Parthia, was among the colonies + founded by Alexander; and its inhabitants would naturally be disinclined + to acquiesce in the rule of a “barbarian.” Within little more than two + years of his coronation, Arsaces, who had never been able to give his + kingdom peace, was killed in battle by a spear-thrust in the side; and was + succeeded (B.C. 247) by his brother, having left, it is probable, no sons, + or none of mature age. + </p> + <p> + Tiridates, the successor of Arsaces, took upon his accession his brother’s + name, and is known in history as Arsaces II. The practice thus begun + passed into a custom, each Parthian monarch from henceforth bearing as + king the name of Arsaces in addition to his own real appellation, whatever + that might be. In the native remains the assumed name almost supersedes + the other; but, fortunately, the Greek and Roman writers who treat of + Parthian affairs, have preserved the distinctive appellations, and thus + saved the Parthian history from inextricable confusion. It is not easy to + see from what quarter this practice was adopted; perhaps we should regard + it as one previously existing among the Dahan Scyths. + </p> + <p> + If the Parthian monarchy owed its origin to Arsaces I., it owed its + consolidation, and settled establishment to Arsaces II., or Tiridates. + This prince, who had the good fortune to reign for above thirty years, and + who is confused by many writers with the actual founder of the monarchy, + having received Parthia from his brother, in the weak and unsettled + condition above described, left it a united and powerful kingdom, enlarged + in its boundaries, strengthened in its defences, in alliance with its + nearest and most formidable neighbor, and triumphant over the great power + of Syria, which had hoped to bring it once more into subjection. He + ascended the throne, it is probable, early in B.C. 247, and had scarcely + been monarch a couple of years when he witnessed one of those vast but + transient revolutions to which Asia is subject, but which are of rare + occurrence in Europe. Ptolemy Euergetes, the son of Philadelphus, having + succeeded to his father’s kingdom in the same year with Tiridates, marched + (in B.C. 245) a huge expedition into Asia, defeated Seleucus II. + (Callinicus) in Syria, took Antioch, and then, having crossed the + Euphrates, proceeded to bring the greater part of Western Asia under his + sway. Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia, Susiana, Persia, Media, submitted + to him. He went in person as far as Babylon, and, according to his own + account, was acknowledged as master by all the Eastern provinces to the + very borders of Bactria. The Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms cannot but + have trembled for their newly won independence. Here was a young warrior + who, in a single campaign, had marched the distance of a thousand miles, + from the banks of the Nile to those of the Lower Euphrates, without so + much as receiving a check, and who was threatening to repeat the career of + Alexander. What resistance could the little Parthian state hope to offer + to such an enemy? It must have rejoiced Tiridates to hear that while the + new conqueror was gathering somewhat too hastily the fruits of victory, + collecting and despatching to Egypt the most valuable works of art that he + could find in the cities which he had taken, and levying heavy + contributions on the submitted countries, a revolt had broken out in his + own land, to quell which he was compelled to retire suddenly and to + relinquish the greater part of his acquisitions. Thus the threatened + conquest proved a mere inroad, and instead of a power of greater strength + replacing Syria in these regions, Syria practically retained her hold of + them, but with enfeebled grasp, her strength crippled, her prestige lost, + and her honor tarnished. Ptolemy had, it is probable, not retired very + long, when, encouraged by what he had seen of Syria’s weakness, Tiridates + took the aggressive, and invading the neighboring district of Hyrcania, + succeeded in detaching it from the Syrian state, and adding it to his own + territory. This was throwing out a challenge which the Syrian monarch, + Callinicus, could scarcely decline to meet, unless he was prepared to + lose, one by one, all the outlying provinces of his empire. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly in B.C. 237, having patched up a peace with his brother, + Antiochus Hierax, the Syrian monarch made an expedition against Parthia. + Not feeling, however, altogether confident of success if he trusted wholly + to his own unaided efforts, he prudently entered into an alliance with + Diodotus the Bactrian king, and the two agreed to combine their forces + against Tiridates. Hereupon that monarch, impressed with a deep sense of + the impending danger, quitted Parthia, and, proceeding northwards, took + refuge with the Aspasiacae, a Scythian tribe which dwelt between the Oxus + and the Jaxartes. The Aspasiacae probably lent him troops; at any rate, he + did not remain long in retirement, but, hearing that the Bactrian king, + whom he especially feared, was dead, he contrived to detach his son and + successor from the Syrian alliance, and to draw him over to his own side. + Having made this important stroke, he met Callinicus in battle, and + completely defeated his army. + </p> + <p> + This victory was with reason regarded by the Parthians as a sort of second + beginning of their independence. Hitherto their kingdom had existed + precariously, and as it were by sufferance. It could not but be that the + power from which they had revolted would one day seek to reclaim its lost + territory; and, until the new monarchy had measured its strength against + that of its former mistress, none could feel secure that it would be able + to maintain its existence. The victory gained by Tiridates over Callinicus + put an end to these doubts. It proved to the world at large, and also to + the Parthians themselves, that they had nothing to fear—that they + were strong enough to preserve their freedom. Considering the enormous + disproportion between the military strength and resources of the narrow + Parthian State and the vast Syrian Empire—considering that the one + comprised about fifty thousand and the other above a million of square + miles; that the one had inherited the wealth of ages and the other was + probably as poor as any province in Asia; that the one possessed the + Macedonian arms, training, and tactics, while the other knew only the rude + warfare of the Steppes—the result of the struggle cannot but be + regarded as surprising. Still it was not without precedent, and it has not + been without repetition. It adds another to the many instances where a + small but brave people, bent on resisting foreign domination, have, when + standing on their defence, in their own territory, proved more than a + match for the utmost force that a foe of overwhelming strength could bring + against them. It reminds us of Marathon, of Bannock-burn, of Morgarten. We + may not sympathize wholly with the victors, for Greek civilization, even + of the type introduced by Alexander into Asia, was ill replaced by Tatar + coarseness and barbarism; but we cannot refuse our admiration to the + spectacle of a handful of gallant men determinedly resisting in the + fastness of their native land a host of aliens, and triumphing over their + would-be oppressors. + </p> + <p> + The Parthians themselves, deeply impressed with the importance of the + contest, preserved the memory of it by a solemn festival on the + anniversary of their victory, which they still celebrated in the time of + Trogus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Consolidation of the Parthian Kingdom. Death of Tiridates and accession + of Arsaces III. Attack on Media. War of Artabanus (Arsaces III.) with + Antiochus the Great. Period of inaction. Great development of Bactrian + power. Reigns of Priapatius (Arsaces IV.) and Phraates I. (Arsaces V.)</i> + </p> + <p> + Selbucus might perhaps not have accepted his defeat as final had he been + altogether free to choose whether he would continue the Parthian war or + no. The resources of his Empire were so vast, his command of men and money + so unbounded, that he could easily have replaced one army by another, and + so have prolonged the struggle. But renewed troubles had broken out in the + western portion of his dominions, where his brother, Antiochus Hierax, was + still in arms against his authority. Seleucus felt it necessary to turn + his attention to this quarter, and having once retired from the Parthian + contest, he never afterwards renewed it. Tiridates was left unmolested, to + act as he thought fit, and either to attempt further conquests, or to + devote himself to securing those which he had effected. He chose the + latter course, and during the remainder of his reign—a space of + above twenty years—he employed himself wholly in strengthening and + adorning his small kingdom. Having built a number of forts in various + strong positions, and placed garrisons in them, he carefully selected a + site for a new city, which he probably intended to make his capital. The + spot chosen combined the advantages of being at once delightful and easily + defensible. It was surrounded with precipitous rocks, which enclosed a + plain of extraordinary fertility. Abundant wood and copious streams of + water were in the neighborhood. The soil was so rich that it scarcely + required cultivation, and the woods were so full of game as to afford + endless amusement to hunters. To the town which he built in this locality + Tiridates gave the name of Dara, a word which the Greeks and Romans + elongated into Dareium. Unfortunately, modern travellers have not yet + succeeded in identifying the site, which should, however, lie towards the + East, perhaps in the vicinity of Meshed. + </p> + <p> + We may presume that Tiridates, when he built this remarkable city, + intended to make it the seat of government. Hecatompylos, as a Greek town, + had the same disadvantages, which were considered in later times to render + Seleucia unfit for the residence of the Parthian Court and monarch. Dara, + like Ctesiphon, was to be wholly Parthian. Its strong situation would + render it easy of defence; its vicinity to forests abounding in game would + give it special charms in the eyes of persons so much devoted, as the + Parthian princes were, to the chase. But the intention of Tiridates, if we + have truly defined it, failed of taking permanent effect. He may himself + have fixed his abode at Dara, but his successors did not inherit his + predilections; and Hecatompylos remained, after his reign, as before it, + the head-quarters of the government, and the recognized metropolis of + Parthia Proper. + </p> + <p> + After passing in peace and prosperity the last twenty years of his reign, + Tiridates died in a good old age, leaving his crown to a son, whose + special name is a little uncertain, but who is called by most moderns + Artabanus I. + </p> + <p> + Artabanus, having ascended the Parthian throne about B.C. 214, and being + anxious to distinguish himself, took advantage of the war raging between + Antiochus III., the second son of Seleucus Callinicus, and Achseus, one of + his rebel satraps, to advance into Media, and to add to his dominions the + entire tract between Hyrcania and the Zagros mountains. Of the manner in + which he effected his conquests we have no account; but they seem to have + been the fruit of a single campaign, which must have been conducted with + great vigor and military skill. The Parthian prince appears to have + occupied Ecbatana, the ancient capital of the Median Empire, and to have + thence threatened the Mesopotamian countries. Upon receiving intelligence + of his invasion, Antiochus levied a vast army, and set out towards the + East, with a determination to subjugate all the revolted provinces, and to + recover the limits of the old Empire of Nicator. Passing the Zagros chain, + probably by way of Behistun and Kermanshaw, he easily retook Ecbatana, + which was an open town, and undefended by the Parthians, and proceeded to + prepare for a further advance eastward. The route from Ecbatana to the + Caspian Gates crosses, of necessity, unless a considerable circuit be + taken, some large tracts of barren ground, inlets or bays of the Great + Salt Desert of Iran. Artabanus cherished the hope that here the + difficulties of the way would effectually bar his enemy’s progress, more + especially as his troops were so numerous, and as water was scanty + throughout the whole region. The streams which flow from Zagros towards + the East are few and scanty; they mostly fail in summer, which, even in + Asia, is the campaigning season; and those who cross the desert at this + time must depend on the wells wherewith the more western part of the + region is supplied by means of <i>kanats</i> or underground conduits, + which are sometimes carried many miles from the foot of the mountains. The + position of the wells, which were few in number, was known only to the + natives; and Artabanus hoped that the Syrian monarch would be afraid to + place the lives of his soldiers in such doubtful keeping. When, however, + he found that Antiochus was not to be deterred by any fears of this kind, + but was bent on crossing the desert, he had recourse to the barbaric + expedients of filling in, or poisoning, the wells along the line of + route-which the Syrian prince was likely to follow. But these steps seem + to have been taken too late. Antiochus, advancing suddenly, caught some of + the Parthian troops at their barbarous work, and dispersed them without + difficulty. He then rapidly effected the transit, and, pressing forward, + was soon in the enemy’s country, where he occupied the chief city, + Hecatompylos. Up to this point the Parthian monarch had declined an + engagement. No information has come down to us as to his motives; but they + may be readily enough conjectured. To draw an enemy far away from his + resources, while retiring upon one’s own; to entangle a numerous host + among narrow passes and denies; to decline battle when he offers it, and + then to set upon him unawares, has always been the practice of weak + mountain races when attacked by a more numerous foe. It is often good + policy in such a case even to yield the capital without a blow, and to + retreat into a more difficult situation. The assailant must follow + whithersoever his foe retires, or quit the country, leaving him unsubdued. + Antiochus, aware of this necessity, and rendered confident of success by + the evacuation of a situation so strong, and so suitable for the Parthian + tactics as Hecatompylos, after giving his army a short rest at the + captured capital, set out in pursuit of Artabanus, who had withdrawn his + forces towards Hyrcania. To reach the rich Hyrcanian valleys, he was + forced to cross the main chain of the Elburz, which here attains an + elevation of 7000 or 8000 feet. The route which his army had to follow was + the channel of a winter-torrent, obstructed with stones and trunks of + trees, partly by nature, partly by the efforts of the inhabitants. The + long and difficult ascent was disputed by the enemy the whole way, and + something like a pitched battle was fought at the top; but Antiochus + persevered, and, though his army must have suffered severely, descended + into Hyrcanian and captured several of the towns. Here our main authority, + Polybius, suddenly deserts us, and we can give no further account of the + war beyond its general result—Artabanus and the Parthians remained + unsubdued after a struggle which seems to have lasted some years; + Artabanus himself displayed great valor; and at length the Syrian monarch + thought it best to conclude a peace with him, in which he acknowledged the + Parthian independence. It is probable that he exacted in return a pledge + that the Parthian monarch should lend him his assistance in the expedition + which he was bent on conducting against Bactria; but there is no actual + proof that the conditions of peace contained this clause. We are left in + doubt whether Artabanus stood aloof in the war which Antiochus waged with + Euthydemus of Bactria immediately after the close of his Parthian + campaigns, or whether he lent his aid to the attempt made to crush his + neighbor. Perhaps, on the whole, it is most probable that, nominally, he + was Antiochus’s ally in the war, but that, practically, he gave him little + help, having no wish to see Syria aggrandized. + </p> + <p> + At any rate, whether Euthydemus had to meet the attack of Syria only, or + of Syria and Parthia in combination, the result was, that Bactria, like + Parthia, proved strong enough to maintain her ground, and that the Syrian + King, after a while, grew tired of the struggle, and consented to terms of + accommodation. The Bactrian monarchy, like the Parthian, came out of the + contest unscathed—indeed we may go further, and say that the + position of the two kingdoms was improved by the attacks made upon them. + If a prince possessing the personal qualities that distinguished the third + Antiochus, and justified the title of “Great” which he derived from his + oriental expedition—if such a prince, enjoying profound peace at + home, and directing the whole force of his empire against them, could not + succeed in reducing to subjection the revolted provinces of the northeast, + but, whatever military advantages he might gain, found conquest + impossible, and returned home, having acknowledged as independent kings + those whom he went out to chastise as rebellious satraps, it was evident + that the kingdoms might look upon themselves as firmly established, or, at + least, as secure from the danger of re-absorption into the Syrian State. + The repulse of Callinicus was a probable indication of the fate of all + future efforts on the part of Syria to reduce Parthia; the conditions of + peace granted by Antiochus to both countries, after a series of military + successes, constituted almost a proof that the yoke of Syria would never + be re-imposed on either the Parthian or the Bactrian nation. + </p> + <p> + With the departure of Antiochus from the East, about B.C. 206, we enter + upon a period when Parthian history is, for a quarter of a century, almost + a blank. Nothing more is known of Arsaces III. after Antiochus retired; + and nothing at all is known of his successor, Priapatius, beyond his name + and the length of his reign, which lasted for fifteen years (from about + B.C. 196 to 181). The reigns of these princes coincide with those of + Euthydemus and his son, Demetrius, in Bactria; and perhaps the most + probable solution of the problem of Parthian inactivity at this time is to + be found in the great development of Bactrian power which now took place, + and the influence which the two neighboring kingdoms naturally exercised + upon each other. When Parthia was strong and aggressive, Bactria was, for + the most part, quiet; and when Bactria shows signs of vigorous and active + life, Parthia languishes and retires into the shade. + </p> + <p> + The Bactrian Kingdom, founded (as we have seen) a little before the + Parthian, sought from the first its aggrandizement in the East rather than + in the West. The Empire of Alexander had included all the countries + between the Caspian Sea and the Sutlej; and these tracts, which constitute + the modern Khorasan, Afghanistan, and Punjaub, had all been to a certain + extent Hellenized by means of Greek settlements and Greek government. But + Alexander was no sooner dead than a tendency displayed itself in these + regions, and particularly in the more eastern ones, towards a relapse into + barbarism, or, if this expression be too strong, at any rate towards a + rejection of Hellenism. During the early wars of the “Successors” the + natives of the Punjaub generally seized the opportunity to revolt; the + governors placed over the various districts by Alexander were murdered; + and the tribes everywhere declared themselves free. Among the leaders of + the revolt was a certain Chandragupta (or Sandracottus), who contrived to + turn the circumstances of the time to his own special advantage, and built + up a considerable kingdom in the far East out of the fragments which had + detached themselves from what was still called the Macedonian Empire. When + Seleucus Nicator, about B.C. 305, conducted an expedition across the + Indus, he found this monarch established in the tract between the Indus + and the Ganges, ruling over extensive dominions and at the head of a vast + force. It is uncertain whether the two rivals engaged in hostilities or + no. At any rate, a peace was soon made; and Seleucus, in return for five + hundred elephants, ceded to Sandracottus certain lands on the west bank of + the Indus, which had hitherto been regarded as Macedonian. These probably + consisted of the low grounds between the Indus and the foot of the + mountains—the districts of Peshawur, Bunnoo, Murwut, Shikarpoor, and + Kurrachee—which are now in British occupation. Thus Hellenism in + these parts receded more and more, the Sanskritic Indians recovering by + degrees the power and independence of which they had been deprived by + Alexander. + </p> + <p> + This state of things could not have been pleasing to the Greek princes of + Bactria, who must have felt that the reaction towards barbarism in these + parts tended to isolate them, and that there was a danger of their being + crushed between the Parthians on the one hand and the perpetually + advancing Indians on the other. When Antiochus the Great, after concluding + his treaty with Euthydemus, marched eastward, the Bactrian monarch + probably indulged in hopes that the Indians would receive a check, and + that the Greek frontier would be again carried to the Indus, if not to the + Sutlej. But, if so, he was disappointed. Antiochus, instead of making war + upon the Indians, contented himself with renewing the old alliance of the + Seleucidae with the Maurja princes, and obtaining a number of elephants + from Sophagesenus, the grandson of Sandracottus. It is even possible that + he went further, and made cessions of territory in return for this last + gift, which brought the Indian frontier still nearer than before to that + of Bactria, At any rate, the result of the Indian expedition of Antiochus + seems to have been unsatisfactory to Euthydemus, who shortly afterwards + commenced what are called “Indian Wars” on his south-eastern frontier, + employing in them chiefly the arms of his son, Demetrius. During the + latter years of Euthydemus and the earlier ones of Demetrius, the Bactrian + rule was rapidly extended over the greater portion of the modern + Afghanistan; nor did it even stop there. The arms of Demetrius were + carried across the Indus into the Punjaub region; and the city of + Euthymedeia upon the Hydaspes remained to later times an evidence of the + extent of his conquests. From B.C. 206 to about B.C. 185 was the most + flourishing period of the Bactrian monarchy, which expanded during that + space from a small kingdom into a considerable empire. + </p> + <p> + The power and successes of the Bactrian princes at this time account + sufficiently for the fact that the contemporary Parthian monarchs stood + upon their guard, and undertook no great expeditions. Arsaces III., who + continued on the throne for about ten or twelve years after his peace with + Antiochus, and Priapatius, or Arsaces IV., his son, who succeeded him, and + had a reign of fifteen years, were content, as already observed, to watch + over their own State, husbanding its resources, and living at peace with + all their neighbors. It was not till Phraates I. (Arsaces V.), the son of + Priapatius, had mounted the throne, B.C. 181, that this policy was + departed from, and Parthia, which had remained tranquil for a quarter of a + century, once more aroused herself, and assumed an attitude of aggression. + </p> + <p> + The quarter to which Phraates I. directed his arms was the country of the + Mardians, a poor but warlike people, who appear to have occupied a portion + of the Elburz range, probably that immediately south of Mazanderan and + Asterabad. The reduction of these fierce mountaineers is likely to have + occupied him for some years, since their country was exceedingly strong + and difficult. Though the Mardi were (nominally, at any rate) subjects of + the Seleucidae, we do not hear of any assistance being rendered them, or, + indeed, of any remonstrance being made against the unprovoked aggression + of the Parthian monarch. The reign of Phraates I. in Parthia coincides + with that of Seleucus IV. (Philopator) in Syria; and we may account for + the inactivity of this prince, in part by his personal character, which + was weak and pacific, in part by the exhaustion of Syria at the time, in + consequence of his father’s great war with Rome (B.C. 197-190), and of the + heavy contribution which was imposed upon him at the close of it. Syria + may scarcely have yet recovered sufficient strength to enter upon a new + struggle, especially one with a distant and powerful enemy. The material + interests of the Empire may also have seemed to be but little touched by + the war, since the Mardi were too poor to furnish much tribute; and it is + possible, if not even probable, that their subjection to Syria had long + been rather formal than real. Seleucus therefore allowed the Mardians to + be reduced, conceiving, probably, that their transfer to the dominion of + the Arsacidse neither increased the Parthian power nor diminished his own. + </p> + <p> + But the nation which submits to be robbed of a province, however + unproductive and valueless, must look to having the process repeated at + intervals, until it bestirs itself and offers resistance. There is reason + to believe that Phraates had no sooner conquered the Mardians than he cast + his eyes on an adjacent district, and resolved to add it to his + territories. This was the tract lying immediately to the West of the + Caspian Gates, which was always reckoned to Media, forming, however, a + distinct district, know as Media Rhagiana. It was a region of much natural + fertility, being watered by numerous streams from the Elburz range, and + possessing a soil of remarkable productiveness. Its breadth was not great, + since it consisted of a mere strip between the mountains and the Salt + Desert which occupies the whole centre of the Iranic tableland; but it + extended in length at least a hundred and fifty miles, from the Caspian + Gates to the vicinity of Kasvin. Its capital city, from a remote + antiquity, was Rbages, situated near the eastern extremity of the strip, + probably at the spot now called Kaleh Erij, about twenty-three miles from + the “Gates.” On this region it is clear that Phraates cast a covetous eye. + How much of it he actually occupied is doubtful; but it is at least + certain that he effected a lodgment in its eastern extremity, which must + have put the whole region in jeopardy. Nature has set a remarkable barrier + between the more eastern and the more western portions of Occidental Asia, + about midway in the tract which lies due south of the Caspian Sea. The + Elburz range in this part is one of so tremendous a character, and + northward abuts so closely on the Caspian, that all communication between + the east and the west necessarily passes to the south of it. In this + quarter the Great Desert offering an insuperable obstacle to transit, the + line of communication has to cling to the flanks of the mountain chain, + the narrow strip between the mountains and the desert—rarely ten + miles in width—being alone traversable. But about long. 52° 20’ this + strip itself fails. A rocky spur runs due south from the Elburz into the + desert for a distance of some twenty or thirty miles, breaking the line of + communication, and seeming at first sight to obstruct it completely. This, + however, is not the case absolutely. The spur itself is penetrable by two + passes, one where it joins the Elburz, which is the more difficult of the + two, and another, further to the south, which is easier. The latter now + known as the Girduni Sudurrah pass, constitutes the famous “Pylae + Caspiae.” Through this pass alone can armies proceed from Armenia, Media, + and Persia eastward, or from Turkestan, Khorasan, and Afghanistan into the + more western parts of Asia. The position is therefore one of primary + importance. It was to guard it that Rhages was built so near the eastern + end of its territory. So long as it remained in the possession of Syria, + Parthian aggression was checked. Rhagiana, the rest of Media, and the + other provinces were safe, or nearly so. On the other hand, the loss of it + to Parthia laid the eastern provinces open to her, and was at once almost + equivalent to the loss of all Rhagiana, which had no other natural + protection. Now we find that Phraates surmounted the “Gates,” and effected + a lodgment in the plain country beyond them. He removed a portion of the + conquered Mardians from their mountain homes to the city of Charax, which + was on the western side of the Gates, probably on the site now occupied by + the ruins known as Uewanikif. Their location in this strong post was a + menace to the neighboring town of Rhages, which can scarcely have + maintained itself long against an enemy encamped at its doors. We are not + informed, however, of any results which followed on the occupation of + Charax during the lifetime of Phraates. His reign lasted only seven years—from + B.C. 181 to B.C. 174—and it is thus probable that he died before + there was time for his second important conquest to have any further + consequences. + </p> + <p> + Phraates had sufficient warning of his coming decease to make preparations + with respect to a successor. Though he had several sons, some of whom were + (we must suppose) of sufficient age to have ascended the throne, he left + his crown to his brother, Mithridates. He felt, probably, that the State + required the direction of a firm hand, that war might at any time break + out with either Syria or Bactria; while, if the career of conquest on + which he had made Parthia enter were to be pursued, he could trust his + brother better than any of his sons to conduct aggressive expeditions with + combined vigor and prudence. We shall see, as the history proceeds, how + Mithridates justified his choice. Phraates would also appear to have borne + his brother especial affection, since he takes the name of “Philadelphus” + (brother-loving) upon his coins. It must have been a satisfaction to him + that he was able by his last act at once to consult for the good of his + country, and to gratify a sentiment on which it is evident that he prided + himself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Mithridates I. Position of Bactria and Syria at his accession. + His first war with Bactria. His great Expedition against the Eastern + Syrian provinces, and its results. His second war with Bactria, + terminating in its conquest. Extent of his Empire. Attempt of Demetrius + Nicator to recover the lost Provinces fails. Captivity of Demetrius. Death + of Mithridates.</i> + </p> + <p> + The reign of Mithridates I. is the most important in the Parthian history. + <a href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE 1. Fig. 3.]</a> Receiving from his + brother Phraates a kingdom of but narrow dimensions, confined (as it would + seem) between the city of Charax on the one side, and the river Arius, or + Hori-rud, on the other, he transformed it, within the space of + thirty-seven years (which was the time that his reign lasted), into a + great and nourishing Empire. It is not too much to say that, but for him, + Parthia might have remained a more petty State on the outskirts of the + Syrian kingdom, and, instead of becoming a rival to Rome, might have sunk + shortly into obscurity and insignificance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate001.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 1. " /> + </div> + <p> + As commonly happens in the grand changes which constitute the + turning-points of history, the way for Mithridates’s vast successes was + prepared by a long train of antecedent circumstances. To show how the rise + of the Parthians to greatness in the middle of the second century before + our era was rendered possible, we must turn aside once more from our + proper subject and cast a glance at the condition of the two kingdoms + between which Parthia stood, at the time when Mithridates ascended the + throne. + </p> + <p> + The Bactrian monarchs in their ambitious struggles to possess themselves + of the tracts south of the Paropamisus, and extending from the Heri-rud to + the Sutlej and the mouths of the Indus, overstrained the strength of their + State, and by shifting the centre of its power injured irretrievably its + principle of cohesion. As early as the reign of Demetrius a tendency to + disruption showed itself, Eucratidas having held the supreme power for + many years in Bactria itself, while Demetrius exercised authority on the + southern side of the mountains. It is true that at the death of Demetrius + this tendency was to a certain extent checked, since Eucratidas was then + able to extend his sway over almost the whole of the Bactrian territory. + But the old evil recurred shortly, though in a less pronounced form. + Eucratidas, without being actually supplanted in the north by a rival, + found that he could devote to that portion of the Empire but a small part + of his attention. The southern countries and the prospect of southern and + eastern conquests engrossed him. While he carried on successful wars with + the Arachotians, the Drangians, and the Indians of the Punjaub region, his + hold on the more northern countries was relaxed, and they began to slip + from his grasp. Incursions of the nomad Scyths from the Steppes carried + fire and sword over portions of these provinces, some of which were Even, + it is probable, seized and occupied by the invaders. + </p> + <p> + Such was, it would seem, the condition of Bactria under Eucratidas, the + contemporary of Mithridates. In Syria, Antiochus Epiphanes had succeeded + his brother Seleucus IV. (Philopator) about a year before Mithridates + ascended the Parthian throne. He was a prince of courage and energy; but + his hands were fully occupied with wars in Egypt, Palestine, and Armenia, + and the distant East could attract but a small share of his thought or + attention. The claim put forward by Egypt to the possession of Coele-Syria + and Palestine, promised to Ptolemy V. (it was affirmed) as a dowry with + Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus the Great, led to hostilities in the + south-west which lasted continuously for four years (B.C. 171 to B.C. + 168), and were complicated during two of them with troubles in Judaea, + rashly provoked by the Syrian monarch, who, unaware of the stubborn temper + of the Jews, goaded them into insurrection. The war with Egypt came to an + end in B.C. 168; it brought Syria no advantage, since Rome interposed, and + required the restitution of all conquests. The war with the Jews had no + such rapid termination. Antiochus, having not only plundered and + desecrated the Temple, but having set himself to eradicate utterly the + Jewish religion, and completely Hellenize the people, was met with the + most determined resistance on the part of a moiety of the nation. A + patriotic party rose up under devoted leaders, who asserted, and in the + end secured, the independence of their country. Not alone during the + remaining years of Epiphanes, but for half a century after his death, + throughout seven reigns, the struggle continued; Judaea taking advantage + of every trouble and difficulty in Syria to detach herself more and more + completely from her oppressor; being a continual thorn in her side, a + constant source of weakness, preventing more than anything else the + recovery of her power. The triumph which Epiphanes obtained in the distant + Armenia (B.C. 166-5), where he defeated and captured the king, Artaxias, + was a poor set-off against the foe which he had created to himself at his + doors through his cruelty and intolerance. + </p> + <p> + In another quarter, too, the Syrian power received a severe shake through + the injudicious violence of Epiphanes. The Oriental temples had, in some + instances, escaped the rapacity of Alexander’s generals and “Successors;” + their treasuries remained unviolated, and contained large hoards of the + precious metals. Epiphanes, having exhausted his own exchequer by his wars + and his lavish gifts, saw in these un-plundered stores a means of + replenishing it, and made a journey into his south-eastern provinces for + the purpose. The natives of Elymais, however, resisted his attempt, and + proved strong enough to defeat it; the baffled monarch retired to Tabae, + where he shortly afterward fell sick and died. In the popular belief his + death was a judgment upon him for his attempted sacrilege; and in the + exultation caused by the event the bands which joined these provinces to + the Empire must undoubtedly have been loosened. + </p> + <p> + Nor did the removal of Epiphanes (B.C. 164) improve the condition of + affairs in Syria. The throne fell to his son, Antiochus Eupator, a boy of + nine, according to Appian, or, according to another authority, of twelve + years of age. The regent, Lysias, exercised the chief power, and was soon + engaged in a war with the Jews, whom the death of Epiphanes had encouraged + to fresh efforts. The authority of Lysias was further disputed by a + certain Philip, whom Epiphanes, shortly before his death, had made tutor + to the young king. The claims of this tutor to the regent’s office being + supported by a considerable portion of the army, a civil war arose between + him and Lysias, which raged for the greater part of two years (B.C. + 163-2), terminating in the defeat and death of Philip. But Syrian affairs + did not even then settle down into tranquillity. A prince of the Seleucid + house, Demetrius by name, the son of Seleucus IV., and consequently the + first cousin of Eupator, was at this time detained in Rome as a hostage, + having been sent there during his father’s lifetime as a security for his + fidelity. Demetrius, with some reason, regarded his claim to the Syrian + throne as better than that of his cousin, the son of the younger brother, + and being in the full vigor of early youth, he determined to assert his + pretensions in Syria, and to make a bold stroke for the crown. Having + failed to obtain the Senate’s consent to his quitting Italy, he took his + departure secretly, crossed the Mediterranean in a Carthaginian vessel, + and, landing in Asia, succeeded within a few months in establishing + himself as Syrian monarch. + </p> + <p> + From this review it sufficiently appears that the condition of things, + both in Syria and Bactria, was favorable to any aspirations which the + power that lay between them might entertain after dominion and + self-aggrandizement. The Syrian and Bactrian kings, at the time of + Mithridates’s accession, were, both of them, men of talent and energy; but + the Syrian monarch was soon involved in difficulties at home, while the + Bactrian had his attention attracted to prospects of advantage in a remote + quarter, Mithridates might, perhaps, have attacked the territory of either + with an equal chance of victory; and as his predecessor had set him the + example of successful warfare on his western frontier, we might have + expected his first efforts to have been in this direction, against the + dependencies of Syria. But circumstances which we cannot exactly trace + determined his choice differently. While Eucratidas was entangled in his + Indian wars, Mithridates invaded the Bactrian territory where it adjoined + Parthia, and added to his Empire, after a short struggle, two provinces, + called respectively Turiua and that of Aspionus. It is conjectured that + these provinces lay towards the north and the north-west, the one being + that of the Turanians proper, and the other that of the Aspasiacae, who + dwelt between the Jaxartes and the Oxus. But there is scarcely sufficient + ground for forming even a conjecture on the subject, since speculation has + nothing but the names themselves to rest upon. + </p> + <p> + Successful in this quarter, Mithridates, a few years later, having waited + until the Syrian throne was occupied by the boy Eupator, and the two + claimants of the regency, Lysias and Philip, were contending in arms for + the supreme power, made suddenly an expedition towards the west, falling + upon Media, which, though claimed by the Syrian kings as a province of + their Empire, was perhaps at this time almost, if not quite, independent. + The Medes offered a vigorous resistance to his attack; and, in the war + which followed, each side had in turn the advantage; but eventually the + Parthian prince proved victorious, and the great and valuable province of + Media Magna was added to the dominons of the Arsacidae. A certain Bacasis + was appointed to govern it, whether as satrap or as tributary monarch is + not apparent; while the Parthian king, recalled towards home by a revolt, + proceeded to crush rebellion before resuming his career of conquest. + </p> + <p> + The revolt which now occupied for a time the attention of Mithridates was + that of Hyrcania. The Hyrcanians were Arians in race; they were brave and + high-spirited, and under the Persian monarchs had enjoyed some exceptional + privileges which placed them above the great mass of the conquered + nations. It was natural that they should dislike the yoke of a Turanian + people; and it was wise of them to make their effort to obtain their + freedom before Parthia grew into a power against which revolt would be + utterly hopeless. Hyrcania might now expect to be joined by the Medes, and + even the Mardi, who were Arians like themselves, and could not yet have + forgotten the pleasures of independence. But though the effort does not + seem to have been ill-timed, it was unsuccessful. No aid was given to the + rebels, so far as we hear, by any of their neighbors. Mithridates’s prompt + return nipped the insurrection in the bud; Hyrcania at once submitted, and + became for centuries the obedient vassal of her powerful neighbor. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Media had brought the Parthians into contact with the rich + country of Susiana or Elymais; and it was not long before Mithridates, + having crushed the Hyrcanian revolt, again advanced westward, and invaded + this important province. Elymais appears to have a had a king of its own, + who must either have been a vassal of the Seleucidse, or have acquired an + independent position by revolt after the death of Epiphanes. In the war + which followed between this monarch and Mithridates, the Elymseans proved + wholly unsuccessful, and Mithridates rapidly overran the country and added + it to his dominions. After this he appears to have received the submission + of the Persians on the one hand and the Babylonians on the other, and to + have rested on his laurels for some years, having extended the Parthian + sway from the Hindoo Koosh to the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + The chronological data which have come down to us for this period are too + scanty to allow of any exact statement of the number of years occupied by + Mithridates in effecting these conquests. All that can be said is that he + appears to have commenced them about B.C. 163 and to have concluded them + some time before B.C. 140, when he was in his turn attacked by the + Syrians. Probably they had been all effected by the year B.C. 150; since + there is reason to believe that about that time Mithridates found his + power sufficiently established in the west to allow of his once more + turning his attention eastward, and renewing his aggressions upon the + Bactrian kingdom, which had passed from the rule of Eucratidas under that + of his son and successor, Heliocles. + </p> + <p> + Heliocles, who was allowed by his father a quasi-royal position, obtained + the full possession of the Bactrian throne by the crime of parricide. It + is conjectured that he regarded with disapproval his father’s tame + submission to Parthian ascendency, and desired the recovery of the + provinces which Eucratidas had been content to cede for the sake of peace. + We are told that he justified his crime on the ground that his father was + a public enemy; which is best explained by supposing that he considered + him the friend of Bactria’s great enemy, Parthia. If this be the true + account of the circumstances under which he became king, his accession + would have been a species of challenge to the Parthian monarch, whose ally + he had assassinated. Mithridates accordingly marched against him with all + speed, and, easily defeating his troops, took possession of the greater + part of his dominion. Elated by this success, he is said to have pressed + eastward, to have invaded India, and overrun the country as far as the + river Hydaspes, but, if it be true that his arms penetrated so far, it is, + at any rate, certain that he did not here effect any conquest. Greek + monarchs of the Bactrian series continued masters of Oabul and Western + India till about B.C. 126; no Parthian coins are found in this region; nor + do the best authorities claim for Mithridates any dominion beyond the + mountains which enclose on the west the valley of the Indus. + </p> + <p> + By his war with Heliocles the empire of Mithridates reached its greatest + extension. It comprised now, besides Parthia Proper, Bactria, Aria, + Drangiana, Arachosia, Margiana, Hyrcania, the country of the Mardi, Media + Magna, Susiana, Persia and Babylonia. Very probably its limits were still + wider. The power which possessed Parthia, Hyrcania, and Bactria, would + rule almost of necessity over the whole tract between the Elburz range and + the Oxus, if not even over the region between the Oxus and the Jaxartes; + that which held the Caspian mountains and eastern Media could not fail to + have influence over the tribes of the Iranic desert; while Assyria Proper + would naturally follow the fortunes of Babylonia and Susiana. Still the + extent of territory thus indicated rests only on conjecture. If we confine + ourselves to what is known by positive evidence, we can only say that the + Parthian Kingdom of this period contained, at least, twelve provinces + above enumerated. It thus stretched from east to west a distance of + fifteen hundred miles between the Suleiman mountains and the Euphrates, + varying in width from three or four hundred miles—or even more—towards + the west and east, to a narrow strip of less than a hundred miles toward + the centre. It probably comprised an area of about 450,000 square miles; + which is somewhat less than that of the modern Persia. + </p> + <p> + Unlike the modern Persia, however, the territory consisted almost entirely + of productive regions. The excellent quality of the soil in Parthia + Proper, Hyrcania, and Margiana, has been already noticed. Bactria, the + next province to Margiana towards the east, was less uniformly fertile; + but still it contained a considerable proportion of good land along the + course of the Oxus and its tributaries, which was cultivated in vineyards + and cornfields, or else pastured large herds of cattle. The Mardian + mountain territory was well wooded; and the plain between the mountains + and the Caspian was rich in the extreme. Media, where it adjoined on the + desert, was comparatively sterile; but still even here an elaborate system + of artificial irrigation brought a belt of land under culture. Further + west, in the Zagros chain, Media comprised some excellent pasture lands, + together with numerous valleys as productive as any in Asia. Elymais was, + in part, of the same character with the mountainous portion of Media, + while beyond the mountain it sank down into a rich alluvium, not much + inferior to the Babylonian. Babylonia itself was confessedly the most + fertile country in Asia. It produced wheat, barley, millet, sesame, + vetches, dates, and fruits of all kinds. The return of the wheat crop was + from fifty to a hundred-and-fifty-fold; while that of the barley crop was + three hundred-fold. The dates were of unusual size and superior flavor; + and the palm, which abounded throughout the region, furnished an + inexhaustible supply both of fruit and timber. + </p> + <p> + The great increase of power which Mithridates had obtained by his + conquests could not be a matter of indifference to the Syrian monarchs. + Their domestic troubles—the contentions between Philip and Lysias, + between Lysias and Demetrius Soter, Soter and Alexander Balas, Balas and + Demetrius II., Demetrius II. and Tryphon, had so engrossed them for the + space of twenty years (from B.C. 162 to B.C. 142) that they had felt it + impossible, or hopeless, to attempt any expedition towards the East, for + the protection or recovery of their provinces. Mithridates had been + allowed to pursue his career of conquest unopposed, so far as the Syrians + were concerned, and to establish his sway from the Hindoo Koosh to the + Euphrates. But a time at last came when home dangers were less pressing, + and a prospect of engaging the terrible Parthians with success seemed to + present itself. The second Demetrius had not, indeed, wholly overcome his + domestic enemy, Tryphon; but he had so far brought him into difficulties + as to believe that he might safely be left to be dealt with by his wife, + Cleopatra, and by his captains. At the same time the condition of affairs + in the East seemed to invite his interference, Mithridates ruled his new + conquests with some strictness, suspecting, probably, their fidelity, and + determined that he would not by any remissness allow them to escape from + his grasp. The native inhabitants could scarcely be much attached to the + Syro-Macedonians, who had certainly not treated them very tenderly; but a + possession of 170 years’ duration confers prestige in the East, and a + strange yoke may have galled more than one to whose pressure they had + become accustomed. Moreover, all the provinces which Parthia took from + Syria contained Greek towns, and their inhabitants might at all times be + depended on to side with their countrymen against the Asiatics. At the + present conjuncture, too, the number of the malcontents was swelled by the + addition of the recently subdued Bactrians, who hated the Parthian yoke, + and longed earnestly for a chance of recovering their freedom. Thus when + Demetrius II., anxious to escape the reproach of inertness, determined to + make an expedition against the great Parthian monarch, he found himself + welcomed as a deliverer by a considerable number of his enemy’s subjects, + whom the harshness, or the novelty, of the Parthian rule had offended. The + malcontents joined his standard as he advanced; and supported, as he thus + was, by Persian, Elymsen, and Bactrian contingents, he engaged and + defeated the Parthians in several battles. Upon this, Mithridates, finding + himself inferior in strength, had recourse to stratagem, and having put + Demetrius off his guard by proposals of peace, attacked him, defeated him, + and took him prisoner. The invading army appears to have been destroyed. + The captive monarch was, in the first instance, conveyed about to the + several nations which had revolted, and paraded before each in turn, as a + proof to them of their folly in lending him aid, but afterwards he was + treated in a manner befitting his rank and the high character of his + captor. Assigned a residence in Hyrcania, he was maintained in princely + state, and was even promised by Mithridates the hand of his daughter, + Ehodo-guns. The Parthian monarch, it is probable, had the design of + conquering Syria, and thought it possible that he might find it of + advantage to have a Syrian prince in his camp, well disposed towards him, + connected by marriage, and thus fitted for the position of tributary + monarch. But the schemes of Mithridates proved abortive. His career had + now reached its close. Attacked by illness not very long after his capture + of Demetrius, his strength proved insufficient to bear up against the + malady, and he died after a glorious reign of about thirty-eight years, + B.C. 136. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>System of government established by Mithridates I. Constitution of the + Parthians. Government of the Provinces. Laws and Institutions. Character + of Mithridates I.</i> + </p> + <p> + The Parthian institutions possessed great simplicity; and it is probable + that they took a shape in the reign of Arsaces I., or, at any rate, of + Tiridates, which was not greatly altered afterwards. Permanency is the law + of Oriental governments; and in a monarchy which lasted less than five + hundred years, it is not likely that many changes occurred. The Parthian + institutions are referred to Mithridates I., rather than to Tiridates, + because in the reign of Mithridates Parthia entered upon a new phase of + her existence—became an empire instead of a mere monarchy; and the + sovereign of the time could not but have reviewed the circumstances of his + State, and have determined either to adopt the previous institutions of + his country, or to reject them. Mithridates I. had attained a position + which entitled and enabled him to settle the Parthian constitution as he + thought best; and, if he maintained an earlier arrangement, which is + uncertain, he must have done so of his own free will, simply because he + preferred the existing Parthian institutions to any other. Thus the + institutions may be regarded as starting from him, since he approved them, + and made them those of the Parthian EMPIRE. + </p> + <p> + Like most sovereignties which have arisen out of an association of chiefs + banding themselves together for warlike purposes under a single head, the + Parthian monarchy was limited. The king was permanently advised by two + councils, consisting of persons not of his own nomination, whom rights, + conferred by birth or office, entitled to their seats. One of these was a + family conclave (concilium domesticum), or assembly of the full-grown + males of the Royal House; the other was a Senate comprising both the + spiritual and the temporal chiefs of the nation, the Sophi, or “Wise Men,” + and the Magi, or “Priests.” Together these two bodies constituted the + Megistanes, the “Nobles” or “Great Men”—the privileged class which + to a considerable extent checked and controlled the monarch. The monarchy + was elective, but only in the house of the Arsacidae; and the concurrent + vote of both councils was necessary in the appointment of a new king. + Practically, the ordinary law of hereditary descent appears to have been + followed, unless in the case where a king left no son of sufficient age to + exercise the royal office. Under such circumstances, the Megistanes + usually nominated the late king’s next brother to succeed him, or, if he + had left behind him no brother, went back to an uncle. When the line of + succession had once been changed, the right of the elder branch was lost, + and did not revive unless the branch preferred died out or possessed no + member qualified to rule. When a king had been duly nominated by the two + councils, the right of placing the diadem upon his head belonged to the + Surena, the “Field-Marshal,” or “Commander in Chief of the Parthian + armies.” The Megistanes further claimed and sometimes exercised the right + of deposing a monarch whose conduct displeased them; but an attempt to + exercise this privilege was sure to be followed by a civil war, no monarch + accepting his deposition without a struggle; and force, not right, + practically determining whether he should remain king or no. + </p> + <p> + After a king was once elected and firmly fixed upon the throne, his power + appears to have been nearly despotic. At any rate he could put to death + without trial whomsoever he chose; and adult members of the Royal House, + who provoked the reigning monarch’s jealousy, were constantly so treated. + Probably it would have been more dangerous to arouse the fears of the + “Sophi” and “Magi.” The latter especially were a powerful body, consisting + of an organized hierarchy, which had come down from ancient times, and was + feared and venerated by all classes of the people. Their numbers at the + close of the Empire, counting adult males only, are reckoned at eighty + thousand;’ they possessed considerable tracts of fertile land, and were + the sole inhabitants of many large towns or villages, which they were + permitted to govern as they pleased. The arbitrary power of the monarchs + must, in practice, have been largely checked by the privileges of this + numerous priestly caste, of which it would seem that in later times they + became jealous, thereby preparing the way for their own downfall. + </p> + <p> + The dominion of the Parthians over the conquered provinces was maintained + by reverting to the system which had prevailed generally through the East + before the accession of the Persians to power, and establishing in the + various countries either viceroys, holding office for life, or sometimes + dependent dynasties of kings. In either case, the rulers, so long as they + paid tribute regularly to the Parthian monarchs and aided them in their + wars, were allowed to govern the people beneath their sway at their + pleasure. Among monarchs, in the higher sense of the term, may be + enumerated the kings of Persia, Elymaiis, Adiabene, Osrhoene, and of + Armenia and Media Atropatene, when they formed, as they sometimes did, + portions of the Parthian Empire. The viceroys, who governed the other + provinces, bore the title of Vitaxae, and were fourteen or fifteen in + number. The remark has been made by the historian Gibbon that the system + thus established “exhibited under other names a lively image of the feudal + system which has since prevailed in Europe.” The comparison is of some + value, but, like most historical parallels, it is inexact, the points of + difference between the Parthian and the feudal system being probably more + numerous than those of resemblance, but the points of resemblance being + very main points, not fewer in number, and striking. + </p> + <p> + It was with special reference to the system thus established that the + Parthian monarchs took the title of “King of Kings”, so frequent upon + their coins, which seems sometimes to have been exchanged for what was + regarded as an equivalent phrase, “Satrap of Satraps”. This title seems to + appear first on the coins of Mithridates I. + </p> + <p> + In the Parthian system there was one anomaly of a very curious character. + The Greek towns, which were scattered in large numbers throughout the + Empire, enjoyed a municipal government of their own, and in some cases + were almost independent communities, the Parthian kings exercising over + them little or no control. The great city of Seleucia on the Tigris was + the most important of all these: its population was estimated in the first + century after Christ at six hundred thousand souls; it had strong walls, + and was surrounded by a most fertile territory. It had its own senate, or + municipal council, of three hundred members, elected by the people to rule + them from among the wealthiest and best educated of the citizens. Under + ordinary circumstances it enjoyed the blessing of complete + self-government, and was entirely free from Parthian interference, paying + no doubt its tribute, but otherwise holding the position of a “free city.” + It was only in the case of internal dissensions that these advantages were + lost, and the Parthian soldiery, invited within the walls, arranged the + quarrels of parties, and settled the constitution of the State at its + pleasure. Privileges of a similar character, though, probably, less + extensive, belonged (it would seem) to most of the other Greek cities of + the Empire. The Parthian monarchs thought it polite to favor them; and + their practice justified the title of “Phil-Hellene,” which they were fond + of assuming upon their coins. On the whole, the policy may have been wise, + but it diminished the unity of the Empire; and there were times when + serious danger arose from it. The Syro-Macedonian monarchs could always + count with certainty on having powerful friends in Parthia, whatever + portion of it they invaded; and even the Romans, though their ethnic + connection with the cities was not so close, were sometimes indebted to + them for very important assistance. + </p> + <p> + We are told that Mithridates I., after effecting his conquests, made a + collection of the best laws which he found to prevail among the various + subject peoples, and imposed them upon the Parthian nation. This statement + is, no doubt, an exaggeration; but we may attribute, with some reason, to + Mithridates the introduction at this time of various practices and usages, + whereby the Parthian Court was assimilated to those of the earlier Great + Monarchies of Asia, and became in the eyes of foreigners the successor and + representative of the old Assyrian and Persian Kingdoms. The assumption of + new titles and of a new state—the organization of the Court on a new + plan—the bestowal of a new character on the subordinate officers of + the Empire, were suitable to the new phase of its life on which the + monarchy had now entered, and may with the highest probability, if not + with absolute certainty, be assigned to this period. + </p> + <p> + It has been already noticed that Mithridates appears to have been the + first Parthian sovereign who took the title of “King of Kings.” The title + had been a favorite one with the old Assyrian and Persian monarchs, but + was not adopted either by the Seleucidae or by the Greek kings of Bactria. + Its revival implied a distinct pretension to that mastery of Western Asia + which had belonged of old to the Assyrians and Persians, and which was, in + later times, formally claimed by Artaxerxes, the son of Sassan, the + founder of the New Persian Kingdom. Previous Parthian monarchs had been + content to call themselves “the King,” or “the Great King”—Mithridates + is “the King of Kings, the great and illustrious Arsaces.” + </p> + <p> + At the same time Mithridates appears to have assumed the tiara, or tall + stiff crown, which, with certain modifications in its shape, had been the + mark of sovereignty, both under the Assyrians and under the Persians. + Previously the royal headdress had been either a mere cap of a Scythic + type, but lower than the Scyths commonly wore it; or the ordinary diadem, + which was a band round the head terminating in two long ribbons or ends, + that hung down behind the head on the back. According to Herodian, the + diadem, in the later times, was double; but the coins of Parthia do not + exhibit this peculiarity. <a href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE 1, Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Ammianus says that among the titles assumed by the Parthian monarchs was + that of “Brother of the Sun and Moon.” It appears that something of a + divine character was regarded as attaching to the race. In the civil + contentions, which occur so frequently throughout the later history, + combatants abstained from lifting their hands knowingly against an + Arsacid, to kill or wound one being looked upon as sacrilege. The name of + <i>Deos</i> was occasionally assumed, as it was in Syria; and more + frequently kings took the epithet of [Greek], which implied the divinity + of their father. After his death a monarch seems generally to have been + the object of a qualified worship; statues were erected to him in the + temples, where (apparently) they were associated with the images of the + great luminaries. + </p> + <p> + Of the Parthian Court and its customs we have no account that is either + complete or trustworthy. Some particulars, however, may be gathered of it + on which we may place reliance. The best authorities are agreed that it + was not stationary, but migrated at different times of the year to + different cities of the Empire, in this resembling the Court of the + Achaemenians. It is not quite clear, however, which were the cities thus + honored. Ctesiphon was undoubtedly one of them. All writers agree that it + was the chief city of the Empire, and the ordinary seat of the government. + Here, according to Strabo, the kings passed the winter months, delighting + in the excellence of the air. The town was situated on the left bank of + the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia, twelve or thirteen miles below the + modern Baghdad. Pliny says that it was built by the Parthians in order to + reduce Seleucia to insignificance, and that when it failed of its purpose + they built another city. + </p> + <p> + Vologesocerta, in the same neighborhood with the same object; but the + account of Strabo is more probable—viz., that it grew up gradually + out of the wish of the Parthian kings to spare Seleucia the unpleasantness + of having the rude soldiery, which followed the Court from place to place, + quartered upon them The remainder of the year, Strabo tells us, was spent + by the Parthian kings either at the Median city of Ecbatana, which is the + modern Hamadan, or in the province of Hyrca—In Hyrcania, the palace, + according to him, was at Tape and between this place and Ecbatana he no + doubt regarded the monarchs as spending the time which was not passed at + Ctesiphon. Athenaeus, however, declares that Rhages was the spring + residence of the Parthian kings; and it seems not unlikely that this + famous city, which Isidore, writing in Parthian times, calls “the greatest + in Media,” was among the occasional residences of the Court. Parthia + itself was, it would seem, deserted; but still a city of that region + preserved in one respect a royal character, being the place where all the + earlier kings were interred. + </p> + <p> + The pomp and grandeur of the Parthian monarchs are described only in the + vaguest terms by the classical writers. No author of repute appears to + have visited the Parthian Court. We may perhaps best obtain a true notion + of the splendor of the sovereign from the accounts which have reached us + of his relations and officers, who can have reflected only faintly the + magnificence of the sovereign. Plutarch tells us that the general whom + Orodes deputed to conduct the war against Crassus came into the field + accompanied by two hundred litters wherein were contained his concubines, + and by a thousand camels which carried his baggage. His dress was + fashioned after that of the Medes; he wore his hair parted in the middle + and had his face painted with cosmetics. A body of ten thousand horse, + composed entirely, of his clients and slaves, followed him in battle. We + may conclude from this picture, and from the general tenor of the + classical notices, that the Arsacidae revived and maintained very much + such a Court as that of the old Achaemenian princes, falling probably + somewhat below their model in politeness and refinement, but equalling it + in luxury, in extravagant expenditure, and in display. + </p> + <p> + Such seems to have been the general character of those practices and + institutions which distinguish the Parthians from the foundation of their + Empire by Mithridates, Some of them, it is probable, he rather adopted + than invented; but there is no good reason for doubting that of many he + was the originator. He appears to have been one of those rare individuals + to whom it has been given to unite the powers which form the conqueror + with those which constitute the successful organizer of a State. Brave and + enterprising in war, prompt to seize an occasion and to turn it to the + best advantage, not even averse to severities where they seemed to be + required, he yet felt no acrimony towards those who had resisted his arms, + but was ready to befriend them so soon as their resistance ceased. Mild, + clement, philanthropic, he conciliated those whom he subdued almost more + easily than he subdued them, and by the efforts of a few years succeeded + in welding together a dominion which lasted without suffering serious + mutilation for nearly four centuries. Though not dignified with the + epithet of “Great,” he was beyond all question the greatest of the + Parthian monarchs. Later times did him more justice than his + contemporaries, and, when the names of almost all the other kings had sunk + into oblivion, retained his in honor, and placed it on a par with that of + the original founder of Parthian independence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Phraates II. Expedition of Antiochus Sidetes against Parthia. + Release of Demetrius. Defeat and Death of Sidetes. War of Phraates with + the Northern Nomads. His death and character.</i> + </p> + <p> + Mithridates was succeeded by his son, Phraates, the second monarch of the + name, and the seventh Arsaces. This prince, entertaining, like his father, + the design of invading Syria, and expecting to find some advantage from + having in his camp the rightful occupant of the Syrian throne, treated the + captive Demetrius with even greater kindness than his father had done, not + only maintaining him handsomely, but even giving him his sister Ehodogune, + in marriage. Demetrius, however, was not to be reconciled to his captivity + by any such blandishments, and employed his thoughts chiefly in devising + plans by which he might escape. By the help of a friend he twice managed + to evade the vigilance of his guards, and to make his way from Hyrcania + towards the frontiers of his own kingdom; but each time he was pursued and + caught without effecting his purpose. The Parthian monarch was no doubt + vexed at his pertinacity, and on the second occasion thought it prudent to + feign, if he did not even really feel, offence: he banished his ungrateful + brother-in-law from his presence, but otherwise visited his crime with no + severer penalty than ridicule. Choosing to see in his attempts to change + the place of his abode no serious design, but only the wayward conduct of + a child, he sent him a present of some golden dice, implying thereby that + it was only for lack of amusement he had grown discontented with his + Hyrcanian residence. + </p> + <p> + Antiochus Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius, had been generally accepted + by the Syrians as their monarch, at the time when the news reached them of + that prince’s defeat and capture by Mithridates. He was an active and + enterprising sovereign, though fond of luxury and display. For some years + (B.C. 140-137) the pretensions of Tryphon to the throne gave him full + occupation; but, having finally established his authority after a short + war, and punished the pretender with death, he found himself, in B.C. 137, + at liberty to turn his arms against foreign enemies. He would probably + have at once attacked Parthia, but for the attitude of a nearer neighbor, + which he regarded as menacing, and as requiring his immediate attention. + Demetrius, before his departure for the East, had rewarded the Jews for + services rendered him in his war with Tryphon by an open, acknowledgment + of their independence. Sidetes, though indebted to the Jewish High Priest, + Simon, for offers of aid against the same adversary, could not bring + himself to pay the price for it which Demetrius had thought reasonable—an + independent Palestine appeared to him a danger close to his doors, and one + that imperilled the very existence of the Syrian State. Accordingly, he + had no sooner put down Tryphon than he resolved to pick a quarrel with the + Jews, and to force them to resume their old position of vassalage to + Syria. His general, Cendebseus, invaded their country, but was defeated + near Azotus. Antiochus had to take the field in person. During two years, + John Hyrcanus, who had succeeded his father, Simon (B.C. 135), baffled all + his efforts; but at last, in B.C. 133, he was forced to submit, to + acknowledge the authority of Syria, to dismantle Jerusalem, and to resume + the payment of tribute. Sidetes then considered the time come for a + Parthian expedition, and, having made great preparations, he set out for + the East in the spring of B.C. 129. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to accept without considerable reserve the accounts that + have come down to us of the force which Antiochus collected. According to + Justin, it consisted of no more than 80,000 fighting men, to which was + attached the incredible number of 300,000 camp-followers, the majority + being composed of cooks, bakers, and actors. As in other extreme cases the + camp-followers do but equal or a little exceed the number of men fit for + service, this estimate, which makes them nearly four times as numerous, is + entitled to but little credit. The late writer, Orosius, corrects the + error here indicated; but his account seems to err in rating the + supernumeraries too low. According to him, the armed force amounted to + 300,000, while the camp-followers, including grooms, sutlers, courtesans, + and actors, were no more than a third of the number. From the two + accounts, taken together, we are perhaps entitled to conclude that the + entire host did not fall much short of 400,000 men. This estimate receives + confirmation from an independent statement made by Diodorus, with respect + to the number who fell in the campaign—a statement of which we shall + have to speak later. + </p> + <p> + The army of Phraates, according to two accounts of it (which, however, + seem to represent a single original authority), numbered no more than + 120,000. An attempt which he made to enlist in his service a body of + Scythian mercenaries failed, the Scyths being willing to lend their aid, + but arriving too late to be of any use. At the same time a defection of + the subject princes deprived the Parthian monarch of contingents which + usually swelled his numbers, and threw him upon the support of his own + countrymen, chiefly or solely. Under these circumstances it is more + surprising that he was able to collect 120,000 men than that he did not + bring into the field a larger number. + </p> + <p> + The Syrian troops, magnificently appointed and supported by a body of Jews + under John Hyrcanus, advanced upon Babylon, receiving on their way the + adhesion of many of the Parthian tributaries, who professed themselves + disgusted by the arrogance and pride of their masters. Phraates, on his + part, advanced to meet his enemies, and in person or by his generals + engaged Antiochus in three battles, but without success. Antiochus was + three times a conqueror. In a battle fought upon the river Lycus (Zab) in + further Assyria he defeated the Parthian general, Indates, and raised a + trophy in honor of his victory. The exact scene of the other combats is + unknown, but they were probably in the same neighborhood. The result of + them was the conquest of Babylonia, and the general revolt of the + remaining Parthian provinces, which followed the common practice of + deserting a falling house, and drew off or declared for the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances Phraates, considering that the time was come + when it was necessary for him to submit or to create a diversion by + raising troubles in the enemy’s territory, released Demetrius from his + confinement, and sent him, supported by a body of Parthian troops, to + reclaim his kingdom. He thought it probable that Antiochus, when the + intelligence reached him, would retrace his steps, and return from Babylon + to his own capital. At any rate his efforts would be distracted; he would + be able to draw fewer reinforcements from home; and he would be less + inclined to proceed to any great distance from his own country. + </p> + <p> + Antiochus, however, was either uninformed of the impending danger or did + not regard it as very pressing. The winter was approaching; and, instead + of withdrawing his troops from the occupied provinces and marching them + back into Syria, he resolved to keep them where they were, merely dividing + them, on account of their numbers, among the various cities which he had + taken, and making them go into winter quarters. It was, no doubt, his + intention to remain quiet during the two or three winter months, after + which he would have resumed the war, and have endeavored to penetrate + through Media into Parthia Proper, where he might expect his adversary to + make his last stand. + </p> + <p> + But Phraates saw that the position of affairs was favorable for striking a + blow before the spring came. The dispersion of his enemy’s troops deprived + him of all advantage from the superiority of their numbers. The + circumstance of their being quartered in towns newly reduced, and + unaccustomed to the rudeness and rapacity of soldiers and camp-followers, + made it almost certain that complications would arise, and that it would + not be long before in some places the Parthians, so lately declared to be + oppressors, would be hailed as liberators. Moreover, the Parthians were, + probably, better able than their adversaries to endure the hardships and + severities of a campaign in the cold season. Parthia is a cold country, + and the winters, both of the great plateau of Iran and of all the mountain + tracts adjoining it, are severe. The climate of Syria is far milder. + Moreover, the troops of Antiochus had, we are informed, been enervated by + an excessive indulgence on the part of their leader during the marches and + halts of the preceding summer. Their appetites had been pampered; their + habits had become unmanly; their general tone was relaxed; and they were + likely to deteriorate still more in the wealthy and luxurious cities where + they were bidden to pass the winter. + </p> + <p> + These various circumstances raised the spirits of Phraates, and made him + hold himself in readiness to resume hostilities at a moment’s notice. Nor + was it long before the complications which he had foreseen began to occur. + The insolence of the soldiers quartered upon them exasperated the + inhabitants of the Mesopotamian towns, and caused them to look back with + regret to the time when they were Parthian subjects. The requisitions made + on them for stores of all kinds was a further grievance. After a while + they opened communications with Phraates, and offered to return to their + allegiance if he would assist them against their oppressors. Phraates + gladly listened to these overtures. At his instigation a plot was formed + like that which has given so terrible a significance to the phrase + “Sicilian vespers.” It was agreed that on an appointed day all the cities + should break out in revolt: the natives should take arms, rise against the + soldiers quartered upon them, and kill all, or as many as possible. + Phraates promised to be at hand with his army, to prevent, the scattered + detachments from giving help to each other. It was calculated that in this + way the invaders might be cut off almost to a man without the trouble of + even fighting a battle. + </p> + <p> + But, before he proceeded to extremities, the Parthian prince determined to + give his adversary a chance of escaping the fate prepared for him by + timely concessions. The winter was not over; but the snow was beginning to + melt through the increasing warmth of the sun’s rays, and the day + appointed for the general rising was probably drawing near. Phraates felt + that no time was to be lost. Accordingly, he sent ambassadors to Antiochus + to propose peace, and to inquire on what conditions it would be granted + him. The reply of Antiochus, according to Diodotus, was as follows: “If + Phraates would release his prisoner, Demetrius, from captivity, and + deliver him up without ransom, at the same time restoring all the + provinces which had been taken from Syria, and consenting to pay a tribute + for Parthia itself, peace might be had; but not otherwise.” To such terms + it was, of course, impossible that Phraates should listen; and his + ambassadors, therefore, returned without further parley. + </p> + <p> + Soon afterwards the day appointed for the outbreak arrived. Apparently, no + suspicion had been excited. The Syrian troops were everywhere quietly + enjoying themselves in their winter quarters, when, suddenly and without + warning, they found themselves attacked by the natives. Taken at + disadvantage, it was impossible for them to make a successful resistance; + and it would seem that the great bulk of them were massacred in their + quarters. Antiochus, and the detachment stationed with him, alone, so far + as we hear, escaped into an open field and contended for their lives in + just warfare. It had been the intention of the Syrian monarch, when he + took the field, to hasten to the protection of the troops quartered + nearest to him; but he no sooner commenced his march than he found himself + confronted by Phraates, who was at the head of his entire army, having, no + doubt, anticipated Antiochus’s design and resolved to frustrate it. The + Parthian prince was anxious to engage at once, as his force far + outnumbered that commanded by his adversary; but the latter might have + declined the battle, if he had so willed, and have, at any rate, greatly + protracted the struggle. He had a mountain region—Mount Zagros, + probably—within a short distance of him, and might have fallen back + upon it, so placing the Parthian horse at great disadvantage; but he was + still at an age when caution is apt to be considered cowardice, and + temerity to pass for true courage. Despite the advice of one of his + captains, he determined to accept the battle which the enemy offered, and + not to fly before a foe whom he had three times defeated. But the + determination of the commander was ill seconded by his army. Though + Antiochus fought strenuously, he was defeated, since his troops were + without heart and offered but a poor resistance. Antiochus himself + perished, either slain by the enemy or by his own hand. His son, Seleucus, + a boy of tender age, and his niece, a daughter of Demetrius, who had + accompanied him in his expedition, were captured. His troops were either + cut to pieces or made prisoners. The entire number of those slain in the + battle, and in the previous massacre, was reckoned at 300,000. + </p> + <p> + Such was the issue of this great expedition. It was the last which any + Seleucid monarch conducted into these countries—the final attempt + made by Syria to repossess herself of her lost Eastern provinces. + Henceforth Parthia was no further troubled by the power that had hitherto + been her most dangerous enemy, but was allowed to enjoy without + molestation from Syria the conquests which she had effected. Syria, in + fact, had from this time a difficulty in preserving her own existence. The + immediate result of the destruction of Antiochus and his host was the + revolt of Judaea, which henceforth maintained its independence + uninterruptedly. The dominions of the Seleucidae were reduced to Cilicia + and Syria Proper, or the tract west of the Euphrates, between Amanus and + Palestine. Internally, the state was agitated by constant commotions from + the claims of various pretenders to the sovereignty: externally, it was + kept in continual alarm by the Egyptians, Arabians, or Romans. During the + sixty years which elapsed between the return of Demetrius to his kingdom + and the conversion of Syria into a Roman province, she ceased wholly to be + formidable to her neighbors. Her flourishing period was gone by, and a + rapid decline set in, from which there was no recovery. It is surprising + that the Romans did not step in earlier and terminate a rule which was but + a little removed from anarchy. Rome, however, had other work on her hands; + and the Syrian kingdom continued to exist till B.C. 65, though in a feeble + and moribund condition. + </p> + <p> + But Phraates could not, without prophetic foresight, have counted on such + utter prostration following as the result of a single—albeit a + terrible—blow. Accordingly, we find him still exhibiting a dread of + the Seleucid power even after his great victory. He had released Demetrius + too late to obtain any benefit from the hostile feeling which that prince + probably entertained towards his brother. Had he not released him too soon + for his own safety? Was it not to be feared that the Syrians might rally + under one who was their natural leader, might rapidly recover their + strength, and renew the struggle for the mastery of Western Asia? The + first thought of the dissatisfied monarch was to hinder the execution of + his own project. Demetrius was on his way to Syria, but had not yet + arrived there, or, at any rate, his arrival had not been as yet reported. + Was it not possible to intercept him? The Parthian king hastily sent out a + body of horse, with orders to pursue the Syrian prince at their best + speed, and endeavor to capture him before he passed the frontier. If they + succeeded, they were to bring him hack to their master, who would probably + have then committed his prisoner to close custody. The pursuit, however, + failed. Demetrius had anticipated, or at least feared, a change of + purpose, and, having prosecuted his journey with the greatest diligence, + had reached his own territory before the emissaries of Phraates could + overtake him. + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain whether policy or inclination dictated the step which + Phraates soon afterwards took of allaying himself by marriage with the + Seleucidae. He had formally given his sister, Ehodogune, as a wife to + Demetrius, and the marriage had been fruitful, Rhodogune having borne + Demetrius several children. The two houses of the Seleucidae and Arsacidae + were thus already allied to some extent. Phraates resolved to strengthen + the bond. The unmarried daughter of Demetrius whom he had captured after + his victory over Antiochus took his fancy; and he determined to make her + his wife. At the same time he adopted other measures calculated to + conciliate the Seleucid prince. He treated his captive, Seleucus, the son + of Antiochus, with the greatest respect. To the corpse of Antiochus he + paid royal honors; and, having placed it in a silver coffin, he + transmitted it to the Syrians for sepulture. + </p> + <p> + Still, if we may believe Justin, he entertained the design of carrying his + arms across the Euphrates and invading Syria, in order to avenge the + attack of Antiochus upon his territories. But events occurred which forced + him to relinquish this enterprise. The Scythians, whom he had called to + his aid under the pressure of the Syrian invasion, and who had arrived too + late to take part in the war, demanded the pay which they had been + promised, and suggested that their arms should be employed against some + other enemy. Phraates was unwilling either to requite services not + rendered, or to rush needlessly into a fresh war merely to gratify the + avarice of his auxiliaries. He therefore peremptorily refused to comply + with either suggestion. Upon this, the Scythians determined to take their + payment into their own hands, and began to ravage Parthia and to carry off + a rich booty. Phraates, who had removed the headquarters of his government + to Babylonia, felt it necessary to entrust affairs there to an officer, + and to take the field in person against this new enemy, which was + certainly not less formidable than the Syrians. He selected for his + representative at the seat of Empire a certain Himerus (or Evemerus), a + youth with whom he had a disgraceful connection, and having established + him as a sort of viceroy, marched away to the northeast, and proceeded to + encounter the Scythians in that remote region. Besides his native troops, + he took with him a number of Greeks, whom he had made prisoners in his war + with Antiochus. Their fidelity could not but be doubtful; probably, + however, he thought that at a distance from Syria they would not dare to + fail him, and that with an enemy so barbarous as the Scythians they would + have no temptation to fraternize. But the event proved him mistaken. The + Greeks were sullen at their captivity, and exasperated by some cruel + treatment which they had received when first captured. They bided their + time; and when, in a battle with the Scythians, they saw the Parthian + soldiery hard pressed and in danger of defeat, they decided matters by + going over in a body to the enemy. The Parthian army was completely routed + and destroyed, and Phraates himself was among the slain. We are not told + what became of the victorious Greeks; but it is to be presumed that, like + the Ten Thousand, they fought their way across Asia, and rejoined their + own countrymen. + </p> + <p> + Thus died Phraates I., after a reign of about eight or nine years. Though + not possessing the talents of his father, he was a brave and warlike + prince, active, enterprising, fertile in resources, and bent on + maintaining against all assailants the honor and integrity of the Empire. + In natural temperament he was probably at once soft and cruel. But, when + policy required it, he could throw his softness aside and show himself a + hardy and intrepid warrior. Similarly, he could control his natural + harshness, and act upon occasion with clemency and leniency. He was not, + perhaps, without a grim humor, which led him to threaten more than he + intended, in order to see how men would comport themselves when greatly + alarmed. There is some evidence that he aimed at saying good things; + though it must be confessed that the wit is not of a high order. + Altogether he has more character than most Oriental monarchs; and the + monotony of Arsacid biography is agreeably interrupted by the idiosyncrasy + which his words and conduct indicate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Artabanus II. Position of Parthia. Growing pressure upon + her, and general advance towards the south, of the Saka or Scyths. Causes + and extent of the movement. Character and principal tribes of the Saka. + Scythic war of Artabanus. His death.</i> + </p> + <p> + The successor of Phraates was his uncle, Artabanus, a son of Priapatius. + It is probable that the late king had either left no son, or none of + sufficient age to be a fit occupant of the throne at a season of + difficulty. The “Megistanes,” therefore, elected Artabanus in his nephew’s + place, a man of mature age, and, probably, of some experience in war. The + situation of Parthia, despite her recent triumph over the + Syro-Macedonians, was critical; and it was of the greatest importance that + the sceptre should be committed to one who would bring to the discharge of + his office those qualities of wisdom, promptness, and vigor, which a + crisis demands. + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of the situation was two-fold. In the first place, there + was an immediate danger to be escaped. The combined Greeks and Scythians, + who had defeated the Parthian army and slain the monarch, might have been + expected to push their advantage to the utmost, and seek to establish + themselves as conquerors in the country which lay apparently at their + mercy. At any rate, the siege and sack of some of the chief towns was a + probable contingency, if permanent occupation of the territory did not + suit the views of the confederates. The new monarch had to rid Parthia of + her invaders at as little cost as possible, before he could allow himself + to turn his attention to any other matter whatsoever. Nor did this, under + the circumstances, appear to be an easy task. The flower of the Parthian + troops had been destroyed in the late battle, and it was not easy to + replace them by another native army. The subject-nations were at no time + to be depended upon when Parthia was reduced to straits, and at the + present conjecture some of the most important were in a condition + bordering upon rebellion. Himerus, the viceroy left by Phraates in + Babylonia, had first driven the Babylonians and Seleucians to desperation + by his tyranny, and then plunged into a war with the people of Mesene, + which must have made it difficult for him to send Artabanus any + contingent. Fortunately for the Parthians, the folly or moderation of + their enemies rendered any great effort on their part unnecessary. The + Greeks, content with having revenged themselves, gave the new monarch no + trouble at all: the Scythians were satisfied with plundering and wasting + the open country, after which they returned quietly to their homes. + Artabanus found himself quit of the immediate danger which had threatened + him almost without exertion of his own, and could now bend his thoughts to + the position of his country generally, and the proper policy to pursue + under the circumstances. + </p> + <p> + For there was a second and more formidable danger impending over the State—a + danger not casual and temporary like the one just escaped, but arising out + of a condition of things in neighboring regions which had come about + slowly, and which promised to be permanent. To give the reader the means + of estimating this danger aright, it will be necessary to take a somewhat + wide view of the state of affairs on the northern and north-eastern + frontiers of Parthia for some time previously to the accession of + Artabanus, to trace out the causes which were at work, producing important + changes in these regions, and to indicate the results which threatened, + and those which were accomplished. The opportunity will also serve for + giving such an account of the chief races which here bordered the empire + as will show the nature of the peril to which Parthia was exposed at this + period. + </p> + <p> + In the wide plains of Northern Asia, extending from the Arctic Ocean to + the Thian Chan mountains and the Jaxartes, there had been nurtured from a + remote antiquity a nomadic population, at no time very numerous in + proportion to the area over which it was spread, but liable on occasions + to accumulate, owing to a combination of circumstances, in this or that + portion of the region occupied, and at such times causing trouble to its + neighbors. From about the close of the third century B.C. symptoms of such + an accumulation had begun to display themselves in the tract immediately + north of the Jaxartes, and the inhabitants of the countries south of that + river had suffered from a succession of raids and inroads, which were not + regarded as dangerous, but which gave constant annoyance. Crossing the + great desert of Kharesm by forced marches, some of the hordes invaded the + green valleys of Hyrcania and Parthia, and carried desolation over those + fair and flourishing districts. About the same time other tribes entered + the Bactrian territory and caused alarm to the Greek kingdom recently + established in that province. It appears that the Parthian monarchs, + unable to save their country from incursions, consented to pay a sort of + black-mail to their invaders, by allowing them the use of their pasture + grounds at certain fixed times—probably during some months of each + year. The Bactrian princes had to pay a heavier penalty. Province after + province of their kingdom was swallowed up by the northern hordes, who + gradually occupied Sogdiana, or the tract between the lower Jaxartes and + the lower Oxus, whence they proceeded to make inroads into Bactria itself. + The rich land on the Polytimetus, or Ak Su, the river of Samarkand, and + even the highlands between the upper Jaxartes and upper Oxus, were + permanently occupied by the invaders; and if the Bactrians had not + compensated themselves for their losses by acquisitions of territory in + Afghanistan and India, they would soon have had no kingdom left. The + hordes were always increasing in strength through the influx of fresh + immigrants, and in lieu of Bactria a power now stood arrayed on the + north-eastern frontier of the Parthians, which was reasonably regarded + with the most serious alarm and suspicion. + </p> + <p> + The origin of the state of things here described is to be sought, + according to the best authorities, in certain movements which took place + about B.C. 200, in a remote region of inner Asia. At that time a Turanian + people called the Yue-chi were expelled from their territory on the west + of Chen-si by the Hiong-nu, whom some identified with the Huns. The + Yue-chi separated into two bands; the smaller descended southwards into + Thibet; the larger passed westwards, and after a hard struggle + dispossessed a people called ‘Su’ of the plains west of the river of Hi. + These latter advanced to Ferghana and the Jaxartes; and the Yue-chi not + long afterwards retreating from the Usiun, another nomadic race, passed + the ‘Su’ on the north and occupied the tracts between the Oxus and the + Caspian. The Su were thus in the vicinity of the Bactrian Greeks; the + Yue-chi in the neighborhood of the Parthians. On the particulars of this + account, which come from the Chinese historians, we cannot perhaps + altogether depend; but there is no reason to doubt the main fact, attested + by a writer who visited the Yue-chi in B.C. 139, that they had migrated + about the period mentioned from the interior of Asia, and had established + themselves sixty years later in the Caspian region. Such a movement would + necessarily have thrown the entire previous population of those parts into + commotion, and would probably have precipitated them upon their neighbors. + It accounts satisfactorily for the pressure of the northern hordes at this + period on the Parthians, Bactrians, and even the Indians; and it + completely explains the crisis in Parthian history, which we have now + reached, and the necessity which lay upon the nation of meeting and, if + possible, overcoming, an entirely new danger. + </p> + <p> + In fact, one of those occasions of peril had arisen, to which in ancient + times the civilized world was always liable from an outburst of northern + barbarism. Whether the peril has altogether passed away or not we need not + here inquire; but certainly in the old world there was always a chance + that civilization, art, refinement, luxury, might suddenly and almost + without warning be swept away by an overwhelming influx of savage hordes + from the unpolished North. From the reign of Oyaxares, when the evil first + showed itself, the danger was patent to all wise and far-seeing governors + both in Europe and Asia, and was from time to time guarded against. The + expeditions of Cyrus against the Massagetse, of Darius Hystaspis against + the European Scyths, of Alexander against the Getee, of Trajan and Probus + across the Danube, were designed to check and intimidate the northern + nations, to break their power, and diminish the likelihood of their taking + the offensive. It was now more than four centuries since in this part of + Asia any such effort had been made; and the northern barbarians might + naturally have ceased to fear the arms and discipline of the South. + Moreover the circumstances of the time scarcely left them a choice. + Pressed on continually more and more by the newly-arrived Su and Yue-chi, + the old inhabitants of the Transoxianian regions were under the necessity + of seeking new settlements, and could only attempt to find them in the + quarter towards which they were driven by the new-comers. Strengthened, + probably, by daring spirits from among their conquerors themselves they + crossed the rivers and the deserts by which they had been hitherto + confined, and advancing against the Parthians, Bactrians, and Arians, + threatened to carry all before them. We have seen how successful they were + against the Bactrians. In Ariana, they passed the mountains, and, + proceeding southwards, occupied the tract below the great lake wherein the + Helmend terminates, which took from them the name of Saeastane (“land of + the Saka,” or Scyths)—a name still to be traced in the modern + “Seistan.” Further to the east they effected a lodgment in Kabul, and + another in the the southern portion of the Indus valley, which for a time + bore the name of Indo-Scythia. They even crossed the Indus and attempted + to penetrate into the interior of India, but here they were met and + repulsed by a native monarch, about the year B.C. 56. + </p> + <p> + The people engaged in this great movement are called, in a general way, by + the classical writers, Sacse, or Scythse—i.e. Scyths. They consisted + of a number of tribes, similar for the most part in language, habits, and + mode of life, and allied more or less closely to the other nomadic races + of Central and Northern Asia. Of these tribes the principal were the + Massagetse (“great Jits, or Jats”), who occupied the country on both sides + of the lower course of the Oxus; the Dahse, who bordered the Caspian above + Hyrcania, and extended thence to the latitude of Herat; the Tochari, who + settled in the mountains between the upper Jaxartes and the upper Oxus, + where they gave name to the tract known as Tokhar-estan; the Asii, or + Asiani, who were closely connected with the Tochari, and the Sakarauli + (Saracucse?), who are found connected with both the Tochari and the + Asiani. Some of these tribes contained within them further sub-divisions; + e.g. the Dahse, who comprised the Parni (or Apariii), the Pissuri, and the + Xanthii; and the Massagetse, who included among them Chorasmii, Attasii, + and others. + </p> + <p> + The general character of the barbarism in which these various races were + involved may be best learnt from the description given of one of them, the + Massagetae, with but few differences, by Herodotus and Strabo. According + to this description, the Massagetse were nomads, who moved about in wagons + or carts, accompanied by their flocks and herds, on whose milk they + chiefly sustained themselves. Each man had only one wife, but all the + wives were held in common. They were good riders and excellent archers, + but fought both on horseback and on foot, and used, besides their bows and + arrows, lances, knives, and battle-axes. They had little or no iron, but + made their spear and arrow-heads, and their other weapons, of bronze. They + had also bronze breast-plates; but otherwise the metal with which they + adorned and protected their own persons, and the heads of their horses, + was gold. To a certain extent they were cannibals. It was their custom not + to let the aged among them die a natural death, but, when life seemed + approaching its natural term, to offer them up in sacrifice,—and + then boil the flesh and feast on it. This mode of ending life was regarded + as the best and most honorable; such as died of disease were not eaten but + buried, and their friends bewailed their misfortune. + </p> + <p> + It may be added to this that we have sufficient reason to believe that the + Massagetse and the other nomads of these parts regarded the use of + poisoned arrows as legitimate in warfare, and employed the venom of + serpents, and the corrupted blood of man, to make the wounds which they + inflicted more deadly. + </p> + <p> + Thus, what was threatened was not merely the conquest of one race by + another cognate to it, like that of the Medes by the Persians, or of the + Greeks by Rome, but the obliteration of such art, civilization, and + refinement as Western Asia had attained to in course of ages by the + successive efforts of Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and Greeks—the + spread over some of the fairest regions of the earth of a low type of + savagery—a type which in religion went no further than the worship + of the sun; in art knew but the easier forms of metallurgy and the + construction of carts; in manners and customs, included cannibalism, the + use of poisoned weapons, and a relation between the sexes destructive + alike of all delicacy and of all family affection. The Parthians were, no + doubt, rude and coarse in their character as compared with the Persians; + but they had been civilized to a certain extent by three centuries of + subjection to the Persians and the Greco-Macedonians before they rose to + power; they affected Persian manners; they patronized Greek art, they + appreciated the advantages of having in their midst a number of Greek + states. Had the Massagetse and their kindred tribes of Sakas, Tochari, + Dahse, Yue-chi, and Su, which now menaced the Parthian power, succeeded in + sweeping it away, the general declension of all which is lovely or + excellent in human life would have been marked. Scythicism would have + overspread Western Asia. No doubt the conquerors would have learned + something from those whom they subjected; but it cannot be supposed that + they would have learned much. The change would have been like that which + passed over the Empire of the West, when Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, + Alans, Heruli, depopulated its fairest provinces and laid its civilization + in the dust. The East would have been barbarized; the gains of centuries + would have been lost; the work of Cyrus, Darius, Alexander, and other + great benefactors of Asiatic humanity, have been undone; Western Asia + would have sunk back into a condition not very much above that from which + it was raised two thousand years earlier by the primitive Chaldaeans and + the Assyrians. + </p> + <p> + Artabanus II., the Parthian monarch who succeeded Phraates II., appears to + have appreciated aright the perils of his position. He was not content, + when the particular body of barbarians which had defeated and slain his + predecessor, having ravaged Parthia Proper, returned home, to fold his + arms and wait until he was again attacked. According to the brief, but + expressive words of Justin, he assumed the aggressive, and invaded the + country of the Tochari, one of the most powerful of the Scythic tribes, + which was now settled in a portion of the region that had, till lately, + belonged to the Bactrian kingdom. Artabanus evidently felt that what was + needed was to roll back the flood of invasion which had advanced so near + to the sacred home of his nation; that the barbarians required to be + taught a lesson; that they must at least be made to understand that + Parthia was to be respected; or that, if this could not be done, the fate + of the Empire was sealed. He therefore, with a gallantry and boldness that + we cannot sufficiently admire—a boldness that seemed like rashness, + but was in reality prudence—without calculating too closely the + immediate chances of battle, led his troops against one of the most + forward of the advancing tribes. But fortune, unhappily, was adverse. How + the battle was progressing we are not told; but it appears that in the + thick of an engagement Artabanus received a wound in the forearm, from the + effects of which he died almost immediately. The death of the leader + decides in the East, almost to a certainty, the issue of a contest. We + cannot doubt that the Parthians, having lost their monarch, were repulsed; + that the expedition failed; and that the situation of affairs became once + more at least as threatening as it had been before Artabanus made his + attempt. Two Parthian monarchs had now fallen within the space of a few + years in combat with the aggressive Scyths—two Parthian armies had + suffered defeat. Was this to be always so? If it was, then Parthia had + only to make up her mind to fall, and, like the great Roman, to let it be + her care that she should fall grandly and with dignity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Mithridates II. Termination of the Scythic Wars. + Commencement of the struggle with Armenia. Previous history of Armenia. + Result of the first Armenian War. First contact of Rome with Parthia. + Attitude of Rome towards the East at this time. Second Armenian War. Death + of Mithridates.</i> + </p> + <p> + On the death of Artabanus II., about B.C. 124, his son, Mithridates II., + was proclaimed king. Of this monarch, whose achievements (according to + Justin) procured him the epithet of “the Great,” the accounts which have + come down to us are extremely scanty and unsatisfactory. Justin, who is + our principal informant on the subject of the early Parthian history, has + unfortunately confounded him with the third monarch of the name, who + ascended the throne more than sixty years later, and has left us only the + slightest and most meagre outline of his actions. The other classical + writers, only to a very small extent, supplement Justin’s narrative; and + the result is that of a reign which was one of the most important in the + early Parthian series, the historical inquirer at the present day can form + but a most incomplete conception. + </p> + <p> + It appears, however, from the account of Justin, and from such other + notices as have reached us of the condition of things at this time in the + regions lying east of the Caspian, that Mithridates was entirely + successful where his father and his cousin had signally failed. He gained + a number of victories over the Scythic hordes; and effectually checked + their direct progress towards the south, throwing them thereby upon the + east and the south-east. Danger to Parthia from the Scyths seems after his + reign to have passed away. They found a vent for their superabundant + population in Seistan, Afghanistan, and India, and ceased to have any + hopes of making an impression on the Arsacid kingdom. Mithridates, it is + probable, even took territory from them. The acquisition of parts of + Bactria by the Parthians from the Scyths, which is attested by Strabo, + belongs, in all likelihood, to his reign; and the extension of the + Parthian dominion to Seistan may well date from the same period. Justin + tells us that he added many nations to the Parthian Empire. The statements + made of the extent of Parthia on the side of Syria in the time of + Mithridates the First render it impossible for us to discover these + nations in the west: we are, therefore, compelled to regard them as + consisting of races on the eastern frontier, who could at this period only + be outlying tribes of the recent Scythic immigration. + </p> + <p> + The victories of Mithridates in the East encouraged him to turn his arms + in the opposite direction, and to make an attack on the important country + of Armenia, which bordered his north-western frontier. Armenia was at the + time under the government of a certain Ortoadistus, who seems to have been + the predecessor, and was perhaps the father, of the great Tigranes. + Ortoadistus ruled the tract called by the Romans “Armenia Magna,” which + extended from the Euphrates on the west to the mouth of the Araxes on the + east, and from the valley of the Kur northwards to Mount Niphates and the + head streams of the Tigris towards the south. The people over which he + ruled was one of the oldest in Asia and had on many occasions shown itself + impatient of a conqueror. Justin, on reaching this point in his work, + observes that he could not feel himself justified if, when his subject + brought before him so mighty a kingdom, he did not enter at some length on + its previous history. The modern historian would be even less excusable + than Justin if he omitted such a review, since, while he has less right to + assume a knowledge of early Armenian history on the part of his readers, + he has greater means of gratifying their curiosity, owing to the recent + discovery of sources of information unknown to the ancients. + </p> + <p> + Armenia first comes before us in Genesis, where it is mentioned as the + country on whose mountains the ark rested. A recollection of it was + thenceforth retained in the semi-mythic traditions of the Babylonians. + According to some, the Egyptian monarchs of the eighteenth and nineteenth + dynasties carried their arms into its remote valleys, and exacted tribute + from the petty chiefs who then ruled there. At any rate, it is certain + that from about the ninth century B.C. it was well known to the Assyrians, + who were engaged from that time till about B.C. 640 in almost constant + wars with its inhabitants. At this period three principal races inhabited + the country—the Nairi, who were spread from the mountains west of + Lake Van along both sides of the Tigris to Bir on the Euphrates, and even + further; the Urarda (Alarodii, or people of Ararat), who dwelt north and + east of the Nairi, on the upper Euphrates, about the lake of Van, and + probably on the Araxes; and the Minni, whose country lay south-east of the + Urarda, in the Urumiyeh basin and the adjoining parts of Zagros. Of these + three races, the Urarda were the most powerful, and it was with them that + the Assyrians waged their most bloody wars. The capital city of the Urarda + was Van, on the eastern shores of the lake; and here it was that their + kings set up the most remarkable of their inscriptions. Six monarchs, who + apparently all belong to one dynasty, left inscriptions in this locality + commemorative of their military expeditions or of their offerings to the + gods. The later names of the series can be identified with those of kings + who contended with Assyrian monarchs belonging to the last, or Sargonid + dynasty; and hence we are entitled approximately to fix the series to the + seventh and eighth centuries before our era. The Urarda must at this time + have exercised a dominion over almost the whole of the region to which the + name of Armenia commonly attaches. They were worthy antagonists of the + Assyrians, and, though occasionally worsted in fight, maintained their + independence, at any rate, till the time of Asshur-bani-pal (about B.C. + 640), when the last king of the Van series, whose name is read as + Bilat-duri, succumbed to the Assyrian power, and consented to pay a + tribute for his dominions. + </p> + <p> + There is reason to believe that between the time when we obtain this view + of the primitive Armenian peoples and that at which we next have any exact + knowledge of the condition of the country—the time of the Persian + monarchy—a great revolution had taken place in the region. The + Nairi, Urarda, and Minni were Turanian, or, at any rate, non-Arian, races. + Their congeners in Western Asia were the early Babylonians and the + Susianians, not the Medes, the Persians, or the Phrygians. But by the time + of Herodotus the Arian character of the Armenians had become established. + Their close connection with the Phrygians was recognized. They had changed + their national appellation; for while in the Assyrian period the terms + Nairi and Urarda had preponderated, under the Persians they had come to be + called Armenians and their country Armenia. The personal names of + individuals in the country, both men and women, had acquired a decidedly + Arian cast. Everything seems to indicate that a strange people had + immigrated into the land, bringing with them a new language, new manners + and customs, and a new religious system. From what quarter they had come, + whether from Phrygia as Herodotus and Stephen believed, or, as we should + gather from their language and religion, from Media, is perhaps doubtful; + but it seems certain that from one quarter or another Armenia had been + Arianized; the old Turanian character had passed away from it; immigrants + had nocked in, and a new people had been formed—the real Armenian of + later times, and indeed of the present day—by the admixture of + ruling Arian tribes with a primitive Turanian population, the descendants + of the old inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + The new race, thus formed, though perhaps not less brave and warlike than + the old, was less bent on maintaining its independence. Moses of Chorene, + the Armenian historian, admits that from the time of the Median + preponderance in Western Asia the Armenians held under them a subject + position. That such was their position under the Persians is abundantly + evident;25 and, so far as appears, there was only one occasion during the + entire Achaemenian period (B.C. 559 to B.C. 331) when they exhibited any + impatience of the Persian yoke, or made any attempt to free themselves + from it. In the early portion of the reign of Darius Hystaspis they took + part in a revolt raised by a Mede called Phraortes, and were not reduced + to obedience without some difficulty. But from henceforth their fidelity + to the Achaemenian Kings was unbroken; they paid their tribute + (apparently) without reluctance, and furnished contingents of troops to + the Persian armies when called upon. After Arbela they submitted without a + struggle to Alexander; and when in the division of his dominions, which + followed upon the battle of Ipsus, they fell naturally to Seleucus, they + acquiesced in the arrangement. It was not until Antiochus the Great + suffered his great defeat at the hands of the Romans (B.C. 190) that + Armenia bestirred itself, and, after probably four and a half centuries of + subjection, became once more an independent power. Even then the movement + seems to have originated rather in the ambition of a chief than in a + desire for liberty on the part of the people. Artaxias had been governor + of the Greater Armenia under Antiochus, and seized the opportunity + afforded by the battle of Magnesia to change his title of satrap into that + of sovereign. No war followed. Antiochus was too much weakened by his + reverses to make any attempt to reduce Artaxias or recover Armenia; and + the nation obtained autonomy without having to undergo the usual ordeal of + a bloody struggle. When at the expiration of five-and-twenty years + Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus the Great, determined on an effort to + reconquer the lost province, no very stubborn resistance was offered to + him. Artaxias was defeated and made prisoner in the very first year of the + war (B.C. 165), and Armenia seems to have passed again under the sway of + the Seleucidae. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that matters remained in this state for the space of about + fifteen or sixteen years. When, however, Mithridates I. (Arsaces VI.), + about B.C. 150, had overrun the eastern provinces of Syria, and made + himself master in succession of Media, Elymais, and Babylonia, the + revolutionary movement excited by his successes reached Armenia, and the + standard of independence was once more raised in that country. According + to the Armenian historians, an Arsacid prince, Wagharshag or Valarsaces, + was established as sovereign by the influence of the Parthian monarch, but + was allowed to rule independently. A reign of twenty-two years is assigned + to this prince, whose kingdom is declared to have reached from the + Caucasus to Nisibis, and from the Caspian to the Mediterranean. He was + succeeded by his son, Arshag (Arsaces), who reigned thirteen years, and + was, like his father, active and warlike, contending chiefly with the + people of Pontus. At his death the crown descended to his son, Ardashes, + who is probably the Ortoadistus of Justin. + </p> + <p> + Such were the antecedents of Armenia when Mithridates II., having given an + effectual check to the progress of the Scythians in the east, determined + to direct his arms towards the west, and to attack the dominions of his + relative, the third of the Armenian Arsacidse. Of the circumstances of + this war, and its results, we have scarcely any knowledge. Justin, who + alone distinctly mentions it, gives us no details. A notice, however, in + Strabo, which must refer to about this time, is thought to indicate with + sufficient clearness the result of the struggle, which seems to have been + unfavorable to the Armenians. Strabo says that Tigranes, before his + accession to the throne, was for a time a hostage among the Parthians. As + hostages are only given by the vanquished party, we may assume that + Ortoadistus (Ardashes) found himself unable to offer an effectual + resistance to the Parthian king, and consented after a while to a + disadvantageous peace, for his observance of which hostages were required + by the victor. + </p> + <p> + It cannot have been more than a few years after the termination of this + war, which must have taken place towards the close of the second, or soon + after the beginning of the first century, that Parthia was for the first + time brought into contact with Rome. + </p> + <p> + The Great Republic, which after her complete victory over Antiochus III., + B.C. 190, had declined to take possession of a single foot of ground in + Asia, regarding the general state of affairs as not then ripe for an + advance of Terminus in that quarter, had now for some time seen reason to + alter its policy, and to aim at adding to its European an extensive + Asiatic dominion. Macedonia and Greece having been absorbed, and Carthage + destroyed (B.C. 148-146), the conditions of the political problem seemed + to be so far changed as to render a further advance towards the east a + safe measure; and accordingly, when it was seen that the line of the kings + of Pergamus was coming to an end, the Senate set on foot intrigues which + had for their object the devolution upon Rome of the sovereignty belonging + to those monarchs. By clever management the third Attalus was induced, in + repayment of his father’s obligations to the Romans, to bequeath his + entire dominions as a legacy to the Republic. In vain did his illegitimate + half-brother, Aristonicus, dispute the validity of so extraordinary a + testament; the Romans, aided by Mithridates IV., then monarch of Pontus, + easily triumphed over such resistance as this unfortunate prince could + offer, and having ceded to their ally the portion of Phrygia which had + belonged to the Pergamene kingdom, entered on the possession of the + remainder. Having thus become an Asiatic power, the Great Republic was of + necessity mixed up henceforth with the various movements and struggles + which agitated Western Asia, and was naturally led to strengthen its + position among the Asiatic kingdoms by such alliances as seemed at each + conjuncture best fitted for its interests. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto no occasion had arisen for any direct dealings between Rome and + Parthia. Their respective territories were still separated by considerable + tracts, which were in the occupation of the Syrians, the Cappadocians, and + the Armenians. Their interests had neither clashed, nor as yet + sufficiently united them to give rise to any diplomatic intercourse. But + the progress of the two Empires in opposite directions was continually + bringing them nearer to each other; and events had now reached a point at + which the Empires began to have (or seem to have) such a community of + interests as led naturally to an exchange of communications. A great power + had been recently developed in these parts. In the rapid way so common in + the East. Mithridates V., of Pontus, the son and successor of Rome’s ally, + had, between B.C. 112 and B.C. 93, built up an Empire of vast extent, + numerous population, and almost inexhaustible resources. He had + established his authority over Armenia Minor, Colchis, the entire east + coast of the Black Sea, the Chersonesus Taurica, or kingdom of the + Bosporus, and even over the whole tract lying west of the Chersonese as + far as the mouth of the Tyras, or Dniester. Nor had these gains contented + him. He had obtained half of Paphlagonia by an iniquitous compact with + Nicomedes, King of Bithynia; he had occupied Galatia; and he was engaged + in attempts to bring Cappadocia under his influence. In this last-named + project he was assisted by the Armenians, with whose king, Tigranes, he + had (about B.C. 96) formed a close alliance, at the same time giving him + his daughter, Cleopatra, in marriage. Rome, though she had not yet + determined on war with Mithridates, was resolved to thwart his Cappadocian + projects, and in B.C. 92 sent Sulla into Asia with orders to put down the + puppet whom Mithridates and Tigranes were establishing, and to replace + upon the Cappadocian throne a certain Ariobarzanes, whom they had driven + from his kingdom. In the execution of this commission, Sulla was brought + into hostile collision with the Armenians, whom he defeated with great + slaughter, and drove from Cappadocia together with their puppet king. + Thus, not only did the growing power of Mithridates of Pontus, by + inspiring Rome and Parthia with a common fear, tend to draw them together, + but the course of events had actually given them a common enemy in + Tigranes of Armenia, who was equally obnoxious to both. + </p> + <p> + For Tigranes, who, during the time that he was a hostage in Parthia, had + contracted engagements towards the Parthian monarch which involved a + cession of territory, and who in consequence of his promises had been + aided by the Parthians in seating himself on his father’s throne though he + made the cession required of him in the first instance had soon afterwards + repented of his good faith, had gone to war with his benefactors, + recovered the ceded territory, and laid waste a considerable tract of + country lying within the admitted limits of the Parthian kingdom. These + proceedings had, of course, alienated Mithridates II.; and we may with + much probability ascribe to them the step, which he now took, of sending + an ambassador to Sulla. Orobazus, the individual selected, was charged to + propose an alliance offensive and defensive between the two countries. + Sulla received the overture favorably, but probably considered that it + transcended his powers to conclude a treaty; and thus nothing more was + effected by the embassy than the establishment of a good understanding + between the two States. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this Tigranes appears to have renewed his attacks upon Parthia, + which in the interval between B.C. 92 and B.C. 83 he greatly humbled, + depriving it of the whole of Upper Mesopotamia, at this time called + Gordyene, and under rule of one of the Parthian tributary kings. Of the + details of this war we have no account; and it is even uncertain whether + it fell within the reign of Mithridates II. or no. The unfortunate mistake + of Justin, whereby he confounded this monarch with Mithridates III., has + thrown this portion of the Parthian history into confusion, and has made + even the successor of Mithridates II. uncertain. + </p> + <p> + Mithridates II. probably died about B.C. 89, after a reign which must have + exceeded thirty-five years. His great successes against the Scythians in + the earlier portion of his reign were to some extent counterbalanced by + his losses to Tigranes in his old age; but on the whole he must be + regarded as one of the more vigorous and successful of the Parthian + monarchs, and as combining courage with prudence. It is to his credit that + he saw the advantage of establishing friendly relations with Rome at a + time when an ordinary Oriental monarch might have despised the distant + Republic, and have thought it beneath his dignity to make overtures to so + strange and anomalous a power. Whether he definitely foresaw the part + which Rome was about to play in the East, we may doubt; but at any rate he + must have had a prevision that the part would not be trifling or + insignificant. Of the private character of Mithridates we have no + sufficient materials to judge. If it be true that he put his envoy, + Orobazus, to death on account of his having allowed Sulla to assume a + position at their conference derogatory to the dignity of the Parthian + State, we must pronounce him a harsh master; but the tale, which rests + wholly on the weak authority of the gossip-loving Plutarch, is perhaps + scarcely to be accepted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Dark period of Parthian History. Doubtful succession of the Monarchs. + Accession of Sanatrceces, ab. B.C. 76. Position of Parthia during the + Mithridatic Wars. Accession of Phraates III. His relations with Pompey. + His death. Civil War between his two sons, Mithridates and Orodes. Death + of Mithridates.</i> + </p> + <p> + The successor of Mithridates II. is unknown. It has been argued, indeed, + that the reigns of the known monarchs of this period would not be unduly + long if we regarded them as strictly consecutive, and placed no blank + between the death of Mithridates II. and the accession of the next Arsaces + whose name has come down to us. Sanatrodoeces, it has been said, may have + been, and may, therefore, well be regarded as, the successor of + Mithridates. But the words of the epitomizer of Trogus, placed at the head + of this chapter, forbid the acceptance of this theory. The epitomizer + would not have spoken of “many kings” as intervening between Mithridates + II. and Orodes, if the number had been only three. The expression implies, + at least, four or five monarchs; and thus we have no choice but to suppose + that the succession of the kings is here imperfect, and that at least one + or two reigns were interposed between those of the second Mithridates and + of the monarch known as Sanatroeces, Sinatroces, or Sintricus. + </p> + <p> + A casual notice of a Parthian monarch in a late writer may supply the gap, + either wholly or in part. Lucian speaks of a certain Mnasciras as a + Parthian king, who died at the advanced age of ninety-six. As there is no + other place in the Parthian history at which the succession is doubtful, + and as no such name as Mnascris occurs elsewhere in the list, it seems + necessary, unless we reject Lucian’s authority altogether, to insert this + monarch here. We cannot say, however, how long he reigned, or ascribe to + him any particular actions; nor can we say definitely what king he either + succeeded or preceded. It is possible that his reign covered the entire + interval between Mithridates II. and Sanatroeces; it is possible, on the + other hand, that he had successors and predecessors, whose names have + altogether perished. + </p> + <p> + The expression used by the epitomizer of Trogus, and a few words dropped + by Plutarch, render it probable that about this time there were + contentions between various members of the Arsacid family which issued in + actual civil war. Such contentions are a marked feature of the later + history; and, according to Plutarch, they commenced at this period. We may + suspect, from the great age of two of the monarchs chosen, that the + Arsacid stock was now very limited in number, that it offered no + candidates for the throne whose claims were indisputable, and that + consequently at each vacancy there was a division of opinion among the + “Megistanes,” which led to the claimants making appeal, if the election + went against them, to the arbitrament of arms. + </p> + <p> + The dark time of Parthian history is terminated by the accession—probably + in B.C. 76—of the king above mentioned as known by the three names + of Sanatroeces, Sinatroces, and Sintricus. The form, Sanatroeces, which + appears upon the Paithian coins, is on that account to be preferred. The + king so called had reached when elected the advanced age of eighty. It may + be suspected that he was a son of the sixth Arsaces (Mithridates I.), and + consequently a brother of Phraates II. He had, perhaps, been made prisoner + by that Scythians in the course of the disastrous war waged by that + monarch, and had been retained in captivity for above fifty years. At any + rate, he appears to have been indebted to the Scythians in some measure + for the crown which he acquired so tardily, his enjoyment of it having + been secured by the help of a contingent of troops furnished to him by the + Scythian tribe of the Sacauracae. + </p> + <p> + The position of the Empire at the time of his accession was one of + considerable difficulty. Parthia, during the period of her civil + contentions, had lost much ground in the west, having been deprived by + Tigranes of at least two important provinces. At the same time she had + been witness of the tremendous struggle between Rome and Pontus which + commenced in B.C. 88, was still continuing, and still far from decided, + when Sanatroeces came to the throne. An octogenarian monarch was unfit to + engage in strife, and if Sanatroeces, notwithstanding this drawback, had + been ambitious of military distinction, it would have been difficult for + him to determine into which scale the interests of his country required + that he should cast the weight of his sword. On the one hand, Parthia had + evidently much to fear from the military force and the covetous + disposition of Tigranes, king of Armenia, the son-in-law of Mithridates, + and at this time his chosen alley. Tigranes had hitherto been continually + increasing in strength. By the defeat of Artanes, king of Sophene, or + Armenia Minor, he had made himself master of Armenia in its widest extent; + by his wars with Parthia herself he had acquired Gordyene, or Northern + Mesopotamia, and Adiabene, or the entire rich tract east of the middle + Tigris (including Assyria Proper and Arbelitis), as far, at any rate, as + the course of the lower Zab; by means which are not stated he had brought + under subjection the king of the important country of Media Artropatene, + independent since the time of Alexander. Invited into Syria, about B.C. + 83, by the wretched inhabitants, wearied with the perpetual civil wars + between the princes of the house of the Seleucidae, he had found no + difficulty in establishing himself as king over Cilicia, Syria, and most + of Phoenicia. About B.C. 80 he had determined on building himself a new + capital in the province of Gordyene, a capital of a vast size, provided + with all the luxuries required by an Oriental court, and fortified with + walls which recalled the glories of the ancient cities of the Assyrians. + The position of this huge town on the very borders of the Parthian + kingdom, in a province which had till very recently been Parthian, could + be no otherwise understood that as a standing menace to Parthia itself, + the proclamation of an intention to extend the Armenian dominion + southwards, and to absorb at any rate all the rich and fertile country + between Gordyene and the sea. Thus threatened by Armenia, it was + impossible for Sanatroeces cordially to embrace the side of Mithridates, + with which Armenia and its king were so closely allied; it was impossible + for him even to wish that the two allies should be free to work their will + on the Asiatic continent unchecked by the power which alone had for the + last twelve years obstructed their ambitious projects. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, there was already among the Asiatic princes generally a + deep distrust of Rome—a fear that in the new people, which had crept + so quietly into Asia, was to be found a power more permanently formidable + than the Macedonians, a power which would make up for want of brilliancy + and dash by a dogged perseverance in its aims, and a stealthy, crafty + policy, sure in the end to achieve great and striking results. The + acceptance of the kingdom of Attalus had not, perhaps, alarmed any one; + but the seizure of Phrygia during the minority of Mithridates, without so + much as a pretext, and the practice, soon afterwards established, of + setting up puppet kings, bound to do the bidding of their Roman allies, + had raised suspicions; the ease with which Mithridates notwithstanding his + great power and long preparation, had been vanquished in the first war + (B.C. 88-84) had aroused fears; and Sanatroeces could not but misdoubt the + advisability of lending aid to the Romans, and so helping them to obtain a + still firmer hold on Western Asia. Accordingly we find that when the final + war broke out, in B.C. 74, his inclination was, in the first instance, to + stand wholly aloof, and when that became impossible, then to temporize. To + the application for assistance made by Mithridates in B.C. 72 a direct + negative was returned; and it was not until, in B.C. 69, the war had + approached his own frontier, and both parties made the most earnest + appeals to him for aid, that he departed from the line of pure abstention, + and had recourse to the expedient of amusing, both sides with promises, + while he helped neither. According to Plutarch, this line of procedure + offended Lucullus, and had nearly induced him to defer the final struggle + with Mithridates and Tigranes, and turn his arms against Parthia. But the + prolonged resistance of Nisibis, and the successes of Mithridates in + Pontus, diverted the danger; and the war rolling northwards, Parthia was + not yet driven to take a side, but was enabled to maintain her neutral + position for some years longer. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the aged Sanatroeces died, and was succeeded by his son, + Phraates III. This prince followed at first his father’s example, and + abstained from mixing himself up in the Mithridatic war; but in B.C. 66, + being courted by both sides, and promised the restoration of the provinces + lost to Tigranes, he made alliance with Pompey, and undertook, while the + latter pressed the war against Mithridates, to find occupation for the + Armenian monarch in his own land. This engagement he executed with + fidelity. It had happened that the eldest living son of Tigranes, a prince + bearing the same name as his father, having raised a rebellion in Armenia + and been defeated, had taken refuge in Parthia with Phraates. Phraates + determined to take advantage of this circumstance. The young Tigranes was + supported by a party among his countrymen who wished to see a youthful + monarch upon the throne; and Phraates therefore considered that he would + best discharge his obligations to the Romans by fomenting this family + quarrel, and lending a moderate support to the younger Tigranes against + his father. He marched an army into Armenia in the interest of the young + prince, overran the open country, and advanced on Artaxata, the capital. + Tigranes, the king, fled at his approach, and betook himself to the + neighboring mountains. Artaxata was invested; but as the siege promised to + be long, the Parthian monarch after a time withdrew, leaving the pretender + with as many troops as he thought necessary to press the siege to a + successful issue. The result, however, disappointed his expectations. + Scarcely was Phraates gone, when the old king fell upon his son, defeated + him, and drove him beyond his borders. He was forced, however, soon + afterwards, to submit to Pompey, who, while the civil war was raging in + Armenia, had defeated Mithridates and driven him to take refuge in the + Tauric Chersonese. + </p> + <p> + Phraates, now, naturally expected the due reward of his services, + according to the stipulations of his agreement with Pompey. But that + general was either dissatisfied with the mode in which the Parthian had + discharged his obligations, or disinclined to strengthen the power which + he saw to be the only one in these parts capable of disputing with Rome + the headship of Asia. He could scarcely prevent, and he does not seem to + have tried to prevent, the recovery of Adiabene by the Parthians; but the + nearer province of Gordyene to which they had an equal claim, he would by + no means consent to their occupying. At first he destined it for the + younger Tigranes. When the prince offended him, he made it over to + Ariobarzanes, the Cappadocian monarch. That arrangement not taking effect, + and the tract being disputed between Phraates and the elder Tigranes, he + sent his legate, Afranius, to drive the Parthians out of the country, and + delivered it over into the hands of the Armenians. At the same time he + insulted the Parthian monarch by refusing him his generally recognized + title of “King of Kings.” He thus entirely alienated his late ally, who + remonstrated against the injustice with which he was treated, and was only + deterred from declaring war by the wholesome fear which he entertained of + the Roman arms. + </p> + <p> + Pompey, on his side, no doubt took the question into consideration whether + or no he should declare the Parthian prince a Roman enemy, and proceed to + direct against him the available forces of the Empire. He had purposely + made him hostile, and compelled him to take steps which might have + furnished a plausible <i>casus belli</i>. But, on the whole, he found that + he was not prepared to venture on the encounter. The war had not been + formally committed to him; and if he did not prosper in it, he dreaded the + accusations of his enemies at Rome. He had seen, moreover, with his own + eyes; that the Parthians were an enemy far from despicable, and his + knowledge of campaigning told him that success against them was not + certain. He feared to risk the loss of all the glory which he had obtained + by grasping greedily at more, and preferred enjoying the fruits of the + good luck which had hitherto attended him to tempting fortune on a new + field. He therefore determined that he would not allow himself to be + provoked into hostilities by the reproaches, the dictatorial words, or + even the daring acts of the Parthian King. When Phraates demanded his lost + provinces he replied, that the question of borders was one which lay, not + between Parthia and Rome, but between Parthia and Armenia. When he laid it + down that the Euphrates properly bounded the Roman territory, and charged + Pompey not to cross it, the latter said he would keep to the just bounds, + whatever they were. When Tigranes complained that after having been + received into the Roman alliance he was still attacked by the Parthian + armies, the reply of Pompey was that he was willing to appoint arbitrators + who should decide all the disputes between the two nations. The moderation + and caution of these answers proved contagious. The monarchs addressed + resolved to compose their differences, or at any rate to defer the + settlement of them to a more convenient time. They accepted Pompey’s + proposal of an arbitration; and in a short time an arrangement was + effected by which relations of amity were re-established between the two + countries. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that not very long after the conclusion of this peace and + the retirement of Pompey from Asia (B.C. 62), Phraates lost his life. He + was assassinated by his two sons, Mithridates and Orodes; for what cause + we are not told. Mithridates, the elder of the two, succeeded him (about + B.C. 60); and, as all fear of the Romans had now passed away in + consequence of their apparently peaceful attitude, he returned soon after + his accession to the policy of his namesake, Mithridates II., and resumed + the struggle with Armenia from which his father had desisted. The object + of the war was probably the recovery of the lost province of Gordyene, + which, having been delivered to the elder Tigranes by Pompey, had remained + in the occupation of the Armenians. Mithridates seems to have succeeded in + his enterprise. When we next obtain a distinct view of the boundary line + which divides Parthia from her neighbors towards the north and the + north-west, which is within five years of the probable date of + Mithridates’s accession, we find Gordyene once more a Parthian province. + As the later years of this intermediate lustre are a time of civil strife, + during which territorial gains can scarcely have been made, we are + compelled to refer the conquest to about B.C. 39-57. But in this case it + must have been due to Mithridates III., whose reign is fixed with much + probability to the years B.C. 60-56. + </p> + <p> + The credit which Mithridates had acquired by his conduct of the Armenian + war he lost soon afterwards by the severity of his home administration. + There is reason to believe that he drove his brother, Orodes, into + banishment. At any rate, he ruled so harshly and cruelly that within a few + years of his accession the Parthian nobles deposed him, and, recalling + Orodes from his place of exile, set him up as king in his brother’s room. + Mithridates was, it would seem, at first allowed to govern Media as a + subject monarch; but after a while his brother grew jealous of him, and + deprived him of this dignity. Unwilling to acquiesce in his disgrace, + Mithridates fled to the Romans, and being favorably received by Gabinius, + then proconsul of Syria, endeavored to obtain his aid against his + countrymen. Gabinius, who was at once weak and ambitious, lent a ready ear + to his entreaties, and was upon the point of conducting an expedition into + Parthia, when he received a still more tempting invitation from another + quarter. Ptolemy Auletes, expelled from Egypt by his rebellious subjects, + asked his aid, and having recommendations from Pompey, and a fair sum of + ready money to disburse, found little difficulty in persuading the Syrian + proconsul to relinquish his Parthian plans and march the force at his + disposal into Egypt. Mithridates, upon this, withdrew from Syria, and + re-entering the Parthian territory, commenced a civil war against his + brother, finding numerous partisans, especially in the region about + Babylon. It may be suspected that Seleucia, the second city in the Empire, + embraced his cause. Babylon, into which he had thrown himself, sustained a + long siege on his behalf, and only yielded when compelled by famine. + Mithridates might again have become a fugitive; but he was weary of the + disappointments and hardships which are the ordinary lot of a pretender, + and preferred to cast himself on the mercy and affection of his brother. + Accordingly he surrendered himself unconditionally to Orodes; but this + prince, professing to place the claims of patriotism above those of + relationship, caused the traitor who had sought aid from Rome to be + instantly executed. Thus perished Mithridates III. after a reign which + cannot have exceeded five years, in the winter of B.C. 56, or the early + spring of B.C. 55. Orodes, on his death, was accepted as king by the whole + nation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Orodes I. Expedition of Crassus. His fate. Retaliatory + inroad of the Parthians into Syria under Pacorus, the son of Orodes. + Defeat of Pacorus by Cassius. His recall. End of the first War with Rome.</i> + </p> + <p> + The complete triumph of Orodes over Mithridates, and his full + establishment in his kingdom, cannot be placed earlier than B.C. 56, and + most probably fell in B.C. 55. In this latter year Crassus obtained the + consulship at Rome, and, being appointed at the same time to the command + of the East, made no secret of his intention to march the Roman legions + across the Euphrates, and engage in hostilities with the great Parthian + kingdom. According to some writers, his views extended even further. He + spoke of the wars which Lucullus had waged against Tigranes and Pompey + against Mithridates of Pontus as mere child’s play, and announced his + intention of carrying the Roman arms to Bactria, India, and the Eastern + Ocean. The Parthian king was thus warned betimes of the impending danger, + and enabled to make all such preparations against it as he deemed + necessary. More than a year elapsed between the assignment to Crassus of + Syria as his province, and his first overt act of hostility against + Orodes. + </p> + <p> + It cannot be doubted that this breathing-time was well spent by the + Parthian monarch. Besides forming his general plan of campaign at his + leisure, and collecting, arming, and exercising his native forces, he was + enabled to gain over certain chiefs upon his borders, who had hitherto + held a semi-dependent position, and might have been expected to welcome + the Romans. One of these, Abgarus, prince of Osrhoene, or the tract east + of the Euphrates about the city of Edessa, had been received into the + Roman alliance by Pompey, but, with the fickleness common among Orientals, + he now readily changed sides, and undertook to play a double part for the + advantage of the Parthians. Another, Alchaudonius, an Arab sheikh of these + parts, had made his submission to Rome even earlier; but having become + convinced that Parthia was the stronger power of the two, he also went + over to Orodes. The importance of these adhesions would depend greatly on + the line of march which Crassus might determine to follow in making his + attack. Three plans were open to him. He might either throw himself on the + support of Artavasdes, the Armenian monarch, who had recently succeeded + his father Tigranes, and entering Armenia, take the safe but circuitous + route through the mountains into Adiabene, and so by the left bank of the + Tigris to Ctesiphon; or he might, like the younger Cyrus, follow the + course of the Euphrates to the latitude of Seleucia, and then cross the + narrow tract of plain which there separates the two rivers; or, finally, + he might attempt the shortest but most dangerous line across the Belik and + Khabour, and directly through the Mesopotamian desert. If the Armenian + route were preferred, neither Abgarus nor Alchaudonius would be able to do + the Parthians much service; but if Crassus resolved on following either of + the others, their alliance could not but be most valuable. + </p> + <p> + Crassus, however, on reaching his province, seemed in in haste to make a + decision. He must have arrived in Syria tolerably early in the spring but + his operations during the first year of his proconsulship were + unimportant. He seems at once to have made up his mind to attempt nothing + more than a reconnaissance. Crossing the Euphrates at Zeugma, the modern + Bir or Bireh-jik, he proceeded to ravage the open country, and to receive + the submission of the Greek cities, which were numerous throughout the + region between the Euphrates and the Belik. The country was defended by + the Parthian satrap with a small force; but this was easily defeated, the + satrap himself receiving a wound. One Greek city only, Zenodotium, offered + resistance to the invader; its inhabitants, having requested and received + a Roman garrison of one hundred men, rose upon them and put them + barbarously to the sword; whereupon Crassus besieged and took the place, + gave it up to his army to plunder, and sold the entire population for + slaves. He then, as winter drew near, determined to withdraw into Syria, + leaving garrisons in the various towns. The entire force left behind is + estimated at eight thousand men. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that Orodes had expected a more determined attack, and had + retained his army near his capital until it should become evident by which + route the enemy would advance against him. Acting on an inner circle, he + could readily have interposed his forces, on whichever line the assailants + threw themselves. But the tardy proceedings of his antagonist made his + caution superfluous. The first campaign was over, and there had scarcely + been a collision between the troops of the two nations. Parthia had been + insulted by a wanton attack, and had lost some disaffected cities; but no + attempt had been made to fulfil the grand boasts with which the war had + been undertaken. + </p> + <p> + It may be suspected that the Parthian monarch began now to despise his + enemy. He would compare him with Lucullus and Pompey, and understand that + a Roman army, like any other, was formidable, or the reverse, according as + it was ably or feebly commanded. He would know that Crassus was a + sexagenarian, and may have heard that he had never yet shown himself a + captain or even a soldier. Perhaps he almost doubted whether the proconsul + had any real intention of pressing the contest to a decision, and might + not rather be expected, when he had enriched himself and his troops with + Mesopotamian plunder, to withdraw his garrisons across the Euphrates. + Crassus was at this time showing the worst side of his character in Syria, + despoiling temples of their treasures, and accepting money in lieu of + contingents of troops from the dynasts of Syria and Palestine. Orodes, + under these circumstances, sent an embassy to him, which was well + calculated to stir to action the most sluggish and poor-spirited of + commanders. “If the war,” said his envoys, “was really waged by Rome, it + must be fought out to the bitter end. But if, as they had good reason to + believe, Crassus, against the wish of his country, had attacked Parthia + and seized her territory for his own private gain, Arsaces would be + moderate. He would have pity on the advanced years of the proconsul, and + would give the Romans back those men of theirs, who were not so much + keeping watch in Mesopotamia as having watch kept on them.” Crassus, stung + with the taunt, exclaimed, “He would return the ambassadors an answer at + Seleucia.” Wagises, the chief ambassador, prepared for some such + exhibition of feeling, and, glad to heap taunt on taunt, replied, striking + the palm of one hand with the fingers’ of the other: “Hairs will grow + here, Crassus, before you see Seleucia.” + </p> + <p> + Still further to quicken the action of the Romans, before the winter was + well over, the offensive was taken against their adherents in Mesopotamia. + The towns which held Roman garrisons were attacked by the Parthians in + force; and, though we do not hear of any being captured, all of them were + menaced, and all suffered considerably. + </p> + <p> + If Crassus needed to be stimulated, these stimulants were effective; and + he entered on his second campaign with a full determination to compel the + Parthian monarch to an engagement, and, if possible, to dictate peace to + him at his capital. He had not, however, in his second campaign, the same + freedom with regard to his movements that he had enjoyed the year + previous. The occupation of Western Mesopotamia cramped his choice. It + had, in fact, compelled him before quitting Syria to decline, definitely + and decidedly, the overtures of Artavasdes, who strongly urged on him to + advance by way of Armenia, and promised him in that case an important + addition to his forces. Crassus felt himself compelled to support his + garrisons, and therefore to make Mesopotamia, and not Armenia, the basis + of his operations, He crossed the Euphrates a second time at the same + point as before, with an army composed of 35,000 heavy infantry, 4,000 + light infantry, and 4,000 horse. There was still open to him a certain + choice of routes. The one preferred by his chief officers was the line of + the Euphrates, known as that which the Ten Thousand had pursued in an + expedition that would have been successful but for the death of its + commander. Along this line water would be plentiful; forage and other + supplies might be counted on to a certain extent; and the advancing army, + resting on the river, could not be surrounded. Another, but one that does + not appear to have been suggested till too late, was that which Alexander + had taken against Darius; the line along the foot of the Mons Masius, by + Edessa, and Nisibis, to Nineveh. Here too waters and supplies would have + been readily procurable, and by clinging to the skirts of the hills the + Roman infantry would have set the Parthian cavalry at defiance. Between + these two extreme courses to the right and to the left were numerous + slightly divergent lines across the Mesopotamian plain, all shorter than + either of the two above-mentioned, and none offering any great advantage + over the remainder. + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain what choice the proconsul would have made, had the + decision been left simply to his own judgment. Probably the Romans had a + most dim and indistinct conception of the geographical character of the + Mesopotamian region, and were ignorant of its great difficulties. They + remained also, it must be remembered, up to this time, absolutely + unacquainted with the Parthian tactics and accustomed as they were to + triumph over every enemy against whom they fought, it would scarcely occur + to them that in an open field they could suffer defeat. They were ready, + like Alexander, to encounter any number of Asiatics, and only asked to be + led against the foe as quickly as possible. When, therefore, Abgarus, the + Osrhoene prince, soon after Crassus had crossed the Euphrates, rode into + his camp, and declared that the Parthians did not intend to make a stand, + but were quitting Mesopotamia and flying with their treasure to the remote + regions of Hyrcania and Scythia, leaving only a rear guard under a couple + of generals to cover the retreat, it is not surprising that the resolution + was taken to give up the circuitous route of the Euphrates, and to march + directly across Mesopotamia in the hope of crushing the covering + detachment, and coming upon the flying multitude encumbered with baggage, + which would furnish a rich spoil to the victors. In after times it was + said that C. Cassius Longinus and some other officers were opposed to this + movement, add foresaw its danger; but it must be questioned whether the + whole army did not readily obey its leader’s order, and commence without + any forebodings its march through Upper Mesopotamia. That region has not + really the character which the apologists for Roman disaster in later + times gave to it. It is a region of swelling hills, and somewhat dry + gravelly plains. It possesses several streams and rivers, besides numerous + springs. At intervals of a few miles it was studded with cities and + villages; nor did the desert really begin until the Khabour was crossed. + The army of Crassus had traversed it throughout its whole extent during + the summer of the preceding year, and must have been well acquainted with + both its advantages and drawbacks. But it is time that we should consider + what preparations the Parthian monarch had made against the threatened + attack. He had, as already stated, come to terms with his outlying + vassals, the prince of Osrhoene, and the sheikh of the Scenite Arabs, and + had engaged especially the services of the former against his assailant. + He had further, on considering the various possibilities of the campaign, + come to the conclusion that it would be best to divide his forces, and, + while himself attacking Artavasdes in the mountain fastnesses of his own + country, to commit the task of meeting and coping with the Romans to a + general of approved talents. It was of the greatest importance to prevent + the Armenians from effecting a junction with the Romans, and strengthening + them in that arm in which they were especially deficient, the cavalry. + Perhaps nothing short of an invasion of his country by the Parthian king + in person would have prevented Artavasdes from detaching a portion of his + troops to act in Mesopotamia. And no doubt it is also true that Orodes had + great confidence in his general, whom he may even have felt to be a better + commander than himself. Surenas, as we must call him, since his name has + not been preserved to us, was in all respects a person of the highest + consideration. He was the second man in the kingdom for birth, wealth, and + reputation. In courage and ability he excelled all his countrymen; and he + had the physical advantages of commanding height and great personal + beauty. When he went to battle, he was accompanied by a train of a + thousand camels, which carried his baggage; and the concubines in + attendance on him required for their conveyance two hundred chariots. A + thousand horseman clad in mail, and a still greater number of light-armed, + formed his bodyguard. At the coronation of a Parthian monarch, it was his + hereditary right to place the diadem on the brow of the new sovereign. + When Orodes was driven into banishment it was he who brought him back to + Parthia in triumph. When Seleucia revolted, it was he who at the assault + first mounted the breach and, striking terror into the defenders, took the + city. Though less than thirty years of age at the time when he was + appointed commander, he was believed to possess, besides these various + qualifications, consummate prudence and sagacity. + </p> + <p> + The force which Orodes committed to his brave and skillful lieutenant + consisted entirely of horse. This was not the ordinary character of a + Parthian army, which often comprised four or five times as many infantry + as cavalry. It was, perhaps, rather fortunate accident than profound + calculation that caused the sole employment against the Romans of this + arm. The foot soldiers were needed for the rough warfare of the Armenian + mountains; the horse would, it was known, act with fair effect in the + comparatively open and level Mesopotamia. As the king wanted the footmen + he took them, and left to his general the troops which were not required + for his own operations. + </p> + <p> + The Parthian horse, like the Persian, was of two kinds, standing in strong + contrast the one to the other. The bulk of their cavalry was of the + lightest and most agile description. Fleet and active coursers, with + scarcely any caparison but a headstall and a single rein, were mounted by + riders clad only in a tunic and trousers, and armed with nothing but a + strong bow and a quiver full of arrows. A training begun in early boyhood + made the rider almost one with his steed; and he could use his weapons + with equal ease and effect whether his horse was stationary or at full + gallop, and whether he was advancing towards or hurriedly retreating from + his enemy. His supply of missiles was almost inexhaustible, for when he + found his quiver empty, he had only to retire a short distance and + replenish his stock from magazines, borne on the backs of camels, in the + rear. It was his ordinary plan to keep constantly in motion when in the + presence of an enemy, to gallop backwards and forwards, or round and round + his square or column, never charging it, but at a moderate interval plying + it with his keen and barbed shafts which were driven by a practised hand + from a bow of unusual strength. Clouds of this light cavalry enveloped the + advancing or the retreating foe, and inflicted grievous damage without, + for the most part, suffering anything in return. + </p> + <p> + But this was not the whole. In addition to these light troops, a Parthian + army comprised always a body of heavy cavalry, armed on an entirely + different system. The strong horses selected for this service were clad + almost wholly in mail. Their head, neck, chest, even their sides and + flanks, were protected by scale-armor of brass or iron, sewn, probably, + upon leather. Their riders had cuirasses and cuisses of the same + materials, and helmets of burnished iron. For an offensive weapon they + carried a long and strong spear or pike. They formed a serried line in + battle, bearing down with great weight on the enemy whom they charged, and + standing firm as an iron wall against the charges that were made upon + them. A cavalry answering to this in some respects had been employed by + the later Persian monarchs, and was in use also among the Armenians at + this period; but the Parthian pike was apparently more formidable than the + corresponding weapons of those nations, and the light spear carried at + this time by the cavalry of a Roman army was no match for it. + </p> + <p> + The force entrusted to Surenas comprised troops of both these classes. No + estimate is given us of their number, but it was probably considerable. At + any rate it was sufficient to induce him to make a movement in advance—to + cross the Sinjar range and the river Khabour, and take up his position in + the country between that stream and the Belik—instead of merely + seeking to cover the capital. The presence of the traitor Abgarus in the + camp of Crassus was now of the utmost importance to the Parthian + commander. Abgarus, fully trusted, and at the head of a body of light + horse, admirably adapted for outpost service, was allowed, upon his own + request, to scour the country in front of the advancing Romans, and had + thus the means of communicating freely with the Parthian chief. He kept + Surenas informed of all the movements and intentions of Crassus, while at + the same time he suggested to Crassus such a line of route as suited the + views and designs of his adversary. Our chief authority for the details of + the expedition tells us that he led the Roman troops through an arid and + trackless desert, across plains without tree, or shrub, or even grass, + where the soil was composed of a light shifting sand, which the wind + raised into a succession of hillocks that resembled the waves of an + interminable sea. The soldiers, he says, fainted with the heat and with + the drought, while the audacious Osrhoene scoffed at their complaints and + reproaches, asking them whether they expected to find the border-tract + between Arabia and Assyria a country of cool streams and shady groves, of + baths, and hostelries, like their own delicious Campania. But our + knowledge of the geographical character of the region through which the + march lay makes it impossible for us to accept this account as true. The + country between the Euphrates and the Belik, as already observed, is one + of alternate hill and plain, neither destitute of trees nor ill-provided + with water. The march through it could have presented no great + difficulties. All that Abgarus could do to serve the Parthian cause was, + first, to induce Crassus to trust himself to the open country, without + clinging either to a river or to the mountains, and, secondly, to bring + him, after a hasty march, and in the full heat of the day, into the + presence of the enemy. Both these things he contrived to effect, and + Surenas was, no doubt, so far beholden to him. But the notion that he + enticed the Roman army into a trackless desert, and gave it over, when it + was perishing through weariness, hunger, and thirst, into the hands of its + enraged enemy, is in contradiction with the topographical facts, and is + not even maintained consistently by the classical writers. + </p> + <p> + It was probably on the third or fourth day after he had quitted the + Euphrates that Crassus found himself approaching his enemy. After a hasty + and hot march he had approached the banks of the Belik, when his scouts + brought him word that they had fallen in with the Parthian army, which was + advancing in force and seemingly full of confidence. Abgarus had recently + quitted him on the plea of doing him some undefined service, but really to + range himself on the side of his real friends, the Parthians. His officers + now advised Crassus to encamp upon the river, and defer an engagement till + the morrow; but he had no fears; his son, Publius, who had lately joined + him with a body of Gallic horse sent by Julius Caesar, was anxious for the + fray; and accordingly the Roman commander gave the order to his troops to + take some refreshment as they stood, and then to push forward rapidly. + Surenas, on his side, had taken up a position on wooded and hilly ground, + which concealed his numbers, and had even, we are told, made his troops + cover their arms with cloths and skins, that the glitter might not betray + them. But, as the Romans drew near, all concealment was cast aside; the + signal for battle was given; the clang of the kettledrums arose on every + side; the squadrons came forward in their brilliant array; and it seemed + at first as if the heavy cavalry was about to charge the Roman host, which + was formed in a hollow square with the light-armed in the middle, and with + supporters of horse along the whole line, as well as upon the flanks. But, + if this intention was ever entertained, it was altered almost as soon as + formed, and the better plan was adopted of halting at a convenient + distance and assailing the legionaries with flight after flight of arrows, + delivered without a pause and with extraordinary force. The Roman + endeavored to meet this attack by throwing forward his own skirmishers; + but they were quite unable to cope with the numbers and the superior + weapons of the enemy, who forced them almost immediately to retreat, and + take refuge behind the line of the heavy-armed. These were then once more + exposed to the deadly missiles, which pierced alike through shield and + breast-plate and greaves, and inflicted the most fearful wounds. More than + once the legionaries dashed forward, and sought to close with their + assailants, but in vain. The Parthian squadrons retired as the Roman + infantry advanced, maintaining the distance which they thought best + between themselves and their foe, whom they plied with their shafts as + incessantly while they fell back as when they rode forward. For a while + the Romans entertained the hope that the missiles would at last be all + spent; but when they found that each archer constantly obtained a fresh + supply from the rear, this expectation deserted them. It became evident to + Crassus that some new movement must be attempted; and, as a last resource, + he commanded his son, Publius, whom the Parthians were threatening to + outflank, to take such troops as he thought proper, and charge. The + gallant youth was only too glad to receive the order. Selecting his Gallic + cavalry, who numbered 1000, and adding to them 500 other horsemen, 500 + archers, and about 4000 legionaries, he advanced at speed against the + nearest squadrons of the enemy. The Parthians pretended to be afraid, and + beat a hasty retreat. Publius followed with all the impetuosity of youth, + and was soon out of the sight of his friends, pressing the flying foe, + whom he believed to be panic-stricken. But when they had drawn him on + sufficiently, they suddenly made a stand, brought their heavy cavalry up + against his line, and completely enveloped him and his detachment with + their light-armed. Publius made a desperate resistance. His Gauls seized + the Parthian pikes with their hands and dragged the encumbered horsemen to + the ground; or dismounting, slipped beneath the horses of their opponents, + and stabbing them in the belly, brought steed and rider down upon + themselves. His legionaries occupied a slight hillock, and endeavored to + make a wall of their shields, but the Parthian archers closed around them, + and slew them almost to a man. Of the whole detachment, nearly six + thousand strong, no more than 500 were taken prisoners, and scarcely one + escaped. The young Crassus might, possibly, had he chosen to make the + attempt, have forced his way through the enemy to Ichnee, a Greek town not + far distant; but he preferred to share the fate of his men. Rather than + fall into the hands of the enemy, he caused his shield-bearer to dispatch + him; and his example was followed by his principal officers. The victors + struck off his head, and elevating it on a pike, returned to resume their + attack on the main body of the Roman army. + </p> + <p> + The main body, much relieved by the diminution of the pressure upon them, + had waited patiently for Publius to return in triumph, regarding the + battle as well-nigh over and success as certain. After a time the + prolonged absence of the young captain aroused suspicions, which grew into + alarms when messengers arrived telling of his extreme danger. Crassus, + almost beside himself with anxiety, had given the word to advance, and the + army had moved forward a short distance, when the shouts of the returning + enemy were heard, and the head of the unfortunate officer was seen + displayed aloft, while the Parthian squadrons, closing in once more, + renewed the assault on their remaining foes with increased vigor. The + mailed horsemen approached close to the legionaries and thrust at them + with the long pikes while the light-armed, galloping across the Roman + front, discharged their unerring arrows over the heads of their own men. + The Romans could neither successfully defend themselves nor effectively + retaliate. Still time brought some relief. Bowstrings broke, spears were + blunted or splintered, arrows began to fail, thews and sinews to relax; + and when night closed in both parties were almost equally glad of the + cessation of arms which the darkness rendered compulsory. + </p> + <p> + It was the custom of the Parthians, as of the Persians, to bivouac at a + considerable distance from an enemy. Accordingly, at nightfall they drew + off, having first shouted to the Romans that they would grant the general + one night in which to bewail his son; on the morrow they would come and + take him prisoner, unless he preferred the better course of surrendering + himself to the mercy of Arsaces. A short breathing-space was thus allowed + the Romans, who took advantage of it to retire towards Carrhae, leaving + behind them the greater part of their wounded, to the number of 4,000. A + small body of horse reached Carrhae about midnight, and gave the + commandant such information as led him to put his men under arms and issue + forth to the succor of the proconsul. The Parthians, though the cries of + the wounded made them well aware of the Roman retreat, adhered to their + system of avoiding night combats, and attempted no pursuit till morning. + Even then they allowed themselves to be delayed by comparatively trivial + matters—the capture of the Roman camp, the massacre of the wounded, + and the slaughter of the numerous stragglers scattered along the line of + march—and made no haste to overtake the retreating army. The bulk of + the troops were thus enabled to effect their retreat in safety to Carrhae, + where, having the protection of walls, they were, at any rate for a time + secure. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that the Romans would here have made a stand. + The siege of a fortified place by cavalry is ridiculous, if we understand + by siege anything more than a very incomplete blockade. And the Parthians + were notoriously inefficient against walls. There was a chance, moreover, + that Artavasdes might have been more successful than his ally, and, having + repulsed the Parthian monarch, might march his troops to the relief of the + Romans. But the soldiers were thoroughly dispirited, and would not listen + to these suggestions. Provisions no doubt ran short, since, as there had + been no expectation of a disaster, no preparations had been made for + standing a siege. The Greek inhabitants of the place could not be trusted + to exhibit fidelity to a falling cause. Moreover, Armenia was near; and + the Parthian system of abstaining from action during the night seemed to + render escape tolerably easy. It was resolved, therefore, instead of + clinging to the protection of the walls, to issue forth once more, and to + endeavor by a rapid night march to reach the Armenian hills. The various + officers seem to have been allowed to arrange matters for themselves. + Cassius took his way towards the Euphrates, and succeeded in escaping with + 500 horse. Octavius, with a division which is estimated at 5,000 men, + reached the outskirts of the the hills at a place called Sinnaca, and + found himself in comparative security. Crassus, misled by his guides, made + but poor progress during the night; he had, however, arrived within little + more than a mile of Octavius before the enemy, who would not stir till + daybreak, overtook him. Pressed upon by their advancing squandrons, he, + with his small band of 2,000 legionaries and a few horsemen, occupied a + low hillock connected by a ridge of rising ground with the position of + Sinnaca. Here the Parthian host beset him; and he would infallibly have + been slain or captured at once, had not Octavius, deserting his place of + safety, descended to the aid of his commander. The united 7,000 held their + own against the enemy, having the advantage of the ground, and having + perhaps by the experience of some days learnt the weak points of Parthian + warfare. + </p> + <p> + Surenas was anxious, above all things, to secure the person of the Roman + commander. In the East an excessive importance is attached to this proof + of success; and there were reasons which made Crassus particularly + obnoxious to his antagonists. He was believed to have originated, and not + merely conducted, the war, incited thereto by simple greed of gold. He had + refused with the utmost haughtiness all discussion of terms, and had + insulted the majesty of the Parthians by the declaration that he would + treat nowhere but at their capital. If he escaped, he would be bound at + some future time to repeat his attempt; if he were made prisoner, his fate + would be a terrible warning to others. But now, as evening approached, it + seemed to the Parthian that the prize which he so much desired was about + to elude his grasp. The highlands of Armenia would be gained by the + fugitives during the night, and further pursuit of them would be hopeless. + It remained that he should effect by craft what he could no longer hope to + gain by the employment of force; and to this point all his efforts were + now directed. He drew off his troops and left the Romans without further + molestation. He allowed some of his prisoners to escape and rejoin their + friends, having first contrived that they should overhear a conversation + among his men, of which the theme was the Parthian clemency, and the wish + of Orodes to come to terms with the Romans. He then, having allowed time + for the report of his pacific intentions to spread, rode with a few chiefs + towards the Roman camp, carrying his bow unstrung and his right hand + stretched out in token of amity. “Let the Roman General,” he said, “come + forward with an equal number of attendants, and confer with me in the open + space between the armies on terms of peace.” The aged proconsul was + disinclined to trust these overtures; but his men clamored and threatened, + upon which he yielded, and went down into the plain, accompanied by + Octavius and a few others. Here he was received with apparent honor, and + terms were arranged; but Surenas required that they should at once be + reduced to writing, “since,” he said, with pointed allusion to the bad + faith of Pompey, “you Romans are not very apt to remember your + engagements.” A movement being requisite for the drawing up of the formal + instruments, Crassus and his officers were induced to mount upon horses + furnished by the Parthians, who had no sooner seated the proconsul on his + steed, than he proceeded to hurry him forward, with the evident intention + of carrying him off to their camp. The Roman officers took the alarm and + resisted. Octavius snatched a sword from a Parthian and killed one of the + grooms who was hurrying Crassus away. A blow from behind stretched him on + the ground lifeless. A general melee followed, and in the confusion + Crassus was killed, whether by one of his own side and with his own + consent, or by the hand of a Parthian is uncertain. The army, learning the + fate of their general, with but few exceptions, surrendered. Such as + sought to escape under cover of the approaching night were hunted down by + the Bedouins who served under the Parthian standard, and killed almost to + a man. Of the entire army which had crossed the Euphrates, consisting of + above 40,000 men, not more than one fourth returned. One half of the whole + number perished. Nearly 10,000 prisoners were settled by the victors in + the fertile oasis of Margiana, near the northern frontier of the empire, + where they intermarried with native wives, and became submissive Parthian + subjects. + </p> + <p> + Such was the result of this great expedition, the first attempt of the + grasping and ambitious Romans, not so much to conquer Parthia, as to + strike terror into the heart of her people, and to degrade them to the + condition of obsequious dependants on the will and pleasure of the + “world’s lords.” The expedition failed so utterly, not from any want of + bravery on the part of the soldiers employed in it, nor from any absolute + superiority of the Parthian over the Roman tactics, but partly from the + incompetence of the commander, partly from the inexperience of the Romans, + up to this date, in the nature of the Parthian warfare and in the best + manner of meeting it. To attack an enemy whose main arm is the cavalry + with a body of foot-soldiers, supported by an insignificant number of + horse, must be at all times rash and dangerous. To direct such an attack + on the more open part of the country, where cavalry could operate freely, + was wantonly to aggravate the peril. After the first disaster, to quit the + protection of walls, when it had been obtained, was a piece of reckless + folly. Had Crassus taken care to obtain the support of some of the desert + tribes, if Armenia could not help him, and had he then advanced either by + the way of the Mons Masius and the Tigris, or along the line of the + Euphrates, the issue of his attack might have been different. He might + have fought his way to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, as did Trajan, Avidius + Cassius, and Septimius Severas, and might have taken and plundered those + cities. He would no doubt have experienced difficulties in his retreat; + but he might have come off no worse than Trajan, whose Parthian expedition + has been generally regarded as rather augmenting than detracting from his + reputation. But an ignorant and inexperienced commander, venturing on a + trial of arms with an enemy of whom he knew little or nothing, in their + own country, without support or allies, and then neglecting every + precaution suggested by his officers, allowing himself to be deceived by a + pretended friend, and marching straight into a net prepared for him, + naturally suffered defeat. The credit of the Roman arms does not greatly + suffer by the disaster, nor is that of the Parthians greatly enhanced. The + latter showed, as they had shown in their wars against the + Syro-Macedonians, that there somewhat loose and irregular array was + capable of acting with effect against the solid masses and well-ordered + movements of disciplined troops. They acquired by their use of the bow a + fame like that which the English archers obtained for the employment of + the same weapon at Crecy and Agincourt. They forced the arrogant Romans to + respect them, and to allow that there was at least one nation in the world + which could meet them on equal terms and not be worsted in the encounter. + They henceforth obtained recognition from Graeco-Roman writers—albeit + a grudging and covert recognition—as the second Power in the world, + the admitted rival of Rome, the only real counterpoise upon the earth to + the power which ruled from the Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean. + </p> + <p> + While the general of King Orodes was thus successful against the Romans in + Mesopotamia, the king himself had in Armenia obtained advantages of almost + equal value, though of a different kind. Instead of contending with + Artavasdes, he had come to terms with him, and had concluded a close + alliance, which he had sought to confirm and secure by uniting his son, + Pacorus, in marriage with a sister of the Armenian monarch. A series of + festivities was being held to celebrate this auspicious event, when news + came of Surenas’s triumph, and of the fate of Crassus. According to the + barbarous customs of the East, the head and hand of the slain proconsul + accompanied the intelligence. We are told that at the moment of the + messenger’s arrival the two sovereigns, with their attendants, were + amusing themselves with a dramatic entertainment. Both monarchs had a good + knowledge of the Greek literature and language, in which Artavasdes had + himself composed historical works and tragedies. The actors were + representing the famous scene in the “Bacchae” of Euripides, where Agave + and the Bacchanals come upon the stage with the mutilated remains of the + murdered Pentheus, when the head of Crassus was thrown in among them. + Instantly the player who personated Agave seized the bloody trophy, and + placing it on his thyrsus instead of the one he was carrying, paraded it + before the delighted spectators, while he chanted the well-known lines: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + From the mountain to the hall + New-cut tendril, see, we bring— + Blessed prey! +</pre> + <p> + The horrible spectacle was one well suited to please an Eastern audience: + it was followed by a proceeding of equal barbarity and still more + thoroughly Oriental. The Parthians, in derision of the motive which was + supposed to have led Crassus to make his attack, had a quantity of gold + melted and poured it into his mouth. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Surenas was amusing his victorious troops, and seeking to annoy + the disaffected Seleucians, by the performance of a farcical ceremony. He + spread the report that Crassus was not killed but captured; and, selecting + from among the prisoners the Roman most like him in appearance, he dressed + the man in woman’s clothes, mounted him upon a horse, and requiring him to + answer to the names of “Crassus” and “Imperator,” conducted him in triumph + to the Grecian city. Before him went, mounted on camels, a band, arrayed + as trumpeters and lictors, the lictors’ rods having purses suspended to + them, and the axes in their midst being crowned with the bleeding heads of + Romans. In the rear followed a train of Seloucian music-girls, who sang + songs derisive of the effeminacy and cowardice of the proconsul. After + this pretended parade of his prisoner through the streets of the town, + Surenas called a meeting of the Seleucian senate, and indignantly + denounced to them the indecency of the literature which he had found in + the Roman tents. The charge, it is said, was true; but the Seleucians were + not greatly impressed by the moral lesson read to them, when they remarked + the train of concubines that had accompanied Surenas himself in the field, + and thought of the loose crowd of dancers, singers, and prostitutes, that + was commonly to be seen in the rear of a Parthian army. + </p> + <p> + The political consequences of the great triumph which the Parthians had + achieved were less than might have been anticipated. Mesopotamia was, of + course, recovered to its extremest limit, the Euphrates; Armenia was lost + to the Roman alliance, and thrown for the time into complete dependence + upon Parthia. The whole East was, to some extent, excited; and the Jews, + always impatient of a foreign yoke, and recently aggrieved by the + unprovoked spoliation of their Temple by Crassus, flew to arms. But no + general movement of the Oriental races took place. It might have been + expected that the Syrians, Phoenicians, Cilicians, Oappadocians, + Phrygians, and other Asiatic peoples whose proclivities were altogether + Oriental, would have seized the opportunity of rising against their + Western lords and driving the Romans back upon Europe. It might have been + thought that Parthia at least would have assumed the offensive in force, + and have made a determined effort to rid herself of neighbors who had + proved so troublesome. But though the conjuncture of circumstances was + most favorable, the man was wanting. Had Mithridates or Tigranes been + living, or had Surenas been king of Parthia, instead of a mere general, + advantage would probably have been taken of the occasion, and Rome might + have suffered seriously. But Orodes seems to have been neither ambitious + as a prince nor skilful as a commander; he lacked at any rate the keen and + all-embracing glance which could sweep the political horizon and, + comprehending the exact character of the situation, see at the same time + how to make the most of it. He allowed the opportunity to slip by without + putting forth his strength or making any considerable effort; and the + occasion once lost never returned. + </p> + <p> + In Parthia itself one immediate result of the expedition seems to have + been the ruin of Surenas. His services to his sovereign had exceeded the + measure which it is safe in the East for a subject to render to the crown. + The jealousy of his royal master was aroused, and he had to pay the + penalty of over-much success with his life. Parthia was thus left without + a general of approved merit, for Sillaces, the second in command during + the war with Crassus, had in no way distinguished himself through the + campaign. This condition of things may account for the feebleness of the + efforts made in B.C. 52 to retaliate on the Romans the damage done by + their invasion. A few weak bands only passed the Euphrates, and began the + work of plunder and ravage, in which they were speedily disturbed by + Cassius, who easily drove them back over the river. The next year, + however, a more determined attempt was made. Orodes sent his son, Pacorus, + the young bridegroom, to win his spurs in Syria, at the head of a + considerable force, and supported by the experience and authority of an + officer of ripe age, named Osaces. The army crossed the Euphrates + unresisted, for Cassius, the governor, had with him only the broken + remains of Crassus’s army, consisting of about two legions, and, deeming + himself too weak to meet the enemy in the open field, was content to + defend the towns. The open country was consequently overrun; and a thrill + of mingled alarm and excitement passed through all the Roman provinces in + Asia. The provinces were at the time most inadequately supplied with Roman + troops, through the desire of Csesar and Pompey to maintain large armies + about their own persons. The natives were for the most part disaffected + and inclined to hail the Parthians as brethren and deliverers. Excepting + Deiotarus of Galatia, and Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia, Rome had, as Cicero + (then proconsul of Cilicia) plaintively declared, “not a friend on the + Asiatic continent. And Cappadocia was miserably weak,” and open to attack + on the side of Armenia. Had Orodes and Artavasdes acted in concert, and + had the latter, while Orodes sent his armies into Syria, poured the + Armenian forces into Cappadocia and then into Cilicia (as it was expected + that he would do), there would have been the greatest danger to the Roman + possessions. As it was, the excitement in Asia Minor was extreme. Cicero + marched into Cappadocia with the bulk of the Roman troops, and summoned to + his aid Deiotarus with his Galatians, at the same time writing to the + Roman Senate to implore reinforcements. Cassius shut himself up in + Antioch, and allowed the Parthian cavalry to pass him by, and even to + proceed beyond the bounds of Syria into Cilicia. But the Parthians seem + scarcely to have understood the situation of their adversaries, or to have + been aware of their own advantages. Instead of spreading themselves wide, + raising the natives, and leaving them to blockade the towns, while with + their as yet unconquered squandrons they defied the enemy in the open + country, we find them engaging in the siege and blockade of cities, for + which they were wholly unfit, and confining themselves almost entirely to + the narrow valley of the Orontes. Under these circumstances we are not + surprised to learn that Cassius, having first beat them back from Antioch, + contrived to lead them into an ambush on the banks of the river, and + severely handled their troops, even killing the general Osaces. The + Parthians withdrew from the neighborhood of the Syrian capital after this + defeat, which must have taken place about the end of September, and soon + afterwards went into winter quarters in Oyrrhestica, or the part of Syria + immediately east of Amanus. Here they remained during the winter months + under Pacorus, and it was expected that the war would break out again with + fresh fury in the spring; but Bibulus, the new proconsul of Syria, + conscious of his military deficiencies, contrived to sow dissensions among + the Parthians themselves, and to turn the thoughts of Pacorus in another + direction. He suggested to Ornodapantes, a Parthian noble, with whom he + had managed to open a correspondence, that Pacorus would be a more worthy + occupant of the Parthian throne than his father, and that he would consult + well for his own interests if he were to proclaim the young prince, and + lead the army of Syria against Orodes. These intrigues seem, to have first + caused the war to languish, and then produced the recall of the + expedition. Orodes summoned Pacorus to return to Parthia before the plot + contrived between him and the Romans was ripe for execution; and Pacorus + felt that no course was open to him but to obey. The Parthian legions + recrossed the Euphrates in July, B.C. 50; and the First Roman War, which + had lasted a little more than four years, terminated without any real + recovery by the Romans of the laurels that they had lost at Carrhae. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Relations of Orodes with Pompey, and with Brutus and Cassius. Second + War with Rome. Great Parthian Expedition against Syria, Palestine, and + Asia Minor. Defeat of Saxa. Occupation of Antioch and Jerusalem. Parthians + driven out of Syria by Ventidius. Death of Pacorus. Death of Orodes.</i> + </p> + <p> + The civil troubles that had seemed to threaten Parthia from the ambition + of the youthful Pacorus passed away without any explosion. The son showed + his obedience by returning home submissively when he might have flown to + arms; and the father accepted the act of obedience as a sufficient + indication that no rebellion had been seriously meant. We find Pacorus not + only allowed to live, but again entrusted a few years later with high + office by the Parthian monarch; and on this occasion we find him showing + no signs of disaffection or discontent. + </p> + <p> + Nine years, however, elapsed between the recall of the young prince and + his reappointment to the supreme command against the Romans. Of the + internal condition of Parthia during this interval we have no account. + Apparently, Orodes ruled quietly and peaceably, contenting himself with + the glory which he had gained, and not anxious to tempt fortune by + engaging in any fresh enterprise. It was no doubt a satisfaction to him to + see the arms of the Romans, instead of being directed upon Asia, employed + in intestine strife; and we can well understand that he might even deem it + for his interest to foment and encourage the quarrels which, at any rate + for the time, secured his own empire from attack. It appears that + communications took place in the year B.C. 49 or 48 between him and + Pompey, a request for alliance being made by the latter, and an answer + being sent by Orodes, containing the terms upon which he would consent to + give Pompey effective aid in the war. If the Roman leader would deliver + into his hands the province of Syria and make it wholly over to the + Parthians, Orodes would conclude an alliance with him and send help; but + not otherwise. It is to the credit of Pompey that he rejected these terms, + and declined to secure his own private gain by depriving his country of a + province. Notwithstanding the failure of these negotiations and the + imprisonment of his envoy Hirrus, when a few months later, having lost the + battle of Pharsalia, the unhappy Roman was in need of a refuge from his + great enemy, he is said to have proposed throwing himself on the + friendship, or mercy, of Orodes. He had hopes, perhaps, of enlisting the + Parthian battalions in his cause, and of recovering power by means of this + foreign aid. But his friends combated his design, and persuaded him that + the risk, both to himself and to his wife, Cornelia, was too great to be + compatible with prudence. Pompey yielded to their representations; and + Orodes escaped the difficulty of having to elect between repulsing a + suppliant, and provoking the hostility of the most powerful chieftain and + the greatest general of the age. + </p> + <p> + Caesar quitted the East in B.C. 47 without entering into any communication + with Orodes. He had plenty of work upon his hands; and whatever designs he + may have even then entertained of punishing the Parthian inroad into + Syria, or avenging the defeat of Carrhae, he was wise enough to keep his + projects to himself and to leave Asia without exasperating by threats or + hostile movements the Power on which the peace of the East principally + depended. It was not until he had brought the African and Spanish wars to + an end that he allowed his intention of leading an expedition against + Parthia to be openly talked about. In B.C. 34, four years after Pharsalia, + having put down all his domestic enemies, and arranged matters, as he + thought, satisfactorily at Rome, he let a decree be passed formally + assigning to him “the Parthian War,” and sent the legions across the + Adriatic on their way to Asia. What plan of campaign he may have + contemplated is uncertain; but there cannot be a doubt that an expedition + under his auspices would have been a most serious danger to Parthia, and + might have terminated in her subjection. The military talents of the Great + Dictator were of the most splendid description; his powers of organization + and consolidation enormous; his prudence and caution equal to his ambition + and his courage. Once launched on a career of conquest in the East, it is + impossible to say whither he might not have carried the Roman eagles, or + what countries he might not have added to the Empire. But Parthia was + saved from the imminent peril without any effort of her own. The daggers + of “the Liberators” struck down on the 15th of March, B.C. 44, the only + man whom she had seriously to fear; and with the removal of Julius passed + away even from Roman thought for many a years the design which he had + entertained, and which he alone could have accomplished. + </p> + <p> + In the civil war that followed on the murder of Julius the Parthians are + declared to have actually taken a part. It appears that—about B.C. + 46—a small body of Parthian horse-archers had been sent to the + assistance of a certain Bassus, a Roman who amid the troubles of the times + was seeking to obtain for himself something like an independent + principality in Syria. The soldiers of Bassus, after a while (B.C. 43), + went over in a body to Cassius, who was in the East collecting troops for + his great struggle with Antony and Octavian; and thus a handful of + Parthians came into his power. Of this circumstance he determined to take + advantage, in order to obtain, if possible, a considerable body of troops + from Orodes. He presented each of the Parthian soldiers with a sum of + money, and dismissed them all to their homes, at the same time seizing the + opportunity to send some of his own officers, as ambassadors, to Orodes, + with a request for substantial aid. On receiving this application the + Parthian monarch appears to have come to the conclusion that it was to his + interest to comply with it. Whether he made conditions, or no, is + uncertain; but he seems to have sent a pretty numerous body of horse to + the support of the “Liberators” against their antagonists. Perhaps he + trusted to obtain from the gratitude of Cassius what he had failed to + extort from the fears of Pompey. Or, perhaps, he was only anxious to + prolong the period of civil disturbance in the Roman State, which secured + his own territory from attack, and might ultimately give him an + opportunity of helping himself to some portion of the Roman dominions in + Asia. + </p> + <p> + The opportunity seemed to him to have arrived in B.C. 40. Philippi had + been fought and lost. The “Liberators” were crushed. The struggle between + the Republicans and the Monarchists had come to an end. But, instead of + being united, the Roman world was more than ever divided; and the chance + of making an actual territorial gain at the expense of the tryant power + appeared fairer than it had ever been before. Three rivals now held + divided sway in the Roman State; each of them jealous of the other two, + and anxious for his own aggrandizement. The two chief pretenders to the + first place were bitterly hostile; and while the one was detained in Italy + by insurrection against his authority, the other was plunged in luxury and + dissipation, enjoying the first delights of a lawless passion, at the + Egyptian capital. The nations of the East were, moreover, alienated by the + recent exactions of the profligate Triumvir, who, to reward his parasites + and favorites, had laid upon them a burden that they were scarcely able to + bear. Further, the Parthians enjoyed at this time the advantage of having + a Roman officer of good position in their service, whose knowledge of the + Roman tactics, and influence in Roman provinces, might be expected to turn + to their advantage. Under these circumstances, when the spring of the year + arrived, Antony being still in Egypt, and Octavian (as far as was known) + occupied in the siege of Perusia, the Parthian hordes, under Labienus and + Pacorus, burst upon Syria in greater force than on any previous occasion. + Overrunning with their numerous cavalry the country between the Euphrates + and Antioch, and thence the valley of the Orontes, they had (as usual) + some difficulty with the towns. From Apamaea, placed (like Durham) on a + rocky peninsula almost surrounded by the river, they were at first + repulsed; but, having shortly afterwards defeated Decidius Saxa, the + governor of Syria, in the open field, they received the submission of + Apamaea and Antioch, which latter city Saxa abandoned at their approach, + flying precipitately into Cilicia. Encouraged by these successes, Labienus + and Pacorus agreed to divide their troops, and to engage simultaneously in + two great expeditions. Pacorus undertook to carry the Parthian standard + throughout the entire extent of Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, while + Labienus determined to invade Asia Minor, and to see if he could not wrest + some of its more fertile regions from the Romans. Both expeditions were + crowned with success. Pacorus reduced all Syria, and all Phoenicia, except + the single city of Tyre, which he was unable to capture for want of a + naval force. He then advanced into Palestine, which he found in its normal + condition of intestine commotion. Hyrcanus and Antigonus, two princes of + the Asmonsean house, were rivals for the Jewish crown; and the latter, + whom Hyrcanus had expelled, was content to make common cause with the + invader, and to be indebted to a rude foreigner for the possession of the + kingdom whereto he aspired. He offered Pacorus a thousand talents, and + five hundred Jewish women, if he would espouse his cause and seat him upon + his uncle’s throne. The offer was readily embraced, and by the + irresistible help of the Parthians a revolution was effected at Jerusalem. + Hyrcanus was deposed and mutilated. A new priest-king was set up in the + person of Antigonus, the last Asmonsean prince, who held the capital for + three years—B.C. 40-37—as a Parthian satrap, the creature and + dependant of the great monarchy on the further side of the Euphrates. + Meanwhile in Asia Minor Labienus carried all before him. Decidius Saxa, + having once more (in Cilicia) ventured upon a battle, was not only + defeated, but slain. Pamphylia, Lycia, and Caria were overrun. Stratonicea + was besieged; Mylasa and Alabanda were taken. According to some writers + the Parthians even pillaged Lydia and Ionia, and were in possession of + Asia to the shores of the Hellespont. It may be said that for a full year + Western Asia changed masters; the rule and authority of Rome disappeared; + and the Parthians were recognized as the dominant power. But the fortune + of war now began to turn. In the autumn of B.C. 39 Antony, having set out + from Italy to resume his command in the East, despatched his lieutenant, + Publius Ventidius, into Asia, with orders to act against Labienus and the + triumphant Parthians. Ventidius landed unexpectedly on the coast of Asia + Minor, and so alarmed Labienus, who had no Parthian troops with him, that + the latter fell back hurriedly towards Cilicia, evacuating all the more + western provinces, and at the same time sending urgent messages to Pacorus + to implore succor. Pacorus sent a body of horse to his aid; but these + troops, instead of putting themselves under his command, acted + independently, and, in a rash attempt to surprise the Roman camp, were + defeated by Ventidius, whereupon they fled hastily into Cilicia, leaving + Labienus to his fate. The self-styled “Imperator,” upon this, deserted his + men, and sought safety in flight; but his retreat was soon discovered, and + he was pursued, captured, and put to death. + </p> + <p> + The Parthians, meanwhile, alarmed at the turn which affairs had taken, + left Antigonus to maintain their interests in Palestine, and concentrated + themselves in Northern Syria and Commagene, where they awaited the advance + of the Romans. A strong detachment, under Pharnapates, was appointed to + guard the Syrian Gates, or narrow pass over Mount Amanus, leading from + Cilicia into Syria. Here Ventidius gained another victory. He had sent + forward an officer named Pompsedius Silo with some cavalry to endeavor to + seize this post, and Pompaedius had found himself compelled to an + engagement with Pharnapates, in which he was on the point of suffering + defeat, when Ventidius himself, who had probably feared for his + subordinate’s safety, appeared on the scene, and turned the scale in favor + of the Romans. The detachment under Pharnapates was overpowered, and + Pharnapates himself was among the slain. When news of this defeat reached + Pacorus, he resolved to retreat, and withdrew his troops across the + Euphrates. This movement he appears to have executed without being + molested by Ventidius, who thus recovered Syria to the Romans towards the + close of B.C. 39, or early in B.C. 38. + </p> + <p> + But Pacorus was far from intending to relinquish the contest. He had made + himself popular among the Syrians by his mild and just administration, and + knew that they preferred his government to that of the Romans. He had many + allies among the petty princes and dynasts, who occupied a + semi-independent position on the borders of the Parthian and Roman + empires. Antigonus, whom he had established as king of the Jews, still + maintained himself in Judaea against the efforts of Herod, to whom + Augustus and Antony had assigned the throne. Pacorus therefore arranged + during the remainder of the winter for a fresh invasion of Syria in the + spring, and, taking the field earlier than his adversary expected, made + ready to recross the Euphrates. We are told that if he had crossed at the + usual point, he would have found the Romans unprepared, the legions being + still in their winter quarters, some north and some south of the range of + Taurus. Ventidius, however, contrived by a stratagem to induce him to + effect the passage at a different point, considerably lower down the + stream, and in this way to waste some valuable time, which he himself + employed in collecting his scattered forces. Thus, when the Parthians + appeared on the right bank of the Euphrates, the Roman general was + prepared to engage them, and was not even loath to decide the fate of the + war by a single battle. He had taken care to provide himself with a strong + force of slingers, and had entrenched himself in a position on high ground + at some distance from the river. The Parthians, finding their passage of + the Euphrates unopposed, and, when they fell in with the enemy, seeing him + entrenched, as though resolved to act only on the defensive, became + overbold; they thought the force opposed to them must be weak or cowardly, + and might yield its position without a blow, if briskly attacked. + Accordingly, as on a former occasion, they charged up the hill on which + the Roman camp was placed, hoping to take it by sheer audacity. But the + troops inside were held ready, and at the proper moment issued forth; the + assailants found themselves in their turn assailed, and, fighting at a + disadvantage on the slope, were soon driven down the declivity. The battle + was renewed in plain below, where the mailed horse of the Parthians made a + brave resistance; but the slingers galled them severely, and in the midst + of the struggle it happened that by ill-fortune Pacorus was slain. The + result followed which is almost invariable with an Oriental army: having + lost their leader, the soldiers everywhere gave way; flight became + universal, and the Romans gained a complete victory. The Parthian army + fled in two directions. Part made for the bridge of boats by which it had + crossed the Euphrates, but was intercepted by the Romans and destroyed. + Part turned northwards into Commagene, and there took refuge with the + king, Antiochus, who refused to surrender them to the demand of Ventidius, + and no doubt allowed them to return to their own country. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the great Parthian invasion of Syria, and with it ended the + prospect of any further spread of the Arsacid dominion towards the west. + When the two great powers, Rome and Parthia, first came into collision—when + the first blow struck by the latter, the destruction of the army of + Crassus, was followed up by the advance of their clouds of horse into + Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor—when Apamsea, Antioch, and + Jerusalem fell into their hands, when Decidius Saxa was defeated and + slain, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Caria, Lydia, and Ionia occupied—it + seemed as if Rome had found, not so much an equal as a superior; it looked + as if the power heretofore predominant would be compelled to contract her + frontier, and as if Parthia would advance hers to the Egean or the + Mediterranean. The history of the contest between the East and the West, + between Asia and Europe, is a history of reactions. At one time one of the + continents, at another time the other, is in the ascendant. The time + appeared to have come when the Asiatics were once more to recover their + own, and to beat back the European aggressor to his proper shores and + islands. The triumphs achieved by the Seljukian Turks between the eleventh + and the fifteenth centuries would in that case have been anticipated by + above a thousand years through the efforts of a kindred, and not + dissimilar people. But it turned out that the effort made was premature. + While the Parthian warfare was admirably adapted for the national defence + on the broad plains of inner Asia, it was ill suited for conquest, and, + comparatively speaking, ineffective in more contracted and difficult + regions. The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Roman—it + did not in the same way adapt itself to circumstances, or admit of the + addition of new arms, or the indefinite expansion of an old one. However + loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never + altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under + the first, improved in details, perhaps, but essentially the same system. + The Romans, on the contrary, were ever modifying their system, ever + learning new combinations or new manoeuvres or new modes of warfare from + their enemies. They met the Parthian tactics of loose array, continuous + distant missiles, and almost exclusive employment of cavalry, with an + increase in the number of their own horse, a larger employment of + auxiliary irregulars, and a greater use of the sling. At the same time + they learnt to take full advantage of the Parthian inefficiency against + walls, and to practice against them the arts of pretended retreat and + ambush. The result was, that Parthia found she could make no impression + upon the dominions of Rome, and, having become persuaded of this by the + experience of a decade of years, thenceforth laid aside for ever the idea + of attempting Western conquests. She took up, in fact, from this time, a + new attitude, Hitherto she had been consistently aggressive. She had + labored constantly to extend herself at the expense successively of the + Bactrians, the Scythians, the Syro-Macedonians, and the Armenians. She had + proceeded from one aggression to another, leaving only short intervals + between her wars, and had always been looking out for some fresh enemy. + Henceforth she became, comparatively speaking, pacific. She was content + for the most part, to maintain her limits. She sought no new foe. Her + contest with Rome degenerated into a struggle for influence over the + kingdom of Armenia; and her hopes were limited to the reduction of that + kingdom into a subject position. + </p> + <p> + The death of Pacorus is said to have caused Orodes intense grief. For many + days he would neither eat nor speak; then his sorrow took another turn. He + imagined that his son had returned; he thought continually that he heard + or saw him; he could do nothing but repeat his name. Every now and then, + however, he awoke to a sense of the actual fact, and mourned the death of + his favorite with tears. After a while this extreme grief wore itself out, + and the aged king began to direct his attention once more to public + affairs. He grew anxious about the succession. Of the thirty sons who + still remained to him there was not one who had made himself a name, or + was in any way distinguished above the remainder. In the absence of any + personal ground of preference, Orodes—who seems to have regarded + himself as possessing a right to nominate the son who should succeed him—thought + the claims of primogeniture deserved to be considered, and selected as his + successor, Phraa-tes, the eldest of the thirty. Not content with + nominating him, or perhaps doubtful whether the nomination would be + accepted by the Megistanes, he proceeded further to abdicate in his favor, + whereupon Phraates became king. The transaction proved a most unhappy one. + Phraates, jealous of some of his brothers, who were the sons of a princess + married to Orodes, whereas his own mother was only a concubine, removed + them by assassination, and when the ex-monarch ventured to express + disapproval of the act added the crime of parricide to fratricide by + putting to death his aged father. Thus perished Orodes, after a reign of + eighteen years—the most memorable in the Parthian annals. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Phraates IV. His cruelties. Flight of Monceses to Antony. + Antony’s great Parthian Expedition, or Invasion of Media Atropatene. Its + Complete Failure. Subsequent Alliance of the Median King with Antony. War + between Parthia and Media. Rebellion raised against Phraates by Tiridates. + Phraates expelled. He recovers his Throne with the help of the Scythians. + His dealings with Augustus. His death and Character.</i> + </p> + <p> + The shedding of blood is like, “the letting out of water.” When it once + begins, none can say where it will stop. The absolute monarch who, for his + own fancied security, commences a system of executions, is led on step by + step to wholesale atrocities from which he would have shrunk with horror + at the outset. Phraates had removed brothers whose superior advantages of + birth made them formidable rivals. He had punished with death a father who + ventured to blame his act, and to forget that by abdication he had sunk + himself to the position of a subject. Could he have stopped here, it might + have seemed that his severities proceeded not so much from cruelty of + disposition as from political necessity; and historians, always tender in + the judgments which they pass on kings under such circumstances, would + probably have condoned or justified his conduct. But the taste for + bloodshed grows with the indulgence of it. In a short time the young king + had killed all his remaining brothers, although their birth was no better + than his own, and there was no valid ground for his fearing them; and soon + afterwards, not content with the murder of his own relations, he began to + vent his fury upon the Parthian nobles. Many of these suffered death; and + such a panic seized the order that numbers quitted the country, and + dispersed in different directions, content to remain in exile until the + danger which threatened them should have passed by. There, were others, + however, who were not so patient. A body of chiefs had fled to Antony, + among whom was a certain Monseses, a nobleman of the highest rank, who + seems to have distinguished himself previously in the Syrian wars. This + person represented to Antony that Phraates had by his tyrannical and + bloody conduct made himself hateful to his subjects, and that a revolution + could easily be effected. If the Romans would support him, he offered to + invade Parthia; and he made no doubt of wresting the greater portion of it + from the hands of the tyrant, and of being himself accepted as king. In + that, case he would consent to hold his crown of the Romans, who might + depend upon his fidelity and gratitude. Antony is said to have listened to + these overtures, and to have been induced by them to turn his thoughts to + an invasion of the Parthian kingdom. He began to collect troops and to + obtain allies with this object. He entered into negotiations with + Artavasdes, the Armenian king, who seems at this time to have been more + afraid of Rome than of Parthia, and engaged him to take a part in his + projected campaign. He spoke of employing Monseses in a separate + expedition. Under these circumstances Phraates became alarmed. He sent a + message to Monseses with promises of pardon and favor, which that chief + thought worthy of acceptance. Hereupon Monseses represented to Antony that + by a peaceful return he might perhaps do him as much service as by having + recourse to arms; and though Antony was not persuaded, he thought it + prudent to profess himself well satisfied, and to allow Monseses to quit + him. His relations with Parthia, he said, might perhaps be placed on a + proper footing without a war, and he was quite willing to try negotiation. + His ambassadors should accompany Monasses. They would be instructed to + demand nothing of Phraates but the restoration of the Roman standards + taken from Crassus, and the liberation of such of the captive soldiers as + were still living.’ + </p> + <p> + But Antony had really determined on war. It may be doubted whether it had + required the overtures of Monseses to put a Parthian expedition into his + thoughts. He must have been either more or less than a man if the + successes of his lieutenants had not stirred in his mind some feeling of + jealousy, and some desire to throw their victories into the shade by a + grand and noble achievement. Especially the glory of Ventidius, who had + been allowed the much-coveted honor of a triumph at Rome on account of his + defeats of the Parthians in Cilicia and Syria, must have moved him to + emulation, and have caused him to cast about for some means of exalting + his own military reputation above that of his subordinates. For this + purpose nothing, he must have known, would be so effectual as a real + Parthian success, the inflicting on this hated and dreaded foe of an + unmistakable humiliation, the dictating to them terms of peace on their + own soil after some crushing and overwhelming disaster. And, after the + victories of Ventidius, this did not appear to be so very difficult. The + prestige of the Parthian name was gone. Roman soldiers could be trusted to + meet them without alarm, and to contend with them without undue excitement + or flurry. The weakness, as well as the strength, of their military system + had come to be known; and expedients had been devised by which its strong + points were met and counterbalanced. At the head of sixteen legions, + Antony might well think that he could invade Parthia successfully, and not + only avoid the fate of Crassus, but gather laurels which might serve him + in good stead in his contest with his great political rival. + </p> + <p> + Nor can the Roman general be taxed with undue precipitation or with + attacking in insufficient force. He had begun, as already noticed, with + securing the co-operation of the Armenian king, Artavasdes, who promised + him a contingent of 7000 foot and 6000 horse. His Roman infantry is + estimated at 60,000; besides which he had 10,000 Gallic and Iberian horse, + and 30,000 light armed and cavalry of the Asiatic allies. His own army + thus amounted to 100,000 men; and, with the Armenian contingent, his + entire force would have been 113,000. It seems that it was his original + intention to cross the Euphrates into Mesopotamia, and thus to advance + almost in the footsteps of Crassus but when he reached the banks of the + river (about midsummer B.C. 37) he found such preparations made to resist + him that he abandoned his first design, and, turning northwards, entered + Armenia, determined to take advantage of his alliance with Artavasdes, and + to attack Parthia with Armenia as the basis of his operations. Artavasdes + gladly received him, and persuaded him, instead of penetrating into + Parthia itself, to direct his arms against the territory of a Parthian + subject-ally, the king of Media Atropatene, whose territories adjoined + Armenia on the southeast. Artavasdes pointed out that the Median monarch + was absent from his own country, having joined his troops to those which + Phraates had collected for the defence of Parthia. His territory therefore + would be open to ravage, and even Praaspa, his capital, might prove an + easy prey. The prospect excited Antony, who at once divided his troops, + and having given orders to Oppius Statianus to follow him leisurely with + the more unwieldy part of the army, the baggage-train, and the siege + batteries, proceeded himself by forced marches to Praaspa with all the + calvary and the infantry of the better class. This town was situated at + the distance of nearly three hundred miles from the Armenian frontier; but + the way to it lay through well-cultivated plains, where food and water + were abundant. Antony performed the march without difficulty and at once + invested the place. The walls were strong, and the defenders numerous, so + that he made little impression; and when the Median king returned, + accompanied by his Parthian suzerain, to the defence of his country, the + capital seemed in so little danger that it was resolved to direct the + first attack on Statianus, who had not yet joined his chief. A most + successful onslaught was made on this officer, who was surprised, + defeated, and slain. Ten thousand Romans fell in the battle, and all the + baggage-wagons and engines of war were taken. A still worse result of the + defeat was the desertion of Aitavasdes, who, regarding the case of the + Romans as desperate, drew off his troops, and left Antony to his own + resources. + </p> + <p> + The Roman general now found himself in great difficulties. He had + exhausted the immediate neighborhood of Praaspa, and was obliged to send + his foraging-parties on distant expeditions, where, being beyond the reach + of his protection, they were attacked and cut to pieces by the enemy. He + had lost his siege-train, and found it impossible to construct another. + Such works as he attempted suffered through the sallies of the besieged: + and in some of these his soldiers behaved so ill that he was forced to + punish their cowardice by decimation. His supplies failed, and he had to + feed his troops on barley instead of wheat. Meantime the autumnal equinox + was approaching, and the weather was becoming cold. The Medes and + Parthians, under their respective monarchs, hung about him, impeded his + movements, and cut off his stragglers, but carefully avoided engaging him + in a pitched battle. If he could have forced the city to a surrender, he + would have been in comparative safety, for he might have gone into winter + quarters there and have renewed the war in the ensuing spring. But all his + assaults, with whatever desperation they were made, failed; and it became + necessary to relinquish the siege and retire into Armenia before the + rigors of winter should set in. He could, however, with difficulty bring + himself to make a confession of failure, and flattered himself for a while + that the Parthians would consent to purchase his retirement by the + surrender of the Crassian captives and standards. Having lost some + valuable time in negotiations, at which the Parthians laughed, at length, + when the equinox was passed, he broke up from before Praaspa, and + commenced the work of retreat. There were two roads by which he might + reach the Araxes at the usual point of passage, One lay towards the left, + through a plain and open country, probably that through which he had come; + the other, which was shorter, but more difficult, lay to the right, + leading across a mountain-tract, but one fairly supplied with water, and + in which there were inhabited villages. Antony was advised that the + Parthians had occupied the easier route, expecting that he would follow + it, and intended to overwhelm him with their cavalry in the plains. He + therefore took the road to the right through a rugged and inclement + country—probably that between Tahkt-i-Suleiman and Tabriz—and, + guided by a Mardian who knew the region well, proceeded to make his way + back to the Araxes. His decision took the Parthians by surprise, and for + two days he was unmolested. But by the third day they had thrown + themselves across his path; and thenceforward, for nineteen consecutive + days, they disputed with Antony every inch of his retreat, and inflicted + on him the most serious damage. The sufferings of the Roman army during + this time, says a modern historian of Rome, were unparalleled in their + military annals. The intense cold, the blinding snow and driving sleet, + the want sometimes of provisions, sometimes of water, the use of poisonous + herbs, and the harassing attacks of the enemy’s cavalry and bowmen, which + could only be repelled by maintaining the dense array of the phalanx or + the tortoise, reduced the retreating army by one-third of its numbers. At + length, after a march of 300 Roman, or 277 British, miles, they reached + the river Araxes, probably at the Julfa ferry, and, crossing it, found + themselves in Armenia. But the calamities of the return were not yet + ended. Though it was arranged with Artavasdes that the bulk of the army + should winter in Armenia, yet, before the various detachments could reach + their quarters in different parts of the country, eight thousand more had + perished through the effects of past sufferings or the severity of the + weather. Altogether, out of the hundred thousand men whom Antony led into + Media Atropatene, less than seventy thousand remained to commence the + campaign which was threatened for the ensuing year. Well may the + unfortunate commander have exclaimed as he compared his own heavy losses + with the light ones of Xenophon and his Greeks in these same regions, “Oh, + those Ten Thousand! those Ten Thousand!” + </p> + <p> + On the withdrawal of Antony into Armenia a quarrel broke out between + Phraates and his Median vassal. The latter regarded himself as wronged in + the division made of the Roman spoils, and expressed himself with so much + freedom on the subject as to offend his suzerain. He then began to fear + that he had gone too far, and that Phraates would punish him by depriving + him of his sovereignty. Accordingly, he was anxious to obtain a powerful + alliance, and on turning over in his mind all feasible political + combinations it seems to have occurred to him that his late enemy, Antony, + might be disposed to take him under his protection. He doubtless knew that + Artavasdes of Armenia had offended the Roman leader by deserting him in + the hour of his greatest peril, and felt that, if Antony was intending to + revenge himself on the traitor, he would be glad to have a friend on the + Armenian border. He therefore sent an ambassador of rank to Alexandria, + where Antony was passing the winter, and boldly proposed the alliance. + Antony readily accepted it; he was intensely angered by the conduct of the + Armenian monarch, and determined on punishing his defection; he viewed the + Median alliance as of the utmost importance in connection with the design, + which he still entertained, of invading Parthia itself; and he saw in the + powerful descendant of Atropates a prince whom it would be well worth his + while to bind to his cause indissolubly. He therefore embraced the + overtures made to him with joy, and even rewarded the messenger who had + brought them with a principality. After sundry efforts to entice + Artavasdes into his power, which occupied him during most of B.C. 85, in + the spring of B.C. 34 he suddenly appeared in Armenia. His army, which had + remained there from the previous campaign, held all the more important + positions, and, as he professed the most friendly feelings towards + Artavasdes, even proposing an alliance between their families, that + prince, after some hesitation, at length ventured into his presence. He + was immediately seized and put in chains. Armenia was rapidly overrun. + Artaxias, whom the Armenians made king in the room of his father, was + defeated and forced to take refuge with the Parthians. Antony then + arranged a marriage between the daughter of the Median monarch and his own + son by Cleopatra, Alexander, and, leaving garrisons in Armenia, carried + off Artavasdes and a rich booty into Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Phraates, during these transactions, stood wholly upon the defensive. It + may not have been unpleasing to him to see Artavasdes punished. It must + have gratified him to observe how Antony was injuring his own cause by + exasperating the Armenians, and teaching them to hate Rome even more than + they hated Parthia. But while Antony’s troops held both Syria and Armenia, + and the alliance between Media Atropatene and Rome continued, he could not + venture to take any aggressive step or do aught but protect his own + frontier. He was obliged even to look on with patience, when, early in + B.C. 33, Antony appeared once more in these parts, and advancing to the + Araxes, had a conference with the Median monarch, whereat their alliance + was confirmed, troops exchanged, part of Armenia made over to the Median + king, and Jotapa, his daughter, given as a bride to the young Alexander, + whom Antony designed to make satrap of the East. But no sooner had Antony + withdrawn into Asia Minor in preparation for his contest with Octavian + than Phraates took the offensive. In combination with Artaxias, the new + Armenian king, he attacked Antony’s ally; but the latter repulsed him by + the help of his Roman troops. Soon afterwards, however, Antony recalled + these troops without restoring to the Median king his own contingent; upon + which the two confederates renewed their attack, and were successful. The + Median prince was defeated and taken prisoner. Artaxias recovered Armenia + and massacred all the Roman garrisons which he found in it. Both countries + became once more wholly independent of Rome, and it is probable that Media + returned to its old allegiance. + </p> + <p> + But the successes of Phraates abroad produced ill consequences at home. + Elated by his victories, and regarding his position in Parthia as thereby + secured, he resumed the series of cruelties towards his subjects which the + Roman war had interrupted, and pushed them so far that an insurrection + broke out against his authority (B.C. 33), and he was compelled to quit + the country. The revolt was headed by a certain Tiridates, who, upon its + success, was made king by the insurgents. Phraates fled into Scythia, and + persuaded the Scythians to embrace his cause. These nomads, nothing loth, + took up arms, and without any great difficulty restored Phraates to the + throne from which his people had expelled him. Tiridates fled at their + approach, and, having contrived to carry off in his flight the youngest + son of Phraates, presented himself before Octavian, who was in Syria at + the time on his return from Egypt (B.C. 30), surrendered the young prince + into his hands, and requested his aid against the tyrant. Octavian + accepted the valuable hostage, but with his usual caution, declined to + pledge himself to furnish any help to the pretender; he might remain, he + said, in Syria, if he so wished, and while he continued under Roman + protection, a suitable provision should be made for his support, but, he + must not expect armed resistance against the Parthian monarch. To that + monarch, when some years afterwards (B.C. 23) he demanded the surrender of + his subject and the restoration of his young son, Octavian answered that + he could not give Tiridates up to him, but he would restore him his son + without a ransom. He should expect, however, that in return for this + kindness the Parthian king would on his part deliver to the Romans the + standards taken from Crassus and Antony, together with all who survived of + the Roman captives. It does not appear that Phraates was much moved by the + Emperor’s generosity. He gladly received his son; but he took no steps + towards the restoration of those proofs of Parthian victory which the + Romans were so anxious to recover. It was not until B.C. 20, when Octavian + (now become Augustus) visited the East, and war seemed the probable + alternative if he continued obstinate, that the Parthian monarch brought + himself to relinquish the trophies which were as much prized by the + victors as the vanquished. In extenuation of his act we must remember that + he was unpopular with his subjects, and that Augustus could at any moment + have produced a pretender, who had once occupied, and with Roman help + might easily have mounted for a second time, the throne of the Arsacidse. + </p> + <p> + The remaining years of Phraates—and he reigned for nearly twenty + years after restoring the standards—are almost unbroken by any event + of importance. The result of the twenty years’ struggle between Rome and + Parthia had been to impress either nation with a wholesome dread of the + other. Both had triumphed on their own ground; both had failed when they + ventured on sending expeditions into the enemy’s territory. Each now stood + on its guard, watching the movements of its adversary across the + Euphrates. Both had become pacific. It is a well-known fact that Augustus + left it as a principle of policy to his successors that the Roman Empire + had reached its proper limits, and could not with advantage be extended + further. This principle, followed with the utmost strictness by Tiberius, + was accepted as a rule by all the earlier Caesars, and only regarded as + admitting of rare and slight exceptions. Trajan was the first who, a + hundred and thirty years after the accession of Augustus, made light of it + and set it at defiance. With him re-awoke the spirit of conquest, the + aspiration after universal dominion. But in the meantime there was peace—peace + indeed not absolutely unbroken, for border wars occurred, and Rome was + tempted sometimes to interfere by arms in the internal quarrels of her + neighbors—but a general state of peace and amity prevailed—neither + state made any grand attack on the other’s dominions—no change + occurred in the frontier, no great battle tested the relative strength of + the two peoples. Such rivalry as remained was exhibited less in arms than + in diplomacy and showed itself mainly in endeavors on either side to + obtain a predominant influence in Armenia. There alone during the century + and a half that intervened between Antony and Trajan did the interests of + Rome and Parthia come into collision, and in connection with this kingdom + alone did any struggle between the two countries continue. + </p> + <p> + Phraates, after yielding to Augustus in the matter of the standards and + prisoners, appears for many years to have studiously cultivated his good + graces. In the interval between B.C. 11 and B.C. 7, distrustful of his + subjects, and fearful of their removing him in order to place one of his + sons upon the Parthian throne, he resolved to send these possible rivals + out of the country; and on this occasion he paid Augustus the compliment + of selecting Rome for his children’s residence. The youths were four in + number, Vonones, Seraspadanes, Rhodaspes, and Phraates; two of them were + married and had children; they resided at Rome during the remainder of + their father’s lifetime, and were treated as became their rank, being + supported at the public charge and in a magnificent manner. The Roman + writers speak of these as “hostages” given by Phraates to the Roman + Emperor; but this was certainly not the intention of the Parthian monarch; + nor could the idea well be entertained by the Romans at the time of their + residence. + </p> + <p> + These amicable relations between the two sovereigns would probably have + continued undisturbed till the death of one or the other, had not a + revolution occured in Armenia, which tempted the Parthian king beyond his + powers of resistance. On the death of Artaxias (B.C. 20), Augustus, who + was then in the East, had sent Tiberius into Armenia to arrange matters, + and Tiberius had placed upon the throne a brother of Artaxias, named + Tigranes. Tigranes died in B.C. 6, and the Armenians, without waiting to + know the will of the Roman Emperor, conferred the royal title on his sons, + for whose succession he had before his death paved the way by associating + them with him in the government. Enraged at this assumption of + independence, Augustus sent an expedition into Armenia (B.C. 5), deposed + the sons of Tigranes, and established on the throne a certain Artavasdes, + whose birth and parentage are not known to us. But the Armenians were not + now inclined to submit to foreign dictation; they rose in revolt against + Artavasdes (ab. B.C. 2), defeated his Roman supporters, and expelled him + from the kingdom. Another Tigranes was made king; and, as it was pretty + certain that the Romans would interfere with this new display of the + spirit of independence, the Parthians were called in to resist the Roman + oppressors. Armenia, was, in fact, too weak to stand alone, and was + obliged to lean upon one or other of the two great empires upon her + borders. Her people had no clear political foresight, and allowed + themselves to veer and fluctuate between the two influences according as + the feelings of the hour dictated. Rome had now angered them beyond their + very limited powers of endurance, and they flew to Parthia for help, just + as on other occasions we shall find them flying to Rome. Phraates could + not bring himself to reject the Armenian overtures. Ever since the time of + the second Mithridates it had been a settled maxim of Parthian policy to + make Armenia dependent; and, even at the cost of a rupture with Rome, it + seemed to Phraates that he must respond to the appeal made to him. The + rupture might not come. Augustus was now aged, and might submit to the + affront without resenting it. He had lately lost the services of his best + general, Tiberius, who, indignant at slights put upon him, had gone into + retirement at Rhodes. He had no one that he could employ but his + grandsons, youths who had not yet fleshed their maiden swords. Phraates + probably hoped that Augustus would draw back before the terrors of a + Parthian war under such circumstances, and would allow without + remonstrance the passing of Armenia into the position of a subject-ally of + Parthia. + </p> + <p> + But if these were his thoughts, he had miscalculated. Augustus, from the + time that he heard of the Armenian troubles, and of the support given to + them by Parthia, seems never to have wavered in his determination to + vindicate the claims of Rome to paramount influence in Armenia, and to + have only hesitated as to the person whose services he should employ in + the business. He would have been glad to employ Tiberius; but that morose + prince had deserted him and, declining public life, had betaken himself to + Rhodes, where he was living in a self-chosen retirement. Caius, the eldest + of his grandsons, was, in B.C. 2, only eighteen years of age; and, though + the thoughts of Augustus at once turned in this direction, the extreme + youth of the prince caused him to hesitate somewhat; and the consequence + was that Caius did not start for the East till late in B.C. 1. Meanwhile a + change had occured in Parthia. Phraates, who had filled the throne for + above thirty-five years, ceased to exist, and was succeeded by a young + son, Phraataces, who reigned in conjunction with the queen-mother, + Thermusa, or Musa. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances which brought about this change were the following. + Phraates IV. had married, late in life, an Italian slave-girl, sent him as + a present by Augustus; and she had borne him a son for whom she was + naturally anxious to secure the succession. According to some, it was + under her influence that the monarch had sent his four elder boys to Rome, + there to receive their education. At any rate, in the absence of these + youths, Phraataces, the child of the slave-girl, became the chief support + of Phraates in the administration of affairs, and obtained a position in + Parthia which led him to regard himself as entitled to the throne so soon + as it should become vacant. Doubtful, however, of his father’s goodwill, + or fearful of the rival claims of his brothers, if he waited till the + throne was vacated in the natural course of events, Phraataces resolved to + anticipate the hand of time, and, in conjunction with his mother, + administered poison to the old monarch, from the effects of which he died. + A just Nemesis for once showed itself in that portion of human affairs + which passes before our eyes. Phraates IV., the parricide and fratricide, + was, after a reign of thirty-five years, himself assassinated (B.C. 2) by + a wife whom he loved only too fondly and a son whom he esteemed and + trusted. + </p> + <p> + Phraates cannot but be regarded as one of the ablest of the Parthian + monarchs. His conduct of the campaign against Antony—one of the best + soldiers that Rome ever produced—was admirable, and showed him a + master of guerilla warfare. His success in maintaining himself upon the + throne for five and thirty years, in spite of rivals, and notwithstanding + the character which he obtained for cruelty, implies, in such a state as + Parthia, considerable powers of management. His dealings with Augustus + indicate much suppleness and dexterity. If he did not in the course of his + long reign advance the Parthian frontier, at any rate he was not obliged + to retract it. Apparently, he ceded nothing to the Scyths as the price of + their assistance. He maintained the Parthian supremacy over Northern + Media. He lost no inch of territory to the Romans. It was undoubtedly a + prudent step on his part to soothe the irritated vanity of Rome by a + surrender of useless trophies, and scarcely more useful prisoners; and, we + may doubt if this concession was not as effective as the dread of the + Parthian arms in producing that peace between the two countries which + continued unbroken for above ninety years from the campaign of Antony, and + without serious interruption for yet another half century. If Phraates + felt, as he might well feel after the campaigns of Pacorus, that on the + whole Rome was a more powerful state than Parthia, and that consequently + Parthia had nothing to gain but much to lose in the contest with her + western neighbor, he did well to allow no sentiment of foolish pride to + stand in the way of a concession that made a prolonged peace between the + two countries possible. It is sometimes more honorable to yield to a + demand than to meet it with defiance; and the prince who removed a cause + of war arising out of mere national vanity, while at the same time he + maintained in all essential points the interests and dignity of his + kingdom, deserved well of his subjects, and merits the approval of the + historian. As a man, Phraates has left behind him a bad name: he was + cruel, selfish, and ungrateful, a fratricide and a parricide; but as a + king he is worthy of respect, and, in certain points, of admiration. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Short reigns of Phraataces, Orodes II., and Vonones I. Accession of + Artabanus III. His relations with Germanicus and Tiberius. His War with + Pharasmanes of Iberia. His First Expulsion from his Kingdom, and return to + it. His peace with Rome. Internal troubles of the Parthian Kingdom. Second + Expulsion and return of Artabanus. His Death.</i> + </p> + <p> + The accession of Phraataces made no difference in the attitude of Parthia + towards Armenia. The young prince was as anxious as his father had been to + maintain the Parthian claims to that country, and at first perhaps as + inclined to believe that Augustus would not dispute them. Immediately upon + his accession he sent ambassadors to Rome announcing the fact, apologizing + for the circumstances under which it had taken place, and proposing a + renewal of the peace which had subsisted between Augustus and his father. + Apparently, he said nothing about Armenia, but preferred a demand for the + surrender of his four brothers, whom no doubt he designed to destroy. The + answer of Augustus was severe in the extreme. Addressing Phraataces by his + bare name, without adding the title of king, he required him to lay aside + the royal appellation, which he had arrogantly and without any warrant + assumed, and at the same time to withdraw his forces from Armenia. On the + surrender of the Parthian princes he kept silence, ignoring a demand which + he had no intention of according. It was clearly his design to set up one + of the elder brothers as a rival claimant to Phraataces, or at any rate to + alarm him with the notion that, unless he made concessions, this policy + would be adopted. But Phraataces was not to be frightened by a mere + message. He responded to Augustus after his own fashion, dispatching to + him a letter wherein he took to himself the favorite Parthian title of + “king of kings,” and addressed the Roman Emperor simply as “Caesar.” The + attitude of defiance would no doubt have been maintained, had Augustus + confined himself to menaces; when, however, it appeared that active + measures would be taken, when Augustus, in B.C. 1, sent his grandson, + Caius, to the East with orders to re-establish the Roman influence in + Armenia even at the cost of a Parthian war, and that prince showed himself + in Syria with all the magnificent surroundings of the Imperial dignity, + the Parthian monarch became alarmed. He had an interview with Caius in the + spring of A.D. 1, upon an island in the Euphrates; where the terms of an + arrangement between the two Empires were discussed and settled. The armies + of the two chiefs were drawn up on the opposite banks of the river, facing + one another; and the chiefs themselves, accompanied by an equal number of + attendants, proceeded to deliberate in the sight of both hosts. + Satisfactory pledges having been given by the Parthian monarch, the prince + and king in turn entertained each other on the borders of their respective + dominions; and Caius returned into Syria, having obtained an engagement + from the Parthians to abstain from any further interference with Armenian + affairs. The engagement appears to have been honorably kept; for when, + shortly afterward, fresh complications occurred, and Caius in endeavoring + to settle them received his death-wound before the walls of an Armenian + tower, we do not hear of Parthia as in any way involved in the unfortunate + occurrence. The Romans and their partisans in the country were left to + settle the Armenian succession as they pleased; and Parthia kept herself + wholly aloof from the matters transacted upon her borders. + </p> + <p> + One cause—perhaps the main cause of this abstinence, and of the + engagement to abstain entered into by Phraataces, was doubtless the + unsettled state of things in Parthia itself. The circumstances under which + that prince had made himself king, though not unparalleled in the Parthian + annals, were such as naturally tended towards civil strife, and as were + apt to produce in Parthia internal difficulties, if not disorders or + commotions. Phraataces soon found that he would have a hard task to + establish his rule. The nobles objected to him, not only for the murder of + his father, but his descent from an Italian concubine, and the incestuous + commerce which he was supposed to maintain with her. They had perhaps + grounds for this last charge. At any rate Phraataces provoked suspicion by + the singular favors and honors which he granted to a woman whose origin + was mean and extraction foreign. Not content with private marks of esteem + and love, he departed from the practice of all former Parthian sovereigns + in placing her effigy upon his coins; and he accompanied this act with + fulsome and absurd titles. Musa was styled, not merely “Queen,” but + “Heavenly Goddess,” as if the realities of slave origin and concubinage + could be covered by the fiction of an apotheosis. It is not surprising + that the proud Parthian nobles were offended by these proceedings, and + determined to rid themselves of a monarch whom they at once hated and + despised. Within a few years of his obtaining the throne an insurrection + broke out against his authority; and after a brief struggle he was + deprived of his crown and put to death. The nobles then elected an + Arsacid, named Orodes, whose residence at the time and relationship to the + former monarchs are uncertain. It seems probable that, like most princes + of the blood royal, he had taken refuge in a foreign country from the + suspicions and dangers that beset all possible pretenders to the royal + dignity in Parthia, and was living in retirement, unexpectant of any such + offer, when a deputation of Parthian nobles arrived and brought him the + intelligence of his election. It might have been expected that, obtaining + the crown under these circumstances, he would have ruled well; but, + according to Josephus (who is here, unfortunately, our sole authority), he + very soon displayed so much violence and cruelty of disposition that his + rule was felt to be intolerable; and the Parthians, again breaking into + insurrection, rid themselves of him, killing him either at a banquet or on + a hunting excursion. This done, they sent to Rome, and requested Augustus + to allow Vonones, the eldest son of Phraates IV., to return to Parthia in + order that he might receive his father’s kingdom. The Emperor complied + readily enough, since he regarded his own dignity as advanced by the + transaction; and the Parthians at first welcomed the object of their + choice with rejoicings. But after a little time their sentiments altered. + The young prince, bred up in Rome, and accustomed to the refinements of + Western civilization, neglected the occupations which seemed to his + subjects alone worthy of a monarch’s regard, absented himself from the + hunting-field, took small pleasure in riding, when he passed through the + streets indulged in the foreign luxury of a litter, shrank with disgust + from the rude and coarse feastings which formed a portion of the national + manners. He had, moreover, brought with him from the place of his exile a + number of Greek companions, whom the Parthians despised and ridiculed; and + the favors bestowed on these foreign interlopers were seen with jealousy + and rage. It was in vain that he endeavored to conciliate his offended + subjects by the openness of his manners and the facility with which he + allowed access to his person. In their prejudiced eyes virtues and graces + unknown to the nation hitherto were not merits but defects, and rather + increased, than diminished their aversion. Having conceived a dislike for + the monarch personally, they began to look back with dissatisfaction on + their own act in sending for him. “Parthia,” they said, “had indeed + degenerated from her former self to have requested a king to be sent her + who belonged to another world and had had a hostile civilization ingrained + into him.” All the glory gained by destroying Crassus and repulsing Antony + was utterly lost and gone, if the country was to be ruled by Caesar’s + bond-slave, and the throne of the Arsacidse to be treated like a Roman + province. It would have been bad enough to have had a prince imposed on + them by the will of a superior, if they had been conquered; it was worse, + in all respects worse, to suffer such an insult, when they had not even + had war made on them. Under the influence of such feelings as these, the + Parthians, after tolerating Vonones for a few years, rose against him (ab. + A.D. 16), and summoned Artabanus, an Arsacid who had grown to manhood + among the Dahee of the Caspian region, but was at this time king of Media + Atropatene, to rule over them. + </p> + <p> + It was seldom that a crown was declined in the ancient world; and + Artabanus, on receiving the overture, at once expressed his willingness to + accept the proffered dignity. He invaded Parthia at the head of an army + consisting of his own subjects, and engaged Vonones, to whom in his + difficulties the bulk of the Parthian people had rallied. The engagement + resulted in the defeat of the Median monarch, who returned to his own + country, and, having collected a larger army, made a second invasion. This + time he was successful. Vonones fled on horseback to Seleucia with a small + body of followers; while his defeated army, following in his track, was + pressed upon by the victorious Mede, and suffered great losses. Artabanus, + having entered Ctesiphon in triumph, was immediately proclaimed king. + Vonones, escaping from Seleucia, took refuge among the Armenians; and, as + it happened that just at this time the Armenian throne was vacant, not + only was an asylum granted him, but he was made king of the country. It + was impossible that Artabanus should tamely submit to an arrangement which + would have placed his deadly enemy in a position to cause him constant + annoyance. He, therefore, at once remonstrated, both in Armenia and at + Rome. As Rome now claimed the investiture of the Armenian monarchs, he + sent an embassy to Tiberius, and threatened war if Vonones were + acknowledged; while at the same time he applied to Armenia and required + the surrender of the refugee. An important section of the Armenian nation + was inclined to grant his demand; Tiberius, who would willingly have + supported Vonones, drew back before the Parthian threats; Vonones found + himself in imminent danger, and, under the circumstances, determined on + quitting Armenia and betaking himself to the protection of the Roman + governor of Syria. This was Creticus Silanus, who received him gladly, + gave him a guard, and allowed him the state and title of king. Meanwhile + Artabanus laid claim to Armenia, and suggested as a candidate for the + throne one of his own sons, Orodes. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, the Roman Emperor, Tiberius, who had recently + succeeded Augustus, resolved to despatch to the East a personage of + importance, who should command the respect and attention of the Oriental + powers by his dignity, and impose upon them by the pomp and splendor with + which he was surrounded. He selected for this office Germanicus, his + nephew, the eldest son of his deceased brother, Drusus, a prince of much + promise, amiable in his disposition, courteous and affable in his manners, + a good soldier, and a man generally popular. The more to strike the minds + of the Orientals, he gave Germanicus no usual title or province, but + invested him with an extraordinary command over all the Roman dominions to + the east of the Hellespont, thus rendering him a sort of monarch of Roman + Asia. Full powers were granted him for making peace or war, for levying + troops, annexing provinces, appointing subject kings, and performing other + sovereign acts, without referring back to Rome for instructions. A train + of unusual magnificence accompanied him to his charge, calculated to + impress the Orientals with the conviction that this was no common + negotiator. Germanicus arrived in Asia early in A.D. 18, and applied + himself at once to his task. Entering Armenia at the head of his troops, + he proceeded to the capital, Artaxata, and, having ascertained the wishes + of the Armenians themselves, determined on his course of conduct. To have + insisted on the restoration of Vonones would have been grievously to + offend the Armenians who had expelled him, and at the same time to provoke + the Parthians, who could not have tolerated a pretender in a position of + power upon their borders; to have allowed the pretensions of the Parthian + monarch, and accepted the candidature of his son, Orodes, would have + lowered Rome in the opinion of all the surrounding nations, and been + equivalent to an abdication of all influence in the affairs of Western + Asia. Germanicus avoided either extreme, and found happily a middle + course. It happened that there was a foreign prince settled in Armenia, + who having grown up there had assimilated himself in all respects to the + Armenian ideas and habits, and had thereby won golden opinions from both + the nobles and the people. This was Zeno, the son of Polemo, once king of + the curtailed Pontus, and afterwards of the Lesser Armenia, an outlying + Roman dependency. The Armenians themselves suggested that Zeno should be + their monarch; and Germanicus saw a way out of his difficulties in the + suggestion. At the seat of government, Artaxata, in the presence of a vast + multitude of the people, with the consent and approval of the principal + nobles, he placed with his own hand the diadem on the brow of the favored + prince, and saluted him as king under the new name of “Artaxias.” He then + returned into Syria, where he was shortly afterwards visited by + ambassadors from the Parthian monarch. Artabanus reminded him of the peace + concluded between Rome and Parthia in the reign of Augustus, and assumed + that the circumstances of his own appointment to the throne had in no way + interfered with it. He would be glad, he said, to renew with Germanicus + the interchange of friendly assurances which had passed between his + predecessor, Phraataces, and Caius; and to accommodate the Roman general, + he would willingly come to meet him as far as the Euphrates; meanwhile, + until the meeting could take place, he must request that Vonones should be + removed to a greater distance from the Parthian frontier, and that he + should not be allowed to continue the correspondence in which he was + engaged with many of the Parthian nobles for the purpose of raising fresh + troubles. Germanicus replied politely, but indefinitely, to the proposal + of an interview, which he may have thought unnecessary, and open to + misconstruction. To the request for the removal of Vonones he consented. + Vonones was transferred from Syria to the neighboring province of Cilicia; + and the city of Pompeiopolis, built by the great Pompey on the site of the + ancient Soli, was assigned to him as his residence. With this arrangement + the Parthian monarch appears to have been contented. Vonones on the other + hand was so dissatisfied with the change that in the course of the next + year (A.D. 19) he endeavored to make his escape; his flight was, however, + discovered, and, pursuit being made, he was overtaken and slain on the + banks of the Pyramus. Thus perished ingloriously one of the least blamable + and most unfortunate of the Parthian princes. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Germanicus, in A.D. 19, the details of the Parthian + history are for some years unknown to us. It appears that during this + interval Artabanus <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE II. Fig. 5.]</a> was + engaged in wars with several of the nations upon his borders, and met with + so much success that he came after a while to desire, rather than fear, a + rupture with Rome. He knew that Tiberius was now an old man, and that he + was disinclined to engage in distant wars; he was aware that Germanicus + was dead; and he was probably not much afraid of L. Vitellius, the + governor of Syria, who had been recently deputed by Tiberius to administer + that province. Accordingly in A.D. 34, the Armenian throne being once more + vacant by the death of Artaxias (Zeno), he suddenly seized the country, + and appointed his eldest son, whom Dio and Tacitus call simply Arsaces, to + be king. At the same time he sent ambassadors to require the restoration + of the treasure which Vonones had carried off from Parthia and had left + behind him in Syria or Cilicia. To this plain and definite demand were + added certain vague threats, or boasts, to the effect that he was the + rightful master of all the territory that had belonged of old to Macedonia + or Persia, and that it was his intention to resume possession of the + provinces, whereto, as the representative of Cyrus and Alexander, he was + entitled. He is said to have even commenced operations against Cappadocia, + which was an actual portion of the Roman Empire, when he found that + Tiberius, so far from resenting the seizure of Armenia, had sent + instructions to Vitellius, that he was to cultivate peaceful relations + with Parthia. Apparently he thought that a good opportunity had arisen for + picking a quarrel with his Western neighbor, and was determined to take + advantage of it. The aged despot, hidden in his retreat of Capreae, seemed + to him a pure object of contempt; and he entertained the confident hope of + defeating his armies and annexing portions of his territory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate002.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 2. " /> + </div> + <p> + But Tiberius was under no circumstances a man to be wholly despised. + Simultaneously with the Parthian demands and threats intelligence reached + him that the subjects of Artabanus were greatly dissatisfied with his + rule, and that it would be easy by fomenting the discontent to bring about + a revolution. Some of the nobles even went in person to Rome (A.D. 35), + and suggested that if Phraates, one of the surviving sons of Phraates IV., + were to appear under Roman protection upon the banks of the Euphrates, an + insurrection would immediately break out. Artabanus, they said, among his + other cruelties had put to death almost all the adult males of the Arsacid + family; a successful revolution could not be hoped for without an Arsacid + leader; if Tiberius, however, would deliver to them the prince for whom + they asked, this difficulty would be removed, and there was then every + reason to expect a happy issue to the rebellion. The Emperor was not hard + to persuade; he no doubt argued that, whatever became of the attempt and + those engaged in it, one result at least was certain—Artabanus would + find plenty of work to occupy him at home, and would desist from his + foreign aggressions. He therefore let Phraates take his departure and + proceed to Syria, glad to meet the danger which had threatened him by + craft and policy rather than by force of arms. + </p> + <p> + Artabanus soon became aware of the intrigue. He found that the chief + conspirators in Parthia were a certain Sinnaces, a nobleman distinguished + alike for his high birth and his great riches, and a eunuch named Abdus, + who held a position about the court, and was otherwise a personage of + importance. It would have been easy to seize these two men, and execute + them; but Artabanus was uncertain how far the conspiracy extended, and + thought it most prudent to defer bringing matters to a crisis. He + therefore dissembled, and was content to cause a delay, first by + administering to Abdus a slow poison, and then by engaging Sinnaces so + constantly in affairs of state that he had little or no time to devote to + plotting. Successful thus far by his own cunning and dexterity, he was + further helped by a stroke of good fortune, on which he could not have + calculated. Phraates, who thought that after forty years of residence in + Rome it was necessary to fit himself for the position of Parthian king by + resuming the long-disused habits of his nation, was carried off, after a + short residence in Syria, by a disease which he was supposed to have + contracted through the change in his mode of life. His death must for the + time have paralyzed the conspirators, and have greatly relieved Artabanus. + It was perhaps now, under the stimulus of a sudden change from feelings of + extreme alarm to fancied security, that he wrote the famous letter to + Tiberius, in which he reproached him for his cruelty, cowardice, and + luxuriousness of living, and recommended him to satisfy the just desires + of the subjects who hated him by an immediate suicide. + </p> + <p> + This letter, if genuine, must be pronounced under any circumstances a + folly; and if really sent at this time, it may have had tragical + consequences. It is remarkable that Tiberius, on learning the death of + Phraates, instead of relaxing, intensified his efforts. Not only did he at + once send out to Syria another pretender, Tiridates, a nephew of the + deceased prince, in order to replace him, but he made endeavors, such as + we do not hear of before, to engage other nations in the struggle; and + further, he enlarged the commission of Vitellius, giving him a general + superintendence over the affairs of the East. Thus Artabanus found himself + in greater peril than ever, and if he had really indulged in the silly + effusion ascribed to him was rightly punished. Pharasmanes, king of + Iberia, a portion of the modern Georgia, incited by Tiberius, took the + field (A.D. 35), and proclaimed his intention of placing his brother, + Mithridates, on the Armenian throne. Having by corruption succeeded in + bringing about the murder of Arsaces by his attendants, he marched into + Armenia, and became master of the capital without meeting any resistance. + Artabanus, upon this, sent his son Orodes to maintain the Parthian cause + in the disputed province; but he proved no match for the Iberian, who was + superior in numbers, in the variety of his troops, and in familiarity with + the localities. Pharasmanes had obtained the assistance of his neighbors, + the Albanians, and, opening the passes of the Caucasus, had admitted + through them a number of the Scythic or Sarmatian hordes, who were always + ready, when their swords were hired, to take a part in the quarrels of the + south. Orodes was unable to procure either mercenaries or allies, and had + to contend unassisted against the three enemies who had joined their + forces to oppose him. For some time he prudently declined an engagement; + but it was difficult to restrain the ardor of his troops, whom the enemy + exasperated by their reproaches. After a while he was compelled to accept + the battle which Pharasmanes incessantly offered. His force consisted + entirely of cavalry, while Pharasmanes had besides his horse a powerful + body of infantry. The battle was nevertheless stoutly contested; and the + victory might have been doubtful, had it not happened that in a + hand-to-hand combat between the two commanders Orodes was struck to the + ground by his antagonist, and thought by most of his own men to be killed. + As usual under such circumstances in the East, a rout followed. If we may + believe Josephus, “many tens of thousands” were slain. Armenia was wholly + lost; and Artabanus found himself left with diminished resources and + tarnished fame to meet the intrigues of his domestic enemies. + </p> + <p> + Still, he would not succumb without an effort. In the spring of A.D. 36, + having levied the whole force of the Empire, he took the field and marched + northwards, determined, if possible, to revenge himself on the Iberians + and recover his lost province. But his first efforts were unsuccessful; + and before he could renew them Vitellius put himself at the head of his + legions, and marching towards the Euphrates threatened Mesopotamia with + invasion. Placed thus between two fires, the Parthian monarch felt that he + had no choice but to withdraw from Armenia and return to the defence of + his own proper territories, which in his absence must have lain temptingly + open to an enemy. His return caused Vitellius to change his tactics. + Instead of measuring his strength against that which still remained to + Artabanus, he resumed the weapon of intrigue so dear to his master, and + proceeded by a lavish expenditure of money to excite disaffection once + more among the Parthian nobles. This time conspiracy was successful. The + military disasters of the last two years had alienated from Artabanus the + affections of those whom his previous cruelties had failed to disgust or + alarm; and he found himself without any armed force whereon he could rely, + beyond a small body of foreign guards which he maintained about his + person. It seemed to him that his only safety was in flight; and + accordingly he quitted his capital and removed himself hastily into + Hyrcania, which was in the immediate vicinity of the Scythian Dahse, among + whom he had been brought up. Here the natives were friendly to him, and he + lived a retired life,” waiting” (as he said) “until the Parthians, who + could judge an absent prince with equity, though they could not long + continue faithful to a present one, should repent of their behavior to + him.” + </p> + <p> + Upon learning the flight of Artabamis, Vitellius advanced to the banks of + the Euphrates, and introduced Tiridates into his kingdom. Fortunate omens + were said to have accompanied the passage of the river; and these were + followed by adhesions of greater importance. Ornospades, satrap of + Mesopotamia, was the first to join the standard of the pretender with a + large body of horse. He was followed by the conspirator Sinnaces, his + father Abdageses, the keeper of the king’s treasures, and other personages + of high position. The Greek cities in Mesopotamia readily opened their + gates to a monarch long domiciled at Rome, from whom they expected a + politeness and refinement that would harmonize better with their feelings + than the manners of the late king, bred up among the uncivilized Scyths. + Parthian towns, like Halus and Artemita, followed their example. Seleucia, + the second city in the Empire, received the new monarch with an + obsequiousness that bordered on adulation. Not content with paying him all + customary royal honors, they appended to their acclamations disparaging + remarks upon his predecessor, whom they affected to regard as the issue of + an adulterous intrigue, and as no true Arsacid. Tiridates was pleased to + reward the unseemly flattery of these degenerate Greeks by a new + arrangement of their constitution. Hitherto they had lived under the + government of a Senate of Three Hundred members, the wisest and wealthiest + of the citizens, a certain control being, however, secured to the people. + Artabanus had recently modified the constitution in an aristocratic sense; + and therefore Tiridates pursued the contrary course, and established an + unbridled democracy in the place of a mixed government. He then entered + Ctesiphon, the capital, and after waiting some days for certain noblemen, + who had expressed a wish to attend his coronation but continually put off + their coming, he was crowned in the ordinary manner by the Surena of the + time being, in the sight and amid the acclamations of a vast multitude. + </p> + <p> + The pretender now regarded his work as completed, and forbore any further + efforts. The example of the Western provinces would, he assumed, be + followed by the Eastern, and the monarch approved by Mesopotamia, + Babylonia, and the capital would carry, as a matter of course, the rest of + the nation. Policy required that the general acquiescence should not have + been taken for granted. Tiridates should have made a military progress + through the East, no less than the West, and have sought out his rival in + the distant Hyrcania, and slain him, or driven him beyond the borders. + Instead of thus occupying himself, he was content to besiege a stronghold + where Artabanus had left his treasure and his harem. This conduct was + imprudent; and the imprudence cost him his crown. That fickle temper which + Artabanus had noted in his countrymen began to work so soon as the new + king was well installed in his office; the coveted post of chief vizier + could but be assigned to one, and the selection of the fortunate + individual was the disappointment of a host of expectants; nobles absent + from the coronation, whether by choice or necessity, began to be afraid + that their absence would cost them dear, when Tiridates had time to + reflect upon it and to listen to their detractors. The thoughts of the + malcontents turned towards their dethroned monarch; and emissaries were + despatched to seek him out, and put before him the project of a + restoration. He was found in Hyrcania, in a miserable dress and plight, + living on the produce of his bow. At first he suspected the messengers, + believing that their intention was to seize him and deliver him up to + Tiridates; but it was not long ere they persuaded him that, whether their + affection for himself were true or feigned, their enmity to Tiridates was + real. They had indeed no worse charges to bring against this prince than + his youth, and the softness of his Roman breeding; but they were evidently + in earnest, and had committed themselves too deeply to make it possible + for them to retract. Artabanus, therefore, accepted their offers, and + having obtained the services of a body of Dahse and other Scyths, + proceeded westward, retaining the miserable garb and plight in which he + had been found, in order to draw men to his side by pity; and making all + haste, in order that his enemies might have less opportunity to prepare + obstructions and his friends less time to change their minds. He reached + the neighborhood of Ctesiphon while Tiridates was still doubting what he + should do, distracted between the counsels of some who recommended an + immediate engagement with the rebels before they recovered from the + fatigues of their long march or grew accustomed to act together, and of + others who advised a retreat into Mesopotamia, reliance upon the Armenians + and other tribes of the north, and a union with the Roman troops, which + Vitellius, on the first news of what had happened, had thrown across the + Euphrates. The more timid counsel had the support of Abdageses, whom + Tiridates had made his vizier, and therefore naturally prevailed, the + prince himself being moreover of an unwarlike temper. It had, in + appearance, much to recommend it; and if its execution had been in the + hands of Occidentals might have succeeded. But, in the East, the first + movement in retreat is taken as a confession of weakness and almost as an + act of despair: an order to “retire” is regarded as a direction to fly. No + sooner was the Tigris crossed and the march through Mesopotamia began, + than the host of Tiridates melted away like an iceberg in the Gulf Stream. + The tribes of the Desert set the example of flight; and in a little time + almost the whole army had dispersed, drawing off either to the camp of the + enemy or to their homes. Tiridates reached the Euphrates with a mere + handful of followers, and crossing into Syria found himself once more safe + under the protection of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + The flight of Tiridates gave Parthia back into the hands of its former + ruler. Artabanus reoccupied the throne, apparently without having to fight + a battle. He seems, however, not to have felt himself strong enough either + to resume his designs upon Armenia, or to retaliate in any way upon the + Romans for their support of Tiridates. Mithridates, the Iberian, was left + in quiet possession of the Armenian kingdom, and Vitellius found himself + unmolested on the Euphrates. Tiberius, however, was anxious that the war + with Parthia should be formally terminated, and, having failed in his + attempts to fill the Parthian throne with a Roman nominee, was ready to + acknowledge Artabanus, and eager to enter into a treaty with him. He + instructed Vitellius to this effect; and that officer (late in A.D. 36 or + early in A.D. 37), having invited Artabanus to an interview on the + Euphrates, persuaded him to terms which were regarded by the Romans as + highly honorable to themselves, though Artabanus probably did not feel + them to be degrading to Parthia. Peace and amity were re-established + between the two nations. Rome, it may be assumed, undertook to withhold + her countenance from all pretenders to the Parthian throne, and Parthia + withdrew her claims upon Armenia. Artabanus was persuaded to send his son, + Darius, with some other Parthians of rank, to Rome, and was thus regarded + by the Romans as having given hostages for his good behavior. He was also + induced to throw a few grains of frankincense on the sacrificial fire + which burnt in front of the Roman standards and the Imperial images, an + act which was accepted at Rome as one of submission and homage. The terms + and circumstances of the peace did not become known in Italy till Tiberius + had been succeeded by Caligula (March, A.D. 37). When known, they gave + great satisfaction, and were regarded as glorious alike to the negotiator, + Vitellius, and to the prince whom he represented. The false report was + spread that the Parthian monarch had granted to the new Csesar what his + contempt and hatred would have caused him to refuse to Tiberius; and the + inclination of the Romans towards their young sovereign was intensified by + the ascription to him of a diplomatic triumph which belonged of right to + his predecessor. + </p> + <p> + Contemporaneously with the troubles which have been above described, but + reaching down, it would seem, a few years beyond them, were other + disturbances of a peculiar character in one of the Western provinces of + the Empire. The Jewish element in the population of Western Asia had been + one of importance from a date anterior to the rise, not only of the + Parthian, but even of the Persian Empire. Dispersed colonies of Jews were + to be found in Babylonia, Armenia, Media, Susiana, Mesopotamia, and + probably in other Parthian provinces. These colonies dated from the time + of Nebuchadnezzar’s captivity, and exhibited everywhere the remarkable + tendency of the Jewish race to an increase disproportionate to that of the + population among which they are settled. The Jewish element became + perpetually larger and more important in Babylonia and Mesopotamia, in + spite of the draughts which were made upon it by Seleucus and other Syrian + princes. Under the Parthians, it would seem that the Mesopotamian Jews + enjoyed generally the same sort of toleration, and the same permission to + exercise a species of self-government, which Jews and Christians enjoy now + in many parts of Turkey. They formed a recognized community, had some + cities which were entirely their own, possessed a common treasury, and + from time to time sent up to Jerusalem the offerings of the people under + the protection of a convoy of 30,000 or 40,000 men. The Parthian kings + treated them well, and no doubt valued them as a counterpoise to the + disaffected Greeks and Syrians of this part of their Empire. They had no + grievance of which to complain, and it might have been thought very + unlikely that any troubles would arise in connection with them; but + circumstances seemingly trivial threw the whole community into commotion, + and led on to disasters of a very lamentable character. + </p> + <p> + Two young Jews, Asinai and Anilai, brothers, natives of Nearda, the city + in which the treasury of the community was established, upon suffering + some ill-treatment at the hands of the manufacturer who employed them, + gave up their trade, and, withdrawing to a marshy district between two + arms of the Euphrates, made up their minds to live by robbery. A band of + needy youths soon gathered about them, and they became the terror of the + entire neighborhood. They exacted a blackmail from the peaceable + population of shepherds and others who lived near them, made occasional + plundering raids to a distance, and required an acknowledgment (bakhshish) + from travellers. Their doings having become notorious, the satrap of + Babylonia marched against them with an army, intending to surprise them on + the Sabbath, when it was supposed that they would not fight; but his + approach was discovered, it was determined to disregard the obligation of + Sabbatical rest, and the satrap was himself surprised and completely + defeated. Artabanus, having heard of the disaster, made overtures to the + brothers, and, after receiving a visit from them at his court, assigned to + Asinai, the elder of the two, the entire government of the Babylonian + satrapy. The experiment appeared at first to have completely succeeded. + Asinai governed the province with prudence and zeal, and for fifteen years + no complaint was made against his administration. But at the end of this + time the lawless temper, held in restraint for so long, reasserted itself, + not, indeed, in Asinai, but in his brother. Anilai fell in love with the + wife of a Parthian magnate, commander (apparently) of the Parthian troops + stationed in Babylonia, and, seeing no other way of obtaining his wishes, + made war upon the chieftain and killed him. He then married the object of + his affections, and might perhaps have been content; but the Jews under + Asinai’s government remonstrated against the idolatries which the Parthian + woman had introduced into a Jewish household, and prevailed on Asinai to + require that she should be divorced. His compliance with their wishes + proved fatal to him, for the woman, fearing the consequences, contrived to + poison Asinai; and the authority which he had wielded passed into the + hands of Anilai, without (so far as we hear) any fresh appointment from + the Parthian monarch. Anilai had, it appears, no instincts but those of a + freebooter, and he was no sooner settled in the government than he + proceeded to indulge them by attacking the territory of a neighboring + satrap, Mithridates, who was not only a Parthian of high rank, but had + married one of the daughters of Artabanus. Mithridates flew to arms to + defend his province; but Anilai fell upon his encampment in the night, + completely routed his troops, and took Mithridates himself prisoner. + Having subjected him to a gross indignity, he was nevertheless afraid to + put him to death, lest the Parthian king should avenge the slaughter of + his relative on the Jews of Babylon, Mithridates was consequently + released, and returned to his wife, who was so indignant at the insult + whereto he had been subjected that she left him no peace till he collected + a second army and resumed the war. Analai was no ways daunted. Quitting + his stronghold in the marshes, he led his troops a distance of ten miles + through a hot and dry plain to meet the enemy, thus unnecessarily + exhausting them, and exposing them to the attack of their enemies under + the most unfavorable circumstances. He was of course defeated with loss; + but he himself escaped and revenged himself by carrying fire and sword + over the lands of the Babylonians, who had hitherto lived peaceably under + his protection. The Babylonians sent to Nearda and demanded his surrender; + but the Jews of Nearda, even if they had had the will, had no power to + comply. A pretence was then made of arranging matters by negotiation; but + the Babylonians, having in this way obtained a knowledge of the position + which Anilai and his troops occupied, fell upon them in the night, when + they were all either drunk or asleep, and at one stroke exterminated the + whole band. + </p> + <p> + Thus far no great calamity had occurred. Two Jewish robber-chiefs had been + elevated into the position of Parthian satraps; and the result had been, + first, fifteen years of peace, and then a short civil war, ending in the + destruction of the surviving chief and the annihilation of the band of + marauders. But the lamentable consequences of the commotion were now to + show themselves. The native Babylonians had always looked with dislike on + the Jewish colony, and occasions of actual collision between the two + bodies had not been wholly wanting. The circumstances of the existing time + seemed to furnish a good excuse for an outbreak; and scarcely were Anilai + and his followers destroyed, when the Jews of Babylon were set upon by + their native fellow-citizens. Unable to make an effectual resistance, they + resolved to retire from the place, and, at the immense loss which such a + migration necessarily costs, they quitted Babylon and transferred + themselves in great numbers to Seleucia. Here they lived quietly for five + years (about A.D. 34-39), but in the sixth year (A.D. 40) fresh troubles + broke out. The remnant of the Jews at Babylon were assailed, either by + their old enemies or by a pestilence, and took refuge at Seleucia with + their brethren. It happened that at Seleucia there was a feud of long + standing between the Syrian population and the Greeks. The Jews naturally + joined the Syrians, who were a kindred race, and the two together brought + the Greeks under; whereupon these last contrived to come to terms with the + Syrians, and persuaded them to join in an attack on the late allies. + Against the combined Greeks and Syrians the Jews were powerless, and in + the massacre which ensued they lost above 50,000 men. The remnant withdrew + to Otesiphon; but even there the malice of their enemies pursued them, and + the persecution was only brought to an end by their quitting the + metropolitan cities altogether, and withdrawing to the provincial towns of + which they were the sole occupants. + </p> + <p> + The narrative of these events derives its interest, not so much from any + sympathy that we can feel with any of the actors in it as from the light + which it throws upon the character of the Parthian rule, and the condition + of the countries under Parthian government. In the details given we seem + once more to trace a near resemblance between the Parthian system and that + of the Turks; we seem to see thrown back into the mirror of the past an + image of those terrible conflicts and disorders which have passed before + our own eyes in Syria and the Lebanon while under acknowledged Turkish + sovereignty. The picture has the same features of antipathies of race + unsoftened by time and contact, of perpetual feud bursting out into + occasional conflict, of undying religious animosities, of strange + combinations, of fearful massacres, and of a government looking tamely on, + and allowing things for the most part to take their course. We see how + utterly the Parthian system failed to blend together or amalgamate the + conquered peoples; and not only so, but how impotent it was even to effect + the first object of a government, the securing of peace and tranquillity + within its borders. If indeed it were necessary to believe that the + picture brought before us represented truthfully the normal condition of + the people and countries with which it is concerned, we should be forced + to conclude that Parthian government was merely another name for anarchy, + and that it was only good fortune that preserved the empire from falling + to pieces at this early date, within two centuries of its establishment + But there is reason to believe that the reign of Artabanus III. + represents, not the normal, but an exceptional state of things—a + state of things which could only arise in Parthia when the powers of + government were relaxed in consequence of rebellion and civil war. We must + remember that Artabanus was actually twice driven from his kingdom, and + that during the greater part of his reign he lived in perpetual fear of + revolt and insurrection. It is not improbable that the culminating + atrocities of the struggle above described synchronized with the second + expulsion of the Parthian monarch, and are thus not so much a sign of the + ordinary weakness of the Parthian rule as of the terrible strength of the + forces which that rule for the most part kept under control. + </p> + <p> + The causes which led to the second expulsion of Artabanus are not + distinctly stated, but they were probably not very different from those + that brought about the first. Artabanus was undoubtedly a harsh ruler; and + those who fell under his displeasure, naturally fearing his severity, and + seeing no way of meeting it but by a revolution, were driven to adopt + extreme measures. Something like a general combination of the nobles + against him seems to have taken place about the year A.D. 40; and it + appears that he, on becoming aware of it, determined to quit the capital + and throw himself on the protection of one of the tributary monarchs. This + was Izates, the sovereign of Adiabene, or the tract between the Zab + rivers, who is said to have been a convert to Judaism. On the flight of + Artabanus to Izates it would seem that the Megistanes formally deposed + him, and elected in his place a certain Kinnam, or Kinnamus, an Arsacid + who had been brought up by the king. Izates, when he interfered on behalf + of the deposed monarch, was met by the objection that the newly-elected + prince had rights which could not be set aside. The difficulty appeared + insuperable; but it was overcome by the voluntary act of Kinnamus, who + wrote to Artabanus and offered to retire in his favor. Hereupon Artabanus + returned and remounted his throne, Kinnamus carrying his magnanimity so + far as to strip the diadem from his own brow and replace it on the head of + the old monarch. A condition of the restoration was a complete amnesty for + all political offences, which was not only promised by Artabanus, but + likewise guaranteed by Izates. + </p> + <p> + It was very shortly after his second restoration to the throne that + Artabanus died. One further calamity must, however, be noticed as having + fallen within the limits of his reign. The great city of Seleucia, the + second in the Empire, shortly after it had experienced the troubles above + narrated, revolted absolutely from the Parthian power, and declared itself + independent. No account has reached us of the circumstances which caused + this revolt; but it was indicative of a feeling that Parthia was beginning + to decline, and that the disintegration of the Empire was a thing that + might be expected. The Seleucians had at no time been contented with their + position as Parthian subjects. Whether they supposed that they could stand + alone, or whether they looked to enjoying under Roman protection a greater + degree of independence than had been allowed them by the Parthians, is + uncertain. They revolted however, in A. D. 40, and declared themselves a + self-governing community. It does not appear that the Romans lent them any + assistance, or broke for their sake the peace established with Parthia in + A.D. 37. The Seleucians had to depend upon themselves alone, and to + maintain their rebellion by means of their own resources. No doubt + Artabanus proceeded at once to attack them, but his arms made no + impression. They were successful in defending their independence during + his reign, and for some time afterwards, although compelled in the end to + succumb and resume a subject position under their own masters. Artabanus + seems to have died in August or September A.D. 42, the year after the + death of Caligula. His checkered reign had covered a space which cannot + have fallen much short of thirty years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Doubts as to the successor of Artabanus III. First short reign of + Gotarzes. He is expelled and Vardanes made king. Reign of Vardanes. His + ivar with Izates. His Death. Second reign of Gotarzes. His Contest with + his Nephew, Meherdates. His Death. Short and inglorious reign of Vonones + II.</i> + </p> + <p> + There is considerable doubt as to the immediate successor of Artabanus. + According to Josephus he left his kingdom to his son, Bardanes or + Vardanes, and this prince entered without difficulty and at once upon the + enjoyment of his sovereignty. According to Tacitus, the person who + obtained the throne directly upon the death of Artabanus was his son, + Gotarzes, who was generally accepted for king, and might have reigned + without having his title disputed, had he not given indications of a harsh + and cruel temper. Among other atrocities whereof he was guilty was the + murder of his brother, Artabanus, whom he put to death, together with his + wife and son, apparently upon mere suspicion. This bloody initiation of + his reign spread alarm among the nobles, who thereupon determined to exert + their constitutional privilege of deposing an obnoxious monarch and + supplying his place with a new one. Their choice fell upon Vardanes, + brother of Gotarzes, who was residing in a distant province, 350 miles + from the Court. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE II. Fig. 3.]</a> Having + entered into communications with this prince, they easily induced him to + quit his retirement, and to take up arms against the tyrant. Vardanes was + ambitious, bold and prompt: he had no sooner received the invitation of + the Megistanes than he set out, and, having accomplished his journey to + the Court in the space of two days, found Gotarzes wholly unprepared to + offer resistance. Thus Vardanes became king without fighting a battle. + Gotarzes fled, and escaped into the country of the Dahse, which lay east + of the Caspian Sea, and north of the Parthian province of Hyrcania. Here + he was allowed to reign for some time unmolested by his brother, and to + form plans and make preparations for the recovery of his lost power. + </p> + <p> + The statements of Tacitus are so circumstantial, and his authority as an + historian is so great, that we can scarcely hesitate to accept the history + as he delivers it, rather than as it is related by the Jewish writer. It + is, however, remarkable that the series of Parthian coins presents an + appearance of accordance rather with the latter than the former, since it + affords no trace of the supposed first reign of Gotarzes in A.D. 42, while + it shows Vardanes to have held the throne from Sept. A.D. 43 to at least + A.D. 46. Still this does not absolutely contradict Tacitus. It only proves + that the first reign of Gotarzes was comprised within a few weeks, and + that before two months had passed from the death of Artabanus, the kingdom + was established in the hands of Vardanes. That prince, after the flight of + his brother, applied himself for some time to the reduction of the + Seleucians, whose continued independence in the midst of a Parthian + province he regarded as a disgrace to the Empire. His efforts to take the + town failed, however, of success. Being abundantly provisioned and + strongly fortified, it was well able to stand a siege; and the high spirit + of its inhabitants made them determined to resist to the uttermost. While + they still held out, Vardanes was called away to the East, where his + brother had been gathering strength, and was once more advancing his + pretensions. The Hyrcanians, as well as the Dahse, had embraced his cause, + and Parthia was threatened with dismemberment. Vardanes, having collected + his troops, occupied a position in the plain region of Bactria, and there + prepared to give battle to his brother, who was likewise at the head of a + considerable army. Before, however, an engagement took place, Gotarzes + discovered that there was a design among the nobles on either side to rid + themselves of both the brothers, and to set up a wholly new king. + Apprehensive of the consequences, he communicated his discovery to + Vardanes; and the result was that the two brothers made up their + differences and agreed upon terms of peace. Gotarzes yielded his claim to + the crown, and was assigned a residence in Hyrcania, which was, probably, + made over to his government. Vardanes then returned to the west, and, + resuming the siege of Seleucia, compelled the rebel city to a surrender in + the seventh year after it had revolted (A.D. 46.) + </p> + <p> + Successful thus far, and regarding his quarrel with his brother as finally + arranged, Vardanes proceeded to contemplate a military expedition of the + highest importance. The time, he thought, was favorable for reviving the + Parthian claim to Armenia, and disputing once more with Rome the + possession of a paramount influence over that country. The Roman + government of the dependency, since Artabanus formally relinquished it to + them, had been far from proving satisfactory. Mithridates, their protege, + had displeased them, and had been summoned to Rome by Caligula, who kept + him there a prisoner until his death. Armenia, left without a king, had + asserted her independence; and when, after an absence of several years, + Mithridates was authorized by Claudius to return to his kingdom, the + natives resisted him in arms, and were only brought under his rule by the + combined help of the Romans and the Iberians. Forced upon a reluctant + people by foreign arms, Mithridates felt himself insecure, and this + feeling made him rule his subjects with imprudent severity. Under these + circumstances it seemed to Vardanes that it would not be very difficult to + recover Armenia, and thus gain a signal triumph over the Romans. + </p> + <p> + But to engage in so great a matter with a good prospect of success it was + necessary that the war should be approved, not only by himself, but by his + principal feudatories. The most important of these was now Izates, king of + Adiabene and Gordyene who in the last reign had restored Artabanus to his + lost throne. Vardanes, before committing himself by any overt act, appears + to have taken this prince into his counsels, and to have requested his + opinion on affronting the Romans by an interference with Armenian affairs. + Izates strenuously opposed the project. He had a personal interest in the + matter, since he had sent five of his boys to Rome, to receive there a + polite education, and he had also a profound respect for the Roman power + and military system. He endeavored, both by persuasion and reasoning, to + induce Vardanes to abandon his design. His arguments may have been cogent, + but they were not thought by Vardanes to have much force, and the result + of the conference was that the Great King declared war against his + feudatory. + </p> + <p> + The war had, apparently, but just begun, when fresh troubles broke out in + the north-east. Gotarzes had never ceased to regret his renunciation of + his claims, and was now, on the invitation of the Parthian nobility, + prepared to came forward again and contest the kingdom with his brother. + Vardanes had to relinquish his attempt to coerce Izates, and to hasten to + Hyrcania in order to engage the troops which Gotarzes had collected in + that distant region. These he met and defeated more than once in the + country between the Caspian and Herat; but the success of his military + operations failed to strengthen his hold upon the affections of his + subjects. Like the generality of the Parthian princes, he showed himself + harsh and cruel in the hour of victory, and in conquering an opposition + roused an opposition that was fiercer and more formidable. A conspiracy + was formed against him shortly after his return from Hyrcania, and he was + assassinated while indulging in the national amusement of the chase. + </p> + <p> + The murder of Vardanes was immediately followed by the restoration of + Gotarzes to the throne. There may have been some who doubted his fitness + for the regal office, and inclined to keep the throne vacant till they + could send to Rome and obtain from thence one of the younger and more + civilized Parthian princes. But we may be sure that the general desire was + not for a Romanized sovereign, but for a truly national king, one born and + bred in the country. Gotarzes was proclaimed by common consent, and + without any interval, after the death of Vardanes, and ascended the + Parthian throne before the end of the year A.D. 46. It is not likely that + his rule would have been resisted had he conducted himself well; but the + cruelty of his temper, which had already once cost him his crown, again + displayed itself after his restoration, and to this defect was added a + slothful indulgence yet more distasteful to his subjects. Some military + expeditions which he undertook, moreover, failed of success, and the crime + of defeat caused the cup of his offences to brim over. The discontented + portion of his people, who were a strong party, sent envoys to the Roman + Emperor, Claudius (A.D. 49), and begged that he would surrender to them + Meherdates, the grandson of Phraates IV. and son of Vonones, who still + remained at Rome in a position between that of a guest and a hostage. + “They were not ignorant,” they said, “of the treaty which bound the Romans + to Parthia, nor did they ask Claudius to infringe it.” Their desire was + not to throw off the authority of the Arsacidse, but only to exchange one + Arsacid for another. The rule of Gotarzes had became intolerable, alike to + the nobility and the common people. He had murdered all his male + relatives, or at least all that were within his reach—first his + brothers, then his near kinsmen, finally even those whose relationship was + remote; nor had he stopped there; he had proceeded to put to death their + young children and their pregnant wives. He was sluggish in his habits, + unfortunate in his wars, and had betaken himself to cruelty, that men + might not despise him for his want of manliness. The friendship between + Rome and Parthia was a public matter; it bound the Romans to help the + nation allied to them—a nation which, though equal to them in + strength, was content on account of its respect for Rome to yield her + precedence. Parthian princes were allowed to be hostages in foreign lands + for the very reason that then it was always possible, if their own monarch + displeased them, for the people to obtain a king from abroad, brought up + under milder influences. + </p> + <p> + This harangue was made before the Emperor Claudius and the assembled + Senate, Meherdates himself being also present. Claudius responded to it + favorably. He would follow the example of the Divine Augustus, and allow + the Parthians to take from Rome the monarch whom they requested. That + prince, bred up in the city, had always been remarkable for his + moderation. He would (it was to be hoped) regard himself in his new + position, not as a master of slaves, but as a ruler of citizens. He would + find that clemency and justice were the more appreciated by a barbarous + nation, the less they had had experience of them Meherdates might + accompany the Parthian envoys; and a Roman of rank, Caius Cassius, the + prefect of Syria, should be instructed to receive them on their arrival in + Asia, and to see them safely across the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + The young prince accordingly set out, and reached the city of Zeugma in + safety. Here he was joined, not only by a number of the Parthian nobles, + but also by the reigning king of Osrhoene, who bore the usual name of + Abgarus. The Parthians were anxious that he should advance at his best + speed and by the shortest route on Ctesiphon, and the Roman governor, + Cassius, strongly advised the same course; but Meherdates fell under the + influence of the Osrhoene monarch, who is thought by Tacitus to have been + a false friend, and to have determined from the first to do his best for + Gotarzes. Abgarus induced Meherdates to proceed from Zeugma to his own + capital, Edessa, and there detained him for several days by means of a + series of festivities. He then persuaded him, though the winter was + approaching, to enter Armenia, and to proceed against his antagonist by + the circuitous route of the Upper Tigris, instead of the more direct one + through Mesopotamia. In this way much valuable time was lost. The rough + mountain-routes and snows of Armenia harassed and fatigued the pretender’s + troops, while Gotarzes was given an interval during which to collect a + tolerably large body of soldiers. Still, the delay was not very great. + Meherdatos marched probably by Diarbekr, Til, and Jezireh, or in other + words, followed the course of the Tigris, which he crossed in the + neighborhood of Mosul, after taking the small town which represented the + ancient Nineveh. His line of march had now brought him into Adiabene; and + it seemed a good omen for the success of his cause that Izates, the + powerful monarch of that tract, declared in his favor, and brought a body + of troops to his assistance. Gotarzes was in the neighborhood, but was + distrustful of his strength, and desirous of collecting a larger force + before committing himself to the hazard of an engagement. He had taken up + a strong position with the river Corma in his front, and, remaining on the + defensive, contented himself with trying by his emissaries the fidelity of + his rival’s troops and allies. The plan succeeded. After a little time, + the army of Meherdates began to melt away. Izates of Adiabene and Abgarus + of Edessa drew off their contingents, and left the pretender to depend + wholly on his Parthian supporters. Even their fidelity was doubtful, and + might have given way on further trial; Meherdates therefore resolved, + before being wholly deserted, to try the chance of a battle. + </p> + <p> + His adversary was now as willing to engage as himself, since he felt that + he was no longer outnumbered. The rivals met, and a fierce and bloody + action was fought between the two armies, no important advantage being for + a long time gained by either. At length Oarrhenes, the chief general on + the side of Meherdates, having routed the troops opposed to him and + pursued them too hotly, was intercepted by the enemy on his return and + either killed or made prisoner. This event proved decisive. The loss of + their leader caused the army of Meherdates to fly; and he himself, being + induced to intrust his safety to a certain Parrhaces, a dependent of his + father’s, was betrayed by this miscreant, loaded with chains, and given up + to his rival. Gotarzes now proved less unmerciful than might have been + expected from his general character. Instead of punishing Meherdates with + death, he thought it sufficient to insult him with the names of + “foreigner” and “Roman,” and to render it impossible that he should be + again put forward as monarch by subjecting him to mutilation. The Roman + historian supposes that this was done to cast a slur upon Rome but it was + a natural measure of precaution under the circumstances, and had probably + no more recondite motive than compassion for the youth and inexperience of + the pretender. + </p> + <p> + Gotarzes, having triumphed over his rival, appears to have resolved on + commemorating his victory in a novel manner. Instead of striking a new + coin, like Vonones, he determined to place his achievement on record by + making it the subject of a rock-tablet, which he caused to be engraved on + the sacred mountain of Baghistan, adorned already with sculptures and + inscriptions by the greatest of the Achaemenian monarchs. The bas-relief + and its inscription have been much damaged, both by the waste of ages and + the rude hand of man; but enough remains to show that the conqueror was + represented as pursuing his enemies in the field, on horseback, while a + winged Victory, flying in the air, was on the point of placing a diadem on + his head. In the Greek legend which accompanied the sculpture he was + termed “Satrap of Satraps”—an equivalent of the ordinary title “King + of Kings”; and his conquered rival was mentioned under the name of + Mithrates, a corrupt form of the more common or Mithridates or Meherdates. + </p> + <p> + Very shortly after his victory Gotarzes died. His last year seems to have + been A.D. 51. According to Tacitus, he died a natural death, from the + effects of disease; but, according to Josephus, he was the victim of a + conspiracy. The authority of Tacitus, here as elsewhere generally, is to + be preferred; and we may regard Gotarzes as ending peacefully his unquiet + reign, which had begun in A.D. 42, immediately after the death of his + father, had been interrupted for four years—from A.D. 42 to A.D. 46—and + had then been renewed and lasted from A.D. 46 to A.D. 51. Gotarzes was not + a prince of any remarkable talents, or of a character differing in any + important respects from the ordinary Parthian type. He was perhaps even + more cruel than the bulk of the Arsacidae, though his treatment of + Meherdates showed that he could be lenient upon occasion. He was more + prudent than daring, more politic than brave, more bent on maintaining his + own position than on advancing the power or dignity of his country. + Parthia owed little or nothing to him. The internal organization of the + country must have suffered from his long wars with his brother and his + nephew; its external reputation was not increased by one whose foreign + expeditions were uniformly unfortunate. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Gotarzes was a certain Vonones. His relationship to + previous monarchs is doubtful—and may be suspected to have been + remote. Gotarzes had murdered or mutilated all the Arsacidse on whom he + could lay his hands; and the Parthians had to send to Media upon his + disease in order to obtain a sovereign of the required blood. The coins of + Vonones II. are scarce, and have a peculiar rudeness. The only date found + upon them is one equivalent to A.D. 51; and it would seem that his entire + reign was comprised within the space of a few months. Tacitus tells us + that his rule was brief and inglorious, marked by no important events, + either prosperous or adverse. He was succeeded by his son, Volagases I., + who appears to have ascended the throne before the year A.D. 51 had + expired. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Volagases I. His first attempt on Armenia fails. His quarrel + with Izates. Invasion of Parthia Proper by the Dahce and Sacce. Second + attack of Volagases on Armenia. Tiridates established as King. First + expedition of Corbulo. Half submission of Volagases. Revolt of Vardanes. + Second expedition of Corbulo. Armenia given to Tigranes. Revolt of + Hyrcania. Third attack of Volagases on Armenia. Defeat of Paitus, and + re-establishment of Tiridates. Last expedition of Corbulo, and arrangement + of Terms of Peace. Tiridates at Rome. Probable time of the Death of + Volagases.</i> + </p> + <p> + Vonones the Second left behind him three sons, Volagases, Tiridates, and + Paeorus. It is doubtful which of them was the eldest, but, on the whole, + most probable that that position belonged to Paeorus. We are told that + Volagases obtained the crown by his brothers yielding up their claim to + him, from which we must draw the conclusion that both of them were his + elders. These circumstances of his accession will account for much of his + subsequent conduct. It happened that he was able at once to bestow a + principality upon Paeorus, to whom he felt specially indebted; but in + order adequately to reward his other benefactor, he found it necessary to + conquer a province and then make its government over to him. Hence his + frequent attacks upon Armenia, and his numerous wars with Rome for its + possession, which led ultimately to an arrangement by which the quiet + enjoyment of the Armenian throne was secured to Tiridates. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances under which Volagases made his first attack upon Armenia + were the following. Pharasmanes of Iberia, whose brother, Mithridates, the + Romans had (in A.D. 47) replaced upon the Armenian throne, had a son named + Rhadamistus, whose lust of power was so great that to prevent his making + an attempt on his own crown Pharasmanes found it necessary to divert his + thoughts to another quarter. + </p> + <p> + Armenia, he suggested, lay near, and was a prize worth winning; + Rhadamistus had only to ingratiate himself with the people, and then + craftily remove his uncle, and he would probably step with ease into the + vacant place. The son took the advice of his father, and in a little time + succeeded in getting Mithridates into his power, when he ruthlessly put + him to death, together with his wife and children. Rhadamistus then, + supported by his father, obtained the object of his ambition, and became + king. It was known, however, that a considerable number of the Armenians + were adverse to a rule which had been brought about by treachery and + murder; and it was suspected that, if an attack were made upon him, he + would not be supported with much zeal by his subjects. This was the + condition of things when Volagases ascended the Parthian throne, and found + himself in want of a principality with which he might reward the services + of Tiridates, his brother. It at once occurred to him that, a happy chance + presented him with an excellent opportunity of acquiring Armenia, and he + accordingly proceeded, in the very year of his accession, to make an + expedition against it. At first he carried all before him. The Iberian + supporters of Rhadamistus fled without risking a battle; his Armenian + subjects resisted weakly; Artaxata and Tigranocerta opened their gates; + and the country generally submitted. Tiridates enjoyed his kingdom for a + few months; but a terrible pestilence, brought about by a severe winter + and a want of proper provisions, decimated the Parthian force left in + garrison; and Volagases found himself obliged, after a short occupation, + to relinquish his conquest. Rhadamistus returned, and, although the + Armenians opposed him in arms, contrived to re-establish himself. The + Parthians did not renew their efforts, and for three years—from A.D. + 51 to A.D. 54—Rhadamistus was left in quiet possession of the + Armenian kingdom.’ + </p> + <p> + It appears to have been in this interval that the arms of Volagases were + directed against one of his great feudatories, Izatos. As in Europe during + the prevalence of the feudal system, so under the Parthian government, it + was always possible that the sovereign might be forced to contend with one + of the princes who owed him fealty. Volagases seems to have thought that + the position of the Adiabenian monarch was becoming too independent, and + that it was necessary to recall him, by a sharp mandate, to his proper + position of subordinate and tributary. Accordingly, he sent him a demand + that he should surrender the special privileges which had been conferred + upon him by Artabanus III., and resume the ordinary status of a Parthian + feudatory. Izates, who feared that if he yielded he would find that this + demand was only a prelude to others more intolerable, replied by a + positive refusal, and immediately prepared to resist an invasion. He sent + his wives and children to the strongest fortress within his dominions, + collected all the grain that his subjects possessed into fortified places, + and laid waste the whole of the open country, so that it should afford no + sustenance to an invading army. He then took up a position on the lower + Zab, or Caprius, and stood prepared to resist an attack upon his + territory. Volagases advanced to the opposite bank of the river, and was + preparing to invade Adiabene, when news reached him of an important attack + upon his eastern provinces. A horde of barbarians, consisting of Dahse and + other Scythians, had poured into Parthia Proper, knowing that he was + engaged elsewhere, and threatened to carry fire and sword through the + entire province. The Parthian monarch considered that it was his first + duty to meet these aggressors; and leaving Izates unchastised, he marched + away to the north-east to repel the external enemy. + </p> + <p> + Volagases, after defeating this foe, would no doubt have returned to + Adiabene, and resumed the war with Izates, but in his absence that prince + died. Monobazus, his brother, who inherited his crown, could have no claim + to the privileges which had been conferred for personal services upon + Izates; and consequently there was no necessity for the war to be renewed. + The bones of Izates were conveyed to the holy soil of Palestine and buried + in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Monobazus was accepted by Volagases as his + brother’s successor without any apparent reluctance, and proved a faithful + tributary, on whom his suzerain could place complete dependence. + </p> + <p> + The quarrel with Izates, and the war with the Dahee and Sacse, may have + occupied the years A.D. 52 and 53. At any rate it was not till A.D. 54, + his fourth year, that Volagases resumed his designs against Armenia. + Rhadamistus, though he had more than once had to fly the country, was + found in possession as king, and for some time he opposed the progress of + the Parthian arms; but, before the year was out, despairing of success, he + again fled, and left Volagases to arrange the affairs of Armenia at his + pleasure. Tiridates was at once established as king, and Armenia brought + into the position of a regular Parthian dependency. The claims of Rome + were ignored. Volagases was probably aware that the Imperial throne was + occupied by a mere youth, not eighteen years old, one destitute of all + warlike tastes, a lover of music and of the arts, who might be expected to + submit to the loss of a remote province without much difficulty. He + therefore acted as if Rome had no rights in this part of Asia, established + his brother at Artaxata, and did not so much as send an embassy to Nero to + excuse or explain his acts. These proceedings caused much uneasiness in + Italy. If Nero himself cannot be regarded as likely to have felt very + keenly the blow struck at the prestige of the Empire, yet there were those + among his advisers who could well understand and appreciate the situation. + The ministers of the young prince resolved that efforts on the largest + scale should be made. Orders were at once issued for recruiting the + Oriental legions, and moving them nearer to Armenia; preparations were set + on foot for bridging the Euphrates; Antiochus of Commagene, and Herod + Agrippa II., were required to collect troops and hold themselves in + readiness to invade Parthia; the Roman provinces bordering upon Armenia + were placed under new governors; above all, Corbulo, regarded as the best + general of the time, was summoned from Germany, and assigned the provinces + of Cappadocia and Galatia, together with the general superintendence of + the war for retaining possession of Armenia. At the same time instructions + were sent out to Ummidius, proconsul of Syria, requiring him to co-operate + with Corbulo; and arrangements were made to obviate the clashing of + authority which was to be feared between two equal commanders. In the + spring of A.D. 55 the Roman armies were ready to take the field, and a + struggle seemed impending which would recall the times of Antony and + Phraates. + </p> + <p> + But, at the moment when expectation was at its height, and the clang of + arms appeared about to resound throughout Western Asia, suddenly a + disposition for peace manifested itself. Both Corbulo and Ummidius sent + embassies to Volagases, exhorting him to make concessions, and apparently + giving him to understand that something less was required of him than the + restoration of Armenia to the Romans. Volagases listened favorably to the + overtures, and agreed to put into the hands of the Roman commanders the + most distinguished members of the royal family as hostages. At the same + time he withdrew his troops from Armenia; which the Romans, however, did + not occupy, and which continued, as it would seem, to be governed by + Tiridates. The motive of the Parthian king in acting as he did is obvious. + A revolt against his authority had broken out in Parthia, headed by his + son, Vardanes; and, until this internal trouble should be suppressed, he + could not engage with advantage in a foreign war. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE + III. Fig. 1.]</a> The reasons which actuated the Roman generals are far + more obscure. It is difficult to understand their omission to press upon + Volagases in his difficulties, or their readiness to accept the persons of + a few hostages, however high their rank, as an equivalent for the Roman + claim to a province. Perhaps the jealousy which subsequently showed itself + in regard to the custody of the hostages may have previously existed + between the two commanders, and they may have each consented to a peace + disadvantageous to Rome through fear of the other’s obtaining the chief + laurels if war were entered on. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate003.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 3. " /> + </div> + <p> + The struggle for power between Volagases and his son Vardanes seems to + have lasted for three years—from A.D. 55 to A.D. 58. Its details are + unknown to us; but Volagases must have been successful; and we may assume + that the pretender, of whom we hear no more, was put to death. No sooner + was the contest terminated than Volagases, feeling that he was now free to + act, took a high tone in his communications with Corbulo and Ummidius, and + declared that not only must his brother, Tiridates, be left in the + undisturbed possession of Armenia but it must be distinctly understood + that he held it as a Parthian, and not as a Roman, feudatory. At the same + time Tiridates began to exercise his authority over the Armenians with + severity, and especially to persecute those whom he suspected of inclining + towards the Romans. Oorbulo appears to have felt that it was necessary to + atone for his three years of inaction by at length prosecuting the war in + earnest. He tightened the discipline of the legions, while he recruited + them to their full strength, made fresh friends among the hardy races of + the neighborhood, renewed the Roman alliance with Pharasmanes of Iberia, + urged Antiochus of Commagene to cross the Armenian frontier, and taking + the field himself, carried fire and sword over a large portion of the + Armenian territory. Volagases sent a contingent of troops to the + assistance of his feudatory, but was unable to proceed to his relief in + person, owing to the occurrence of a revolt in Hyrcania, which broke out, + fortunately for the Romans, in the very year that the rebellion of + Vardanes was suppressed. Under these circumstances it is not surprising + that Tiridates had recourse to treachery, or that on his treachery failing + he continually lost ground, and was at last compelled to evacuate the + country and yield the possession of it to the Romans. It is more + remarkable that he prolonged his resistance into the third year than that + he was unable to continue the straggle to a later date. He lost his + capital, Artaxata, in A.D. 58, and Tigranocerta, the second city of + Armenia, in A.D. 60. After this he made one further effort from the side + of Media, but the attempt was unavailing; and on suffering a fresh defeat + he withdrew altogether from the struggle, whereupon Armenia reverted to + the Romans. They entrusted the government to a certain Tigranes, a + grandson of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, but at the same time greatly + diminished the extent of the kingdom by granting portions of it to + neighboring princes. Pharasmanes of Iberia, Polemo of Pontus, Aristobulus + of the Lesser Armenia, and Antiochus of Commagene, received an + augmentation of their territories at the expense of the rebel state, which + had shown itself incapable of appreciating the blessings of Roman rule and + had manifested a decided preference for the Parthians. + </p> + <p> + But the fate of Armenia, and the position which she was to hold in respect + of the two great rivals, Rome and Parthia, were not yet decided. Hitherto + Volagases, engaged in a contest with the Hyrcanians and with other + neighboring nations, whereto the flames of war had spread, had found + himself unable to take any personal part in the struggle in which his + brother and vassal had been engaged in the west. Now matters in Hyrcania + admitted of arrangement, and he was at liberty to give his main attention + to Armenian affairs. His presence in the West had become absolutely + necessary. Not only was Armenia lost to him, but it had been made a centre + from which his other provinces in this quarter might be attacked and + harassed. Tigranes, proud of his newly-won crown, and anxious to show + himself worthy of it, made constant incursions into Adiabene, ravaging and + harrying the fertile country far and wide. Monobazus, unable to resist him + in the field, was beginning to contemplate the transfer of his allegiance + to Rome, as the only means of escaping from the evils of a perpetual + border war. Tiridates, discontented with the position whereto he found + himself reduced, and angry that his brother had not given him more + effective support, was loud in his complaints, and openly taxed Volagases + with an inertness that bordered on cowardice. Public opinion was inclined + to accept and approve the charge; and in Parthia public opinion could not + be safely contemned. Volagases found it necessary to win back his + subjects’ good-will by calling a council of the nobility, and making them + a formal address: “Parthians,” he said, “when I obtained the first place + among you by my brothers ceding their claims, I endeavored to substitute + for the old system of fraternal hatred and contention a new one of + domestic affection and agreement; my brother Pacorus received Media from + my hands at once; Tiridates, whom you see now before you, I inducted + shortly afterwards into the sovereignty of Armenia, a dignity reckoned the + third in the Parthian kingdom. Thus I put my family matters on a peaceful + and satisfactory footing. But these arrangements are now disturbed by the + Romans, who have never hitherto broken their treaties with us to their + profit, and who will now find that they have done so to their ruin. I will + not deny that hitherto I have preferred to maintain my right to the + territories, which have come to me from my ancestors, by fair dealing + rather than by shedding of blood—by negotiation rather than by arms; + if, however, I have erred in this and have been weak to delay so long, I + will now correct my fault by showing the more zeal. You at any rate have + lost nothing by my abstinence; your strength is intact, your glory + undiminished; you have added, moreover, to your reputation for valor the + credit of moderation—a virtue which not even the highest among men + can afford to despise, and which the Gods view with special favor.” Having + concluded his speech, he placed a diadem on the brow of Tiridates, + proclaiming by this significant act his determination to restore him to + the Armenian throne. At the same time he ordered Monseses, a Parthian + general, and Monobazus, the Adiabenian monarch, to take the field and + enter Armenia, while he himself with the main strength of the empire + advanced towards the Euphrates and threatened Syria with invasion. + </p> + <p> + The results of the campaign which followed (A.D. 62) scarcely answered to + this magnificent opening. Monseses indeed, in conjunction with Monobazus, + invaded Armenia, and, advancing to Tigranocerta, besieged Tigranes in that + city, which, upon the destruction of Artaxata by Corbulo, had become the + seat of government. Volagases himself proceeded as far as Nisibis, whence + he could threaten at the same time Armenia and Syria. The Parthian arms + proved, however, powerless to effect any serious impression upon + Tigranocerta; and Volagases, being met at Nisibis by envoys from Corbulo, + who threatened an invasion of Parthia in retaliation of the Parthian + attack upon Armenia, consented to an arrangement. A plague of locusts had + spread itself over Upper Mesopotamia, and the consequent scarcity of + forage completely paralyzed a force which consisted almost entirely of + cavalry. Volagases was glad under the circumstances to delay the conflict + which had seemed impending, and readily agreed that his troops should + suspend the siege of Tigranocerta and withdraw from Armenia on condition + that the Roman should at the same time evacuate the province. He would + send, he said, ambassadors to Rome who should arrange with Nero the + footing upon which Armenia was to be placed. Meanwhile, until the embassy + returned, there should be peace—the Armenians should be left to + themselves—neither Rome nor Parthia should maintain a soldier within + the limits of the province, and any collision between the armies of the + two countries should be avoided. + </p> + <p> + A pause, apparently of some months’ duration, followed. Towards the close + of autumn, however, a new general came upon the scene; and a new factor + was introduced into the political and military combinations of the period. + L. Caesennius Paetus, a favorite of the Roman Emperor, but a man of no + capacity, was appointed by Nero to take the main direction of affairs in + Armenia, while Corbulo confined himself to the care of Syria, his special + province. Corbulo had requested a coadjutor, probably not so much from an + opinion that the war would be better conducted by two commanders than by + one, as from fear of provoking the jealousy of Nero, if he continued any + longer to administer the whole of the East. On the arrival of Paetus, who + brought one legion with him, an equitable division of the Roman forces was + made between the generals. Each had three legions; and while Corbulo + retained the Syrian auxiliaries, those of Pontus, Galatia, and Cappadocia + were attached to the army of Paetus. But no friendly feeling united the + leaders. Corbulo was jealous of the rival whom he knew to have been sent + out as a check upon him rather than as a help; and Paetus was inclined to + despise the slow and temporizing policy of the elder chief. The war, + according to his views, required to be carried on with more dash and vigor + than had hitherto appeared in its conduct—cities should be stormed, + he said—the whole country plundered—severe examples made of + the guilty. The object of the war also should be changed—instead of + setting up shadowy kings, his own aim would be to reduce Armenia into the + form of a province. + </p> + <p> + The truce established in the early summer, when Volagases sent his envoys + to Nero, expired in the autumn, on their return without a definite reply; + and the Roman commanders at once took the offensive and entered upon an + autumn campaign, the second within the space of a year. Corbulo crossed + the Euphrates in the face of a large Parthian army, which he forced to + retire from the eastern bank of the river by means of military engines + worked from ships anchored in mid-stream. He then advanced and occupied a + strong position in the hills at a little distance from the river, where he + caused his legions to construct an entrenched camp. Paetus, on his part, + entered Armenia from Cappadocia with two legions, and, passing the Taurus + range, ravaged a large extent of country; winter, however, approaching, + and the enemy nowhere appearing in force, he led back his troops across + the mountains, and, regarding the campaign as finished, wrote a despatch + to Nero boasting of his successes, sent one of his three legions to winter + in Pontus, and placed the other two in quarters between the Taurus and the + Euphrates, at the same time granting furloughs to as many of the soldiers + as chose to apply for them. A large number took advantage of his + liberality, preferring no doubt the pleasures and amusements of the Syrian + and Cappadocian cities to the hardships of a winter in the Armenian + highlands. While matters were in this position Paetus suddenly heard that + Volagases was advancing against him. As once before at an important + crisis, so now with the prospect of Armenia as the prize of victory, the + Parthians defied the severities of winter and commenced a campaign when + their enemy regarded the season for war as over. In this crisis Paetus + exhibited an entire unfitness for command. First, he resolved to remain on + the defensive in his camp; then, affecting to despise the protection of + ramparts and ditches, he gave the order to advance and meet the enemy; + finally, after losing a few scouts whom he had sent forward, he hastily + retreated and resumed his old position, but at the same time unwisely + detached three thousand of his best foot to block the pass of Taurus, + through which Volagases was advancing. After some hesitation he was + induced to make Corbulo acquainted with his position; but the message + which he sent merely stated that he was expecting to be attacked. Corbulo + was in no hurry to proceed to his relief, preferring to appear upon the + scene at the last moment, when he would be hailed as a savior. + </p> + <p> + Volagases, meanwhile, continued his march. The small force left by Paetus + to block his progress was easily overpowered, and for the most part + destroyed. The castle of Arsamosata, where Paetus had placed his wife and + child, and the fortified camp of the legions, were besieged. The Romans + were challenged to a battle, but dared not show themselves outside their + entrenchments. Having no confidence in their leader, the legionaries + despaired and began openly to talk of a surrender. As the danger drew + nearer, fresh messengers had been despatched to Corbulo, and he had been + implored to come at his best speed in order to save the poor remnant of a + defeated army. That commander was on his march, by way of Commagene and + Cappadocia; it could not be very long before he would arrive; and the + supplies in the camp of Paetus were sufficient to have enabled him to hold + out for weeks and months. But an unworthy terror had seized both Paetus + and his soldiers. Instead of holding out to the last, the alarmed chief + proposed negotiations, and the result was that he consented to capitulate. + His troops were to be allowed to quit their entrenchments and withdraw + from the country, but were to surrender their strongholds and their + stores. Armenia was to be completely evacuated by the Romans; and a truce + was to be observed and Armenia not again invaded, until a fresh embassy, + which Volagases proposed to send to Rome, returned. Moreover, a bridge was + to be made by the Romans over the Arsanias, a tributary of the Euphrates, + which, as it was of no immediate service to the Parthians, could only be + intended as a monument of the Roman defeat. Paetus assented to these + terms, and they were carried out; not, however, without some further + ignominy to the Romans. The Parthians entered the Roman entrenchments + before the legionaries had left them, and laid their hands on anything + which they recognized as Armenian spoil. They even seized the soldiers’ + clothes and arms, which were relinquished to them without a struggle, lest + resistance should provoke an outbreak. Paetus, once more at liberty; + proceeded with unseemly haste to the Euphrates, deserting his wounded and + his stragglers, whom he left to the tender mercies of the Armenians. At + the Euphrates he effected a junction with Corbulo, who was but three days’ + march distant when Paetus so gracefully capitulated. + </p> + <p> + The chiefs, when they met, exchanged no cordial greeting. Corbulo + complained that he had been induced to make a useless journey, and to + weary his troops to no purpose, since without any aid from him the legions + might have escaped from their difficulties by simply waiting until the + Parthians had exhausted their stores, when they must have retired. Paetus, + anxious to obliterate the memory of his failure, proposed that the + combined armies should at once enter Armenia and overrun it, since + Volagases and his Parthians had withdrawn. Corbulo replied coldly—that + “he had no such orders from the Emperor. He had quitted his province to + rescue the threatened legions from their peril; now that the peril was + past, he must return to Syria, since it was quite uncertain what the enemy + might next attempt. It would be hard work for his infantry, tired with the + long marches it had made, to keep pace with the Parthian cavalry, which + was fresh and would pass rapidly through the plains.” The generals upon + this parted. Paetus wintered in Cappadocia; Corbulo returned into Syria, + where a demand reached him from Volagases that he would evacuate + Mesopotamia. He agreed to do so on the condition that Armenia should be + evacuated by the Parthians. To this Volagases consented; since he had + re-established Tiridates as king, and the Armenians might be trusted, if + left to themselves, to prefer Parthian to Roman ascendancy. + </p> + <p> + There was now, again, a pause in the war for some months. The envoys sent + by Volagases after the capitulation of Paetus reached Rome at the + commencement of spring (A.D. 63), and were there at once admitted to an + audience. They proposed peace on the terms that Tiridates should be + recognized as king of Armenia, but that he should go either to Rome, or to + the head-quarters of the Roman legions in the East, in order to receive + investiture, either from the Emperor or his representative. It was with + some difficulty that Nero was brought to believe in the success of + Volagases, so entirely had he trusted the despatches of Paetus, which + represented the Romans as triumphant. When the state of affairs was fully + understood from the letters of Corbulo and the accounts given by a Roman + officer who had accompanied the Parthian envoys, there was no doubt or + hesitation as to the course which should be pursued. The Parthian + proposals must be rejected. Rome must not make peace immediately upon a + disaster, or until she had retrieved her reputation and shown her power by + again taking the offensive. Paetus was at once recalled, and the whole + direction of the war given to Corbulo, who was intrusted with a + wide-spreading and extraordinary authority. The Parthian envoys were + dismissed, but with gifts, which seemed to show that it was not so much + their proposals as the circumstances under which they had been made that + were unpalatable. Another legion was sent to the East; and the + semi-independent princes and dynasts were exhorted to support Corbulo with + zeal. That commander used his extraordinary powers to draw together, not + so much a very large force, as one that could be thoroughly trusted; and, + collecting his troops at Melitene (Malatiyeh), made his arrangements for a + fresh invasion. + </p> + <p> + Penetrating into Armenia by the road formerly followed by Lucullus, + Corbulo, with three legions, and probably the usual proportion of allies—an + army of about 80,000 men—advanced against the combined Armenians and + Parthians under Tiridates and Volagases, freely offering battle, and at + the same time taking vengeance, as he proceeded, on the Armenian nobles + who had been especially active in opposing Tigranes, the late Roman + puppet-king. His march led him near the spot where the capitulation of + Paetus had occurred in the preceding winter; and it was while he was in + this neighborhood that envoys from the enemy met him with proposals for an + accommodation. Corbulo, who had never shown himself anxious to push + matters to an extremity, readily accepted the overtures. The site of the + camp of Paetus was chosen for the place of meeting; and there, accompanied + by twenty horsemen each, Tiridates and the Roman general held an + interview. The terms proposed and agreed upon were the same that Nero had + rejected; and thus the Parthians could not but be satisfied, since they + obtained all for which they had asked. Corbulo, on the other hand, was + content to have made the arrangement on Armenian soil, while he was at the + head of an intact and unblemished army, and held possession of an Armenian + district; so that the terms could not seem to have been extorted by fear, + but rather to have been allowed as equitable. He also secured the + immediate performance of a ceremony at which Tiridates divested himself of + the regal ensigns and placed them at the foot of the statue of Nero; and + he took security for the performance of the promise that Tiridates should + go to Rome and receive his crown from the hands of Nero, by requiring and + obtaining one of his daughters as a hostage. In return, he readily + undertook that Tiridates should be treated with all proper honor during + his stay at Rome, and on his journeys to and from Italy, assuring + Volagases, who was anxious on these points, that Rome regarded only the + substance, and made no account of the mere show and trappings of power. + </p> + <p> + The arrangement thus made was honestly executed. After a delay of about + two years, for which it is difficult to account, Tiridates set out upon + his journey. He was accompanied by his wife, by a number of noble youths, + among whom were sons of Volagases and of Monobazus, and by an escort of + three thousand Parthian cavalry. The long cavalcade passed, like a + magnificent triumphal procession, through two thirds of the Empire, and + was everywhere warmly welcomed and sumptuously entertained. Each city + which lay upon its route was decorated to receive it; and the loud + acclaims of the multitudes expressed their satisfaction at the novel + spectacle. The riders made the whole journey, except the passage of the + Hellespont, by land, proceeding through Thrace and Illyricum to the head + of the Adriatic, and then descending the peninsula. Their entertainment + was furnished at the expense of the state, and is said to have cost the + treasury 800,000 sesterces (about L6250.) a day this outlay was continued + for nine months, and must have amounted in the aggregate to above a + million and a half of our money. The first interview of the Parthian + prince with his nominal sovereign was at Naples, where Nero happened to be + staying. According to the ordinary etiquette of the Roman court, Tiridates + was requested to lay aside his sword before approaching the Emperor; but + this he declined to do; and the difficulty seemed serious until a + compromise was suggested, and he was allowed to approach wearing his + weapon, after it had first been carefully fastened to the scabbard by + nails. He then drew near, bent one knee to the ground, interlaced his + hands, and made obeisance, at the same time saluting the Emperor as his + “lord.” + </p> + <p> + The ceremony of the investiture was performed afterwards at Rome. On the + night preceding, the whole city was illuminated and decorated with + garlands; the Forum, as morning approached, was filled with “the people,” + arranged in their several tribes, clothed in white robes and bearing + boughs of laurel; the Praetorians, in their splendid arms, were drawn up + in two lines from the further extremity of the Forum to the Rostra, to + maintain the avenue of approach clear; all the roofs of the buildings on + every side were thronged with crowds of spectators; at break of day Nero + arrived in the attire appropriated to triumphs, accompanied by the members + of the Senate and his body-guard, and took his seat on the Rostra in a + curule chair. Tiridates and his suite were then introduced between the two + long lines of soldiers; and the prince, advancing to the Rostra, made an + oration, which (as reported by Dio) was of a sufficiently abject + character. Nero responded proudly; and then the Armenian prince, ascending + the Rostra by a way constructed for the purpose, and sitting at the feet + of the Roman Emperor, received from his hand, after his speech had been + interpreted to the assembled Romans, the coveted diadem, the symbol of + Oriental sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + After a stay of some weeks, or possibly months, at Rome, during which he + was entertained by Nero with extreme magnificence, Tiridates returned, + across the Adriatic and through Greece and Asia Minor, to his own land. + The circumstances of his journey and his reception involved a concession + to Rome of all that could be desired in the way of formal and verbal + acknowledgment. The substantial advantage, however, remained with the + Parthians. The Romans, both in the East and at the capital, were flattered + by a show of submission; but the Orientals must have concluded that the + long struggle had terminated in an acknowledgment by Rome of Parthia as + the stronger power. Ever since the time of Lucullus, Armenia had been the + object of contention between the two states, both of which had sought, as + occasion served, to place upon the throne its own nominees. Recently the + rival powers had at one and the same time brought forward rival claimants; + and the very tangible issue had been raised, Was Tigranes or Tiridates to + be king? When the claims of Tigranes were finally, with the consent of + Rome, set aside, and those of Tiridates allowed, the real point in dispute + was yielded by the Romans. A Parthian, the actual brother of the reigning + Parthian king, was permitted to rule the country which Rome had long + deemed her own. It could not be doubted that he would rule it in + accordance with Parthian interests. His Roman investiture was a form which + he had been forced to go through; what effect could it have on him in the + future, except to create a feeling of soreness? The arms of Volagases had + been the real force which had placed him upon the throne; and to those + arms he must have looked to support him in case of an emergency. Thus + Armenia was in point of fact relinquished to Parthia at the very time when + it was nominally replaced under the sovereignty of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + There is much doubt as to the time at which Volagases I. ceased to reign. + The classical writers give no indication of the death of any Parthian king + between the year A.D. 51, when they record the demise of Vonones II., and + about the year A.D. 90, when they speak of a certain Pacorus as occupying + the throne. Moreover, during this interval, whenever they have occasion to + mention the reigning Parthian monarch, they always give him the name of + Volagases. Hence it has been customary among writers on Parthian history + to assign to Volagases I. the entire period between A.D. 51 and A.D. 90—a + space of thirty-nine years. Recently, however, the study of the Parthian + coins has shown absolutely that Pacorus began to reign at least as early + as A.D. 78, while it has raised a suspicion that the space between A.D. 51 + and A.D. 78 was shared between two kings, one of whom reigned from A.D. 51 + to about A.D. 62, and the other from about A.D. 62 to A.D. 78. It has been + proposed to call these kings respectively Volagases I. and Artabanus IV. + or Volagases I. and Volagases II., and Parthian history has been written + on this basis; but it is confessed that the entire absence of any + intimation by the classical writers that there was any change of monarch + in this space, or that the Volagases of whom they speak as a contemporary + of Vespasian was any other than the adversary of Corbulo, is a very great + difficulty in the way of this view being accepted; and it is suggested + that the two kings which the coins indicate may have been contemporary + monarchs reigning in different parts of Parthia. To such a theory there + can be no objection. The Parthian coins distinctly show the existence + under the later Arsacidae of numerous pretenders, or rivals to the true + monarch, of whom we have no other trace. In the time of Volagases I. there + was (we know) a revolt in Hyrcania, which was certainly not suppressed as + late as A.D. 75. The king who has been called Artabanus IV. or Volagases + II. may have maintained himself in this region, while Volagases I. + continued to rule in the Western provinces and to be the only monarch + known to the Romans and the Jews. If this be the true account of the + matter, we may regard Volagases I. as having most probably reigned from + A.D. 51 to about A.D. 78—a space of twenty-seven years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Results of the Establishment of Tiridates in Armenia. Long period of + Peace between Parthia and Rome. Obscurity of Parthian History at this + time. Relations of Volagases I. with Vespasian. Invasion of Western Asia + by Alani. Death of Volagases I. and Character of his Reign. Accession and + Long Reign of Pacorus. Relations of Pacorus with Decebalus of Dacia. + Internal Condition of Parthia during his Reign. Death of Pacorus and + Accession of Chosroes.</i> + </p> + <p> + The establishment of Tiridates as king of Armenia, with the joint consent + of Volagases and Nero, inaugurated a period of peace between the two + Empires of Rome and Parthia, which exceeded half a century. This result + was no doubt a fortunate one for the inhabitants of Western Asia; but it + places the modern historian of the Parthians at a disadvantage. Hitherto + the classical writers, in relating the wars of the Syro-Macedonians and + the Romans, have furnished materials for Parthian history, which, if not + as complete as we might wish, have been at any rate fairly copious and + satisfactory. Now, for the space of half a century, we are left without + anything like a consecutive narrative, and are thrown upon scattered and + isolated notices, which can form only a most incomplete and disjointed + narrative. The reign of Volagases I. appears to have continued for about + twelve years after the visit of Tiridates to Rome; and no more than three + or four events are known as having fallen into this interval. Our + knowledge of the reign of Pacorus is yet more scanty. But as the business + of the workman is simply to make the best use that he can of his + materials, such a sketch of this dark period as the notices which have + come down to us allow will now be attempted. + </p> + <p> + When the troubles which followed upon the death of Nero shook the Roman + world, and after the violent ends of Galba and Otho, the governor of + Judaea, Vespasian, resolved to become a candidate for the imperial power + (A.D. 69), Volagases was at once informed by envoys of the event, and was + exhorted to maintain towards the new monarch the same peaceful attitude + which he had now for seven years observed towards his predecessors. + Volagases not only complied with the request, out sent ambassadors in + return to Vespasian, while he was still at Alexandria (A.D. 70), and + offered to put at his disposal a body of forty thousand Parthian cavalry. + The circumstances of his position allowed Vespasian to decline this + magnificent proposal, and to escape the odium which would have attached to + the employment of foreign troops against his countrymen. His generals in + Italy had by this time carried all before them; and he was able, after + thanking the Parthian monarch, to inform him that peace was restored to + the Roman world, and that he had therefore no need of auxiliaries. In the + same friendly spirit in which he had made this offer, Volagases, in the + next year (A.D. 71), sent envoys to Titus at Zeugma, who presented to him + the Parthian king’s congratulations on his victorious conclusion of the + Jewish war, and begged his acceptance of a crown of gold. The polite + attention was courteously received; and before allowing them to return to + their master the young prince hospitably entertained the Parthian + messengers at a banquet. + </p> + <p> + Soon after this, circumstances occurred in the border state of Commagene + which threatened a rupture of the friendly relations that had hitherto + subsisted between Volagases and Vespasian. Caesennius Paetus, proconsul of + Syria, the unsuccessful general in the late Armenian war, informed + Vespasian, early in A.D. 72, that he had discovered a plot, by which + Commagene, one of the Roman subject kingdoms, was to be detached from the + Roman alliance, and made over to the Parthians. Antiochus, the aged + monarch, and his son Epiphanes were, according to Paetus, both concerned + in the treason; and the arrangement with the Parthians was, he said, + actually concluded. It would be well to nip the evil in the bud. If the + transfer of territory once took place, a most serious disturbance of the + Roman power would follow. Commagene lay west of the Euphrates; and its + capital city, Samosata (the modern Sumeisat), commanded one of the points + where the great river was most easily crossed; so that, if the Parthians + held it, they would have a ready access at all times to the Roman + provinces of Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Syria, with a perfectly safe + retreat. These arguments had weight with Vespasian, who seems to have had + entire confidence in Paetus, and induced him to give the proconsul full + liberty to act as he thought best. Thus empowered, Paetus at once invaded + Commagene in force, and meeting at first with no resistance (for the + Commagenians were either innocent or unprepared), succeeded in occupying + Samosata by a <i>coup de main</i>. The aged king wished to yield + everything without a blow; but his two sons, Epiphanes and Callinicus, + were not to be restrained. They took arms, and, at the head of such a + force as they could hastily muster, met Paetus in the field, and fought a + battle with him which lasted the whole day, and ended without advantage to + either side. But the decision of Antiochus was not to be shaken; he + refused to countenance his sons’ resistance, and, quitting Commagene, + passed with his wife and daughters into the Roman province of Cilicia, + where he took up his abode at Tarsus. The spirit of the Commagenians could + not hold out against this defection; the force collected began to + disperse; and the young princes found themselves forced to fly, and to + seek a refuge in Parthia, which they reached with only ten horsemen. + Volagases received them with the courtesy and hospitality due to their + royal rank; but as he had given them no help in the struggle, so now he + made no effort to reinstate them. All the exertion to which he could be + brought was to write a letter on their behalf to Vespasian, in which he + probably declared them guiltless of the charges that had been brought + against them by Paetus. Vespasian, at any rate, seems to have become + convinced of their innocence; for though he allowed Commagene to remain a + Roman province, he permitted the two princes with their father to reside + at Rome, assigned the ex-monarch an ample revenue, and gave the family an + honorable status. + </p> + <p> + It was probably not more than two or three years after the events above + narrated, that Volagases found himself in circumstances which impelled him + to send a petition to the Roman Emperor for help. The Alani, a Scythian + people, who had once dwelt near the Tanais and the Lake Mseotis, or Sea of + Azof, but who must now have lived further to the East, had determined on a + great predatory invasion of the countries west of the Caspian Gates, and + having made alliance with the Hyrcanians, who were in possession of that + important pass, had poured into Media through it, driven King Pacorus to + the mountains, and overrun the whole of the open country. From hence they + had passed on into Armenia, defeated Tiridates, in a battle, and almost + succeeded in capturing him by means of a lasso. Volagases, whose + subject-kings were thus rudely treated, and who might naturally expect his + own proper territories to be next attacked, sent in this emergency a + request to Vespasian for aid. He asked moreover that the forces put at his + disposal should be placed under the command of either Titus or Domitian, + probably not so much from any value that he set on their military talents + as from a conviction that if a member of the Imperial family was sent, the + force which accompanied him would be considerable. We are told that the + question, whether help be given or no, was seriously discussed at Rome, + and that Domitian was exceedingly anxious that the troops should go, and + begged that he might be their commander. But Vespasian was disinclined for + any expenditure of which he did not recognize the necessity, and disliked + all perilous adventure. His own refusal of extraneous support, when + offered by his rival, rendered it impossible for him to reject Volagases’s + request without incurring the charge of ingratitude. The Parthians were + therefore left to their own resources; and the result seems to have been + that the invaders, after ravaging and harrying Media and Armenia at their + pleasure, carried off a vast number of prisoners and an enormous booty + into their own country. Soon after this, Volagases must have died. The + coins of his successor commence in June, A.D. 78, and thus he cannot have + outlived by more than three years the irruption of the Alani. If he died, + as is most probable, in the spring of A.D. 78, his reign would have + covered the space of twenty-seven years. It was an eventful one for + Parthia. It brought the second period of struggle with the Romans to an + end by compromise which gave to Rome the shadow and to Parthia the + substance of victory. And it saw the first completed disintegration of the + Empire in the successful revolt of Hyrcania—an event of evil + portent. Volagases was undoubtedly a monarch of considerable ability. He + conducted with combined prudence and firmness the several campaigns + against Corbulo; he proved himself far superior to Paetus; exposed to + attacks in various quarters from many different enemies, he repulsed all + foreign invaders and, as against them, maintained intact the ancient + dominions of the Arsacidae. He practically added Arminia to the Empire. + Everywhere success attended him, except against a domestic foe. Hyrcania + seceded during his reign, and it may be doubted whether Parthia ever + afterwards recovered it. An example was thus set of successful Arian + revolt against the hitherto irresistible Turanians, which may have tended + in no slight degree to produce the insurrection which eventually subverted + the Parthian Empire. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Volagases I. was Pacorus, whom most writers on Parthian + history have regarded as his son. There is, however, no evidence of this + relationship; and the chief reason for regarding Pacorus as belonging even + to the same branch of the Arsacidse with Volagases I. is his youth at his + accession, indicated by the beardless head upon his early coins, which is + no doubt in favor of his having been a near relation of the preceding + king. PLATE III., Fig 1. The Parthian coins show that his reign continued + at least till A.D. 93; it may have lasted considerably longer, for the + earliest date on any coin of Chosroes is AEr. Seleuc. 421, or A.D. 110. + The accession of Chosroes has been conjecturally assigned to A.D. 108, + which would allow to Pacorus the long reign of thirty years. Of this + interval it can only be said that, so far as our knowledge goes, it was + almost wholly uneventful. We know absolutely nothing of this Pacorus + except that he gave encouragement to a person who pretended to be Nero; + that he enlarged and beautified Otesiphon; that he held friendly + communications with Decebalus, the great Dacian chief, who was + successively the adversary of Domitian and Trajan; and that he sold the + sovereignty of Osrhoene at a high price to the Edessene prince who was + cotemporary with him. The Pseudo-Nero in question appears to have taken + refuge with the Parthians in the year A.D. 89, and to have been demanded + as an impostor by Domitian. Pacorus was at first inclined to protect and + to even assist him, but after a while was induced to give him up, probably + by a threat of hostilities. The communication with the Dacian chief was + most likely earlier. The Dacians, in one of those incursions into Maesia + which they made during the first years of Domitian, took captive a certain + Callidromus, a Greek, if we may judge by his name, slave to a Roman of + some rank, named Liberius Maximus. This prisoner Decebalus (we are told) + sent as a present to Pacorus, in whose service and favor he remained for a + number of years. This circumstance, insignificant enough in itself, + acquires an interest from the indication which it gives of + intercommunication between the enemies of Rome, even when they were + separated by vast spaces, and might have been thought to have been wholly + ignorant of each other’s existence. Decebalus can scarcely have been drawn + to Pacorus by any other attraction than that which always subsists between + enemies of any great dominant power. He must have looked to the Parthian + monarch as a friend who might make a diversion on his behalf upon + occasion; and that monarch, by accepting his gift, must be considered to + have shown a willingness to accept this kind of relation. + </p> + <p> + The sale of the Osrhoene territory to Abgarus by Pacorus was not a fact of + much consequence. It may indicate an exhaustion of his treasury, resulting + from the expenditure of vast sums on the enlargement and adornment of the + capital, but otherwise it has no bearing on the general condition of the + Empire. Perhaps the Parthian feudatories generally paid a price for their + investiture. If they did not, and the case of Abgarus was peculiar, still + it does not appear that his purchase at all altered his position as a + Parthian subject. It was not until they transferred their allegiance to + Rome that the Osrhoene princes struck coins, or otherwise assumed the + status of kings. Up to the time of M. Aurelius they continued just as much + subject to Parthia as before, and were far from acquiring a position of + independence. + </p> + <p> + There is reason to believe that the reign of Pacorus was a good deal + disturbed by internal contentions. We hear of an Artabanus as king of + Parthia in A.D. 79; and the Parthian coins of about this period present us + with two very marked types of head, both of them quite unlike that of + Pacorus, which must be those of monarchs who either contended with Pacorus + for the crown, or ruled contemporaneously with him over other portions of + the Parthian Empire. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE III., Fig. 2.]</a> + Again, towards the close of Pacorus’s reign, and early in that of his + recognized successor, Chosroes, a monarch called Mithridates is shown by + the coins to have borne sway for at least six years—from A.D. 107 to + 113. This monarch commenced the practice of placing a Semitic legend upon + his coins, which would seem to imply that he ruled in the western rather + than the eastern provinces. The probability appears, on the whole, to be + that the disintegration which has been already noticed as having commenced + under Volagases I. was upon the increase. Three or four monarchs were + ruling together in different portions of the Parthian world, each claiming + to be the true Arsaces, and using the full titles of Parthian sovereignty + upon his coins. The Romans knew but little of these divisions and + contentions, their dealings being only with the Arsacid who reigned at + Ctesiphon and bore sway over Mesopotamia and Adiabene. + </p> + <p> + Pacorus must have died about A.D. 108, or a little later. He left behind + him two sons, Exedares and Parthamasiris, but neither of these two princes + was allowed to succeed him. The Parthian Megistanes assigned the crown to + Chosroes, the brother of their late monarch, perhaps regarding Exedares + and Parthamasiris as too young to administer the government of Parthia + satisfactorily. If they knew, as perhaps they did, that the long period of + peace with Rome was coming to an end, and that they might expect shortly + to be once more attacked by their old enemy, they might well desire to + have upon the throne a prince of ripe years and approved judgment. A raw + youth would certainly have been unfit to cope with the age, the + experience, and the military genius of Trajan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Chosroes. General condition of Oriental Affairs gives a handle + to Trajan. Trajan’s Schemes of Conquest. Embassy of Chosroes to Trajan + fails. Great Expedition of Trajan. Campaign of A. D. 115. Campaign of A.D. + 116. Death of Trajan, and relinquishment of his Parthian Conquests by + Hadrian. Interview of Chosroes with Hadrian. Its Consequences. Death of + Chosroes and Accession of Volagases II.</i> + </p> + <p> + The general state of Oriental affairs at the accession of Chosroes seems + to have been the following. Upon the demise of Tiridates (about A.D. 100) + Pacorus had established upon the Armenian throne one of his sons, named + Exedares, or Axidares, and this prince had thenceforth reigned as king of + Armenia without making any application to Rome for investiture, or + acknowledging in any way the right of the Romans to interfere with the + Armenian succession. Trajan, sufficiently occupied in the West, had borne + this insult. When, however, in A.D. 114, the subjugation of Dacia was + completed, and the Roman Emperor found his hands free, he resolved to turn + his arms towards Asia, and to make the Armenian difficulty a pretext for a + great military expedition, designed to establish unmistakably the + supremacy of Rome throughout the East. The condition of the East at once + called for the attention of Rome, and was eminently favorable for the + extension of her influence at this period. Disintegrating forces were + everywhere at work, tending to produce a confusion and anarchy which + invited the interposition of a great power, and rendered resistance to + such a power difficult. Christianity, which was daily spreading itself + more and more widely, acted as a dissolvent upon the previously-existing + forms of society, loosening the old ties, dividing man from man by an + irreconcilable division, and not giving much indication as yet of its + power to combine and unite. Judaism, embittered by persecution, had from a + nationality become a conspiracy; and the disaffected adherents of the + Mosaic system, dispersed through all the countries of the East, formed an + explosive element in the population which involved the constant danger of + a catastrophe. The Parthian political system was also, as already + remarked, giving symptoms of breaking up. Those bonds which for two + centuries and a half had sufficed to hold together a heterogeneous kingdom + extending from the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Oxus to the + Southern Ocean, were beginning to grow weak, and the Parthian Empire + appeared to be falling to pieces. There seemed to be at once a call and an + opportunity for a fresh arrangement of the East, for the introduction of a + unifying power, such as Rome recognized in her own administrative system, + which should compel the crumbling atoms of the Oriental world once more + into cohesion. + </p> + <p> + To this call Trajan responded. His vast ambition had been whetted, rather + than satiated, by the conquest of a barbarous nation, and a single, not + very valuable, province. In the East he might hope to add to the Roman + State half a dozen countries of world-wide repute, the seats of ancient + empires, the old homes of Asiatic civilization, countries associated with + the immortal names of Sennacherib and Sardanapalus, Cyrus, Darius, and + Alexander. The career of Alexander had an attraction for him, which he was + fain to confess; and he pleased himself by imitating, though he could not + hope at his age to equal it. His Eastern expedition was conceived very + much in the same spirit as that of Crassus; but he possessed the military + ability in which the Triumvir was deficient, and the enemy whom he had to + attack was grown less formidable. + </p> + <p> + Trajan commenced his Eastern expedition in A.D. 114, seven years after the + close of the Dacian War. He was met at Athens in the autumn of that year + by envoys from Chosroes, who brought him presents, and made + representations which, it was hoped, would induce him to consent to peace. + Chosroes stated that he had deposed his nephew, Exedares, the Armenian + prince whose conduct had been offensive to Rome; and proposed that, as the + Armenian throne was thereby vacant, it should be filled by the appointment + of Parthamasiris, Exedares’s brother. This prince would be willing, he + said, to receive investiture at the hands of Rome; and he requested that + Trajan would transmit to him the symbol of sovereignty. The accommodation + suggested would have re-established the relations of the two countries + towards Armenia on the basis on which they had been placed by the + agreement between Volagases and Nero. It would have saved the credit of + Rome, while it secured to Parthia the substantial advantage of retaining + Armenia under her authority and protection. Trajan might well have + consented to it, had his sole object been to reclaim the rights or to + vindicate the honor of his country. But he had distinctly made up his mind + to aim, not at the re-establishment of any former condition of things, but + at the placing of matters in the East on an entirely new footing. He + therefore gave the ambassadors of Chosroes a cold reception, declined the + gifts offered him, and replied to the proposals of accommodation that the + friendship of kings was to be measured by deeds rather than by words—he + would therefore say nothing, but when he reached Syria would act in a + becoming manner. The envoys of the Parthian monarch were obliged to return + with this unsatisfactory answer; and Chosroes had to wait and see what + interpretation it would receive from the course of events. + </p> + <p> + During the later months of autumn, Trajan advanced from Athens to Antioch. + At that luxurious capital, he mustered his forces and prepared for the + campaign of the ensuing year. Abgarus, the Osrhoene prince who had lately + purchased his sovereignty from Pacorus, sent an embassy to him in the + course of the winter, with presents and an offer of friendship. + Parthamasiris also entered into communications with him, first assuming + the royal title, and then, when his letter received no answer, dropping + it, and addressing the Roman Emperor as a mere private person. Upon this + act of self-humiliation, negotiations were commenced. Parthamasiris was + encouraged to present himself at the Roman camp, and was given to + understand that he would there receive from Trajan, as Tiridates had + received from Nero, the emblem of sovereignty and permission to rule + Armenia. The military preparations were, however, continued. Vigorous + measures were taken to restore the discipline of the Syrian legions, which + had suffered through the long tranquillity of the East and the enervating + influence of the climate. With the spring Trajan commenced his march. + Ascending the Euphrates, to Samosata, and receiving as he advanced the + submission of various semi-independent dynasts and princes, he took + possession of Satala and Elegeia, Armenian cities on or near the + Euphrates, and establishing himself at the last-named place, waited for + the arrival of Parthamasiris. That prince shortly rode into the Roman + camp, attended by a small retinue; and a meeting was arranged, at which + the Parthian, in the sight of the whole Roman army, took the diadem from + his brows and laid it at the feet of the Roman Emperor, expecting to have + it at once restored to him. But Trajan had determined otherwise. He made + no movement; and the army, prepared no doubt for the occasion, shouted + with all their might, saluting him anew as Imperator, and congratulating + him on his “bloodless victory.” Parthamasiris felt that he had fallen into + a trap, and would gladly have turned and fled; but he found himself + surrounded by the Roman troops and virtually a prisoner. Upon this he + demanded a private audience, and was conducted to the Emperor’s tent, + where he made proposals which were coldly rejected, and he was given to + understand that he must regard his crown as forfeited. It was further + required of him that, to prevent false rumors, he should present himself a + second time at the Emperor’s tribunal, prefer his requests openly, and + hear the Imperial decision. The Parthian consented. With a boldness worthy + of his high descent, he affirmed that he had neither been defeated nor + made prisoner, but had come of his own free will to hold a conference with + the Roman chief, in the full expectation of receiving from him, as + Tiridates had received from Nero, the crown of Armenia, confident, + moreover, that in any case he would “suffer no wrong, but be allowed to + depart in safety.” Trajan answered that he did not intend to give the + crown of Armenia to any one—the country belonged to the Romans, and + should have a Roman governor. As for Parthamasiris, he was free to go + whithersoever he pleased, and his Parthian attendants might accompany him. + The Armenians, however, must remain. They were Roman subjects, and owed no + allegiance to Parthia. + </p> + <p> + The tale thus told, with no appearance of shame, by the Roman historian, + Dio Cassius, is sufficiently disgraceful to Trajan, but it does not reveal + to us the entire baseness of his conduct. We learn from other writers, two + of them contemporary with the events, that the pompous dismissal of + Parthamasiris, with leave to go wherever he chose, was a mere pretence. + Trajan had come to the conclusion, if not before the interview, at any + rate in the course of it, that the youth was dangerous, and could not be + allowed to live. He therefore sent troops to arrest him as he rode off + from the camp, and when he offered resistance caused him to be set upon + and slain. This conduct he afterwards strove to justify by accusing the + young prince of having violated the agreement made at the interview; but + even the debased moral sense of his age was revolted by this act, and + declared the grounds whereon he excused it insufficient. Good faith and + honor had been sacrificed (it was said) to expediency—the reputation + of Rome had been tarnished—it would have been better, even if + Parthamasiris were guilty, to have let him escape, than to have punished + him at the cost of a public scandal. So strongly was the disgrace felt + that some (it seems) endeavored to exonerate Trajan from the + responsibility of having contrived the deed, and to throw the blame of it + on Exedares, the ex-king of Armenia and brother of Parthamasiris. But + Trajan had not sunk so low as to shift his fault on another. He declared + openly that the act was his own, and that Exedares had had no part in it. + </p> + <p> + The death of Parthamasiris was followed by the complete submission of + Armenia. Chosroes made no attempt to avenge the murder of his nephew, or + to contest with Trajan the possession of the long-disputed territory. A + little doubt seems for a short time to have been entertained by the Romans + as to its disposal. The right of Exedares to be reinstated in his former + kingdom was declared by some to be clear; and it was probably urged that + the injuries which he had suffered at the hands of Chosroes would make him + a sure Roman ally. But these arguments had no weight with Trajan. He had + resolved upon his course. An end should be put, at once and forever, to + the perpetual intrigues and troubles inseparable from such relations as + had hitherto subsisted between Rome and the Armenian kingdom. The Greater + and the Lesser Armenia should be annexed to the Empire, and should form a + single Roman province. This settled, attention was turned to the + neighboring countries. Alliance was made with Anchialus, king of the + Heniochi and Macheloni, and presents were sent to him in return for those + which his envoys had brought to Trajan. A new king was given to the + Albanians. Friendly relations were established with the chiefs of the + Iberi, Sauro-matse, Golchi, and even with the tribes settled on the + Cimmerian Bosphorus. The nations of these parts were taught that Rome was + the power which the inhabitants even of the remote East and North had most + to fear; and a wholesome awe was instilled into them which would, it was + hoped, conduce to the general tranquillity of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + But the objects thus accomplished, considerable as they were, did not seem + to the indefatigable Emperor sufficient for one year. Having settled the + affairs of the North-east, and left garrisons in the chief Armenian + strongholds, Trajan marched southwards to Edessa, the capital of the + province of Gsrhoene, and there received the humble submission of Abgarus, + who had hitherto wavered between the two contending powers. Manisares, a + satrap of these parts, who had a quarrel of his own with Chosroes, also + embraced his cause, while other chiefs wavered in their allegiance to + Parthia, but feared to trust the invader. Hostilities were commenced by + attacks in two directions—southward against the tract known as + Anthemusia, between the Euphrates and the Khabour; and eastward against + Batnas, Nisibis, and the mountain region known as Gordyene, or the Mons + Masius. Success attended both these movements; and, before winter set in, + the Romans had made themselves masters of the whole of Upper Mesopotamia, + and had even pushed southwards as far as Singara, a town on the skirts of + the modern Sinjar mountain-range. Mesopotarnia was at once, like Armenia, + “reduced into the form of a Roman province.” Medals were issued + representing the conqueror with these subject countries at his foot and + the obsequious Senate conferred the title of “Parthicus” upon the + Imperator, who had thus robbed the Parthians of two provinces. + </p> + <p> + According to some, the headquarters of Trajan during the ensuing winter + were at Nisibis or Edessa, but the nexus of the narrative in Dio seems + rather to require, and the other ancient notices to allow, the belief that + he returned to Syria and wintered at Antioch, leaving his generals in + possession of the conquered regions, with orders to make every preparation + for the campaign of the next year. Among other instructions which they + received was the command to build a large fleet at Nisibis, where good + timber was abundant, and to prepare for its transport to the Tigris, at + the point where that stream quits the mountains and enters on the open + country. Meanwhile, in the month of December, the magnificent Syrian + capital, where Trajan had his headquarters, was visited by a calamity of a + most appalling character. An earthquake, of a violence and duration + unexampled in ancient times, destroyed the greater part of its edifices, + and buried in their ruins vast multitudes of the inhabitants and of the + strangers that had flocked into the town in consequence of the Imperial + presence. Many Romans of the highest rank perished, and among them M. + Virgilianus Pedo, one of the consuls for the year. The Emperor himself was + in danger, and only escaped by creeping through a window of the house in + which he resided; nor was his person quite unscathed. Some falling + fragments struck him; but fortunately the injuries that he received were + slight, and had no permanent consequence. The bulk of the surviving + inhabitants, finding themselves houseless, or afraid to enter their houses + if they still stood, bivouacked during the height of the winter in the + open air, in the Circus, and elsewhere about the city. The terror which + legitimately followed from the actual perils was heightened by imaginary + fears. It was thought that the Mons Casius, which towers above Antioch to + the south-west, was about to be shattered by the violence of the shocks, + and to precipitate itself upon the ruined town. + </p> + <p> + Nor were the horrors of the catastrophe confined to Antioch. The + earthquake was one of a series which carried destruction and devastation + through the greater part of the East. In the Roman province of Asia, four + cities were completely destroyed—Eleia, Myrina, Pitane, and Cyme. In + Greece two towns were reduced to ruins, namely, Opus in Locris, and + Oritus. In Galatia three cities, unnamed, suffered the same fate. It + seemed as if Providence had determined that the new glories which Rome was + gaining by the triumphs of her arms should be obscured by calamities of a + kind that no human power could avert or control, and that despite the + efforts of Trajan to make his reign a time of success and splendor, it + should go down to posterity as one of gloom, suffering, and disaster. + </p> + <p> + Trajan, however, did not allow himself to be diverted from the objects + that he had set before him by such trifling matters as the sufferings of a + certain number of provincial towns. With the approach of spring (A.D. 116) + he was up and doing. His officers had obeyed his orders, and a fleet had + been built at Nisibis during the winter amply sufficient for the purpose + for which it was wanted. The ships were so constructed that they could be + easily taken to pieces and put together again. Trajan had them conveyed on + wagons to the Tigris at Jezireh, and there proceeded to make preparations + for passing the river and attacking Adiabene. By embarking on board some + of his ships companies of heavy-armed and archers, who protected his + working parties, and at the same time threatening with other ships to + cross at many different points, he was able, though with much difficulty, + to bridge the stream in the face of a powerful body of the enemy, and to + land his troops safely on the opposite bank. This done, his work was more + than half accomplished. Chosroes remained aloof from the war, either + husbanding his resources, or perhaps occupied by civil feuds, and left the + defence of his outlying provinces to their respective governors. + Mobarsapes, the Adiabenian monarch, had set his hopes on keeping the + invader out of his kingdom by defending the line of the Tigris, and when + that was forced he seems to have despaired, and to have made no further + effort. His towns and strongholds were taken one after another, without + their offering any serious resistance. Nineveh, Arbela, and Gaugamala fell + into the enemy’s hands. Adenystrse, a place of great strength, was + captured by a small knot of Roman prisoners, who, when they found their + friends near, rose upon the garrison, killed the commandant, and opened + the gates to their countrymen. In a short time the whole tract between the + Tigris and the Zagros mountains was overrun; resistance ceased; and the + invader was able to proceed to further conquests. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that an advance would have at once been + directed on Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital; but Trajan, for some reason + which is not made clear to us, determined otherwise. He repassed the + Tigris into Mesopotamia, took Hatra (now el-Hadhr), at that time one of + the most considerable places in those parts, and then, crossing to the + Euphrates, descended its course to Hit and Babylon. No resistance was + offered him, and he became master of the mighty Babylon without a blow. + Seleucia seems also to have submitted; and it remained only to attack and + take the capital in order to have complete possession of the entire region + watered by the two great rivers. For this purpose a fleet was again + necessary, and, as the ships used on the upper Tigris had, it would seem, + been abandoned, Trajan conveyed a flotilla, which had descended the + Euphrates, across Mesopotamia on rollers, and launching it upon the + Tigris, proceeded to the attack of the great metropolis. Here again the + resistance that he encountered was trivial. Like Babylon and Seleucia, + Ctesiphon at once opened its gates. The monarch had departed with his + family and his chief treasures,6 and had placed a vast space between + himself and his antagonist. He was prepared to contend with his Roman foe, + not in battle array, but by means of distance, natural obstacles, and + guerilla warfare. He had evidently determined neither to risk a battle nor + stand a siege. As Trajan advanced, he retreated, seeming to yield all, but + no doubt intending, if it should be necessary, to turn to bay at last, and + in the meantime diligently fomenting that spirit of discontent and + disaffection which was shortly to render the further advance of the + Imperial troops impossible. + </p> + <p> + But, for the moment, all appeared to go well with the invaders. The + surrender of Ctesiphon brought with it the submission of the whole region + on the lower courses of the great rivers, and gave the conqueror access to + the waters of a new sea. Trajan may be excused if he overrated his + successes, regarded himself as another Alexander, and deemed that the + great monarchy, so long the rival of Rome, was now at last swept away, and + that the entire East was on the point of being absorbed into the Roman + Empire. The capture by his lieutenants of the golden throne of the + Parthian kings may well have seemed to him emblematic of this change; and + the flight of Chosroes into the remote and barbarous regions of the far + East may have helped to lull his adversary into a feeling of complete + security. Such a feeling is implied in the pleasure voyage of the + conqueror down the Tigris to the Persian Gulf, in his embarkation on the + waters of the Southern Sea, in the inquiries which he instituted with + respect to Indian affairs, and in the regret to which he gave utterance, + that his advanced years prevented him from making India the term of his + labors. No shadow of his coming troubles seems to have flitted before the + eyes of the Emperor during the weeks that he was thus occupied—weeks + which he passed in self-complacent contemplation of the past and dreams of + an impossible future. + </p> + <p> + Suddenly, tidings of a most alarming kind dispelled his pleasing visions, + and roused him to renewed exertions. Revolt, he found, had broken out + everywhere in his rear. At Seleucia, at Hatra, at Nisibis, at Edessa, the + natives had flown to arms; his entire line of retreat was beset by foes, + and he ran a risk of having his return cut off, and of perishing in the + land which he had invaded. Trajan had hastily to retrace his stops, and to + send his generals in all directions to check the spread of insurrection. + Seleucia was recovered by Erucius Clarus and Julius Alexander, who + punished its rebellion by delivering it to the flames. Lucius Quietus + retook Nisibis, and plundered and burnt Edessa. Maximus, on the contrary, + was defeated and slain by the rebels, who completely destroyed the Roman + army under his orders. Trajan, perceiving how slight his hold was upon the + conquered populations, felt compelled to change his policy, and, as the + only mode of pacifying, even temporarily, the growing discontent, instead + of making Lower Mesopotamia into a Roman province, as he had made Armenia, + Upper Mesopotamia, and Adiabene (or Assyria), he proceeded with much pomp + and display to set up a native king. The prince selected was a certain + Parthamaspates, a member of the royal family of the Arsacidse, who had + previously sided with Rome against the reigning monarch. In a plain near + Ctesiphon, where he had had his tribunal erected, Trajan, after a speech + wherein he extolled the greatness of his own exploits, presented to the + assembled Romans and natives this youth as King of Parthia, and with his + own hand placed the diadem upon his brow. + </p> + <p> + Under cover of the popularity acquired by this act the aged Emperor now + commenced his retreat. The line of the Tigris was no doubt open to him, + and along this he might have marched in peace to Upper Mesopotamia or + Armenia; but either he preferred the direct route to Syria by way of Hatra + and Singara, or the insult offered to the Roman name by the independent + attitude which the people of the former place still maintained induced him + to diverge from the general line of his course, and to enter the desert in + order to chastise their presumption. Hatra was a small town, but strongly + fortified. The inhabitants at this time belonged to that Arabian + immigration which was always more and more encroaching upon Mesopotamia. + They were Parthian subjects, but appear to have had their own native + kings. On the approach of Trajan, nothing daunted, they closed their + gates, and prepared themselves for resistance. Though he battered down a + portion of the wall, they repulsed all the attempts of his soldiers to + enter through the breach, and when he himself came near to reconnoitre, + they drove him off with their arrows. His troops suffered from the heat, + from the want of provisions and fodder, from the swarms of flies which + disputed with them every morsel of their food and every drop of their + drink, and finally from violent hail and thunderstorms. Trajan was forced + to withdraw after a time without effecting anything, and to own himself + baffled and defeated by the garrison of a petty fortress. + </p> + <p> + The year, A.D. 116, seems to have closed with this memorable failure. In + the following spring, Chosroes, learning the retreat of the Romans, + returned to Ctesiphqn, expelled Parthamaspates, who retired into Roman + territory, and re-established his authority in Susiana and Southern + Mesopotamia. The Romans, however, still held Assyria (Adiabene) and Upper + Mesopotamia, as well as Armenia, and had the strength of the Empire been + exerted to maintain these possessions, they might have continued in all + probability to be Roman provinces, despite any efforts that Parthia could + have made to recover them. But in August, A.D. 117, Trajan died; and his + successor, Hadrian, was deeply impressed with the opinion that Trajan’s + conquests had been impolitic, and that it was unsafe for Rome to attempt + under the circumstances of the time any extension of the Eastern frontier. + The first act of Hadrian was to relinquish the three provinces which + Trajan’s Parthian war had added to the Empire, and to withdraw the legions + within the Euphrates. Assyria and Mesopotamia were at once reoccupied by + the Parthians. Armenia appears to have been made over by Hadrian to + Parthamaspates, and to have thus returned to its former condition of a + semi-independent kingdom, leaning alternately on Rome and Parthia. It has + been asserted that Osrhoene was placed likewise upon the same footing; but + the numismatic evidence adduced in favor of this view is weak; and upon + the whole it appears most probable that, like the other Mesopotamian + countries, Osrhoene again fell under the dominion of the Arsacidae. Rome + therefore gained nothing by the great exertions which she had made, unless + it were a partial recovery of her lost influence in Armenia, and a + knowledge of the growing weakness of her Eastern rival—a knowledge + which, though it produced no immediate fruit, was of importance, and was + borne in mind when, after another half-century of peace, the relations of + the two empires became once more unsatisfactory. + </p> + <p> + The voluntary withdrawal of Hadrian from Assyria and Mesopotamia placed + him on amicable terms with Parthia during the whole of his reign. Chosroes + and his successor could not but feel themselves under obligations to the + monarch who, without being forced to it by a defeat, had restored to + Parthia the most valuable of her provinces. On one occasion alone do we + hear of any, even threatened, interruption of the friendly relations + subsisting between the two powers; and then the misunderstanding, whatever + it may have been, was easily rectified and peace maintained. Hadrian, in + A.D. 122, had an interview with Chosroes on his eastern frontier, and by + personal explanations and assurances averted, we are told, an impending + outbreak. Not long afterwards (A.D. 130, probably) he returned to Chosroes + the daughter who had been captured by Trajan, and at the same time + promised the restoration of the golden throne, on which the Parthians + appear to have set a special value. + </p> + <p> + It must have been soon after he received back his daughter that Chosroes + died. His latest coins bear a date equivalent to A.D. 128; and the Roman + historians give Volagases II. as king of Parthia in A.D. 133. It has been + generally supposed that this prince was Chosroes’ son, and succeeded him + in the natural course; but the evidence of the Parthian coins is strong + against these suppositions. According to them, Volagases had been a + pretender to the Parthian throne as early as A.D. 78, and had struck coins + both in that year and the following one, about the date of the accession + of Pacorus. His attempt had, however, at that time failed, and for + forty-one years he kept his pretensions in abeyance; but about A.D. 119 or + 120 he appears to have again come forward, and to have disputed the crown + with Chosroes, or reigned contemporaneously with him over some portion of + the Parthian kingdom, till about A.D. 130, when—probably on the + death of Chosroes—he was acknowledged as sole king by the entire + nation. Such is the evidence of the coins, which in this case are very + peculiar, and bear the name of Volagases from first to last. It seems to + follow from them that Chosroes was succeeded, not by a son, but by a + rival, an old claimant of the crown, who cannot have been much younger + than Chosroes himself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Reign of Volagases II. Invasion of the Alani. Communications between + Volagases and Antoninus Pius. Death of Volagases II. and Accession of + Volagases III. Aggressive War of Volagases III. on Rome. Campaign of A.D. + 162. Verus sent to the East. Sequel of the War. Losses suffered by + Parthia. Death of Volagases III.</i> + </p> + <p> + Volagases II. appears to have occupied the Parthian throne, after the + death of Chosroes, for the space of nineteen years. His reign has a + general character of tranquillity, which agrees well with the advanced + period of life at which, according to the coins, he first became actual + king of Parthia. It was disturbed by only one actual outbreak of + hostilities, an occasion upon which Volagases stood upon the defensive; + and on one other occasion was for a brief period threatened with + disturbance. Otherwise it seems to have been wholly peaceful. So far as + appears, no pretenders troubled it. The coins show, for the years between + A.D. 130 and A.D. 149, the head of but one monarch, a head of a marked + type, which is impossible to be mistaken. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE + III., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The occasion upon which actual hostilities disturbed the repose of + Volagases was in A.D. 133, when, by the intrigues of Pharasmanes, king of + the Iberians, a great horde of Alani from the tract beyond the Caucasus + was induced to pour itself through the passes of that mountain chain upon + the territories of both the Parthians and the Romans Pharasmanes had + previously shown contempt for the power of Rome by refusing to pay court + to Hadrian, when, in A.D. 130, he invited the monarchs of Western Asia + generally to a conference. He had also, it would seem, been insulted by + Hadrian, who, when Pharasmanes sent him a number of cloaks made of + cloth-of-gold, employed them in the adornment of three hundred convicts + condemned to furnish sport to the Romans in the amphitheatre. What quarrel + he had with the Parthians we are not told; but it is related that at his + instigation the savage Alani, introduced within the mountain barrier, + poured at one and the same time into Media Atropatene, which was a + dependency of Parthia; into Armenia, which was under Parthamaspates; and + into the Roman province of Cappadocia. Volagases sent an embassy to Rome + complaining of the conduct of Pharasmanes, who appears to have been + regarded as ruling under Roman protection; and that prince was summoned to + Rome in order to answer for his conduct. But the Alanian inroad had to be + dealt with at once. The Roman governor of Cappadocia, who was Arrian, the + historian of Alexander, by a mere display of force drove the barbarians + from his province. Volagases showed a tamer spirit; he was content to + follow an example, often set in the East, and already in one instance + imitated by Rome, but never adopted by any nation as a settled policy + without fatal consequences, and to buy at a high price the retreat of the + invaders. + </p> + <p> + It was to have been expected that Rome would have punished severely the + guilt of Pharasmanes in exposing the Empire and its allies to horrors such + as always accompany the inroads of a barbarous people. But though the + Iberian monarch was compelled to travel to Rome and make his appearance + before the Emperor’s tribunal, yet Hadrian, so far from punishing him, was + induced to load him with benefits and honors. He permitted him to + sacrifice in the Capitol, placed his equestrian statue in the temple of + Bellona, and granted him an augmentation of territory. Volagases can + scarcely have been pleased at these results of his complaints; he bore + them, however, without murmuring, and, when (in A.D. 138) Hadrian died and + was succeeded by his adopted son, T. Aurelius, better known as Antoninus + Pius, Volagases sent to Rome an embassy of congratulation, and presented + the new monarch with a crown of gold. + </p> + <p> + It was probably at this same time that he ventured to make an unpleasant + demand. Hadrian had promised that the golden throne which Trajan had + captured, in his expedition, and by which the Parthians set so much store, + should be surrendered to them; but this promise he had failed to perform. + Volagases appears to have thought that his successor might be more facile, + and accordingly instructed his envoys to re-open the subject, to remind + Antoninus of the pledged faith of his adopted father, and to make a formal + request for the delivery of the valued relic. Antoninus, however, proved + as obdurate as Hadrian. He was not to be persuaded by any argument to give + back the trophy; and the envoys had to return with the report that their + representations upon the point had been in vain, and had wholly failed to + move the new Emperor. + </p> + <p> + The history of Volagases II. ends with this transaction. No events are + assignable to the last ten years of his reign, which was probably a season + of profound repose, in the East as it was in the West—a period + having (as our greatest historian observes of it) “the rare advantage of + furnishing very few materials for history,” which is, indeed (as he says), + “little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of + mankind.” The influence of Rome extended beyond his borders. As in modern + times it has become a proverb that when a particular European nation is + satisfied the peace of the world is assured, so in the days whereof we are + treating it would seem that Rome had only to desire repose, for the + surrounding nations to find themselves tranquil. The inference appears to + be that not only were the wars which occurred between Rome and her + neighbors for the most part stirred up by herself, but that even the civil + commotions which disturbed States upon her borders had very generally + their origin in Roman intrigues, which, skilfully concealed from view, + nevertheless directed the course of affairs in surrounding States, and + roused in them, when Rome thought her interests required it, civil + differences, disorders, and contentions. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Volagasos II. was Volagases III., who was most probably + his son, although of this there is no direct evidence. The Parthian coins + show that Volagases III. ascended the throne in A.D. 148 or 149, and + reigned till A.D. 190 or 191—a space of forty-two years. We may + assume that he was a tolerably young man at his accession, though the + effigy upon his earliest coins is well bearded, and that he was somewhat + tired of the long inactivity which had characterized the period of his + father’s rule. He seems very early to have meditated a war with Rome, and + to have taken certain steps which betrayed his intentions; but, upon their + coming to the knowledge of Antoninus, and that prince writing to him on + the subject, Volagases altered his plans, and resolved to wait, at any + rate, until a change of Emperor at Rome should give him a chance of taking + the enemy at a disadvantage. Thus it was not till A.D. 161—twelve + years after his accession—that his original design was carried out, + and the flames of war were once more lighted in the East to the ruin and + desolation of the fairest portion of Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + The good Antoninus was succeeded in the spring of A.D. 161 by his adopted + son, Marcus Aurelius, who at once associated with him in the government + the other adopted son of Antoninus, Lucius Verus. Upon this, thinking that + the opportunity for which he had been so long waiting had at last arrived, + Volagases marched his troops suddenly into Armenia, expelled Sosemus, the + king protected by the Romans, and established in his place a certain + Tigranes, a scion of the old royal stock, whom the Armenians regarded as + their rightful monarch. News of this bold stroke soon reached the + governors of the adjacent Roman provinces, and Severianus, prefect of + Cappadocia, a Gaul by birth, incited by the predictions of a + pseudo-prophet of those parts, named Alexander, proceeded at the head of a + legion into the adjoining kingdom, in the hope of crushing the nascent + insurrection and punishing at once the Armenian rebels and their Parthian + supporters. Scarcely, however, had he crossed the Euphrates, when he found + himself confronted by an overwhelming force, commanded by a Parthian + called Chosroes, and was compelled to throw himself into the city of + Elegeia, where he was immediately surrounded and besieged. Various tales + were told of his conduct under these circumstances, and of the fate which + overtook him the most probable account being that after holding out for + three days he and his troops were assailed on all sides, and, after a + brave resistance, were shot down almost to a man. The Parthians then + crossed the Euphrates, and carried fire and sword through Syria. Attidius + Cornelianus, the proconsul, having ventured to oppose them, was repulsed. + Vague thoughts of flying to arms and shaking off the Roman yoke possessed + the minds of the Syrians, and threatened to lead to some overt act. The + Parthians passed through Syria into Palestine, and almost the whole East + seemed to lie open to their incursions. When these facts were reported at + Rome, it was resolved to send Lucius Verus to the East. He was of an age + to undergo the hardships of campaigning, and therefore better fitted than + Marcus Aurelius to undertake the conduct of a great war. But, as his + military talent was distrusted, it was considered necessary to place at + his disposal a number of the best Roman generals of the time, whose + services he might use while he claimed as his own their successes. Statius + Priscus, Avidius Cassius, and Martius Verus, were the most important of + these officers; and it was by them, and not by Verus himself, that the + military operations were, in fact, conducted. It was not till late in the + year A.D. 162 that Verus, having with reluctance torn himself from Italy, + appeared, with his lieutenants, upon the scene in Syria, and, after vainly + offering them terms of peace, commenced hostilities against the triumphant + Parthians. The young Emperor did not adventure his own person in the + field, but stationed himself at Antioch, where he could enjoy the + pleasures and amusements of a luxurious capital, while he committed to his + lieutenants the task of recovering Syria and Armenia, and of chastising + the invaders. Avidius Cassius, to whom the Syrian legions were entrusted, + had a hard task to bring them into proper discipline after their long + period of inaction, but succeeded after a while by the use of almost + unexampled severities. Attacked by Volagases within the limits of his + province, he made a successful defence, and in a short time was able to + take the offensive, to defeat Volagases in a great battle near Europus, + and (A.D. 163) to drive the Parthians across the Euphrates. The Armenian + war was at the same time being pressed by Statius Priscus, who advanced + without a check from the frontier to the capital, Artaxata, which he took + and (as it seems) destroyed. He then built a new city, which he strongly + garrisoned with Roman troops, and sent intelligence of his successes to + Rome, whither Soaemus, the expelled monarch, had betaken himself. Soasmus + was upon this replaced on the Armenian throne, the task of settling him in + the government being deputed to a certain Thucydides, by whose efforts, + together with those of Martius Verus, all opposition to the restored + monarch was suppressed, and the entire country tranquillized. + </p> + <p> + Rome had thus in the space of two years recovered her losses, and shown + Parthia that she was still well able to maintain the position in Western + Asia which she had acquired by the victories of Trajan. But such a measure + of success did not content the ambitious generals into whose hands the + incompetence of Verus had thrown the real direction of the war. Military + distinction at this time offered to a Roman a path to the very highest + honors, each successful general becoming at once by force of his position + a candidate for the Imperial dignity. Of the various able officers + employed under Verus, the most distinguished and the most ambitious was + Cassius—a chief who ultimately raised the standard of revolt against + Aurelius, and lost his life in consequence. Cassius, after he had + succeeded in clearing Syria of the invaders, was made by Aurelius a sort + of generalissimo; and being thus free to act as he chose, determined to + carry the war into the enemy’s country, and to try if he could not rival, + or outdo, the exploits of Trajan fifty years previously. Though we have no + continuous narrative of his expedition, we may trace its course with + tolerable accuracy in the various fragmentary writings which bear upon the + history of the time—from Zeugma, when he crossed the Euphrates into + Mesopotamia, to Nicephorium, near the junction of the Belik with the + Euphrates; and thence down the course of the stream to Sura (Sippara?) and + Babylon. At Sura a battle was fought, in which the Romans were victorious; + and then the final efforts were made, which covered Cassius with glory. + The great city of Seleucia, upon the Tigris, which had a population of + 400,000 souls, was besieged, taken, and burnt, to punish an alleged + treason of the inhabitants. Ctesiphon, upon the opposite side of the + stream, was occupied, and the summer palace of Volagases there situated + was levelled with the ground. The various temples were plundered; secret + places, where it was thought treasure might be hid, were examined, and a + rich booty was carried off by the invaders. The Parthians, worsted in + every encounter, ceased to resist; and all the conquests made by Trajan + were recovered. Nor was this all. The Roman general, after conquering the + Mesopotamian plain, advanced into the Zagros mountains, and occupied, at + any rate, a portion of Media, thereby entitling his Imperial masters to + add to the titles of “Armeniacus,” and “Parthicus,” which they had already + assumed, the further and wholly novel title of “Medicus.” + </p> + <p> + But Rome was not to escape the Nemesis which is wont to pursue the + over-fortunate. During the stay of the army in Babylonia a disease was + contracted of a strange and terrible character, whereto the superstitious + fears of the soldiers assigned a supernatural origin. The pestilence, they + said, had crept forth from a subterranean cell in the temple of Comsean + Apollo at Seleucia, which those who were plundering the town rashly opened + in the hope of its containing treasure, but which held nothing except this + fearful scourge, placed there in primeval times by the spells of the + Chaldaeans. Such a belief, however fanciful, was calculated to increase + the destructive-power of the malady, and so to multiply its victims. Vast + numbers of the soldiers perished, we are told, from its effects during the + march homeward; their sufferings being further aggravated by the failure + of supplies, which was such that; many died of famine. The stricken army, + upon entering the Roman territory, communicated the infection to the + inhabitants, and the return of Verus and his troops to Rome was a march of + Death through the provinces. The pestilence raged with special force + throughout Italy, and spread as far as the Rhine and the Atlantic Ocean. + According to one writer more than one half of the entire population, and + almost the whole Roman army, was carried off by it. + </p> + <p> + But though Rome suffered in consequence of the war, its general result was + undoubtedly disadvantageous to the Parthians. The expedition of Cassius + was the first invasion of Parthia in which Rome had been altogether + triumphant. Trajan’s campaign had brought about the submission of Armenia + to the Romans; but it did not permanently deprive Parthia of any portion + of her actual territory. And the successes of the Emperor in his advance + were almost balanced by the disasters which accompanied his retreat—disasters + so serious as to cause a general belief that Hadrian’s concessions sprang + more from prudence than from generosity. The war of Verus produced the + actual cession to Rome of a Parthian province, which continued thenceforth + for centuries to be an integral portion of the Roman Empire. Western + Mesopotamia, or the tract between the Euphrates and the Khabour, passed + under the dominion of Rome at this time; and, though not reduced to the + condition of a province, was none the less lost to Parthia, and absorbed + by Rome into her territory. Parthia, moreover, was penetrated by the Roman + arms more deeply at this time than she had ever been previously, and was + made to feel, as she had never felt before, that in contending with Rome + she was fighting a losing battle. It added to the disgrace of her defeats, + and to her own sense of their decisive character, that they were inflicted + by a mere general, a man of no very great eminence, and one who was far + from possessing the free command of those immense resources which Rome had + at her disposal. + </p> + <p> + Parthia had now, in fact, entered upon the third stage of her decline. The + first was reached when she ceased to be an aggressive and was content to + become a stationary power; the second set in when she began to lose + territory by the revolt of her own subjects; the third—which + commences at this point—is marked by her inability to protect + herself from the attacks of a foreign assailant. The causes of her decline + were various. Luxury had no doubt done its ordinary work upon the + conquerors of rich and highly-civilized regions, softening down their + original ferocity, and rendering them at once less robust in frame and + less bold and venturesome in character. + </p> + <p> + The natural law of exhaustion, which sooner or later affects all races of + any distinction, may also not improbably have come into play, rendering + the Parthians of the age of Verus very degenerate descendants of those who + displayed such brilliant qualities when they contended with Crassus and + Mark Antony. Loyalty towards the monarch, and the absolute devotion of + every energy to his service, which characterized, the earlier times, + dwindled and disappeared as the succession became more and more disputed, + and the kings less worthy of their subjects’ admiration. The strength + needed against foreign enemies was, moreover, frequently expended in civil + broils; the spirit of patriotism declined; and tameness under insult and + indignity took the place of that fierce pride and fiery self-assertion + which had once characterized the people. + </p> + <p> + The war with Rome terminated in the year A.D. 165. Volagases survived its + close for at least twenty-five years; but he did not venture at any time + to renew the struggle, or to make any effort for the recovery of his lost + territory. Once only does he appear to have contemplated an outbreak. + When, about the year A.D. 174 or 175, Aurelius being occupied in the west + with repelling the attacks of the wild tribes upon the Danube, Avidius + Cassius assumed the purple in Syria, and a civil war seemed to be + imminent, Volagases appears to have shown an intention of once more taking + arms and trying his fortune. A Parthian war was at this time expected to + break out by the Romans. But the crisis passed without an actual + explosion. The promptness of Aurelius, who, on hearing the news, at once + quitted the Danube and marched into Syria, together with the rapid + collapse of the Cassian revolt, rendered it imprudent for Volagases to + persist in his project. He therefore laid aside all thought of renewing + hostilities with Rome; and, on the arrival of Aurelius in Syria, sent + ambassadors to him with friendly assurances, who were received favorably + by the philosophic Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Four years after this Marcus Aurelius died, and was succeeded in the + purple by his youthful son, Lucius Aurelius Commodus. It might have been + expected that the accession of this weak and inexperienced prince would + have induced Volagases to resume his warlike projects, and attempt the + recovery of Mesopotamia. But the scanty history of the time which has come + down to us shows no trace of his having entertained any such design. He + had probably reached the age at which repose becomes a distinct object of + desire, and is infinitely preferred to active exertion. At any rate, it is + clear that he made no effort. The reign of Gommodus was from first to last + untroubled by Oriental disturbance. Volgases III. was for ten years + contemporary with this mean and unwarlike prince; but Rome was allowed to + retain her Parthian conquests unmolested. At length, in A.D. 190 or 191, + Volagases died,56 and the destinies of Parthia passed into the hands of a + new monarch. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Accession of Volagases IV. His Alliance sought by Pescennius Niger, + Part taken by Parthia in the Contest between Niger and Severus, + Mesopotamia revolts from Rome. First Eastern Expedition of Severus. Its + Results. Second Expedition. Successes of Severus. His Failure at Hatra. + General Results of the War. Death of Volagases IV.</i> + </p> + <p> + On the death of Volagases III., in A.D. 190 or 191, the Parthian crown + fell to another prince of the same name, who was probably the eldest son + of the late monarch. This prince was scarcely settled upon the throne when + the whole of Western Asia was violently disturbed by the commotions which + shook the Roman Empire after the murder of Commodus. The virtuous Pertinax + was allowed to reign but three months (A.D. 193, January—March). His + successor was scarcely proclaimed when in three different quarters the + legionaries rose in arms, and, saluting their commanders as “Emperors,” + invested them with the purple. Clodius Albinus, in Britain; Severus, in + Pannonia; and Pescennius Niger, in Syria, at one and the same time claimed + the place which the wretched Julianus had bought, and prepared themselves + to maintain their rights against all who should impugn them. It seems + that, on the first proclamation of Niger, and before it had become evident + that he would have to establish his authority by force of arms, either the + Parthian monarch, or at any rate princes who were among his dependants, + sent to congratulate the new Emperor on his accession and to offer him + contingents of troops, if he required them. These spontaneous proposals + were at the first politely declined, since Niger expected to find himself + accepted joyfully as sovereign, and did not look to have to engage in war. + When, however, the news reached him that he had formidable competitors, + and that Severus, acknowledged Emperor at Rome, was about to set out for + the East, at the head of vast forces, he saw that it would be necessary + for him, if he were to make head against his powerful rival, to draw + together troops from all quarters. Accordingly, towards the close of A.D. + 193, he sent envoys to the princes beyond the Euphrates, and especially to + the kings of Parthia, Armenia, and Hatra, entreating them to send their + troops at once to his aid. Volagases, under these circumstances, appears + to have hesitated. He sent an answer that he would issue orders to his + satraps for the collection of a force, but made no haste to redeem his + promise, and in fact refrained from despatching any body of distinctly + Parthian troops to the assistance of Niger in the impending struggle. + </p> + <p> + While, however, thus abstaining from direct interference in the contest + between the two Roman pretenders, Volagases appears to have allowed one of + his dependent monarchs to mix himself up in the quarrel. Hatra, at this + time the capital of an Arabian community, and the chief city of central + Mesopotamia (or the tract between the Sinjar and the Babylonian alluvium), + was a dependency of Parthia, and though, like so many other Parthian + dependencies, it possessed its native kings, cannot have been in a + position to engage in a great war without permission from the Court of + Ctesiphon. When, therefore, we find that Barsemius, the King of Hatra, not + only received the envoys of Niger favorably, but actually sent to his aid + a body of archers, we must understand that Volagases sanctioned the + measure. Probably he thought it prudent to secure the friendship of the + pretender whom he expected to be successful, but sought to effect this in + the way that would compromise him least if the result of the struggle + should be other than he looked for. The sending of his own troops to the + camp of Niger would have committed him irretrievably; but the actions of a + vassal monarch might with some plausibility be disclaimed. + </p> + <p> + As the struggle between the two pretenders progressed in the early months + of A.D. 194, the nations beyond the Euphrates grew bolder, and allowed + themselves to indulge their natural feelings of hostility towards the + Romans. The newly subjected Mesopotamians flew to arms, massacred most of + the Roman detachments stationed about their country, and laid siege to + Nisibis, which since the cession Rome had made her head-quarters. The + natives of the region were assisted by their kindred races across the + Tigris, particularly by the people of Adiabene, who, like the Arabs of + Hatra, were Parthian vassals. Severus had no sooner overcome his rival and + slain him, than he hastened eastward with the object of relieving the + troops shut up in Nisibis, and of chastising the rebels and their + abettors. It was in vain that the Mesopotamians sought to disarm his + resentment by declaring that they had taken up arms in his cause, and had + been only anxious to distress and injure the partisans of his antagonist. + Though they sent ambassadors to him with presents, and offered to make + restitution of the Roman spoil still in their hands, and of the Roman + prisoners, it was observed that they said nothing about restoring the + strongholds which they had taken, or resuming the position of Roman + tributaries. On the contrary, they required that all Roman soldiers still + in their country should be withdrawn from it, and that their independence + should henceforth be respected. As Severus was not inclined to surrender + Roman territory without a contest, war was at once declared. His immediate + adversaries were of no great account, being, as they were, the petty kings + of Osrhoene, Adiabene, and Hatra; but behind them loomed the massive form + of the Parthian State, which was attacked through them, and could not be + indifferent to their fortunes. + </p> + <p> + In the spring of A.D. 195, Severus, at the head of his troops, crossed the + Euphrates in person, and taking up his own quarters at Nisibis, which the + Mesopotamians had been unable to capture, proceeded to employ his generals + in the reduction of the rebels and the castigation of their aiders and + abettors. Though his men suffered considerably from the scarcity and + badness of the water, yet he seems to have found no great difficulty in + reducing Mesopotamia once more into subjection. Having brought it + completely under, and formally made Nisibis the capital, at the same time + raising it to the dignified position of a Roman colony, he caused his + troops to cross the Tigris into Adiabene, and, though the inhabitants + offered a stout resistance, succeeded in making himself master of the + country. The Parthian monarch seems to have made no effort to prevent the + occupation of this province. He stood probably on the defensive, expecting + to be attacked, in or near his capital. But Severus could not afford to + remain in these remote regions. He had still a rival in the West in the + person of Clodius Albinus, who might be expected to descend upon Italy, if + it were left exposed to his attacks much longer. He therefore quitted the + East early in A.D. 196, and returned to Rome with all speed, leaving + Parthia very insufficiently chastised, and his new conquests very + incompletely settled. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely was he gone when the war broke out with greater violence than + ever. Volagases took the offensive, recovered Adiabene, and crossing the + Tigris into Mesopotamia, swept the Romans from the open country. Nisibis + alone, which two years before had defied all the efforts of the + Mesopotamians, held out against him, and even this stronghold was within a + little of being taken. According to one writer, the triumphant Parthians + even crossed the Euphrates, and once more spread themselves over the + fertile plains of Syria. Severus was forced in A.D. 197 to make a second + Eastern expedition to recover his lost glory and justify the titles which + he had taken. On his first arrival in Syria, he contented himself with + expelling the Parthians from the province, nor was it till late in the + year, that, having first made ample preparation, he crossed the Euphrates + into Mesopotamia. + </p> + <p> + The success of any expedition against Parthia depended greatly on the + dispositions of the semi-dependent princes, who possessed territories + bordering upon those of the two great empires. Among these the most + important were at this time the kings of Armenia and Osrhoene. Armenia had + at the period of Niger’s attempt been solicited by his emissaries; but its + monarch had then refused to take any part in the civil conflict. + Subsequently, however, he in some way offended Severus who, when he + reached the East, regarded Armenia as a hostile State requiring instant + subjugation. It seems to have been in the summer of A.D. 197, soon after + his first arrival in Syria, that Severus despatched a force against the + Armenian prince, who was named (like the Parthian monarch of the time) + Volagases. That prince mustered his troops and met the invaders at the + frontier of his kingdom. A battle seemed imminent; but ere the fortune of + war was tried the Armenian made an application for a truce, which was + granted by the Roman leaders. A breathing-space being thus gained, + Volagases sent ambassadors with presents and hostages to the Roman emperor + in Syria, professed to be animated by friendly feelings towards Rome, and + entreated Severus to allow him terms of peace. Severus permitted himself + to be persuaded; a formal treaty was made, and the Armenian prince even + received an enlargement of his previous territory at the hands of his + mollified suzerain. + </p> + <p> + The Osrhoenian monarch, who bore the usual name of Abgarus, made a more + complete and absolute submission. He came in person into the emperor’s + camp, accompanied by a numerous body of archers, and bringing with him his + sons as hostages. Severus must have hailed with especial satisfaction the + adhesion of this chieftain, which secured him the undisturbed possession + of Western Mesopotamia as far as the junction of the Khabour with the + Euphrates. It was his design to proceed himself by the Euphrates route, + while he sent detachments under other leaders to ravage Eastern + Mesopotamia and Adiabene, which had evidently been re-occupied by the + Parthians. To secure his army from want, he determined, like Trajan, to + build a fleet of ships in Upper Mesopotamia, where suitable timber + abounded, and to march his army down the left bank of the Euphrates into + Babylonia, while his transports, laden with stores, descended the course + of the river. In this way he reached the neighborhood of Ctesiphon without + suffering any loss, and easily captured the two great cities of Babylon + and Seleucia, which on his approach were evacuated by their garrisons. He + then proceeded to the attack of Ctesiphon itself, passing his ships + probably through one of the canals which united the Tigris with the + Euphrates, or else (like Trajan) conveying them on rollers across the neck + of land which separates the two rivers. + </p> + <p> + Volagases had taken up his own position at Ctesiphon, bent on defending + his capital. It is possible that the approach of Severus by the line of + march which he pursued was unexpected, and that the sudden presence of the + Romans before the walls of Ctesiphon came upon the Parthian monarch as a + surprise. He seems, at any rate, to have made but a poor resistance. It + may be gathered, indeed, from one author that he met the invaders in the + open field, and fought a battle in defence of Ctesiphon before allowing + himself to be shut up within its walls. But after the city was once + invested it appears to have been quickly taken. We hear of no such + resistance as that which was soon afterwards offered by Hatra. The + soldiers of Severus succeeded in storming Ctesiphon on the first assault; + the Parthian monarch betook himself to flight, accompanied by a few + horsemen; and the seat of empire thus fell easily—a second time + within the space of eighty-two years—into the hands of a foreign + invader. The treatment of the city was such as we might expect from the + ordinary character of Roman warfare. A general massacre of the male + population was made. The soldiers wore allowed to plunder both the public + and the private buildings at their pleasure. The precious metals + accumulated in the royal treasury were seized, and the chief ornaments of + the palace were taken and carried off. Nor did blood and plunder content + the victors. After slaughtering the adult males they made prize of the + women and children, who were torn from their homes without compunction and + led into captivity, to the number of a hundred thousand. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the precautions which he had taken, Severus appears to + have become straitened for supplies about the time that he captured + Ctesiphon. His soldiers were compelled for some days to exist on roots, + which produced a dangerous dysentery. He found himself unable to pursue + Volagases, and recognized the necessity of retreating before disaster + overtook him. He could not, however, return by the route of the Euphrates, + since his army had upon its advance completely exhausted the resources of + the Euphrates region. The line of the Tigris was therefore preferred for + the retreat; and while the ships with difficulty made their way up the + course of the stream, the army pursued its march upon the banks, without, + so far as appears, any molestation. It happened, however, that the route + selected led Severus near to the small state of Hatra, which had given him + special offence by supporting the cause of his rival, Niger; and it seemed + to him of importance that the inhabitants should receive condign + punishment for this act of audacity. He may also have hoped to eclipse the + fame of Trajan by the capture of a town which had successfully resisted + that hero. He therefore stopped his march in order to lay siege to the + place, which he attacked with military engines, and with all the other + offensive means known at the time to the Romans. His first attempt was, + however, easily repulsed. The walls of the town were strong, its defenders + brave and full of enterprise. They burnt the siege-machines brought + against them, and committed great havoc among the soldiers. Under these + circumstances disorders broke out among the besiegers; mutinous words were + heard; and the emperor thought himself compelled to have recourse to + severe measures of repression. Having put to death two of his chief + officers, and then found it necessary to deny that he had given orders for + the execution of one of them, he broke up from before the place and + removed his camp to a distance. + </p> + <p> + He had not, however, as yet relinquished the hope of bringing his + enterprise to a successful issue. In the security of his distant camp he + constructed fresh engines in increased numbers, collected an abundant + supply of provisions, and made every preparation for renewing the siege + with effect at no remote period. The treasures stored up in the city were + reported to be great, especially those which the piety of successive + generations had accumulated in the Temple of the Sun. This rich booty + appealed forcibly to the cupidity of the emperor, while his honor seemed + to require that he should not suffer a comparatively petty town to defy + his arms with impunity. He, therefore, after a short absence retraced his + steps, and appeared a second time before Hatrawith a stronger siege-train + and a better appointed army than before. But the Hatreni met his attack + with a resolution equal to his own. They were excellent archers; they + possessed a powerful force of cavalry; they knew their walls to be strong; + and they were masters of a peculiar kind of fire, which was calculated to + terrify and alarm, if not greatly to injure, an enemy unacquainted with + its qualities. Severus once more lost almost all his machines; the Hatrene + cavalry severely handled his foragers; his men for a long time made but + little impression upon the walls, while they suffered grievously from the + enemy’s slingers and archers, from his warlike engines, and especially, we + are told, from the fiery darts which were rained upon them incessantly. + However, after enduring these various calamities for a length of time, the + perseverance of the Romans was rewarded by the formation of a practicable + breach in the outer wall; and the soldiers demanded to be led to the + assault, confident in their power to force an entrance and carry the + place. But the emperor resisted their inclination. He did not wish that + the city should be stormed, since in that case it must have been given up + to indiscriminate pillage, and the treasures which he coveted would have + become the prey of the soldiery. The Hatreni, he thought, would make their + submission, if he only gave them a little time, now that they must see + further resistance to be hopeless. He waited therefore a day, expecting an + offer of surrender. But the Hatreni made no sign, and in the night + restored their wall where it had been broken down. + </p> + <p> + Severus then made up his mind to sacrifice the treasures on which his + heart had been set, and, albeit with reluctance, gave the word for the + assault. But now the legionaries refused. They had been forbidden to + attack when success was certain and the danger trivial—they were now + required to imperil their lives while the result could not but be + doubtful. Perhaps they divined the emperor’s motive in withholding them + from the assault, and resented it; at any rate they openly declined to + execute his orders. After a vain attempt to force an entrance by means of + his Asiatic allies, Severus desisted from his undertaking. The summer was + far advanced the heat was great; disease had broken out among his troops; + above all, they had become demoralized, and their obedience could no + longer be depended on. Severus broke up from before Hatra a second time, + after having besieged it for twenty days, and returned—by what route + we are not told—into Syria. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more surprising in the history of this campaign than the + inaction and apparent apathy of the Parthians. Volagases, after quitting + his capital, seems to have made no effort at all to hamper or harass his + adversary. The prolonged resistance of Hatra, the sufferings of the + Romans, their increasing difficulties with respect to provisions, the + injurious effect of the summer heats upon their unacclimatized + constitutions, would have been irresistible temptations to a prince of any + spirit or energy, inducing him to advance as the Romans retired, to hang + upon their rear, to cut off their supplies, and to render their retreat + difficult, if not disastrous. Volagases appears to have remained wholly + inert and passive. His conduct is only explicable by the consideration of + the rapid decline which Parthia was now undergoing, of the general decay + of patriotic spirit, and the sea of difficulties into which a monarch was + plunged who had to retreat before an invader. + </p> + <p> + The expedition of Severus was on the whole glorious for Rome, and + disastrous for Parthia, though the glory of the victor was tarnished at + the close by his failure before Hatra. It cost Parthia a second province. + The Roman emperor not only recovered his previous position in Mesopotamia, + but overstepping the Tigris, established the Roman dominion firmly in the + fertile tract between that stream and the Zagros mountain-range. The title + of “Adiabenicus” became no empty boast. Adiabene, or the tract between the + Zab rivers—probably including at this time the entire low region at + the foot of Zagros from the eastern Khabour on the north to the Adhem + towards the south—passed under the dominion of Rome, the monarch of + the country, hitherto a Parthian vassal, becoming her tributary. Thus the + imperial standards were planted permanently at a distance less than a + degree from the Parthian capital, which, with the great cities of Seleucia + and Babylon in its neighborhood, was exposed to be captured almost at any + moment by a sudden and rapid inroad. + </p> + <p> + Volagases survived his defeat by Severus about ten or eleven years. For + this space Parthian history is once more a blank, our authorities + containing no notice that directly touches Parthia during the period in + question. The stay of Severus in the East during the years A.D. 200 and + 201, would seem to indicate that the condition of the Oriental provinces + was unsettled and required the presence of the Imperator. But we hear of + no effort made by Parthia at this time to recover her losses—of no + further collision between her troops and those of Rome; and we may assume + therefore that peace was preserved, and that the Parthian monarch + acquiesced, however unwillingly, in the curtailment of his territory. + Probably internal, no less than external, difficulties pressed upon him. + The diminution of Parthian prestige which had been brought about by the + successive victories of Trajan, Avidius Cassius, and Severus must have + loosened the ties which bound to Parthia the several vassal kingdoms. Her + suzerainty had been accepted as that of the Asiatic nation most competent + to make head against European intruders, and secure the native races in + continued independence of a wholly alien power. It may well have appeared + at this time to the various vassal states that the Parthian vigor had + become <i>effete</i>, that the qualities which had advanced the race to + the leadership of Western Asia were gone, and that unless some new power + could be raised up to act energetically against Rome, the West would + obtain complete dominion over the East, and Asia be absorbed into Europe. + Thoughts of this kind, fermenting among the subject populations, would + produce a general debility, a want both of power and of inclination to + make any combined effort, a desire to wait until an opportunity of acting + with effect should offer. Hence probably the deadness and apathy which + characterize this period, and which seem at first sight so astonishing. + Distrust of their actual leader paralyzed the nations of Western Asia, and + they did not as yet see their way clearly towards placing themselves under + any other guidance. + </p> + <p> + Volagases IV. reigned till A.D. 208-9, dying thus about two years before + his great adversary, who expired at York, February 4, A.D. 211. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Struggle between the two Sons of Volagases IV., Volagases V. and + Artabanus. Continued Sovereignty of both Princes. Ambition of Caracallus. + His Proceedings in the East. His Resolve to quarrel with Parthia. First + Proposal made by him to Artabanus. Perplexity of Artabanus. Caracallus + invades Parthia. His Successes, and Death. Macrinus, defeated by + Artabanus, consents to Terms of Peace. Revolt of the Persians under + Artaxerxes. Prolonged Struggle. Death of Artabanus, and Downfall of the + Parthian Empire.</i> + </p> + <p> + On the death of Volagases IV., the Parthian crown was disputed between his + two sons, Artabanus and Volagases. According to the classical writers, the + contest resulted in favor of the former, whom they regard as undisputed + sovereign of the Parthians, at any rate from the year A.D. 216. It + appears, however, from the Parthian coins, that both the brothers claimed + and exercised sovereignty during the entire term of seventeen or eighteen + years which intervened between the death of Volagases IV. and the revolt + of the Persians. Artabanus must beyond all doubt have acquired the sole + rule in the western portions of the empire, since (from A.D. 216 to A.D. + 226) he was the only monarch known to the Romans. But Volagases may at the + same time have been recognized in the more eastern provinces, and may have + maintained himself in power in those remote regions without interfering + with his brother’s dominion in the West. Still this division of the empire + must naturally have tended to weaken it; and the position of Volagases has + to be taken into account in estimating the difficulties under which the + last monarch of the Arsacid series found himself placed—difficulties + to which, after a struggle, he was at last forced to succumb. Domestic + dissension, wars with a powerful neighbor (Rome), and internal + disaffection and rebellion formed a combination, against which the last + Parthian monarch, albeit a man of considerable energy, strove in vain. But + he strove bravely; and the closing scenes of the empire, in which he bore + the chief part, are not unworthy of its best and palmiest days. + </p> + <p> + An actual civil war appears to have raged between the two brothers for + some years. Caracallus, who in A.D. 211 succeeded his father, Severus, as + Emperor of Rome, congratulated the Senate in A.D. 212 on the strife still + going on in Parthia, which could not fail (he said) to inflict serious + injury on that hostile state. The balance of advantage seems at first to + have inclined towards Volagases, whom Caracallus acknowledged as monarch + of Parthia in the year A.D. 215. But soon after this the fortune of war + must have turned; for subsequently to the year A.D. 215, we hear nothing + more of Volagases, but find Caracallus negotiating with Artabanus instead, + and treating with him as undisputed monarch of the entire Parthian empire. + That this was not his real position, appears from the coins; but the + classical evidence may be accepted as showing that from the year A.D. 216, + Volagases ceased to have much power, sinking from the rank of a rival + monarch into that of a mere pretender, who may have caused some trouble to + the established sovereign, but did not inspire serious alarm. + </p> + <p> + Artabanus, having succeeded in reducing his brother to this condition, and + obtained a general acknowledgment of his claims, found himself almost + immediately in circumstances of much difficulty. From the moment of his + accession, Caracallus had exhibited an inordinate ambition; and this + ambition had early taken the shape of a special desire for the glory of + Oriental conquests. The weak and dissolute son of Severus fancied himself, + and called himself, a second Alexander; and thus he was in honor bound to + imitate that hero’s marvellous exploits. The extension of the Roman + territory towards the East became very soon his great object, and he + shrank from no steps, however base and dishonorable, which promised to + conduce towards the accomplishment of his wishes. As early as A.D. 212 he + summoned Abgarus, the tributary king of Osrhoene, into his presence, and + when he unsuspectingly complied, seized him, threw him into prison, and + declaring his territories forfeited, reduced them into the form of a Roman + province. Successful in this bold proceeding, he attempted to deal with + Armenia in the same way; but, though the monarch fell foolishly into the + trap set for him, the nation was not so easily managed. The Armenians flew + to arms on learning the imprisonment of their king and royal family; and + when, three year afterwards (A.D. 215), Caracallus sent a Roman army under + Theocritus, one of his favorites, to chastise them, they inflicted a + severe defeat on their assailant. But the desire of Caracallus to effect + Oriental conquests was increased, rather than diminished, by this + occurrence. He had sought a quarrel with Parthia as early as A.D. 214, + when he demanded of Volagases the surrender of two refugees of + distinction. The rupture, which he courted, was deferred by the + discreditable compliance of the Great King with his requisition. + </p> + <p> + Volagases surrendered the two unfortunates; and the Roman Emperor was + compelled to declare himself satisfied with the concession. But a year had + not elapsed before he had devised a new plan of attack and proceeded to + put it in execution. + </p> + <p> + Volagases V. was about this time compelled to yield the western capital to + his brother; and Artabanus IV. became the representative of Parthian power + in the eyes of the Romans. Caracallus in the summer of A.D. 215, having + transferred his residence from Nicomedia to Antioch, sent ambassadors from + the last-named place to Artabanus, who were to present the Parthian + monarch with presents of unusual magnificence, and to make him an + unheard-of proposition. “The Roman Emperor,” said the despatch with which + they were intrusted, “could not fitly wed the daughter of a subject or + accept the position of son-in-law to a private person. No one could be a + suitable wife to him who was not a princess.” He therefore asked the + Parthian monarch for the hand of his daughter. Rome and Parthia divided + between them the sovereignty of the world; united, as they would be by + this marriage, no longer recognizing any boundary as separating them, they + would constitute a power that could not but be irresistible. It would be + easy for them to reduce under their sway all the barbarous races on the + skirts of their empires, and to hold them in subjection by a flexible + system of administration and government. The Roman infantry was the best + in the world, and in steady hand-to-hand fighting must be allowed to be + unrivalled. The Parthians surpassed all nations in the number of their + cavalry and in the excellency of their archers. If these advantages, + instead of being separated, were combined, and the various elements on + which success in war depends were thus brought into harmonious union, + there could be no difficulty in establishing and maintaining a universal + monarchy. Were that done, the Parthian spices and rare stuffs, as also the + Roman metals and manufactures, would no longer need to be imported + secretly and in small quantities by merchants, but, as the two countries + would form together but one nation and one state, there would be a free + interchange among all the citizens of their various products and + commodities. + </p> + <p> + The recital of this despatch threw the Parthian monarch into extreme + perplexity. He did not believe that the proposals made to him were + serious, or intended to have an honorable issue. The project broached + appeared to him altogether extravagant, and such as no one in his senses + could entertain for a moment. Yet he was anxious not to offend the master + of two-and-thirty legions, nor even to give him a pretext for a rupture of + amicable relations. Accordingly he temporized, contenting himself with + setting forth some objections to the request of Caracallus, and asking to + be excused compliance with it. “Such a union, as Caracallus proposed, + could scarcely,” he said, “prove a happy one. The wife and husband, + differing in language, habits, and mode of life, could not but become + estranged from one another. There was no lack of patricians at Rome, + possessing daughters with whom the emperor might wed as suitably as the + Parthian kings did with the females of their own royal house. It was not + fit that either family should sully its blood by mixture with the other.” + </p> + <p> + There is some doubt whether Caracallus construed this response as an + absolute refusal, and thereupon undertook his expedition, or whether he + regarded it as inviting further negotiation, and sent a second embassy, + whose arguments and persuasions induced Artabanus to consent to the + proposed alliance. The contemporary historian, Dio, states positively that + Artabanus refused to give his daughter to the Roman monarch, and that + Caracallus undertook his expedition to avenge this insult; but Herodian, + another contemporary, declares exactly the reverse. According to him, the + Roman Emperor, on receiving the reply of Artabanus, sent a new embassy to + urge his suit, and to protest with oaths that he was in earnest and had + the most friendly intentions. Artabanus upon this yielded, addressed + Caracallus as his son-in-law, and invited him to come and fetch home his + bride. Herodian describes with much minuteness, and with a good deal of + picturesque effect, the stately march of the Imperial prince through the + Parthian territory, the magnificent welcome which he received, and the + peaceful meeting of the two kings in the plain before Ctesiphon, which was + suddenly interrupted by the meditated treason of the crafty Roman. Taken + at disadvantage, the Parthian monarch with difficulty escaped, while his + soldiers and other subjects, incapable of making any resistance, were + slaughtered like sheep by their assailants, who then plundered and ravaged + the Parthian territory at their will, and returned laden with spoil into + Mesopotamia. In general, Dio is a more trustworthy authority than + Herodian, and most moderns have therefore preferred his version of the + story. But it may be questioned whether in this particular case the truth + has not been best preserved by the historian on whom under ordinary + circumstances we place less dependence. If so disgraceful an outrage as + that described by Herodian was, indeed, committed by the head of the Roman + State on a foreign potentate, Dio, as a great State official, would + naturally be anxious to gloss it over. There are, moreover, internal + difficulties in his narrative; and on more than one point of importance he + contradicts not only Herodian, but also Spartianus. It is therefore not + improbable that Herodian has given with most truth the general outline of + the expedition of Caracallus, though, with that love of effect which + characterizes him, he may have unduly embellished the narrative. + </p> + <p> + The advance of Caracallus was, if Spartianus is to be believed, through + Babylonia. The return may have been (as Dio seems to indicate that it was) + by the way of the Tigris, through Adiabene and Upper Mesopotamia. It was + doubtless on the return that Caracallus committed a second and wholly + wanton outrage upon the feelings of his adversary, by violating the + sanctity of the Parthian royal sepulchres, and dispersing their contents + to the four winds. These tombs were situated at Arbela, in Adiabene, a + place which seems to have been always regarded as in some sort a City of + the Dead. The useless insult and impiety were worthy of one who, like + Caracallus, was “equally devoid of judgment and humanity,” and who has + been pronounced by the most unimpassioned of historians to have been “the + common enemy of mankind.” A severe reckoning was afterwards exacted for + the indignity, which was felt by the Parthians with all the keenness + wherewith Orientals are wont to regard any infringement of the sanctity of + the grave. + </p> + <p> + Caracallus appears to have passed the winter at Edessa, amusing himself + with hunting and charioteering after the fatigues of his campaign. In the + spring he threatened another advance into Parthian territory, and threw + the Medes and Parthians into great alarm. He had not, however, the + opportunity of renewing his attack. On April 8, A.D. 217, having quitted + Edessa with a small retinue for the purpose of visiting a famous temple of + the Moon-God near Carrhaa, he was surprised and murdered on the way by + Julius Martialis, one of his guards. His successor, Macrinus, though a + Praetorian prefect, was no soldier, and would willingly have retired at + once from the war. But the passions of the Parthians had been roused. + Artahanus possessed the energy and spirit which most of the recent + monarchs had lacked; and though defeated when taken at disadvantage, and + unable for some months to obtain any revenge, had employed the winter in + the collection of a vast army, and was determined to exact a heavy + retribution for the treacherous massacre of Ctesiphon and the wanton + impiety of Arbela. He had already taken the field and conducted his troops + to the neighborhood of the Roman frontier when Caracallus lost his life. + Macrinus was scarcely acknowledged emperor when he found that the + Parthians were close at hand, that the frontier was crossed, and that + unless a treaty could be concluded he must risk a battle. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances the unwarlike emperor hurriedly, sent + ambassadors to the Parthian camp, with an offer to restore all the + prisoners made in the late campaign as the price of peace. Artabanus + unhesitatingly rejected the overture, but at the same time informed his + adversary of the terms on which he was willing to treat. Macrinus, he + said, must not only restore the prisoners, but must also consent to + rebuild all the towns and castles which Caracallus had laid in ruins, must + make compensation for the injury done to the tombs of the kings, and + further must cede Mesopotamia to the Parthians. It was impossible for a + Roman Emperor to consent to such demands without first trying the fortune + of war, and Macrinus accordingly made up his mind to fight a battle. The + Parthian prince had by this time advanced as far as Nisibis, and it was in + the neighborhood of that city that the great struggle took place. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Nisibis, which terminated the long contest between Rome and + Parthia, was the fiercest and best-contested which was ever fought between + the rival powers. It lasted for the space of three days. The army of + Artabanus was numerous and well-appointed: like almost every Parthian + force, it was strong in cavalry and archers; and it had moreover a novel + addition of considerable importance, consisting of a corps of picked + soldiers, clad in complete armor, and carrying long spears or lances, who + were mounted on camels. The Roman legionaries were supported by numerous + light-armed troops, and a powerful body of Mauritanian cavalry. According + to Dio, the first engagement was brought on accidentally by a contest + which arose among the soldiers for the possession of a watering-place. + Herodian tells us that it commenced with a fierce assault of the Parthian + cavalry, who charged the Romans with loud shouts, and poured into their + ranks flight after flight of arrows. A long struggle followed. The Romans + suffered greatly from the bows of the horse-archers, and from the lances + of the corps mounted on camels; and though, when they could reach their + enemy, they had always the superiority in close combat, yet after a while + their losses from the cavalry and camels forced them to retreat. As they + retired they strewed the ground with spiked balls and other contrivances + for injuring the feet of animals; and this stratagem was so far successful + that the pursuers soon found themselves in difficulties, and the armies + respectively retired, without any decisive result, to their camps. + </p> + <p> + The next day there was again a combat from morning to night, of which we + have no description, but which equally terminated without any clear + advantage to either side. The fight was then renewed for the third time on + the third day, with the difference that the Parthians now directed all + their efforts towards surrounding the enemy, and thus capturing their + entire force. As they greatly outnumbered the Romans, these last found + themselves compelled to extend their line unduly, in order to meet the + Parthian tactics; and the weakness of the extended line seems to have + given the Parthians an opportunity of throwing it into confusion, and thus + causing the Roman defeat. Macrinus took to flight among the first; and his + hasty retreat discouraged his troops, who soon afterwards acknowledged + themselves beaten, and retired within the lines of their camp. Both armies + had suffered severely. Herodian describes the heaps of dead as piled to + such a height that the manoeuvres of the troops were impeded by them, and + at last the two contending hosts could scarcely see one another! Both + armies, therefore, desired peace. The soldiers of Macrinus, who had never + had much confidence in their leader, were demoralized by ill success, and + showed themselves inclined to throw off the restraints of discipline. + Those of Artabanus, a militia rather than a standing force, were + unaccustomed to sustained efforts; and having been now for some months in + the field, had grown weary, and wished to return home. Macrinus under + these circumstances re-opened negotiations with his adversary. He was + prepared to concede something more than he had proposed originally, and he + had reason to believe that the Parthian monarch, having found the Roman + resistance so stubborn, would be content to insist on less. The event + justified his expectations. Artabanus relinquished his demand for the + cession of Mesopotamia, and accepted a pecuniary compensation for his + wrongs. Besides restoring the captives and the booty carried off by + Caracallus in his raid, Macrinus had to pay a sum exceeding a million and + a half of our money. Rome thus concluded her transactions with Parthia, + after nearly three centuries of struggle, by ignominiously purchasing a + peace. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that the glory of this achievement would have + brought the troubles of Artabanus to a close; and if they did not cause + the pretender who still disputed his possession of the throne to submit, + would at any rate have put an end to any disaffection on the part of the + subject nations that the previous ill-success of Parthia in her Roman wars + might have provoked. But in the histories of nations and empires we + constantly find that noble and gallant efforts to retrieve disaster and + prevent the ruin consequent upon it come too late. When matters have + gathered to a head, when steps that commit important persons have been + taken, when classes or races have been encouraged to cherish hopes, when + plans have been formed and advanced to a certain point, the course of + action that has been contemplated and arranged for cannot suddenly be + given up. The cause of discontent is removed, but the effects remain. + Affections have been alienated, and the alienation still continues. A + certain additional resentment is even felt at the tardy repentance, or + revival, which seems to cheat the discontented of that general sympathy + whereof without it they would have been secure. In default of their + original grievance, it is easy for them to discover minor ones, to + exaggerate these into importance, and to find in them a sufficient reason + for persistence in the intended course. Hence revolutions often take place + just when the necessity for them seems to be past, and kingdoms perish at + a time when they have begun to show themselves deserving of a longer term + of life. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible at the present day to form any trustworthy estimate of + the real value of those grounds of complaint which the Persians, in common + doubtless with other subject races, thought that they had against the + Parthian rule. We can well understand that the supremacy of any dominant + race is irksome to the aliens who have to submit to it; but such + information as we possess fails to show us either anything seriously + oppressive in the general system of the Parthian government, or any + special grievance whereof the Persians had to complain. The Parthians were + tolerant; they did not interfere with the religious prejudices of their + subjects, or attempt to enforce uniformity of creed or worship. Their + military system did not press over-heavily on the subject peoples, nor is + there any reason to believe that the scale of their taxation was + excessive. Such tyranny as is charged upon certain Parthian monarchs is + not of a kind that would have been sensibly felt by the conquered nations, + for it was exercised upon none who were not Parthians. If we endeavor to + form a distinct notion of the grievances under which the Persians + suffered, they seem to have amounted to no more than this: 1. That high + offices, whether military or civil, were for the most part confined to + those of Parthian blood, and not thrown open to Parthian subjects + generally; 2. That the priests of the Persian religion were not held in + any special honor, but placed merely on a par with the religious ministers + of the other subject races; 3. That no advantage in any respect was + allowed to the Persians over the rest of the conquered peoples, + notwithstanding that they had for so many years exercised supremacy over + Western Asia, and given to the list of Asiatic worthies such names as + those of Cyrus and Darius Hystaspis. It must, however, be confessed that + the account which has come down to us of the times in question is + exceedingly meagre and incomplete; that we cannot say whether the Persians + had not also other grounds of complaint besides those that are known to + us; and, more especially, that we have no means of determining what the + actual pressure of the grievances complained of was, or whether it did not + reach to that degree of severity which moderns mostly hold to justify + disaffection and rebellion. On the whole, perhaps, our conclusion must be, + that the best justification of the outbreak is to be found in its success. + The Parthians had no right to their position but such as arose out of the + law of the stronger— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The ancient rule, the good old plan, + That those shall take who have the power, + And those shall keep who can— +</pre> + <p> + when the time came that they had lost this pre-eminence, superiority in + strength having passed from them to a nation hitherto counted among their + subjects, it was natural and right that the seat of authority should shift + with the shift in the balance of power, and that the leadership of the + Persians should be once more recognized. + </p> + <p> + If the motives which actuated the nation of the Persians in rising against + their masters are thus obscure and difficult to be estimated, still less + can we form any decided judgment upon those which caused their leader, + Artaxerxes, to attempt his perilous enterprise. Could we trust implicitly + the statement of Agathias, that Artaxerxes was himself a Magus, initiated + in the deepest mysteries of the Order, we should have grounds for + considering that religious zeal was, at any rate, a leading motive of his + conduct. It is certain that among the principal changes consequent upon + his success was a religious revolution—the substitution for Parthian + tolerance of all faiths and worships, of a rigidly enforced uniformity in + religion, the establishment of the Magi in power, and the bloody + persecution of all such as declined obedience to the precepts of + Zoroaster. But the conjecture has been made, and cannot be refuted, that + the proceedings of Artaxerxes in this matter should be ascribed to policy + rather than to bigotry, and in that case we could not regard him, as + originally inspired by a religious sentiment. Perhaps it is best to + suppose that, like most founders of empires, he was mainly prompted by + ambition; that he saw in the distracted state of Parthia and in the + awakening of hope among the subject races, an occasion of which he + determined to avail himself as far as he could, and that he was gradually + led on to enlarge his views and to effect the great revolution, which he + brought about, by the force of circumstances, the wishes of others, and + the occurrence of opportunities which at first he neither foresaw nor + desired. + </p> + <p> + It has been observed, that Parthia was, during the whole reign of + Artaxerxes, distracted by the claims of a pretender, Volagases V. + According to Moses of Chorene, two branches of the Arsacid family, both of + them settled in Bactria, were at feud with the reigning prince; and these + offended relatives carried their enmity to such a length as to consider + submission to a foreigner a less evil than subjection to the <i>de facto</i> + head of their house. The success of Artabanus in the war against Rome had + no effect upon his domestic foes; and Artaxerxes undoubtedly knew that, if + he raised the standard of revolt, he might count on a certain amount of + support from discontented Arsacids and their followers. But his main + reliance must have been on the Persians. The Persians had, in the original + arrangements of the Parthian empire, been treated with a certain amount of + favor. They had been allowed to retain their native monarchs, a concession + which naturally involved the continuance of the nation’s laws, customs, + and traditions. Their religion had not been persecuted, and had even in + the early times attracted a considerable amount of Court favor. But it + would seem that latterly the privileges of the nation had been diminished, + while their prejudices were wantonly shocked. The Magi had ceased to be + regarded as of much account, and, if they still formed nominally a portion + of the king’s council, can have had little influence on the conduct of + affairs by the government. Such a custom as that of burning the dead, + which seems to have been the rule in the later Parthian times, could never + have maintained its ground, if the opinion of the Magi, or their + coreligionists, had been considered of much account. + </p> + <p> + Encouraged by the dissensions prevailing in the Parthian royal house, + strong in the knowledge of his fellow-countrymen’s discontent, and perhaps + thinking that the losses which Artabanus had sustained in his three days’ + battle against the Romans under Macrinus had seriously weakened his + military strength, Artaxerxes, tributary king of Persia under Parthia, + about A.D. 220, or a little later, took up arms against his master, and in + a little time succeeded in establishing the independence of Persia Proper, + or the modern province of Fars. Artabanus is said to have taken no steps + at first to crush the rebellion, or to re-establish his authority over his + revolted vassal. Thus the Persian monarch, finding himself unmolested, was + free to enlarge his plans, and having originally, as is probable, designed + only the liberation of his own people, began to contemplate conquests. + Turning his arms eastwards against Carmania (Kerman), he easily reduced + that scantily-peopled tract under his dominion, after which he made war + towards the north, and added to his kingdom some of the outlying regions + of Media. Artabanus now at length resolved to bestir himself, and + collecting his forces, took the field in person. Invading Persia Proper, + he engaged in a desperate struggle with his rival. Three great battles + were fought between the contending powers. In the last, which took place + in the plain of Hormuz, between Bebahan and Shuster, on the course of the + Jerahi river, Artabanus was, after a desperate conflict, completely + defeated, and not only defeated but slain (A.D. 226). + </p> + <p> + The victory of Hormuz did not, however, absolutely decide the contest, or + determine at once that the Parthian empire should fall, and the new + Persian kingdom succeed into its place. Artabanus had left sons; and there + were not wanting those among the feudatories of the empire, and even among + the neighboring potentates, who were well inclined to embrace their cause. + A certain Artavasdes seems to have claimed the throne, and to have been + accepted as king, at least by a portion of the Parthians, in the year + following the death of Artabanus (A.D. 227), when he certainly issued + coins. The Armenian monarch, who had been set on his throne by Artabanus, + and was uncle to the young princes, was especially anxious to maintain the + Arsacids in power; he gave them a refuge in Armenia, collected an army on + their behalf, and engaging Artaxerxes, is even said to have defeated him + in a battle. But his efforts, and those of Artavasdes, were unavailing. + The arms of Artaxerxes in the end everywhere prevailed. After a struggle, + which cannot have lasted more than a few years, the provinces of the old + Parthian empire submitted; the last Arsacid prince fell into the hands of + the Persian king; and the founder of the new dynasty sought to give + legitimacy to his rule by taking to wife an Arsacid princess. + </p> + <p> + Thus perished the great Parthian monarchy after an existence of nearly + five centuries. Its end must be attributed in the main to internal decay, + working itself out especially in two directions. The Arsacid race, with + which the idea of the empire was bound up, instead of clinging together + with that close “union” which is “strength,” allowed itself to be torn to + pieces by dissensions, to waste its force in quarrels, and to be made a + handle of by every foreign invader, or domestic rebel, who chose to use + its name in order to cloak his own selfish projects. The race itself does + not seem to have become exhausted. Its chiefs, the successive occupants of + the throne, never sank into mere weaklings or faineants, never shut + themselves up in their seraglios, or ceased to take a leading part, alike + in civil broils, and in struggles with foreign rivals. But the hold which + the race had on the population, native and foreign, was gradually weakened + by the feuds which raged within it, by the profusion with which the sacred + blood was shed by those in whose veins it ran, and the difficulty of + knowing which living member of it was its true head, and so entitled to + the allegiance of those who wished to be faithful Parthian subjects. + Further, the vigor of the Parthian soldiery must have gradually declined, + and their superiority over the mass of the nations under their dominion + have diminished. We found reasons for believing that, as early as A.D. 58, + Hyrcania succeeded in throwing off the Parthian yoke, and thus setting an + example of successful rebellion to the subject peoples. The example may + have been followed in cases of which we hear nothing; for the condition of + the more remote portions of the empire was for the most part unknown to + the Romans. When Persia, about A.D. 220, revolted from Artabanus, it was + no doubt with a conviction that the Parthians were no longer the terrible + warriors who under Mithridates I. had driven all the armies of the East + before them like chaff, or who under Orodes and Phraates IV. had gained + signal victories over the Romans. It is true that Artabanus had contended + not unsuccessfully with Macrinus. But the prestige of Parthia was far from + being re-established by the result of his three days’ battle. Rome + retained as her own, notwithstanding his success, the old Parthian + province of Mesopotamia, and was thus, even in the moment of her weakness, + acknowledged by Parthia to be the stronger. The Persians are not likely to + have been braver or more warlike at the time of their revolt from + Artabanus than in the days when they were subjected by Mithridates. Any + alteration, therefore, in the relative strength of the two peoples must be + ascribed to Parthian decline, since it cannot have been owing to Persian + advance and improvement. To conclude, we may perhaps allow something to + the personal qualities of Artaxerxes, who appears to have possessed all + the merits of the typical Oriental conqueror. Artabanus was among the most + able of the later Parthian monarchs; but his antagonist was more than + this, possessing true military genius. It is quite possible that, if the + leaders on the two sides had changed places, the victory might have + rested, not with the Persians, but with the Parthians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. + </h2> + <p> + <i>On the Architecture and Ornamental Art of the Parthians.</i> + </p> + <p> + The modern historian of Architecture observes, when he reaches the period + with which we have had to deal in this volume, that, with the advent of + Alexander, Oriental architecture disappears, and that its history is an + absolute blank from the downfall of the Achaemenians in B.C. 331 to the + rise of the Sassanians, about A.D. 226. The statement made involves a + certain amount of exaggeration; but still it expresses, roughly and + strongly, a curious and important fact. The Parthians were not, in any + full or pregnant sense of the word, builders. They did not aim at leaving + a material mark upon the world by means of edifices or other great works. + They lacked the spirit which had impelled successively the Assyrians, the + Babylonians, and the Persians to cover Western Asia with architectural + monuments, proofs at once of the wealth, and the grand ideas, of those who + raised them. Parthia, compared to these pretentious empires, was retiring + and modest. The monarchs, however rich they may have been, affected + something of primitive rudeness and simplicity in their habits and style + of life, their dwellings and temples, their palaces and tombs. It is + difficult indeed to draw the line in every case between pure Parthian work + and Sassanian; but on the whole there is, no doubt, reason to believe that + the architectural remains in Mesopotamia and Persia which belong to the + period between Alexander and the Arab conquest, are mainly the work of the + Sassanian or New Persian kingdom, and that comparatively few of them can + be ascribed with confidence to a time anterior to A.D. 227. Still a + certain number, which have about them indications of greater antiquity + than the rest, or which belong to sites famous in Parthian rather than in + Persian times, may reasonably be regarded as in all probability structures + of the Arsacid period; and from these we may gather at least the leading + characteristics of the Parthian architecture, its aims and resources, its + style and general effect, while from other remains—scanty indeed, + and often mutilated—we may obtain a tolerable notion of their + sculpture and other ornamental art. + </p> + <p> + The most imposing remains which seem certainly assignable to the Parthian + period are those of Hatra, or El-Hadhr, visited by Mr. Layard in 1846, and + described at length by Mr. Ross in the ninth volume of the “Journal of the + Royal Geographical Society,” as well as by Mr. Fergusson, in his “History + of Architecture.” Hatra became known as a place of importance in the early + part of the second century after Christ. It successfully resisted Trajan + in A.D. 116, and Severus in A.D. 198. It is then described as a large and + populous city, defended by strong and extensive walls, and containing + within it a temple of the Sun, celebrated for the great value of its + offerings. It enjoyed its own kings at this time, who were regarded as of + Arabian stock, and were among the more important of the Parthian tributary + monarchs. By the year A.D. 363 Hatra had gone to ruin, and is then + described as “long since deserted.” Its flourishing period thus belongs to + the space between A.D. 100 and A.D. 300; and its remains, to which Mr. + Fergusson assigns the date A.D. 250, must be regarded as probably at least + a century earlier, and consequently as indicating the character of the + architecture which prevailed under the later Parthians, and which, if + Sassanian improvements had not obliterated them, we should have found upon + the site of Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + The city of Hatra was enclosed by a circular wall of great thickness, + built of large square-cut stones, and strengthened at intervals of about + 170 yards by square towers or bastions. <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE + IV. Fig. 1.]</a> Its circumference considerably exceeded three miles. + Outside the wall was a broad and very deep ditch, and on the further side + of the ditch was an earthen rampart of considerable height and thickness. + Two detached forts, situated on eminences, commanded the approaches to the + place, one towards the east, and the other towards the north. The wall was + pierced by four gateways, of which the principal one faced the east. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate004.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 4. " /> + </div> + <p> + The circular space within the walls was divided into two portions by a + water-course passing across it from north to south, and running somewhat + east of the centre, which thus divided the circle into two unequal parts. + The eastern portion was left comparatively clear of buildings, and seems + to have been used mainly as a burial-ground; in the western were the + public edifices and the more important houses of the inhabitants. Of the + former by far the most remarkable was one which stood nearly in the centre + of the city, and which has been called by some a palace, by others a + temple, but which may best be regarded as combining both uses. <a + href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE IV. Fig. 2.]</a> This building stood within + a walled enclosure of an oblong square shape, about 800 feet long by 700 + broad. The wall surrounding it was strengthened with bastions, like the + wall around the city. The enclosure comprised two courts, an inner and an + outer. The outer court, which lay towards the east, and was first entered, + was entirely clear of buildings, while the inner court contained two + considerable edifices. Of these the less important was one which stretched + from north to south across the entire inclosure, and abutted upon the + outer court; this was confused in plan, and consisted chiefly of a number + of small apartments, which have been regarded as guard-rooms. The other + was a building of greater pretensions. It was composed mainly of seven + vaulted halls, all of them parallel one to another, and all facing + eastward, three being of superior and four of inferior size. The smaller + halls (Nos. I., III., IV., and VI., on the plan) were about thirty feet + long by twenty wide, and had a height of thirty feet; the larger ones + measured ninety feet in length, and were from thirty-five to forty feet + broad, with a height of sixty feet. All were upon the same plan. They had + semicircular vaulted roofs, no windows, and received their light from the + archway at the east end, which was either left entirely open, or perhaps + closed with curtains. + </p> + <p> + Externally, the eastern facade of the building, which was evidently its + main front, had for ornament, besides the row of seven arches, a series of + pillars, or rather pilasters, from which the arches sprang, some + sculptures on the stones composing the arches, and one or two emblematic + figures in the spaces left between the pilasters. The sculptures on the + stones of the arches consisted either of human heads, or of + representations of a female form, apparently floating in air. <a + href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE IV. Fig. 3.]</a> An emblematic sculpture + between the fourth and fifth arch represented a griffin with twisted tail, + raised about 5 feet above the ground. The entire length of the facade was + about 300 feet. + </p> + <p> + The interior of the smaller halls had no ornament; but the larger ones + were decorated somewhat elaborately. Here the side walls were broken by + three squared pilasters, rising to the commencement of the vaulting, and + terminated by a quasi-capital of ornamental work, consisting of a series + of ovals, each oval containing in its centre a round ball of dark stone. + </p> + <p> + Underneath these quasi-capitals, at the distance of from two to three + feet, ran a cornice, which crossed the pilasters, and extended the whole + length of the apartment, consisting of flowers and half-ovals, each oval + containing a half-ball of the same dark stone as the capitals. <a + href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE IV. Fig. 4.]</a> Finally, on the pilasters, + immediately below the cornice, were sculptured commonly either two or + three human heads, the length of each head being about two feet, and the + faces representing diverse types of humanity, some old and some young, + some male and some female, some apparently realistic, some idealized and + more or less grotesque in their accompaniments. The drawing of the heads + is said to have been full of spirit, and their general effect is + pronounced life-like and striking. + </p> + <p> + The seven halls, which have been described, were divided into two groups, + of three and four respectively, by a low fence, which ran from east to + west across the inner court, from the partition wall separating the third + and fourth halls to the buildings which divided the inner court from the + outer. It is probable that this division separated the male and female + apartments. The female ornamentation of the large hall (No. II.) belonging + to the southern group is perhaps an indication of the sex of its inmates; + and another sign that these were the female quarters is to be found in the + direct communication existing between this portion of the building and + “the Temple” (No. VIII.), which could not be reached from the male + apartments except by a long circuit round the building. + </p> + <p> + The “Temple” itself was an apartment of a square shape, each side being + about forty feet. It was completely surrounded by a vaulted passage, into + which light came from two windows at its south-west and north-west + corners. The Temple was entered by a single doorway, the position of which + was directly opposite an opening leading into the passage from Hall No. + II. Above this doorway was a magnificent frieze, the character of which is + thought to indicate the religious purpose of the structure. <a + href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE V. Fig. 1.]</a> The interior of the Temple + was without ornamentation, vaulted, and except for the feeble light which + entered by the single doorway, dark. On the west side a portal led into + the passage from the outer air. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate005.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 5. " /> + </div> + <p> + Besides these main apartments, the edifice which we are describing + contained a certain number of small rooms, lying behind the halls, and + entered by doorways opening from them. One or two such rooms are found + behind each of the smaller halls; and another of somewhat larger + dimensions lay behind the great hall (numbered VII. in the plan), forming + the extreme north-western corner of the building. These rooms were vaulted + and had no windows, receiving their only light from the small doorways by + which they were entered. + </p> + <p> + It is believed that the entire edifice, or at any rate the greater portion + of it, had an upper story. Traces of such a structure appear over the + halls numbered I and VI.; and it is thought that the story extended over + the entire range of halls. One traveller, on conjectural grounds, even + assigns to the building an elevation of three stories, and ventures to + restore the second and third in the mode represented in the woodcut. <a + href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE V. Fig. 2.]</a> According to this author the + upper portion of the edifice resembled in many respects the great palace + of the Sassanian monarchs, of which splendid remains still exist on the + site of Ctesiphon, where they are known as the Takht-i-Khuzroo, or Palace + of Chosroes. That palace was, however, on a very different plan from the + Hatra one, comprising as it did one hall only, but of a size vastly + superior to any of those at Hatra, and two wings, one on either side of + the hall, made up of dwelling and sleeping apartments. + </p> + <p> + The few windows which exist at Hatra are oblong square in shape, as in + general are the doorways connecting one apartment with another. In one + case there is an arched doorway, or niche, which has been blocked up. + There are no passages except the one which surrounds “the Temple,” the + apartments generally leading directly one into another. In some cases the + lintel of a doorway is formed of a single stone, and ornamented with very + delicate carving. The doorways are for the most part towards the corners + of apartments; that of the Temple, however, is in the centre of its + eastern wall. + </p> + <p> + The general style of the buildings at Hatra has been said to be “Roman or + Byzantine;” and it has even been supposed that in the style of the + ornaments and sculptured figures may be traced the corrupt taste and + feeble outline of the artists of Constantinople. But there is abundant + reason to believe that the Hatra Palace was built nearly two centuries + before Constantinople came into existence; and, although the large-use of + the round arch in vaulting may be due to the spread of Roman architectural + ideas, yet there are no grounds for supposing that any but native artists, + Parthian subjects, were employed in the work, or that it is other than a + fair specimen of what was achieved by the Parthian builders during the + later period of the empire. The palace of Volagases III. at Ctesiphon, + which Avidius Cassius destroyed in his invasion, was most likely of the + same general character—a combination of lofty halls suitable for + ceremonies and audiences with small and dark sleeping or living rooms, + opening out of them, the whole placed in the middle of a paved court, and + the male apartments carefully divided from those of the women. + </p> + <p> + The remains at Hatra are further remarkable for a considerable number of + reservoirs and tombs. The open space between the town proper and the + eastern wall and gate is dotted with edifices of a square shape, standing + apart from one another, which are reasonably regarded as sepulchres. These + are built in a solid way, of hewn stone, and consist either of one or two + chambers. They vary in size from twenty feet square to forty, and are + generally of about the same height. Some are perfectly plain, but the + exteriors of others are ornamented with pilasters. The reservoirs occur in + the paved court which surrounds the main building; they have narrow + apertures, but expand below the aperture into the shape of a bell, and are + carefully constructed of well-cut stones closely fitted together. + </p> + <p> + The material used at Hatra is uniformly a brownish gray limestone; and the + cutting is so clean and smooth that it is doubted whether the stones have + needed any cement. If cement has been employed, at any rate it cannot now + be seen, the stones everywhere appearing to touch one another. + </p> + <p> + There are several buildings remaining in Persia, the date of which cannot + be much later than that of the Hatra edifice; but, as it is on the whole + more probable that they belong to the Sassanian than to the Parthian + period, no account of them will be given here. It will be sufficient to + observe that their architecture grows naturally out of that which was in + use at Hatra, and that thus we are entitled to ascribe to Parthian times + and to subjects of the Parthian Empire that impulse to Oriental + architecture which awoke it to renewed life after a sleep of ages, and + which in a short time produced such imposing results as the + Takht-i-Khuzroo at Ctesiphon, the ruins of Shapur, and the triumphal arch + at Takht-i-Bostan. + </p> + <p> + The decorative and fictile art of the Parthians has received no + inconsiderable amount of illustration from remains discovered, in the + years 1850-1852, in Babylonia. In combination with a series of Parthian + coins were found by Mr. Loftus, on the site of the ancient Erech (now + Warka), a number of objects in clay, plaster, and metal, enabling us to + form a fair idea of the mode in which purely Parthian edifices were + decorated during the best times of the empire, and of the style that then + prevailed in respect of personal ornaments, domestic utensils, and other + objects capable, more or less, of aesthetic handling. The remains + discovered comprised numerous architectural fragments in plaster and + brick; a large number of ornamental coffins; several statuettes in + terra-cotta; jars, jugs, vases, and lamps in earthenware; some small glass + bottles; and various personal decorations, such as beads, rings, and + earrings. + </p> + <p> + The architectural fragments consisted of capitals of pillars <a + href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE V. Fig. 3]</a>, portions of cornices, and + specimens of a sort of diapering which seems to have been applied to + screens or thin partitions. The capitals were somewhat heavy in design, + and at first sight struck the spectator as barbarous; but they exhibited a + good deal of ingenious boldness, an absence of conventionality, and an + occasional quaintness of design not unworthy of a Gothic decorator. One + especially, which combines the upper portion of a human figure, wearing + the puffed-out hair or wig, which the Parthians affected, with an elegant + leaf rising from the neck of the capital, and curving gracefully under the + abacus, has decided merit, and is “suggestive of the later Byzantine + style.” The cornices occasionally reminded the discoverer of the + remarkable frieze at El-Hadhr, and were characterized by the same freedom + and boldness of invention as the capitals. But the most curious remains + were the fragments of a sort of screen work, pieces of plaster covered + with geometric designs upon both sides, the patterns on the two sides + differing. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE V. Fig. 4.]</a> These designs, + though unlike in many respects the arabesques of the Mohammedans, yet + seemed on the whole to be their precursors, the “geometric curves and + tracery” appearing to “shadow forth the beauty and richness of a style + which afterwards followed the tide of Mohammedan conquest to the remotest + corners of the known world.” + </p> + <p> + The ornamental coffins were of a coarse glazed earthenware, bluish-green + in hue, and belonged to the kind which has been called “slipper-shaped.” + <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE VI. Fig. 1.]</a> They varied in length + from three feet to six, and had a large aperture at their upper end, by + means of which the body was placed in them, and a flat lid to close this + aperture, ornamented like the coffin, and fixed in its place by a fine + lime cement. A second aperture at the lower extremity of the coffin + allowed for the escape of the gases disengaged during decomposition. The + ornamentation of the coffins varied, but consisted generally of small + figures of men, about six or seven inches in length, the most usual figure + being a warrior with his arms akimbo and his legs astride, wearing on his + head a coiffure, like that which is seen on the Parthian coins, and having + a sword hanging from the belt. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE VI. Fig. + 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate006.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 6. " /> + </div> + <p> + Of the statuettes in terra-cotta, one of the most curious represented a + Parthian warrior, recumbent, and apparently about to drink out of a cup + held in the left hand. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE VI. Fig. 3.]</a> + The figure was clad in a long coat of mail, with greaves on the legs and a + helmet upon the head. Others represented females; these had lofty + head-dresses, which sometimes rose into two peaks or horns, recalling the + costume of English ladies in the time of Henry IV. These figures were + veiled and carefully draped about the upper part of the person, but showed + the face, and had the legs bare from the knee downwards. + </p> + <p> + The jars, jugs, vases, and lamps greatly resembled those of the Assyrian + and Babylonian periods, but were on the whole more elegant and artistic. + The forms appended will give a tolerable idea of the general character of + these vessels. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE VI. Fig. 4.]</a> They were + of various sizes, and appear to have been placed in the tombs, partly as + the offerings of friends and well-wishers, partly with the more + superstitious object of actually supplying the deceased with the drink and + light needful for him on his passage from earth to the realms of the dead. + </p> + <p> + The glass bottles were, perhaps, lachrymatories. They had no peculiar + characteristics, but were almost exactly similar to objects of the same + kind belonging to the times of the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires. They + exhibited the same lovely prismatic colors, which have been so admired in + the glass of those kingdoms, an effect of decomposition, which, elsewhere + generally disfiguring, in the case of this material enhances the original + beauty of the object tenfold by clothing it in hues of the utmost + brilliance and delicacy. + </p> + <p> + The personal decorations consisted chiefly of armlets, bangles, beads, + rings, and ear-rings. They were in gold, silver, copper, and brass. Some + of the smaller gold ornaments, such as earrings, and small plates or beads + for necklaces and fillets, were “of a tasteful and elegant design.” The + finger-rings were coarser, while the toe-rings, armlets, and bangles, were + for the most part exceedingly rude and barbarous. Head-dresses in gold, + tall and pointed, are said to have been found occasionally; but the + museums of Europe have not yet been able to secure any, as they are + usually melted down by the finders. Broad ribbons of gold, which may have + depended like strings from a cap, are commoner, and were seen by Mr. + Loftus. Altogether, the ornaments indicated a strong love of personal + display, and the possession of considerable wealth, but no general + diffusion of a correct taste, nor any very advanced skill in design or + metallurgy. + </p> + <p> + Of purely aesthetic art—art, that is, into which the idea of the + useful does not enter at all—the Parthians appear scarcely to have + had an idea. During the five centuries of their sway, they seem to have + set up no more than some half dozen bas-reliefs. There is, indeed, only + one such work which can be positively identified as belonging to the + Parthian period by the inscription which accompanies it. The other + presumedly Parthian reliefs are adjudged to the people by art critics + merely from their style and their locality, occurring as they do within + the limits of the Parthian kingdom, and lacking the characteristics which + attach to the art of those who preceded and of those who followed the + Parthians in these countries. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate007.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 7. " /> + </div> + <p> + The one certainly Parthian bas-relief is that which still exists on the + great rock of Behistun, at the foot of the mountain, raised but slightly + above the plain. It seems to have contained a series of tall figures, + looking towards the right, and apparently engaged in a march or + procession, while above and between them were smaller figures on + horseback, armed with lances, and galloping in the same direction. One of + these was attended by a figure of Fame or Victory, flying in the air, and + about to place a diadem around his brow. The present condition of the + sculpture is extremely bad. Atmospheric influences have worn away the + larger figures to such an extent that they are discerned with difficulty; + and a recent Governor of Kirmanshah has barbarously inserted into the + middle of the relief an arched niche, in which he has placed a worthless + Arabic inscription. It is with difficulty that we form any judgment of the + original artistic merit of a work which presents itself to us in such a + worn and mutilated form; but, on the whole, we are perhaps justified in + pronouncing that it must at its best have been one of inferior quality, + even when compared only with the similar productions of Asiatics. The + general character is rather that of the Sassanian than of the Assyrian or + Persian period. The human figures have a heavy clumsiness about them that + is unpleasant to contemplate; the horses are rudely outlined, and are too + small for the men; the figure of Fame is out of all proportion to the hero + whom she crowns, and the diadem which she places on his head is + ridiculous, being nearly as large as herself! On the other hand, there is + spirit in the attitudes of both men and horses; the Fame floats well in + air; and the relief is free from that coarse grotesqueness which offends + us in the productions of the Sassanian artists. + </p> + <p> + Another, bas-relief, probably, but not quite certainly Parthian, exists in + the gorge of Sir-pul-i-zohab, and has been recently published in the great + work of M. Flandin. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE VIII.]</a> The + inscription on this monument, though it has not yet been deciphered, + appears to be written in the alphabet found upon the Parthian coins. The + monument seems to represent a Parthian king, mounted on horseback, and + receiving a chaplet at the hand of a subject. The king wears a cap bound + round with the diadem, the long ends of which depend over his shoulder. He + is clothed in a close-fitting tunic and loose trowsers, which hang down + upon his boots, and wears also a short cloak fastened under the chin, and + reaching nearly to the knee. The horse which he bestrides is small, but + strongly made; the tail is long, and the mane seems to be plaited. Thus + far the representation, though somewhat heavy and clumsy, is not + ill-drawn; but the remaining figure—that of the Parthian subject—is + wholly without merit. The back of the man is turned, but the legs are in + profile; one arm is ridiculously short, and the head is placed too near + the left shoulder. It would seem that the artist, while he took pains with + the representation of the monarch, did not care how ill he rendered the + subordinate figure, which he left in the unsatisfactory condition that may + be seen in the preceding woodcut. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate008.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 8. " /> + </div> + <p> + A set of reliefs, discovered by the Baron de Bode in the year 1841, are + also thought by the best judges to be Parthian. The most important of them + represents a personage of consequence, apparently a Magus, who seems to be + in the act of consecrating a sacred cippus, round which have been placed + wreaths or chaplets. <a href="#linkimage-0011">[PLATE IX.]</a> Fifteen + spectators are present, arranged in two rows, one above the other, all + except the first of them standing. The first sits upon a rude chair or + stool. The figures generally are in an advanced stage of decay; but that + of the Magus is tolerably well preserved, and probably indicates with + sufficient accuracy the costume and appearance of the great hierarchs + under the Parthians, The conical cap described by Strabo is very + conspicuous. Below this the hair is worn in the puffed-out fashion of the + later Parthian period. The upper lip is ornamented by moustaches, and the + chin covered by a straight beard. The figure is dressed in a long sleeved + tunic, over which is worn a cloak, fastened at the neck by a round brooch, + and descending a little below the knees. The legs are encased in a longer + and shorter pair of trowsers, the former plain, the latter striped + perpendicularly. Round the neck is worn a collar or necklace; and on the + right arm are three armlets and three bracelets. The conical cap appears + to be striped or fluted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate009.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 9. " /> + </div> + <p> + On the same rock, but in no very evident connection with the main + representation, is a second relief, in which a Parthian cavalier, armed + with a bow and arrows, and a spear, contends with a wild animal, seemingly + a bear. <a href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE X. Fig. 1.]</a> A long flowing + robe here takes the place of the more ordinary tunic and trowsers. On the + head is worn a rounded cap or tiara. The hair has the usual puffed-out + appearance. The bow is carried in the left hand, and the quiver hangs + from, the saddle behind the rider, while with his right hand he thrusts + his spear into the beast’s neck. The execution of the whole tablet seems + to have been rude; but it has suffered so much from time and weather, that + no very decided judgment can be passed upon it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate010.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 10. " /> + </div> + <p> + Another still ruder representation occurs also on another face of the same + rock. This consists of a female figure reclining upon a couch, and guarded + by three male attendants, one at the head of the couch unarmed, and the + remaining two at its foot, seated, and armed with spears. The female has + puffed-out hair, and carries in her right hand, which is outstretched, a + wreath or chaplet. One of the spearmen has a curious rayed head-dress; and + the other has a short streamer attached to the head of his spear. Below + the main tablet are three rudely carved standing figures, representing + probably other attendants. + </p> + <p> + This set of reliefs may perhaps be best regarded as forming a single + series, the Parthian king being represented as engaged in hunting the + bear, while the queen awaits his return upon her couch, and the chief + Magus attached to the court makes prayer for the monarch’s safety. + </p> + <p> + Such are the chief remains of Parthian aesthetic art. They convey an idea + of decline below the standard reached by the Persians of the Achaemenian + times, which was itself a decline from the earlier art of the Assyrians. + Had they been the efforts of a race devoid of models, they might fairly + have been regarded as not altogether without promise. But, considered as + the work of a nation which possessed the Achaemenian sculptures, and which + had moreover, to a certain extent, access to Greek examples, a they must + be pronounced clumsy, coarse, and wanting in all the higher qualities of + Fine Art. It is no wonder that they are scanty and exceptional. The nation + which could produce nothing better must have felt that its vocation was + not towards the artistic, and that its powers had better be employed in + other directions, e.g. in conquest and in organization. It would seem that + the Parthians perceived this, and therefore devoted slight attention to + the Fine Arts, preferring to occupy themselves mainly with those pursuits + in which they excelled; viz. war, hunting, and government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. + </h2> + <p> + Customs of the Parthians—in Religion; in War; in their Embassies and + Dealings with Foreign Nations; at the Court; in Private Life. Extent of + the Refinement to which they reached. Their gradual Decline in Taste and + Knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Very little is known as to the religion of the Parthians. It seems + probable that during the Persian period they submitted to the Zoroastrian + system, which was generally maintained by the Achaemenian kings, + acquiescing, like the great bulk of the conquered nations, in the + religious views of their conquerors; but as this was not their own + religion, we may conclude that they were at no time very zealous followers + of the Bactrian prophet, and that as age succeeded age they became + continually more lukewarm in their feelings, and more lax in their + religious practice. The essence of Zoroastrian belief was dualism—recognition + of Ormazd as the great Principle of Good, and of Ahriman as the Principle + of Evil. We need not doubt that, in word, the Parthians from first to last + admitted this antagonism, and professed a belief in Ormazd as the supreme + god, and a dread of Ahriman and his ministers. But practically, their + religious aspirations rested, not on these dim abstractions, but on beings + whose existence they could better realize, and whom they could feel to be + less remote from themselves. The actual devotion of the Parthians was + offered to the Sun and Moon, to deities who were supposed to preside over + the royal house, and to ancestral idols which each family possessed, and + conveyed with it from place to place with every change of habitation. The + Sun was saluted at his rising, was worshipped in temples, under the name + of Mithra, with sacrifices and offerings; had statues erected in his + honor, and was usually associated with the lesser luminary. The deities of + the royal house were probably either genii, ministers of Ormazd, to whom + was committed the special protection of the monarchs and their families, + like the <i>bagaha vithiya</i> of the Persians, or else the ancestors of + the reigning monarch, to whom a qualified divinity seems to have been + assigned in the later times of the empire. The Parthians kings usually + swore by these deities on solemn occasions; and other members of the royal + family made use of the same oath. The main worship, however, of the great + mass of the people, even when they were of the royal stock, was + concentrated upon ancestral images, which had a place sacred to them in + each house, and received the constant adoration of the household. + </p> + <p> + In the early times of the empire the Magi were held in high repute, and + most of the peculiar tenets and rites of the Magian religion were + professed and followed by the Parthians. Elemental worship was practised. + Fire was, no doubt, held sacred, and there was an especial reverence for + rivers. Dead bodies were not burned, but were exposed to be devoured by + birds and beasts of prey, after which the dry bones were collected and + placed in tombs. The Magi formed a large portion of the great national + council, which elected and, if need were, deposed the kings. But in course + of time much laxity was introduced. The Arsacid monarchs of Armenia + allowed the Sacred Fire of Ormazd, which ought to have been kept + continually burning, to go out; and we can scarcely suppose but that the + Parthian Arsacidae shared their negligence. Respect for the element of + fire so entirely passed away, that we hear of the later Parthians burning + their dead. The Magi fell into disrepute, and, if not expelled from their + place in the council, at any rate found themselves despised and deprived + of influence. The later Parthian religion can have been little more than a + worship of the Sun and Moon, and of the teraphim, or sacred images, which + were the most precious possession of each household. + </p> + <p> + While thus lax and changeful in their own religious practice, the + Parthians were, naturally, tolerant of a variety of creeds among their + subjects. Fire altars were maintained, and Zoroastrian zeal was allowed to + nourish in the dependent kingdom of Persia. In the Greek cities the + Olympian gods were permitted to receive the veneration of thousands, while + in Babylon, Nearda, and Nisibis the Jews enjoyed the free exercise of + their comparatively pure and elevated religion. No restrictions seem to + have been placed on proselytism, and Judaism certainly boasted many + converts from the heathen in Adiabene, Charax Spasini, and elsewhere. + Christianity also penetrated the Parthian provinces to a considerable + extent, and in one Parthian country, at any rate, seems to have become the + state religion. The kings of Osrhoene are thought to have been Christians + from the time of the Antonines, if not from that of our Lord; and a + nourishing church was certainly established at Edessa before the end of + the second century. The Parthian Jews who were witnesses of the miraculous + events which signalized the day of Pentecost may have, in some cases, + taken with them the new religion to the land where they had their + residence; or the Apostle, St. Thomas, may (as Eusebius declares) have + carried the Gospel into the regions beyond the Euphrates, and have planted + the Christian Church in the countries out of which the Jewish Church + sprang. Besides the nourishing community of Edessa, which was + predominantly, if not wholly, Christian from the middle of the second + century, many converts were, we are told, to be found among the + inhabitants of Persia, Media, Parthia Proper, and even Bactria. The + infusion, however, was not sufficient to leaven to any serious extent the + corrupt mass of heathenism into which it was projected; and we cannot say + that the general character of the Parthian empire, or of the manners and + customs of its subjects, was importantly affected by the new religion, + though it had an extraordinary influence over individuals. + </p> + <p> + The Parthians were essentially a warlike people; and the chief interest + which attaches to them is connected with their military vigor and ability. + It is worth while to consider at some length the peculiarities of that + military system which proved itself superior to the organization of the + Macedonians, and able to maintain for nearly three hundred years a + doubtful contest with the otherwise irresistible Romans. + </p> + <p> + We are told that the Parthians had no standing army. When war was + proclaimed and the monarch needed a force, he made his immediate vassals + acquainted with the fact, and requested each of them to marshal their + troops, and bring them to a fixed rendezvous by a certain day. The troops + thus summoned were of two kinds, Parthian and foreign. The governors of + the provinces, whether tributary kings or satraps, called out the military + strength of their respective districts, saw to their arming and + provisioning, and, marching each at the head of his contingent, brought a + foreign auxiliary force to the assistance of the Great King. But the + back-bone of the army, its main strength, the portion on which alone much + reliance was placed, consisted of Parthians. Each Parthian noble was bound + to call out his slaves and his retainers, to arm and equip them at his own + expense, and bring them to the rendezvous by the time named. The number of + troops furnished by each noble varied according to his position and his + means; we bear in one instance of their amounting to as many as 10,000, + while in another recorded case the average number which each furnished was + no more than 125. The various contingents had their own baggage-trains, + consisting ordinarily of camels, in the proportion (as it would seem) of + one to every ten fighting-men. + </p> + <p> + A Parthian army consisted usually of both horse and foot, but in + proportions unusual elsewhere. The foot soldiers were comparatively few in + number, and were regarded as of small account. Every effort was made to + increase the amount and improve the equipment of the horsemen, who bore + the brunt of every fight, and from whose exertions alone victory was + hoped. Sometimes armies consisted of horsemen only, or rather of horsemen + followed by a baggage train composed of camels and chariots. + </p> + <p> + The horse were of two kinds, heavy and light. The heavy horsemen wore + coats of mail, reaching to their knees, composed of rawhide covered with + scales of iron or steel, very bright, and capable of resisting a strong + blow. They had on their heads burnished helmets of Margian steel, whose + glitter dazzled the spectator. Their legs seem not to have been greaved, + but encased in a loose trouser, which hung about the ankles and + embarrassed the feet, if by any chance the horseman was forced to + dismount. They carried no shield, being sufficiently defended by their + coats of mail. Their offensive arms were a long spear, which was of great + strength and thickness, and a bow and arrows of unusual size. They + likewise carried in their girdle a short sword or knife, which might be + used in close combat. Their horses were, like themselves, protected by a + defence of scale armor, which was either of steel or bronze. + </p> + <p> + The light horse was armed with the same sort of bows and arrows as the + heavy, but carried no spear and wore no armor. It was carefully trained to + the management of the horse and the bow, and was unequalled in the + rapidity and dexterity of its movements. The archer delivered his arrows + with as much precision and force in retreat as in advance, and was almost + more feared when he retired than when he charged his foe. Besides his + arrows, the light horseman seems to have carried a sword, and he no doubt + wore also the customary knife in his belt. + </p> + <p> + We are told by one writer that it was a practice of the Parthians to bring + into battle a number of led horses, and that the riders from time to time + exchanged their tired steeds for fresh ones, thus obtaining a great + advantage over enemies who had no such practice. But the accounts which we + have of Parthian engagements make no reference to this usage, which we can + therefore scarcely suppose to have been adopted to any large extent. It + may be doubted, also, if the practice could ever be one of much value, + since the difficulty of managing led horses amid the tumult of a battle + would probably more than counterbalance the advantage derivable from + relays of fresh steeds. + </p> + <p> + During the later period of the monarchy, the Parthians, who had always + employed camels largely in the conveyance of stores and baggage, are said + to have introduced a camel corps into the army itself, and to have derived + considerable advantage from the new arm. The camels could bear the weight + of the mailed warrior and of their own armor better than horses, and their + riders were at once more safe in their elevated position and more capable + of dealing effective blows upon the enemy. As a set-off, however, against + those advantages, the spongy feet of the camel were found to be more + readily injured by the <i>tribulus</i>, or caltrop, than the harder feet + of the horse, and the corps was thus more easily disabled than an equal + force of cavalry, if it could be tempted to pass over ground on which + caltrops had been previously scattered. + </p> + <p> + The Parthian tactics were of a simple kind, and differed little from those + of other nations in the same region, which have depended mainly on their + cavalry. To surround their foe, to involve him in difficulties, to cut + off: his supplies and his stragglers, and ultimately to bring him into a + position where he might be overwhelmed by missiles, was the aim of all + Parthian commanders of any military capacity. Their warfare was suited for + defence rather than for attack, unless against contemptible enemies. They + were bad hands at sieges, and seldom ventured to engage in them, though + they would do so if circumstances required it. They wearied of long + campaigns, and if they did not find victory tolerably easy, were apt to + retire and allow their foe to escape, or baffle him by withdrawing their + forces into a distant and inaccessible region. After their early victories + over Crassus and Antony, they never succeeded in preventing the steady + advance of a Roman army into their territory, or in repulsing a determined + attack upon their capital. Still they generally had their revenge after a + short time. It was easy for the Romans to overrun Mesopotamia, but it was + not so easy for them to hold it; and it was scarcely possible for them to + retire from it after an occupation without disaster. The clouds of + Parthian horse hung upon their retreating columns, straitened them for + provisions, galled them with missiles, and destroyed those who could not + keep up with the main body. The towns upon the line of their retreat + revolted and shut their gates, defying even such commanders as Severus and + Trajan. Of the six great expeditions of Rome against Parthia, one only, + that of Avidius Cassius, was entirely successful. In every other case + either the failure of the expedition was complete, or the glory of the + advance was tarnished by disaster and suffering during the retreat. + </p> + <p> + The results of invading Parthia would have been even more calamitous to an + assailant but for one weak point in the military system of the Parthians. + They were excessively unwilling to venture near an enemy at night, and as + a general rule abstained from all military movements during the hours of + darkness. As evening approached, they drew off to a considerable distance + from their foe, and left him unmolested to retreat in any direction that + he pleased. The reason of this probably was, not merely that they did not + fortify their camps; but that, depending wholly on their horses, and being + forced to hobble or tether them at night, they could not readily get into + fighting order on a sudden during darkness. Once or twice in the course of + their history, we find them departing from their policy of extreme + precaution, and recommencing the pursuit of a flying foe before dawn; but + it is noted as an unusual occurrence. + </p> + <p> + It was also a general principle of Parthian warfare to abstain from + campaigning during the winter. So much depended upon the tension of their + bow-strings, which any dampness relaxed, that their rule was to make all + their expeditions in the dry time of their year, which lasted from early + in the spring until late in the autumn. The rule was, however, + transgressed upon occasions. Phraates II. made his attack upon Antiochus + Sidetes, while the snow was still upon the ground; and Volagases I. fell + upon Paetus after the latter had sent his troops into winter quarters. The + Parthians could bear cold no less than heat; though it was perhaps rather + in the endurance of the latter than of the former that they surpassed the + Romans. The sun’s rays were never too hot for them; and they did not need + water frequently or in large quantities. The Romans believed that they + increased their ability of bearing thirst by means of certain drugs which + they consumed; but it may be questioned whether they really employed any + other remedies than habit and resolution. + </p> + <p> + We find no use of chariots among the Parthians, except for the conveyance + of the females, who accompanied the nobles upon their expeditions. The + wives and concubines of the chiefs followed the camp in great numbers; and + women of a less reputable class, singers, dancers, and musicians, swelled + the ranks of the supernumeraries. Many of these were Greeks from Seleucia + and other Macedonian towns. The commissariat and transport departments are + said to have been badly organized; but some thousands of baggage camels + always accompanied an army, carrying stores and provisions. Of these a + considerable portion were laden with arrows, of which the supply was in + this way rendered inexhaustible. + </p> + <p> + The use of the elephant in war was still more rare in Parthia than that of + the chariot. While the Seleucid kings employed the animal to a large + extent, and its use was also probably known to the Greek princes of + Bactria, the Arsacidae appear to have almost entirely neglected it. On one + occasion alone do we find their employment of it mentioned, and then we + hear of only a single animal, which is ridden by the monarch. Probably the + unwieldy creature was regarded by the Parthians as too heavy and clumsy + for the light and rapid movements of their armies, and was thus disused + during the period of their supremacy, though again employed, after Parthia + had fallen, by the Sassanidse. + </p> + <p> + The Parthians entered into battle with much noise and shouting. They made + no use of trumpets or horns, but employed instead the kettledrum, which + resounded from all parts of the field when they made their onset. Their + attack was furious. The mailed horsemen charged at speed, and often drove + their spears through the bodies of two enemies at a blow. The light horse + and the foot, when any was present, delivered their arrows with precision + and with extraordinary force. But if the assailants were met with a stout + resistance, the first vigor of the attack was rarely long maintained. The + Parthian warriors grew quickly weary of an equal contest, and, if they + could not force their enemy to give way, soon changed their tactics. + Pretending panic, dispersing, and beating a hasty retreat, they endeavored + to induce their foe to pursue hurriedly and in disorder, being ready at + any moment to turn and take advantage of the least appearance of + confusion. If these tactics failed, as they commonly did after they came + to be known, the simulated flight was generally converted into a real one; + further conflict was avoided, or at any rate deferred to another occasion. + </p> + <p> + When the Parthians wished to parley with an enemy, they unstrung their + bows, and advancing with the right hand outstretched, asked for a + conference. They are accused by the Romans of sometimes using treachery on + such occasions, but, except in the single case of Crassus, the charge of + bad faith cannot be sustained against them. On solemn occasions, when the + intention was to discuss grounds of complaint or to bring a war to an end + by the arrangement of terms of peace, a formal meeting was arranged + between their representatives and those of their enemy, generally on + neutral ground, as on an island in the Euphrates, or on a bridge + constructed across it. Here the chiefs of the respective nations met, + accompanied by an equal number of guards, while the remainder of their + forces occupied the opposite banks of the river. Matters were discussed in + friendly fashion, the Greek language being commonly employed as the + vehicle of communication; after which festivities usually took place, the + two chiefs mutually entertaining each other, or accepting in common the + hospitalities of a third party. The terms of peace agreed upon were + reduced to writing; hands were grasped as a sign that faith was pledged; + and oaths having been interchanged, the conference broke up, and the + chiefs returned to their respective residences. + </p> + <p> + Besides negotiating by means of conferences, the Parthian monarchs often + sent out to neighboring states, and in return received from them formal + embassies. The ambassadors in every case conveyed, as a matter of course, + gifts to the prince to whom they were accredited, which might consist of + articles of value, or of persons. Augustus included an Italian slave-girl + among the presents which he transmitted to Phraates IV.; and Artabanus + III. sent a Jewish giant to Tiberius. The object of an embassy was + sometimes simply to congratulate; but more often the ambassadors were + instructed to convey certain demands, or proposals, from their own prince + to the head of the other nation, whereto his assent was required, or + requested. These proposals were commonly formulated in a letter from the + one prince to the other, which it was the chief duty of the ambassadors to + convey safely. Free powers to conclude a treaty at their discretion were + rarely, or never, entrusted to them. Their task was merely to deliver the + royal letter, to explain its terms, if they were ambiguous, and to carry + back to their own monarch the reply of the foreign sovereign. The sanctity + of the ambassadorial character was invariably respected by the Parthians, + who are never even taxed with a violation of it. + </p> + <p> + As a security for the performance of engagements, or for the permanent + maintenance of a friendly attitude, it was usual in the East during the + Parthian period to require, and give, hostages. The princes who occupied + the position of Parthian feudatories gave hostages to their suzerain, who + were frequently their near relations, as sons or brothers. And a practice + grew up of the Parthian monarchs themselves depositing their own sons or + brothers with the Roman Emperor, at first perhaps merely for their own + security, but afterwards as pledges for their good behavior. Such hostages + lived at the expense of the Roman court, and were usually treated with + distinction. In the event of a rupture between their country and Rome, + they had little to fear. Rome found her advantage in employing them as + rivals to a monarch with whom she had quarrelled, and did not think it + necessary to punish them for his treachery or inconstancy. + </p> + <p> + The magnificence of the Parthian court is celebrated in general terms by + various writers, but not very many particulars have come down to us + respecting it. We know that it was migratory, moving from one of the chief + cities of the empire to another at different seasons of the year, and that + owing to the vast number of the persons composing it, there was a + difficulty sometimes in providing for their subsistence upon the road. The + court comprised the usual extensive harem of an Oriental prince, + consisting of a single recognized queen, and a multitude of secondary + wives or concubines. The legitimate wife of the prince was commonly a + native, and in most cases was selected from the royal race of the + Arsacidae but sometimes she was the daughter of a dependent monarch, and + she might even be a slave raised by royal favor from that humble position. + The concubines were frequently Greeks. Both wives and concubines remained + ordinarily in close seclusion, and we have little mention of them, in the + Parthian annals. But in one instance, at any rate, a queen, brought up in + the notions of the West, succeeded in setting Oriental etiquette at + defiance, took the direction of affairs out of the hands of her husband, + and subsequently ruled the empire in conjunction with her son. Generally, + however, the Parthian kings were remarkably free from the weakness of + subservience to women, and managed their kingdom with a firm hand, without + allowing either wives or ministers to obtain any undue ascendency over + them. In particular, we may note that they never, so far as appears, fell + under the baleful influence of eunuchs, who, from first to last, play a + very subordinate part in the Parthian history. + </p> + <p> + The dress of the monarch was commonly the loose Median robe, which had + been adopted from the Medes by the Persians. This flowed down to the feet + in numerous folds, enveloping and concealing the entire figure. Trousers + and a tunic were probably worn beneath it, the latter of linen, the former + of silk or wool. As head-dress, the king wore either the mere diadem, + which was a band or ribbon, passed once or oftener round the head, and + terminating in two long ends which fell down behind, or else a more + pretentious cap, which in the earlier times was a sort of Scythian pointed + helmet, and in the later a rounded tiara, sometimes adorned with pearls or + gems. His neck appears to have been generally encircled with two or three + collars or necklaces, and he frequently wore ear-rings in his ears. The + beard was almost always cultivated, and, with the hair, was worn + variously. Generally both hair and beard were carefully curled; but + sometimes they depended in long straight locks, Mostly the beard was + pointed, but occasionally it was worn square. In later times a fashion + arose of puffing out the hair at either side extravagantly, so as to give + it the appearance of a large bushy wig. + </p> + <p> + In war the monarch seems to have exchanged his Median robe for a short + cloak, reaching half way down the thigh. His head was protected by a + helmet, and he carried the national arm of offence, the bow. He usually + took the field on horseback, but was sometimes mounted on an elephant, + trained to encounter the shock of battle. Gold and silver were abundantly + used in the trappings of his steed and in his arms. He generally took the + command, and mingled freely in the fight, though he might sometimes shrink + without reproach from adventuring his own person. His guards fought about + him; and he was accompanied by attendants, whose duty it was to assist him + in mounting on horseback and dismounting. + </p> + <p> + The status of the queen was not much below that of her royal consort. She + wore a tiara far more elaborate than his, and, like him, exhibited the + diadem. Her neck was encircled with several necklaces. As the title of + Theos, “God,” was often assumed by her husband, so she was allowed the + title of “Goddess”, or “Heavenly Goddess”. + </p> + <p> + Separate apartments were of course assigned to the queen, and to the royal + concubines in the various palaces. These were buildings on a magnificent + scale, and adorned with the utmost richness. Philostratus, who wrote in + Parthian times, thus describes the royal palace at Babylon. “The palace is + roofed with brass, and a bright light flashes from it. It has chambers for + the women, and chambers for the men, and porticos, partly glittering with + silver, partly with cloth-of-gold embroideries, partly with solid slabs of + gold, let into the walls, like pictures. The subjects of the embroideries + are taken from the Greek mythology, and include representations of + Andromeda, of Amymone, and of Orpheus, who is frequently repeated.... + Datis is moreover represented, destroying Naxos with his fleet, and + Artaphernes besieging Eretria, and Xerxes gaining his famous victories. + You behold the occupation of Athens, and the battle of Thermopylae, and + other points still more characteristic of the great Persian war, rivers + drunk up and disappearing from the face of the earth, and a bridge + stretched across the sea, and a canal cut through Athos.... One chamber + for the men has a roof fashioned into a vault like the heaven, composed + entirely of sapphires, which are the bluest of stones, and resemble the + sky in color. Golden images of the gods whom they worship, are set up + about the vault, and show like stars in the firmament. This is the chamber + in which the king delivers his judgments. Four golden magic-wheels hang + from its roof, and threaten the monarch with the Divine Nemesis, if he + exalts himself above the condition of man. These wheels are called ‘the + tongues of the gods,’ and are set in their places by the Magi who frequent + the palace.” + </p> + <p> + The state and pomp which surrounded the monarch seem scarcely to have + fallen short of the Achaemenian standard. Regarded as in some sort divine + during his life, and always an object of national worship after his death, + the “Brother of the Sun and Moon” occupied a position far above that of + the most exalted of his subjects. Tributary monarchs were shocked, when, + in times of misfortune, the “Great King” stooped to solicit their aid, and + appeared before them in the character of a suppliant, shorn of his + customary splendor. Nobles coveted the dignity of “King’s Friend,” and + were content to submit to blows and buffets at the caprice of their royal + master, before whom they prostrated themselves in adoration after each + castigation. The Parthian monarch dined in solitary grandeur, extended on + his own special couch, and eating from his own special table, which was + placed at a greater elevation than those of his guests. His “friend” sat + on the ground at his feet, and was fed like a dog by scraps from his + master’s board. Guards, ministers, and attendants of various kinds + surrounded him, and were ready at the slightest sign to do his bidding. + Throughout the country he had numerous “Eyes” and “Ears”—officers + who watched his interests and sent him word of whatever touched his + safety. The bed on which the monarch slept was of gold, and subjects were + forbidden to take their repose on couches of this rich material. No + stranger could obtain access to him unless introduced by the proper + officer; and it was expected that all who asked an audience would be + prepared with some present of high value. For the gifts received the + monarch made a suitable return, allowing those whom he especially favored + to choose the presents that they preferred. + </p> + <p> + The power and dignity of the Parthian nobles was greater than that usually + enjoyed by any subjects of an Oriental king. Rank in Parthia being + hereditary and not simply official, the “megistanes” were no mere + creatures of the monarch, but a class which stood upon its own + indefeasible rights. As they had the privilege of electing to the throne + upon a vacancy, and even that of deposing a duly elected monarch, the king + could not but stand in wholesome awe of them, and feel compelled to treat + them with considerable respect and deference. Moreover, they were not + without a material force calculated to give powerful support to their + constitutional privileges. Each stood at the head of a body of retainers + accustomed to bear arms and to serve in the wars of the Empire. Together + these bodies constituted the strength of the army; and though the royal + bodyguard might perhaps have been capable of dealing successfully with + each group of retainers separately, yet such an <i>esprit de corps</i> was + sure to animate the nobles generally, that they would make common cause in + case one of their number were attacked, and would support him against the + crown with the zeal inspired by self-interest. Thus the Parthian nobility + were far more powerful and independent than any similar class under the + Achaemenian, Sassanian, Modern Persian, or Turkish sovereigns. They + exercised a real control over the monarch, and had a voice in the + direction of the Empire. Like the great feudal vassals of the Middle Ages, + they from time to time quarrelled with their liege lord, and disturbed the + tranquillity of the kingdom by prolonged and dangerous civil wars; but + these contentions served to keep alive a vigor, a life, and a spirit of + sturdy independence very unusual in the East, and gave a stubborn strength + to the Parthian monarchy, in which Oriental governments have for the most + part been wanting. + </p> + <p> + There were probably several grades of rank among the nobles. The highest + dignity in the kingdom, next to the Crown, was that of Surena, or + “Field-Marshal;” and this position was hereditary in a particular family, + which can have stood but a little below the royal house in wealth and + consequence. The head of this noble house is stated to have at one time + brought into the field as many as 10,000 retainers and slaves, of whom a + thousand were heavy-armed. It was his right to place the diadem on the + king’s brow at his coronation. The other nobles lived for the most part on + their domains, but took the field at the head of their retainers in case + of war, and in peace sometimes served the offices of satrap, vizier, or + royal councillor. The wealth of the class was great; its members were + inclined to be turbulent, and, like the barons of the European kingdoms, + acted as a constant check and counterpoise to the royal dignity. + </p> + <p> + Next to war, the favorite employment of the king and of the nobles was + hunting. The lion continued in the wild state an occupant of the + Mesopotamian river-banks and marshes; and in other parts of the empire + bears, leopards, and even tigers abounded. Thus the higher kinds of sport + were readily obtainable. The ordinary practice, however, of the monarch + and his courtiers seems to have fallen short of the true sportsman’s + ideal. Instead of seeking the more dangerous kinds of wild beasts in their + native haunts, and engaging with them under the conditions designed by + nature, the Parthians were generally content with a poorer and tamer + method. They kept lions, leopards, and bears in enclosed parks, or + “paradises,” and found pleasure in the pursuit and slaughter of these + denaturalized and half-domesticated animals. The employment may still, + even under these circumstances, have contained an element of danger which + rendered it exciting; but it was a poor substitute for the true sport + which the “mighty Hunter before the Lord” had first practised in these + regions. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary dress of the Parthian noble was a long loose robe reaching to + the feet, under which he wore a vest and trousers. Bright and varied + colors were affected, and sometimes dresses were interwoven or embroidered + with gold. In seasons of festivity garlands of fresh flowers were worn + upon the head. A long knife or dagger was carried at all times, which + might be used either as an implement or as a weapon. + </p> + <p> + In the earlier period of the empire the Parthian was noted as a spare + liver; but, as time went on, he aped the vices of more civilized peoples, + and became an indiscriminate eater and a hard drinker. Game formed a main + portion of his diet; but he occasionally indulged in pork, and probably in + other sorts of butcher’s meat. He ate leavened bread, with his meat, and + various kinds of vegetables. The bread, which was particularly light and + porous, seems to have been imported sometimes by the Romans, who knew it + as <i>panis aquaticus</i> or <i>panis Parthicus</i>. Dates were also + consumed largely by the Parthians, and in some parts of the country grew + to an extraordinary size. A kind of wine was made from them; and this + seems to have been the intoxicating drink in which the nation generally + indulged too freely. That made from the dates of Babylon was the most + highly esteemed, and was reserved for the use of the king and the higher + order of satraps. + </p> + <p> + Of the Parthian feasts, music was commonly an accompaniment. The flute, + the pipe, the drum, and the instrument called eambuca, appear to have been + known to them; and they understood how to combine these instruments in + concerted harmony. They are said to have closed their feasts with dancing—an + amusement of which they were inordinately fond—but this was probably + the case only with the lower class of people. Dancing in the East, if not + associated with religion, is viewed as degrading, and, except as a + religious exercise, is not indulged in by respectable persons. + </p> + <p> + The separation of the sexes was very decided in Parthia. The women took + their meals, and passed the greater portion of their life, apart from the + men. Veils were commonly worn, as in modern Mohammedan countries; and it + was regarded as essential to female delicacy that women, whether married + or single, should converse freely with no males but either their near + relations or eunuchs. Adultery was punished with great severity; but + divorce was not difficult, and women of rank released themselves from the + nuptial bond on light grounds of complaint, without much trouble. Polygamy + was the established law; and every Parthian was entitled, besides his + chief wife, to maintain as many concubines as he thought desirable. Some + of the nobles supported an excessive number; but the expenses of the + seraglio prevented the generality from taking much advantage of the + indulgence which the law permitted. + </p> + <p> + The degree of refinement and civilization which the Parthians reached is + difficult to determine with accuracy. In mimetic art their remains + certainly do not show much taste or sense of beauty. There is some ground + to believe that their architecture had merit; but the existing monuments + can scarcely be taken as representations of pure Parthian work, and may + have owed their excellence (in some measure, at any rate) to foreign + influence. Still, the following particulars, for which there is good + evidence, seem to imply that the nation had risen in reality far above + that “barbarism” which it was the fashion of the Greek and Roman writers + to ascribe to it. In the first place, the Parthians had a considerable + knowledge of foreign languages. Plutarch tells us that Orodes, the + opponent of Crassus, was acquainted with the Greek language and + literature, and could enjoy the representation of a play of Euripides. The + general possession of such knowledge, at any rate by the kings and the + upper classes, seems to be implied by the use of the Greek letters and + language in the legends upon coins and in inscriptions. Other languages + were also to some extent cultivated. The later kings almost invariably + placed a Semitic legend upon their coins; and there is one instance of a + Parthian prince adopting an Aryan legend of the type known as Bactrian. + Josephus, moreover, regarded the Parthians as familiar with Hebrew, or + Syro-Chaldaic, and wrote his history of the Jewish War in his own native + tongue, before he put out his Greek version, for the benefit especially of + the Parthians, among whom he declares that he had many readers. + </p> + <p> + Though the Parthians had, so far as we can tell, no native literature, yet + writing was familiar to them, and was widely used in matters of business. + Not only were negotiations carried on with foreign powers by means of + despatches, but the affairs of the empire generally were conducted by + writing. A custom-house system was established along the frontier, and all + commodities liable to duty that entered the country were registered in a + book at the time of entry by the custom-house officer. In the great cities + where the Court passed a portion of the year, account was kept of the + arrival of strangers, whose names and descriptions were placed upon record + by the keepers of the gates. The orders of the Crown were signified in + writing to the satraps; and they doubtless corresponded with the Court in + the same way. In the earlier times the writing material commonly used was + linen; but shortly before the time of Pliny, the Parthians began to make + paper from the papyrus, which grew in the neighborhood of Babylon, though + they still employed in preference the old material. + </p> + <p> + There was a considerable trade between Parthia and Rome, carried on by + means of a class of merchants. Parthia imported from Rome various metals, + and numerous manufactured articles of a high class. Her principal exports + were textile fabrics and spices. The textile fabrics seem to have been + produced chiefly in Babylonia, and to have consisted of silks, carpets, + and coverlets. The silks were largely used by the Roman ladies. The + coverlets, which were patterned with various colors, fetched enormous + prices, and were regarded as fit adornments of the Imperial palace. Among + the spices exported, the most celebrated wore bdellium, and the <i>juncus + odoratus</i> or odoriferous bulrush. + </p> + <p> + The Parthians had many liberal usages which imply a fairly advanced + civilization. Their tolerance of varieties in religion has been already + mentioned. Even in political matters they seem to have been free from the + narrowness which generally characterizes barbarous nations. They behaved + well to prisoners, admitted foreigners freely to offices of high trust, + gave an asylum to refugees, and treated them with respect and kindness, + were scrupulous observers of their pledged word, and eminently faithful to + their treaty obligations. On the other hand, it must be admitted that they + had some customs which indicate a tinge of barbarism. They used torture + for the extraction of answers from reluctant persons, employed the scourge + to punish trifling offences, and, in certain cases, condescended to + mutilate the bodies of their dead enemies. Their addiction to intemperance + is also a barbaric trait. They were, no doubt, on the whole, less + civilized than either the Greeks or Romans; but the difference does not + seem to have been so great as represented by the classical writers. + </p> + <p> + Speaking broadly, the position that they occupied was somewhat similar to + that which the Turks hold in the system of modern Europe. They had a + military strength which caused them to be feared and respected, a vigor of + administration which was felt to imply many sterling qualities. A certain + coarseness and rudeness attached to them which they found it impossible to + shake off; and this drawback was exaggerated by their rivals into an + indication of irreclaimable barbarity. Except in respect of their military + prowess, it may be doubtful if justice is done them by any classical + writer. They were not merely the sole rival which dared to stand up + against Rome in the interval between B.C. 65 and A.D. 226, but they were a + rival falling in many respects very little below the great power whose + glories have thrown them so much into the shade. They maintained from + first to last a freedom unknown to later Rome; they excelled the Romans in + toleration and in liberal treatment of foreigners, they equalled them in + manufactures and in material prosperity, and they fell but little short of + them in the extent and productiveness of their dominions. They were the + second power in the world for nearly three centuries, and formed a + counterpoise to Rome which greatly checked Roman decline, and, by forcing + the Empire to exert itself, prevented stagnation and corruption. + </p> + <p> + It must, however, be confessed, that the tendency of the Parthians was to + degenerate. Although the final blow was struck in an unexpected quarter, + and perhaps surprised the victors as much as the vanquished, still it is + apparent that for a considerable space before the revolt of Artaxerxes the + Parthian Empire had shown signs of failing strength, and had tended + rapidly towards decay and ruin. The constant quarrels among the Arsacidae + and the incipient disintegration of the Empire have been noticed. It may + be added here that a growing barbarism, a decline in art and letters, is + observable in the Parthian remains, such as have usually been found to + accompany the decrepitude of a nation. The coinage has from first to last + a somewhat rude character, which indicates that it is native, and not the + production of Greek artists. But on the earlier coins the type, though not + indicative of high art, is respectable, and the legends are, with few + exceptions, perfectly correct and classical. Barbarism first creeps in + about the reign of Gotarzes, A.D. 42-51. It increases as time goes on, + until, from about A.D. 133, the Greek legend upon the coins becomes + indistinct and finally unintelligible, the letters being strewn about the + surface of the coin, like dead soldiers over a field of battle. It is, + clear that the later directors of the mint were completely ignorant of + Greek, and merely attempted to reproduce on the coin some semblance of a + language which neither they nor their countrymen understood. Such a + condition of a coinage is almost without parallel, and indicates a want of + truth and honesty in the conduct of affairs which implies deep-seated + corruption. The Parthians must have lost the knowledge of Greek about A.D. + 130, yet still a pretence of using the language was kept up. On the + tetra-drachms—comparatively rare coins—no important mistake + was committed; but on the more usual drachm, from the time of Gotarzes, + the most absurd errors were introduced, and thenceforth perpetuated. The + old inscription was, in a certain sense, imitated, but every word of it + ceased to be legible: the old figures disappeared in an indistinct haze, + and—if we except the head and name of the king (written now in a + Semitic character)—the whole emblazonment of the coin became + unmeaning. A degeneracy less marked, but still sufficiently clear to the + numismatic critic, is observable in the heads of the kings, which, in the + earlier times, if a little coarse, are striking and characteristic; while + in the later they sink to a conventional type, rudely and poorly rendered, + and so uniform that the power of distinguishing one sovereign from another + rests no longer upon feature, but upon mere differences in the arrangement + of hair, or beard, or head-dress. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The +Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. 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