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diff --git a/old/16165-h.htm.2021-01-25 b/old/16165-h.htm.2021-01-25 new file mode 100644 index 0000000..90a2de8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/16165-h.htm.2021-01-25 @@ -0,0 +1,12152 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Seven Great Monarchies, by George Rawlinson, The Fifth Monarchy, Part + A. + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 20%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 25%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient +Eastern World, Vol 5. (of 7): Persia, by George Rawlinson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 5. (of 7): Persia + The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, + Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian + or New Persian Empire; With Maps and Illustrations. + +Author: George Rawlinson + +Illustrator: George Rawlinson + +Release Date: July 1, 2005 [EBook #16165] +Last Updated: September 6, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES + </h1> + <p> + OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN WORLD; OR, THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND ANTIQUITIES + OF CHALDAEA, ASSYRIA BABYLON, MEDIA, PERSIA, PARTHIA, AND SASSANIAN, OR + NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. <b> BY </b> <b> GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., </b> CAMDEN + PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN THREE VOLUMES. + VOLUME II. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <h3>CONTENTS</h3> + + <p><a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER I. </a> EXTENT OF THE + EMPIRE.</p> + + <p><a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER II. </a> CLIMATE + AND PRODUCTIONS.</p> + + <p><a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER III. </a> CHARACTER, + MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.</p> + + <p><a href="#linkB2HCH0002"> CHAPTER IV.</a> + LANGUAGE AND WRITING.</p> + + <p><a href="#linkB2HCH0003"> + CHAPTER V.</a> ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER ARTS.</p> + + <p><a href="#linkB2HCH0004"> CHAPTER VI.</a> RELIGION.</p> + + <p><a href="#linkC2HCH0002"> CHAPTER VII.</a> CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY.</p> + </blockquote> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + + <h4>Illustrations</h4> + <blockquote> + + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Plate XXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Plate XXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Plate XXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> Plate XXIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> Plate XXX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> Plate XXXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> Plate XXXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> Plate XXXIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> Plate XXXIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> Plate XXXV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> Plate XXXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> Plate XXXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0014"> Plate XXXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0001"> Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0002"> Page 365 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0003"> Page 366 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0004"> Page 367 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> Page 368 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> Page 369 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> Page 370 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> Page 371 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> Page 372 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> Page 373 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> Page 374 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> Page 375 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> Page 376 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> Page 377 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> Page 378 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> Plate XXXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> Plate XXXIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0018"> Plate XL. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> Plate XLI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkplate042"> Plate XLII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> Plate XLIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> Plate XLIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> Plate XLV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> Plate XLVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> Plate XLVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> Plate XLVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> Plate XLIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> Plate L. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> Plate LI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> Plate LII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> Plate LIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> Plate LIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> Plate LV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> Plate LVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> Plate LVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> Plate LVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> Plate LIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> Plate LX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0001"> Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0002"> Plate LXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0003"> Plate LXII. </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTERS I. TO III. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA PROPER. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_persia.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_persia_th (188K)" src="images/map_persia_th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE FIFTH MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE. + </h2> + <p> + The geographical extent of the Fifth Monarchy was far greater than that of + any one of the four which had preceded it. While Persia Proper is a + comparatively narrow and poor tract, extending in its greatest length only + some seven or eight degrees (less than 500 miles), the dominions of the + Persian kings covered a space fifty-six degrees long, and in places more + than twenty degrees wide. The boundaries of their empire were the desert + of Thibet, the Sutlej, and the Indus, on the east; the Indian Sea, the + Persian Gulf, the Arabian and Nubian deserts, on the south; on the west, + the Greater Syrtis, the Mediterranean, the Egean, and the Strymon river; + on the north, the Danube, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian, and + the Jaxartes. Within these limits lay a territory, the extent of which + from east to west was little less than 3000 miles, while its width varied + between 500 and 1500 miles. Its entire area was probably not less than, + two millions of square miles—or more than half that of modern + Europe. It was thus at least eight times as large as the Babylonian Empire + at its greatest extent, and was probably more than four times as large as + the Assyrian. + </p> + <p> + The provinces included within the Empire may be conveniently divided into + the Central, the Western, and the Eastern. The Central are Persia Proper, + Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Media, the coast tract of the Caspian, and + Sagartia, or the Great Desert. The Western are Paeonia, Thrace, Asia + Minor, Armenia, Iberia, Syria and Phoenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and the + Cyrenaica. The Eastern are Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Chorasmia, Sogdiana, + Bactria, Scythia, Gandaria, Sattagydia, India, Paricania, the Eastern + AEthiopia, and Mycia. + </p> + <p> + Of these countries a considerable number have been already described in + these volumes. Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Media, the Caspian coast, + Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, belong to this class; and it may + be assumed that the reader is sufficiently acquainted with their general + features. It would therefore seem to be enough in the present place to + give an account of the regions which have not yet occupied our attention, + more especially of Persia Proper—the home of the dominant race. + </p> + <p> + Persia Proper seems to have corresponded nearly to that province of the + modern Iran, which still bears the ancient name slightly modified, being + called Farsistan or Fars. The chief important difference between the two + is, that whereas in modern times the tract called Herman is regarded as a + distinct and separate region, Carmania anciently was included within the + limits of Persia. Persia Proper lay upon the gulf to which it has given + name, extending from the mouth of the Tab (Oroatis) to the point where the + gulf joins the Indian Ocean. It was bounded on the west by Susiana, on the + north by Media Magna, on the east by Mycia, and on the south by the sea. + Its length seems to have been about 450, and its average width about 250 + miles. It thus contained an area of rather more than 100,000 square miles. + </p> + <p> + In modern times it is customary to divide the province of Fars into the <i>ghermsir</i>, + or, “warm district,” and the <i>serdsir</i>, or “cold region”—and + the physical character of the country must have made such a division + thoroughly appropriate at every period. The “warm district” is a tract of + sandy plain, often impregnated with salt, which extends between the + mountains and the sea the whole length of the province, being a + continuation of the flat region of Susiana, but falling very much short of + that region in all the qualities which constitute physical excellence. The + soil is poor, consisting of alternate sand and clay—it is + ill-watered, the entire tract possessing scarcely a single stream worthy + of the name of river—and, lying only just without the northern + Tropic, the district is by its very situation among the hottest of western + Asia. It forms, however, no very large portion of the ancient Persia, + being in general a mere strip of land, from ten to fifty miles wide, and + thus not constituting more than an eighth part of the territory in + question. + </p> + <p> + The remaining seven eighths belong to the serdsir, or “cold region.” The + mountain-range which under various names skirts on the east the + Mesopotamian lowland, separating off that depressed and generally fertile + region from the bare high plateau of Iran, and running continuously in a + direction parallel to the course of the Mesopotamian streams—i.e. + from the north-west to the south-east—changes its course as it + approaches the sea, sweeping gradually round between long. 50° and 55°, + and becoming parallel to the coast-line, while at the same time it + broadens out, till it covers a space of nearly three degrees, or above two + hundred miles. Along the high tract thus created lay the bulk of the + ancient Persia, consisting of alternate mountain, plain, and narrow + valley, curiously intermixed, and as yet very incompletely mapped. This + region is of varied character. In places richly, fertile, picturesque, and + romantic almost beyond imagination, with lovely wooded dells, green + mountain-sides, and broad plains suited for the production of almost any + crops, it has yet on the whole a predominant character of sterility and + barrenness, especially towards its more northern and eastern portions. The + supply of water is everywhere scanty. Scarcely any of the streams are + strong enough to reach the sea. After short courses they are either + absorbed by the sand or end in small salt lakes, from which the + superfluous water is evaporated. Much of the country is absolutely without + streams, and would be uninhabitable were it not for the <i>kanats</i>, or + <i>karizes</i>, subterranean channels of spring-water, described at length + in a former volume. + </p> + <p> + The only rivers of the district which deserve any attention are the Tab + (or Oroatis), whereof a description has been already given, the Kur or + Bendamir (called anciently Araxes), with its tributary, the Pulwar (or + Cyrus), and the Khoonazaberni or river of Khisht. + </p> + <p> + The Bendamir rises in the mountains of the Bakhtiyari chain, in lat. 30° + 35’, long. 51° 50’ nearly, and runs with a course which is generally + south-east, past the ruins of Persepolis, to the salt lake of Neyriz or + Kheir, which it enters in long. 53° 30’. It receives, where it approaches + nearest to Persepolis, the Pulwar or Kur-ab, a small stream coming from + the north-east and flowing by the ruins of both Pasargadae and Persepolis. + A little below its junction with this stream the Bendamir is crossed by a + bridge of five arches, and further down, on the route between Shiraz and + Herman, by another of twelve. Here its waters are to a great extent drawn + off by means of canals, and are made to fertilize a large tract of rich + flat country on either bank, after which the stream pursues its course + with greatly diminished volume to the salt lake in which it ends. The + entire course, including only main windings, may be estimated at 140 or + 150 miles. + </p> + <p> + The Khoonazaberni or river of Khisht rises near the ruins of Shapur, at a + short distance from Kazerun, on the route between Bushire and Shiraz, and + flows in a broad valley between lofty mountains towards the south-west, + entering the Persian Gulf by three mouths, the chief of which is at + Rohilla, twenty miles north of Bushire, where the stream has a breadth of + sixty yards, and a depth of about four feet. Above Khisht the river is + already thirty yards wide. Its chief tributary is the Dalaki stream, which + enters it from the east, nearly in long. 51°. The entire course of the + Khisht river may be about 95 or 100 miles. Its water is brackish except + near the source. + </p> + <p> + The principal lakes are the Lake of Neyriz and the Deriah-i-Nemek. The + Deriah-i-Nemek is a small basin distant about ten miles from Shiraz, which + receives the waters of the streams that supply that town. It has a length + of about fifteen and a breadth of about three or three and a half miles. + The lake of Neyriz or Kheir is of far larger size, being from fifty to + sixty miles long and from three to six broad, though in the summer season + it is almost entirely dried up. Salt is then obtained from the lake in + large quantities, and forms an important feature in the commerce of the + district. Smaller lakes, also salt or brackish, exist in other parts of + the country, as Lake Famur, near Kazerun, which is about six miles in + length, and from half a mile to a mile across. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable feature of the country consists in the extraordinary + gorges which pierce the great mountain-chain, and render possible the + establishment of routes across that tremendous barrier. Scarped rocks rise + almost perpendicularly on either side of the mountain-streams, which + descend rapidly with frequent cascades and falls. Along the slight + irregularities of these rocks the roads are carried in zigzags, often + crossing the streams from side to side by bridges of a single arch, which + are thrown over profound chasms where the waters chafe and roar many + hundred feet below. <a href="#linkimage-0002">[PLATE XXVI.]</a> The roads + have for the most part been artificially cut in the sides of the + precipices, which rise from the streams sometimes to the height of 2000 + feet. In order to cross from the Persian Gulf to the high plateau of Iran, + no fewer than three or four of these kotuls, or strange gorge-passes, have + to be traversed successively. Thus the country towards the edge of the + plateau is peculiarly safe from attack, being defended on the north and + east by vast deserts, and on the south by a mountain-barrier of unusual + strength and difficulty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate026.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + It is in these regions, which combine facility of defence with + pleasantness of climate, that the principal cities of the district have at + all times been placed. The earliest known capital of the region was + Pasargadae, or Persagadae, as the name is sometimes written, of which the + ruins still exist near Murgab, in lat. 30° 15’ long. 53° 17’. Here is the + famous tomb of Cyrus, whereof a description will be given hereafter; and + here are also other interesting remains of the old Persian architecture. + Neither the shape nor the extent of the town can be traced. The situation + was a plain amid mountains, watered by small streams which found their way + to a river of some size (the Pulwar) flowing at a little distance to the + west. <a href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE XXVII Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate027.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxvii. " /> + </div> + <p> + At the distance of thirty miles from Pasargadae, or of more than forty by + the ordinary road, grew up the second capital, Persepolis, occupying a + more southern position than the primitive seat of power, but still + situated towards the edge of the plateau, having the mountain-barrier to + the south-west and the desert at no great distance to the north-east. Like + its predecessor, Persepolis was situated in a plain, but in a plain of + much larger dimensions and of far greater fertility. The plain of Merdasht + is one of the most productive in Persia, being watered by the two streams + of the Bendamir and the Pulwar, which unite a few miles below the site of + the ancient city. From these two copious and unfailing rivers a plentiful + supply of the precious fluid can at all times be obtained; and in Persia + such a supply will always create the loveliest verdure, the most abundant + crops, and the richest and thickest foliage. The site of Persopolis is + naturally far superior to that in which the modern provincial capital, + Shiraz, has grown up, at about the same distance from Persepolis as that + is from Pasargadae. and in the same—i.e. in a south-west—direction. + </p> + <p> + Besides Persepolis and Pasargadse, Persia Proper contained but few cities + of any note or name. If we include Carmania in Persia, Carmana, the + capital of that country, may indeed be mentioned as a third Persian town + of some consequence; but otherwise the names which occur in ancient + authors are insignificant, and designate villages rather than towns of any + size. Carmana, however, which is mentioned by Ptolemy and Ammianus as the + capital of those parts, seems to have been a place of considerable + importance. It may be identified with the modern Kerman, which lies in + lat. 39° 55’, long. 56° 13’, and is still one of the chief cities of + Persia. Situated, like Pasargadae and Persepolis, in a capacious plain + surrounded by mountains, which furnish sufficient water for cultivation to + be carried on by means of kanats in most parts of the tract enclosed by + them, and occupying a site through which the trade of the country almost + of necessity passes, Kerman must always be a town of no little + consequence. Its inland and remote position, however, caused it to be + little known to the Greeks; and, apparently, the great Alexandrian + geographer was the first who made them acquainted with its existence and + locality. + </p> + <p> + The Persian towns or villages upon the coast of the Gulf were chiefly + Armuza (which gave name to the district of Ar-muzia), opposite the modern + island of Ormuz; Sisidona, which must have been near Cape Jerd; Apostana, + probably about Shewar; Gogana, no doubt the modern Kongoon; and Taoce on + the Granis, famous as having in its neighborhood a royal palace, which we + may perhaps place near Dalaki, Taoce itself occupying the position of + Rohilla, at the mouth of the Khisht river. Of the inland towns the most + remarkable, after Persepolis, Pasargadse, and Carmana, were Gabae, near + Pasar-gadae, also the site of a palace; Uxia, or the Uxian city, which may + have occupied the position of Mai-Amir, Obroatis, Tragonice, Ardea, + Portospana, Hyrba, etc., which it is impossible to locate unless by the + merest conjecture. + </p> + <p> + The chief districts into which the territory was divided were Paraetacene, + a portion of the Bakhtiyari mountain-chain, which some, however, reckoned + to Media; Mardyene, or the country of the Mardi, also one of the hill + tracts; Taocene, the district about Taoce, part of the low sandy coast + region; Ciribo, the more northern portion of the same region; and + Carmania, the entire eastern territory. These districts were not divided + from one another by any marked natural features, the only division of the + country to which such a character attached being the triple one into the + high sandy plains north of the mountains, the mountain region, and the + Deshtistan, or low hot tract along the coast. + </p> + <p> + From this account it will be easy to understand how Persia Proper acquired + and maintained the character of “a scant land and a rugged,” which we find + attaching to it in ancient authors. The entire area, as has been already + observed was about 100,000 square miles—little more than half that + of Spain, and about one fifth of the area of modern Persia. Even of this + space nearly one half was uninhabitable, consisting either of barren stony + mountain or of scorching sandy plain, ill supplied with water, and often + impregnated with salt, the habitable portion consisted of the valleys and + plains among the mountains and along their skirts, together with certain + favored spots upon the banks of streams in the flat regions. These flat + regions themselves were traversed in many places by rocky ridges of a + singularly forbidding aspect. The whole appearance of the country was dry, + stony, sterile. As a modern writer observes, “the livery of the land is + constantly brown or gray; water is scanty; plains and mountains are + equally destitute of wood. When the traveller, after toiling over the + rocky mountains that separate the plains looks down from the pass he has + won with toil and difficulty upon the country below, his eye wanders + unchecked and unrested over an uniform brown expanse losing itself in + distance.” + </p> + <p> + Still this character, though predominant, is not universal. Wherever there + is water, vegetation springs up. The whole of the mountain region is + intersected by valleys and plains which are more or less fertile. The line + of country between Bebahan and Shiraz is for above sixty miles “covered + with wood and verdure,” in East of Shiraz, on the route between that city + and Kerman the country is said to be in parts “picturesque and romantic,” + consisting of “low luxuriant valleys or; plains separated by ranges of low + mountains, green to their very summits with beautiful turf.” The plains of + Khubbes, Merdasht, Ujan, Shiraz, Kazerun, and others, produce abundantly + under a very inefficient system of cultivation. Even in the most arid + tracts there is generally a time of greenness immediately after the spring + rains, when the whole country smiles with verdure. + </p> + <p> + It has been already remarked that the Empire, which, commencing from + Persia Proper, spread itself towards the close of the sixth century before + Christ, over the surrounding tracts, included a number of countries not + yet described in these volumes, since they formed no part of any of the + four Empires which preceded the Persian. To complete, therefore, the + geographical survey proper to our subject, it will be necessary to give a + sketch of the tracts in question. They will fall naturally into three + groups, an eastern, a north-western, and a southwestern—the eastern + extending from the skirts of Mount Zagros to the Indian Desert, the + north-western from the Caspian to the Propontis, and the south-western + from the borders of Palestine to the shores of the Greater Syrtis. + </p> + <p> + Inside the Zagros and Elburz ranges, bounded on the north and west by + those mountain-lines, on the east by the ranges of Suliman and Hala, and + on the south by the coast-chain which runs from Persia Proper nearly to + the Indus, lies a vast tableland, from 3000 to 5000 feet above the + sea-level, known to modern geographers as the Great Plateau of Iran. Its + shape is an irregular rectangle, or trapezium, extending in its greatest + length, which is from west to east, no less than twenty degrees, or above + 1100 miles, while the breadth from north to south varies from seven + degrees, or 480 miles (which is its measure along the line of Zagros), to + ten degrees, or 690 miles, where it abuts upon the Indus valley. The area + of the tract is probably from 500,000 to 600,000 square miles. + </p> + <p> + It is calculated that two thirds of this elevated region are absolutely + and entirely desert. The rivers which flow from the mountains surrounding + it are, with a single exception—that of the Etymandrus or Helmend—insignificant, + and their waters almost always lose themselves, after a course + proportioned to their volume, in the sands of the interior. Only two, the + Helmend and the river of Ghuzni, have even the strength to form lakes; the + others are absorbed by irrigation, or sucked up by the desert. + Occasionally a river, rising within the mountains, forces its way through + the barrier, and so contrives to reach the sea. This is the case, + especially, on the south, where the coast chain is pierced by a number of + streams, some of which have their sources at a considerable distance + inland. On the north the Heri-rud, or River of Herat, makes its escape in + a similar way from the plateau, but only to be absorbed, after passing + through two mountain chains, in the sands of the Kharesm. Thus by far the + greater portion of this region is desert throughout the year, while, as + the summer advances, large tracts, which in the spring were green, are + burnt up—the rivers shrink back towards their sources—the + whole plateau becomes dry and parched—and the traveller wonders that + any portion of it should be inhabited. + </p> + <p> + It must not be supposed that the entire plateau of which we have been + speaking is to the eye a single level and unbroken plain. In the western + portion of the region the plains are constantly intersected by “brown, + irregular, rocky ridges,” rising to no great height, but serving to + condense the vapors held in the air, and furnishing thereby springs and + wells of inestimable value to the inhabitants. In the southern and eastern + districts “immense” ranges of mountains are said to occur; and the + south-eastern as well as the north-eastern corners of the plateau are + little else than confused masses of giant elevations. Vast flats, however, + are found. In the Great Salt Desert, which extends from Kashan and Koum to + the Deriah or “Sea” in which the Helmend terminates, and in the sandy + desert of Seistan, which lies east and south-east of that lake, reaching + from near Furrah to the Mekran mountains, plains of above a hundred miles + in extent appear to occur, sometimes formed of loose sand, which the wind + raises into waves like those of the sea, sometimes hard and gravelly, or + of baked and indurated clay. + </p> + <p> + The tract in question, which at the present day is divided between + Afghanistan, Beloochistan, and Iran, contained, at the time when the + Persian Empire arose, the following nations: the Sagartians, the + Cossseans, the Parthians, the Hariva or Arians, the Gandarians, the + Sattagydians, the Arachotians, the Thamanseans, the Sarangae, and the + Paricanians. The Sagartians and Cossseans dwelt in the western portion of + the tract, the latter probably about the Siah-Koh mountains, the former + scattered over the whole region from the borders of Persia Proper to the + Caspian Gates and the Elburz range. Along its northern edge, east of the + Sagartians, were the Parthians, the Arians, and the Gandarians. occurring + in that order as we proceed from west to east. The Parthians held the + country known now as the Atak or “Skirt,” the flat tract at the southern + base of the Elburz from about Shahrud to Khaff, together with a portion of + the mountain region adjoining. This is a rich and valuable territory, well + watered by a number of small streams, which, issuing from the ravines and + valleys of the Elburz, spread fertility around, but lose themselves after + a short, course in the Salt Desert. Adjoining the Parthians upon the east + were the Haroyu, Hariva, or Arians, an Iranic race of great antiquity, who + held the country along the southern skirts of the mountains from the + neighborhood of Khaff to the point where the Heri-rud (Arius) issues from + the Paropamisan mountains. The character of this country closely resembles + that of Parthia, whereof it is a continuation; but the copious stream of + the Heri-rud renders it even more productive. + </p> + <p> + The Gandarians held Kabul, and the mountain tract on both sides of the + Kabul river as far as the upper course of the Indus, thus occupying the + extreme north-eastern corner of the plateau, the region where its + elevation is the greatest. Lofty mountain-ridges, ramifying in various + directions but tending generally to run east and west, deep gorges, narrow + and tremendous passes, like the Khyber, characterize this district. Its + soil is generally rocky and barren; but many of the valleys are fertile, + abounding with enchanting scenery and enjoying a delightful climate. More + especially is this the case in the neighborhood of the city of Kabul, + which is perhaps the Caspatyrus of Herodotus, where Darius built the fleet + which descended the Indus. + </p> + <p> + South of Aria and Gandaria, in the tract between the Great Desert and the + Indus valley, the plateau was occupied by four nations—the + Thamanseans, the Sarangians, the Sattagydians, and the Arachotians. The + Thamanaean country appears to have been that which lies south and + south-east of Aria (Herat), reaching from the Haroot-rud or river of + Subzawar to the banks of the Helmend about Ghirisk. This is a varied + region, consisting on the north and the north-east of several high + mountain chains which ramify from a common centre, having between them + large tracts of hills and downs, while towards the south and the + south-west the country is comparatively low and flat, descending to the + level of the desert about the thirty second parallel. Here the Thamanseans + were adjoined upon by the Sarangians, who held the land about the lake in + which the Helmend terminates—the Seistan of Modern Persia. Seistan + is mainly desert. One third of the surface of the soil is composed of + moving sands, and the other two thirds of a compact sand, mixed with a + little clay, but very rich in vegetable matter. It is traversed by a + number of streams, as the Haroot-rud, the river of Furrah, the river of + Khash, the Helmend, and others, and is very productive along their banks, + which are fertilized by annual inundations; but the country between the + streams is for the most part an arid desert. + </p> + <p> + The Sattagydians and Arachotians divided between them the remainder of + Afghanistan, the former probably occupying south-eastern Kabul, from the + Ghuzni river and its tributaries to the valley of the Indus, while the + latter were located in the modern Candahar, upon the Urghand-ab and Turnuk + rivers. The character of these tracts is similar to that of north-western + Kabul, but somewhat less rugged and mountainous. Hills and downs alternate + with rocky ranges and fairly fertile vales. There is a scantiness of + water, but still a certain number of moderate-sized rivers, tolerably well + supplied with affluents. The soil, however, is either rocky or sandy; and + without a careful system of irrigation great portions of the country + remain of necessity barren and unproductive. + </p> + <p> + The south-eastern corner of the plateau, below the countries of the + Sarangians and the Arachotians, was occupied by a people, called + Paricanians by Herodotus, perhaps identical with the Gedrosians of later + writers. This district, the modern Beloochistan, is still very imperfectly + known, but appears to be generally mountainous, to have a singularly + barren soil, and to be deficient in rivers. The nomadic life is a + necessity in the greater part of the region, which is in few places + suitable for cultivation, but has good pastures in the mountains or the + plains according to the season of the year. The rivers of the country are + for the most part mere torrents, which carry a heavy body of water after + rains, but are often absolutely dry for several months in succession. + Water, however, is generally obtainable by digging wells in their beds; + and the liquid procured in this way suffices, not only for the wants of + man and beast, but also for a limited irrigation. + </p> + <p> + The Great Plateau which has been here described is bordered everywhere, + except at its north-eastern and north-western corners, by low regions. On + the north the lowland is at first a mere narrow strip intervening between + the Elburz range and the Caspian, a strip which has been already described + in the account given of the Third Monarchy. Where, however, the Caspian + ends, its shore trending away to the northward, there succeeds to this + mere strip of territory a broad and ample tract of sandy plain, extending + from about the 54th to the 68th degree of east longitude—a distance + of 760 miles—and reaching from the 36th to the 50th parallel of + north latitude—a distance not much short of a thousand miles! This + tract which comprises the modern Khanats of Khiva and Bokhara, together + with a considerable piece of Southern Asiatic Russia, is for the most part + a huge trackless desert, composed of loose sand, black or red, which the + wind heaps up into hills. Scarcely any region on the earth’s surface is + more desolate. The boundless plain lies stretched before the traveller + like an interminable sea, but dead, dull, and motionless. Vegetation, even + the most dry and sapless, scarcely exists. For three or four hundred miles + together he sees no running stream. Water, salt, slimy, and discolored, + lies Occasionally in pools, or is drawn from wells, which yield however + only a scanty supply. For anything like a drinkable beverage the traveller + has to trust to the skies, which give or withhold their stores with a + caprice that is truly tantalizing. Occasionally, but only at long + intervals, out of the low sandy region there issues a rocky range, or a + plateau of moderate eminence, where the soil is firm, the ground smooth, + and vegetation tolerably abundant. The most important of the ranges are + the Great and Little Balkan, near the Caspian Sea, between the 39th and + 40th parallels, the Khalata and Urta Tagh, north-west, of Bokhara, and the + Kukuth; still further to the north-west in latitude 42° nearly. The chief + plateau is that of Ust-Urt, between the Caspian and the Sea of Aral, which + is perhaps not more than three or four hundred feet above the sandy plain, + but is entirely different in character. + </p> + <p> + This desolate region of low sandy plain would be wholly uninhabitable, + were it not for the rivers. Two great streams, the Amoo or Jyhun + (anciently the Oxus), and the Sir or Synuti (anciently the Jaxartes), + carry their waters across the desert, and pour them into the basin of the + Aral. Several others of less volume, as the Murg-ab, or river of Merv, the + Abi Meshed or Tejend, the Heri-rud, the river of Maymene, the river of + Balkh, the river of Khulm, the Shehri-Sebz, the Ak Su or river of Bokhara, + the Kizil Deria, etc., flow down from the high ground into the plain, + where their waters either become lost in the sands, or terminate in small + salt pools. Along the banks of these streams the soil is fertile, and + where irrigation is employed the crops are abundant. In the vicinity of + Khiva, at Kermineh on the Bokhara river, at Samarcand, at Balkh—and + in a few other places, the vegetation is even luxuriant; gardens, meadows, + orchards, and cornfields fringe the river-bank; and the natives see in + such favored spots resemblances of Paradise! Often, however, even the + river-banks themselves are uncultivated, and the desert creeps up to their + very edge; but this is in default, not in spite, of human exertion. A + well-managed system of irrigation could, in almost every instance, spread + on either side of the streams a broad strip of verdure. + </p> + <p> + In the time of the Fifth Monarchy, the tract which has been here described + was divided among three nations. The region immediately to the east of the + Caspian, bounded on the north by the old course of the Oxus and extending + eastward to the neighborhood of Merv, though probably not including that + city, was Chorasmia, the country of the Chorasmians. Across the Oxus to + the north-east was Sogdiana (or Sugd), reaching thence to the Jaxartes, + which was the Persian boundary in this direction. South of Sogdiana, + divided from it by the Middle and Upper Oxus, was Bactria, the country of + the Bakhtars or Bactrians. The territory of this people reached southward + to the foot of the Paropamisus, adjoining Chorasmia and Aria on the west, + and on the south Sattagydia and Gandaria. + </p> + <p> + East of the table-land lies the valley of the Indus and its tributaries, + at first a broad tract, 350 miles from west to east, but narrowing as it + descends, and in places not exceeding sixty or seventy miles, across. The + length of the valley is not less than 800 miles. Its area is probably + about a hundred thousand square miles. We may best regard it as composed + of two very distinct tracts—one the broad triangular plain towards + the north, to which, from the fact of its being watered by five main + streams, he natives have given the name of Punj-ab, the other the long and + comparatively narrow valley of the single Indus river, which, deriving its + appellation from that noble stream, is known in modern geography as Sinde. + The Punjab, which contains an area of above fifty thousand square miles, + is mountainous towards the north, where it adjoins on Kashmeer and Thibet, + but soon sinks down into a vast plain, with a soil which is chiefly either + sand or clay, immensely productive under irrigation, but tending to become + jungle or desert if left without human care. Sinde, or the Indus valley + below the Punjab, is a region of even greater fertility. It is watered, + not only by the main stream of the Indus, but by a number of branch + channels which the river begins to throw off from about the 28th parallel. + It includes, on the right bank of the stream, the important tract called + Cutchi Gandava, a triangular plain at the foot of the Suliman and Hala + ranges, containing about 7000 square miles of land which is all capable of + being made into a garden. The soil is here for the most part rich, black, + and loamy; water is abundant; and the climate suitable for the growth of + all kinds of grain. Below Cutchi Gandava the valley of the Indus is narrow + for about a hundred miles, but about Tatta it expands and a vast delta is + formed. This is a third triangle, containing above a thousand square miles + of the richest alluvium, which is liable however to floods and to vast + changes in the river beds, whereby often whole fields are swept away. Much + of this tract is moreover low and swampy; the climate is trying; and rice + is almost the only product that can be advantageously cultivated. + </p> + <p> + The low region lying south of the Great Plateau is neither extensive nor + valuable. It consists of a mere strip of land along the coast of the + Indian Ocean, extending a distance of about nine degrees (550 miles) from + the mouth of the Persian Gulf to Cape Monze, near Kurrachee, but in width + not exceeding ten or, at the most, twenty miles. This tract was occupied + in ancient times mainly by a race which Herodotus called Ethiopians and + the historians of Alexander Ichthyophagi (Fish-Eaters). It is an arid, + sultry, and unpleasant region, scarcely possessing a perennial stream, and + depending for its harvests entirely upon the winter rains, and for its + water during the summer on wells which are chiefly brackish. Tolerable + pasturage is, however, obtainable in places even during the hottest part + of the year, and between Cape Jask and Gwattur the crops produced are far + from contemptible. + </p> + <p> + A small tract of coast, a continuation of the territory just described, + intervening between it and Kerman, was occupied in the early Persian times + by a race known to the Persians as Maka, and to the Greeks as Mycians. + This district, reaching from about Cape Jask to Gombroon, is one of + greater fertility than is usual in these regions, being particularly + productive in dates and grain. This fertility seems, however, to be + confined to the vicinity of the sea-shore. + </p> + <p> + To complete the description of the Eastern provinces two other tracts must + be mentioned. The mountain-chain which skirts the Great Plateau on the + north, distinguished in these pages by the name of Elburz, broadens out + after it passes the south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea till it covers + a space of nearly three degrees (more than 200 miles). Instead of the + single lofty ridge which separates the Salt Desert from the low Caspian + region, we find between the fifty-fourth and fifty-ninth degrees of east + longitude three or four distinct ranges, all nearly parallel to one + another, having a general direction of east and west. Broad and rich + valleys are enclosed between these latitudinal ranges which are watered by + rivers of a considerable size, as more especially the Ettrek and the + Gurgan. Thus a territory is formed capable of supporting a largish + population, a territory which possesses a natural unity, being shut in on + three sides by mountains, and on the fourth by the Caspian. Here in + Persian times was settled a people called Hyrcani; and from them the tract + derived the name of Hyrcania (Vehrkana), while the lake on which it + adjoined came to be known as “the Hyrcanian Sea.” The fertility of the + region, its broad plains, shady woods and lofty mountains were celebrated + by the ancient writers. + </p> + <p> + Further to the east, beyond the low sandy plain, and beyond the mountains + in which its great rivers have their source—on the other side of the + “Roof of the World,” as the natives name this elevated region—lay a + tract unimportant in itself, but valuable to the Persians as the home of a + people from whom they obtained excellent soldiers. The plain of Chinese + Tartary, the district about Kashgar and Yarkand, seems to have been in + possession of certain Sacans or Scythians, who in the flourishing times of + the empire acknowledged subjection to the Persian crown. These Sacans, who + call themselves Huma-varga or Amyrgians, furnished some of the best and + bravest of the Persian troops. Westward they bordered on Sogdiana and + Bactria; northward they extended probably to the great mountain-chain of + the Tien-chan; on the east they were shut in by the vast desert of Gobi or + Shamoo; while southward they must have touched Gandaria and perhaps India. + A portion of this country—that towards the north and west—was + well watered and fairly productive; but the southern and eastern part of + it must have been arid and desert. + </p> + <p> + From this consideration of the Eastern provinces of the Empire, we pass on + naturally to those which lay towards the North-West. The Caspian Sea alone + intervened between these two groups, which thus approached each other + within a distance of some 250 or 260 miles. + </p> + <p> + Almost immediately to the west of the Caspian there rises a high + table-land diversified by mountains, which stretches eastward for more + than eighteen degrees between the 37th and 41st parallels. This highland + may properly be regarded as a continuation of the great Iranean plateau, + with which it is connected at its south-eastern corner. It comprises a + portion of the modern Persia, the whole of Armenia, and most of Asia + Minor. Its principal mountain-ranges are latitudinal or from west to east, + only the minor ones taking the opposite or longitudinal direction. Of the + latitudinal chains the most important is the Taurus, which, commencing at + the southwestern corner of Asia Minor in longitude 29° nearly, bounds the + great table-land upon the south, running parallel with the shore at the + distance of sixty or seventy miles as far as the Pylse Cilicise, near + Tarsus, and then proceeding in a direction decidedly north of east to the + neighborhood of Lake Van, where it unites with the line of Zagros. The + elevation of this range, though not equal to that of some in Asia, is + considerable. In Asia Minor the loftiest of the Taurus peaks seem to + attain a height of about 9000 or 10,000 feet. Further to the east the + elevation appears to be even greater, the peaks of Ala Dagh, Sapan, + Nimrud, and Mut Khan in the tract about Lake Van being all of them + considerably above the line of perpetual snow, and therefore probably + 11,000 or 12,000 feet. + </p> + <p> + At the opposite side of the table-land, bounding it towards the north, + there runs under various names a second continuous range of inferior + elevation, which begins near Brusa, in the Keshish Dagh or Mysian Olympus, + and proceeds in a line nearly parallel with the northern coast to the + vicinity of Kars. Between this and Taurus are two other important ridges, + which run westward from the neighborhood of Ararat to about the 34th + degree of east longitude, after which they subside into the plain. + </p> + <p> + The heart of the mountain-region, the tract extending from the district of + Erivan on the east to the upper course of the Kizil-Irmak river and the + vicinity of Sivas upon the west, was, as it still is, Armenia. Amidst + these natural fastnesses, in a country of lofty ridges, deep and narrow + valleys, numerous and copious streams, and occasional broad plains—a + country of rich pasture grounds, productive orchards, and abundant + harvests—this interesting people has maintained itself almost + unchanged from the time of the early Persian kings to the present day. + Armenia was one of the most valuable portions of the Persian Empire, + furnishing, as it did, besides stone and timber, and several most + important minerals, an annual supply of 20,000 excellent horses to the + stud of the Persian king. + </p> + <p> + The highland west of Armenia, the plateau of Asia Minor, from the + longitude of Siwas (37° E.) to the sources of the Meander and the Hermus, + was occupied by the two nations of the Cappadocians and Phrygians, whose + territories were separated by the Kizil-Irmak or Halys river. This tract, + though diversified by some considerable ranges, and possessing one really + lofty mountain, that of Argseus, was, compared with Armenia, champaign and + level. Its broad plains afforded the best possible pasturage for sheep, + while at the same time they bore excellent crops of wheat. The entire + region was well-watered; it enjoyed a delightful climate; and besides corn + and cattle furnished many products of value. + </p> + <p> + Outside the plateau on the north, on the north-east, on the west, and on + the south, lie territories which, in comparison with the high region + whereon they adjoined, may be called lowlands. The north-eastern lowland, + the broad and rich valley of the Kur, which corresponds closely with the + modern Russian province of Georgia, was in the possession of a people + called by Herodotus Saspeires or Sapeires, whom we may identify with the + Iberians of later writers. Adjoining upon them towards the south, probably + in the country about Erivan, and so in the neighborhood of Ararat, were + the Alarodians, whose name must be connected with that of the great + mountain. On the other side of the Sapeirian country, in the tracts now + known as Mingrelia and Imeritia, regions of a wonderful beauty and + fertility, were the Colchians—dependants, but not exactly subjects, + of Persia. + </p> + <p> + The northern lowland, which consisted of a somewhat narrow strip of land + between the plateau and the Euxine, was a rich and well-wooded region, 630 + miles in length, and in breadth from forty to a hundred. It was inhabited + by a large number of rude and barbarous tribes, each of whom possessed a + small portion of the sea-board. These tribes, enumerated in the order of + their occurrence from east to west, were the following: the Moschi, the + Macrones (or Tzani), the Mosy-noeci, the Mares, the Tibareni, the + Chalybes, the Paphlagones, the Mariandyni, the Bithyni, and the Thyni. The + Moschi, Macrones, Mosynoeci, Mares, and Tibareni dwelt towards the east, + occupying the coast from Batoum to Ordou. The Chalybes inhabited the tract + immediately adjoining on Sinope. The Paphlagonians held the rest of the + coast from the mouth of the Kizil-Irmak to Cape Baba, where they were + succeeded by the Mariandyni, who owned the small tract between Cape Baba + and the mouth of the Sakkariyeh (Sangarius). From the Sangarius to the + canal of Constantinople dwelt the Thynians and Bithynians intermixed, the + former however affecting the coast and the latter the interior of the + country. The entire tract was of a nearly uniform character, consisting of + wooded spurs from the northern mountain-chain, with, valleys of greater or + less width between them. Streams were numerous, and vegetation was + consequently rich; but it may be doubted whether the climate was healthy. + </p> + <p> + The western lowland comprised the inland regions of Mysia, Lydia, and + Caria, together with the coast-tracts which had been occupied by immigrant + Greeks, and which were known as Juolis, Doris, and Ionia. The broad and + rich plains, the open valleys, the fair grassy mountains, the noble trees, + the numerous and copious rivers of this district are too well known to + need description here. The western portion of Asia Minor is a terrestrial + paradise, well deserving the praises which Herodotus with patriotic + enthusiasm bestowed upon it. The climate is delightful, only that it is + somewhat too luxurious; the soil is rich and varied in quality; the + vegetable productions are abundant; and the mountains, at any rate + anciently, possessed mineral treasures of great value. + </p> + <p> + The lowland upon the south is narrower and more mountainous than either of + the others. It comprised three countries only—Lycia, Pamphylia, and + Cilicia. The tract is chiefly occupied by spurs from Taurus, between which + lie warm and richly wooded valleys. In Lycia, however, the mountain-ridges + embrace some extensive uplands, on a level not much inferior to that of + the central plateau itself, while in Pamphylia and Cilicia are two or + three low alluvial plains of tolerable extent and of great fertility. Of + these the most remarkable is that near Tarsus, formed by the three streams + of the Cydnus, the Sarus, and the Pyramus, which extends along the coast a + distance of forty miles and reaches inland about thirty, the region which + gave to the tract where it occurs the name of Cilicia Campestris or + Pedias. + </p> + <p> + The Persian dominion in this quarter was not bounded by sea. Opposite to + Cilicia lay the large and important island of Cyprus, which was included + in the territories of the Great King from the time of Cambyses to the + close of the Empire. Further to the west, Rhodes, Cos, Samos, Chios, + Lesbos, Tenedos, Lemnus, Imbrus, Samothrace, Thasos, and most of the + islands of the Egean were for a time Persian, but were never grasped with + such firmness as to be a source of real strength to their conquerors. The + same may be said of Thrace and Pseonia, subjugated under Darius, and held + for some twenty or thirty years, but not assimilated, not brought into the + condition of provinces, and therefore rather a drain upon the Empire than + an addition to its resources. It seems unnecessary to lengthen out this + description of the Persian territories by giving an account of countries + and islands, whose connection with the Empire was at once so slight and so + temporary. + </p> + <p> + A few words must, however, be said respecting Cyprus. This island, which + is 140 miles long from Bafa (Paphos) to Cape Andrea, with an average width + for two thirds of its length of thirty-five, and for the remaining third + of about six or seven miles, is a mountainous tract, picturesque and + varied, containing numerous slopes, and a few plains, well fitted for + cultivation. According to Eratosthenes it was in the more ancient times + richly wooded, but was gradually cleared by human labor. Its soil was + productive, and particularly well suited for the vine and the olive. It + grew also sufficient corn for its own use. But its special value arose + from its mineral products. The copper mines near Tamasus were enormously + productive, and the ore thence derived so preponderated over all other + supplies that the later Romans came to use the word Cyprium for the metal + generally—whence the names by which it is even now known in most of + the languages of modern Europe. On the whole Cyprus was considered + inferior to no known island. Besides its vegetable and mineral products, + it furnished a large number of excellent sailors to the Persian fleet. + </p> + <p> + It remains to notice briefly those provinces of the south-west which had + not been included within any of the preceding monarchies, and which are + therefore as yet undescribed in these volumes. These provinces are the + African, and may be best considered under the three heads of Egypt, Libya, + and the Cyrenaica. + </p> + <p> + Egypt, if we include under the name not merely the Nile valley and the + Delta, but the entire tract interposed between the Libyan Desert on the + one side and the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea on the other, is a country of + nearly the size of Italy. It measures 520 miles from Elephantine to the + Mediterranean, and has an average width of 150 or 160 miles. It must thus + contain an area of about 80,000 square miles. Of this space, however, at + least three fourths is valueless, consisting of bare rocky mountain or dry + sandy plain. It is only along the course of the narrow valley in which the + Nile flows from the Cataracts to beyond Cairo, in the tract known as the + Faioum, and in the broad region of the Delta, that cultivation is + possible. Even in the Delta itself there are large spaces which are arid, + and others which are permanent marshes, so that considerable portions of + its surface are unfitted for husbandry. But if the quantity of cultivable + land is thus limited in Egypt, the quality is so excellent, in consequence + of the alluvial character of the soil, that the country was always in + ancient times a sort of granary of the world. The noble river, bringing + annually a fresh deposit of the richest soil, and furnishing a supply of + water, which is sufficient, if carefully husbanded, to produce a + succession of luxuriant crops throughout the year, makes Egypt—what + it is even at the present day—one of the most fertile portions of + the earth’s surface—a land of varied products, all excellent—but + especially a land of corn, to which the principal nations of the world + looked for their supplies, either regularly, or at any rate in times of + difficulty. + </p> + <p> + West of Egypt was a dry and sandy tract, dotted with oases, but otherwise + only habitable along the shore, which in the time of the Persian Empire + was occupied by a number of wild tribes who were mostly in the lowest + condition to which savage man is capable of sinking. The geographical + extent of this tract was large, exceeding considerably that of Egypt; but + its value was slight. Naturally, it produced nothing but dates and hides. + The inhumanity of the inhabitants made it, however, further productive of + a commodity, which, until the world is christianized, will probably always + be regarded as one of high value—the commodity of negro slaves, + which were procured in the Sahara by slave-hunts, and perhaps by purchase + in Nigritia. + </p> + <p> + Still further to the west, and forming the boundary of the Empire in this + direction, lay the district of the Cyrenaica, a tract of singular + fertility and beauty. Between Benghazi, in east longitude 20°, and the Ras + al Tynn (long. 23° 15’), there rises above the level of the adjacent + regions an extensive table land, which, attracting the vapors that float + over the Mediterranean, condenses them, and so abounds with springs and + rills. A general freshness and greenness, with rich vegetation in places, + is the consequence. Olives, figs, carobs, junipers, oleanders, cypresses, + cedars, myrtles, arbutus-trees, cover the flanks of the plateau and the + hollows which break its surface, while the remainder is suitable alike for + the cultivation of cereals and for pasturage. Nature has also made the + region a special gift in the laserpitium or silphium, which was regarded + by the ancients as at once a delicacy and a plant of great medicinal + power, and which added largely to the value of the country. + </p> + <p> + Such was the geographical extent of the Persian Empire, and such were the + chief provinces which it contained besides those previously comprised in + the empires of Media or Babylon. Territorially, the great mass of the + Empire lay towards the east, between long. 50° and 75°, or between the + Zagros range and the Indian Desert. But its most important provinces were + the western ones. East of Persepolis, the only regions of much value were + the valleys of the Indus and the Oxus. Westward lay Susiana, Babylonia, + Assyria, Media, Armenia, Iberia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Syria, + Palestine, Egypt, the Cyrenaica—all countries of great, or at least + considerable, productiveness. The two richest grain tracts of the ancient + world, the best pasture regions, the districts which produced the most + valuable horses, the most abundant of known gold-fields, were included + within the limits of the Empire, which may be looked upon as + self-sufficing, containing within it all that man in those days required, + not only for his necessities, but even for his most cherished luxuries. + </p> + <p> + The productiveness of the Empire was the natural result of its possessing + so many and such large rivers. Six streams of the first class, having + courses exceeding a thousand miles in length, helped to fertilize the + lands which owned the sway of the Great King. These were the Nile, the + Indus, the Euphrates, the Jaxartes, the Oxus, and the Tigris. Two of the + six have been already described in these volumes, and therefore will not + need to detain us here; but a few words must be said with respect to each + of the remaining four, if our sketch of the geography of the Empire is to + make any approach to completeness. + </p> + <p> + The Nile was only in the latter part of its course a Persian stream. + Flowing, as we now know that it does, from within a short distance of the + equator, it had accomplished more than three fourths of its course before + it entered a Persian province. It ran, however, through Persian territory + a distance of about six hundred miles, and conferred on the tract through + which it passed immeasurable benefits. The Greeks sometimes maintained + that “Egypt was the gift of the river;” and, though this was very far from + being a correct statement in the sense intended, there is a meaning of the + words in which we may accept them as expressing a fact. Egypt is only what + she is through her river. The Nile gives her all that makes her valuable. + This broad, ample, and unfailing stream not only by its annual inundation + enriches the soil and prepares it for tillage in a manner that renders + only the lightest further labor necessary, but serves as a reservoir from + which inexhaustible supplies of the precious fluid can be obtained + throughout the whole of the year. The water, which rises towards the end + of June, begins to subside early in October, and for half the year—from + December till June—Egypt is only cultivable through irrigation. She + produces, however, during this period, excellent crops—even at the + present day, when there are few canals—from the facility with which + water is obtained, by means of a very simple engine, out of the channel of + the Nile. This unfailing supply enabled the cultivator to obtain a second, + a third, and even sometimes a fourth crop from the same land within the + space of a year. + </p> + <p> + The course of the Nile from Elephantine, where it entered Egypt, to + Cercasorus, near Heliopolis, where it bifurcated, was in general north, + with, however, a certain tendency westward. It entered Egypt nearly in + long. 33°, and at Neapolis (more than two degrees further north) it was + still within 15° of the same meridian; then, however, it took a westerly + bend, crossed the 32nd and 31st meridians, and in lat. 28° 23 reached west + as far as long. 30° 43’. After this it returned a little eastward, + recrossed the 31st meridian, and having reached long. 31° 22’ near + Aphroditopolis (lat.29° 25), it proceeded almost due north to Cercasorus + in lat. 30° 7’. The course of the river up to this point was, from its + entry into the country, about 540 miles. At Cercasorus the Delta began. + The river threw out two branches, which flowed respectively to the + north-east and the north-west, while between them was a third channel, a + continuation of the previous course of the stream, which pierced the Delta + through its centre, flowing almost due north. Lower down, further branch + channels were thrown out, some natural, some artificial, and the + triangular tract between the two outer arms of the river was intersected + by at least five, and (in later times) by fourteen large streams. The + right and left arms appear to have been of about equal in length, and may + be estimated at 150 or 160 miles; the central arm had a shorter course, + not exceeding 110 miles. The volume of water which the Nile pours into the + Mediterranean during a day and night is estimated at from 150,000 millions + to 700,000 millions of cubic metres. It was by far the largest of all the + rivers of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + The Indus, which was the next largest of the Persian rivers to the Nile, + rose (like the Nile) outside the Persian territory. Its source is in the + region north of the Himalaya range, about lat. 31°, long. 82° 30’. It + begins by flowing to the north-west, in a direction parallel to that of + the Western Himalayas, along the northern flank of which it continues in + this line a distance of about 700 miles, past Ladak, to long. 75° nearly. + Here it is met by the Bolor chain, which prevents its further progress in + this direction and causes it to turn suddenly nearly at a right angle to + the south-west. Entering a transverse valley, it finds a way (which is + still very imperfectly known) through the numerous ridges of the Himalaya + to the plain at its southern base, on which it debouches about thirty + miles above Attock. It is difficult to say at what exact point it crossed + the Persian frontier, but probably at least the first 700 miles of its + course were through territory not Persian. From Attock to the sea the + Indus is a noble river. It runs for 900 miles in a general direction of + S.S.W. through the plain in one main stream (which is several hundred + yards in width), while on its way it throws off also from time to time + small side streamlets, which are either consumed in irrigation or rejoin + the main channel. A little below Tatta its Delta begins—a Delta, + however, much inferior in size to that of the Nile. The distance from the + apex to the sea is not more than sixty miles, and the breadth of the tract + embraced between the two arms does not exceed seventy miles. The entire + course of the Indus is reckoned at 1960 miles, of which probably 1260 were + through Persian territory. The volume of the stream is always + considerable, while in the rainy season it is very great. The Indus is + said then to discharge into the Indian ocean 446,000 cubic feet per + second, or 4280 millions of cubic yards in the twenty-four hours. + </p> + <p> + The Oxus rises from an Alpine lake, lying on the western side of the Bolor + chain in lat. 37° 40’, long. 73° 50’. After a rapid descent from the high + elevation of the lake, during which it pursues a somewhat serpentine + course, it debouches from the hills upon the plain about long. 69° 20’, + after receiving the river of Fyzabad, and then proceeds, first west and + afterwards north-west, across the Great Kharesmian Desert to the Sea of + Aral. During the first 450 miles of its course, while it runs among the + hills, it receives from both sides numerous and important tributaries; but + from the meridian of Balkh those fail entirely, and for above 800 miles + the Oxus pursues its solitary way, unaugmented by a single affluent, + across the waste of Tartary, rolling through the desert a wealth of + waters, which must diminish, but which does not seem very sensibly to + diminish, by evaporation. At Kilef, sixty miles north-west of Balkh, the + width of the river is 350 yards; at Khodja Salih, thirty miles lower down, + it is 823 yards with a depth of twenty feet; at Kerki, seventy miles below + Khodja Salih, it is “twice the width of the Danube at Buda-Pesth,” or + about 940 yards; at Betik, on the route between Bokhara and Merv, its + width has diminished to 650 yards, but its depth has increased to + twenty-nine feet. Finally, at Gorlen Hezaresp near Khiva, the breadth of + the Oxus is so great that both banks are hardly distinguishable at the + same time; but the stream is here comparatively shallow, ceasing to be + navigable at about this point. The present course of the Oxus from its + rise in Lake Sir-i-Kol to its termination in the Sea of Aral is estimated + at 1400 miles. Anciently its course must have been still longer. The Oxus, + in the time of the Achaemenian kings, fell into the Caspian by a channel + which can even now be traced. Its length was thus increased by at least + 450 miles, and, exceeding that of the Jaxartes, fell but little short of + the length of the Indus. + </p> + <p> + The Oxus, like the Nile and the Indus, has a periodical swell, which lasts + from May to October. It does not, however, overflow its hanks. Under a + scientific system of irrigation it is probable that a considerable belt of + land on either side of its course might be brought under cultivation. But + at present the extreme limit to which culture is carried, except in the + immediate vicinity of Khiva, seems to be four miles; while often, in the + absence of human care, the desert creeps up to the very brink of the + river. + </p> + <p> + The Jaxartes, or Sir-Deria, rises from two sources in the Thian-chan + mountain chain, the more remote of which is in long. 79° nearly. The two + streams both flow to the westward in almost parallel valleys, uniting + about long. 71°. After their junction the course of the stream is still to + the westward for two degrees; but between Khokand and Tashkend the river + sweeps round in a semicircle and proceeds to run first due north and then + north-west, skirting the Kizil Koum desert to Otrar, where it resumes its + original westerly direction and flows with continually diminishing volume + across the desert to the Sea of Aral. The Jaxartes is a smaller stream + than the Oxus. At Otrar, after receiving its last tributary, it is no more + than 250 yards wide. Below this point it continually dwindles, partly from + evaporation, partly from the branch stream which it throws off right and + left, of which the chief are the Cazala and the Kuvan Deria. On its way + through the desert it spreads but little fertility along its banks, which + are in places high and arid, in others depressed and swampy. The branch + streams are of some service for irrigation; and it is possible that a + scientific system might turn the water of the main channel to good + account, and by its means redeem from the desert large tracts which have + never yet been cultivated. But no such system has hitherto been applied to + the Sir, and it is doubtful whether success would attend it. The Sir, + where it falls into the Sea of Aral, is very shallow, seldom even in the + flood season exceeding four feet. The length of the stream was till + recently estimated at more than 1208 miles; but the latest explorations + seem to require an enlargement of this estimate by at least 200 or 250 + miles. + </p> + <p> + In rivers of the second class the Persian Empire was so rich that it will + be impossible, within the limits prescribed for the present work, to do + more than briefly enumerate them. The principal were, in Asia Minor, the + Hermus (Ghiediz Chai), and the Maeander (Mendere) on the west, the + Sangarius (Sakka-riyeh), the Halys (Kizil Irmak), and the Iris (Yechil + Irmak) on the north, the Cydnus (Tersoos Chai), Sarus (Cilician Syhun), + and Pyramus (Cilician Jyhun) on the south; in Armenia and the adjacent + regions, the Araxes (Aras), Cyrus (Kur), and Phasis (Eion); on the Iranic + plateau, the Sefid-rud, the Zenderud or river of Isfahan, the Etymandrus + (Helmend), and the Arius (Heri-rud); in the low country east of the + Caspian, the Gurgan and Ettrek, rivers of Hyrcania, the Margus Churghab + (or river of Merv), the Delias or river of Balkh, the Ak Su or Bokhara + river, and the Kizil Deria, a stream in the Khanat of Kokand; in + Afghanistan and India, the Kabul river, the Hydaspes (Jelum), the Aoesines + (Chenab), the Hydraotes (Ravee), and the Hyphasis (Sutlej or Gharra); in + Persia Proper, the Oroatis (Hindyan or Tab), and the Bendamir; in Susiana, + the Pasitigris (Kuran), the Hedypnus (Jerahi), the Choaspes (Kerkhah), and + the Eulsenus (a branch of the same); in the Upper Zagros region, the + Gyndes (Diyaleh), and the Greater and Lesser Zabs; in Mesopotamia, the + Chaboras (Kha-bour), and Bilichus (Belik); finally, in Syria and + Palestine, the Orontes or river of Antioch (Nahr-el-asy), the Jordan, and + the Barada or river of Damascus. Thus, besides the six great rivers of the + Empire, forty other considerable streams fertilized and enriched the + territories of the Persian monarch, which, though they embraced many arid + tracts, where cultivation was difficult, must be pronounced upon the whole + well-watered, considering their extent and the latitude in which they lay. + </p> + <p> + The Empire possessed, besides its rivers, a number of important lakes. + Omitting the Caspian and the Aral, which lay upon its borders, there were + contained within the Persian territories the following important basins: + the Urumiyeh, Lake Van, and Lake Goutcha or Sivan in Armenia; Lakes + Touz-Ghieul, Egerdir, Bey-Shehr, Chardak, Soghla, Buldur, Ghieul-Hissar, + Iznik, Abullionte, Maniyas, and many others in Asia Minor; the Sabakhah, + the Bahr-el-Melak, and the Lake of Antioch in Northern Syria; the Lake of + Hems in the Coele-Syrian valley; the Damascus lakes, the Lake of Merom, + the Sea of Tiberias, and the Dead Sea in Southern Syria and Palestine; + Lake Moeris and the Natron lakes in Egypt; the Bahr-i-Nedjif in Babylonia; + Lake Neyriz in Persia Proper; the Lake of Seistan in the Iranic Desert; + and Lake Manchur in the In dus valley. Several of these have been already + described in these volumes. Of the remainder the most important were the + Lake of Van, the Touz-Ghieul, the great lake of Seistan, and Lake Moeris. + These cannot be dismissed without a brief description. + </p> + <p> + Lake Van is situated at a very unusual elevation, being more than 5400 + feet above the sea level. It is a triangular basin, of which the three + sides front respectively S.S.E., N.N.E., and N.W. by W. The sides are all + irregular, being broken by rocky promontories; but the chief projection + lies to the east of the lake, where a tract is thrown out which suddenly + narrows the expanse from about fifty miles to less than five. The greatest + length of the basin is from N.E. to S.W., where it extends a distance of + eighty miles between Amis and Tadvan; its greatest width is between Aklat + and Van, where it measures across somewhat more than fifty miles. The + scenery which surrounds it is remarkable for its beauty. The lake is + embosomed amid high mountains, picturesque in outline, and all reaching in + places the level of perpetual snow. Its waters, generally placid, but + sometimes lashed into high waves, are of the deepest blue; while its banks + exhibit a succession of orchards, meadows, and gardens which have scarcely + their equals in Asia. The lake is fed by a number of small streams flowing + down from the lofty ridges which surround it, and, having no outlet, is of + course salt, though far less so than the neighboring lake of Urumiyeh. + Gulls and cormorants float upon its surface fish can live in it; and it is + not distasteful to cattle. Set in the expanse of waters are a few small + islets, whose vivid green contrasts well with the deep azure which + surrounds them. + </p> + <p> + The Touz-Ghieul is a basin of a very different character. Situated on the + upland of Phrygia, in lat. 39°, long. 33°, 30’, its elevation is not more + than 2500 feet. Low hills of sandstone and conglomerate encircle it, but + generally at some distance, so that a tract of plain, six or seven miles + in width, intervenes between their base and the shore. The shape of the + lake is an irregular oval, with the greater axis running nearly due north + and south. Its greatest length is estimated at forty-five miles, its width + varies, but is generally from ten to sixteen miles. At one point, however, + nearly opposite to Kodj Hissar, the lake narrows to a distance of no more + than five miles; and here a causeway has been constructed from shore to + shore, which, though ruined, still affords a dry pathway in the summer. + The water of the Touz-Ghieul is intensely salt, containing at some seasons + of the year no less than thirty-two per cent of saline matter, which is + considerably more than the amount of such matter in the water of the Dead + Sea. The surrounding plain is barren, in places marshy, and often covered + with an incrustation of salt. The whole scene is one of desolation. The + acrid waters support no animal organization; birds shun them; the plain + grows nothing but a few stunted and sapless shrubs. The only signs of life + which greet the traveller are the carts of the natives, which pass him + laden with the salt that is obtained with ease from the saturated water. + </p> + <p> + The Zerreh or Sea of Seistan—called sometimes the Hamun, or + “expanse”—is situated in the Seistan Desert on the Great Iranic + plateau, and consequently at an elevation of (probably) 3000 feet. It is + formed by the accumulation of the waters brought down by the Helmend, the + Haroot-rud, the river of Khash, the Furrah-rud and other streams, which + flow from the mountains of Afghanistan, with converging courses to the + south-west. It is an extensive basin, composed of two arms, an eastern and + a western. The western arm, which is the larger of the two, has its + greatest length from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and extends in this direction about + ninety miles. Its greatest width is about twenty-five miles. The eastern + arm is rather more than forty miles long, and from ten to twenty broad. It + is shaped much like a fish’s tail. The two arms are connected by a strait + seven or eight miles in width, which joins them near their northern + extremities. The water of the lake, though not salt, is black and has a + bad taste. Fish support life in it with difficulty, and never grow to any + great size. The lake is shallow, not much exceeding a depth of three or + four feet. It contracts greatly in the summer, at which time the strait + connecting the two arms is often absolutely dry. The edges of the lake are + clothed with tamarisk and other trees; and where the rivers enter it, + sometimes by several branches, the soil is rich and cultivation + productive; but elsewhere the sand of the desert creeps up almost to the + margin of the water, clothed only with some sickly grass and a few + scattered shrubs. + </p> + <p> + The Birket-el-Keroun, or Lake Moaris of the classical writers, is a + natural basin—not, as Herodotus imagined, an artificial one—situated + on the western side of the Nile valley, in a curious depression which + nature has made among the Libyan hills. This depression—the modern + district of the Faioom—is a circular plain, which sinks gradually + towards the north-west, descending till it is more than 100 feet below the + surface of the Nile at low water. The Northern and northwestern portion of + the depression is occupied by the lake, a sheet of brackish water shaped + like a horn (whence the modern name) measuring about thirty-five or + thirty-six miles from end to end, and attaining in the middle a width of + between five and six miles. The area of the lake is estimated roughly at + 150 square miles, its circumference at about ninety miles. It has a depth + varying from twelve to twenty-four feet. Though the water is somewhat + brackish, yet the Birket contains several species of fresh-water fish; and + in ancient times its fisheries are said to have been exceedingly + productive. + </p> + <p> + The principal cities of the Empire were, besides Pesargadae and + Persepolis, Susa—the chief city of Susiana—which became the + capital; Babylon, Ecbatana, Rhages, Zadracarta, Bactra (now Balkh), + Maracanda (now Samarcand), Aria, or Artacoana (Herat), Caspatyrus on the + Upper Indus,Taxila (Attock?), Pura (perhaps Bunpoor), Carmana (Kerman), + Arbela, Nisibis, Amida (now Diarbekr); Mazaca in Cappadocia; Trapezus + (Trebizond), Sinope, Dascyleium, Sardis, Ephesus, Miletus, Gordium, Perga, + and Tarsus in Asia Minor: Damascus, Jerusalem, Sidon, Tyre, Azotus or + Ashdod, and Gaza in Syria; Memphis and Thebes in Egypt; Cyrene and Barca + in the Cyrenaica. Of these, while Susa had from the time of Darius + Hystaspis a decided pre-eminence as the main residence of the court, and + consequently as the usual seat of government, there were three others + which could boast the distinction of being royal abodes from time to time, + either regularly at certain seasons, or occasionally at the caprice of the + monarch. These were Babylon, Ecbatana, and Persepolis, the capitals + respectively of Chaldaea, Media, and Persia Proper, all great and ancient + cities, accustomed to the presence of Courts, and all occupying positions + sufficiently central to render them not ill-suited for the business of + administration. Next to these in order of dignity may be classed the + satrapial residences, often the chief cities of old monarchies, such as + Sardis, the capital city of Lydia, Dascyleium of Bithynia, Memphis of + Egypt, Bactra of Bactria, and the like; while the third rank was held by + the towns, where there was no Court, either royal or satrapial. + </p> + <p> + Before this chapter is concluded a few words must be said with respect to + the countries which bordered upon the Persian Empire. The Empire was + surrounded, for the most part, either by seas or deserts. The + Mediterranean, the Egean, the Propontis, the Euxine, the Caspian, the + Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Gulf or Bed Sea washed its + shores, bounding almost all its western, and much of its northern and + southern sides; while the sands of the Sahara, the deserts of Arabia and + Syria of India and Thibet, filled up the greater part of the intervening + spaces. The only countries of importance which can be viewed as in any + sense neighbors of Persia are European and Asiatic Scythia, Hindustan, + Arabia, Ethiopia, and Greece. + </p> + <p> + Where the Black Sea, curving round to the north, ceased to furnish to the + Empire the advantage of a water barrier, a protection of almost equal + strength was afforded to it by the mountain-chain of the Caucasus. + Excepting on the extreme east, where it slopes gently to the Caspian, this + range is one of great elevation, possessing but few passes, and very + difficult to traverse. Its fastnesses have always been inhabited by wild + tribes, jealous of their freedom; and these tribes may have caused + annoyance, but they could at no time have been a serious danger to the + Empire. They were weak in numbers, divided in nationality and in + interests, and quite incapable of conducting any distant expedition. Like + their modern successors, the Circassians, Abassians, and Lesghians, their + one and only desire was to maintain themselves in possession of their + beloved mountains; and this desire would cause them to resist all attempts + that might be made to traverse their country, whether proceeding from the + north or from the south, from the inhabitants of Europe or from those of + Asia. Persia was thus strongly protected in this quarter; but still she + could not feel herself altogether safe. Once at least within historic + memory the barrier of the Caucasus had proved to be surmountable. From the + vast Steppe which stretches northwards from its base, in part salt, in + part grassy, had crossed into Asia—through its passes or round its + eastern flank—a countless host, which had swept all before it, and + brought ruin upon flourishing empires. The Scythian and Samaritan hordes + of the steppe-country between the Wolga and the Dnieper were to the + monarchies of Western Asia a permanent, if a somewhat distant, peril. It + could not be forgotten that they had proved themselves capable of + penetrating the rocky barrier which would otherwise have seemed so sure a + protection, or that when they swarmed across it in the seventh century + before our era, their strength was at first irresistible. The Persians + knew, what the great nations of the earth afterwards forgot, that along + the northern horizon there lay a black cloud, which might at any time + burst, carrying desolation to their homes and bringing ruin upon their + civilization. We shall find the course of their history importantly + affected by a sense of this danger, and we shall have reason to admire the + wisdom of their measures of precaution against it. + </p> + <p> + It was not only to the west of the Caspian that the danger threatened. + East of that sea also was a vast steppe-region—rolling plains of + sand or grass—the home of nomadic hordes similar in character to + those who drank the waters of the Don and Wolga. The Sacse, Massagetse, + and Dahse of this country, who dwelt about the Caspian, the Aral, and the + Lower Jaxartes, were an enemy scarcely less formidable than the Sarmatians + and the Scyths of the West. As the modern Iran now suffers from the + perpetual incursions of Uzbegs and Turcomans, so the north-eastern + provinces of the ancient Persia were exposed to the raids of the Asiatic + Scythians and the Massagetse, who were confined by no such barrier as the + Caucasus, having merely to cross a river, probably often fordable during + the summer, in order to be in Persia. Hyrcania and Parthia had indeed a + certain amount of protection from the Kharesmian Desert; but the upper + valleys of the great streams—the satrapies of Sogdiana and Bactria—must + have suffered considerable annoyance from such attacks. + </p> + <p> + On the side of India, the Empire enjoyed a twofold security. From the + shores of the Indian Ocean in the vicinity of the Runn of Cutch to the + 31st parallel of north latitude—a distance of above 600 miles—there + extends a desert, from one to two hundred miles across, which effectually + shuts off the valley of the Indus from the rest of Hindustan. It is only + along the skirts of the mountains, by Lahore, Umritsir, and Loodiana, that + the march of armies is possible—by this line alone can the Punjabis + threaten Central India, or the inhabitants of Central India attack the + Punjab. Hence in this quarter there was but a very narrow tract to guard; + and the task of defence was still further lightened by the political + condition of the people. The Gangetic Indians, though brave and powerful, + were politically weak, from their separation into a number of distinct + states under petty Rajahs, who could never hope to contend successfully + against the forces of a mighty Empire. Persia, consequently, was safe upon + this side, in the division of her adversaries. Nor had she neglected the + further security which was obtainable by an interposition between her own + actual frontier and her enemies’ dominions of a number of half-subject + dependencies. Native princes were allowed to bear sway in the Punjab + region, who acknowledged the suzerainty of Persia, and probably paid her a + fixed tribute, but whose best service was that they prevented a collision + between the Power of whom they held their crowns and the great mass of + their own nation. + </p> + <p> + The Great Arabian Peninsula, which lay due south of the most central part + of the Empire, and bordered it on this side for about thirteen degrees, or + (if we follow the line of the boundary) for above a thousand miles, might + seem to have been the most important of all the adjacent countries, since + it contains an area of a million of square miles, and is a nursery of + brave and hardy races. Politically, however, Arabia is weak, as has been + shown in a former volume; while geographically she presents to the north + her most arid and untraversable regions, so that it is rarely, and only + under very exceptional circumstances, that she menaces seriously her + northern neighbors. Persia seems never to have experienced any alarm of an + Arab invasion; her relations with the tribes that came into closest + contact with her were friendly; and she left the bulk of the nation in + unmolested enjoyment of their independence. + </p> + <p> + Another country adjoining the Persian Empire on the south, and one which + might have been expected to cause some trouble, was Ethiopia. To Egypt + Ethiopia had always proved an unquiet, and sometimes even a dangerous, + neighbor; she was fertile, rich, populous; her inhabitants were tall, + strong, and brave; she had a ready means of marching into Egypt down the + fertile valley of the Nile; and her hosts had frequently ravaged, and even + held for considerable terms of years, that easily subjected country. It is + remarkable that during the whole time of the Persian dominion Ethiopia + seems to have abstained from any invasion of the Egyptian territory. + Apparently, she feared to provoke the power which had seated itself on the + throne of the Pharaohs, and preferred the quiet enjoyment of her own + wealth and resources to the doubtful issues of a combat with the mistress + of Asia. + </p> + <p> + On her western horizon, clearly discernible from the capes and headlands + of the Asiatic coast, but separated from her, except in one or two places, + by a tolerably broad expanse of sea, and so—as it might have seemed—less + liable to come in contact with her than her neighbors upon the land, lay + the shores and isles of Greece—lovely and delightful regions, in + possession of a brave and hardy race, as yet uncorrupted by luxury, though + in the enjoyment of a fair amount of civilization. As the eye looked + across the Egean waters, resting with pleasure on the varied and graceful + forms of Sporades and Cyclades, covetous thoughts might naturally arise in + the beholder’s heart; and the idea might readily occur of conquering and + annexing the fair tracts which lay so temptingly near and possessed such + numerous attractions. The entire region, continent and islands included, + was one of diminutive size—not half so large as an ordinary Persian + satrapy; it was well peopled, but its population could not have amounted + to that of the Punjab or of Egypt, countries which Persia had overrun in a + single campaign; its inhabitants were warlike, but they were comparatively + poor, and the true sinews of war are money; moreover, they were divided + amongst themselves, locally split up by the physical conformation of their + country, and politically repugnant to anything like centralization or + union. A Persian king like Cambyses or Darius might be excused if, when + his thoughts turned to Greece, he had a complacent feeling that no danger + could threaten him from that quarter—that the little territory on + his western border was a prey which he might seize at any time that it + suited his convenience or seemed good to his caprice; so opening without + any risk a new world to his ambition. It required a knowledge that the + causes of military success and political advance lie deeper than + statistics can reach—that they have their roots in the moral nature + of man, in the grandeur of his ideas and the energy of his character—in + order to comprehend the fact, that the puny power upon her right flank was + the enemy which Persia had most to fear, the foe who would gradually sap + her strength, and finally deal her the blow that would lay her prostrate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. + </h2> + <p> + It is evident that an Empire which extended over more than twenty degrees + of latitude, touching on the one hand the tropic of Cancer, while it + reached upon the other to the parallel of Astrakan, and which at the same + time varied in elevation, from 20,000 feet above to 1300 below the sea + level, must have comprised within it great differences of climate, and + have boasted an immense variety of productions. No general description can + be applicable to such a stretch of territory; and it will therefore be + necessary to speak of the various parts of the Empire successively in + order to convey to the reader a true idea of the climatic influences to + which it was subject, and the animals, vegetables, and minerals which it + produced. + </p> + <p> + Commencing with Persia Proper, the original seat and home of the race with + whose history we are specially concerned at present, we may observe that + it was regarded by the ancients as possessing three distinct climates—one + along the shore, dry and scorchingly hot; another in the mountain region + beyond, temperate and delightful; and a third in the tract further inland, + which was thought to be disagreeably cold and wintry. Moderns, on the + contrary, find two climates only in Fars—one that of the Desbistan + or “low country,” extremely hot and dry, with frequent scorching and + oppressive winds from the south and the south-east; the other, that of the + highlands, which is cold in winter, but in summer pleasant and enjoyable. + In the Deshistan snow never falls, and there is but little rain; heavy + dews, however, occur at night, so that the mornings are often fresh and + cool; but the middle of the day is almost always hot, and from March to + November the temperature at noon ranges from 90° to 100° of Fahrenheit. + Occasionally it reaches 125°, and is then fearfully oppressive. Fierce + gusts laden with sand sweep over the plain, causing vegetation to droop or + disappear, and the animal world to hide itself. Man with difficulty + retains life at these trying times, feeling a languor and a depression of + spirits which are barely supportable.10 All who can do so quit the plains + and betake themselves to the upland region till the great heats are past, + and the advance of autumn brings at any rate cool nights and mornings. The + climate of the uplands is severe in winter. Much snow falls, and the + thermometer often marks from ten to fifteen degrees of frost. From time to + time there are furious gales, and, as the spring advances, a good deal of + wet falls; but the summer and autumn are almost rainless. The heat towards + midday is often considerable, but it is tempered by cool winds, and even + at the worst is not relaxing. The variations of temperature are great in + the twenty-four hours, and the climate is, so far, trying; but, on the + whole, it seems to be neither disagreeable nor unhealthy. + </p> + <p> + A climate resembling that of the Deshtistan prevailed along the entire + southern coast of the Empire, from the mouth of the Tigris to that of the + Indus. It was exchanged in the lower valleys of the great streams for a + damp close heat, intolerably stifling and oppressive. The upper valleys of + these streams and the plains into which they expanded were at once less + hot and less moist, but were subject to violent storms, owing to the near + vicinity of the mountains. In the mountains themselves, in Armenia and + Zagros, and again in the Elburz, the climate was of a more rigorous + character—intensely cold in winter, but pleasant in the summer time. + <a href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE XXVII., Fig. 3.]</a> Asia Minor enjoyed + generally a warmer climate than the high mountain regions; and its western + and southern coasts, being fanned by fresh breezes from the sea, or from + the hills of the interior, and cooled during the whole of the summer by + frequent showers, were especially charming. In Syria and Egypt the heats + of summer were somewhat trying, more especially in the Ghor or depressed + Jordan valley, and in the parts of Egypt adjoining on Ethiopia; but the + winters were mild, and the springs and autumns delightful. The rarity of + rain in Egypt was remarkable, and drew the attention of foreigners, who + recorded, in somewhat exaggerated terms, the curious meteorological + phenomenon. In the Cyrenaica there was a delicious summer climate—an + entire absence of rain, with cool breezes from the sea, cloudy skies, and + heavy dews at night, these last supplying the moisture which through the + whole of summer covered the ground with the freshest and loveliest + verdure. The autumn and winter rains were, however, violent; and terrific + storms were at that time of no unusual occurrence. The natives regarded it + as a blessing, that over this part of Africa the sky was “pierced,” and + allowed moisture to fall from the great reservoir of “waters above the + firmament;” but the blessing must have seemed one of questionable value at + the time of the November monsoon, when the country is deluged with rain + for several weeks in succession. + </p> + <p> + On the opposite side of the Empire, towards the north and the north-east, + in Azerbijan, on the Iranian plateau, in the Afghan plains, in the high + flat region east of the Bolor, and again in the low plain about the Aral + lake and the Caspian, a severe climate prevailed during the winter, while + the summer combined intense heat during the day with extraordinary cold—the + result of radiation—at night. Still more bitter weather was + experienced in the mountain regions of these parts—in the Bolor, the + Thian Chan, the Himalaya, and the Paropamisus or Hindu Kush—where + the winters lasted more than half the year, deep snow covering the ground + almost the whole of the time, and locomotion being rendered almost + impossible; while the summers were only moderately hot. On the other hand, + there was in this quarter, at the very extreme east of the Empire, one of + the most sultry and disagreeable of all climates—namely, that of the + Indus valley, which is either intolerably hot and dry, with fierce + tornadoes of dust that are unspeakably oppressive, or close and moist, + swept by heavy storms, which, while they somewhat lower the temperature, + increase the unhealthiness of the region. The worst portion of the valley + is its southern extremity, where the climate is only tolerable during + three months of the year. From March to November the heat is excessive; + dust-storms prevail; there are dangerous dews at night; and with the + inundation, which commences in April, a sickly time sets in, which causes + all the wealthier classes to withdraw from the country till the stagnant + water, which the swell always leaves behind it, has dried up. + </p> + <p> + Upon the whole, the climate of the Empire belonged to the warmer class of + the climates which are called temperate. In a few parts only, indeed, as + in the Indus valley, along the coast from the mouth of the Indus to that + of the Tigris, in Lower Babylonia and the adjoining portion of Susiana, in + Southern Palestine, and in Egypt, was frost absolutely unknown; while in + many places, especially in the high mountainous regions, the winters were + bitterly severe; and in all the more elevated portions of the Empire, as + in Phrygia and Cappadocia, in Azerbijan, on the great Iranian plateau, and + again in the district about Kashgar and Yarkand, there was a prolonged + period of sharp and bracing weather. But the summer warmth of almost the + whole Empire was great, the thermometer probably ranging in most places + from 90° to 120° during the months of June, July, August, and September. + The springs and autumns were, except in the high mountain tracts, mild and + enjoyable; the Empire had few very unhealthy districts; while the range of + the thermometer was in most of the provinces considerable, and the + variations in the course of a single day and night were unusually great, + there was in the climate, speaking generally, nothing destructive of human + vigor—nothing even inimical to longevity. + </p> + <p> + The vegetable productions of Persia Proper in ancient times (so far as we + have direct testimony on the subject) were neither numerous nor very + remarkable. The low coast tract supplied dates in tolerable plenty, and + bore in a few favored spots, corn, vines, and different kinds of + fruit-trees; but its general character was one of extreme barrenness. In + the mountain region there was an abundance of rich pasture, excellent + grapes were grown, and fruit-trees of almost every sort, except the olive, + flourished. One fruit-tree, regarded as indigenous in the country, + acquired a special celebrity, and was known to the Romans as the persica, + whence the German Pfirsche, the French peche, and our “peach.” Citrons, + which grew in few places, were also a Persian fruit. Further, Persia + produced a coarse kind of silphium or assafoetida; it was famous for its + walnuts, which were distinguished by the epithet of “royal”; and it + supplied to the pharmacopeia of Greece and Rome a certain number of herbs. + </p> + <p> + The account of Persian vegetable products which we derive from antiquity + is no doubt very incomplete; and it is necessary to supplement it from the + observations of modern travellers. These persons tell us that, while Fars + and Kerman are ill-supplied with forest-trees, they yet produce in places + oaks, planes, chenars or sycamores, poplars, willows, pinasters, + cypresses, acacias, fan-palms, konars, and junipers. Among shrubs, they + bear the wild fig, the wild almond, the tamarisk, the myrtle, the box, the + rhododendron, the camel’s thorn, the gum tragacanth, the caper plant, the + benneh, the blackberry, and the liquorice-plant. They boast a great + abundance of fruit-trees—as date-bearing palms, lemons, oranges, + pomegranates, vines, peaches, nectarines, apricots, quinces, pears, + apples, plums, figs, cherries, mulberries, barberries, walnuts, almonds, + and pistachio-nuts. The kinds of grain chiefly cultivated are wheat, + barley, millet, rice, and Indian corn or maize, which has been imported + into the country from America. Pulse, beans, sesame, madder, henna, + cotton, opium, tobacco, and indigo, are also grown in some places. The + three last-named, and maize or Indian corn, are of comparatively recent + introduction; but of the remainder it may be doubted whether there is a + single one which was unknown to the ancient inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + Among Persian indigenous animals may be enumerated the lion, the bear, the + wild ass, the stag, the antelope, the ibex or wild goat, the wild boar, + the hyena, the jackal, the wolf, the fox, the hare, the porcupine, the + otter, the jerboa, the ichneumon, and the marmot. The lion appears to be + rare, occurring only in some parts of the mountains. The ichneumon is + confined to the Deshtistan. The antelope, the wild boar, the wolf, the + fox, the jackal, the porcupine, and the jerboa are common. Wild asses are + found only on the northern side of the mountains, towards the salt desert. + In this tract they are frequently seen, both singly and in herds, and are + hunted by the natives, who regard their flesh as a great delicacy. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable of the Persian birds are the eagle, the vulture, the + cormorant, the falcon, the bustard, the pheasant, the heath-cock, the + red-legged partridge, the small gray partridge, the pin tailed grouse, the + sand-grouse, the francolin, the wild swan, the flamingo, the stork, the + bittern, the oyster-catcher, the raven, the hooded crow, and the cuckoo. + Besides these, the lakes boast all the usual kinds of water-fowl, as + herons, ducks, snipe, teal, etc.; the gardens and groves abound with + blackbirds, thrushes, and nightingales; curlews and peewits are seen + occasionally; while pigeons, starlings, crows, magpies, larks, sparrows, + and swallows are common. The francolin is hunted by men on foot in the + country between Shiraz and Kerman, and is taken by the hand after a few + flights. The oyster-catcher, which is a somewhat rare bird, has been + observed only on Lake Neyriz. The bustard occurs both in the low plain + along the coast, and on the high plateau, where it is captured by means of + hawks. The pheasant and the heath-cock (the latter a black species spotted + with white) are found in the woods near Failyun. The sand-grouse and the + pin-tailed grouse belong to the eastern portion of the country, the + portion known anciently as Carmania or “the hot region.” The other kinds + are diffused pretty generally. + </p> + <p> + The shores and rivers of Persia Proper supplied the people very + plentifully with fish. The ancient writers tell us that the inhabitants of + the coast tract lived almost wholly on a fish diet. The Indian Sea appears + in those days to have abounded with whales, which were not unfrequently + cast upon the shores, affording a mine of wealth to the natives. The great + ribs were used as beams in the formation of huts, while the jaws served as + doors and the smaller bones as planking. Dolphins also abounded in the + Persian waters; together with many other fish of less bulk, which were + more easy to capture. On these smaller fish, which they caught in nets, + the maritime inhabitants subsisted principally. They had also an unfailing + resource in the abundance of oysters, and other shell-fish along their + coast—the former of excellent quality. + </p> + <p> + In the interior, though the lakes, being salt or brackish, had no + piscatory stores, the rivers were, for the most part, it would seem, well + provided; at least, good fish are still found in many of the streams, both + small and large; and in some they are exceedingly plentiful. Modern + travellers fail to distinguish the different kinds; but we may presume + that they are not very unlike those of the adjoining Media, which appear + to be trout, carp, barbel, dace, bleak, and gudgeon. + </p> + <p> + The reptiles of Persia Proper are not numerous. They are chiefly + tortoises, lizards, frogs, land-snakes, and water-snakes. The land-snakes + are venomous, but their poison is not of a very deadly character; and + persons who have been bitten by them, if properly treated, generally + recover. The lizards are of various sizes, some quite small, others more + than three feet long, and covered with a coarse rough skin like that of a + toad. They have the character of being venomous, and even dangerous to + life; but it may be doubted whether they are not, like our toads and + newts, in reality perfectly harmless. + </p> + <p> + The traveller in Persia suffers less from reptiles than from insects. + Scorpions abound in all parts of the country, and, infesting houses, + furniture, and clothes, cause perpetual annoyance. Mosquitoes swarm in + certain places and seasons, preventing sleep and irritating the traveller + almost beyond endurance. A poisonous spider, a sort of tarantula, is said + to occur in some localities; and Chardin further mentions a kind of + centipede, the bite of which, according to him, is fatal. To the + sufferings which these creatures cause, must be added a constant annoyance + from those more vulgar forms of insect life which detract from the + delights of travel even in Europe. + </p> + <p> + Persia, moreover, suffers no less than Babylonia and Media, from the + ravages of locusts. Constantly, when the wind is from the south-east, + there cross from the Arabian coast clouds of these destructive insects, + whose numbers darken the air as they move, in flight after flight, across + the desert to the spots where nature or cultivation has clothed the earth + with verdure. The Deshtistan, or low country, is, of course, most exposed + to their attacks, but they are far from being confined to that region. The + interior, as far as Shiraz itself, suffers terribly from this scourge, + which produces scarcity, or even famine, when (as often happens) it is + repeated year after year. The natives at such times are reduced to feeding + on the locusts themselves; a diet which they do not relish, but to which + necessity compels them. + </p> + <p> + The locusts of Persia Proper are said to be of two kinds. One, which is + regarded as bred in the country, bears the name of <i>missri</i>, being + identified with the locust of Egypt. The other, which is thought to be + blown over from Arabia, and thus to cross the sea, is known as the <i>melelch + deriai</i>, or “sea-locust.” The former is regarded as especially + destructive to the crops, the latter to the shrubs and trees. + </p> + <p> + The domestic animals in use at the present day within the provinces of + Fars and Kerman are identical with those employed in the neighboring + country of Media, and will need only a very few words of notice here. The + ordinary horse of the country is the Turcoman, a large, strong, but + somewhat clumsy animal, possessed of remarkable powers of endurance; but + in the Deshtistan the Arabian breed prevails, and travellers tell us that + in this region horses are produced which fall but little short of the most + admired coursers of Nejd. Cows and oxen are somewhat rare, beef being + little eaten, and such cattle being only kept for the supply of the dairy, + and for purposes of agriculture. Sheep and goats are abundant, and + constitute the chief wealth of the inhabitants; the goat is, on the whole, + preferred, and both goats and sheep are generally of a black or brown + color. The sheep of Kerman are small and short-legged; they produce a wool + of great softness and delicacy. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that in ancient times the domestic animals of the country + were nearly the same as at the present day. The statement of Xenophon, + that anciently a horse was a rarity in Persia Proper, is contradicted by + the great bulk of the early writers, who tell us that the Persians were + from the first expert riders, and that their country was peculiarly well + fitted for the breeding of horses. Their camels, sheep, goats, asses, and + oxen, are also expressly mentioned by the Greeks, who even indicate a + knowledge of the fact that goats were preferred to sheep by the herdsmen + of the country. + </p> + <p> + The mineral treasures of the country appear to have been considerable, + though to what extent they were known and made use of in ancient times is + open to some question. Mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, red lead, and + orpiment are said to have been actually worked under the Persian kings; + and some of the other minerals were so patent and obvious, that we can + scarcely suppose them to have been neglected. Salt abounded in the region + in several shapes. It appeared in some places as rock salt, showing itself + in masses of vast size and various colors. In other places it covered the + surface of the ground for miles together with a thick incrustation, and + could be gathered at all seasons with little labor. It was deposited by + the waters of several lakes within the territory, and could be collected + round their edges at certain times of the year. Finally, it was held in + solution, both in the lakes and in many of the streams; from whose waters + it might have been obtained by evaporation. Bitumen and naphtha were + yielded by sources near Dalaki, which were certainly known to the + ancients. Sulphur was deposited upon the surface of the ground in places. + Some of the mountains contained ordinary lead; but it is not unlikely that + this metal escaped notice. + </p> + <p> + Ancient Persia produced a certain number of gems. The pearls of the Gulf, + which have still so great a reputation, had attracted the attention of + adventurers before the time of Alexander, whose naval captains found a + regular fishery established in one of the islands. The Orientals have + always set a high value on this commodity; and it appears that in ancient + times the Gulf pearls were more highly esteemed than any others. Of hard + stones the only kinds that can be distinctly assigned to Persia Proper are + the iritis, a species of rock-crystal; the atizoe, a white stone which had + a pleasant odor; the mithrax, a gem of many hues, the nipparene, which + resembled ivory; and the the lycardios or mule, which was in special favor + among the natives of the country. + </p> + <p> + From this account of the products of Persia Proper we have now to pass to + those of the Empire in general—a wide subject, which it will be + impossible to treat here with any completeness, owing to the limits to + which the present work is necessarily confined. In order to bring the + matter within reasonable compass, the reader may be referred in the first + instance to the account which was given in a former volume of the products + of the empire of Babylon; and the enquiry may then be confined to those + regions which were subject to Persia, but not contained within the limits + of the Fourth Monarchy. + </p> + <p> + Among the animals belonging to these regions, the following are especially + noticeable:—The tiger, the elephant, the hippopotamus, the + crocodile, the monitor, the two-humped camel, the Angora goat, the elk, + the monkey, and the spotted hysena, or <i>Felis chaus</i>. The tiger, + which is entirely absent from Mesopotamia, and unknown upon the plateau of + Iran, abounds in the low tract between the Elburz and the Caspian, in the + flat region about the Sea of Aral, and in the Indus valley. The elephant + was, perhaps, anciently an inhabitant of Upper Egypt, where the island of + Elephantine remained an evidence of the fact. It was also in Persian times + a denizen of the Indus valley, though perhaps only in a domesticated + state. The hippopotamus, unknown in India, was confined to the single + province of Egypt, where it was included among the animals which were the + objects of popular worship. The crocodile—likewise a sacred animal + to the Egyptians—frequented both the Nile and the Indus. Monitors, + which are a sort of diminutive crocodiles, were of two kinds: one, the <i>Lacerta + Nilotica</i>, was a water animal, and was probably found only in Egypt; + the other, <i>Lacerta scincus</i>, frequented dry and sandy spots, and + abounded in North Africa and Syria, as well as in the Nile valley. The + two-humped camel belonged to Bactria, where he was probably indigenous, + but was widely spread over the Empire, on account of his great strength + and powers of endurance. + </p> + <p> + The Angora goat is, perhaps, scarcely a distinct species. If not identical + with the ordinary wild goat of Persia and Mesopotamia (<i>Capra cegagrus</i>), + he is at any rate closely allied to it; and it is possible that all his + peculiar characteristics may be the effect of climate. He has a soft, + white, silky fleece, very long, divided down the back by a strong line of + separation, and falling on either side in beautiful spiral ringlets; his + fleece weighs from two to four pounds. It is of nearly uniform, length, + and averages from five to five and a half inches. + </p> + <p> + The elk is said to inhabit Armenia, Affghanistan, and the lower part of + the valley of the Indus; but it is perhaps not certain that he is really + to be found in the two latter regions. Monkeys abound in Eastern Oabul and + the adjoining parts of India. They may have also existed formerly in Upper + Egypt. The spotted hyena, <i>Felis chaus</i> (<i>Canis crocuta</i> of + Linnaeus), is an Egyptian animal, inhabiting principally the hills on the + western side of the Nile. In appearance it is like a large cat, with a + tuft of long black hair at the extremities of its ears—a feature + which it has in common with the lynx. + </p> + <p> + Among the rarer birds of the Empire may be mentioned the ostrich, which + occurred in Mesopotamia; parrots, which were found in Cabul and the + Punjab; ibises, which abounded in Egypt, and in the Delta of the Indus, + the great vulture (Vultur cinereus), which inhabited the Taurus, the + Indian owl (<i>Athena Indica</i>), the spoonbill (<i>Platalea nudifrons</i>); + the benno (<i>Ardea bubulcus</i>), and the sicsac (<i>Charadrius + melanocephalus</i>). + </p> + <p> + The most valuable of the fish belonging to the Persian seas and rivers + were the pearl oyster of the Gulf, and the murex of the Mediterranean, + which furnished the famous purple dye of Tyre. After these may be placed + the sturgeon and sterlet of the Caspian, the silurus of the Sea of Aral, + the Aleppo eel, and the palla, a small but excellent fish, which is + captured in the Indus during the flood season. The Indian Ocean and the + Persian Gulf, as we have seen, were visited by whales; dolphins, + porpoises, cod, and mullet abounded in the same seas; the large rivers + generally contained barbel and carp; while some of them, together with + many of the smaller streams, supplied trout of a good flavor. The Nile had + some curious fish peculiar to itself, as the oxyrinchus, the lepidotus, + the Perca Nilotica, the Silurus Schilbe Niloticus, the Silurus carmuth and + others. Great numbers of fish, mostly of the same species with those of + the Nile, were also furnished by the Lake Moeris; and from these a + considerable revenue was derived by the Great Kings. + </p> + <p> + Among the more remarkable of the reptiles which the Empire comprised + within its limits may be noticed—besides the great saurians already + mentioned among the larger animals—the Nile and Euphrates turtles (<i>Trionyx + Egypticus</i> and <i>Trionyx Euphraticus</i>), iguanas (<i>Stellio + vulgaris</i> and <i>Stellio spinipes</i>), geckos, especially the Egyptian + house gecko (<i>O. lobatus</i>), snakes, such as the asp (<i>Coluber haje</i>) + and the horned snake (<i>Coluber cerastes</i>), and the chameleon. The + Egyptian turtle is a large species, sometimes exceeding three feet in + length. It is said to feed on the young of the crocodile. Both it and the + Euphrates turtle are of the soft kind, i.e., of the kind which has not the + shell complete, but unites the upper and under portions by a coriaceous + membrane. The turtle of the Euphrates is of moderate size, not exceeding a + a length of two feet. It lives in the river, and on warm days suns itself + on the sandbanks with which the stream abounds. It is active, strong, + violent, and passionate. When laid on its back it easily recovers itself. + If provoked, it will snap at sticks and other objects, and endeavor to + tear them to pieces. It is of an olive-green color, with large irregular + greenish black spots. + </p> + <p> + Iguanas are found in Egypt, in Syria, and elsewhere. The most common kind + (<i>Stellio vulgaris</i>) does not exceed a foot in length, and is of an + olive color, shaded with black. It is persecuted and killed by the + Mahometans, because they regard its favorite attitude as a derisive + imitation of their own attitude of prayer. There is another species, also + Egyptian, which is of a much larger size, and of a grass-green color. This + is called <i>Stellio spinipes</i>: it has a length of from two to three + feet. + </p> + <p> + The gecko is a kind of nocturnal lizard. Its eyes are large, and the pupil + is extremely contractile. It hides itself during the day, and is lively + only at nights. It haunts rooms, especially kitchens, in Egypt, where it + finds the insects which form its ordinary food. Its feet constitute its + most marked characteristic. The five toes are enlarged and furnished with + an apparatus of folds, which, by some peculiar action, enable it to adhere + to perfectly smooth surfaces, to ascend perpendicular walls, cross + ceilings, or hang suspended for hours on the under side of leaves. The + Egyptians called it the abu burs, or “father of leprosy,” and there is a + wide-spread belief in its poisonous character; but modern naturalists + incline to regard the belief as unfounded, and to place the gecko among + reptiles which are absolutely harmless. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE + XXVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate028.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The asp of Egypt (<i>Coluber haje</i>) is a species of cobra. It is a + large snake, varying from three to six feet in length, and is extremely + venomous. It haunts gardens, where it is of great use, feeding on mice, + frogs, and various small reptiles. It has the power of greatly dilating + the skin of the neck, and this it does when angered in a way that is very + remarkable. Though naturally irritable, it is easily tamed; and the + serpent-charmers of the East make it the object of their art more often + than any other species. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + After extracting the fangs or burning out the poison-bag with a red-hot + iron, the charmer trains the animal by the shrill sounds of a small flute, + and it is soon perfectly docile. + </p> + <p> + The cerastes is also employed occasionally by the snake-charmers. It has + two long and thin excrescences above the eyes, whereto the name of “horns” + has been given: they stand erect, leaning a little backwards; no + naturalist has as yet discovered their use. The cerastes is of a very pale + brown color, and is spotted with large, unequal, and irregularly-placed + spots. Its bite is exceedingly dangerous, since it possesses a virulent + poison; and, being in the habit of nearly burying itself in the sand, + which is of the same color with itself, it is the more difficult of + avoidance. Its size also favors its escaping notice, since in length it + rarely much exceeds a foot. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXVIII., Fig. + 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The chameleon has in all ages attracted the attention of mankind. It is + found in Egypt, and in many others parts of Africa, in Georgia, and in + India. The power of changing color which it possesses is not really its + most remarkable characteristic. Far more worthy of notice are its slow + pace, extraordinary form, awkward movements, vivacity, and control of eye, + and marvellous rapidity of tongue. It is the most grotesque of reptiles. + With protruding and telescopic eyes, that move at will in the most + opposite directions, with an ungainly head, a cold, dry, strange-looking + skin, and a prehensile tail, the creature slowly steals along a branch or + twig, scarcely distinguishable from the substance along which it moves, + and scarcely seeming to move at all, until it has come within reach of its + prey. Then suddenly, with a motion rapid as that of the most agile bird, + the long cylindrical and readily extensile tongue is darted forth with + unerring aim, and the prey is seized and swallowed in a single moment of + time. The ordinary color of the chameleon is a pale olive-green. This + sometimes fades to a sort of ashen-gray, while sometimes it warms to a + yellowish-brown, on which are seen faint spots of red. Modern naturalists, + for the most part, attribute the changes to the action of the lungs, which + is itself affected chiefly by the emotions of anger, desire, and fear. <a + href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXVIII., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The great extent of the Empire caused its vegetable productions to include + almost all the forms known to the ancient world. On the one hand, the more + northern and more elevated regions bore pines, firs, larches, oaks, birch, + beech, ash, ilex, and junipers, together with the shrubs and flowers of + the cooler temperate regions; on the other hand, the southern tracts grew + palms of various kinds, mangoes, tamarind-trees, lemons, oranges, jujubes, + mimosas, and sensitive plants. Between these extremes of tropical and + cold-temperate products, the Empire embraced an almost infinite variety of + trees, shrubs, and flowers. The walnut and the Oriental plane grew to + avast size in many places. Poplars, willows, fig-mulberries, konars, + cedars, cypresses, acacias, were common. Bananas, egg-plants, + locust-trees, banyans, terebinths, the gum-styrax, the gum-tragacanth, the + assafoetida plant, the arbor vitse, the castor-oil plant, the Judas-tree, + and other somewhat rare forms, sprang up side by side with the + pomegranate, the oleander, the pistachio-nut, the myrtle, the bay, the + laurel, the mulberry, the rhododendron, and the arbutus. The Empire grew + all the known sorts of grain, and almost all the known fruits. Among its + various productions of this class, it is only possible to select for + notice a few which were especially remarkable either for their rarity or + for their excellent quality. + </p> + <p> + The ancients celebrated the wheat of AEolis, the dates of Babylon, the + citrons of Media, the Persian peach, the grapes of Carmania, the Hyrcanian + fig, the plum of Damascus, the cherries of Pontus, the mulberries of Egypt + and of Cyprus, the silphium of Gyrene, the wine of Helbon, the wild-grape + of Syria. It is not unlikely that to these might have been added as many + other vegetable products of first-rate excellence, had the ancients + possessed as good a knowledge of the countries included within the Empire + as the moderns. At present, the mulberries of Khiva, the apricots of + Bokhara, the roses of Mexar, the quinces and melons of Isfahan, the grapes + of Kasvin and Shii-az, the pears of Natunz, the dates of Dalaki, have a + wide-spread reputation, which appears in most cases to be well deserved. + On the whole, it is certain that for variety and excellence the vegetable + products of the Persian Empire will bear comparison with those of any + other state or community that has as yet existed, either in the ancient or + the modern world. + </p> + <p> + Two only of these products seem to deserve a longer description. The + Cyrenaic silphium, of which we hear so much, as constituting the main + wealth of that province, was valued chiefly for its medicinal qualities. A + decoction from its leaves was used to hasten the worst kind of labors; its + root and a juice which flowed from it were employed in a variety of + maladies. The plant, which is elaborately described by Theophrastus, + appears to have been successfully identified by modern travellers in the + Cyrenaica, who see it in the drias or derias of the Arabs, an + umbelliferous plant, which grows to a height of about three feet, has a + deleterious effect on the camels that browse on it, and bears a striking + resemblance to the representations of the ancient silphium upon coins and + medals. This plant grows only in the tract between Merj and Derna—the + very heart of the old silphium country, while that it has medicinal + properties is certain from its effects upon animals; there can thus be + little doubt that it is the silphium of the ancients, somewhat + degenerated, owing to want of cultivation. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptian byblus or papyrus (<i>Cyperus papyrus</i>) was perhaps the + most valuable of all the vegetables of the Empire. The plant was a tall + smooth reed of a triangular shape. It grew to the height of ten or fifteen + feet, and terminated in a tuft or plume of leaves and flowers. Though + indigenous in the country, it was the subject of careful cultivation, and + was grown in irrigated ground, or in such lands as were naturally marshy. + The root of the plant was eaten, while from its stem was made the famous + Egyptian paper. The manufacture of the papyrus was as follows; The outer + rind having been removed, there was exposed a laminated interior, + consisting of a number of successive layers of inner cuticle, generally + about twenty. These were carefully separated from one another by the point + of a needle, and thus were obtained a number of strips of the raw + material, which were then arranged in rows, covered with a paste, and + crossed at right angles by another set of strips placed over them, after + which the whole was converted into paper by means of a strong pressure. A + papyrus roll was made by uniting together a greater or less number of such + sheets. The best paper was made from the inmost layers of cuticle. The + outer rind of the papyrus was converted into ropes; and this fabric was + found to be peculiarly adapted for immersion in water. + </p> + <p> + The mineral treasures of the Empire were various and abundant. It has been + noticed already that Persia Proper, if we include in it Carmania, + possessed mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, red lead, orpiment, and + salt, yielding also bitumen, naphtha, sulphur, and most probably common + lead. We are further informed by ancient writers that Drangiana, or + Sarangia, furnished the rare and valuable mineral tin, without which + copper could not be hardened into bronze; that Armenia yielded emery, so + necessary for the working and polishing of gems; that the mountains and + mines of the Empire supplied almost all the varieties of useful and + precious stones; and that thus there was scarcely a mineral known to and + required by the ancients for the purposes of their life which the Great + King could not command without having recourse to others than his own + subjects. It may be likewise noticed that the more important were very + abundant, being found in many places and in large quantities. Gold was + furnished from the mountains and deserts of Thibet and India, from the + rivers of Lydia, and probably from other places where it is still found, + as Armenia, Cabul, and the neighborhood of Meshed. Silver, which was the + general medium of exchange in Persia, must have been especially plentiful. + It was probably yielded, not only by the Kerman mines, but also by those + of Armenia, Asia Minor, and the Elburz. Copper was obtained in great + abundance from Cyprus, as well as from Carmania; and it may have been also + derived, as it is now in very large quantities, from Armenia. Iron, really + the most precious of all metals, existed within the Persian territory in + the shape of huge boulders, as well as in nodules and in the form of + ironstone. Lead was procurable from Bactria, Armenia, Korman, and many + parts of Affghanistan; orpiment from Bactria, Kerman, and the Hazareh + country; antimony from Armenia, Affghanistan, and Media; hornblende, + quartz, talc, and asbestos, from various places in the Taurus. + </p> + <p> + Of all necessary minerals probably none was so plentiful and so widely + diffused as salt. It was not only in Persia Proper that nature had + bestowed this commodity with a lavish hand—there was scarcely a + province of the Empire which did not possess it in superfluous abundance. + Large tracts were covered by it in North Africa, in Media, in Carmania, + and in Lower Babylonia. In Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, and + other places, it could be obtained from lakes. In Kerman, and again in + Palestine, it showed itself in the shape of large masses, not + inappropriately termed “mountains.” Finally, in India it was the chief + material of a long mountain-range, which is capable of supplying the whole + world with salt for many ages. + </p> + <p> + Bitumen and naptha were also very widely diffused. At the eastern foot of + the Caucasus, where it subsides into the Caspian Sea, at various points in + the great Mesopotamian plain, in the Deshtistan or low country of Persia + Proper, in the Bakh-tiyari mountains, and again in the distant Jordan + valley, these two inseparable products are to be found, generally united + with indications of volcanic action, present or recent. The bitumen is of + excellent quality, and was largely employed by the ancients. The naphtha + is of two kinds, black naphtha or petroleum, and white naphtha, which is + much preferred to the other. The bitumen-pits also, in some places, + yielded salt. + </p> + <p> + Another useful mineral with which the Persians were very plentifully + supplied, was sulphur. Sulphur is found in Persia Proper, in Carmania, on + the coast of Mekran, in Azerbijan, in the Elburz, on the Iranian plateau, + in the vicinity of the Dead Sea, and in very large quantities near Mosul. + Here it is quarried in great blocks, which are conveyed to considerable + distances. + </p> + <p> + Excellent stone for building purposes was obtainable in most parts of the + Empire. Egypt furnished an inexhaustible supply of the best possible + granite; marbles of various kinds, compact sandstone, limestone, and other + useful sorts were widely diffused; and basalt was procurable from some of + the outlying ranges of Taurus. In the neighborhood of Nineveh, and in much + of the Mesopotamian region, there was abundance of grey alabaster, and a + better kind was quarried near Damascus. A gritty silicious rock on the + banks of the Euphrates, a little above Hit, was suitable for mill-stones. + </p> + <p> + The gems furnished by the various provinces of the Empire are too numerous + for mention. They included, it must be remembered, all the kinds which + have already been enumerated among the mineral products of the earlier + Monarchies. Among them, a principal place must, one would think, have been + occupied by the turquoise—the gem, par excellence, of modern Persia—although, + strange to say, there is no certain mention of it among the literary + remains of antiquity. This lovely stone is produced largely by the mines + at Nishapur in the Elburz, and is furnished also in less abundance and + less beauty by a mine in Kerman, and another near Khojend. It is noticed + by an Arabian author as early as the twelfth century of our era. A modern + writer on gems supposes that it is mentioned, though not named, by + Theophrastus; but this view scarcely seems to be tenable. + </p> + <p> + Among the gems of most value which the Empire certainly produced were the + emerald, the green ruby, the red ruby, the opal, the sapphire, the + amethyst, the carbuncle, the jasper, the lapis lazuli, the sard, the + agate, and the topaz. Emeralds were found in Egypt, Media, and Cyprus; + green rubies in Bactria; common or red rubies in Caria; opals in Egypt, + Cyprus, and Asia Minor; sapphires in Cyprus; amethysts also in Cyprus, and + moreover in Egypt, Galatia, and Armenia; carbuncles in Caria; jaspers in + Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Persia Proper; the lapis lazuli in Cyprus, Egypt, + and Media; the sard in Babylonia; the agate in Carmania, Susiana, and + Armenia; and the topaz or chrysoprase in Upper Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The tales which are told of enormous emeralds are undoubtedly fictions, + the material which passed for that precious substance being really in + these cases either green jasper or (more probably) glass. But lapis lazuli + and agate seem to have existed within the Empire in huge masses. Whole + cliffs of the former overhang the river Kashkar in Kaferistan; and the + myrrhine vases of antiquity which were (it is probable) of agate, and came + mainly from Carmania, seem to have been of a great size. + </p> + <p> + We may conclude this review by noticing, among stones of less consequence + produced within the Empire, jet, which was so called from being found at + the mouth of the river Gagis in Lycia, garnets, which are common in + Armenia, and beryl, which is a product of the same country. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. CHARACTER, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, DRESS, ETC., OF THE PEOPLE. + </h2> + <p> + “I lifted up mine eyes, and saw, and, behold, there stood before the river + a ram which had two horns: and the two horns were high; but one was higher + than the other, and the higher came up last.”—Dan. viii. 3. + </p> + <p> + The ethnic identity of the Persian people with the Medes, and the + inclusion of both nations in that remarkable division of the human race + which is known to ethnologers as the Ipanic or Arian, have been maintained + in a former volume. To the arguments there adduced it seems unnecessary to + add anything in this place, since at the present day neither of the two + positions appears to be controverted. It is admitted generally, not only + that the Persians were of the same stock with the Medes, but that they + formed, together with the Medes and a few other tribes and peoples of less + celebrity, a special branch of the Indo-European family—a branch to + which the name of Arian may be assigned, not merely for convenience sake, + but on grounds of actual tradition and history. Undistinguished in the + earlier annals of their race, the Medes and Persians became towards the + eighth or seventh century before our era, its leading and most important + tribes. Closely united together, with the superiority now inclining to + one, now to the other, they claimed and exercised a lordship over all the + other members of the stock, and not only over them, but over various alien + races also. They had qualities which raised them above their fellows, and + a civilization, which was not, perhaps, very advanced, but was still not + wholly contemptible. Such details as could be collected, either from + ancient authors, or from the extant remains, of the character, mode of + life, customs, etc., of the Medes, have already found a place in this + work. + </p> + <p> + The greater part of what was there said will apply also to the Persians. + The information, however, which we possess, with respect to this latter + people, is so much more copious than that which has come down to us with + regard to the Medes, that, without repeating anything from the former + place, our materials will probably enable us to give to the present + chapter considerable dimensions. + </p> + <p> + The woodcuts of the preceding volume will have made the reader + sufficiently familiar with the physiognomy of the Persians, or, at any + rate, with the representation of it which has come down to us upon the + Persian monuments. It may be remarked that the type of face and head is + uniform upon all of them, and offers a remarkable contrast to the type + assigned to themselves by the Assyrians, from whom the Arians evidently + adopted the general idea of bas-reliefs, as well as their general mode of + treating subjects upon them. The novelty of the physiognomy is a strong + argument in favor of its truthfulness; and this is further confirmed by + the evidence which we have, that the Persian artists aimed at representing + the varieties of the human race, and succeeded fairly in rendering them. + Varieties of, physiognomy are represented upon the bas-reliefs with much + care, and sometimes with remarkable success, as the annexed head of a + negro, taken from one of the royal tombs, will sufficiently indicate. <a + href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE XXIX., Fig.1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate029.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxix. " /> + </div> + <p> + According to Herodotus, the skulls of the Persians were extraordinarily + thin and weak—a phenomenon for which he accounted by the national + habit of always covering the head. There does not seem to be in reality + any ground for supposing that such a practice would at all tend to produce + such a result. If, therefore, we regard the fact of thinness as + established, we can only view it as an original feature in the physical + type of the race. Such a feature would imply, on the supposition that the + heads were of the ordinary size, a large brain-cavity, and so an unusual + volume of brain, which is generally a concomitant of high intellectual + power. + </p> + <p> + The Persians seem, certainly, to have been quick and lively, keen-witted, + capable of repartee, ingenious, and, for Orientals, far-sighted. They had + fancy and imagination, a relish for poetry and art, and they were not + without a certain power of political combination. But we cannot justly + ascribe to them any high degree of intellectual excellence. The religious + ideas which they held in common with the Medes were, indeed, of a more + elevated character than is usual with races not enlightened by special + revelation; but these ideas were the common stock of the Iranic peoples, + and were inherited by the Persians from a remote ancestry, not excogitated + by themselves. Their taste for art, though marked, was neither pure nor + high. We shall have to consider, in a future chapter, the architecture and + mimetic art of the people to weigh their merits in these respects, and, at + the same time, to note their deficiencies. + </p> + <p> + Without anticipating the exact verdict then to be pronounced, we may say + at once that there is nothing in the remains of the Persian architecture + and sculpture that have come down to us indicative of any remarkable + artistic genius; nothing that even places them on a par with the best + works of the kind produced by Orientals. Again, if the great work of + Firdausi represents to us, as it probably does, the true spirit of the + ancient poetry of the Persians, we must conclude that, in the highest + department of art, their efforts were but of moderate merit. A tone of + exaggeration, an imagination exuberant and unrestrained, a preference for + glitter over solid excellence, a love of far-fetched conceits, + characterize the Shahnameh; and, though we may fairly ascribe something of + this to the idiosyncrasy of the poet, still, after we have made all due + allowance upon this score, the conviction presses upon us that there was a + childish and grotesque character in the great mass of the old Persian + poetry, which marks it as the creation of moderate rather than of high + intellectual power, and prevents us from regarding it with the respect + with which we view the labors of the Greeks and Romans, or, again, of the + Hebrews, in this department. A want of seriousness, a want of reality, + and, again, a want of depth, characterize the poetry of Iran, whose bards + do not touch the chords which rouse what is noblest and highest in our + nature. They give us sparkle, prettiness, quaint and ingenious fancies, + grotesque marvels, an inflated kind of human heroism; but they have none + of the higher excellencies of the poetic art, none of the divine fire + which renders the true poet, and the true prophet, one. + </p> + <p> + Among moral qualities, we must assign to the Persians as their most marked + characteristics, at any rate in the earlier times, courage, energy, and a + regard for truth. The valor of their troops in the great combats of + Platsea and Thermopylae extorted the admiration of their enemies, who have + left on record their belief that, “in boldness and warlike spirit, the + Persians were not a whit behind the Greeks,” and that their defeat was + “wholly owing to the inferiority of their equipment and training.” Without + proper shields, with little defensive armor, wielding only short swords + and lances that were scarcely more than javelins, they dashed themselves + upon the serried ranks of the Spartans, seizing the huge spear-shafts of + these latter with their hands, striving to break them, and to force a way + in. No conduct could have been braver than this, which the modern + historian well compares with brilliant actions of the Romans and the + Swiss. The Persians thoroughly deserved to be termed (as they are termed + by AEschylus), a “valiant-minded people;” they had boldness, elan, dash, + and considerable tenacity and stubbornness; no nation of Asia or Africa + was able to stand against them; if they found their masters in the Greeks, + it was owing, as the Greeks themselves tell us, to the superiority of + Hellenic arms, equipment, and, above all, of Hellenic discipline, which + together rendered the most desperate valor unavailing, when it lacked the + support of scientific organization and united simultaneous movement. + </p> + <p> + The energy of the Persians during the earlier years of their ascendancy is + no less remarkable than their courage. AEschylus speaks of a mysterious + fate which forced them to engage continually in a long series of wars, to + take delight in combats of horse, and in the siege and overthrow of + cities. Herodotus, in a tone that is not very different, makes Xerxes, + soon after his accession, represent himself as bound by the examples of + his forefathers to engage his country in some great enterprise, and not + suffer the military spirit of his people to decay through want of + employment. We shall find, when we come to consider the history of the + Empire, that, for eighty years, under four sovereigns, the course + indicated by these two writers was in fact pursued—that war followed + on war, expedition on expedition—the active energy of sovereign and + people carrying them on, without rest or pause, in a career of conquest + that has few parallels in the history of Oriental nations. In the + subsequent period, this spirit is less marked; but, at all times, a + certain vigor and activity has characterized the race, distinguishing it + in a very marked way from the dreamy and listless Hindus upon the one + hand, and the apathetic Turks upon the other. + </p> + <p> + The Persian love of truth was a favorite theme with the Greeks, who were, + perhaps, the warmer in their praises from a latent consciousness of their + own deficiency in the virtue. According to Herodotus, the attention of + educators was specially directed to the point, and each young Persian was + taught by his preceptors three main things:—“To ride, to draw the + bow, and to speak the truth.” We find that, in the Zendavesta, and more + especially in its earliest and purest portions, truth is strenuously + inculcated. Ahura-Mazda himself is “true,” “the father of all truth,” and + his worshippers are bound to conform themselves to his image. Darius, in + his inscriptions, protests frequently against “lies,” which he seems to + regard as the embodiment of all evil. A love of finesse and intrigue is + congenital to Orientals; and, in the later period of their sway, the + Persians appear to have yielded to this natural inclination, and to have + used freely in their struggle with the Greeks the weapons of cunning and + deception; but, in the earlier period, a different spirit prevailed; lying + was then regarded as the most disgraceful act of which a man could + possibly be guilty truth was both admired and practised; Persian kings, + entrapped into a promise, stood to it firmly, however much they might wish + it recalled; foreign powers had never to complain that the terms of a + treaty were departed from; the Persians thus form an honorable exception + to the ordinary Asiatic character, and for general truthfulness and a + faithful performance of their engagements compare favorably with the + Greeks and Romans. + </p> + <p> + The Persian, if we may trust Herodotus, was careful to avoid debt. He had + a keen sense of the difficulty with which a debtor escapes subterfuge and + equivocation—forms, slightly disguised, of lying. To buy and sell + wares in a market place, to chaffer and haggle over prices, was + distasteful to him, as apt to involve falsity and unfairness. He was free + and open in speech, bold in act, generous, warm-hearted, hospitable. His + chief faults were an addiction to self-indulgence and luxury, a passionate + abandon to the feeling of the hour, whatever that might happen to be; and + a tameness and subservience in all his relations towards his prince, which + seem to moderns almost incompatible with real self-respect and manliness. + </p> + <p> + The luxury of the Persians will be considered when we treat of their + manners. In illustration of the two other weak points of their character, + it may be observed that, in joy and in sorrow, they were alike immoderate; + in the one transported beyond all reasonable bounds, and exhibiting their + transports with entire unreserve and openness; in the other + proportionately depressed, and quite unrestrained in the expression of + their anxiety or misery. AEschylus’ tragedy of the “Persae” is, in this + respect, true to nature, and represents with accuracy the real habits of + the nation. The Persian was a stranger to the dignified reserve which has + commonly been affected by the more civilized among Western nations. He + laughed and wept, shouted and shrieked, with the unrestraint of a child, + who is not ashamed to lay bare his inmost feelings to the eyes of those + about him. Lively and excitable, he loved to give vent to every passion + that stirred his heart, and cared not how many witnessed his lamentations + or his rejoicings. + </p> + <p> + The feeling of the Persian towards his king is one of which moderns can + with difficulty form a conception. In Persia the monarch was so much the + State, that patriotism itself was, as it were, swallowed up in loyalty; + and an absolute unquestioning submission, not only to the deliberate will, + but to the merest caprice of the sovereign, was, by habit and education, + so engrained into the nature of the people that a contrary spirit scarcely + ever manifested itself. In war the safety of the sovereign was the first + thought, and the principal care of all. The tales told of the + self-devotion of individuals to secure the preservation of the monarch may + not be true, but they indicate faithfully the actual tone of men’s + sentiments about the value of the royal person. If the king suffered, all + was lost; if the king escaped, the greatest calamities seemed light, and + could be endured with patience. Uncomplaining acquiescence in all the + decisions of the monarch—cheerful submission to his will, whatever + it might chance to be—characterized the conduct of the Persians in + time of peace. It was here that their loyalty degenerated into parasitical + tameness, and became a defect instead of a virtue. The voice of + remonstrance, of rebuke, of warning, was unheard at the Court; and tyranny + was allowed to indulge unchecked in the wildest caprices and + extravagances. The father, whose innocent son was shot before his eyes by + the king in pure wantonness, instead of raising an indignant protest + against the crime, felicitated him on the excellence of his archery. + Unfortunates, bastinadoed by the royal orders, declared themselves + delighted, because his majesty had condescended to recollect them. A tone + of sycophancy and servility was thus engendered, which, sapping + self-respect, tended fatally to lower and corrupt the entire character of + the people. + </p> + <p> + In considering the manners and customs of the Persians, it will be + convenient to follow the order already observed in treating of Assyria and + Media—that is to say, to treat, in the first instance, of their + warlike, and subsequently of their peaceful usages. On the latter the + monuments throw considerable light; on the former, the information which + they supply is comparatively scanty. + </p> + <p> + The Persians, like the Medes, regarded chariots with disfavor, and + composed their armies almost entirely of foot and horse. The ordinary + dress of the foot-man was, in the earlier times, a tunic with long + sleeves, made of leather, and fitting rather tightly to the frame, which + it covered from the neck to the knee. Under this was worn a pair of + trousers, also of leather, and tolerably tight-fitting, especially at the + ankles, where they met a sort of high shoe, or low boot. The head was + protected by a loose round cap, apparently of felt, which projected a + little in front, and rose considerably above the top of the head. Round + the waist was worn a double girdle or belt, from which depended a short + sword. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXVIII Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The offensive arms of the foot-man were, a sword, a spear, and a bow. The + sword, which was called by the Persians <i>akinaces</i>, appears to have + been a short, straight weapon, suited for stabbing rather than for + cutting, and, in fact, not very much better than a dagger. <a + href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE XXIX., Fig. 2.]</a> It was carried in a + sheath, and was worn suspended from the girdle on the right side. From the + Persepolitan sculptures it would seem not to have hung freely, but to have + been attached to the right thigh by a thong which passed round the knee. + The handle was short, and generally unprotected by a guard; but, in some + specimens, we see a simple cross-bar between the hilt and the blade. + </p> + <p> + The spear carried by the Persian foot-man was also short, or, at any rate, + much shorter than the Greek. To judge by the representations of guardsmen + on the Persepolitan sculptures, it was from six to six and a half or seven + feet in length. The Grecian spear was sometimes as much as twenty-one + feet. The Persian weapon had a short head, which appears to have been + flattish, and which was strengthened by a bar or ridge down the middle. + The shaft, which was of cornel wood, tapered gradually from bottom to top, + and was ornamented at its lower extremity with a ball, sometimes carved in + the shape of an apple or a pomegranate. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE + XXIX., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The Persian bow, according to Herodotus and Xenophon, was of unusual size. + According to the sculptures, it was rather short, certainly not exceeding + four feet. It seems to have been carried strung, either on the left + shoulder, with the arm passed through it, or in a bow-case slung at the + left side. It was considerably bent in the middle, and had the ends + slightly turned back. <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXX., Fig. 1.]</a> + The arrows, which were of reed, tipped with metal, and feathered, were + carried in a quiver, which hung at the back near the left shoulder. To + judge from the sculptures, their length must have been about two feet and + a half. The arrow-heads, which were either of bronze or iron, seem to have + been of various shapes, the most common closely resembling the arrow-heads + of the Assyrians. [PLATE XXX., Fig. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate030.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxx. " /> + </div> + <p> + Other offensive weapons carried occasionally by the Persian foot-men were, + a battle-axe, a sling, and a knife. The battle-axe, which appears in the + sculptures only in one or two instances, is declared to have been a common + Persian weapon by Xenophon, who, upon such a point, would seem to be + trustworthy. The use of the sling by the Persian light-armed is quite + certain. It is mentioned by Curtius and Strabo, no less than by Xenophon; + and the last-named writer speaks with full knowledge on the subject, for + he witnessed the effect of the weapon in the hands of Persian slingers + during his return with the Ten Thousand. The only missiles which the + Persian slingers threw were stones; they did not, like the Rhodians, make + use of small lumps of lead. + </p> + <p> + The knife seems also to have been a Persian weapon. Its blade appears to + have been slightly curved, like that of a pruning-hook. It was worn in a + sheath, and was probably thrust into the belt or girdle like the similar + weapon, half knife, half dagger, of a modern Persian. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary defence of the Persian against the weapons of his enemy was a + shield of wicker-work, which covered him almost from head to foot, and + which probably differed little from the wattled shield of the Assyrians. + <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXX., Fig. 2.]</a> This he commonly + planted on the ground, supporting it, perhaps, with a crutch, while he + shot his arrows from behind it. Occasionally, he added to this defence the + protection of a coat of mail, composed either of scale armor, or of + quilted linen, like the corselets of the Egyptians. Armor of the former + kind was almost impenetrable, since the scales were of metal—iron, + bronze, or sometimes gold—and overlapped one another like those of a + fish. + </p> + <p> + The Persian cavalry was armed, in the early times of the monarchy, almost + exactly in the same manner as their infantry. Afterwards, however a + considerable change seems to have been made. In the time of the younger + Cyrus cavalry soldiers were very fully protected. They wore helmets on + their heads, coats of mail about their bodies, and greaves on their legs. + Their chief offensive arms seem, then, to have been the short sword, the + javelin, and the knife. It is probable that they were without shields, + being sufficiently defended by their armor, which (as we have seen) was + almost complete. + </p> + <p> + The javelin of the horseman, which was his special weapon, was a short + strong spear or pike, with a shaft of cornel-wood, and an iron point. It + was common for him to carry two such weapons, one of which he used as a + missile, while he retained the other in order to employ it in hand-to-hand + combat with the enemy. It was a stout manageable weapon, and though no + match for the longer and equally strong spear of the Macedonian cavalry, + was preferred by Xenophon to the long weak reed-lance commonly carried by + horse-soldiers in his day. + </p> + <p> + It was the practice of the later Persians to protect with armor, not only + the horseman, but the horse. They selected for the service large and + powerful animals, chiefly of the Nisaean breed, and cased them almost + wholly in mail. The head was guarded by a frontlet, and the neck and chest + by a breast-piece; the sides and flanks had their own special covering and + cuisses defended the thighs. These defences were not merely, like those of + the later Assyrian heavy cavalry, of felt or leather, but consisted, like + the cuirasses worn by the riders, of some such material covered with metal + scales. The weight which the horse had to sustain was thus very great, and + the movements of the cavalry force were, in consequence, slow and + hesitating. Flight was difficult; and, in a retreat, the weaker animals + were apt to sink under their burdens, and to be trampled to death by the + stronger ones. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that, besides these heavy horsemen, the Persians + employed, even in the latest times, and much more in the earlier, a light + and agile cavalry force. Such were the troops which, under Tissaphernes, + harassed the Ten Thousand during their retreat; and such, it may be + conjectured, was really at all times the great body of their cavalry. The + education of the Persian, as we shall see hereafter, was directed to the + formation of those habits of quickness and agility in the mounting and + managing of horses, which have a military value only as furnishing a good + training for the light-cavalry service; and the tendency of the race has + at all times been, not to those forms of military organization which are + efficient by means of solidity and strength, but to those lighter, more + varied, and more elastic branches which compensate for a want of solidity + by increased activity, readiness, and ease of movement. + </p> + <p> + Though the Persians did not set any great store by chariots, as an arm of + the military service, they nevertheless made occasional use of them. Not + only were their kings and princes, when they commanded their troops in + person, accustomed to direct their movements, both on the march and even + inaction, from the elevation of a war-chariot, but now and then, in great + battles, a considerable force of them was brought into the field, and + important consequences were expected from their employment. The wheels of + the war-chariots were armed with scythes; and these, when the chariot was + set in motion, were regarded as calculated to inflict great damage on the + ranks of opponents. Such hopes seem, however, to have been generally + disappointed. As every chariot was drawn by at least two horses, and + contained at least two persons—the charioteer and the warrior—a + large mark was offered by each to the missiles of the light troops who + were commonly stationed to receive them; and, as practically it was found + that a single wound to either horse or man threw the whole equipage into + confusion, the charge of a scythed chariot was commonly checked before it + reached the line of battle of the enemy. Where this was not the case, the + danger was escaped by opening the ranks and letting the chariots pass + through them to the rear, a good account being speedily given of any + adventurer who thus isolated himself from the support of his own party. + </p> + <p> + The Persian war-chariot was, probably, somewhat loftier than the Assyrian. + The wheels appear to have been from, three to four feet in diameter; and + the body rose above them to a height from the ground of nearly five feet. + The person of the warrior was thus protected up to his middle by the + curved board which enclosed the chariot on three sides. The axle-tree is + said to have been broad, since breadth afforded a security against being + overturned, and the whole construction to have been strong and solid. The + wheels had twelve spokes, which radiated from a nave of unusual size. The + felloes were narrower than the Assyrian, but were still composed, like + them, of two or three distinct layers of wood. The tires were probably of + metal, and were indented like the edge of a saw. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE + XXXI., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate031.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxi. " /> + </div> + <p> + No great ornamentation of the chariot appears to have been attempted. The + body was occasionally patterned with a chequer-work, which maybe compared + with a style common in Assyria, and the spokes of the wheels were + sometimes of great elegance, but the general character of the workmanship + was massive and plain. The pole was short, and terminated with a simple + curve. From the evidence of the monuments it would seem that chariots were + drawn by two horses only; but the classical writers assure us that the + ordinary practice was to have teams of four. The harness used was + exceedingly simple, consisting of a yoke, a belly-band, a narrow collar, a + head-stall, a bit, and reins. When the charioteer left his seat, the reins + could be attached to a loop or bar which projected from the front of the + chariot-board. + </p> + <p> + Chariots were constructed to contain two, or perhaps, in some instances, + three persons. These consisted of the warrior, his charioteer, who stood + beside him, and an attendant, whose place was behind, and whose business + it was to open and shut the chariot doors. The charioteer wore a visor and + a coat of mail, exposing nothing to the enemy but his eyes. + </p> + <p> + The later Persians made use also of elephants in battle, but to a very + small extent, and without any results worth mentioning. + </p> + <p> + The chief points of Persian tactics were the following. The army was + organized into three distinct services—those of the chariots, the + horse, and the foot. In drawing up the line of battle, it was usual, where + chariots were employed, to place them in the front rank, in front of the + rest of the army. Behind the chariots were stationed the horse and the + foot; the former generally massed upon the wings; the latter placed in the + middle, drawn up according to nations, in a number of oblong squares, + which touched, or nearly touched, one another. The bravest and best armed + troops were placed in front; the ranks towards the rear being occupied by + those of inferior quality. The depth of the ranks was usually very great, + since Oriental troops cannot be trusted to maintain a firm front unless + they are strongly supported from behind. No attempt, however, seems to + have been made at forming a second line of battle in the rear of the + first, nor does there even seem to have been any organized system of + reserves. When the battle began, the chariots were first launched against + the enemy, whose ranks it was hoped they would confuse, or, at any rate, + disturb. After this the main line advanced to the attack, but without any + inclination to come at once to close quarters. Planting their shields + firmly on the ground in front of them, the Persian heavy-armed shot flight + after flight of arrows against their foe, while the slingers and other + light-armed in the rear sent clouds of missiles over the heads of their + friends into the adverse ranks beyond them. It was usually the enemy which + brought this phase of the battle to an end, by pressing onward and closing + with the Persian main line in a hand:to-hand combat. Here the struggle was + commonly brief—a very few minutes often decided the engagement. If + the Persian line of battle was forced or broken, all was immediately + regarded as lost—flight and rout followed. The cavalry, from its + position on the wings, might attempt, by desperate charges on the flanks + of the advancing foe, to stay his progress, and restore the fortune of the + day, but such efforts were usually unavailing. Its line of battle once + broken, a Persian army lost heart; its commander commonly set the example + of flight, and there was a general rush of all arms from the battle-field. + </p> + <p> + For success the Persians trusted mainly to their numbers, which enabled + them, in some cases, to renew an attack time after time with fresh troops, + in others to outflank and surround their adversary. Their best troops were + undoubtedly their cavalry, both heavy and light. The heavy, armed in the + old times with bows, and in the later with the javelins, highly + distinguished itself on many important occasions. The weight of its charge + must have been great; its offensive weapons were good; and its armor made + it almost invulnerable to ordinary weapons. The light cavalry was + celebrated for the quickness and dexterity of its manoeuvres. It had the + loose organization of modern Bashi-Bazouks or Cossacks; it hung in clouds + on the enemy—assailed, retreated, rallied, re-advanced—fled, + and even in flight was formidable, since each rider was trained to + discharge his arrows backwards with a sure aim. against the pursuing foe. + The famous skill of the Parthians in their horse-combats was inherited + from their Persian predecessors, who seem to have invented the practice + which the later people carried to perfection. + </p> + <p> + Though mainly depending for success on their numbers, the Persians did not + wholly despise the use of contrivance and stratagem. At Arbela, Darius + Codomannus had spiked balls strewn over the ground where he expected the + Greek cavalry to make its attacks. <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXX., + Fig. 5]</a>; and, at Sardis, Cyrus obtained his victory over the Lydian + horse by frightening them with the grotesque and unfamiliar camel. Other + instances will readily occur to the reader, whereby it appears that the + art of war was studied, and ingenuity allowed its due place in military + matters, by this people, who showed a fair share of Oriental subtlety in + the devices which they employed against their enemies. + </p> + <p> + It is doubtful whether we are to include among these devices the use of + military engines. On the one hand, we have several distinct statements by + the author of the “Cyrpoasdia,” to the effect that engines were well known + to the Persians; on the other, we remark an entire absence from the works + of other ancient writers of any notice that they actually employed them, + either in their battles or their sieges. The silence of Scripture, of + Herodotus, of the inscriptions, of Quintus Curtius, of Arrian, may fairly + be regarded as outweighing the unsupported authority of the + romance-writer, Xenophon; and though it would be rash to decide that such + things as siege-towers, battering rams, and balistce—all of which + are found to have been in constant use under the Assyrian and Babylonian + monarchies—were wholly discarded by, or unknown to, their successors + in the government of Asia, yet a wise criticism will conclude, that they + were, at any rate, unfamiliar to the Persians, rarely and sparingly (if at + all) employed by them, other methods of accomplishing the ends whereto + they served having more approved themselves to this ingenious people. In + ordinary sieges it would seem that they trusted to the bank or mound, + while sometimes they drove mines under the walls, and sought in this way + to effect a breach. Where the place attacked was of great strength, they + had recourse in general either to stratagem or to blockade. Occasionally + they employed the destructive force of fire, and no doubt they often + succeeded by the common method of escalade. On the whole, it must + certainly be said that they were successful in their sieges, exhibiting in + their conduct of them courage, activity, and considerable fertility of + resource. + </p> + <p> + A Persian army was usually, though not always, placed under a single + commander. This commander was the monarch, if he was present; if not, it + was a Persian, or a Mede, nominated by him. Under the commander-in-chief + were a number of general officers, heads of corps or divisions, of whom we + find, in one instance, as many as nine. Next in rank to these were the + chiefs of the various ethnic contingents composing the army, who were, + probably, in general the satraps of the different provinces. Thus far + appointments were held directly from the crown; but beyond this the system + was changed. The ethnic or satrapial commanders appointed the officers + next below themselves, the captains over a thousand, and (if their + contingent was large enough to admit it) the captains over ten thousand; + who, again, nominated their subordinates, commanders of a hundred, and + commanders of ten. Thus, in the main, a decimal scale prevailed. The + lowest rank of officers commanded each ten men, the next lowest a hundred, + the next to that a thousand, the next ten thousand. The officer over ten + thousand was sometimes a divisional chief; sometimes he was subject to the + commander of an ethnic contingent, who was himself under the orders of the + head of a division. Altogether there were six ranks of officers, exclusive + of the commander-in-chief. + </p> + <p> + The proper position of the commander-in-chief was considered to be the + centre of the line of battle. He was regarded as safer there than he would + have been on either wing; and it was seen that, from such a position, his + orders would be most rapidly conveyed to all parts of the battlefield. It + was not, however, thought to be honorable that he should keep aloof from + the fight, or avoid risking his own person. On the contrary, he was + expected to take an active part in the combat; and therefore, though his + place was not exactly in the very foremost ranks, it was towards the + front, and the result followed that he was often exposed to imminent + danger. The consequences of this arrangement were frequently disastrous in + the extreme, the death or flight of the commander producing universal + panic, stopping the further issue of any general order, and thus + paralyzing the whole army. + </p> + <p> + The numbers of a Persian army, though no doubt exaggerated by the Greeks, + must have been very great, amounting, probably, on occasions, to more than + a million of combatants. Troops were drawn from the entire empire, and + were marshalled in the field according to nations, each tribe accoutred in + its own fashion. Here were seen the gilded breastplates and scarlet kilts + of the Persians and Medes; there the woollen shirt of the Arab, the + leathern jerkin of the Berber, or the cotton dress of the native of + Hindustan. Swart savage Ethiops from the Upper Nile, adorned with a + war-paint of white and red, and scantily clad with the skins of leopards + or lions, fought in one place with huge clubs, arrows tipped with stone, + and spears terminating in the horn of an antelope. In another, Scyths, + with their loose spangled trousers and their tall pointed caps, dealt + death around from their unerring blows; while near them Assyrians, + helmeted, and wearing corselets of quilted linen, wielded the tough spear, + or the still more formidable iron mace. Rude weapons, like cane bows, + unfeathered arrows, and stakes hardened at one end in the fire, were seen + side by side with keen swords and daggers of the best steel, the finished + productions of the workshops of Phoenicia and Greece. Here the bronze + helmet was surmounted with the ears and horns of an ox; there it was + superseded by a fox-skin, a leathern or wooden skull-cap, or a head-dress + fashioned out of a horse’s scalp. Besides horses and mules, elephants, + camels, and wild asses, diversified the scene, and rendered it still more + strange and wonderful to the eye of a European. One large body of cavalry + was accustomed to enter the field apparently unarmed; besides the dagger, + which the Oriental never lays aside, they had nothing but a long leathern + thong. They used this, however, just as the lasso is used by the natives + of Brazil, and the wretch at whom they aimed their deadly noose had small + chance of escape. The Persians, like the Assyrians, usually avoided + fighting during the winter, and marched out their armies against the enemy + in early spring. With the great hosts which they moved a fixed order of + march was most necessary; and we find evidence of so much attention being + paid to this point that confusion and disorder seem scarcely ever to have + arisen. When the march lay within their own country, it was usual to send + on the baggage and the sumpter-beasts in advance, after which came about + half the troops, moving slowly in a long and continuous column along the + appointed line of route. At this point a considerable break occurred, in + order that all might be clear for the most important part of the army, + which was now to follow. A guard, consisting of a thousand horse and a + thousand foot, picked men of the Persian people, prepared the way for what + was most holy in the eyes of the nation—the emblems of their + religion, and their king. The former consisted of sacred horses and cars; + perhaps, in the later times, of silver altars also, bearing the perpetual + and heaven-kindled fire, which was a special object of Persian religious + regard, and which the superstition of the people viewed as a sort of + palladium, sure to bring the blessings of heaven upon their arms. Behind + the sacred emblems followed the Great King himself, mounted on a car drawn + by Nissean steeds, and perhaps protected on either side by a select band + of his relatives. Behind the royal chariot came a second guard, + consisting, like the first, of a thousand foot and a thousand horse. Then + followed ten thousand picked foot, probably the famous “Immortals;” then + came a body of ten thousand picked Persian horsemen. After these a space + of four hundred yards (nearly a quarter of a mile) was left vacant; then + marched, in a second continuous column, the remainder of the host. + </p> + <p> + On entering an enemy’s country, or drawing near a hostile force in their + own, certain alterations in these dispositions became necessary, and were + speedily effected. The baggage-train was withdrawn, and instead of moving + before the army, followed at some little distance in the rear. Horsemen + were thrown out in front, to feel for the enemy and notify his arrival. + Sometimes, if the host was large, a division of the troops was made, and + several <i>corps d’armee</i> advanced against the foe simultaneously by + distinct routes. When this took place, the commander-in-chief was careful + to accompany the central force, so as to find himself in his proper + position if he was suddenly compelled to give battle. + </p> + <p> + Night movements were seldom attempted by the Persians. They marched from + sunrise to sunset, halting, probably, during the midday heat. In their + most rapid marches they seldom accomplished more than from twenty to + twenty-five miles in the day; and when this rate was attempted for any + continuance, it was necessary to rest the men at intervals for as much as + three days at a time. The great drag upon rapidity of movement was the + baggage-train, which consisted ordinarily of a vast multitude of camels, + horses, asses, mules, oxen, etc., in part carrying burthens upon their + backs, in part harnessed to carts laden with provisions, tents, and other + necessaries. The train also frequently comprised a number of litters, in + which the wives or female companions of the chief men were luxuriously + conveyed, amid a crowd of eunuchs and attendants, and with all the + cumbrous paraphernalia of female wardrobes. Roads, it must be remembered, + did not exist; rivers were not bridged, except occasionally by boats; the + army marched on the natural ground along an established line of route + which no art had prepared for the passage of man or beast. Portions of the + route would often be soft and muddy; the carts and litters would become + immovable, their wheels sinking into the mire up to the axles; all the + efforts of the teams would be unavailing; it must have been imperative to + halt the main line, and employ the soldiers in the release of the + vehicles, which had to be lifted and carried forward till the ground was + sufficiently firm to bear them. When a river crossed the line of route, a + ford had to be sought, boats procured, or rafts extemporized. The Persians + were skilful in the passage of streams, to which they became accustomed in + their first campaigns under Cyrus; but the march was necessarily retarded + by these and similar obstacles, and we cannot be surprised that the + average rate of movement was slow. + </p> + <p> + As evening approached the Persians sought a suitable place for their camp. + An open plain was preferred for the purpose, and the vicinity of water was + a necessity. If an enemy was thought to be at hand, a ditch was rapidly + dug, and the earth thrown up inside; or if the soil was sandy, sacks were + filled with it, and the camp was protected with sand-bags. Immediately + within the rampart were placed the <i>gerrhophori</i>, or Persians armed + with large wicker shields. The rest of the soldiers had severally their + appointed places, the position assigned to the commander-in-chief being + the centre. All the army had tents, which were pitched so as to face the + east. The horses of the cavalry were tethered and hobbled in front of the + tents of their owners. + </p> + <p> + The Persians disliked encamping near to their enemy. They preferred an + interval of seven or eight miles, which they regarded as a considerable + security against a surprise. As their most important arm was the cavalry, + and as it was impossible for the cavalry to unfasten and unhobble their + steeds, to equip them properly, to arm themselves, and then to mount in a + short space of time, when darkness and confusion reigned around, a night + attack on the part of an enterprising enemy would have been most perilous + to a Persian army. Hence the precaution which they observed against its + occurrence—a precaution which was seldom or never omitted where they + felt any respect for their foe, and which seems to have been effective, + since we do not hear of their suffering any disaster of the kind which + they so greatly feared. + </p> + <p> + The Persians do not seem to have possessed any special corps of pioneers. + When the nature of the country was such as to require the felling of + timber or the removal of brushwood, the army was halted, and the work was + assigned to a certain number of the regular soldiers. For the construction + of bridges, however, in important places, and for other works on a grand + scale intended to facilitate an expedition, preparations were made + beforehand, the tasks being entrusted either to skilled workmen, or to the + crews of ships, if they were tolerably easy of performance. + </p> + <p> + Commissariat arrangements were generally made by the Persians on a large + scale, and with the best possible results. An ample baggage-train conveyed + corn sufficient to supply the host during some months and in cases where + scarcity was apprehended, further precautions were taken. Ships laden with + corn accompanied the expedition as closely as possible, and supplemented + any deficiency that might arise from a failure on the part of the land + transport department. Sometimes, too, magazines were established at + convenient points along the intended line of march previously to the + setting forth of the army, and stores were thus accumulated at places + where it was probable they would be found of most service. + </p> + <p> + Requisitions for supplies were also made upon the inhabitants of the towns + and villages through which lay the route of the army. Whenever the host + rested for a night at a place of any consequence, the inhabitants seem to + have been required to furnish sufficient bread for a meal to each man, + and, in addition, to provide a banquet for the king (or general) and his + suite, which was always very numerous. Such requisitions, often + intolerably burthensome to those upon whom they were laid, must have + tended greatly to relieve the strain upon their own resources, which the + sustentation of such enormous hosts as the Persian kings were in the habit + of moving, cannot have failed to produce in many cases. + </p> + <p> + The effectiveness of these various arrangements for the provisioning of + troops upon a march was such that Persian armies were rarely, if ever, in + any difficulty with respect to their subsistence. Once only in the entire + course of their history do we hear of the Persian forces suffering to any + considerable extent from a want of supplies. According to Herodotus, + Cambyses, when he invaded Ethiopia, neglected the ordinary precautions and + brought his army into such straits that his men began to eat each other. + This caused the total failure of his expedition, and the loss of a great + proportion of the troops employed in it. There is, however, reason to + suspect that, even in this case, the loss and difficulty which occurred + have been much exaggerated. + </p> + <p> + The Persians readily gave quarter to the enemy who asked it, and generally + treated their prisoners of war with much kindness. Personages of + importance, as monarchs or princes, either preserved their titles and + their liberty, with even a certain nominal authority, or received + appanages in other parts of the Persian territory, or, finally, were + retained about the Court as friends and table-companions of the Great + King. Those of less rank were commonly given lands and houses in some + province remote from their own country, and thenceforth held the same + position as the great mass of the subject races. Exchanges of prisoners do + not seem to have been thought of. In a few cases, persons, whom we should + regard as prisoners of war, experienced some severities, but probably only + when they were viewed by the Persians, not as fair enemies, but as rebels. + Rebels were, of course, liable to any punishment which the king might + think it right to inflict upon them, and there were occasions after a + revolt when sentences of extreme rigor were passed upon the persons + considered to have been most in fault. According to Herodotus, three + thousand Babylonians were crucified by order of Darius, to punish their + revolt from him; and, though this is probably an exaggeration, it is + certain that sometimes, where an example was thought to be required, the + Persians put to death, not only the leader of a rebellion, but a number of + his chief adherents. Crucifixion, or, at any rate, impalement of some + sort, was in such cases the ordinary punishment. Sometimes, before a rebel + was executed, he was kept for a while chained at the king’s door, in order + that there might be no doubt of his capture. + </p> + <p> + Among the minor punishments of rebellion were branding, and removal of the + rebels <i>en masse</i> from their own country, to some remote locality. In + this latter case, they were merely treated in the same way as ordinary + prisoners of war. In the former, they probably became royal slaves + attached to the household of the monarch. + </p> + <p> + Though the Persians were not themselves a nautical people, they were quite + aware of the great importance of a navy, and spared no pains to provide + themselves with an efficient one. The conquests of Phoenicia, Cyprus, + Egypt, and the Greek islands were undertaken, it is probable, mainly with + this object; and these parts of the Empire were always valued chiefly as + possessing skilled seamen, vessels, and dockyards, from which the Great + King could draw an almost inexhaustible supply of war-ships and + transports. Persia at times had the complete command of the Mediterranean + Sea, and bore undisputed sway in the Levant during almost the whole period + of her existence as an empire. + </p> + <p> + The war-ship preferred by the best naval powers during the whole period of + the Persian rule was the trireme, or decked galley impelled by rowers + sitting in three tiers, or banks, one above another. This vessel, the + invention of the Corinthians, had been generally adopted by the nations + bordering on the Mediterranean in the interval between B.C. 700 and B.C. + 525, when by the reduction of Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Egypt, the Persians + obtained the command of the sea. Notwithstanding the invention of + quadriremes by the Carthaginians before B.C. 400, and of quinqueremes by + Dionysius the Elder soon after, the trireme stood its ground, and from + first to last the Persian fleets were mainly composed of this class of + vessels. + </p> + <p> + The trireme was a vessel of a considerable size, and was capable of + accommodating two hundred and thirty persons. Of these, two hundred + constituted the crew, while the remaining thirty were men-at-arms, + corresponding to our own “marines.” By far the greater number of the crew + consisted of the rowers, who probably formed at least nine-tenths of the + whole, or one hundred and eighty out of the two hundred. The rowers sat, + not on benches running right across the vessel, but on small seats + attached to its side. They were arranged, as before stated, in three + tiers, not, however, directly one over the head of another, but obliquely, + each at once above and behind his fellow. Each rower had the sole + management of a single oar, which he worked through a hole pierced in the + side of the vessel. To prevent his oar from slipping he had a leathern + strap, which he twisted round it, and fastened to the thole, probably by + means of a button. The remainder of the crew comprised the captain, the + steersman, the petty officers, and the sailors proper, or those whose + office it was to trim the sails and look to the rigging. The trireme of + Persian times had, in all cases, a mast, and at least one sail, which was + of a square shape, hung across the mast by means of a yard or spar, like + the “square-sail” of a modern vessel. The rudder was composed of two + broad-bladed oars, one on either side of the stern, united, however, by a + cross-bar, and managed by a single steersman. The central part of a + trireme was always decked, and on this deck, which was generally level + with the bulwarks, stood and fought the men-at-arms, whose business it was + to engage the similar force of the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The weapon of the trireme, with which she was intended chiefly to attack + her foe, was the beak. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE XXXI., Fig. 3.]</a> + This consisted of a projection from the prow of the ship, either above or + below the water-line, strongly shod with a casting of iron, and + terminating either in the head of an animal, or in one or more sharp + points. A trireme was expected, like a modern “ram,” to use this implement + against the sides of her adversary’s vessels, so as to crush them in and + cause the vessels to sink. Driven by the full force of her oars, which + impelled her almost at the rate of a modern steamer, she was nearly + certain, if she struck her adversary full, to send ship and men to the + bottom. She might also, it is true, greatly damage herself; but, to + preclude this, it was customary to make the whole prow of a trirene + exceedingly strong, and, more particularly, to support it with beams at + the side which tended to prevent the timbers from starting. + </p> + <p> + Besides triremes, which constituted the bulk of the Persian navy, there + were contained in their fleet various other classes of vessels, as + triaconters, penteconters, cercuri, and others. Triaconters were long, + sharp-keeled ships, shaped very much like a trireme, rowed by thirty + rowers, who sat all upon a level, like the rowers in modern boats, fifteen + on either side of the vessel. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE XXXI., Fig. + 2.]</a> Penteconters were very similar, the only difference being in the + number of the oars and oarsmen. <a href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE XXXI., + Fig. 4.]</a> Both these classes of vessels seem to have been frequently + without sails. Cercuri were light boats, very long and swift. They are + said to have been invented by the Cyprians, and were always peculiar to + Asia. + </p> + <p> + The transports of the Persians were either for the conveyance of horses or + of food. Horse-transports were large clumsy vessels, constructed expressly + for the service whereon they were used, possessing probably a special + apparatus for the embarkation and disembarkation of the animals which they + were built to carry. Corn-transports seem to have been of a somewhat + lighter character. Probably, they varied very considerably in their size + and burthen, including huge and heavy merchantmen on the one hand, and a + much lighter and smaller craft on the other. + </p> + <p> + The Persians used their ships of war, not only for naval engagements, but + also for the conveyance of troops and the construction of bridges. + Accustomed to pass the great streams which intersect Western Asia by + bridges of boats, which were permanently established wherever an + unfordable river crossed any of the regular routes connecting the + provinces with the capital, the Persians, when they proceeded to carry + their arms from Asia into Europe, conceived the idea of bridging the + interval between the continents, which did not much exceed the width of + one of the Mesopotamian streams, by constructions similar in principle and + general character to those wherewith long use had made them familiar in + their own country. Ranging a number of vessels side by side, at no great + distance one from another, parallel with the course of the stream, which + ran down the straits, anchoring each vessel stem and stern to keep it in + place, and then laying upon these supports a long wooden platform, they + made a floating bridge of considerable strength, reaching from the Asiatic + to the European coast, on which not only men, but horses, camels, + chariots, and laden carts passed over safely from the one continent to the + other. Only, as the water which they had to cross was not a river, but an + arm of the real salt sea, and might, therefore, in case of a storm, show a + might and fury far beyond a river’s power, they thought it necessary to + employ, in lieu of boats, the strongest ships which they possessed, + namely, triremes and pentecon-ters, as best capable of withstanding the + force of an angry sea. Bridges of this kind were intended sometimes for + temporary, sometimes for permanent constructions. In the latter case, + great care and much engineering skill was lavished on their erection. The + shore cables, which united the ships together, and sustained the actual + bridge or platform, were made of most carefully selected materials, and + must have been of enormous strength; the ships were placed in close + proximity one to another; and by the substitution of a double for a single + line—of two bridges, in fact, for one—the solidity of the work + was very largely augmented. Yet, rare as was the skill shown, solid and + compact as were the causeways thus thrown by human art over the sea, they + were found inadequate to the end desired. The great work of Xerxes, far + the most elaborate of its class, failed to withstand the fury of the + elements for a single year; the bridge, constructed in one autumn, was + utterly swept away in the next; and the army which had crossed into Europe + by its aid had to embark as it best could, and return on board ship to + Asia. + </p> + <p> + As the furnishing of the Persian fleet was left wholly to the subject + nations of the Empire, so was its manning intrusted to them almost + entirely. Phoenicians, Syrians, Egyptians, Cypriots, Cilicians, Lycians, + Pamphylians, Carians, Greeks, equipped in the several costumes of their + countries, served side by side in their respective contingents of ships, + thereby giving the fleet nearly the same motley appearance which was + presented by the army. In one respect alone did the navy exhibit superior + uniformity to their sister service—the <i>epibatae</i>, or + “marines,” who formed the whole fighting force of the fleet while it kept + the sea, was a nearly homogeneous body, consisting of three races only + (two of which were closely allied), namely, Persians, Medes, and Sacse. + Every ship had thirty such men on board; all, it is probable, uniformly + armed, and all animated by one and the same spirit. To this force the + Persians must have owed it mainly that their great fleets were not mere + congeries of mutually repellant atoms, but were capable of acting against + an enemy with a fair amount of combination and singleness of purpose. + </p> + <p> + When a fleet accompanied a land army upon an expedition, it was usually + placed under the same commander. This commander, however, was not expected + to adventure himself on board much less to take the direction of a + sea-fight. He intrusted the fleet to an officer, or officers, whom he + nominated, and was content himself with the conduct of operations ashore. + Occasionally the land and sea forces were assigned to distinct commanders + of co-ordinate authority—an arrangement which led naturally, to + misunderstanding and quarrel. + </p> + <p> + The tactics of a Persian fleet seem to have been of the simplest kind + Confident in their numbers, until experience had taught them the + fallaciousness of such a ground of hope, they were chiefly anxious that + their enemy should not escape. To prevent this they endeavored to surround + the ships opposed to them, advancing their line in a crescent form, so as + to enclose their adversary’s wings, or even detaching squadrons to cut off + his retreat. They formed their line several ships deep and when the hour + of battle came, advanced directly at their best speed against the enemy, + endeavoring to run down his vessels by sheer force, and never showing any + acquaintance with or predilection for manoeuvres of a skilful antagonist, + who avoided or successfully withstood this first onset, they were apt + through their very numbers to be thrown into disorder: the first line + would become entangled with the second, the second with the third, and + inextricable confusion would be the result. Confusion placed them at the + mercy of their antagonist, who, retaining complete command over his own + vessels, was able to strike theirs in vulnerable parts, and, in a short + time, to cover the sea with shattered and sinking wrecks. The loss to the + Persians in men as well as in material, was then sure to be very great; + for their sailors seldom knew how to swim, and were consequently drowned, + even when the shore was but a few yards distant. + </p> + <p> + When, from deficiency in their numbers, or distrust of their own nautical + skill in comparison with that of their enemy, the commanders of a Persian + fleet wished to avoid an engagement, a plan sometimes adopted was to run + the ships ashore upon a smooth soft beach, and, after drawing them + together, to surround them with such a rampart as could be hastily made, + and defend this rampart with the sailors. The crews of the Persian vessels + were always more or less completely armed, in order that, if occasion + arose, they might act as soldiers ashore, and were thus quite capable of + fighting effectively behind a rampart. They might count, too, under such + circumstances, upon assistance from such of their own land forces as might + happen to be in the neighborhood, who would be sure to come with all speed + to their aid, and might be expected to prove a sure protection. + </p> + <p> + The subject nations who furnished the Persians with their fleet were, in + the earlier times, the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, the Cypriots, the + Cilicians, the Syrians of Palestine, the Pamphylians, the Lycians, the + Carians, and the Greeks of Asia Minor and the islands. The Greeks seem to + have furnished the largest number of ships; the Phoenicians, the next + largest; then the Egyptians; after them the Cypriots; then the Cilicians; + then the Carians; next the Lycians; while the Pamphylians furnished the + least. The best ships and the best sailors were the Phoenicians, + especially those of Sidon. In later times, ships were drawn either from + Phoenicia alone, or from Phoenicia, Cilicia, and Cyprus. + </p> + <p> + The limits assigned to the present work forbid the further prosecution of + this branch of our inquiry, and require us now to pass on from the + consideration of the Persian usages in war, to that of their manners and + customs, their habits and proceedings, in time of peace. And here it will + once more be convenient to follow a division of the subject with which the + reader is familiar, and to treat first of the public life of the King and + Court, and next of the private life of the people. + </p> + <p> + The Persian king held the same rank and position in the eyes of his + subjects which the great monarch of Western Asia, whoever he might be, had + always occupied from time immemorial. He was their lord and master, + absolute disposer of their lives, liberties, and property; the sole + fountain of law and right, incapable himself of doing wrong, irresponsible + irresistable—a sort of God upon earth; one whose favor was + happiness, at whose frown men trembled, before whom all bowed themselves + down with the lowest and humblest obeisance. + </p> + <p> + To a personage so exhalted, a state and pomp of the utmost magnificence + was befitting. The king’s ordinary dress in time of peace was the long + flowing “Median garment,” or <i>candys</i>—made in his case (it is + probable) of richest silk, which, with its ample folds, its wide hanging + sleeves, and its close fit about the neck and chest, gave dignity to + almost any figure, and excellently set off the noble presence of an + Achaemenian prince. The royal robe was either of purple throughout, or + sometimes of purple embroidered with gold. It descended below the ankles; + resting on the foot even when the monarch was seated. A broad girdle + confined it at the waist. Under it was worn a tunic, or shirt, which + reached from the neck to the knee, and had tight-fitting sleeves that + covered the arm to the wrist. The tunic was purple in color, like the <i>candys</i>, + or robe, but striped or mixed with white. The lower limbs were encased in + trousers of a crimson hue. On his feet the the king wore shoes like those + of the Medes, long and taper at the toe buttoned in front, and reaching + very high up the instep: their color was deep yellow or saffron. <a + href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE XXXII., Fig.1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate032.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxii. " /> + </div> + <p> + Thus far the monarch’s costume, though richer in material than the dress + of the Persian nobles, and in some points different in color, was on the + whole remarkably like that of the upper class of his subjects. It was, + however, most important that his dress should possess some distinguishing + feature, and that that feature should be one of very marked prominency. In + an absolute monarchy the king must be unmistakable, at almost any + distance, and almost in any light. Consequences of the gravest kind may + follow from any mistake of the royal identity; and it is therefore + essential to the comfort both of prince and subject that some very + conspicuous badge shall mark and notify the monarch’s presence. + Accordingly, it appears that the Persian ruler was to be known by his + headdress, which was peculiar alike in shape and in color, and was + calculated to catch the eye in both respects. It bore the name <i>kitaris</i> + or <i>hidaris</i>, and was a tall stiff cap, slightly swelling as it + ascended, flat at top, and terminating in a ring or circle which projected + beyond the lines of the sides. Round it, probably near the bottom, was + worn a fillet or band—the diadem proper—which was blue, + spotted with white. + </p> + <p> + As the other Persians wore either simple fillets round their heads, or + soft, rounded, and comparatively low caps, with no band round them, the + king’s headdress, which would tower above theirs and attract attention by + its color, could readily be distinguished even in the most crowded Court. + </p> + <p> + It has been asserted that the <i>kidaris</i>, or tiara of the Persian + kings, was “commonly adorned with gold and jewelry;” and this may possibly + have been the case, but there is no evidence that it was so. Its material + was probably either cloth or felt, and it was always of a bright color, + though not (apparently) always of the same color. Its distinguishing + features were its height, its stiffness, and the blue and white fillet + which encircled it. + </p> + <p> + Among other certain indications of the royal presence may be mentioned the + golden sceptre, and the parasol. The sceptre, which is seen frequently in + the king’s hands, was a plain rod, about five feet in length, ornamented + with a ball, or apple, at its upper end, and at its lower tapering nearly + to a point. The king held it in his right hand, grasping it near, but not + at, the thick end, and rested the thin end on the ground in his front. + When he walked, he planted it upright before him, as a spearman would + plant his spear. When he sate, he sloped it outwards, still, however, + touching the ground with its point. + </p> + <p> + The parasol, which has always been in the East a mark of dignity, seems in + Persia, as in Assyria, to have been confined, either by law or usage, to + the king. The Persian implement resembled the later Assyrian, except that + it was not tasselled, and had no curtain or flap. It had the same + tent-like shape, the same long thick stem, and the same ornament at the + top. It only differed in being somewhat shallower, and in having the + supports, which kept it open, curved instead of straight. It was held over + the king’s head on state occasions by an attendant who walked immediately + behind him. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE XXXII., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The throne of the monarch was an elevated seat, with a high back, but + without arms, cushioned, and ornamented with a fringe, and with moldings + or carvings along the back and legs. The ornamentation consisted chiefly + of balls and broad rings, and contained little that was artistic or + elaborate. The legs, however, terminated in lions’ feet, resting upon half + balls, which were ribbed or fluted. The sides of the chair below the seat + appear to have been panelled, like the thrones of the Assyrians, but were + not adorned with any carving. The seat of the throne was very high from + the ground, and without a rest the legs would have dangled. A footstool + consequently was provided, which was plain, like the throne, but was + supported on legs terminating in the feet of bulls. Thus the lion and the + bull, so frequent in the symbolism of the East, were here again brought + together, being represented as the supports of the throne. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the material whereof the throne was composed, there can be + no doubt that it was something splendid and costly. Late writers describe + it as made of pure gold; but, as we hear of its having silver feet, we may + presume that parts at least were of the less precious metal. Ivory is not + said to have been used in its composition. We may, perhaps, conjecture, + that the frame of the throne was wood, and that this was overlaid with + plates of gold or silver, whereby the whole of the woodwork was concealed + from view, and an appearance of solid metal presented. + </p> + <p> + The person of the king was adorned with golden ornaments. He had earrings + of gold in his ears, often inlaid with jewels he wore golden bracelets + upon his wrists; and he had a chain or collar of gold about his neck. <a + href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 1.]</a> In his girdle, which + was also of gold, he carried a short sword, the sheath of which was formed + of a single precious stone. The monuments, unfortunately, throw little + light on the character and workmanship of these portions of the royal + costume. We may gather from them, perhaps, that the bracelets had a large + jewel set in their centre, and that the collars were of twisted work, worn + loosely around the neck. The sword seems to have differed little from that + of the ordinary Persians. It had a short straight blade, a mere crossbar + for a guard, and a handle almost devoid of ornament. This plainness was + compensated, if we may trust Curtius, by the magnificence of the sheath, + which was, perhaps, of jasper, agate, or lapis lazuli. [PLATE XXXIII., + Fig. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate033.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate033a (59K)" src="images/plate033a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + The officers in most close attendance on the monarch’s person were, in + war, his charioteer, his stool-bearer, his bow-bearer, and his + quiver-bearer; in peace, his parasol-bearer, and his fan bearer, who was + also privileged to carry what has been termed “the royal + pocket-handkerchief.” + </p> + <p> + The royal charioteer is seemingly unarmed. His head is protected merely by + a fillet. He sits in front of his master, and both his hands are fully + occupied with the management of the reins. He has no whip, and seems to + urge his horses forward simply by leaning forward himself, and slackening + or shaking the reins over them. He was, no doubt, in every case a Persian + of the highest rank, such near proximity to the Royal person being a + privilege to which none but the very noblest could aspire. <a + href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The office of the stool-bearer, was to assist the king as he mounted his + chariot or dismounted from it. He carried a golden stool, and followed the + royal chariot closely, in order that he might be at hand whenever his + master felt disposed to alight. On a march, the king was wont to vary the + manner of his travelling, exchanging, when the inclination took him, his + chariot for a litter, and riding in that more luxurious vehicle till he + was tired of it, after which he returned to his chariot for a space. The + services of the stool-bearer were thus in constant requisition, since it + was deemed quite impossible that his Majesty could ascend or descend his + somewhat lofty war-car without such aid. + </p> + <p> + The rank of the bow-bearer was probably nearly as great as that of the + driver of the chariot. He was privileged to stand immediately behind the + monarch on grand occasions, so carrying in his left hand the weapon from + which he derived his appellation. The quiver-bearer had the next place. + Both wore the Median costume—the <i>candys</i>, or flowing robe, the + girdle, the high shoe, and the stiff fluted cap, or, perhaps, occasionally + the simple fillet. Sometimes the two offices would seem to have been held + by the same person, unless we are to attribute this appearance, where it + occurs, to the economy of the artist, who may have wished to save himself + the trouble of drawing two separate figures. <a href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE + XXXIII., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The parasol-bearer was attired as the bow and quiver bearers, except that + he was wholly unarmed, and had the fillet for his proper head-dress. + Though not a military officer, he accompanied the monarch in his + expeditions, since in the midst of war there might be occasions of state + when his presence would be convenient. The officer who bore the royal fan + and handkerchief had generally the same costume; but sometimes his head + was enveloped in a curious kind of cowl or muffler, which covered the + whole of it except the forehead, the eyes, the nose, the mouth, and the + upper portion of the cheeks. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXXIV., Fig. + 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate034.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxiv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The fan, or fly-chaser, had a long straight handle, ornamented with a sort + of beading, which held a brush of some springy fibrous matter. <a + href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> The bearer, whose + place was directly behind the monarch, held his implement, which bent + forward gracefully, nearly at arm’s length over his master’s head. + </p> + <p> + It would seem that occasionally the bearer of the handkerchief laid aside + his fly-chaser, and assumed in lieu of it a small bottle containing + perfumery. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXXIV., Fig. 4.]</a> In a + sculptured tablet at Persepolis, given by Ker Porter, an attendant in the + Median robe, with a fillet upon his head, who bears the handkerchief in + the usual way in his left hand, carries in the palm of his right what + seems to be a bottle, not-unlike the scent-bottle of a modern lady. It has + always been an Oriental custom to wash the hands before meals, and the + rich commonly mix some perfumery or other with the water. We may presume + that this was the practice at the Persian Court, and that the Great King + therefore took care to have an officer, who should at all times be ready + to provide his guests, or himself, with the scent which was most rare or + most fashionable. + </p> + <p> + The Persians seem to have been connoisseurs in scents. We are told that, + when the royal tiara was not in wear, it was laid up carefully with a + mixture of myrrh and <i>labyzus</i>, to give it an agreeable odor. + Unguents were thought to have been a Persian invention, and at any rate + were most abundantly used by the upper classes of the nation. The monarch + applied to his own person an ointment composed of the fat of lions, palm + wine, saffron, and the herb helianthes, which was considered to increase + the beauty of the complexion. He carried with him, even when he went to + the wars, a case of choice unguents; and such a treasure fell into the + hands of Alexander, with the rest of Darius’s camp equipage, at Arbela. It + may be suspected that the “royal ointment” of the Parthian kings, composed + of cinnamon, spikenard, myrrh, cassia, gum styrax, saffron, cardamum, + wine, honey, and sixteen other ingredients, was adopted from the Persians, + who were far more likely than the rude Parthians to have invented so + recondite a mixture. Nor were scents used only in this form by the + ingenious people of whom we are speaking. Arabia was required to furnish + annually to the Persian crown a thousand talents’ weight of frankincense; + and there is reason to believe that this rare spice was largely employed + about the Court, since the walls of Persepolis have several + representations of censers, which are sometimes carried in the hands of an + attendant, while sometimes they stand on the ground immediately in front + of the Great King. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The box or vase in which the Persians commonly kept their unguents was of + alabaster. This stone, which abounded in the country, was regarded as + peculiarly suited for holding ointments, not only by the Persians, but + also by the Egyptians, the Greeks, and (probably) the Assyrians. The + Egyptian variety of stone seems to have been especially valued; and vases + appear to have been manufactured in that country for the use of the + Persian monarch, which were transmitted to the Court, and became part of + the toilet furniture of the palace.330 <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE + XXXIV., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Among the officers of the Court, less closely attached to the person of + the monarch than those above enumerated, may be mentioned the steward of + the household; the groom or master of the horse; the chief eunuch, or + keeper of the women; the king’s “eyes” and “ears,” persons whose business + it was to keep him informed on all matters of importance; his scribes or + secretaries, who wrote his letters and his edicts; his messengers, who + went his errands; his ushers, who introduced strangers to him; his + “tasters,” who tried the various dishes set before him lest they should be + poisoned; his cupbearers who handed him his wine, and tasted it; his + chamberlains, who assisted him to bed; and his musicians, who amused him + with song and harp. Besides these, the Court comprised various classes of + guards, and also doorkeepers, huntsmen, grooms, cooks, and other domestic + servants in great abundance, together with a vast multitude of visitors + and guests, princes, nobles, captives of rank, foreign refugees, + ambassadors, travellers. We are assured that the king fed daily within the + precincts of his palace as many as fifteen thousand persons, and that the + cost of each day’s food was four hundred talents. A thousand beasts were + slaughtered for each repast, besides abundance of feathered game and + poultry. The beasts included not only sheep, goats, and oxen, but also + stags, asses, horses, and camels. Among the feathered delicacies were + poultry, geese, and ostriches. + </p> + <p> + The monarch himself rarely dined with his guests. For the most part he was + served alone. Sometimes he admitted to his table the queen and two or + three of his children. Sometimes, at a “banquet of wine,” a certain number + of privileged boon companions were received, who drank in the royal + presence, not, however, of the same wine, nor on the same terms. + </p> + <p> + The monarch reclined on a couch with golden feet, and sipped the rich wine + of Helbon; the guests drank an inferior beverage, seated upon the floor. + At a great banquet, it was usual to divide the guests into two classes. + Those of lower degree were entertained in an outer court or chamber to + which the public had access, while such as were of higher rank entered the + private apartments, and drew near to the king. Here they were feasted in a + chamber opposite to the king’s chamber, which had a curtain drawn across + the door, concealing him from their gaze, but not so thick as to hide them + from their entertainer. Occasionally, on some very special occasion, as, + perhaps, on the Royal birthday, or other great festival, the king presided + openly at the banquet, drinking and discoursing with his lords, and + allowing the light of his countenance to shine freely upon a large number + of guests, whom, on these occasions, he treated as if they were of the + same flesh and blood with himself. Couches of gold and silver were spread + for all, and “royal wine in abundance” was served to them in golden + goblets. On these, and, indeed, on all occasions, the guests, if they + liked, carried away any portion of the food set before them which they did + not consume at the time, conveying it to their homes, where it served to + support their families. + </p> + <p> + The architecture of the royal palace will be discussed in another chapter; + but a few words may be said in this place with respect to its furniture + and general appearance. The pillared courts and halls of the vast edifices + which the Achaemenian monarchs raised at Susa and Persepolis would have + had a somewhat bare and cold aspect, if it had not been for their internal + fittings. The floors were paved with stones of various hues, blue, white, + black, and red, arranged doubtless into patterns, and besides were covered + in places with carpeting. The spaces between the pillars were filled with + magnificent hangings, white green, and violet, which were fastened with + cords of fine linen (?) and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble, + screening the guests from sight, while they did not too much exclude the + balmy summer breeze. The walls of the apartments were covered with plates + of gold. All the furniture was rich and costly. The golden throne of the + monarch stood under an embroidered canopy or awning supported by four + pillars of gold inlaid with precious stones. <a href="#linkimage-0011">[PLATE + XXXV.]</a> Couches resplendent with silver and gold filled the rooms. The + private chamber of the monarch was adorned with a number of objects, not + only rich and splendid, but valuable as productions of high art. Here, + impending over the royal bed, was the golden vine, the work of Theodore of + Samos, where the grapes were imitated by means of precious stones, each of + enormous value. Here, probably, was the golden plane-tree, a worthy + companion to the vine, though an uncourtly Greek declared it was too small + to shade a grasshopper. Here, finally, was a bowl of solid gold, another + work of the great Samian metallurgist, more precious for its artistic + workmanship than even for its material. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate035.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxv. " /> + </div> + <p> + Nothing has hitherto been said of the Royal harem or seraglio, which, + however, as a feature of the Court always important, and ultimately + preponderating over all others, claims a share of our attention. In the + early times, it would appear that the Persian kings were content with + three or four wives, and a moderate number of concubines. Of the wives + there was always one who held the most exalted place, to whom alone + appertained the title of “Queen,” and who was regarded as “wife” in a + different sense from the others. Such was Atossa to Darius Hystaspis, + Amestris to Xerxes, Statira to Darius Codomannus. Such, too, were Vashti + and Esther to the prince, whoever he was, whose deeds are recorded in + Scripture under the name of Ahasuerus. The chief wife, or Queen-Consort, + was privileged to wear on her head a royal tiara or crown. She was the + acknowledged head of the female apartments or Gynaeceum, and the + concubines recognized her dignity by actual prostration. On great + occasions, when the king entertained the male part of the Court, she + feasted all the females in her own part of the palace. She had a large + revenue of her own, assigned her, not so much by the will of her husband, + as by an established law or custom. Her dress was splendid, and she was + able to indulge freely that love of ornament of which few Oriental women + are devoid. Though legally subject to her husband as much as the meanest + of his slaves, she could venture on liberties which would have been fatal + to almost any one else, and often, by her influence over the monarch, + possessed a very considerable share of power. + </p> + <p> + The status of the other wives was very inferior to this; and it is + difficult to see how such persons were really in a position much superior + to that of the concubines. As daughters of the chief nobles—for the + king could only choose a wife within a narrow circle—they had, of + course, a rank and dignity independent of that acquired by marriage; but + otherwise they must have been almost on a par with those fair inmates of + the Gynaeceum who had no claim even to the name of consort. Each wife had + probably a suite of apartments to herself, and a certain number of + attendants—eunuchs, and tirewomen—at her disposal; but the + inferior wives saw little of the king, being only summoned each in their + turn to share his apartment, and had none of the privileges which made the + position of chief wife so important. + </p> + <p> + The concubines seem to have occupied a distinct part of the Gynaeceum, + called “the second house of the women.” They were in the special charge of + one of the eunuchs, and were no doubt kept under strict surveillance. The + Empire was continually searched for beautiful damsels to fill the harem, a + constant succession being required, as none shared the royal couch more + than once, unless she attracted the monarch’s regard very particularly. In + the later times of the Empire, the number of the concubines became + enormous, amounting (according to one authority) to three hundred and + twenty-nine, (according to another) to three hundred and sixty. They + accompanied the king both in his wars and in his hunting expeditions. It + was a part of their duty to sing and play for the royal delectation; and + this task, according to one author, they had to perform during the whole + of each night. It is a more probable statement that they entertained the + king and queen with music while they dined, one of them leading, and the + others singing and playing in concert. + </p> + <p> + The Gynaeceum—in the Susa palace, at any rate—was a building + distinct from the general edifice, separated from the “king’s house” by a + court. It was itself composed of at least three sets of apartments—viz. + apartments for the virgins who had not yet gone into the king, apartments + for the concubines, and apartments for the Queen-Consort and the other + wives. These different portions were under the supervision of different + persons. Two eunuchs of distinction had the charge respectively of the + “first” and of the “second house of the women.” The Queen-Consort was, at + any rate nominally, paramount in the third, her authority extending over + all its inmates, male and female. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes there was in the Gynaeceum a personage even more exalted than + any which have as yet been mentioned. The mother of the reigning prince, + if she outlived his father, held a position at the Court of her son beyond + that even of his Chief Wife. She kept the ensigns of royalty which she had + worn during the reign of her husband; and wielded, as Queen-Mother, a far + weightier and more domineering authority than she ever exercised as + Queen-Consort. The habits of reverence and obedience, in which the boy had + been reared, retained commonly their power over the man; and the monarch + who in public ruled despotically over millions of men, succumbed, within + the walls of the seraglio, to the yoke of a woman, whose influence he was + too weak to throw off. The Queen-Mother had her seat at the royal table + whenever the king dined with his wife; and, while the wife sat below, she + sat above the monarch. She had a suite of eunuchs distinct from those of + her son. Ample revenues were secured to her, and were completely at her + disposal. She practically exercised—though she could not perhaps + legally claim—a power of life and death. She screened offenders from + punishment, procuring for them the royal pardon, or sheltering them in her + own apartments; and she poisoned, or openly executed, those who provoked + her jealousy or resentment. + </p> + <p> + The service of the harem, so far as it could not be fitly performed by + women, was committed to eunuchs. Each legitimate wife—as well as the + Queen-Mother—had a number of these unfortunates among her + attendants; and the king intrusted the house of the concubines, and also + that of the virgins, to the same class of persons. His own attendants seem + likewise to have been chiefly eunuchs. In the later times, the eunuchs + acquired a vast political authority, and appear to have then filled all + the chief offices of state. They were the king’s advisers in the palace, + and his generals in the field. They superintended the education of the + young princes, and found it easy to make them their tools. The plots and + conspiracies, the executions and assassinations, which disfigure the later + portion of the Persian annals, maybe traced chiefly to their intrigues and + ambition. But the early Persian annals are free from these horrors; and it + is clear that the power of the eunuchs was, during this period, kept + within narrow bounds. We hear little of them in authentic history till the + reign of Xerxes. It is remarkable that the Persepolitan sculptures, + abounding as they do in representations of Court life, of the officers and + attendants who approached at all closely to the person of the monarch, + contain not a single figure of a eunuch in their entire range. We may + gather from this that there was at any rate a marked difference between + the Assyrian and the early Persian Court in the position which eunuchs + occupied at them respectively: we should not, however, be justified in + going further and questioning altogether the employment of eunuchs by the + Persian monarchs during the early period, since their absence from the + sculptures may be accounted for on other grounds. + </p> + <p> + It is peculiarly noticeable in the Persian sculptures and inscriptions + that they carry to excess that reserve which Orientals have always + maintained with regard to women. The inscriptions are wholly devoid of all + reference to the softer sex, and the sculptures give us no representation + of a female. In Persia, at the present day, it is regarded as a gross + indecorum to ask a man after his wife; and anciently it would seem that + the whole sex fell under a law of taboo, which required that, whatever the + real power and influence of women, all public mention of them, as well as + all representations of the female form, should be avoided. If this were + so, it must of course still more have been the rule that the women—or, + at any rate, those of the upper classes—should not be publicly seen. + Hence the indignant refusal of Vashti to obey the command of King + Aha-suerus to show herself to his Court. Hence, too, the law which made it + a capital offence to address or touch one of the royal concubines or even + to pass their litters upon the road. The litters of women were always + curtained; and when the Queen Statira rode in hers with the curtains + drawn, it was a novelty which attracted general attention, as a relaxation + of the ordinary etiquette, though only females were allowed to come near + her. Married women might not even see their nearest male relatives, as + their fathers and brothers; the unmarried had, it is probable, a little + more liberty. + </p> + <p> + As the employment of eunuchs at the Persian Court was mainly in the harem, + and in offices connected therewith, it is no wonder that they shared, to + some extent, in the law of taboo, which forbade the representation of + women. Their proper place was in the female courts and apartments, or in + close attendance upon the litters, when members of the seraglio travelled, + or took the air—not in the throne-room, or the antechambers, or the + outer courts of the palace, which alone furnished the scenes regarded as + suitable for representation. + </p> + <p> + Of right, the position at the Persian Court immediately below that of the + king belonged to the members of certain privileged families. Besides the + royal family itself—or clan of the Achaemenidae—there were six + great houses which had a rank superior to that of all the other grandees. + According to Herodotus these houses derived their special dignity from the + accident that their heads had been fellow-conspirators with Darius + Hystaspis; but there is reason to suspect that the rank of the families + was precedent to the conspiracy in question, certain families conspiring + because they were great, and not becoming great because they conspired. At + any rate, from the time of Darius I., there seem to have been seven great + families, including that of the Achaemenidae, whose chiefs had the + privilege of free communication with the monarch, and from which he was + legally bound to choose his legitimate wives. The chiefs appear to have + been known as “the Seven Princes,” or “the Seven Counsellors,” of the + king. They sat next to him at public festivals; they were privileged to + tender him their advice, whenever they pleased; they recommended important + measures of state, and were, in part, responsible for them; they could + demand admission to the monarch’s presence at any time, unless he were in + the female apartments; they had precedence on all great occasions of + ceremony, and enjoyed a rank altogether independent of office. Sometimes—perhaps + most commonly—they held office; but they rather conferred a lustre + on the position which they consented to fill, than derived any additional + splendor from it. + </p> + <p> + It does not appear that the chiefs of the seven great families had any + peculiar insignia. Officers of the Court, on the contrary, seem to have + always carried, as badges marking their position, either wands about three + feet in length, or an ornament resembling a lotos blossom, which is + sometimes seen in the hands of the monarch himself. Such officers wore, at + their pleasure, either the long Median robe and the fluted cap, or the + close-fitting Persian tunic and trousers, with the loose felt [Greek + name]. All had girdles, in which sometimes a dagger was placed; and all + had collars of gold about their necks, and earrings of gold in their ears. + The Median robes were of various colors—scarlet, purple, crimson, + dark gray, etc. Over the Persian tunic a sleeved cloak, or great coat, + reaching to the ankles, was sometimes worn; this garment was fastened by + strings in front, and descended loosely from the shoulders, no use being + commonly made of the sleeves, which hung empty at the wearer’s side. <a + href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE XXXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate036.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + An elaborate Court ceremonial was the natural accompaniment of the ideas + with respect to royalty embodied in the Persian system. Excepting the + “Seven Princes,” no one could approach the royal person unless introduced + by a Court usher, Prostration—the attitude of worship—was + required of all as they entered the presence. The hands of the persons + introduced had to be hidden in their sleeves so long as their audience + lasted. In crossing the Palace Courts it was necessary to abstain + carefully from touching the carpet which was laid for the king to walk on. + Coming into the king’s presence unsummoned was a capital crime, punished + by the attendants with instant death, unless the monarch himself, as a + sign that he pardoned the intrusion, held out towards the culprit the + golden sceptre which he bore in his hands. It was also a capital offence + to sit down, even unknowingly, upon the royal throne; and it was a grave + misdemeanor to wear one of the king’s cast-off dresses. Etiquette was + almost as severe on the monarch himself as on his subjects. He was + required to live chiefly in seclusion; to eat his meals, for the most + part, alone; never to go on foot beyond the palace walls; never to revoke + an order once given, however much he might regret it; never to draw back + from a promise, whatever ill results he might anticipate from its + performance. To maintain the quasi-divine character which attached to him + it was necessary that he should seem infallible, immutable, and wholly + free from the weakness of repentance. + </p> + <p> + As some compensation for the restrictions laid upon him, the Persian king + had the sole enjoyment of certain luxuries. The wheat of Assos was sent to + the Court to furnish him with bread, and the vines of Helbon were + cultivated for the special purpose of supplying him with wine. Water was + conveyed to Susa for his use from distant streams regarded as specially + sweet and pure; and in his expeditions he was accompanied, by a train of + wagons, which were laden with silver flasks, filled from the clear stream + of the Choaspes. The oasis of Ammon contributed the salt with which he + seasoned his food. All the delicacies that the Empire anywhere produced + were accumulated on his board, for the supply of which each province was + proud to send its best and choicest products. + </p> + <p> + The chief amusements in which the Great King indulged were hunting and + playing at dice. Darius Hystaspis, who followed the chase with such ardor + as on one occasion to dislocate his ankle in the pursuit of a wild beast, + had himself represented on his signet-cylinder as engaged in a lion-hunt. + From this representation, we learn that the Persian monarchs, like the + Assyrian, pursued the king of beasts in their chariots, and generally + despatched him by means of arrows. Seated in a light car, and attended by + a single unarmed charioteer, they invaded the haunts of these fiercest of + brutes, rousing them from their lairs—probably with Indian hounds, + and chasing them at full speed if they fled, or, if they faced the danger, + attacking them with arrows or with the javelin. <a href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE + XXXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> Occasionally the monarch might indulge in this sport + alone; but generally he was (it seems) accompanied by some of his + courtiers, who shared the pleasures of the chase with him on the condition + that they never ventured to let fly their weapons before he had discharged + his. If they disregarded this rule they were liable to capital punishment, + and might esteem themselves fortunate if they escaped with exile. + </p> + <p> + Besides lions, the Persian monarch chased, it is probable, stages, + antelopes, wild asses, wild boars, bears, wild sheep, and leopards. <a + href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE XXXVI., Fig. 3.]</a> These animals all + abounded in the neighborhood of the royal palaces, and they are enumerated + by Xenophon among the beasts hunted by Cyrus. The mode of chasing the wild + ass was for the horsemen to scatter themselves over the plain, and to + pursue the animal in turns, one taking up the chase when the horse of + another was exhausted. The speed of the creature is so great that no horse + with a rider on his back can long keep pace with him; and thus relays were + necessary to tire him out, and enable the hunters to bring him within the + range of their weapons. + </p> + <p> + When game was scarce in the open country, or when the kings were too + indolent to seek it in its native haunts, they indulged their inclination + for sport by chasing the animals which they kept in their own “paradises.” + These were walled enclosures of a large size, well wooded, and watered + with sparkling streams, in which were bred or kept wild beasts of various + kinds, chiefly of the more harmless sorts, as stags, antelopes, and wild + sheep. These the kings pursued and shot with arrows, or brought down with + the javelin; but the sport was regarded as tame, and not to be compared + with hunting in the open field. + </p> + <p> + Within the palace the Persian monarchs are said to have amused themselves + with dice. They played, it is probable, chiefly with their near relatives, + as their wives, or the Queen-Mother. The stakes, as was to be expected, + ran high, as much as a thousand darics (nearly L 1100.) being sometimes + set on a single throw. Occasionally they played for the persons of their + slaves, eunuchs, and others, who, when lost, became the absolute property + of the winner. + </p> + <p> + Another favorite royal amusement was carving or planing wood. According to + AElian, the Persian king, when he took a journey, always employed himself, + as he sat in his carriage, in this way; and Ctesias speaks of the + occupation as pursued also within the walls of the palace. Manual work of + this kind has often been the refuge of those rulers, who, sated with + pleasure and devoid of literary tastes, have found time hang heavy upon + their hands. + </p> + <p> + In literature a Persian king seems rarely to have taken any pleasure at + all. Occasionally, to beguile the weary hours, a monarch may have had the + “Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Persia and Media” read before him; + but the kings themselves never opened a book, or studied any branch of + science or learning. The letters, edicts, and probably even the + inscriptions, of the monarch were the composition of the Court scribes, + who took their orders from the king or his ministers, and clothed them in + their own language. They did not even call upon their master to sign his + name to a parchment; his seal, on which his name was engraved, + sufficiently authenticated all proclamations and edicts. + </p> + <p> + Among the more serious occupations of the monarch were the holding of + councils, the reviewing of troops, the hearing of complaints, and the + granting or refusing of redress, the assignment of rewards, perhaps, in + some cases, the trying of causes, and, above all, the general direction of + the civil administration and government of the Empire. An energetic king + probably took care to hear all the reports which were sent up to the Court + by the various officials employed in the actual government of the numerous + provinces, as well as those sent in by the persons who from time to time + inspected, on the part of the Crown, the condition of this or that + satrapy. Having heard and considered these reports, and perhaps taken + advice upon them, such a monarch would give clear directions as to the + answers to be sent, which would be embodied in despatches by his + secretaries, and then read over to him, before he affixed his seal to + them. The concerns of an empire so vast as that of Persia would have given + ample employment for the greater part of the day to any monarch who was + determined not only to reign, but to govern. Among the Persian sovereigns + there seems to have been a few who had sufficient energy and self-denial + to devote themselves habitually to the serious duties of their office. + Generally, however, the cares of government were devolved upon some + favorite adviser, a relative, or a eunuch, who was entrusted by the + monarch with the entire conduct of affairs, in order that he might give + himself up to sensual pleasures, to the sports of the field, or to light + and frivolous amusements. + </p> + <p> + The passion for building, which we have found so strong in Assyria and + Babylonia, possessed, but in a minor degree, a certain number of the + Persian monarchs. The simplicity of their worship giving little scope for + architectural grandeur in the buildings devoted to religion, they + concentrated their main efforts upon the construction of palaces and + tombs. The architectural character of these works will be considered in a + later chapter. It is sufficient to note here that a good deal of the time + and attention of many monarchs were directed to these objects; and + particularly it is interesting to remark, that, notwithstanding their + worldly greatness, and the flattering voices of their subjects, which were + continually bidding them “live for ever,” the Persian kings were quite + aware of the frail tenure by which man holds his life, and, while they + were still in vigorous health, constructed their own tombs. + </p> + <p> + It was an important principle of the Magian religion that the body should + not after death be allowed to mingle with, and so pollute, any one of the + four elements. Either from a regard for this superstition, or from the + mere instinctive desire to preserve the lifeless clay as long as possible, + the Persians entombed their kings in the following way. The body was + placed in a golden coffin, which was covered with a close-fitting lid, and + deposited either in a massive building erected to serve at once as a tomb + and a monument, or in a chamber cut out of some great mass of solid rock, + at a considerable elevation above its base. In either case, the entrance + into the tomb was carefully closed, after the body had been deposited in + it, by a block or blocks of stone. <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE + XXXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> Inside the tomb were placed, together with the + coffin, a number of objects, designed apparently for the king’s use in the + other world, as rich cloaks and tunics, trousers, purple robes, collars of + gold, earrings of gold, set with gems, daggers, carpets, goblets, and + hangings. Generally the tomb was ornamented with sculptures, and + sometimes, though rarely, it had an inscription (or inscriptions) upon it, + containing the name and titles of the monarch whose remains reposed + within. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate037.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate037a (290K)" src="images/plate037a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + If the tomb were a building, and not rock-hewn, the ground in the vicinity + was formed into a park or garden, which was planted with all manner of + trees. Within the park, at some little distance from the tomb, was a + house, which formed the residence of a body of priests, who watched over + the safety of the sepulchre. + </p> + <p> + The Greeks seem to have believed that divine honors were sometimes paid to + a monarch after his decease; but the spirit of the Persian religion was so + entirely opposed to any such observance that it is most probable the + Greeks were mistaken. Observing that sacrifices were offered once a month + in the vicinity of some of the royal tombs, they assumed that the object + of the cult was the monarch himself, whereas it was no doubt really + addressed either to Ormazd or to Mithras. The Persians cannot rightly be + accused of the worship of dead men, a superstition from which both the + Zoroastrian and the Magian systems were entirely free. + </p> + <p> + From this account of the Persian monarchs and their Court, we may now turn + to a subject which moderns regard as one of much greater interest—the + general condition, manners, and customs of the Persian people. Our + information on these points is unfortunately far less full than on the + subject which we have been recently discussing, but still it is perhaps + sufficient to give us a tolerably complete notion of the real character of + the nation. + </p> + <p> + The Persians, according to Herodotus, were divided into ten tribes, of + which four were nomadic and three agricultural. The nomadic were the Dai, + the Mardi, the Dropici, and the Sagartii; the agricultural were the + Panthilaei, the Derusisei, and the Germanii, or Carmanians. What the + occupation of the other three tribes was Herodotus does not state; but, as + one of them—the Pasargadae—was evidently the ruling class, + consisting, therefore (it is probable), of land owners, who did not + themselves till the soil, we may perhaps assume that all three occupied + this position, standing in Persia somewhat—as the three tribes of + Dorians stood to the other Greeks in the Peloponnese. If this were the + case, the population would have been really divided broadly into the two + classes of settled and nomade, whereof the former class was subdivided + into those who were the lords of the soil, and those who cultivated it, + either as farmers or as laborers, under them. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary dress of the poorer class, whether agricultural or nomade, + was probably the tunic and trousers of leather which have been already + mentioned as the true national costume of the people. The costume was + completed by a loose felt cap upon the head, a strap or belt round the + waist, and a pair of high shoes upon the feet, tied in front with a + string. <a href="#linkimage-0014">[PLATE XXXVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> In later + times a linen or muslin rag replaced the felt cap, and the tunic was + lengthened so as to reach half way between the knee and the ankle. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate038.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The richer classes seem generally to have adopted the Median costume which + was so prevalent at the Court. They wore long purple or flowered robes + with loose hanging sleeves, flowered tunics reaching to the knee, also + sleeved, embroidered trousers, tiaras, and shoes of a more elegant shape + than the ordinary Persian. Nor was this the whole of their dress. Under + their trousers they wore drawers, under their tunics shirts, on their + hands gloves, and under their shoes socks or stockings—luxuries + these, one and all, little known in the ancient world. The Persians were + also, like most Orientals, extremely fond of ornaments. Men of rank + carried, almost as a matter of course, massive chains or collars of gold + about their necks, and bracelets of gold upon their arms. The sheaths and + handles of their swords and daggers were generally of gold, sometimes, + perhaps, studded with gems. Many of them wore earrings. Great expense was + lavished on the trappings of the horses which they rode or drove; the + bridle, or at least the bit, was often of solid gold, and the rest of the + equipment was costly. Among the gems which were especially affected, the + pearl held the first place. Besides being set in the ordinary way, it was + bored and strung, in order that it might be used for necklaces, bracelets, + and ankles. Even children had sometimes golden ornaments, which were + preferred when the gold was of a reddish color. + </p> + <p> + Very costly and rich too was the furniture of the better class of houses. + The tables were plated or inlaid with silver and gold. Splendid couches, + spread with gorgeous coverlets, invited the inmates to repose at their + ease; and, the better to insure their comfort, the legs of the couches + were made to rest upon carpets, which were sufficiently elastic to act as + a sort of spring, rendering the couches softer and more luxurious than + they would otherwise have been. Gold and silver plate, especially in the + shape of drinking-cups, was largely displayed in all the wealthy mansions, + each household priding itself on the show which it could make of the + precious metals. + </p> + <p> + In respect of eating and drinking, the Persians, even better sort, were in + the earlier times noted for their temperance and sobriety. Their ordinary + food was wheaten bread, barley-cakes, and meat simply roasted or boiled, + which they seasoned with salt and with bruised cress-seed, a substitute + for mustard. The sole drink in which they indulged was water. Moreover, it + was their habit to take one meal only each day. The poorer kind of people + were contented with even a simpler diet, supporting themselves, to a great + extent, on the natural products of the soil, as dates, figs, wild pears, + acorns, and the fruit of the terebinth-tree. But these abstemious habits + were soon laid aside, and replaced by luxury and self-indulgence, when the + success of their arms had put it in their power to have the full and free + gratification of all their desires and propensities. Then, although the + custom of having but one meal in the day was kept up, the character of the + custom was entirely altered by beginning the meal early and making it last + till night. Not many sorts of meat were placed on the board, unless the + occasion was a grand one; but course after course of the lighter kinds of + food flowed on in an almost endless succession, intervals of some length + being allowed between the courses to enable the guests to recover their + appetites. Instead of water, wine became the usual beverage; each man + prided himself on the quantity he could drink; and the natural result + followed that most banquets terminated in general intoxication. + Drunkenness even came to be a sort of institution. Once a year, at the + feast of Mithras, the king of Persia, according to Duris, was bound to be + drunk. A general practice arose of deliberating on all important affairs + under the influence of wine, so that, in every household, when a family + crisis impended, intoxication was a duty. + </p> + <p> + The Persians ate, not only the meats which we are in the habit of + consuming, but also the flesh of goats, horses, asses, and camels. The + hump of the last-named animal is considered, even at the present day, a + delicacy in many parts of the East; but in ancient Persia it would seem + that the entire animal was regarded as fairly palatable. The horse and + ass, which no one would touch in modern Persia, were thought, apparently, + quite as good eating as the ox; and goats, which were far commoner than + sheep, appeared, it is probable, oftener at table. The dietery of a grand + house was further varied by the admission into it of poultry and game—the + game including wild boars, stags, antelopes, bustards, and probably + partridges; the poultry consisting of geese and chickens. Oysters and + other fish were used largely as food by the inhabitants of the + coast-region. + </p> + <p> + Grades of society were strongly marked among the Persians; and the + etiquette of the Court travelled down to the lowest ranks of the people. + Well-known rules determined how each man was to salute his equal, his + inferior, or his superior; and the observance of these rules was + universal. Inferiors on meeting a decided superior prostrated themselves + on the ground; equals kissed each other on the lips; persons nearly but + not quite equals kissed each other’s cheeks. The usual Oriental rules + prevailed as to the intercourse of the sexes. Wives lived in strict + seclusion within the walls of the Gynaeceum, or went abroad in litters, + seeing no males except their sons, their husbands, and their husbands’ + eunuchs. Concubines had somewhat more freedom, appearing sometimes at + banquets, when they danced, sang, and played to amuse the guests of their + master. + </p> + <p> + The Persian was allowed to marry several wives, and might maintain in + addition as many concubines as he thought proper. Most of the richer class + had a multitude of each, since every Persian prided himself on the number + of his sons, and it is even said that an annual prize was given by the + monarch to the Persian who could show most sons living. The concubines + were not unfrequently Greeks, if we may judge by the case of the younger + Cyrus, who took two Greek concubines with him when he made his expedition + against his brother. It would seem that wives did not ordinarily accompany + their husbands, when these went on military expeditions, but that + concubines were taken to the wars by most Persians of consideration. Every + such person had a litter at her disposal, and a number of female + attendants, whose business it was to wait upon her and execute her orders. + </p> + <p> + All the best authorities are agreed that great pains were taken by the + Persians—or, at any rate, by those of the leading clans—in the + education of their sons. During the first five years of his life the boy + remained wholly with the women, and was scarcely, if at all, seen by his + father. After that time his training commenced. He was expected to rise + before dawn, and to appear at a certain spot, where he was exercised with + other boys of his age in running, slinging stones, shooting with the bow, + and throwing the javelin. At seven he was taught to ride, and soon + afterwards he was allowed to begin to hunt. The riding included, not only + the ordinary management of the horse, but the power of jumping on and off + his back when he was at speed, and of shooting with the bow and throwing + the javelin with unerring aim, while the horse was still at full gallop. + The hunting was conducted by state-officers, who aimed at forming by its + means in the youths committed to their charge all the qualities needed in + war. The boys were made to bear extremes of heat and cold, to perform long + marches, to cross rivers without wetting their weapons, to sleep in the + open air at night, to be content with a single meal in two days, and to + support themselves occasionally on the wild products of the country, + acorns, wild pears, and the fruit of the terebinth-tree. On days when + there was no hunting they passed their mornings in athletic exercises, and + contests with the bow or the javelin, after which they dined simply on the + plain food mentioned above as that of the men in the early times, and then + employed themselves during the afternoon in occupations regarded as not + illiberal—for instance, in the pursuits of agriculture, planting, + digging for roots, and the like, or in the construction of arms and + hunting implements, such as nets and springes. Hardy and temperate habits + being secured by this training, the point of morals on which their + preceptors mainly insisted was the rigid observance of truth. Of + intellectual education they had but little. It seems to have been no part + of the regular training of a Persian youth that he should learn to read. + He was given religious notions and a certain amount of moral knowledge by + means of legendary poems, in which the deeds of gods and heroes were set + before him by his teachers, who recited or sung them in his presence, and + afterwards required him to repeat what he had heard, or, at any rate, to + give some account of it. This education continued for fifteen years, + commencing when the boy was five, and terminating when he reached the age + of twenty. + </p> + <p> + The effect of this training was to render the Persian an excellent soldier + and a most accomplished horseman. Accustomed from early boyhood to pass + the greater part of every day in the saddle, he never felt so much at home + as when mounted upon a prancing steed. On horseback he pursued the stag, + the boar, the antelope, even occasionally the bear or the lion, and shot + his arrows, or slung his stones, or hurled his javelin at them with deadly + aim, never pausing for a moment in his career. <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE + XXXVII., Fig. 2.]</a> Only when the brute turned on his pursuers, and + stood at bay, or charged them in its furious despair, they would sometimes + descend from their coursers, and receive the attack, or deal the <i>coup + de grace</i> on foot, using for the purpose a short but strong + hunting-spear. <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE XXXVII., Fig. 3.]</a> The + chase was the principal delight of the upper class of Persians, so long as + the ancient manners were kept up, and continued an occupation in which the + bolder spirits loved to indulge long after decline had set in, and the + advance of luxury had changed, to a great extent, the character of the + nation. + </p> + <p> + At fifteen years of age the Persian was considered to have attained to + manhood, and was enrolled in the ranks of the army, continuing liable to + military service from that time till he reached the age of fifty. Those of + the highest rank became the body-guard of the king, and these formed the + garrison of the capital. They were a force of not less than fourteen or + fifteen thousand men. Others, though liable to military service, did not + adopt arms as their profession, but attached themselves to the Court and + looked to civil employment, as satraps, secretaries, attendants, ushers, + judges, inspectors, messengers. A portion, no doubt, remained in the + country districts, and there followed those agricultural pursuits which + the Zoroastrian religion regarded as in the highest degree honorable. But + the bulk of the nation must, from the time of the great conquests, have + passed their lives mainly, like the Roman legionaries under the Empire, in + garrison duty in the provinces. The entire population of Persia Proper can + scarcely have exceeded two millions. Not more than one fourth of this + number would be males between the ages of fifteen and fifty. This body of + 500,000 men, besides supplying the official class at the Court and + throughout the provinces, and also furnishing to Persia Proper those who + did the work of its cultivation, had to supply to the whole Empire those + large and numerous garrisons on whose presence depended the maintenance of + the Persian dominion in every province that had been conquered. According + to Herodotus, the single country of Egypt contained, in his day, a + standing army of 120,000 Persians; and, although this was no doubt an + exceptional case, Egypt being more prone to revolt than any other satrapy, + yet there is abundant evidence that elsewhere, in almost every part of the + Empire, large bodies of troops were regularly maintained; troops which are + always characterized as “Persians.” We may suspect that under the name + were included the kindred nation of the Medes, and perhaps some other + Arian races, as the Hyrcanians, and the Bactrians, for it is difficult to + conceive that such a country as Persia Proper could alone have kept up the + military force which the Empire required for its preservation; but to + whatever extent the standing army was supplemented from these sources, + Persia must still have furnished the bulk of it; and the demands of this + service must have absorbed, at the very least, one third if not one half + of the adult male population. + </p> + <p> + For trade and commerce the Persians were wont to express extreme contempt. + The richer classes made it their boast that they neither bought nor sold, + being supplied (we must suppose) from their estates, and by their slaves + and dependents, with all that they needed for the common purposes of life. + Persians of the middle rank would condescend to buy, but considered it + beneath them to sell; while only the very lowest and poorest were actual + artisans and traders. Shops were banished from the more public parts of + the towns; and thus such commercial transactions as took place were veiled + in what was regarded as a decent obscurity. The reason assigned for this + low estimation of trade was that shopping and bargaining involved the + necessity of falsehood. + </p> + <p> + According to Quintus Curtius, the Persian ladies had the same objection to + soil their hands with work that the men had to dirty theirs with commerce. + The labors of the loom, which no Grecian princess regarded as unbecoming + her rank, were despised by all Persian women except the lowest; and we may + conclude that the same idle and frivolous gossip which resounds all day in + the harems of modern Iran formed the main occupation of the Persian ladies + in the time of the Empire. + </p> + <p> + With the general advance of luxury under Xerxes and his successors, of + which something has been already said, there were introduced into the + Empire a number of customs of an effeminate and demoralizing character. + From the earliest times the Persians seem to have been very careful of + their beards and hair, arranging the latter in a vast number of short + crisp curls, and partly curling the former, partly training it to hang + straight from the chin. After a while, not content with this degree of + care for their personal appearance, they proceeded to improve it by + wearing false hair in addition to the locks which nature had given them, + by the use of cosmetics to increase the delicacy of their complexions, and + by the application of a coloring matter to the upper and lower eyelids, + for the purpose of giving to the eye an appearance of greater size and + beauty. They employed a special class of servants to perform these + operations of the toilet, whom the Greeks called “adorners”. Their + furniture increased, not merely in splendor, but in softness; their floors + were covered with carpets, their beds with numerous and delicate + coverlets; they could not sit upon the ground unless a cloth was first + spread upon it; they would not mount a horse until he was so caparisoned + that the seat on his back was softer even than their couches. At the same + time they largely augmented the number and variety of their viands and of + their sauces, always seeking after novel delicacies, and offering rewards + to the inventors of “new pleasures.” A useless multitude of lazy menials + was maintained in all rich households, each servant confining himself + rigidly to a single duty, and porters, bread-makers, cooks, cup-bearers, + water-bearers, waiters at table, chamberlains, “awakers,” “adorners,” all + distinct from one another, crowded each noble mansion, helping forward the + general demoralization. It was probably at this comparatively late period + that certain foreign customs of a sadly lowering character were adopted by + this plastic and impressible people, who learnt the vice of paederasty + from the Greeks, and adopted from the Assyrians the worship of Beltis, + with its accompaniment of religious prostitution. + </p> + <p> + On the whole the Persians may seem to have enjoyed an existence free from + care, and only too prosperous to result in the formation of a high and + noble character. They were the foremost Asiatic people of their time, and + were fully conscious of their pre-eminency. A small ruling class in a vast + Empire, they enjoyed almost a monopoly of office, and were able gradually + to draw to themselves much of the wealth of the provinces. Allowed the use + of arms, and accustomed to lord it over the provincials, they themselves + maintained their self-respect, and showed, even towards the close of their + Empire, a spirit and an energy seldom exhibited by any but a free people. + But there was nevertheless a dark side to the picture—a lurking + danger which must have thrown a shadow over the lives of all the nobler + and richer of the nation, unless they were utterly thoughtless. The + irresponsible authority and cruel dispositions of the kings, joined to the + recklessness with which they delegated the power of life and death to + their favorites, made it impossible for any person of eminence in the + whole Empire to feel sure that he might not any day be seized and accused + of a crime, or even without the form of an accusation be taken and put to + death, after suffering the most excruciating tortures. To produce this + result, it was enough to have failed through any cause whatever in the + performance of a set task, or to have offended, even by doing him too + great a service, the monarch or one of his favorites. Nay, it was enough + to have provoked, through a relation or a connection, the anger or + jealousy of one in favor at Court; for the caprice of an Oriental would + sometimes pass over the real culprit and exact vengeance from one quite + guiltless—even, it may be, unconscious—of the offence given. + Theoretically, the Persian was never to be put to death for a single + crime; or at least he was not to suffer until the king had formally + considered the whole tenor of his life, and struck a balance between his + good and his evil deeds to see which outweighed the other. Practically, + the monarch slew with his own hand any one whom he chose, or, if he + preferred it, ordered him to instant execution, without trial or inquiry. + His wife and his mother indulged themselves in the same pleasing liberty + of slaughter, sometimes obtaining his tacit consent to their proceedings, + sometimes without consulting him. It may be said that the sufferers could + at no time be very many in number, and that therefore no very wide-spread + alarm can have been commonly felt; but the horrible nature of many of the + punishments, and the impossibility of conjecturing on whom they might next + fall, must be set against their infrequency; and it must be remembered + that an awful horror, from which no precautions can save a man, though it + happen to few, is more terrible than a score of minor perils, against + which it is possible to guard. Noble Persians were liable to be beheaded, + to be stoned to death, to be suffocated with ashes, to have their tongues + torn out by the roots, to be buried alive, to be shot in mere wantonness, + to be flayed and then crucified, to be buried all but the head, and to + perish by the lingering agony of “the boat.” If they escaped these modes + of execution, they might be secretly poisoned, or they might be exiled, or + transported for life. Their wives and daughters might be seized and + horribly mutilated, or buried alive, or cut into a number of fragments. + With these perils constantly impending over their heads, the happiness of + the nobles can scarcely have been more real than that of Damocles upon the + throne of Dionysius. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, we may notice as a blot upon the Persian character and + system, the cruelty and barbarity which was exhibited, not only in these + abnormal acts of tyranny and violence, but also in the regular and legal + punishments which were assigned to crimes and offences. The criminal code, + which—rightly enough—made death the penalty of murder, rape, + treason, and rebellion, instead of stopping at this point, proceeded to + visit with a like severity even such offences as deciding a cause + wrongfully on account of a bribe, intruding without permission on the + king’s privacy, approaching near to one of his concubines, seating + oneself, even accidentally, on the throne, and the like. The modes of + execution were also, for the most part, unnecessarily cruel. Poisoners + were punished by having their heads placed upon a broad stone, and then + having their faces crushed, and their brains beaten out by repeated blows + with another stone. Ravishers and rebels were put to death by crucifixion. + The horrible punishment of “the boat” seems to have been no individual + tyrant’s cruel conception, but a recognized and legal form of execution. + The same may be said also of burying alive. Again the Persian secondary + punishments were for the most part exceedingly barbarous. Xenophon tells + us, as a proof of the good government maintained by the younger Cyrus, in + his satrapy, that under his sway it was common to see along all the most + frequented roads numbers of persons who had had their hands or feet cut + off, or their eyes put out, as a punishment for thieving and rascality. + And other writers relate that similar mutilations were inflicted on + rebels, and even on prisoners of war. It would seem, indeed, that + mutilation and scourging were the ordinary forms of secondary punishment + used by the Persians, who employed imprisonment solely for the safe + custody of an accused person between his arrest and his execution, while + they had recourse to transportation and exile only in the case of + political offenders. and exile only in the case of political offenders. + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTERS IV. TO VI. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkB2H_4_0002" id="linkB2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA PROPER. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0001" id="linkBimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_persia.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_persia_th (188K)" src="images/map_persia_th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkB2H_4_0003" id="linkB2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE FIFTH MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkB2H_4_0004" id="linkB2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0002" id="linkB2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. LANGUAGE AND WRITING. + </h2> + <p> + It has been intimated in the account of the Median Empire which was given + in a former-volume that the language of the Persians, which was identical, + or almost identical, with that of the Medes, belonged to the form of + speech known to moderns as Indo-European. The characteristics of that form + of speech are a certain number of common, or at least widely spread, + roots, a peculiar mode of inflecting, together with a resemblance in the + inflections, and a similarity of syntax or construction. Of the old + Persian language the known roots are, almost without exception, kindred + forms to roots already familiar to the philologist through the Sanscrit, + or the Zend, or both; while many are of that more general type of which we + have spoken—forms common to all, or most of the varieties of the + Indo-European stock. To instance in a few very frequently recurring words—“father” + is in old Persian (as in Sanscrit) <i>pitar</i>, which differs only in the + vocalization from the Zendic <i>patar</i>, the Greek [ ], and the Latin <i>pater</i>, + and of which cognate forms are the Gothic <i>fadar</i>, the German voter, + the English <i>father</i>, and the Erse <i>athair</i>. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [See the html version for the following pages of this + chapter which is a section with hundreds of Greek + words.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0002" id="linkBimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0365.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 365 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0003" id="linkBimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0366.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 366 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0004" id="linkBimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0367.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 367 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0368.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 368 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0369.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 369 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0370.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 370 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0371.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 371 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0372.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 372 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0373.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 373 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0374.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 374 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0375.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 375 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0376.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 376 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0377.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 377 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0378.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 378 " /> + </div> + <p> + The ordinary Persian writing was identical with that which has been + described in the second volume of this work as Median. A cuneiform + alphabet, consisting of some thirty-six or thirty-seven forms, expressive + of twenty-three distinct sounds, sufficed for the wants of the people, + whose language was simple and devoid of phonetic luxuriance. Writing was + from left to right, as with the Arian nations generally. Words were + separated from one another by an oblique wedge; and were divided at any + point at which the writer happened to reach the end of a line. Enclitics + were joined without any break to the words which they accompanied. + </p> + <p> + The Persian writing which has come down to us is almost entirely upon + stone. It comprises various rock tablets, a number of inscriptions upon + buildings, and a few short legends upon vases and cylinders. It is in + every case incised or cut into the material. The letters are of various + sizes, some (as those at Elwend) reaching a length of about two inches, + others (those, for instance, on the vases) not exceeding the sixth of an + inch. The inscriptions cover a space of at least a hundred and eighty + years, commencing with Cyrus, and terminating with Artaxerxes Ochus, the + successor of Mnemon. The style of the writing is, on the whole, remarkably + uniform, the latter inscriptions containing only two characters unknown to + the earlier times. Orthography, however, and grammar are in these later + inscriptions greatly changed, the character of the changes being + indicative of corruption and decline, unless, indeed, we are to ascribe + them to mere ignorance on the part of the engravers. + </p> + <p> + There can be little doubt that, besides the cuneiform character, which was + only suited for inscriptions, the Persians employed a cursive writing for + common literary purposes. Ctesias informs us that the royal archives were + written on parchment; and there is abundant evidence that writing was an + art perfectly familiar to the educated Persian. It might have been + supposed that the Pehlevi, as the lineal descendant of the Old Persian + language, would have furnished valuable assistance towards solving the + question of what character the Persians employed commonly; but the + alphabetic type of the Pehlevi inscriptions is evidently Semitic; and it + would thus seem that the old national modes of writing had been completely + lost before the establishment by Ardeshir, son of Babek, of the new + Persian Empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0003" id="linkB2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER ARTS. + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="page0379 (16K)" src="images/page0379.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + If in the old world the fame of the Persians, as builders and artists, + fell on the whole below that of the Assyrians and Babylonians—their + instructors in art, no less than in letters and science—it was not + so much that they had not produced works worthy of comparison with those + which adorned Babylon and Nineveh, as that, boasting less antiquity and + less originality than those primitive races, they did not strike in the + same way the imagination of the lively Greeks, who moreover could not but + feel a certain jealousy of artistic successes, which had rewarded the + efforts of a living and rival people. It happened, moreover, that the + Persian masterpieces were less accessible to the Greeks than the + Babylonian, and hence there was actually less knowledge of their real + character in the time when Greek literature was at its best. Herodotus and + Xenophon, who impressed on their countrymen true ideas of the grandeur and + magnificence of the Mesopotamian structures, never penetrated to Persia + Proper, and perhaps never beheld a real Persian building. Ctesias, it is + true, as a resident at the Achaemenian Court for seventeen years, must + certainly have seen Susa and Ecbatana, if not even Persepolis, and he + therefore must have been well acquainted with the character of Persian + palaces; but, so far as appears from the fragments of his work which have + come down to us, he said but little on the subject of these edifices. It + was not until Alexander led his cohorts across the chain of Zagros to the + high plateau beyond, that a proper estimate of the great Persian buildings + could be made; and then the most magnificent of them all was scarcely seen + before it was laid in ruins. The barbarous act of the great Macedonian + conqueror, in committing the palace of Persepolis to the flames, tended to + prevent a full recognition of the real greatness of Persian art even after + the Greeks had occupied the country; but we find from this time a certain + amount of acknowledgment of its merits—a certain number of passages, + which, like that which forms the heading to this chapter, admit alike its + grandeur and its magnificence. + </p> + <p> + If, however, the ancients did less than justice to the efforts of the + Persians in architecture, sculpture, and the kindred arts, moderns have, + on the contrary, given them rather an undue prominence. From the middle of + the seventeenth century, when Europeans first began freely to penetrate + the East, the Persian ruins, especially those of Persepolis, drew the + marked attention of travellers; and in times when the site of Babylon had + attracted but scanty notice, and that of Nineveh and the other great + Assyrian cities was almost unknown, English, French, and German savans + measured, described, and figured the Persian remains with a copiousness + and exactness that left little to desire. Chardin, the elder Mebuhr, Le + Brun, Ouseley, Ker Porter, exerted themselves with the most praiseworthy + zeal to represent fully and faithfully the marvels of the Chehl Minar; and + these persevering efforts were followed within no very lengthy period by + the splendid and exhaustive works of the Baron Texier and of MM. Flandin + and Coste. Persepolis rose again from its ashes in the superb and costly + volumes of these latter writers, who represented on the grandest scale, + and in the most finished way, not only the actual but the ideal—not + only the present but the past—placing before our eyes at once the + fullest and completest views of the existing ruins, and also restorations + of the ancient structures, some of them warm with color and gilding, + which, though to a certain extent imaginary, probably give to a modern the + best notion that it is now possible to form of an old Persian edifice. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible within the limits of the present work, and with the + resources at the author’s command, to attempt a complete description of + the Persian remains, or to vie with writers who had at their disposal all + the modern means of illustration. By the liberality of a well-known + authority on architecture, he is able to present his readers with certain + general views of the most important structures; and he also enjoys the + advantage of illustrating some of the most curious of the details with + engravings from a set of photographs recently taken. These last have, it + is believed, an accuracy beyond that of any drawings hitherto made, and + will give a better idea than words could possibly do of the merit of the + sculptures. With these helps, and with the addition of reduced copies from + some of MM. Flandin and Coste’s plates, the author hopes to be able to + make his account fairly intelligible, and to give his readers the + opportunity of forming a tolerably correct judgment on the merit of the + Persian art in comparison with that of Babylon and Assyria. + </p> + <p> + Persian architectural art displayed itself especially in two forms of + building—the palace and the tomb. Temples were not perhaps unknown + in Persia, though much of the worship may always have been in the open + air; but temples, at least until the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon, were + insignificant, and neither attracted the attention of contemporaries, nor + were of such a character as to leave traces of themselves to after times. + The palaces of the Persian kings, on the other hand, and the sepulchres + which they prepared for themselves, are noticed by many ancient writers as + objects of interest; and, notwithstanding certain doubts which have been + raised in recent years, it seems tolerably certain that they are to be + recognized in the two chief classes of ancient ruins which still exist in + the country. + </p> + <p> + The Persian palatial buildings, of which traces remain, are four in + number. One was situated at Ecbatana, the Median capital, and was a sort + of adjunct to the old residence of the Median kings. Of this only a very + few vestiges have been hitherto found; and we can merely say that it + appears to have been of the same general character with the edifices which + will be hereafter described. Another was built by Darius and his son + Xerxes on the great mound of Susa; and of this we have the ground-plan, in + a great measure, and various interesting details. A third stood within the + walls of the city of Persepolis, but of this not much more is left than of + the construction at Ecbatana. Finally, there was in the neighborhood of + Persepolis, but completely distinct from the town, the Great Palace, + which, as the chief residence, at any rate of the later kings, Alexander + burnt, and of which the remains still to be seen are ample, constituting + by far the most remarkable group of buildings now existing in this part of + Asia. + </p> + <p> + It is to this last edifice, or group of edifices, that the reader’s + attention will be specially directed in the following pages. Here the + greatest of the Persian monarchs seem to have built the greatest of their + works. Here the ravages of time and barbarism, sadly injurious as they may + have been, have had least effect. Here, moreover, modern research has + spent its chief efforts, excavations having been made, measurements + effected, and ground-plans laid down with accuracy. In describing the + Persepolitan buildings we have aids which mostly fail us elsewhere—charts, + plans, drawings in extraordinary abundance and often of high artistic + value, elaborate descriptions, even photographs. <a href="#linkBimage-0016">[PLATE + XXXVIII., Fig. 3.]</a> If the describer has still a task of some + difficulty to perform, it is because an overplus of material is apt to + cause almost as much embarrassment as too poor and scanty a supply. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate038.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The buildings at Persepolis are placed upon a vast platform. It was the + practice of the Persians, as of the Assyrians and Babylonians, to elevate + their palaces in this way. They thus made them at once more striking to + the eye, more dignified, and more easy to guard. In Babylonia an elevated + habitation was also more healthy and more pleasant, being raised above the + reach of many insects, and laid open to the winds of heaven, never too + boisterous in that climate. Perhaps the Assyrians and Persians in their + continued use of the custom, to some extent followed a fashion, elevating + their royal residences, not so much for security or comfort, as because it + had come to be considered that a palace ought to have a lofty site, and to + look down on the habitations of meaner men; but, however this may have + been, the custom certainly prevailed, and at Persepolis we have, in an + almost perfect condition, this first element of a Persian palace. <a + href="#linkBimage-0017">[PLATE XXXIX.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate039.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xxxix. " /> + </div> + <p> + The platform at Persepolis is built at the foot of a high range of rocky + hills, on which it abuts towards the east. It is composed of solid masses + of hewn stone, which were united by metal clamps, probably of iron or + lead. The masses were not cut to a uniform size, nor even always to a + right angle, but were fitted together with a certain amount of + irregularity, which will be the best understood from the woodcut overleaf. + Many of the blocks were of enormous size; and their quarrying, transport, + and elevation to their present places, imply very considerable mechanical + skill. They were laid so as to form a perfectly smooth perpendicular wall, + the least height of which above the plain below is twenty feet. The + outline of the platform was somewhat irregular. Speaking roughly, we may + call it an oblong square, with a breadth about two thirds of its length; + but this description, unless qualified, will give an idea of far greater + uniformity than actually prevails. <a href="#linkBimage-0018">[PLATE XL., + Fig. 1.]</a> The most serious irregularity is on the north side, the + general line of which is not parallel to the south side, nor at right + angles with the western one, but forms with the general line of the + western an angle of about eighty degrees. The cause of this deviation lay + probably in the fact that, on this side, a low rocky spur ran out from the + mountain-range in this direction, and that it was thought desirable to + accommodate the line of the structure to the natural irregularities of the + ground. In addition to the irregularity of general outline thus produced, + there is another of such perpetual occurrence that it must be regarded as + an essential element of the original design, and therefore probably as + approving itself to the artistic notions of the builder. This is the + occurrence of frequent angular projections and indentations, which we + remark on all three sides of the platform equally, and which would + therefore seem to have been regarded in Persia, no less than in Assyria, + as ornamental. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0018" id="linkBimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate040.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xl. " /> + </div> + <p> + The whole of the platform is not of a uniform height. On the contrary, it + seems to have been composed, as originally built, of several quite + distinct terraces. Three of these still remain, exhibiting towards the + west a very marked difference of elevation. The lowest of the three is on + the south side, and it may therefore be termed the Southern Terrace. It + extends from east to west a distance of about 800 feet, with a width of + about 170 or 180, and has an elevation above the plain of from twenty to + twenty-three feet. Opposite to this, on the northern side of the platform, + is a second terrace, more than three times the breadth of the southern + one, which may be called, by way of distinction, the Northern Terrace. + This has an elevation above the plain of thirty-five feet. Intermediate + between these two is the great Central or Upper Terrace, standing + forty-five feet above the plain, having a length of 770 feet along the + west face of the platform, and a width of about 400. Upon this Upper + Terrace were situated almost all the great and important buildings. + </p> + <p> + The erection of a royal residence on a platform composed of several + terraces involved the necessity of artificial ascents, which the Persian + architects managed by means of broad and solid staircases. These + staircases constitute one of the most remarkable features of the place, + and seem to deserve careful and exact description. <a + href="#linkBimage-0019">[PLATE XLI., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate041a.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate041a (193K)" src="images/plate041.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + The first, and grandest in respect of scale, is on the west front of the + platform towards its northern end, and leads up from the plain to the + summit of the northern terrace, furnishing the only means by which the + platform can even now be ascended. It consists of two distinct sets of + steps, each composed of two flights, with a broad landing-place between + them, the steps themselves running at right angles to the platform wall, + and the two lower flights diverging, while the two upper ones converge to + a common landing-place on the top. The slope of the stairs is so gentle + that, though each step has a convenient width, the height of a step is in + no case more than from three to four inches. It is thus easy to ride + horses both up and down the staircase, and travellers are constantly in + the habit of ascending and descending it in this way. + </p> + <p> + The width of the staircase is twenty-two feet—space sufficient to + allow of ten horsemen ascending each flight of steps abreast. Altogether + this ascent, which is on a plan unknown elsewhere, is pronounced to be the + noblest example of a flight of stairs to be found in any part of the + world. It does not project beyond the line of the platform whereto it + leads, but is, as it were, taken out of it. <a href="#linkplate042">[PLATE + XLII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkplate042" id="linkplate042"></a> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate042 (129K)" src="images/plate042.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + The next, and in some respects the most remarkable of all the staircases, + conducts from the level of the northern platform to that of the central or + upper terrace. This staircase fronts northward, and opens on the view as + soon as the first staircase (A on the plan) has been ascended, lying to + the right of the spectator at the distance of about fifty or sixty yards. + It consists of four single flights of steps, two of which are central, + facing one another, and leading to a projecting landing-place (B), about + twenty feet in width; while the two others are on either side of the + central flights, distant from them about twenty-one yards. The entire + length of this staircase is 212 feet; its greatest projection in front of + the line of the terrace whereon it abuts, is thirty-six feet. The steps, + which are sixteen feet wide, rise in the same gentle way as those of the + lower or platform staircase. The height of each is under four inches; and + thus there are thirty-one steps in an ascent of ten feet. + </p> + <p> + The feature which specially distinguishes this staircase from the lower + one already described is its elaborate ornamentation. The platform + staircase is perfectly plain. The entire face which this staircase + presents to the spectator is covered with sculptures. In the first place, + on the central projection, which is divided perpendicularly into three + compartments, are represented, in the spandrels on either side, a lion + devouring a bull, and in the compartment between the spandrels eight + colossal Persian guardsmen, armed with spears and either with sword or + shield. Further, above the lion and bull, towards the edge of the spandrel + where it slopes, forming a parapet to the steps, <a href="#linkBimage-0020">[PLATE + XLIII., Fig. 1.]</a> there was a row of cypress trees, while at the end of + the parapet and along the whole of its inner face were a set of small + figures, guardsmen habited like those in the central compartment, but + carrying mostly a bow and quiver instead of a shield. Along the extreme + edge of the parapet externally was a narrow border thickly set with + rosettes. <a href="#linkBimage-0020">[PLATE XLIII., Fig. 2.]</a> Next, in + the long spaces between the central stairs and those on either side of + them, the spandrels contain repetitions of the lion and bull sculpture, + while between them and the central stairs the face of the wall is divided + horizontally into three bands, each of which has been ornamented with a + continuous row of figures. The highest row of the three is unfortunately + mutilated, the upper portion of all the bodies being lost in consequence + of their having been sculptured upon a parapet wall built originally to + protect the edge of the terrace, but now fallen away. The middle and + lowest rows are tolerably perfect, and possess considerable interest, as + well as some artistic merit. The entire scene represented on the right + side seems to be the bringing of tribute or presents to the monarch by the + various nations under his sway. On the left-hand side this subject was + continued to a certain extent; but the greater part of the space was + occupied by representations of guards and officers of the court, the + guards being placed towards the centre, and, as it were, keeping the main + stairs, while the officers were at a greater distance. The three rows of + figures were separated from one another by narrow bands, thickly set with + rosettes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate043.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xliii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The builder of this magnificent work was not content to leave it to + history or tradition to connect his name with his construction, but + determined to make the work itself the means of perpetuating his memory. + In three conspicuous parts of the staircase, slabs were left clear of + sculpture, undoubtedly to receive inscriptions commemorative of the + founder. The places selected were the front of the middle staircase, the + exact centre of the whole work, and the space adjoining the spandrels to + the extreme right and the extreme left. In one instance alone, however, + was this part of the work completed. On the right hand, or western + extremity of the staircase, an inscription of thirty lines in the old + Persian language informs us that the constructor was “Xerxes, the Great + King, the King of Kings, the son of King Darius, the Achaemenian.” The + central and left-hand tablets, intended probably for Babylonian and + Scythic translations of the Persian legend, were never inscribed, and + remain blank to the present day. + </p> + <p> + The remaining staircases will not require very lengthy or elaborate + descriptions. They are six in number, and consist, in most instances, of a + double flight of steps, similar to the central portion of the staircase + which has been just described. Two of them (e and f) belonged to the + building marked as the “Palace of Darius” on the plan, and gave entrance + to it from the central platform above which it is elevated about fourteen + or fifteen feet. Two others (c and d) belonged to the “Palace of Xerxes.” + These led up to a broad paved space in front of that building, which + formed a terrace, elevated about ten feet above the general level of the + central platform. Their position was at the two ends of the terrace, + opposite to one another; but in other respects they cannot be said to have + matched. The eastern, which consisted of two double flights, was similar + in general arrangement to the staircase by which the platform was mounted + from the plain, excepting that it was not recessed, but projected its full + breadth beyond the line of the terrace. It was decidedly the more elegant + of the two, and evidently formed the main approach. It was adorned with + the usual bull and lion combats, with figures of guardsmen, and with + attendants carrying articles needed for the table or the toilet. The + inscriptions upon it declare it to be the work of Xerxes. <a + href="#linkBimage-0021">[PLATE XLIV.]</a> The western staircase was + composed merely of two single flights, facing one another, with a narrow + landing-place between them. It was ornamented like the eastern, but + somewhat less elaborately. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate044.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xliv. " /> + </div> + <p> + A staircase, very similar to this last, but still one with certain + peculiarities, was built by Artaxerxes Ochus, at the west side of the + Palace of Darius, in order to give it a second entrance. <a + href="#linkBimage-0022">[PLATE XLV., Fig. 1.]</a> There the spandrels have + the usual figures of the lion and bull; but the intermediate space is + somewhat unusually arranged. It is divided vertically and horizontally + into eight squared compartments, three on either side, and two in the + middle. The upper of these two contains nothing but a winged circle, the + emblem of Divinity being thus placed reverently by itself. Below, in a + compartment of double size, is an inscription of Ochus, barbarous in + language, but very religious in tone. The six remaining compartments had + each four figures, representing tribute-bearers introduced to the royal + presence by a court officer. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate045.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlv. " /> + </div> + <p> + The other, and original, staircase to this palace (f on the plan) was + towards the north, and led up to the great portico, which was anciently + its sole entrance. Two flights of steps, facing each other, conducted to a + paved space of equal extent with the portico and projecting in front of it + about five feet. On the base of the staircase were sculptures in a single + line—the lion and bull in either spandrel—and between the + spandrels eighteen colossal guardsmen, nine facing either way towards a + central inscription, which was repeated in other languages on slabs placed + between the guardsmen and the bulls. Above the spandrels, on the parapet + which fenced the stairs, was a line of figures representing attendants + bringing into the palace materials for the banquet. A similar line adorned + the inner wall of the staircase. + </p> + <p> + Opposite to this, at the distance of about thirty-two yards, was another + very similar staircase, leading up to the portico of another building, + erected (apparently) by Artaxerxes Ochus, which occupied the south-western + corner of the upper platform. The sculptures here seem to have been of the + usual character but they are so mutilated that no very decided opinion can + be passed upon them. + </p> + <p> + Last of all, a staircase of a very peculiar character, (h on the plan) + requires notice. This is a flight of steps cut in the solid rock, which + leads up from the southern terrace to the upper one, at a point + intervening between the south-western edifice, or palace of Artaxerxes, + and the palace of Xerxes, or central southern edifice. These steps are + singular in facing the terrace to which they lead, instead of being placed + sideways to it. They are of rude construction, being without a parapet, + and wholly devoid of sculpture or other ornamentation. They furnish the + only communication between the southern and central terraces. + </p> + <p> + It is a peculiarity of the Persepolitan ruins that they are not + continuous, but present to the modern inquirer the appearance, at any + rate, of a number of distinct buildings. Of these the platform altogether + contains ten, five of which are of large size, while the remainder are + comparatively insignificant. + </p> + <p> + Of the five large buildings four stand upon the central or upper terrace, + while one lies east of that terrace, between it and the mountains. The + four upon the central terrace comprise three buildings made up of several + sets of chambers, together with one great open pillared hall, to which are + attached no subordinate apartments. The three complex edifices will be + here termed “palaces,” and will take the names of their respective + founders, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes Ochus: the fourth will be called + the “Great Hall of Audience.” The building between the upper terrace and + the mountains will be termed the “Great Eastern Edifice.” + </p> + <p> + The “Palace of Darius,” which is one of the most interesting of the + Persepolitan buildings, stands near the western edge of the platform, + midway between the “Great Hall of Audience” and the “Palace of Artaxerxes + Ochus.” <a href="#linkBimage-0023">[PLATE XLVI., Fig. 1.]</a> It is a + building about one hundred and thirty five feet in length, and in breadth + a little short of a hundred. Of all the existing buildings on the platform + it occupies the most exalted position, being elevated from fourteen to + fifteen feet above the general level of the central terrace, and being + thus four or five feet higher than the “Palace of Xerxes.” It fronted + towards the south, where it was approached by a double staircase of the + usual character, which led up to a deep portico of eight pillars arranged + in two rows. On either side of the portico were guard-rooms, which opened + upon it, in length twenty-three feet, and in breadth thirteen. Behind the + portico lay the main chamber, which was a square of fifty feet, having a + roof supported by sixteen pillars, arranged in four rows of four, in line + with the pillars of the portico. <a href="#linkBimage-0022">[PLATE XLV., + Fig. 2.]</a> The bases for the pillars alone remain; and it is thus + uncertain whether their material was stone or wood. They were probably + light and slender, not greatly interrupting the view. The hall was + surrounded on all sides by walls from four to five feet in thickness, in + which were doors, windows, and recesses, symmetrically arranged. The + entrance from the portico was by a door in the exact centre of the front + wall, on either side of which were two windows, looking into the portico. + The opposite, or back, wall was pierced by two doors, which faced the + intercolumniations of the side rows of pillars, as the front door faced + the intercolumniation of the central rows. Between the two doors which + pierced the back wall was a squared recess, and similar recesses + ornamented the same wall on either side of the doors. The side walls were + each pierced originally by a single doorway, between which and the front + wall was a squared recess, while beyond, between the doorways and the back + wall, were two recesses of the same character. Curiously enough, these + side doorways and recesses fronted the pillars, not the + intercolumniations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate046a.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate046a (149K)" src="images/plate046.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + No sculpture, so far as appears, adorned this apartment, excepting in the + doorways, which however had in every case this kind of ornamentation. The + doorways in the back wall exhibited on their jambs figures of the king + followed by two attendants, one holding a cloth, and the other a + fly-chaser. <a href="#linkBimage-0022">[PLATE XLV., Fig. 3.]</a> These + figures had in every case their faces turned towards the apartment. The + front doorway showed on its jambs the monarch followed by the + parasol-bearer and the bearer of the fly-chaser, with his back turned to + the apartment, issuing forth, as it were, from it. On the jambs of the + doors of the side apartments was represented the king in combat with a + lion or a monster, the king here in every case facing outwards, and + seeming to guard the entrances to the side chambers. + </p> + <p> + At the back of the hall, and at either side, were chambers of very + moderate dimensions. The largest were to the rear of the building, where + there seems to have been one about forty feet by twenty-three, and another + twenty-eight feet by twenty. The doorways here had sculptures, + representing attendants bearing napkins and perfumes. The side chambers, + five in number, were considerably smaller than those behind the great + hall, the largest not exceeding thirty-four feet by thirteen. + </p> + <p> + It seems probable that this palace was without any second story. There is + no vestige in any part of it of a staircase—no indication of its + height having ever exceeded from twenty-two to twenty-five feet. It was a + modest building, simple and regular, covering less than half the space of + an ordinary palace in Assyria. <a href="#linkBimage-0022">[PLATE XLV., + Fig. 2.]</a> Externally, it must have presented an appearance not very + dissimilar to that of the simpler Greek temples; distinguished from them + by peculiarities of ornamentation, but by no striking or important + feature, excepting the grand and elaborately sculptured staircase. + Internally, it was remarkable for the small number of its apartments, + which seem not to have been more than twelve or thirteen, and for the + moderate size of most of them. Even the grand central hall covered a less + area than three out of the five halls in the country palace of Sargon. The + effect of this room was probably fine, though it must have been somewhat + over-crowded with pillars. If these were, however (as is probable), light + wooden posts, plated with silver or with gold, and if the ceiling + consisted (as it most likely did) of beams, crossing each other at right + angles, with square spaces between them, all likewise coated with the + precious metals; if moreover the cold stone walls, excepting where they + were broken by a doorway, or a window, were similarly decked; if curtains + of brilliant hues hung across the entrances; if the pavement was of + many-colored stones, and in places covered with magnificent carpets; if an + elevated golden throne, under a canopy of purple, adorned the upper end of + the room, standing against the wall midway between the two doors—if + this were in truth the arrangement and ornamentation of the apartment, we + can well understand that the <i>coup d’oeil</i> must have been effective, + and the impression made on the spectator highly pleasing. A room fifty + feet square, and not much more than twenty high, could not be very grand; + but elegance of form, combined with richness of material and splendor of + coloring, may have more than compensated for the want of that grandeur + which results from mere size. + </p> + <p> + If it be inquired how a palace of the dimensions described can have + sufficed even for one of the early Persian kings, the reply must seemingly + be that the building in question can only have contained the public + apartments of the royal residence—the throne-room, banqueting-rooms, + guard-rooms, etc.,—and that it must have been supplemented by at + least one other edifice of a considerable size, the Gynaeceum or “House of + the Women.” There is ample room on the platform for such a building, + either towards the east, where the ground is now occupied by a high mound + of rubbish, or on the west, towards the edge of the platform, where traces + of a large edifice were noted by Niebuhr. On the whole, this latter + situation seems to be the more probable; and the position of the Gynaeceum + in this quarter may account for the alteration made by Artaxerxes Ochus in + the palace of Darius, which now seriously interferes with its symmetry. + Artaxerxes cut a doorway in the outer western wall, and another opposite + to it in the western wall of the great hall, adding at the same time a + second staircase to the building, which thus became accessible from the + west no less than from the south. It has puzzled the learned in + architecture to assign a motive for this alteration. May we not find an + adequate one in the desire to obtain a ready and comparatively private + access to the Gynaeceum, which must have been somewhere on the platform, + and which may well have lain in this direction? + </p> + <p> + The minute account which has been now given of this palace will render + unnecessary a very elaborate description of the remainder. Two grand + palatial edifices seem to have been erected on the platform by later kings—one + by Xerxes and the other by Artaxerxes Ochus; but the latter of these is in + so ruined a condition, and the former is so like the palace of Darius, + that but few remarks need be made upon either. The palace of Xerxes is + simply that of Darius on a larger scale, the pillars in the portico being + increased from two rows of four to two rows of six, and the great hall + behind being a square of eighty instead of a square of fifty feet, with + thirty-six instead of sixteen pillars to support its roof. On either side + of the hall, and on either side of the portico, were apartments like those + already described as abutting on the same portions of the older palace, + differing from them chiefly in being larger and more numerous. The two + largest, which were thirty-one feet square, had roofs supported on + pillars, the numbers of such supports being in each case four. The only + striking difference in the plans of the two buildings consisted in the + absence from the palace of Xerxes of any apartments to the rear of the + great hall. In order to allow space for an ample terrace in front, the + whole edifice was thrown back so close to the edge of the upper platform + that no room was left for any chambers at the back, since the hall itself + was here brought almost to the very verge of the sheer descent from the + central to the low southern terrace. In ornamentation the palaces also + very closely resembled each other, the chief difference being that the + combats of the king with lions and mythological monsters, which form the + regular ornamentation of the side-chambers in the palace of Darius, occur + nowhere in the residence of his son, where they are replaced by figures of + attendants bringing articles for the toilet or the table, like those which + adorn the main staircase of the older edifice. Figures of the same kind + also ornament all the windows in the palace of Xerxes. A tone of mere + sensual enjoyment is thus given to the later edifice, which is very far + from characterizing the earlier; and the decline of morals at the Court, + which history indicates as rapid about this period, is seen to have + stamped itself, as such changes usually do, upon the national + architecture. + </p> + <p> + A small building, at the distance of about twenty or twenty-five yards + from the eastern wall of the palace of Xerxes, possesses a peculiar + interest, in consequence of its having some claims to be considered the + most ancient structure upon the platform. It consists of a hall and + portico, in size, proportions, and decoration almost exactly resembling + the corresponding parts of Darius’s palace, but unaccompanied by any trace + of circumjacent chambers, and totally devoid of inscriptions. The building + is low, on the level of the northern, rather than on that of the central + terrace, and is indeed half buried in the rubbish which has accumulated at + its base. Its fragments are peculiarly grand and massive, while its + sculptures are in strong and bold relief. There can be little doubt but + that it was originally, like the hall and portico of Darius, surrounded on + three sides by chambers. These, however, have entirely disappeared, having + probably been pulled down to furnish materials for more recent edifices. + Like the palaces of Xerxes and Artaxerxes Ochus, and unlike the palace of + Darius, the building faces to the north, which is the direction naturally + preferred in such a climate. We may suppose it to have been the royal + residence of the earlier times, the erection of Cyrus or Cambyses, and to + have been intended especially for summer use, for which its position well + fitted it. Darius, wishing for a winter palace at Persepolis, as well as a + summer one, took probably this early palace for his model, and built one + as nearly as possible resembling it, except that, for the sake of greater + warmth, he made his new erection face southwards. Xerxes, dissatisfied + with the size of the old summer palace, built a new one at its side of + considerably larger dimensions, using perhaps some of the materials of the + old palace in his new building. Finally, Artaxerxes Ochus made certain + additions to the palace of Xerxes on its western side, and at the same + time added a staircase and a doorway to the winter residence of Darius. + Thus the Persepolitan palace, using the word in its proper sense of royal + residence, attained its full dimensions, occupying the southern half of + the great central platform, and covering with its various courts and + buildings a space 500 feet long by 375 feet wide, or nearly the space + covered by the less ambitious of the palaces of Assyria. + </p> + <p> + Besides edifices adapted for habitation, the Persepolitan platform + sustained two other classes of buildings. These were propylaea, or + gateways—places commanding the approach to great buildings, where a + guard might be stationed to stop and examine all comers—and halls of + a vast size, which were probably throne-rooms, where the monarch held his + court on grand occasions, to exhibit himself in full state to his + subjects. The propylaea upon the platform appear to have been four in + number. One, the largest, was directly opposite the centre of the + landing-place at the top of the great stairs which gave access to the + platform from the plain. This consisted of a noble apartment, eighty-two + feet square, with a roof supported by four magnificent columns, each + between fifty and sixty feet high. The walls of the apartment were from + sixteen to seventeen feet thick. Two grand portals, each twelve feet wide + by thirty-six feet high, led into this apartment, one directly facing the + head of the stairs, and the other opposite to it, towards the east. Both + were flanked with colossal bulls, those towards the staircase being + conventional representations of the real animal, while the opposite pair + are almost exact reproductions of the winged and human-headed bulls, with + which the Assyrian discoveries have made us so familiar. The accompanying + illustration <a href="#linkBimage-0024">[PLATE XLVII., Fig. 1.]</a>, which + is taken from a photograph, exhibits this inner pair in their present + condition. The back of one of the other pair is also visible. Two of the + pillars—which alone are still standings appear in their places, + intervening between the front and the back gateway. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate047.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlvii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The walls which enclosed this chamber, notwithstanding their immense + thickness, have almost entirely disappeared. On the southern side alone, + where there seems to have been a third doorway, unornamented, are there + any traces of them. We must conclude that they were either of burnt brick + or of small blocks of stone, which the natives of the country in later + times found it convenient to use as material for their own buildings. + </p> + <p> + An edifice, almost exactly similar to this, but of very inferior + dimensions, occupied a position due east of the palace of Darius, and a + little to the north of the main staircase leading to the terrace in front + of the palace of Xerxes. The bases of two pillars and the jambs of three + doorways remain, from which it is easy to reconstruct the main building. + Its position seems to mark it as designed to give entrance to the + structure, whatever it was, which occupied the site of the great mound (M + on the Plan) east of Darius’s palace, and north of the palace of his son. + The ornamentation, however, would rather connect it with the more eastern + of the two great pillared halls, which will have to be described + presently. + </p> + <p> + A third edifice of the same kind stood in front of the great eastern hall, + at the distance of about seventy yards from its portico. This building is + more utterly ruined than either of the preceding, and its dimensions are + open to some doubt. On the whole, it seems probable that it resembled the + great propylaea at the head of the stairs leading from the plain rather + than the central propylaea just described. Part of its ornamentation was + certainly a colossal bull, though whether human-headed or not cannot be + determined. + </p> + <p> + The fourth of the propylaea was on the terrace whereon stood the palace of + Xerxes, and directly fronting the landing-place at the head of its + principal stairs, just as the propylaea first described fronted the great + stairs leading up from the plain. Its dimensions were suited to those of + the staircase which led to it, and of the terrace on which it was placed. + It was less than one fourth the size of the great propylaea, and about + half that of the propylaea which stood the nearest to it. The bases of the + four pillars alone remain in situ; but, from the proportions thus + obtained, the position of the walls and doorways is tolerably certain. + </p> + <p> + We have now to pass to the most magnificent of the Perse-politan buildings—the + Great Pillared Halls—which constitute the glory of Arian + architecture, and which, even in their ruins, provoke the wonder and + admiration of modern Europeans, familiar with all the triumphs of Western + art, with Grecian temples, Roman baths and amphitheatres, Moorish palaces, + Turkish mosques, and Christian cathedrals. Of these pillared halls, the + Persepolitan platform supports two, slightly differing in their design, + but presenting many points of agreement. They bear the character of an + earlier and a later building—a first effort in the direction which + circumstances compelled the architecture of the Persians to take, and the + final achievement of their best artists in this kind of building. + </p> + <p> + Nearly midway in the platform between its northern and its southern edges, + and not very far from the boundary of rocky mountain on which the platform + abuts towards the east, is the vast edifice which has been called with + good reason the “Hall of a Hundred Columns,” since its roof was in all + probability supported by that number of pillars. This building consisted + of a single magnificent chamber, with a portico, and probably guard-rooms, + in front, of dimensions quite unequalled upon the platform. The portico + was 183 feet long by 52 feet deep, and was sustained by sixteen pillars, + about 33 feet high, arranged in two rows of eight. The great chamber + behind was a square of 227 feet, and had therefore an area of about 51,000 + feet. Over this vast space were distributed, at equal distances from one + another, one hundred columns, each 35 feet high, arranged in ten rows of + ten each, every pillar thus standing at a distance of nearly 20 feet from + any other. The four walls which enclosed this great hall had a uniform + thickness of 10 1/2 feet, and were each pierced at equal intervals by two + doorways, the doorways being thus exactly opposite to one another, and + each looking down an avenue of columns. In the spaces of wall on either + side of the doorways, eastward, westward, and southward, were three + niches, all square-topped, and bearing the ornamentation which is + universal in the case of all niches, windows, and doorways in the + Persepolitan ruins. <a href="#linkBimage-0024">[PLATE XLVII., Fig. 2.]</a> + In the northern, or front, wall, the niches were replaced by windows + looking upon the portico, excepting towards the angles of the building, + where niches were retained, owing to a peculiarity in the plan of the + edifice which has now to be noticed. The portico, instead of being, as in + every other Persian instance, of the same width with the building which it + fronted, was 44 feet narrower, its antce projecting from the front wall, + not at either extremity, but at the distance of 11 feet from the corner. + While the porch was thus contracted, so that the pillars had to be eight + in each row instead of ten, space was left on either side for a narrow + guard-room opening on to the porch, indications of which are seen in the + doorways placed at right angles to the front wall, which are ornamented + with the usual figures of soldiers armed with spear and shield. It has + been suggested that the hall was, like the smaller pillared chambers upon + the platform, originally surrounded on three sides by a number of lesser + apartments; and this is certainly possible: but no trace remains of any + such buildings. The ornamentation which exists seems to show that the + building was altogether of a public character. Instead of exhibiting + attendants bringing articles for the toilet or the banquet, it shows on + its doors the monarch, either engaged in the art of destroying symbolical + monsters, or seated on his throne under a canopy, with the tiara on his + head, and the golden sceptre in his right hand. The throne representations + are of two kinds. On the jambs of the great doors leading out upon the + porch, we see in the top compartment the monarch seated under the canopy, + accompanied by five attendants, while below him are his guards, arranged + in five rows of ten each, some armed with spears and shields, others with + spears, short swords, bows and quivers. Thus the two portals together + exhibit the figures of 200 Persian guardsmen in attendance on the person + of the king. The doors at the back of the building present us with a still + more curious sculpture. On these the throne appears elevated on a lofty + platform, the stages of which, three in number, are upheld by figures in + different costumes, representing apparently the natives of all the + different provinces of the Empire. It is a reasonable conjecture that this + great hall was intended especially for a throne-room, and that in the + representations on these doorways we have figured a structure which + actually existed under its roof (probably at t in the plan)—a + platform reached by steps, whereon, in the great ceremonies of state, the + royal throne was placed, in order that the monarch might be distinctly + seen at one and the same time by the whole Court. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate048.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The question of the lighting of this huge apartment presents some + difficulties. On three sides, as already observed, the hall had (so far as + appears) no windows—the places where windows might have been + expected to occur being occupied by niches. The apparent openings are + consequently reduced to some fifteen, viz., the eight doorways, and seven + windows, which looked out upon the portico, and were therefore overhung + and had a north aspect. It is clear that sufficient light could not have + entered the apartment from these—the only visible—apertures. + We must therefore suppose either that the walls above the niches were + pierced with windows, which is quite possible, or else that light was in + some way or other admitted from the roof. The latter is the supposition of + those most competent to decide. M. Flandin conjectures that the roof had + four apertures, placed at the points where the lines drawn from the + northern to the southern, and those drawn from the eastern to the western, + doors would intersect one another. He seems to suppose that these openings + were wholly unprotected, in which case they would have admitted, in a very + inconvenient way, both the sun and the rain. May we not presume that, if + such openings existed, they were guarded by louvres such as have been + regarded as probably lighting the Assyrian halls, and of which a + representation has already been given? + </p> + <p> + The portico of the Hall of a Hundred Columns was flanked on either side by + a colossal bull, standing at the inner angle of the antes, and thus in + some degree narrowing the entrance. Its columns were fluted, and had in + every case the complex capital, which occurs also in the great propylaea + and in the Hall of Xerxes. It was built of the same sort of massive blocks + as the south-eastern edifice, or Ancient Palace—blocks often ten + feet square by seven feet thick, and may be ascribed probably to the same + age as that structure. Like that edifice, it is situated somewhat low; it + has no staircase, and no inscription. We may fairly suppose it to have + been the throne-room or great hall of audience of the early king who built + the South-eastern Palace. + </p> + <p> + We have now to describe the most remarkable of all the Persepolitan + edifices—a building the remains of which stretch nearly 350 feet in + one direction, while in the other they extend 246 feet. Its ruins consist + almost entirely of pillars, which are divided into four groups. The + largest of these was a square of thirty-six pillars, arranged in six rows + of six, all exactly equidistant from one another, and covering an area of + above 20,000 square feet. On three sides of this square, eastward, + northward, and westward, were magnificent porches, each consisting of + twelve columns, arranged in two rows, in line with the pillars of the + central cluster. These porches stood at the distance of seventy feet from + the main building, and have the appearance of having been entirely + separate from it. They are 143 feet long, by thirty broad, and thus cover + each an area of 4260 feet. The most astonishing feature in the whole + building is the height of the pillars. These, according to the + measurements of M. Flandin, had a uniform altitude throughout the building + of sixty-four feet. Even in their ruin, they tower over every other + erection upon the platform, retaining often, in spite of the effects of + time, an elevation of sixty feet. + </p> + <p> + The capitals of the pillars were of three kinds. Those of the side + colonnades were comparatively simple: they consisted, in each case, of a + single member, formed, in the eastern colonnade, of two half-griffins, + with their heads looking in opposite directions <a href="#linkBimage-0024">[PLATE + XLVII, Fig. 2]</a>; and, in the western colonnade, of two half-bulls, + arranged in the same manner <a href="#linkBimage-0024">[PLATE XLVII., Fig. + 3]</a>. The capitals of the pillars in the northern colonnade, which faced + the great sculptured staircase, and constituted the true front of the + building, were of a very complex character. They may be best viewed as + composed of three distinct members—first, a sort of lotos-bud, + accompanied by pendent leaves; then, above that, a member, composed of + volutes like those of the Ionic order, but placed in a perpendicular + instead of a horizontal direction; and at the top, a member composed of + two half-bulls, exactly similar to that which forms the complete capital + of the western group of pillars. The pillars of the groat central cluster + had capitals exactly like those of the northern colonnade. + </p> + <p> + The bases of the colonnade pillars are of singular beauty. Bell-shaped, + and ornamented with a double or triple row of pendent lotus-leaves, some + rounded, some narrowed to a point; they are as graceful as they are rare + in their forms, and attract the admiration of all beholders. Above them + rise the columns, tapering gently as they ascend, but without any swell or + entasis. They consist of several masses of stone, carefully joined + together, and secured at the joints by an iron cramp in the direction of + the column’s axis. All are beautifully fluted along their entire length, + the number of the incisions or flutings being from forty-eight to + fifty-two in each pillar. They are arcs of circles smaller than + semicircles, thus resembling those of the Doric, rather than those of the + Ionic or Corinthian order. The cutting of all is very exact and regular. + </p> + <p> + There can be little doubt but that both the porches, and the great central + pillar-cluster, were roofed in. The double-bull and double-griffin capital + are exactly suited to receive the ends of beams, which would stretch from + pillar to pillar, and support a roof and an entablature. <a + href="#linkBimage-0026">[PLATE L., Fig.1.]</a> We may see in the entrances + to the royal tombs the true use of pillars in a Persian building, and the + character of the entablature which, they were intended to sustain, + Assuming, then, that both the great central pillar phalanx and the three + detached colonnades supported a roof, the question arises, were the + colonnades in any way united with the main building, or did they stand + completely detached from it? It has been supposed that they were all + porticos <i>in antis</i>, connected with the main building by solid walls—that + the great central column-cluster was surrounded on all sides by a wall of + a very massive description, from the four corners of which similar + barriers were carried down to the edge of the terrace, abutting in front + upon the steps of the great sculptured staircase, and extending eastward + and westward, so as to form the antce of an eastern and a western portico. + In the two corners between the northern in <i>antae</i> of the side + porticos and the <i>antae</i> of the portico in front are supposed to have + been large guard-rooms, entirely filling up the two angles. The whole + building is thus brought into close conformity with the “Palace of + Xerxes,” from which it is distinguished only by its superior size, its use + of stone pillars, and the elongation of the tetrastyle chambers at the + sides of that edifice into porticos of twelve pillars each. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate050.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate L. " /> + </div> + <p> + The ingenuity of this conception is unquestionable; and one is tempted at + first sight to accept a solution which removes so much that is puzzling, + and establishes so remarkable a harmony between works whose outward aspect + is so dissimilar. It seems like the inspiration of genius to discern so + clearly the like in the unlike, and one inclines at first to believe that + what is so clever cannot but be true. But a rigorous examination of the + evidence leads to an opposite conclusion, and if it does not absolutely + disprove Mr. Fergusson’s theory, at any rate shows it to be in the highest + degree doubtful. Such walls as he describes, with their <i>antae</i> and + their many doors and windows, should have left very marked traces of their + existence in great squared pillars at the sides of porticos, in huge + door-frames and window-frames, or at least in the foundations of walls, + or, the marks of them, on some part of the paved terrace. Now the entire + absence of squared pillars for the ends of antce, of door-frames, and + window-frames, or even of such sculptured fragments as might indicate + their former existence, is palpable and is admitted; nor is there any even + supposed trace of the walls, excepting in one of the lines which by the + hypothesis they would occupy. In front of the building, midway between the + great pillar-cluster and the north colonnade, are the remains of four + stone bases, parallel to one another, each seventeen feet long by five + feet six inches wide. Mr. Fergusson regards these bases as marking the + position of the doors in his front wall; and they are certainly in places + where doors might have been looked for, if the building had a front wall, + since the openings are exactly opposite the inter-columniations of the + pillars, both in the portico and in the main cluster. But there are + several objections to the notion of these bases being the foundations of + the jambs of doors. In the first place, they are too wide apart, being at + the distance from one another of seventeen feet, whereas no doorway on the + platform exceeds a width of twelve or thirteen feet. In the second place, + if these massive stone bases were prepared for the jambs of doors, it + could only have been for massive stone jambs like those of the other + palaces; but in that case, the jambs could not have disappeared. Thirdly, + if the doorways on this side were thus marked, why were they not similarly + marked on the other sides of the building? On the whole, the supposition + of M. Flandin, that the bases were pedestals for ornamental statues, + perhaps of bulls, seems more probable than that of Mr. Fergusson; though, + no doubt, there are objections also to M. Flandin’s hypothesis, and it + would be perhaps best to confess that we do not know the use of these + strange foundations, which have nothing that at all resembles them upon + the rest of the platform. + </p> + <p> + Another strong objection to Mr. Fergusson’s theory, and one of which he, + to a certain extent, admits the force, is the existence of drains, running + exactly in the line of his side walls, which, if such walls existed, would + be a curious provision on the part of the architect for undermining his + own work. Mr. Fergusson supposes that they might be intended to drain the + walls themselves and keep them dry. But as it is clear that they must have + carried off the whole surplus water from the roof of the building, and as + there is often much rain and snow at Persepolis, their effect on the + foundations of such a wall as Mr. Fergusson imagines would evidently be + disastrous in the extreme. + </p> + <p> + To these minute and somewhat technical objections may be added the main + one, whereof all alike can feel the force—namely, the entire + disappearance of such a vast mass of building as Mr. Fergusson’s + hypothesis supposes. To account for this, Mr. Fergusson is obliged to lay + it down, that in this magnificent structure, with its solid stone + staircase, its massive pavement of the same material, and its seventy-two + stone pillars, each sixty-four feet high, the walls were of mud. Can we + believe in this incongruity? Can we imagine that a prince, who possessed + an unbounded command of human labor, and an inexhaustible supply of stone + in the rocky mountains close at hand, would have had recourse to the + meanest of materials for the walls of an edifice which he evidently + intended to eclipse all others upon the platform. And, especially, can we + suppose this, when the very same prince used solid blocks of stone, in the + walls of the very inferior edifice which he constructed in this same + locality? Mr. Fergusson, in defence of his hypothesis, alleges the + frequent combination of meanness with magnificence in the East, and + softens down the meanness in the present case by clothing his mud walls + with enamelled tiles, and painting them with all the colors of the + rainbow. But here again the hypothesis is wholly unsupported by fact. + Neither at Persepolis, nor at Pasargadae, nor at any other ancient Persian + site, has a single fragment of an enamelled tile or brick been discovered. + In Babylonia and Assyria, where the employment of such an ornamentation + was common, the traces of it which remain are abundant. Must not the + entire absence of such traces from all exclusively Persian ruins be held + to indicate that this mode of adorning edifices was not adopted in Persia? + </p> + <p> + If then we resign the notion of this remarkable building having been a + walled structure, we must suppose that it was a summer throne-room, open + to all the winds of heaven, except so far as it was protected by curtains. + For the use of these by the Persians in pillared edifices, we have + important historical authority in the statement already quoted from the + Book of Esther. The Persian palace, to which that passage directly refers, + contained a structure almost the exact counterpart of this at Persepolis; + and it is probable that at both places the interstices between the outer + pillars of, at any rate, the great central colonnade, were filled with + “hangings of white and green and blue, fastened with cords of white and + purple to silver rings,” which were attached to the “pillars of marble;” + and that by these means an undue supply of light and air, as well as an + unseemly publicity, were prevented. A traveller in the country well + observes, in allusion to this passage from Esther: Nothing could be more + appropriate than this method at Susa and Persepolis, the spring residences + of the Persian monarchs. It must be considered that these columnar halls + were the equivalents of the modern throne-rooms, that here all public + business was dispatched, and that here the king might sit and enjoy the + beauties of the landscape. With the rich plains of Susa and Persepolis + before him, he could well, after his winter’s residence at Babylon, + dispense with massive walls, which would only check the warm fragrant + breeze from those verdant prairies adorned with the choicest flowers. A + massive roof, covering the whole expanse of columns, would be too cold and + dismal, whereas curtains around the central group would serve to admit + both light and warmth. Nothing can be conceived better adapted to the + climate or the season. + </p> + <p> + If the central cluster of pillars was thus adapted to the purposes of a + throne-room, equally well may the isolated colonnades have served as + ante-chambers or posts for guards. Protected, perhaps, with curtains or + awnings of their own, of a coarser material than those of the main + chamber, or at any rate casting, when the sun was high, a broad and deep + shadow, they would give a welcome shelter to those who had to watch over + the safety of the monarch, or who were expecting but had not yet received + their summons to the royal presence. Except in the very hottest weather, + the Oriental does not love to pass his day within doors. Seated on the + pavement in groups, under the deep shadows of these colonnades, which + commanded a glorious view of the vast fertile plain of the Bendamir, of + the undulating mountain-tract beyond, and of the picturesque hills known + now as Koh-Istakhr, or Koh-Rhamgherd, the subjects of the Great King, who + had business at Court, would wait, agreeably enough, till their turn came + to approach the throne. + </p> + <p> + Our survey of the Persepolitan platform is now complete; but, before we + entirely dismiss the subject of Persian palaces, it seems proper to say a + few words with respect to the other palatial remains of Achasmenian times, + remains which exist in three places—at Murgab or Pasargadse, at + Istakr, and at the great mound of Susa. The Murgab and Istakr ruins were + carefully examined by MM. Coste and Flandin; while General Williams and + Mr. Loftus diligently explored, and completely made out, the plan of the + Susian edifice. + </p> + <p> + The ruins at Murgab, which are probably the most ancient in Persia, + comprise, besides the well-known “Tomb of Cyrus,” two principal buildings. + The largest of these was of an oblong-square shape, about 147 feet long by + 116 wide. It seems to have been surrounded by a lofty wall, in which were + huge portals, consisting of great blocks of stone, partially hollowed out, + to render them portable. There was an inscription on the jambs of each + portal, containing the words, “I am Cyrus the King, the Achaemenian.” + Within the walled enclosure which may have been skirted internally by a + colonnade was a pillared building, of much greater height than the + surrounding walls, as is evident from the single column which remains. + This shaft, which is perfectly plain, and shows no signs of a capital, has + an altitude of thirty-six feet, with a diameter of three feet four inches + at the base. On the area around, which was carefully paved, are the bases + of seven other similar pillars, arranged in lines, and so situated as + apparently to indicate an oblong hall, supported by twelve pillars, in + three rows of four each. The chief peculiarity of the arrangement is, a + variety in the width of the intercolumniations, which measure twenty-seven + feet ten inches in one direction, but twenty-one feet only in the other. + The smaller building, which is situated at only a short distance from the + larger one, covers a space of 125 feet by fifty. It consists of twelve + pillar bases, arranged in two rows of six each, the pillars being somewhat + thicker than those of the other building, and placed somewhat closer + together. <a href="#linkBimage-0027">[PLATE XLIX., Fig. 5.]</a> The form + of the base is very singular. It exhibits at the side a semicircular + bulge, ornamented with a series of nine flutings, which are carried + entirely round the base in parallel horizontal circles. <a + href="#linkBimage-0026">[PLATE L., Fig. 2.]</a> In front of the pillar + bases, at the distance of about twenty-three feet from the nearest, is a + square column, still upright, on which is sculptured a curious + mythological figure, together with the same curt legend, which appears on + the larger building—“I am Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate049.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Xlix. " /> + </div> + <p> + There are two other buildings at Murgab remarkable for their masonry. One + is a square tower, with slightly projecting corners, built of hewn blocks + of stone, very regularly laid, and carried to a height of forty-two feet. + The other is a platform, exceedingly massive and handsome, composed + entirely of squared stone, and faced with blocks often eight or ten feet + long, laid in horizontal courses, and rusticated throughout in a manner + that is highly ornamental. <a href="#linkBimage-0026">[PLATE L. Fig. 3.]</a> + The style resembles that of the substructions of the Temple of Jerusalem. + It occurs occasionally, though somewhat rarely, in Greece; but there is + said to exist nowhere so extensive and beautiful a specimen of it as that + of the platform at this ancient site. <a href="#linkBimage-0026">[PLATE + L., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The palace at Istakr is in better preservation than either of the two + pillared edifices at Murgab; but still, it is not in such a condition as + to enable us to lay down with any certainty even its ground-plan. <a + href="#linkBimage-0028">[PLATE LI., Fig. 1.]</a> One pillar only remains + erect; but the bases of eight others have been found in situ; the walls + are partly to be traced, and the jambs of several doorways and niches are + still standing. These remains show that in many respects, as in the + character of the pillars, which were fluted and had capitals like those + already described, in the massiveness of the door and window jambs, and in + the thickness of the walls, the Istakr Palace resembled closely the + buildings on the Persepolitan platform; but at the same time they indicate + that its plan was wholly different, and thus our knowledge of the platform + buildings in no degree enables us to complete, or even to carry forward to + any appreciable extent, the ground-plan of the edifice derived from actual + research. The height of the columns, which is inferior to that of the + lowest at the great platform, would seem to indicate, either that the + building was the first in which stone pillars were attempted, or that it + was erected at a time when the Persians no longer possessed the mechanical + skill required to quarry, transport, and raise into place the enormous + blocks used in the best days of the nation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate051.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Li. " /> + </div> + <p> + The palace of Susa, exhumed by Mr. Loftus and General Williams, consisted + of a great Hall or Throne-room, almost exactly a duplicate of the Chehl + Minar at Persepolis, and of a few other very inferior buildings. It stood + at the summit of the great platform, a quadrilateral mass of unburnt + brick, which from a remote antiquity had supported the residence of the + old Susian kings. It fronted a little west of north, and commanded a + magnificent view over the Susianian plains to the mountains of Lauristan. + An inscription, repeated on four of its pillar-bases, showed that it was + originally built by Darius Hystaspis, and afterwards repaired by + Artaxerxes Longimanus. As it was so exactly a reproduction of an edifice + already minutely described, no further account of it need be here given. + </p> + <p> + From the palaces of the Persian kings we may now pass to their tombs, + remarkable structures which drew the attention of the ancients, and which + have been very fully examined and represented in modern times. These tombs + are eight in number, but present only two types, so that it will be + sufficient to give in this place a detailed account of two tombs—one + of each description. + </p> + <p> + The most ancient, and, on the whole, the most remarkable of the tombs, is + almost universally allowed to be that of the Great Cyrus. It is unique in + design, totally different from all the other royal sepulchres; and, though + it has been often described, demands, and must receive, notice in any + account that is given of the ancient Persian constructions. The historian + Arrian calls it “a house upon a pedestal;” and this brief description + exactly expresses its general character. On a base, composed of huge + blocks of the most beautiful white marble,1 which rises pyramidically in + seven steps of different heights, there stands a small “house” of similar + material, crowned with a stone roof, which is formed in front and rear + into a pediment resembling that of a Greek temple. <a + href="#linkBimage-0028">[PLATE LI., Fig.3.]</a> The “house” has no window, + but one of the end walls was pierced by a low and narrow doorway, which + led into a small chamber or cell, about eleven feet long, seven broad, and + seven high. Here, as ancient writers inform us, the body of the Great + Cyrus was deposited in a golden coffin. Internally the chamber is + destitute of any inscription, and indeed seems to have been left perfectly + plain. Externally, there is a cornice of some elegance below the pediment, + a good molding over the doorway, which is also doubly recessed—and + two other very slight moldings, one at the base of the “house,” and the + other at the bottom of the second step. <a href="#linkBimage-0028">[PLATE + LI., Fig. 2.]</a> Except for these, the whole edifice is perfectly plain. + Its present height above the ground is thirty-six feet, and it may + originally have been a foot or eighteen inches higher, for the top of the + roof is worn away. It measures at the base forty-seven feet by forty-three + feet nine inches. + </p> + <p> + The tomb stands within a rectangular area, marked out by pillars, the + bases or broken shafts of which are still to be seen. They appear to have + been twenty-four in number; all of them circular and smooth, not fluted; + six pillars occupied each side of the rectangle, and they stood distant + from each other about fourteen feet. It is probable that they originally + supported a colonnade, which skirted internally a small walled court, + within which the tomb was placed. The capitals of the pillars, if they had + any, have wholly disappeared; and the researches conducted on the spot + have failed to discover any trace of them. + </p> + <p> + The remainder of the Persian royal sepulchres are rock-tombs, excavations + in the sides of mountains, generally at a considerable elevation, so + placed as to attract the eye of the beholder, while they are extremely + difficult of approach. Of this kind of tomb there are four in the face of + the mountain which bounds the Pulwar Valley on the north-west, while there + are three others in the immediate vicinity of the Persepolitan platform, + two in the mountain which overhangs it, and one in the rocks a little + further to the south. The general shape of the excavations, as it presents + itself to the eye of the spectator, resembles a Greek cross. <a + href="#linkBimage-0029">[PLATE LII., Fig. 1.]</a> This is divided by + horizontal lines into three portions, the upper one (corresponding with + the topmost limb of the cross) containing a very curious sculptured + representation of the monarch worshipping Ormazd; the middle one, which + comprises the two side limbs, together with the space between them, being + carved architecturally so as to resemble a portico; and the third + compartment (corresponding with the lowest limb of the cross) being left + perfectly plain. In the centre of the middle compartment is sculptured on + the face of the rock the similitude of a doorway, closely resembling those + which still stand on the great platform; that is to say, doubly recessed, + and ornamented at the top with lily-work. The upper portion of this + doorway is filled with the solid rock, smoothed to a flat surface and + crossed by three horizontal bars. The lower portion, to the height of four + or five feet, is cut away; and thus entrance is given to the actual tomb, + which is hollowed out in the rock behind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate052.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lii. " /> + </div> + <p> + Thus far the rock tombs, are, with scarcely an exception, of the same + type. The excavations, however, behind their ornamental fronts, present + some curious differences. In the simplest case of all, we find, on + entering, an arched chamber, thirteen feet five inches long by seven feet + two inches wide, from which there opens out, opposite to the door and at + the height of about four feet from the ground, a deep horizontal recess, + arched, like the chamber. Near the front of this recess is a further + perpendicular excavation, in length six feet ten inches, in width three + feet three inches, and in depth the same. This was the actual sarcophagus, + and was covered, or intended to be covered, by a slab of stone. In the + deeper part of the recess there is room for two other such sarcophagi; but + in this case they have not been excavated, one burial only having, it + would seem, taken place in this tomb. Other sepulchres present the same + general features, but provide for a much greater number of interments. In + that of Darius Hystaspis the sepulchral chamber contains three distinct + recesses, in each of which are three sarcophagi, so that the tomb would + hold nine bodies. It has, apparently, been cut originally for a single + recess, on the exact plan of the tomb described above, but has afterwards + been elongated towards the left. <a href="#linkBimage-0030">[PLATE LIII., + Fig. 1.]</a> Two of the tombs show a still more elaborate ground-plan—one + in which curved lines take to some extent the place of straight ones. <a + href="#linkBimage-0029">[PLATE LII., Fig. 2.]</a> The tombs above the + platform of Persepolis are more richly ornamented than the others, the + lintels and sideposts of the doorways being covered with rosettes, and the + entablature above the cornice bearing a row of lions, facing on either + side towards the centre. <a href="#linkBimage-0030">[PLATE LIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate053.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Liii. " /> + </div> + <p> + A curious edifice, belonging probably to the later Achaemenian times, + stands immediately in front of the four royal tombs at Nakhsh-i-Eustam. + This is a square tower, composed of large blocks of marble, cut with great + exactness, and joined together without mortar or cement of any kind. The + building is thirty-six feet high; and each side of it measures, as near as + possible, twenty-four feet. It is ornamented with pilasters at the corners + and with six recessed niches, or false windows, in three ranks, one over + the other, on three out of its four faces. On the fourth face are two + niches only, one over the other; and below them is a doorway with a + cornice. The surface of the walls between the pilasters is also ornamented + with a number of rectangular depressions, resembling the sunken ends of + beams. The doorway, which looks north, towards the tombs, is not at the + bottom of the building, but half-way up its side, and must have been + reached either by a ladder or by a flight of steps. It leads into a square + chamber, twelve feet wide by nearly eighteen high, extending to the top of + the building, and roofed in with four large slabs of stone, which reach + entirely across from side to side, being rather more than twenty-four feet + long, six feet wide, and from eighteen inches to three feet in thickness. + <a href="#linkBimage-0030">[PLATE LIII., Fig. 3.]</a> On the top these + slabs are so cut that the roof has every way a slight incline; at their + edges they are fashioned between the pilasters, into a dentated cornice, + like that which is seen on the tomb. Externally they were clamped together + in the same careful way which we find to have been in use both at + Persepolis and Parsargadae. The building seems to have been closed + originally by two ponderous stone doors. <a href="#linkBimage-0031">[PLATE + LIV., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate054.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Liv. " /> + </div> + <p> + Another remarkable construction, which must belong to a very ancient + period in the history of the country, is a gateway composed of enormous + stones, which forms a portion of the ruins of Istakr. <a + href="#linkBimage-0031">[PLATE LIV., Fig. 2.]</a> It has generally been + regarded as one of the old gates of the city; but its position in the + gorge between the town wall and the opposite mountain, and the fact that + it lies directly across the road from Pasargadae into the plain of + Merdasht, seem rather to imply that it was one of those fortified “gates,” + which we know to have been maintained by the Persians, at narrow points + along their great routes, for the purpose of securing them, and stopping + the advance of an enemy. On either side were walls of vast thickness, on + the one hand abutting upon the mountain, on the other probably connected + with the wall of the town, while between them were three massive pillars, + once, no doubt, the supports of a tower, from which the defenders of the + gate would engage its assailants at a great advantage. + </p> + <p> + We have now described (so far as our data have rendered it possible) all + the more important of the ancient edifices of the Persians, and may + proceed to consider the next branch of the present inquiry, namely, their + skill in the mimetic arts. Before, however, the subject of their + architecture is wholly dismissed, a few words seem to be required on its + general character and chief peculiarities. + </p> + <p> + First, then, the simplicity and regularity of the style are worthy of + remark. In the ground-plans of buildings the straight line only is used; + all the angles are right angles; all the pillars fall into line; the + intervals between pillar and pillar are regular, and generally equal; + doorways are commonly placed opposite intercolumniations; where there is + but one doorway, it is in the middle of the wall which it pierces; where + there are two, they correspond to one another. Correspondence is the + general law. Not only does door correspond to door, and pillar to pillar, + but room to room, window to window, and even niche to niche. Most of the + buildings are so contrived that one half is the exact duplicate of the + other; and where this is not the case, the irregularity is generally + either slight, or the result of an alteration, made probably for + convenience sake. Travellers are impressed with the Grecian character of + what they behold, though there is an almost entire absence of Greek forms. + The regularity is not confined to single buildings, but extends to the + relations of different edifices one to another. The sides of buildings + standing on one platform, at whatever distance they may be, are parallel. + There is, however, less consideration paid than we should have expected to + the exact position, with respect to a main building, in which a + subordinate one shall be placed. Propylaea, for instance, are not opposite + the centre of the edifice to which they conduct, but slightly on one side + of the centre. And generally, excepting in the parallelism of their sides, + buildings seem placed with but slight regard to neighboring ones. + </p> + <p> + For effect, the Persian architecture must have depended, firstly, upon the + harmony that is produced by the observance of regularity and proportion; + and, secondly, upon two main features of the style. These were the grand + sculptured staircases which formed the approaches to all the principal + buildings, and the vast groves of elegant pillars in and about the great + halls. The lesser buildings were probably ugly, except in front. But such + edifices as the Chehl Minar at Persepolis, and its duplicate at Susa—where + long vistas of columns met the eye on every side, and the great central + cluster was supported by lighter detached groups, combining similarity of + form with some variety of ornament, where richly colored drapings + contrasted with the cool gray stone of the building, and a golden roof + overhung a pavement of many hues—must have been handsome, from + whatever side they were contemplated, and for general richness and harmony + of effect may have compared favorably with any edifices which, up to the + time of their construction, had been erected in any country or by any + people. If it may seem to some that they were wanting in grandeur, on + account of their comparatively low height—a height which, including + that of the platform, was probably in no case much more than a hundred + feet—it must be remembered that the buildings of Greece and (except + the Pyramids) those of Egypt, had the same defect, and that, until the + constructive powers of the arch came to be understood, it was almost + impossible to erect a building that should be at once lofty and elegant. + Height, moreover, if the buildings are for use, implies inconvenience, a + waste of time and power being involved in the ascent and descent of steps. + The ancient architects, studying utility more than effect, preferred + spreading out their buildings to piling them up, and rarely, unless in + thickly-peopled towns, even introduced a second story. + </p> + <p> + The spectator, however, was impressed with a sense of grandeur in another + way. The use of huge blocks of stone, not only in platforms, but in the + buildings themselves, in the shafts of pillars, the antae of porticos, the + jambs of doorways, occasionally in roofs, and perhaps in epistylia, + produced the same impression of power, and the same feeling of personal + insignificance in the beholder, which is commonly effected by great size + in the edifice, and particularly by height. The mechanical skill required + to transport and raise into place the largest of these blocks must have + been very considerable, and their employment causes not merely a blind + admiration of those who so built on the part of ignorant persons, but a + profound respect for them on the part of those who are by their studies + and tastes best qualified for pronouncing on the relative and absolute + merits of architectural masterpieces. + </p> + <p> + Among the less pleasing peculiarities of the Persian architecture may be + mentioned a general narrowness of doors in proportion to their height, a + want of passages, a thickness of walls, which is architecturally clumsy, + but which would have had certain advantages in such a climate, an + inclination to place the doors of rooms near one corner, an allowance of + two entrances into a great hall from under a single portico, a peculiar + position of propylaea, and the very large employment of pillars in the + interior of buildings. In many of these points, and also in the + architectural use which was made of sculpture, the style of building + resembled, to some extent, that of Assyria; the propylaea, however, were + less Assyrian than Egyptian; while in the main and best features of the + architecture, it was (so far as we can tell) original. The solid and + handsome stone platforms, the noble staircases, and the profusion of light + and elegant stone columns, which formed the true glory of the architecture—being + the features on which its effect chiefly depended—have nowhere been + discovered in Assyria; and all the evidence is against their existence. + The Arians found in Mesopotamia an architecture of which the pillar was + scarcely an element at all—which was fragile and unenduring—and + which depended for its effect on a lavish display of partially colored + sculpture and more richly tinted enamelled brick. Instead of imitating + this, they elaborated for themselves, from the wooden buildings of their + own mountain homes, a style almost exactly the reverse of that with which + their victories had brought them into contact. Adopting, of main features, + nothing but the platform, they imparted even to this a new character, by + substituting in its construction the best for the worst of materials, and + by further giving to these stone structures a massive solidity, from the + employment of huge, blocks, which made them stand in the strongest + possible contrast to the frail and perishable mounds of Babylonia and + Assyria. Having secured in this way a firm and enduring basis, they + proceeded to erect upon it buildings where the perpendicular line was + primary and the horizontal secondary—buildings of almost, the same + solid and massive character as the platform itself—forests of light + but strong columns, supporting a wide-spreading roof, sometimes open to + the air, sometimes enclosed by walls, according as they were designed for + summer or winter use, or for greater or less privacy. To edifices of this + character elaborate ornamentation was unnecessary; for the beauty of the + column is such that nothing more is needed to set off a building. + Sculpture would thus be dispensed with, or reserved for mere occasional + use, and employed not so much on the palace itself as on its outer + approaches; while brick enamelling could well be rejected altogether, as + too poor and fragile a decoration for buildings of such strength and + solidity. + </p> + <p> + The origination of this columnar architecture must be ascribed to the + Medes, who, dwelling in or near the more wooden parts of the Zagros range, + constructed, during the period of their empire, edifices of considerable + magnificence, whereof wooden pillars were the principal feature, the + courts being surrounded by colonnades, and the chief buildings having + porticos, the pillars in both cases being of wood. A wooden roof rested on + these supports, protected externally by plates of metal. We do not know if + the pillars had capitals, or if they supported an entablature; but + probability is in favor of both these arrangements having existed. When + the Persians succeeded the Medes in the sovereignty of Western Asia, they + found Arian architecture in this condition. As stone, however, was the + natural material of their country, which is but scantily wooded and is + particularly barren towards the edge of the great plateau, where their + chief towns were situated, and as they had from the first a strong desire + of fame and a love for the substantial and the enduring, they almost + immediately substituted for the cedar and cypress pillars of the Medes, + stone shafts, plain or fluted, which they carried to a surprising height, + and fixed with such firmness that many of them have resisted the + destructive powers of time, of earthquakes, and of vandalism for more than + three-and-twenty centuries, and still stand erect and nearly as perfect as + when they received the last touch from the sculptor’s hand more than 2000 + years ago. It is the glory of the Persians in art to have invented this + style, which they certainly did not learn from the Assyrians, and which + they can scarcely be supposed to have adopted from Egypt, where the + conception of the pillar and its ornamentation were wholly different. We + can scarcely doubt that Greece received from this quarter the impulse + which led to the substitution of the light and elegant forms which + distinguish the architecture of her best period from the rude and clumsy + work of the more ancient times. + </p> + <p> + Of the mimetic art of the Persians we do not possess any great amount, or + any great variety, of specimens. The existing remains consist of reliefs, + either executed on the natural rock or on large slabs of hewn stone used + in building, of impressions upon coins, and of a certain number of + intaglios cut upon gems. We possess no Persian statues, no modelled + figures, no metal castings, no carvings in ivory or in wood, no + enamellings, no pottery even. The excavations on Persian sites have been + singularly barren of those minor results which flowed so largely from the + Mosopotamian excavations, and have yielded no traces of the furniture, + domestic implements, or wall-ornamentation of the people; have produced, + in fact, no small objects at all, excepting a few cylinders and some spear + and arrow heads, thus throwing scarcely any light on the taste or artistic + genius of the people. + </p> + <p> + The nearest approach to statuary which we meet with among the Persian + remains are the figures of colossal bulls, set to guard portals, or + porticos, which are not indeed sculptures in the round, but are specimens + of exceedingly high relief, and which, being carved in front as well as + along the side, do not fall very far short of statues. Of such figures, we + find two varieties—one representing the real animal, the other a + monster with the body and legs of a bull, the head of a man, and the wings + of an eagle. There is considerable merit in both representations. They are + free from the defect of flatness, or want of breadth in comparison with + the length, which characterizes the similar figures of Assyrian artists; + and they are altogether grand, massive, and imposing. The general + proportions of the bulls are good, the limbs are accurately drawn, the + muscular development is well portrayed, and the pose of the figure is + majestic. Even the monstrous forms of human-headed bulls have a certain + air of quiet dignity, which is not without its effect on the beholder; + and, although implying no great artistic merit, since they are little more + than reproductions of Assyrian models, indicate an appreciation of some of + the best qualities of Assyrian art—the combination of repose with + strength, of great size with the most careful finish, and of strangeness + with the absence of any approach to grotesqueness or absurdity. The other + Persian reliefs may be divided under four heads: + </p> + <p> + (1) Mythological representations of a man—the king apparently—engaged + in combat with a lion, a bull, or a monster; (2) Processions of guards, + courtiers, attendants, or tribute-bearers; (3) Representations of the + monarch walking, seated upon his throne, or employed in the act of + worship; and (4) Representations of lions and bulls, either singly or + engaged in combat. + </p> + <p> + On the jambs of doorways in three of the Persepolitan buildings, a human + figure, dressed in the Median robe, but with the sleeve thrown back from + the right arm, is represented in the act of killing either a lion, a bull, + or a grotesque monster. In every case the animal is rampant, and assails + his antagonist with three of his feet, while he stands on the fourth. The + lion and bull have nothing about them that is very peculiar; but the + monsters present most strange and unusual combinations. One of them has + the griffin head, which we have already seen in use in the capitals of + columns, a feathered crest and neck, a bird’s wings, a scorpion’s tail, + and legs terminating in the claws of an eagle. The other has an eagle’s + head, ears like an ass, feathers on the neck, the breast, and the back, + with the body, legs, and tail of a lion. <a href="#linkBimage-0032">[PLATE + LV., Fig. 1.]</a> Figures of equal grotesqueness, some of which possess + certain resemblances to these, are common in the mythology of Assyria, and + have been already represented in these volumes; but the Persian specimens + are no servile imitations of these earlier forms. The idea of the Assyrian + artist has, indeed, been borrowed; but Persian fancy has worked it out in + its own way, adding, modifying, and subtracting in such a manner as to + give to the form produced a quite peculiar, and (so to speak) native + character. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate055a.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate055a (217K)" src="images/plate055.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + Persian gems abound with monstrous forms, of equal, or even superior + grotesqueness. As the Gothic architects indulged their imagination in the + most wonderful combinations to represent evil spirits or the varieties of + vice and sensualism, so the Persian gem-engravers seem to have allowed + their fancy to run riot in the creation of monsters, representative of the + Powers of Darkness or of different kinds of evil, The stones exhibit the + king in conflict with a vast variety of monsters, some nearly resembling + the Persepolitan, while others have strange shapes unseen elsewhere. + Winged lions, with two tails and with the horns of a ram or an antelope, + sphinxes and griffins of half a dozen different kinds, and various other + nondescript creatures, appear upon the Persian gems and cylinders, + furnishing abundant evidence of the quaint and prolific fancy of the + designers. + </p> + <p> + The processional subjects represented by the Persian artists are of three + kinds. In the simplest and least interesting the royal guards, or the + officers of the court, are represented in one or more lines of very + similar figures, either moving in one direction, or standing in two + bodies, one facing the other, in the attitude of quiet expectation. In + these subjects there is a great sameness, and a very small amount of + merit. The proportion of the forms is, indeed, fairly good, the heads and + hands are well drawn, and there is some grace in certain of the figures, + but the general effect is tame and somewhat heavy; the attitudes are + stiff, and present little variety, while, nevertheless, they are sometimes + impossible; there is a monotonous repetition of identically the same + figure, which is tiresome, and a want of grouping which is very + inartistic. If Persia had produced nothing better than this in sculpture, + she would have had to be placed not only behind Assyria, but behind Egypt, + as far as the sculptor’s art is concerned. + </p> + <p> + Processional scenes of a more attractive character are, however, tolerably + frequent. Some exhibit to us the royal purveyors arriving at the palace + with their train of attendants, and bringing with them the provisions + required for the table of the monarch. Here we have some varieties of + costume which are curious, and some representations of Persian utensils, + which are not without a certain interest. Occasionally, too, we are + presented with animal forms, as kids, which have considerable merit. + </p> + <p> + But by far the most interesting of the processional scenes, are those + which represent the conquered nations bringing to the monarch those + precious products of their several countries which the Lord of Asia + expected to receive annually, as a sort of free gift from his subjects, in + addition to the fixed tribute which was exacted from them. Here we have a + wonderful variety of costume and equipment, a happy admixture of animal + with human forms, horses, asses, chariots, sheep, cattle, camels, + interspersed among men, and the whole divided into groups by means of + cypress-trees, which break the series into portions, and allow the eye to + rest in succession upon a number of distinct pictures. Processions of this + kind occurred on several of the Persepolitan staircases; but by far the + most elaborate and complete is that on the grand steps in front of the + Chehl Minar, or Great Hall of Audience, where we see above twenty such + groups of figures, each with it own peculiar features, and all finished + with the utmost care and delicacy. The illustration <a + href="#linkBimage-0032">[PLATE LV., Fig. 2]</a>, which is taken from a + photograph, will give a tolerable idea of the general character of this + relief; it shows the greater portion of six groups, whereof two are much + injured by the fall of the parapet-wall on which they were represented, + while the remaining four are in good preservation. It will be noticed that + the animal forms—the Bactrian camel and the humped ox—are + superior to the human, and have considerable positive merit as works of + art. This relative superiority is observable throughout the entire series, + which contains, besides several horses (some of which have been already + represented in these volumes), a lioness, an excellent figure of the wild + ass, and two tolerably well-drawn sheep. <a href="#linkBimage-0033">[PLATE + LVI., Fig. 2 and 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate056.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lvi. " /> + </div> + <p> + The representations of the monarch upon the reliefs are of three kinds. In + the simplest, he is on foot, attended by the parasol-bearer and the + napkin-bearer, or by the latter only, apparently in the act of proceeding + from one part of the palace to another. In the more elaborate he is either + seated on an elevated throne, which is generally supported by numerous + caryatid figures, or he stands on a platform similarly upheld, in the act + of worship before an altar. This latter is the universal representation + upon tombs, while the throne scenes are reserved for palaces. In both + representations the supporting figures are numerous; and it is here + chiefly that we notice varieties of physiognomy, which are evidently + intended to recall the differences in the physical type of the several + races by which the Empire was inhabited. In one case, we have a negro very + well portrayed; in others we trace the features of Scyths or Tatars. It is + manifest that the artist has not been content to mark the nationality of + the different figures by costume alone, but has aimed at reproducing upon + the stone the physiognomic peculiarities of each race. + </p> + <p> + The purely animal representations which the bas-reliefs bring before us + are few in number, and have little variety of type. The most curious and + the most artistic is one which is several times repeated at Persepolis, + where it forms the usual ornamentation of the triangular spaces on the + facades of stairs. This is a representation of a combat between a lion and + a bull, or (perhaps, we should rather say) a representation of a lion + seizing and devouring a bull; for the latter animal is evidently powerless + to offer any resistance to the fierce beast which has sprung upon him from + behind, and has fixed both fangs and claws in his body. <a + href="#linkBimage-0033">[PLATE LVI., Fig. 4.]</a> In his agony the bull + rears up his fore-parts, and turns his head feebly towards his assailant, + whose strong limbs and jaws have too firm a hold to be dislodged by such + struggles as his unhappy victim is capable of making. In no Assyrian + drawing is the massiveness and strength of the king of beasts more + powerfully rendered than in this favorite group, which the Persian + sculptors repeated without the slightest change from generation to + generation. The contour of the lion, his vast muscular development, and + his fierce countenance are really admirable, and the bold presentation of + the face in full, instead of in profile, is beyond the ordinary powers of + Oriental artists. + </p> + <p> + Drawings of bulls and lions in rows, where each animal is the exact + counterpart of all the others, are found upon the friezes of some of the + tombs, and upon the representations of canopies over the royal throne. + These drawings are fairly spirited, but have not any extraordinary merit. + They reproduce forms well known in Assyria. A figure of a sitting lion + seems also to have been introduced occasionally on the facades of + staircases, occurring in the central compartment of the parapet-wall at + top. These figures, in no case, remain complete; but enough is left to + show distinctly what the attitude was, and this appears not to have + resembled very closely any common Assyrian type. <a href="#linkBimage-0034">[PLATE + LVII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate057.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lvii. " /> + </div> + <p> + The Persian gem-engravings have considerable merit, and need not fear a + comparison with those of any other Oriental nation. They occur upon hard + stones of many different kinds, as cornelian, onyx, rock-crystal, + sapphirine, sardonyx, chalcedony, etc., and are executed for the most part + with great skill and delicacy. The designs which they embody are in + general of a mythological character; but sometimes scenes of real life + occur upon them, and then the drawing is often good, and almost always + spirited. In proof of this, the reader may be referred to the + hunting-scenes already given, which are derived wholly from this source, + as well as to the gems figured <a href="#linkBimage-0033">[PLATE LVI., + Fig. 3]</a>, one of which is certainly, and the other almost certainly, of + Persian workmanship. In the former we see the king, not struggling with a + mythological lion but engaged apparently in the actual chase of the king + of beasts Two lions have been roused from their lairs, and the monarch + hastily places an arrow on the string, anxious to despatch one of his foes + before the other can come to close quarters The eagerness of the hunter + and the spirit and boldness of the animals are well represented. In the + other gem, while there is less of artistic excellence, we have a scene of + peculiar interest placed before us. A combat between two Persians and two + Cythians seems to be represented. The latter marked by their peaked cap + and their loose trousers, fight with the bow and the battle-axe, the + former with the bow and the sword One Scyth is receiving his death-wound, + the other is about to let loose a shaft, but seems at the same time half + inclined to fly The steady confidence of the warriors on the one side + contrasts well with the timidity and hesitancy of their weaker and smaller + rivals. <a href="#linkBimage-0034">[PLATE LVII., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The vegetable forms represented on the gems are sometimes graceful and + pleasing. This is especially the case with palm-trees, a favorite subject + of the artists, who delineated with remarkable success the feathery + leaves, the pendant fruit and the rough bark of the stem. <a + href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Fig 1.]</a> The lion-hunter + represented on the signet-cylinder of Darius Hystaspis takes place in a + palm-grove, and furnishes the accompanying example of this form of + vegetable life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate058.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lviii. " /> + </div> + <p> + One gem, ascribed on somewhat doubtful grounds to the Persians of + Achaemenian times, contains what appears to be a portrait. It is thought + to be the bust of a satrap of Salamis in Cyprus, and is very carefully + executed. If really of Persian workmanship, it would indicate a + considerable advance in the power of representing the human countenance + between the time of Darius Hystaspis and that of Alexander <a + href="#linkBimage-0034">[PLATE LVII. Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Persian coins are of three principal types. The earliest have on the one + side the figure of a monarch bearing the diadem and armed with the bow and + javelin, while on the other there is an irregular indentation of the same + nature with the <i>quadratum incusum</i> of the Greeks. This rude form is + replaced in later times by a second design, which is sometimes a horseman, + sometimes the forepart of a ship, sometimes the king drawing an an arrow + from his quiver. Another type exhibits on the obverse the monarch in + combat with a lion while the reverse shows a galley, or a towered and + battlemented city with two lions standing below it, back to back. The + third common type has on the obverse the king in his chariot, with his + charioteer in front of him, and (generally) an attendant carrying a + fly-chaser behind. The reverse has either the trireme or the battlemented + city. A specimen of each type is given. <a href="#linkBimage-0034">[PLATE + LVII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The artistic merit of these medals is not great. The relief is low, and + the drawing generally somewhat rude. The head of the monarch in the early + coins is greatly too large. The animal forms are, however, much superior + to the human, and the horses which draw the royal chariot, the lions + placed below the battlemented city, and the bulls which are found + occasionally in the same position, must be pronounced truthful and + spirited. + </p> + <p> + Of the Persian taste in furniture, utensils, personal ornaments and the + like, we need say but little. The throne and footstool of the monarch are + the only pieces of furniture represented in the sculptures, and these, + though sufficiently elegant in their forms, are not very remarkable. + Costliness of material seems to have been more prized than beauty of + shape; and variety appears to have been carefully eschewed, one single + uniform type of each article occurring in all the representations. The + utensils represented are likewise few in number, and limited to certain + constantly repeated forms. The most elaborate is the censer, which has + been already given. With this is usually seen a sort of pail or basket, + shaped like a lady’s reticule, in which the aromatic gums for burning were + probably kept. <a href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Fig. 5.]</a> A + covered dish, and a goblet with an inverted saucer over it, are also forms + of frequent occurrence in the hands of the royal attendants; and the + tribute-bearers frequently carry, among their other offerings, bowls or + basons, which, though not of Persian manufacture, were no doubt left at + the court, and took their place among the utensils of the palace. <a + href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Figs. 2 and 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In the matter of personal ornaments the taste of the Persians seems to + have been peculiarly simple. Earrings were commonly plain rings of gold; + bracelets mere bands of the same metal. Collars were circlets of gold + twisted in a very inartificial fashion. There was nothing artistic in the + sheaths or hilts of swords, though spear-shafts were sometimes adorned + with the representation of an apple or a pomegranate. Dresses seem not to + have been often patterned, but to have depended generally for their effect + on make and color. In all these respects we observe a remarkable contrast + between the Arian and the Semitic races, extreme simplicity characterizing + the one, while the most elaborate ornamentation was affected by the other. + </p> + <p> + Persia was not celebrated in antiquity for the production of any special + fabrics. The arts of weaving and dyeing were undoubtedly practised in the + dominant country, as well as in most of the subject provinces, and the + Persian dyes seem even to have had a certain reputation; but none of the + productions of their looms acquired a name among foreign nations. Their + skill, indeed, in the mechanical arts generally was, it is probable, not + more than moderate. It was their boast that they were soldiers, and had + won a position by their good swords which gave them the command of all + that was most exquisite and admirable, whether in the natural world or + among the products of human industry. So long as the carpets of Babylon + and Sardis, the shawls of Kashmir and India, the fine linen of Borsippa + and Egypt, the ornamental metal-work of Greece, the coverlets of Damascus, + the muslins of Babylonia, the multiform manufactures of the Phoenician + towns, poured continually into Persia Proper in the way of tribute, gifts, + or merchandise, it was needless for the native population to engage + largely in industrial enterprise. + </p> + <p> + To science the ancient Persians contributed absolutely nothing. The genius + of the nation was adverse to that patient study and those laborious + investigations from which alone scientific progress ensues. Too light and + frivolous, too vivacious, too sensuous for such pursuits, they left them + to the patient Babylonians, and the thoughtful, many-sided Greeks. The + schools of Orchoe, Borsippa, and Miletus flourished under their sway, but + without provoking their emulation, possibly without so much as attracting + their attention. From first to last, from the dawn to the final close of + their power, they abstained wholly from scientific studies. It would seem + that they thought it enough to place before the world, as signs of their + intellectual vigor, the fabric of their Empire and the buildings of Susa + and Persepolis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0004" id="linkB2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. RELIGION. + </h2> + <p> + The original form of the Persian religion has been already described under + the head of the third or Median monarchy. It was identical with the + religion of the Medes in its early shape, consisting mainly in the worship + of Ahura-Mazda, the acknowledgment of a principle of evil—Angro-Mainyus, + and obedience to the precepts of Zoroaster. When the Medes, on + establishing a wide-spread Empire, chiefly over races by whom Magism had + been long professed, allowed the creed of their subjects to corrupt their + own belief, accepted the Magi for their priests, and formed the mixed + religious system of which an account has been given in the second volume + of this work, the Persians in their wilder country, less exposed to + corrupting influences, maintained their original faith in undiminished + purity, and continued faithful to their primitive traditions. The + political dependence of their country upon Media during the period of the + Median sway made no difference in this respect; for the Medes were + tolerant, and did not seek to interfere with the creed of their subjects. + The simple Zoroastrian belief and worship, overlaid by Magism in the now + luxurious Media, found a refuge in the rugged Persian uplands, among the + hardy shepherds and cultivators of that unattractive region, was professed + by the early Achaemenian princes, and generally acquiesced in by the + people. + </p> + <p> + The main feature of the religion daring this first period was the + acknowledgment and the worship of a single supreme God—“the Lord God + of Heaven”—“the giver (i.e. maker) of heaven and earth”—the + disposer of thrones, the dispenser of happiness. The foremost place in + inscriptions and decrees was assigned, almost universally, to the “great + god, Ormazd.” Every king, of whom we have an inscription more than two + lines in length, speaks of Ormazd as his upholder; and the early monarchs + mention by name no other god. All rule “by the grace of Ormazd.” From + Ormazd come victory, conquest, safety, prosperity, blessings of every + kind. The “law of Ormazd” is the rule of life. The protection of Ormazd is + the one priceless blessing for which prayer is perpetually offered. + </p> + <p> + While, however, Ormazd holds this exalted and unapproachable position, + there is still an acknowledgment made, in a general way, of “other gods.” + Ormazd is “the greatest of the gods” (<i>mathista baganam</i>). It is a + usual prayer to ask for the protection of Ormazd, together with that of + these lesser powers (<i>hada bagaibish</i>). Sometimes the phrase is + varied, and the petition is for the special protection of a certain class + of Deities—the <i>Dii familiares</i>—or “deities who guard the + house.” + </p> + <p> + The worship of Mithra, or the Sun, does not appear in the inscriptions + until the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, the victor of Cunaxa. It is, + however, impossible to doubt that it was a portion of the Persian + religion, at least as early as the date of Herodotus. Probably it belongs, + in a certain sense, to primitive Zoroastrianism, but was kept in the + background during the early period, when a less materialistic worship + prevailed than suited the temper of later times. + </p> + <p> + Nor can it be doubted that the Persians held during this early period that + Dualistic belief which has been the distinguishing feature of + Zoroastrianism from a time long anterior to the commencement of the Median + Empire down to the present day. It was not to be expected that this belief + would show itself in the inscriptions, unless in the faintest manner; and + it can therefore excite no surprise that they are silent, or all but + silent, on the point in question. Nor need we wonder that this portion of + their creed was not divulged by the Persians to Herodotus or to Xenophon, + since it is exactly the sort of subject on which reticence was natural and + might have been anticipated. Neither the lively Halicarnassian, nor the + pleasant but somewhat shallow Athenian, had the gift of penetrating very + deeply into the inner mind of a foreign people; added to which, it is to + be remembered that they were unacquainted with Persia Proper, and drew + their knowledge of Persian opinions and customs either from hearsay or + from the creed and practices of the probably mixed garrisons which held + Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Persian worship, in these early times, was doubtless that enjoined by the + Zendavesta, comprising prayer and thanksgiving to Ormazd and the good + spirits of his creation, the recitation of Gathas or hymns, the + performance of sacrifice, and participation in the Soma ceremony. Worship + seems to have taken place in temples, which are mentioned (according to + the belief of most cuneiform scholars) in the Behistun inscription. Of the + character of these buildings we can say nothing. It has been thought that + those two massive square towers so similar in construction, which exist in + a more or less ruined condition at Murgab and Nakhsh-i-Rustam, are Persian + temples of the early period, built to contain an altar on which the + priests offered victims. But the absence of any trace of an altar from + both, the total want of religious emblems, and the extremely small size of + the single apartment which each tower contains, make strongly against the + temple theory; not to mention that a much more probable use may be + suggested for the buildings. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the altars upon which sacrifice was offered, we are not + left wholly without evidence. The Persian monarchs of the early period, + including Darius Hystaspis, represented themselves on their tombs in the + act of worship. Before them, at the distance of a few feet, stands an + altar, elevated on three steps, and crowned with the sacrificial fire. Its + form is square, and its only ornaments are a sunken squared recess, and a + strongly projecting cornice at top. The height of the altar, including the + steps, was apparently about four and a half feet. <a + href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The Persians’ favorite victim was the horse; but they likewise sacrificed + cattle, sheep, and goats. Human sacrifices seem to have been almost, if + not altogether, unknown to them, and were certainly alien to the entire + spirit of the Zoroastrian system. The flesh of the victim was probably + merely shown to the sacred fire, after which it was eaten by the priests, + the sacrificer, and those whom the latter associated with himself in the + ceremony. + </p> + <p> + The spirit of the Zendavesta is wholly averse to idolatry, and we may + fully accept the statement of Herodotus that images of the gods were + entirely unknown to the Persians. Still, they did not deny themselves a + certain use of symbolic representations of their deities, nor did they + even scruple to adopt from idolatrous nations the forms of their religious + symbolism. The winged circle, with or without the addition of a human + figure, which was in Assyria the emblem of the chief Assyrian deity, + Asshur, became with the Persians the ordinary representation of the + Supreme God, Ormazd, and, as such, was placed in most conspicuous + positions on their rock tombs and on their buildings. <a + href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Fig. 7.]</a> Nor was the general + idea only of the emblem adopted, but all the details of the Assyrian model + were followed, with one exception. The human figure of the Assyrian + original wore the close-fitting tunic, with short sleeves, which was the + ordinary costume in Assyria, and had on its head the horned cap which + marked a god or a genius. In the Persian counterpart this costume was + exchanged for the Median robe, and a tiara, which was sometimes that + proper to the king,23 sometimes that worn with the Median robe by court + officers. <a href="#linkBimage-0035">[PLATE LVIII., Fig. 7.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Mithra, or the Sun, is represented in Persian sculptures by a disk or orb, + which is not four-rayed like the Assyrian, but perfectly plain and simple. + In sculptures where the emblems of Ormazd and Mithra occur together, the + position of the former is central, that of the latter towards the right + hand of the tablet. The solar emblem is universal on sculptured tombs, but + is otherwise of rare occurrence. + </p> + <p> + Spirits of good and evil, the Ahuras and Devas of the mythology, were + represented by the Persians under human, animal, or monstrous forms. There + can be little doubt that it is a good genius—perhaps the + “well-formed, swift, tall Serosh”—who appears on one of the square + pillars set up by Cyrus at Pasargadae. This figure is that of a colossal + man, from whose shoulders issue four wings, two of which spread upwards + above his head, while the other two droop and reach nearly to his feet. <a + href="#linkBimage-0036">[PLATE LIX.]</a> It stands erect, in profile, with + both arms raised and the hands open. The costume of the figure is + remarkable. It consists of a long fringed robe reaching from the neck to + the ankles—apparently of a stiff material, which conceals the form—and + of a very singular head-dress. This is a striped cap, closely fitting the + head, overshadowed by an elaborate ornament, of a character purely + Egyptian. First there rise from the top of the cap two twisted horns, + which, spreading right and left, become a sort of basis for the other + forms to rest upon. These consist of two grotesque human-headed figures, + one at either side, and of a complex triple ornament between them, + clumsily imitated from a far more elegant Egyptian model. <a + href="#linkBimage-0038">[PLATE LX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate059.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lix. " /> + </div> + <p> + The winged human-headed bulls, which the Persians adopted from the + Assyrians, with very slight modifications, were also, it is probable, + regarded as emblems of some god or good genius. They would scarcely + otherwise have been represented on Persian cylinders as upholding the + emblem of Ormazd in the same way that human-headed bulls uphold the + similar emblem of Asshur on Assyrian cylinders. <a href="#linkBimage-0038">[PLATE + LX., Fig. 2.]</a> Their position, too, at Persepolis, where they kept + watch over the entrance to the palace, accords with the notion that they + represented guardian spirits, objects of the favorable regard of the + Persians. Yet this view is not wholly free from difficulty. The bull + appears in the bas-reliefs of Persepolis among the evil, or at any rate + hostile, powers, which the king combats and slays; and though in these + representations the animal is not winged or human-headed, yet on some + cylinders apparently Persian, the monarch contends with bulls of exactly + the same type as that which is assigned in other cylinders to the + upholders of Ormazd. It would seem therefore that in this case the + symbolism was less simple than usual, the bull in certain combinations and + positions representing a god or a good spirit, while in others he was the + type of a deva or evil genius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038"></a> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate060 (104K)" src="images/plate060.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + The most common representatives of the Evil Powers of the mythology were + lions, winged or unwinged, and monsters of several different descriptions. + At Persepolis the lions which the king stabs or strangles are of the + natural shape, and this type is found also upon gems and cylinders; but on + these last the king’s antagonist is often a winged, while sometimes he is + a winged and horned, lion. <a href="#linkBimage-0038">[PLATE LX., Fig. 3.]</a> + The monsters are of two principal types. In both the forms of a bird and a + beast are commingled; but in the one the bird, and in the other the beast + predominates. Specimens are given <a href="#linkBimage-0038">[PLATE LX., + Fig. 4]</a> taken from Persian gems and cylinders. + </p> + <p> + Such seems to have been, in outline, the purer and more ancient form of + the Persian religion. During its continuance a fierce iconoclastic spirit + animated the princes of the Empire, who took every opportunity of showing + their hatred and contempt for the idolatries of the neighboring nations, + burning temples, confiscating or destroying images, scourging or slaying + idolatrous priests, putting a stop to festivals, disturbing tombs, smiting + with the sword animals believed to be divine incarnations. Within their + own dominions the fear of stirring up religious wars compelled them to be + moderately tolerant, unless it were after rebellion, when a province lay + at their mercy; but when they invaded foreign countries, they were wont to + exhibit in the most open and striking way their aversion to materialistic + religions. In Greece, during the great invasion, they burned every temple + that they came near; in Egypt, on their first attack, they outraged every + religious feeling of the people. + </p> + <p> + It was during this time of comparative purity, when the anti-idolatrous + spirit was in full force, that a religious sympathy seems to have drawn + together the two nations of the Persians and the Jews. Cyrus evidently + identified Jehovah with Ormazd, and, accepting as a divine command the + prophecy of Isaiah, undertook to rebuild their temple for a people who, + like his own, allowed no image of God to defile the sanctuary. Darius, + similarly, encouraged the completion of the work, after it had been + interrupted by the troubles which followed the death of Cambyses. The + foundation was thus laid for that friendly intimacy between the two + peoples, of which we have abundant evidence in the books of Ezra, + Nehemiah, and Esther, a friendly intimacy which caused the Jews to + continue faithful to Persia to the last, and to brave the conqueror of + Issus rather than desert masters who had shown them kindness and sympathy. + </p> + <p> + The first trace that we have of a corrupting influence being brought to + bear on the Persian religion is connected with the history of the + pseudo-Smerdis. According to Herodotus, Cambyses, when he set out on his + Egyptian expedition, left a Magus, Patizeithes, at the capital, as + comptroller of the royal household. The conferring of an office of such + importance on the priest of an alien religion is the earliest indication + which we have of a diminution of zeal for their ancestral creed on the + part of the Achaemenian kings, and the earliest historical proof of the + existence of Magism beyond the limits of Media. Magism was really, it is + probable, an older creed than Zoroastrianism in the country where the + Persians were settled; but it now, for the first time since the Persian + conquest, began to show itself, to thrust itself into high places, and to + attract general notice. From being the religion of the old Scythic tribes + whom the Persians had conquered and whom they held in subjection, it had + passed into being the religion of great numbers of the Persians + themselves. The same causes which had corrupted Zoroastrianism in Media + soon after the establishment of the Empire, worked also, though more + slowly, in Persia, and a large section of the nation was probably weaned + from its own belief, and won over to Magism, before Cambyses went into + Egypt. His prolonged absence in that country brought matters to a crisis. + The Magi took advantage of it to attempt a substitution of Magism for + Zoroastrianism as the religion of the state. When this attempt failed, + there was no doubt a reaction for a time, and Zoroastrianism thought + itself triumphant. But a foe is generally most dangerous when he is + despised. Magism, repulsed in its attempt to oust the rival religion, + derived wisdom from the lesson, and thenceforth set itself to sap the + fortress which it could not storm. Little by little it crept into favor, + mingling itself with the old Arian creed, not displacing it, but only + adding to it. In the later Persian system the Dualism of Zoroaster and the + Magian elemental worship were jointly professed—the Magi were + accepted as the national priests—the rights and ceremonies of the + two religions were united—a syncretism not unusual in the ancient + world blended into one two creeds originally quite separate and distinct, + but in few respects antagonistic—and the name of Zoroaster being + still fondly cherished in the memory of the nation, while in their + practical religion Magian rites predominated, the mixed religion acquired + the name, by which it was known to the later Greeks, of “the Magism of + Zoroaster.” + </p> + <p> + The Magian rites have been described in the chapter on the Median + Religion. Their leading feature was the fire-worship, which is still + cherished among those descendants of the ancient Persians who did not + submit to the religion of Islam. On lofty spots in the high mountain-chain + which traversed both Media and Persia, fire-altars were erected, on which + burnt a perpetual flame, watched constantly lest it should expire, and + believed to have been kindled from heaven. Over the altar in most + instances a shrine or temple was built; and on these spots day after day + the Magi chanted their incantations, displayed their barsoms or + divining-rods, and performed their choicest ceremonies. Victims were not + offered on these fire-altars. When a sacrifice took place, a fire was laid + hard-by with logs of dry wood, stript of their bark, and this was lighted + from the flame which burned on the altar. On the fire thus kindled was + consumed a small part of the fat of the victim; but the rest was cut into + joints, boiled, and eaten or sold by the worshipper. The true offering, + which the god accepted, was, according to the Magi, the soul of the + animal. + </p> + <p> + If human victims were ever really offered by the Persians as sacrifices, + it is to Magian influence that the introduction of this horrid practice + must be attributed, since it is utterly opposed to the whole spirit of + Zoroaster’s teaching. An instance of the practice is first reported in the + reign of Xerxes, when Magism, which had been sternly repressed by Darius + Hystaspis, began once more to lift its head, crept into favor at Court, + and obtained a status which it never afterwards forfeited. According to + Herodotus, the Persians, on their march into Greece, sacrificed, at Ennea + Hodoi on the Strymon river, nine youths and nine maidens of the country, + by burying them alive. Herodotus seems to have viewed the act as done in + propitiation of a god resembling the Grecian Pluto; but it is not at all + certain that he interpreted it correctly. Possibly he mistook a vengeance + for a religious ceremony. The Brygi, who dwelt at this time in the + vicinity of Ennea Hodoi, had given Mardonius a severe defeat on a former + occasion; and the Persians were apt to treasure up such wrongs, and visit + them, when occasion offered, with extreme severity. + </p> + <p> + When the Persians had once yielded to the syncretic spirit so far as to + unite the Magian tenets and practices with their primitive belief, they + were naturally led on to adopt into their system such portions of the + other religions, with which they were brought into close contact, as + possessed an attraction for them. Before the date of Herodotus they had + borrowed from the Babylonians the worship of a Nature-Goddess, whom the + Greeks identified at one time with Aphrodite, at another with Artemis, at + another (probably) with Here, and had thus made a compromise with one of + the grossest of the idolatries which, theoretically, they despised and + detested. The Babylonian Venus, called in the original dialect of her + native country Nana, was taken into the Pantheon of the Persians, under + the name of Nansea, Anaea, Anaitis, or Tanata, and became in a little + while one of the principal objects of Persian worship. At first idolatry, + in the literal sense, was avoided; but Artaxerxes Mnemon, the conqueror of + Cunaxa, an ardent devotee of the goddess, not content with the mutilated + worship which he found established, resolved to show his zeal by + introducing into all the chief cities of the Empire the image of his + patroness. At Susa, at Persepolis, at Babylon, at Ecbatana, at Damascus, + at Sardis, at Bactra, images of Anaitis were set up by his authority for + the adoration of worshippers. It is to be feared that at this time, if not + before, the lascivious rites were also adopted, which throughout the East + constituted the chief attraction of the cult of Venus. + </p> + <p> + With the idolatry thus introduced, another came soon to be joined. Mithra, + so long an object of reverence, if not of actual worship, to the + Zoroastrians, was in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, honored, like + Anaitis, with a statue, and advanced into the foremost rank of deities. + The exact form which the image took is uncertain; but probability is in + favor of the well-known type of a human figure slaying a prostrate bull, + which was to the Greeks and Romans the essential symbol of the Mithraic + worship. The intention of this oft-repeated group has been well explained + by Hyde, who regards it as a representation of the Sun quitting the + constellation of Taurus, the time when in the East his fructifying power + is the greatest. The specimens which we possess of this group belong to + classical art and to times later than Alexander; but we can scarcely + suppose the idea to have been Occidental. The Western artists would + naturally adopt the symbolism of those from whom they took the rites, + merely modifying its expression in accordance with their own aesthetic + notions. + </p> + <p> + Towards the close of the Empire two other gods emerged from the obscurity + in which the lower deities of the Zoroastrian system were shrouded during + the earlier and purer period. Vohu-manu, or Bah-man, and Amerdat, or + Amendat, two of the councillors of Ormazd, became the objects of a + worship, which was clearly of an idolatrous character. Shrines were built + in their honor, and were frequented by companies of Magi, who chanted + their incantations, and performed their rites of divination in these new + edifices as willingly as in the old Fire-temples. The image of Bah-man was + of wood, and was borne in procession on certain occasions. + </p> + <p> + Thus as time went on, the Persian religion continually assimilated itself + more and more to the forms of belief and worship which prevailed in the + neighboring parts of Asia. Idolatries of several kinds came into vogue, + some adopted from abroad, others developed out of their own system. + Temples, some of which had a character of extraordinary magnificence, were + erected to the honor of various gods; and the degenerate descendants of + pure Zoroastrian spiritualists bowed down to images, and entangled + themselves in the meshes of a sensualistic and most debasing + Nature-worship. Still, amid whatsoever corruptions, the Dualistic faith + was maintained. The supremacy of Ormazd was from first to last admitted. + Ahriman retained from first to last the same character and position, + neither rising into an object of worship, nor sinking into a mere + personification of evil. The inquiries which Aristotle caused to be made, + towards the very close of the Empire, into the true nature of the Persian + Religion, showed him Ormazd and Ahriman still recognized as Principles, + still standing in the same hostile and antithetical attitude, one towards + the other, which they occupied when the first Fargard of the Vendidad was + written, long anterior to the rise of the Persian Power. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2H_4_0002" id="linkC2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA PROPER. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0001" id="linkCimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_persia.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_persia_th (188K)" src="images/map_persia_th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkC2H_4_0003" id="linkC2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE FIFTH MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkC2H_4_0004" id="linkC2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PERSIA. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkC2HCH0002" id="linkC2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. + </h2> + <p> + “I saw the man pushing westward, and northward, and southward; so that no + beast might stand before him, neither was there any that could deliver out + of his hand; but he did according to his will, and became great.”—Daniel, + viii. 4. + </p> + <p> + The history of the Persian Empire dates from the conquest of Astyages by + Cyrus, and therefore commences with the year B.C. 558. But the present + inquiry must be carried considerably further back, since in this, as in + most other cases, the Empire grew up out of a previously existing + monarchy. Darius Hystaspis reckons that there had been eight Persians + kings of his race previously to himself; and though it is no doubt + possible that some of the earlier names may be fictitious, yet we can + scarcely suppose that he was deceived, or that he wished to deceive, as to + the fact that long anterior to his own reign, or that of his elder + contemporary, Cyrus, Persia had been a monarchy, governed by a line of + princes of the same clan, or family, with himself. It is our business in + this place, before entering upon the brilliant period of the Empire, to + cast a retrospective glance over the earlier ages of obscurity, and to + collect therefrom such scattered notices as are to be found of the + Persians and their princes or kings before they suddenly attracted the + general attention of the civilized world by their astonishing achievements + under the great Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + The more ancient of-the sacred books of the Jews, while distinctly + noticing the nation of the Medes, contain no mention at all of Persia or + the Persians. The Zendavesta, the sacred volume of the people themselves, + is equally silent on the subject. The earliest appearance of the Persians + in history is in the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings, which begin to + notice them about the middle of the ninth century B.C. At this time + Shalmaneser II. found them in south-western Armenia, where they were in + close contact with the Medes, of whom, however, they seem to have been + wholly independent. Like the modern Kurds in this same region, they owned + no subjection to a single head, but were under the government of numerous + petty chieftains, each the lord of a single town or of a small mountain + district. Shalmaneser informs us that he took tribute from twenty-five + such chiefs. Similar tokens of submission were paid also to his son and + grandson. After this the Assyrian records are silent as to the Persians + for nearly a century, and it is not until the reign of Sennacherib that we + once more find them brought into contact with the power which aspired to + be mistress of Asia. At the time of their reappearance they are no longer + in Armenia, but have descended the line of Zagros and reached the + districts which lie north and north-east of Susiana, or that part of the + Bakhtiyari chain which, if it is not actually within Persia Proper, at any + rate immediately adjoins upon it. Arrived thus far, it was easy for them + to occupy the region to which they have given permanent name; for the + Bakhtiyari mountains command it and give a ready access to its valleys and + plains. + </p> + <p> + The Persians would thus appear not to have completed their migrations till + near the close of the Assyrian period, and it is probable that they did + not settle into an organized monarchy much before the fall of Nineveh. At + any rate we hear of no Persian ruler of note or name in the Assyrian + records, and the reign of petty chiefs would seem therefore to have + continued at least to the time of Asshur-bani-pal, up to which date we + have ample records. The establishment, however, about the year B.C. 660, + or a little later, of a powerful monarchy in the kindred and neighboring + Media, could not fail to attract attention, and might well provoke + imitation in Persia; and the native tradition appears to have been that + about this time. Persian royalty began in the person of a certain + Achaemenes (Hakhamanish), from whom all their later monarchs, with one + possible exception, were proud to trace their descent. + </p> + <p> + The name Achaemenes cannot fail to arouse some suspicion. The Greek + genealogies render us so familiar with heroes eponymi—imaginary + personages, who owe their origin to the mere fact of the existence of + certain tribe or race names, to account for which they were invented—that + whenever, even in the history of other nations, we happen upon a name + professedly personal, which stands evidently in close connection with a + tribal designation, we are apt at once to suspect it of being fictitious. + But in the East tribal and even ethnic names were certainly sometimes + derived from actual persons; and it may be questioned whether the + Persians, or the Iranic stock generally, had the notion of inventing + personal eponyms. The name Achaemenes, therefore, in spite of its + connection with the royal clan name of Achaemenidae, may stand as perhaps + that of a real Persian king, and, if so, as probably that of the first + king, the original founder of the monarchy, who united the scattered + tribes in one, and thus raised Persia into a power of considerable + importance. + </p> + <p> + The immediate successor of Achaemenes appears to have been his son, + Teispes. Of him and of the next three monarchs, the information that we + possess is exceedingly scanty. The very names of one or two in the series + are uncertain. One tradition assigns either to the second or the fourth + king of the list the establishment of friendly relations with a certain + Pharnaces, King of Cappadocia, by an intermarriage between a Persian + princess, Atossa, and the Cappadocian monarch. The existence of + communication at this time between petty countries politically + unconnected, and placed at such a distance from one another as Cappadocia + and Persia, is certainly what we should not have expected; but our + knowledge of the general condition of Western Asia at the period is too + slight to justify us in a positive rejection of the story, which + indicates, if it be true, that even during this time of comparative + obscurity, the Persian monarchs were widely known, and that their alliance + was thought a matter of importance. + </p> + <p> + The political condition of Persia under these early monarchs is a more + interesting question than either the names of the kings or the foreign + alliances which they attracted. According to Herodotus, that condition was + one of absolute and unqualified subjection to the sway of the Medes, who + conquered Persia and imposed their yoke upon the people before the year + B.C. 634. The native records, however, and the accounts which Xenophon + preferred, represent Persia as being at this time a separate and powerful + state, either wholly independent of Media, or, at any rate, held in light + bonds of little more than nominal dependence. On the whole, it appears + most probable that the true condition of the country was that which this + last phrase expresses. It maybe doubted whether there had ever been a + conquest; but the weaker and less developed of the two kindred states + owned the suzerainty of the stronger, and though quite unshackled in her + internal administration, and perhaps not very much interfered with in her + relations towards foreign countries, was, formally, a sort of Median fief, + standing nearly in the position in which Egypt now stands to Turkey. The + position was irksome to the sovereigns rather than unpleasant to the + people. It detracted from the dignity of the Persian monarchs, and injured + their self-respect; it probably caused them occasional inconvenience, + since from time to time they would have to pay their court to their + suzerain; and it seems towards the close of the Median period to have + involved an obligation which must have been felt, if not as degrading, at + any rate as very disagreeable. The monarch appears to have been required + to send his eldest son as a sort of hostage to the Court of his superior, + where he was held in a species of honorable captivity, not being allowed + to quit the Court and return home without leave, but being otherwise well + treated. The fidelity of the father was probably supposed to be in this + way secured while it might be hoped that the son would be conciliated, and + made an attached and willing dependent. + </p> + <p> + When Persian history first fairly opens upon us in the pages of Xenophon + and of Nicolaus Damascenus, this is the condition of things which we find + existing. Cambyses, the father of Cyrus the Great—called Atradates + by the Syrian writer—is ruler of Persia, and resides in his native + country, while his son Cyrus is permanently, or at any rate usually, + resident at the Median Court, where he is in high favor with the reigning + monarch, Astyages. According to Xenophon, who has here the support of + Herodotus, he is Astyages’ grandson, his father, Cambyses, being married + to Mandane, that monarch’s daughter. According to Nicolaus, who in this + agrees with Ctesias, he is no way related to Astyages, who retains him at + his court because he is personally attached to him. In the narrative of + the latter writer, which has already been preferred in these volumes, the + young prince, while at the Court, conceives the idea of freeing his own + country by a revolt, and enters into secret communication with his father + for the furtherance of his object. His father somewhat reluctantly + assents, and preparations are made, which lead to the escape of Cyrus and + the commencement of a war of independence. The details of the struggle, as + they are related by Nicolaus, have been already given. After repeated + defeats, the Persians finally make a stand at Pasargadae, their capital, + where in two great battles they destroy the power of Astyages, who himself + remains a prisoner in the hands of his adversary. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the struggle the father of Cyrus had fallen, and its + close, therefore, presented Cyrus himself before the eyes of the Western + Asiatics as the undisputed lord of the great Arian Empire which had + established itself on the ruins of the Semitic. Transfers of sovereignty + are easily made in the East, where independence is little valued, and each + new conqueror is hailed with acclamations from millions. It mattered + nothing to the bulk of Astyages’ subjects whether they were ruled from + Ecbatana or Pasargadae, by Median or Persian masters. Fate had settled + that a single lord was to bear sway over the tribes and nations dwelling + between the Persian Gulf and the Euxine; and the arbitrament of the sword + had now decided that this single lord should be Cyrus. We may readily + believe the statement of Nicolaus that the nations previously subject to + the Medes vied with each other in the celerity and zeal with which they + made their submission to the Persian conqueror. Cyrus succeeded at once to + the full inheritance of which he had dispossessed Astyages, and was + recognized as king by all the tribes between the Halys and the desert of + Khorassan. + </p> + <p> + He was at this time, if we may trust Dino, exactly forty years of age, and + was thus at that happy period in life when the bodily powers have not yet + begun to decay, while the mental are just reaching their perfection. + Though we may not be able to trust implicitly the details of the war of + independence which have come down to us, yet there can be no doubt that he + had displayed in its course very remarkable courage and conduct. He had + intended, probably, no more than to free his country from the Median yoke; + by the force of circumstances he had been led on to the destruction of the + Median power, and to the establishment of a Persian Empire in its stead. + With empire had come an enormous accession of wealth. The accumulated + stores of ages, the riches of the Ninevite kings—the “gold,” the + “silver,” and the “pleasant furniture” of those mighty potentates, of + which there was “none end”—together with all the additions made to + these stores by the Median monarchs, had fallen into his hands, and from + comparative poverty he had come per saltum into the position of one of the + wealthiest—if not of the very wealthiest—of princes. An + ordinary Oriental would have been content with such a result, and have + declined to tempt fortune any more. But Cyrus was no ordinary Oriental. + Confident in his own powers, active, not to say restless, and of an + ambition that nothing could satiate, he viewed, the position which he had + won simply as a means of advancing himself to higher eminence. According + to Ctesias, he was scarcely seated upon the throne, when he led an + expedition to the far north-east against the renowned Bactrians and + Sacans; and at any rate, whether this be true or no—and most + probably it is an anticipation of later occurrences—it is certain + that, instead of folding his hands, Cyrus proceeded with scarcely a pause + on a long career of conquest, devoting his whole life to the carrying out + of his plans of aggression, and leaving a portion of his schemes, which + were too extensive for one life to realize, as a legacy to his successor. + The quarter to which he really first turned his attention seems to have + been the north-west. There, in the somewhat narrow but most fertile tract + between the river Halys and the Egean Sea, was a state which seemed likely + to give him trouble—a state which had successfully resisted all the + efforts of the Medes to reduce it, and which recently, under a warlike + prince, had shown a remarkable power of expansion. An instinct of danger + warned the scarce firmly-settled monarch to fix his eye at once upon + Lydia; in the wealthy and successful Croesus, the Lydian king, he saw one + whom dynastic interests might naturally lead to espouse the quarrel of the + conquered Mede, and whose power and personal qualities rendered him a + really formidable rival. + </p> + <p> + The Lydian monarch, on his side, did not scruple to challenge a contest. + The long strife which his father had waged with the great Cyaxares had + terminated in a close alliance, cemented by a marriage, which made Croesus + and Astyages brothers. The friendship of the great power of Western Asia, + secured by this union, had set Lydia free to pursue a policy of + self-aggrandizement in her own immediate, neighborhood. Rapidly, one after + another, the kingdoms of Asia Minor had been reduced; and, excepting the + mountain districts of Lycia and Cilicia, all Asia within the Halys now + owned the sway of the Lydian king. Contented with his successes, and + satisfied that the tie of relationship secured him from attack on the part + of the only power which he had need to fear, Croesus had for some years + given himself up to the enjoyment of his gains and to an ostentatious + display of his magnificence. It was a rude shock to the indolent and + self-complacent dreams of a sanguine optimism, which looked that + “to-morrow should be as to-day, only much more abundant,” when tidings + came that revolution had raised its head in the far south-east, and that + an energetic prince, in the full vigor of life, and untrammelled by + dynastic ties, had thrust the aged Astyages from his throne, and girt his + own brows with the Imperial diadem. Croesus, according to the story, was + still in deep grief on account of the untimely death of his eldest son, + when the intelligence reached him. Instantly rousing himself from his + despair, he set about his preparations for the struggle, which his + sagacity saw to be inevitable. After consultation of the oracles of + Greece, he allied himself with the Grecian community, which appeared to + him on the whole to be the most powerful. At the same time he sent + ambassadors to Babylon and Memphis, to the courts of Labynetus and Amasis, + with proposals for an alliance offensive and defensive between the three + secondary powers of the Eastern world against that leading power whose + superior strength and resources were felt to constitute a common danger. + His representations were effectual. The kings of Babylon and Egypt, alive + to their own peril, accepted his proposals; and a joint league was formed + between the three monarchs and the republic of Sparta for the purpose of + resisting the presumed aggressive spirit of the Medo-Persians. + </p> + <p> + Cyrus, meanwhile, was not idle. Suspecting that a weak point in his + adversary’s harness would be the disaffection of some of his more recently + conquered subjects, he sent emissaries into Asia Minor to sound the + dispositions of the natives. These emissaries particularly addressed + themselves to the Asiatic Greeks, who, coming of a freedom-loving stock, + and having been only very lately subdued, would it was thought, be likely + to catch at an opportunity of shaking off the yoke of their conqueror. + But, reasonable as such hopes must have seemed, they were in this instance + doomed to disappointment. The Ionians, instead of hailing Cyrus as a + liberator, received his overtures with suspicion. They probably thought + that they were sure not to gain, and that they might possibly lose, by a + change of masters. The yoke of Croesus had not, perhaps, been very + oppressive; at any rate it seemed to them preferable to “bear the ills + they had,” rather than “fly to others” which might turn out less + tolerable. + </p> + <p> + Disappointed in this quarter, the Persian prince directed his efforts to + the concentration of a large army, and its rapid advance into a position + where it would be excellently placed both for defence and attack. The + frontier province of Cappadocia, which was only separated from the + dominions of the Lydian monarch by a stream of moderate size, the Halys, + was a most defensible country, extremely fertile and productive, abounding + in natural fastnesses, and inhabited by a brave and warlike population. + Into this district Cyrus pushed forward his army with all speed, taking, + as it would seem, not the short route through Diarbekr, Malatiyah, and + Gurun, along which the “Royal Road” afterwards ran, but the more + circuitous one by Erzerum, which brought him into Northern Cappadocia, or + Pontus, as it was called by the Romans. Here, in a district named Pteria, + which cannot have been very far from the coast, he found his adversary, + who had crossed the Halys, and taken several Cappadocian towns, among + which was the chief city of the Pterians. Perceiving that his troops + considerably outnumbered those of Crcesus, he lost no time in giving him + battle. The action was fought in the Pterian country, and was stoutly + contested, terminating at nightfall without any decisive advantage to + either party. The next day neither side made any movement; and Crcesus, + concluding from his enemy’s inaction that, though he had not been able to + conquer him, he had nothing to fear from his desire of vengeance or his + spirit of enterprise, determined on a retreat. He laid the blame of his + failure, we are told, on the insufficient number of his troops, and + purposed to call for the contingents of his allies, and renew the war with + largely augmented forces in the ensuing spring. + </p> + <p> + Cyrus, on his part, allowed the Lydians to retire unmolested, thus + confirming his adversary in the mistaken estimate which he had formed of + Persian courage and daring. Anticipating the course which Croesus would + adopt under the circumstances, he kept his army well in hand, and, as soon + as the Lydians were clean gone, he crossed the Halys, and marched straight + upon Sardis. Croesus, deeming himself safe from molestation, had no sooner + reached his capital than he had dismissed the bulk of his troops to their + homes for the winter, merely giving them orders to return in the spring, + when he hoped to have received auxiliaries from Sparta, Babylon, and + Egypt. Left thus almost without defence, he suddenly heard that his + audacious foe had followed on his steps, had ventured into the heart of + his dominions, and was but a short distance from the capital. In this + crisis he showed a spirit well worthy of admiration. Putting himself at + the head of such an army of native Lydians as he could collect at a few + hours’ notice, he met the advancing foe in the rich plain a little to the + east of Sardis, and gave him battle immediately. It is possible that even + under these disadvantageous circumstances he might in fair fight have been + victorious, for the Lydian cavalry were at this time excellent, and + decidedly superior to the Persian. But Cyrus, aware of their merits, had + recourse to stratagem, and by forming his camels in front, so frightened + the Lydian horses that they fled from the field. The riders dismounted and + fought on foot, but their gallantry was unavailing. After a prolonged and + bloody combat the Lydian army was defeated, and forced to take refuge + behind the walls of the capital. + </p> + <p> + Croesus now in hot haste sent off fresh messengers to his allies, begging + them to come at once to his assistance. He had still a good hope of + maintaining himself till their arrival, for his city was defended by + walls, and was regarded by the natives as impregnable. An attempt to storm + the defences failed; and the siege must have been turned into a blockade + but for an accidental discovery. A Persian soldier had approached to + reconnoitre the citadel on the side where it was strongest by nature, and + therefore guarded with least care, when he observed one of the garrison + descend the rock after his helmet, which had fallen from his head, pick it + up, and return with it. Being an expert climber, he attempted the track + thus pointed out to him, and succeeded in reaching the summit. Several of + his comrades followed in his steps; the citadel was surprised, and the + town taken and plundered. + </p> + <p> + Thus fell the greatest city of Asia Minor after a siege of fourteen days. + The Lydian monarch, it is said, narrowly escaped with his life from the + confusion of the sack; but, being fortunately recognized in time, was made + prisoner, and brought before Cyrus. Cyrus at first treated him with some + harshness, but soon relented, and, with that clemency which was a common + characteristic of the earlier Persian kings, assigned him a territory for + his maintenance, and gave him an honorable position at Court, where he + passed at least thirty years, in high favor, first with Cyrus, and then + with Cambyses. Lydia itself was absorbed at once into the Persian Empire, + together with most of its dependencies, which submitted as soon as the + fall of Sardis was known. There still, however, remained a certain amount + of subjugation to be effected. The Greeks of the coast, who had offended + the Great King by their refusal of his overtures, were not to be allowed + to pass quietly into the condition of tributaries; and there were certain + native races in the south-western corner of Asia Minor which declined to + submit without a struggle to the new conqueror. But these matters were not + regarded by Cyrus as of sufficient importance to require his own personal + superintendence. Having remained at Sardis for a few weeks, during which + time he received an insulting message from Sparta, whereto he made a + menacing reply, and having arranged for the government of the + newly-conquered province and the transmission of its treasures to + Ecbatana, he quitted Lydia for the interior, taking Croesus with him, and + proceeded towards the Median capital. He was bent on prosecuting without + delay his schemes of conquest in other quarters—schemes of a + grandeur and a comprehensiveness unknown to any previous monarch. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely, however, was he departed when Sardis became the scene of an + insurrection. Pactyas, a Lydian, who had been entrusted with the duty of + conveying the treasures of Croesus and his more wealthy subjects to + Ecbatana, revolted against Tabalus, the Persian commandant of the town, + and being joined by the native population and numerous mercenaries, + principally Greeks, whom he hired with the treasure that was in his hands, + made himself master of Sardis, and besieged Tabalus in the citadel. The + news reached Cyrus while he was upon his march; but, estimating the degree + of its importance aright, he did not suffer it to interfere with his + plans. He judged it enough to send a general with a strong body of troops + to put down the revolt, and continued his own journey eastward. Mazares, a + Mede, was the officer selected for the service. On arriving before Sardis, + he found that Pactyas had relinquished his enterprise and fled to the + coast, and that the revolt was consequently at an end. It only remained to + exact vengeance. The rebellious Lydians were disarmed. Pactyas was pursued + with unrelenting hostility, and demanded, in succession, of the Cymaeans, + the Mytilenseans, and the Chians, of whom the last-mentioned surrendered + him. The Greek cities which had furnished Pactyas with auxiliaries were + then attacked, and the inhabitants of the first which fell, Priene, were + one and all sold as slaves. + </p> + <p> + Mazares soon afterwards died, and was succeeded by Ha-pagus, another Mede, + who adopted a somewhat milder policy towards the unfortunate Greeks. + Besieging their cities one by one, and taking them by means of banks or + mounds piled up against the walls, he, in some instances, connived at the + inhabitants escaping in their ships, while, in others, he allowed them to + take up the ordinary position of Persian subjects, liable to tribute and + military service, but not otherwise molested. So little irksome were such + terms to the Ionians of this period that even those who dwelt in the + islands off the coast, with the single exception of the Samians—though + they ran no risk of subjugation, since the Persians did not possess a + fleet—accepted voluntarily the same position, and enrolled + themselves among the subjects of Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + One Greek continental town alone suffered nothing during this time of + trouble. When Cyrus refused the offers of submission, which reached him + from the Ionian and AEolian Greeks after his capture of Sardis, he made an + exception in favor of Miletus, the most important of all the Grecian + cities in Asia. Prudence, it is probable, rather than clemency, dictated + this course, since to detach from the Grecian cause the most powerful and + influential of the states was the readiest way of weakening the resistance + they would be able to make. Miletus singly had defied the arms of four + successive Lydian kings, and had only succumbed at last to the efforts of + the fifth, Croesus. If her submission had been now rejected, and she had + been obliged to take counsel of her despair, the struggle between the + Greek cities and the Persian generals might have assumed a different + character. + </p> + <p> + Still more different might have been the result, if the cities generally + had had the wisdom to follow a piece of advice which the great philosopher + and statesman of the time, Thales, the Milesian, is said to have given + them. Thales suggested that the Ionians should form themselves into a + confederation, to be governed by a congress which should meet at Teos, the + several cities retaining their own laws and internal independence, but + being united for military purposes into a single community. Judged by the + light which later events, the great Ionian revolt especially, throw upon + it, this advice is seen to have been of the greatest importance. It is + difficult to say what check, or even reverse, the arms of Persia might not + have at this time sustained, if the spirit of Thales had animated his + Asiatic countrymen generally; if the loose Ionic Amphictyony, which in + reality left each state in the hour of danger to its own resources, had + been superseded by a true federal union, and the combined efforts of the + thirteen Ionian communities had been directed to a steady resistance of + Persian aggression and a determined maintenance of their own independence. + Mazares and Harpagus would almost certainly have been baffled, and the + Great King himself would probably have been called off from his eastern + conquests to undertake in person a task which after all he might have + failed to accomplish. + </p> + <p> + The fall of the last Ionian town left Harpagus free to turn his attention + to the tribes of the south-west which had not yet made their submission—the + Carians, the Dorian Greeks, the Caunians, and the people of Lycia. + Impressing the services of the newly-conquered Ionians and AEolians, he + marched first against Caria, which offered but a feeble resistance. The + Dorians of the continent, Myndians, Halicarnassians, and Cnidians. + submitted still more tamely, without any struggle at all; but the Caunians + and Lycians showed a different spirit. These tribes, which were ethnically + allied, and of a very peculiar type, had never yet, it would seem, been + subdued by any conqueror. Prizing highly the liberty they had enjoyed so + long, they defended themselves with desperation. When they were defeated + in the field they shut themselves up within the walls of their chief + cities, Caunus and Xanthus, where, finding resistance impossible, they set + fire to the two places with their own hands, burned their wives, children, + slaves, and valuables, and then sallying forth, sword in hand, fell on the + besiegers’ lines, and fought till they were all slain. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Cyrus was pursuing a career of conquest in the far east. It was + now, according to Herodotus, who is, beyond all question, a better + authority than Ctesias for the reign of Cyrus, that the reduction of the + Bactrians and the Sacans, the chief nations of what is called by moderns + Central Asia, took place. Bactria was a country which enjoyed the + reputation of having been great and glorious at a very early date. In one + of the most ancient portions of the Zendavesta it was celebrated as + “Bahhdi eredhwo-drafsha,” or “Bactria” with the lofty banner; and + traditions not wholly to be despised made it the native country of + Zoroaster. There is good reason to believe that, up to the date of Cyras, + it had maintained its independence, or at any rate that it had been + untouched by the great monarchies which for above seven hundred years had + borne sway in the western parts of Asia. Its people were of the Iranic + stock, and retained in their remote and somewhat savage country the simple + and primitive habits of the race. Though their arms were of indifferent + character, they were among the best soldiers to be found in the East, and + always showed themselves a formidable enemy. According to Ctesias, when + Cyrus invaded them, they fought a pitched battle with his army, in which + the victory was with neither party. They were not, he said, reduced by + force of arms at all, but submitted voluntarily when they found that Cyrus + had married a Median princess. Herodotus, on the contrary, seems to + include the Bactrians among the nations which Cyrus subdued, and + probability is strongly in favor of this view of the matter. So warlike a + nation is not likely to have submitted unless to force; nor is there any + ground to believe that a Median marriage, had Cyrus contracted one, would + have made him any the more acceptable to the Bactrians. + </p> + <p> + On the conquest of Bactria followed, we may be tolerably sure, an attack + upon the Sacae. This people, who must certainly have bordered on the + Bactrians, dwelt probably either on the Pamir Steppe, or on the high plain + of Chinese Tartary, east of the Bolar range—the modern districts of + Kashgar and Yarkand. They were reckoned excellent soldiers. They fought + with the bow, the dagger, and the battle-axe, and were equally formidable + on horseback and on foot. In race they were probably Tatars or Turanians, + and their descendants or their congeners are to be seen in the modern + inhabitants of these regions. According to Ctesias, their women took the + field in almost equal numbers with their men; and the mixed army which + resisted Cyrus amounted, including both sexes, to half a million. The king + who commanded them was a certain Amorges, who was married to a wife called + Sparethra. In an engagement with the Persians he fell into the enemy’s + hands, whereupon Sparethra put herself at the head of the Sacan forces, + defeated Cyrus, and took so many prisoners of importance that the Persian + monarch was glad to release Amorges in exchange for them. The Sacse, + however, notwithstanding this success, were reduced, and became subjects + and tributaries of Persia. + </p> + <p> + Among other countries subdued by Cyrus in this neighborhood, probably + about the same period, may be named Hyrcania, Parthia, Chorasmia, + Sogdiana, Aria (or Herat), Drangiana, Arachosia, Sattagydia, and Gandaria. + The brief epitome which we possess of Ctesias omits to make any mention of + these minor conquests, while Herodotus sums them all up in a single line; + but there is reason to believe that the Cnidian historian gave a + methodized account of their accomplishment, of which scattered notices + have come down to us in various writers. Arrian relates that there was a + city called Cyropolis, situated on the Jaxartes, a place of great strength + defended by very lofty walls, which had been founded by the Great Cyrus. + This city belonged to Sogdiana. Pliny states that Capisa, the chief city + of Capisene, which lay not far from the upper Indus, was destroyed by + Cyrus. This place is probably Kafshan, a little to the north of Kabul. + Several authors tell us that the Ariaspse, a people of Drangiana, assisted + Cyrus with provisions when he was warring in their neighborhood, and + received from him in return a new name, which the Greeks rendered by + “Euergetse”—“Benefactors.” The Ariaspae must have dwelt near the + Hamoon, or Lake of Seistan. We have thus traces of the conqueror’s + presence in the extreme north on the Jaxartes, in the extreme east in + Affghanistan, and towards the south as far as Seistan and the Helmend; nor + can there be any reasonable doubt that he overran and reduced to + subjection the whole of that vast tract which lies between the Caspian on + the west, the Indus valley and the desert of Tartary towards the east, the + Jaxartes or Sir Deria on the north, and towards the south the Great + Deserts of Seistan and Khorassan. + </p> + <p> + More uncertainty attaches to the reduction of the tract lying south of + these deserts. Tradition said that Cyrus had once penetrated into Gedrosia + on an expedition against the Indians, and had lost his entire army in the + waterless and trackless desert; but there is no evidence at all that he + reduced the country. It appears to have been a portion of the Empire in + the reign of Darius Hystaspis, but whether that monarch, or Cambyses, or + the great founder of the Persian power conquered it, cannot at present be + determined. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of the vast tract lying between the Caspian and the Indus, + inhabited (as it was) by a numerous, valiant, and freedom-loving + population, may well have occupied Cyrus for thirteen or fourteen years. + Alexander the Great spent in the reduction of this region, after the + inhabitants had in a great measure lost their warlike qualities, as much + as five years, or half the time occupied by his whole series of conquests. + Cyrus could not have ventured on prosecuting his enterprises, as did the + Macedonian prince, continuously and without interruption, marching + straight from one country to another without once revisiting his capital. + He must from time to time have returned to Ecbatana or Pasargadae; and it + is on the whole most probable that, like the Assyrian monarchs, he marched + out from home on a fresh expedition almost every year. Thus it need cause + us no surprise that fourteen years were consumed in the subjugation of the + tribes and nations beyond the Iranic desert to the north and the + north-east, and that it was not till B.C. 539, when he was nearly sixty + years of age, that the Persian monarch felt himself free to turn his + attention to the great kingdom of the south. + </p> + <p> + The expedition of Cyrus against Babylon has been described already. Its + success added to the Empire the rich and valuable provinces of Babylonia, + Susiana, Syria, and Palestine, thus augmenting its size by about 240,000 + or 250,000 square miles. Far more important, however, than this + geographical increase was the removal of the last formidable rival—the + complete destruction of a power which represented to the Asiatics the old + Semitic civilization, which with reason claimed to be the heir and the + successor of Assyria, and had a history stretching back for a space of + nearly two thousand years. So long as Babylon, “the glory of kingdoms,” + “the praise of the whole earth,” retained her independence, with her vast + buildings, her prestige of antiquity, her wealth, her learning, her + ancient and grand religious system, she could scarcely fail to be in the + eyes of her neighbors the first power in the world, if not in mere + strength, yet in honor, dignity, and reputation. Haughty and contemptuous + herself to the very last, she naturally imposed on men’s minds, alike by + her past history and her present pretensions; nor was it possible for the + Persian monarch to feel that he stood before his subjects as indisputably + the foremost man upon the earth until he had humbled in the dust the pride + and arrogance of Babylon. But, with the fall of the Great City, the whole + fabric of Semetic greatness was shattered. Babylon became “an astonishment + and a hissing”—all her prestige vanished—and Persia stepped + manifestly into the place, which Assyria had occupied for so many + centuries, of absolute and unrivalled mistress of Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + The fall of Babylon was also the fall of an ancient, widely spread, and + deeply venerated religious system. Not of course, that the religion + suddenly disappeared or ceased to have votaries, but that, from a dominant + system, supported by all the resources of the state, and enforced by the + civil power over a wide extent of territory, it became simply one of many + tolerated beliefs, exposed to frequent rebuffs and insults, and at all + times overshadowed by a new and rival system—the comparatively pure + creed of Zoroastrianism, The conquest of Babylon by Persia was, + practically, if not a death-blow, at least a severe wound, to that + sensuous idol-worship which had for more than twenty centuries been the + almost universal religion in the countries between the Mediterranean and + the Zagros mountain range. The religion never recovered itself—was + never reinstated. It survived, a longer or a shorter time, in places. To a + slight extent it corrupted Zoroastrianism; but, on the whole, from the + date of the fall of Babylon it declined. “Bel bowed down; Nebo stooped;” + “Merodach was broken in pieces.” Judgment was done upon the Babylonian + graven images; and the system, of which they formed a necessary part, + having once fallen from its proud pre-eminence, gradually decayed and + vanished. + </p> + <p> + Parallel with the decline of the old Semitic idolatry was the advance of + its direct antithesis, pure spiritual Monotheism. The same blow which laid + the Babylonian religion in the dust struck off the fetters from Judaism. + Purified and refined by the precious discipline of adversity, the Jewish + system, which Cyrus, feeling towards it a natural sympathy, protected, + upheld, and replaced in its proper locality, advanced from this time in + influence and importance, leavening little by little the foul mass of + superstition and impurity which came in contact with it. Proselytism grew + more common. The Jews spread themselves wider. The return from, the + captivity, which Cyrus authorized almost immediately after the capture of + Babylon, is the starting point from which we may trace a gradual + enlightenment of the heathen world by the dissemination of Jewish beliefs + and practices—such dissemination being greatly helped by the high + estimation in which the Jewish system was held by the civil authority, + both while the empire of the Persians lasted, and when power passed to the + Macedonians. + </p> + <p> + On the fall of Babylon its dependencies seem to have submitted to the + conqueror, with a single exception. Phoenicia, which had never acquiesced + contentedly either in Assyrian or in Babylonian rule, saw, apparently, in + the fresh convulsion that was now shaking the East, an opportunity for + recovering autonomy. It was nearly half a century since her last struggle + to free herself had terminated unsuccessfully. A new generation had grown + up since that time—a generation which had seen nothing of war, and + imperfectly appreciated its perils. Perhaps some reliance was placed on + the countenance and support of Egypt, which, it must have been felt, would + view with satisfaction any obstacle to the advance of a power wherewith + she was sure, sooner or later, to come into collision. At any rate, it was + resolved to make the venture. Phoenicia, on the destruction of her distant + suzerain, quietly resumed her freedom; abstained from making any act of + submission to the conqueror; while, however, at the same time, she + established friendly relations for commercial purposes with one of the + conqueror’s vassals, the prince who had been sent into Palestine to + re-establish the Jews at Jerusalem. + </p> + <p> + It might have been expected that Cyrus, after his conquest of Babylon, + would have immediately proceeded towards the south-west. The reduction of + Egypt had, according to Herodotus, been embraced in the designs which he + formed fifteen years earlier. The non-submission of Phoenicia must have + been regarded as an act of defiance which deserved signal chastisement. It + has been suspected that the restoration of the Jews was prompted, at least + in part, by political motives, and that Cyrus, when he re-established them + in their country, looked to finding them of use to him in the attack which + he was meditating upon Egypt. At any rate it is evident that their + presence would have facilitated his march through Palestine, and given him + a <i>point d’appui</i>, which could not but have been of value. These + considerations make it probable that an Egyptian expedition would have + been determined on, had not circumstances occurred to prevent it. + </p> + <p> + What the exact circumstances were, it is impossible to determine. + According to Herodotus, a sudden desire seized Cyrus to attack the + Massagetae, who bordered his Empire to the north-east. He led his troops + across the Araxes (Jaxartes?), defeated the Massagetae by stratagem in a + great battle, but was afterwards himself defeated and slain, his body + falling into the enemy’s hands, who treated it with gross indignity. + According to Ctesias, the people against whom he made his expedition were + the Derbices, a nation bordering upon India, Assisted by Indian allies, + who lent them a number of elephants, this people engaged Cyrus, and + defeated him in a battle, wherein he received a mortal wound. Reinforced, + however, by a body of Sacae, the Persians renewed the struggle, and gained + a complete victory, which was followed by the submission of the nation. + Cyrus, however, died of his wound on the third day after the first battle. + </p> + <p> + This conflict of testimony clouds with uncertainty the entire closing + scene of the life of Cyrus. All that we can lay down as tolerably well + established is, that instead of carrying out his designs against Egypt, he + engaged in hostilities with one of the nations on his north-eastern + frontier, that he conducted the war with less than his usual success, and + in the course of it received a wound of which he died (B.C. 529), after he + had reigned nine-and-twenty years. That his body did not fall into the + enemy’s hands appears, however, to be certain from the fact that it was + conveyed into Persia Proper, and buried at Pasargadae. + </p> + <p> + It may be suspected that this expedition, which proved so disastrous to + the Persian monarch, was not the mere wanton act which it appears to be in + the pages of our authorities. The nations of the north-east were at all + times turbulent and irritable, with difficulty held in check by the + civilized power that bore rule in the south and west. The expedition of + Cyrus, whether directed against the Massagetae or the Derbices, was + probably intended to strike terror into the barbarians of these regions, + and was analogous to those invasions which were undertaken under the + wisest of the Roman Emperors, across the Rhine and Danube, against + Germans, Goths, and Sarmatae. The object of such inroads was not to + conquer, but to alarm—it was hoped by an imposing display of + organized military force to deter the undisciplined hordes of the prolific + North from venturing across the frontier and carrying desolation through + large tracts of the Empire. Defensive warfare has often an aggressive + look. It may have been solely with the object of protecting his own + territories from attack that Cyrus made his last expedition across the + Jaxertes, or towards the upper Indus. + </p> + <p> + The character of Cyrus, as represented to us by the Greeks, is the most + favorable that we possess of any early Oriental monarch. Active, + energetic, brave, fertile in stratagems, he has all the qualities required + to form a successful military chief. He conciliates his people by friendly + and familiar treatment, but declines to spoil them by yielding to their + inclinations when they are adverse to their true interests. He has a ready + humor, which shows itself in smart sayings and repartees, that take + occasionally the favorite Oriental turn of parable or apologue. He is mild + in his treatment of the prisoners that fall into his hands, and ready to + forgive even the heinous crime of rebellion. He has none of the pride of + the ordinary eastern despot, but converses on terms of equality with those + about him. We cannot be surprised that the Persians, contrasting him with + their later monarchs, held his memory in the highest veneration, and were + even led by their affection for his person to make his type of countenance + their standard of physical beauty. + </p> + <p> + The genius of Cyrus was essentially that of a conqueror, not of an + administrator. There is no trace of his having adopted anything like a + uniform system for the government of the provinces which he subdued. In + Lydia he set up a Persian governor, but assigned certain important + functions to a native; in Babylon he gave the entire direction of affairs + into the hands of a Mede, to whom he allowed the title and style of king; + in Judaea he appointed a native, but made him merely “governor” or + “deputy;” in Sacia he maintained as tributary king the monarch who had + resisted his arms. Policy may have dictated the course pursued in each + instance, which may have been suited to the condition of the several + provinces; but the variety allowed was fatal to consolidation, and the + monarchy, as Cyrus left it, had as little cohesion as any of those by + which it was preceded. + </p> + <p> + Though originally a rude mountain-chief, Cyrus, after he succeeded to + empire, showed himself quite able to appreciate the dignity and value of + art. In his constructions at Pasargadae he combined massiveness with + elegance, and manifested a taste at once simple and refined. He ornamented + his buildings with reliefs of an ideal character. It is probably to him + that we owe the conception of the light tapering stone shaft, which is the + glory of Persian architecture. If the more massive of the Persepolitan + buildings are to be ascribed to him, we must regard him as haying fixed + the whole plan and arrangement which was afterwards followed in all + Persian palatial edifices. + </p> + <p> + In his domestic affairs Cyrus appears to have shown the same moderation + and simplicity which we observe in his general conduct. He married, as it + would seem, one wife only, Cassandane, the daughter of Pharnaspes, who was + a member of the royal family. By her he had issue two sons and at least + three daughters. The sons were Cambyses and Smerdis; the daughters Atossa, + Artystone, and one whose name is unknown to us. Cassandane died before her + husband, and was deeply mourned by him. Shortly before his own death he + took the precaution formally to settle the succession. Leaving the general + inheritance of his vast dominions to his elder son, Cambyses, he declared + it to be his will that the younger should be entrusted with the actual + government of several large and important provinces. He thought by this + plan to secure the well-being of both the youths, never suspecting that he + was in reality consigning both to untimely ends, and even preparing the + way for an extraordinary revolution. + </p> + <p> + The ill effect of the unfortunate arrangement thus made appeared almost + immediately. Cambyses was scarcely settled upon the throne before he grew + jealous of his brother, and ordered him to be privately put to death. His + cruel orders were obeyed, and with so much secrecy that neither the mode + of the death, nor even the fact, was known to more than a few. Smerdis was + generally believed to be still alive; and thus an opportunity was + presented for personation—a form of imposture very congenial to + Orientals, and one which has often had very disastrous consequences. We + shall find in the sequel this opportunity embraced, and results follow of + a most stirring and exciting character. + </p> + <p> + It required time, however, to bring to maturity the fruits of the crime so + rashly committed. Cambyses, in the meanwhile, quite unconscious of danger, + turned his attention to military matters, and determined on endeavoring to + complete his father’s scheme of conquest by the reduction of Egypt. + Desirous of obtaining a ground of quarrel less antiquated than the + alliance, a quarter of a century earlier, between Amasis and Croesus, he + demanded that a daughter of the Egyptian king should be sent to him as a + secondary wife. Amasis, too timid to refuse, sent a damsel named Nitetis, + who was not his daughter; and she, soon after her arrival, made Cambyses + acquainted with the fraud. A ground of quarrel was thus secured, which + might be put forward when it suited his purpose; and meanwhile every nerve + was being strained to prepare effectually for the expedition. The + difficulty of a war with Egypt lay in her inaccessibility. She was + protected on all sides by seas or deserts; and, for a successful advance + upon her from the direction of Asia, it was desirable both to obtain a + quiet passage for a large army through the desert of El-Tij, and also to + have the support of a powerful fleet in the Mediterranean. This latter was + the paramount consideration. An army well supplied with camels might carry + its provisions and water through the desert, and might intimidate or + overpower the few Arab tribes which inhabited it; but, unless the command + of the sea was gained and the navigation of the Nile closed, Memphis might + successfully resist attack. Cambyses appears to have perceived with + sufficient clearness the conditions on which victory depended, and to have + applied himself at once to securing them. He made a treaty with the Arab + Sheikh who had the chief influence over the tribes of the desert; and at + the same time he set to work to procure the services of a powerful naval + force. By menaces or negotiations he prevailed upon the Phoenicians to + submit themselves to his yoke, and having thus obtained a fleet superior + to that of Egypt, he commenced hostilities by robbing her of a dependency + which possessed considerable naval strength, in this way still further + increasing the disparity between his own fleet and that of his enemy. + Against the combined ships of Phoenicia, Cyprus, Ionia, and AEolis, Egypt + was powerless, and her fleets seem to have quietly yielded the command of + the sea. Cambyses was thus able to give his army the support of a naval + force, as it marched along the coast, from Carmel probably to Pelusium; + and when, having defeated the Egyptians at the last-named place, he + proceeded against Memphis, he was able to take possession of the Nile, and + to blockade the Egyptian capital both by land and water. + </p> + <p> + It appears that four years were consumed by the Persian monarch in his + preparations for his Egyptian expedition. It was not until B.C. 525 that + he entered Egypt at the head of his troops, and fought the great battle + which decided the fate of the country. The struggle was long and bloody. + Psammenitus, who had succeeded his father Amasis, had the services, not + only of his Egyptian subjects, but a large body of mercenaries besides, + Greeks and Carians. These allies were zealous in his cause, and are said + to have given him a horrible proof of their attachment. One of their body + had deserted to the Persians some little time before the expedition, and + was believed to have given important advice to the invader. He had left + his children behind in Egypt; and these his former comrades now seized, + and led out in front of their lines, where they slew them before their + father’s eyes, and, having so done, mixed their blood in a bowl with water + and wine, and drank, one and all, of the mixture. The battle followed + immediately after; but, in spite of their courage and fanaticism, the + Egyptian army was completely defeated. According to Ctesias, fifty + thousand fell on the vanquished side, while the victors lost no more than + seven thousand. Psammenitus, after his defeat, threw himself into Memphis, + but, being blockaded by land and prevented from receiving supplies from + the sea, after a stout resistance, he surrendered. The captive monarch + received the respectful treatment which Persian clemency usually accorded + to fallen sovereigns. Herodotus even goes so far as to intimate that, if + he had abstained from conspiracy, he would probably have been allowed to + continue ruler of Egypt, exchanging, of course, his independent + sovereignty for a delegated kingship held at the pleasure of the Lord of + Asia. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Egypt was immediately followed by the submission of the + neighboring tribes. The Libyans of the desert tract which borders the Nile + valley to the west, and even the Greeks of the more remote Barca and + Cyrene, sent gifts to the conqueror and consented to become his + tributaries. But Cambyses placed little value on such petty accessions to + his power. Inheriting the grandeur of view which had characterized his + father, he was no sooner master of Egypt than he conceived the idea of a + magnificent series of conquests in this quarter, whereby he hoped to + become Lord of Africa no less than of Asia, or at any rate to leave + himself without a rival of any importance on the vast continent which his + victorious arms had now opened to him. Apart from Egypt, Africa possessed + but two powers capable, by their political organization and their military + strength, of offering him serious resistance. These were Ethiopia and + Carthage—the one the great power of the South, the equal, if not + even the superior, of Egypt—the other the great power of the West—remote, + little known, but looming larger for, the obscurity in which she was + shrouded, and attractive from her reputed wealth. The views of Cambyses + comprised the reduction of both these powers, and also the conquest of the + oasis of Ammon. As a good Zoroastrian, he was naturally anxious to exhibit + the superiority of Ormazd to all the “gods of the nations;” and, as the + temple of Ammon in the oasis had the greatest repute of all the African + shrines, this design would be best accomplished by its pillage and + destruction. It is probable that he further looked to the subjugation of + all the tribes on the north coast between the Nile valley and the + Carthaginian territory; for he would undoubtedly have sent an army along + the shore to act in concert with his fleet, had he decided ultimately on + making the expedition. An unexpected obstacle, however, arose to prevent + him. The Phoenicians, who formed the main strength of his navy, declined + to take any part in an attack on Carthage, since the Carthaginians were + their colonists, and the relations between the two people had always been + friendly. Cambyses did not like to force their inclinations, on account of + their recent voluntary submission; and as, without their aid, his navy was + manifestly unequal to the proposed service, he felt obliged to desist from + the undertaking. + </p> + <p> + While the Carthaginian scheme was thus nipped in the bud, the enterprises + which Cambyses attempted to carry out led to nothing but disaster. An + army, fifty thousand strong, despatched from Thebes against Ammon, + perished to a man amid the sands of the Libyan desert. A still more + numerous force, led by Cambyses himself towards the Ethiopian frontier, + found itself short of supplies on its march across Nubia, and was forced + to return, without glory, after suffering considerable loss. It became + evident that the abilities of the Persian monarch were not equal to his + ambition—that he insufficiently appreciated the difficulties and + dangers of enterprises—while a fatal obstinacy prevented him from + acknowledging and retrieving an error while retrieval was possible. The + Persians, we may be sure, grew dispirited under such a leader; and the + Egyptians naturally took heart. It seems to have been shortly after the + return of Cambyses from his abortive expedition against Ethiopia that + symptoms of an intention to revolt began to manifest themselves in Egypt. + The priests declared an incarnation of Apis, and the whole country burst + out into rejoicings. It was probably now that Psammenitus, who had + hitherto been kindly treated by his captor, was detected in treasonable + intrigues, condemned to death, and executed. At the same time, the native + officers who had been left in charge of the city of Memphis were + apprehended and capitally punished. Such stringent measures had all the + effect that was expected from them; they wholly crushed the nascent + rebellion; they left, however, behind them a soreness, felt alike by the + conqueror and the conquered, which prevented the establishment of a good + understanding between the Great King and his new subjects. Cambyses knew + that he had been severe, and that his severity had made him many enemies; + he suspected the people, and still more suspected the priests, their + natural leaders; he soon persuaded himself that policy required in Egypt a + departure from the principles of toleration which were ordinarily observed + towards their subjects by the Persians, and a sustained effort on the part + of the civil power to bring the religion, and its priests, into contempt. + Accordingly, he commenced a serious of acts calculated to have this + effect. He stabbed the sacred calf, believed to be incarnate Apis; he + ordered the body of priests who had the animal in charge to be publicly + scourged; he stopped the Apis festival by making participation in it a + capital offence; he opened the receptacles of the dead, and curiously + examined the bodies contained in them, he intruded himself into the chief + sanctuary at Memphis, and publicly scoffed at the grotesque image of + Phtha; finally, not content with outraging in the same way the inviolable + temple of the Cabeiri, he wound up his insults by ordering that their + images should be burnt. These injuries and indignities rankled in the + minds of the Egyptians, and probably had a large share in producing that + bitter hatred of the Persian yoke which shows itself in the later history + on so many occasions; but for the time the policy was successful: crushed + beneath the iron heel of the conqueror—their faith in the power of + their gods shaken, their spirits cowed, their hopes shattered—the + Egyptian subjects of Cambyses made up their minds to submission. The + Oriental will generally kiss the hand that smites him, if it only smite + hard enough. Egypt became now for a full generation the obsequious slave + of Persia, and gave no more trouble to her subjugator than the weakest or + the most contented of the provinces. + </p> + <p> + The work of subjection completed, Cambyses, having been absent from his + capital longer than was at all prudent, prepared to return home. He had + proceeded on his way as far as Syria, when intelligence reached him of a + most unexpected nature. A herald suddenly entered his camp and proclaimed, + in the hearing of the whole army, that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, had ceased + to reign, and that the allegiance of all Persian subjects was henceforth + to be paid to Smerdis, son of Cyrus. At first, it is said, Cambyses + thought that his instrument had played him false, and that his brother was + alive and had actually seized the throne; but the assurances of the + suspected person, and a suggestion which he made, convinced him of the + contrary, and gave him a clue to the real solution of the mystery. + Prexaspes, the nobleman inculpated, knew that the so-called Smerdis must + be an impostor, and suggested his identity with a certain Magus, whose + brother had been intrusted by Cambyses with the general direction of his + household and the care of the palace. He was probably led to make the + suggestion by his knowledge of the resemblance borne by this person to the + murdered prince, which was sufficiently close to make personation + possible. Cambyses was thus enabled to appreciate the gravity of the + crisis, and to consider whether he could successfully contend with it or + no. Apparently, he decided in the negative. Believing that he could not + triumph over the conspiracy which had decreed his downfall, and unwilling + to descend to a private station—perhaps even uncertain whether his + enemies would spare his life—he resolved to fly to the last refuge + of a dethroned king, and to end all by suicide. Drawing his short sword + from its sheath, he gave himself a wound, of which he died in a few days. + </p> + <p> + It is certainly surprising that the king formed this resolution. He was at + the head of an army, returning from an expedition, which, if not wholly + successful, had at any rate added to the empire an important province. His + father’s name was a tower of strength; and if he could only have exposed + the imposture that had been practised on them, he might have counted + confidently on rallying the great mass of the Persians to his cause. How + was it that he did not advance on the capital, and at least strike one + blow for empire? No clear and decided response can be made to this + inquiry; but we may indistinctly discern a number of causes which may have + combined to produce in the monarch’s mind the feeling of despondency + whereto he gave way. Although he returned from Egypt a substantial + conqueror, his laurel wreath was tarnished by ill-success; his army, + weakened by its losses, and dispirited by its failures, was out of heart; + it had no trust in his capacity as a commander, and could not be expected + to fight with enthusiasm on his behalf. There is also reason to believe + that he was generally unpopular on account of his haughty and tyrannical + temper, and his contempt of law and usage, where they interfered with the + gratification of his desires. Though we should do wrong to accept as true + all the crimes laid to his charge by the Egyptians, who detested his + memory, we cannot doubt the fact of his incestuous marriage with his + sister, Atossa, which was wholly repugnant to the religious feelings of + his nation. Nor can we well imagine that there was no foundation at all + for the stories of the escape of Croesus, the murder of the son of + Prexaspes, and the execution in Egypt on a trivial charge of twelve noble + Persians. His own people called Cambyses a “despot” or “master,” in + contrast with Cyrus, whom they regarded as a “father,” because, as + Herodotus says, he was “harsh and reckless,” whereas his father was mild + and beneficent. Further, there was the religious aspect of the revolution, + which had taken place, in the background. Cambyses may have known that in + the ranks of his army there was much sympathy with Magism, and may have + doubted whether, if the whole conspiracy were laid bare, he could count on + anything like a general adhesion of his troops to the Zoroastrian cause. + These various grounds, taken together, go far towards accounting for a + suicide which at first sight strikes us as extraordinary, and is indeed + almost unparalleled. + </p> + <p> + Of the general character of Cambyses little more need be said. He was + brave, active, and energetic, like his father: but he lacked his father’s + strategic genius, his prudence, and his fertility in resources. Born in + the purple, he was proud and haughty, careless of the feelings of others, + and impatient of admonition or remonstrance. His pride made him obstinate + in error; and his contempt of others led on naturally to harshness, and + perhaps even to cruelty. He is accused of “habitual drunkenness,” and was + probably not free from the intemperance which was a common Persian + failing; but there is not sufficient ground for believing that his + indulgence was excessive, much less that it proceeded to the extent of + affecting his reason. The “madness of Cambyses,” reported to and believed + in by Herodotus, was a fiction of the Egyptian priests, who wished it to + be thought that their gods had in this way punished his impiety. The + Persians had no such tradition, but merely regarded him as unduly severe + and selfish. A dispassionate consideration of all the evidence on the + subject leads to the conclusion that Cambyses lived and died in the + possession of his reason, having neither destroyed it through inebriety + nor lost it by the judgment of Heaven. + </p> + <p> + The death of Cambyses (B.C. 522) left the conspirators, who had possession + of the capital, at liberty to develop their projects, and to take such + steps as they thought best for the consolidation and perpetuation of their + power. The position which they occupied was one of peculiar delicacy. On + the one hand, the impostor had to guard against acting in any way which + would throw suspicion on his being really Smerdis, the son of Cyrus. On + the other, he had to satisfy the Magian priests, to whom he was well + known, and on whom he mainly depended for support, if his imposture should + be detected. These priests must have desired a change of the national + religion, and to effect this must have been the true aim and object of the + revolution. But it was necessary to proceed with the utmost caution. An + open proclamation that Magism was to supersede Zoroastrianism would have + seemed a strange act in an Achaemenian prince, and could scarcely have + failed to arouse doubts which might easily terminate in discovery. The + Magian brothers shrank from affronting this peril, and resolved, before + approaching it, to obtain for the new government an amount of general + popularity which would make its overthrow in fair fight difficult. + Accordingly the new reign was inaugurated by a general remission of + tribute and military service for the space of three years—a measure + which was certain to give satisfaction to all the tribes and nations of + the Empire, except the Persians. Persia Proper was at all times exempt + from tribute, and was thus, so far, unaffected by the boon granted, while + military service was no doubt popular with the ruling nation, for whose + benefit the various conquests were effected. Still Persia could scarcely + take umbrage at an inactivity which was to last only three years, while to + the rest of the Empire the twofold grace accorded must have been + thoroughly acceptable. + </p> + <p> + Further to confirm his uncertain hold upon the throne, the Pseudo-Smerdis + took to wife all the widows of his predecessor. This is a practice common + in the East; and there can be no doubt that it gives a new monarch a + certain prestige in the eyes of his people. In the present case, however, + it involved a danger. The wives of the late king were likely to be + acquainted with the person of the king’s brother; Atossa, at any rate, + could not fail to know him intimately. If the Magus allowed them to + associate together freely, according to the ordinary practice, they would + detect his imposture and probably find a way to divulge it. He therefore + introduced a new system into the seraglio. Instead of the free intercourse + one with another which the royal consorts had enjoyed previously, he + established at once the principle of complete isolation. Each wife was + assigned her own portion of the palace; and no visiting of one wife by + another was permitted. Access to them from without was altogether + forbidden, even to their nearest relations; and the wives were thus cut + off wholly from the external world, unless they could manage to + communicate with it by means of secret messages. But precautions of this + kind, though necessary, were in themselves suspicious; they naturally + suggested an inquiry into their cause and object. It was a possible + explanation of them that they proceeded from an extreme and morbid + jealousy; but the thought could not fail to occur to some that they might + be occasioned by the fear of detection. + </p> + <p> + However, as time went on, and no discovery was actually made, the Magus + grew bolder, and ventured to commence that reformation of religion which + he and his order had so much at heart. He destroyed the Zoroastrian + temples in various places, and seems to have put down the old worship, + with its hymns in praise of the Zoroastrian deities. He instituted Magian + rites in lieu of the old ceremonies, and established his brother Magians + as the priest-caste of the Persian nation. The changes introduced were no + doubt satisfactory to the Medes, and to many of the subject races + throughout the Empire. They were even agreeable to a portion of the + Persian people, who leant towards a more material worship and a more + gorgeous ceremonial than had contented their ancestors. If the faithful + worshippers of Ormazd saw them with dismay, they were too timid to resist, + and tacitly acquiesced in the religious revolution. + </p> + <p> + In one remote province the change gave a fresh impulse to a religious + struggle which was there going on, adding strength to the side of + intolerance. The Jews had now been engaged for fifteen or sixteen years in + the restoration of their temple, according to the permission granted them + by Cyrus. Their enterprise was distasteful to the neighboring Samaritans, + who strained every nerve to prevent its being brought to a successful + issue, and as each new king mounted the Persian throne, made a fresh + effort to have the work stopped by authority. Their representations had + had no effect upon Cambyses; but when they were repeated on the accession + of the Pseudo-Smerdis, the result was different. An edict was at once sent + down to Palestine, reversing the decree of Cyrus, and authorizing the + inhabitants of Samaria to interfere forcibly in the matter, and compel the + Jews to desist from building. Armed with this decree, the Samaritan + authorities hastened to Jerusalem, and “made the Jews to cease by force + and power.” + </p> + <p> + These revelations of a leaning towards a creed diverse from that of the + Achaemenian princes, combined with the system of seclusion adopted in the + palace—a system not limited to the seraglio, but extending also to + the person of the monarch, who neither quitted the palace precincts + himself, nor allowed any of the Persian nobles to enter them—must + have turned the suspicions previously existing into a general belief and + conviction that the monarch seated on the throne was not Smerdis the son + of Cyrus, but an impostor. Yet still there was for a while no outbreak. It + mattered nothing to the provincials who ruled them, provided that order + was maintained, and that the boons granted them at the opening of the new + reign were not revoked or modified. Their wishes were no doubt in favor of + the prince who had remitted their burthens; and in Media a peculiar + sympathy would exist towards one who had exalted Magism. Such discontent + as was felt would be confined to Persia, or to Persia and a few provinces + of the north-east, where the Zoroastrian faith may have maintained itself. + </p> + <p> + At last, among the chief Persians, rumors began to arise. These were + sternly repressed at the outset, and a reign of terror was established, + during which men remained silent through fear. But at length some of the + principal nobles, convinced of the imposture, held secret council + together, and discussed the measures proper to be adopted under the + circumstances. Nothing, however, was done until the arrival at the capital + of a personage felt by all to be the proper leader of the nation in the + existing crisis. This was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, a prince of the + blood royal who probably stood in the direct line of the succession, + failing the issue of Cyrus. At the early age of twenty he had attracted + the attention of that monarch, who suspected him even then of a design to + seize the throne. He was now about twenty-eight years of age, and + therefore at a time of life suited for vigorous enterprise; which was + probably the reason why his father, Hystaspes, who was still alive, sent + him to the capital, instead of proceeding thither in person. Youth and + vigor were necessary qualifications for success in a struggle against the + holders of power; and Hystaspes no longer possessed those advantages. He + therefore yielded to his son that headship of the movement to which his + position would have entitled him; and, with the leadership in danger, he + yielded necessarily his claim to the first place, when the time of peril + should be past and the rewards of victory should come to be apportioned. + </p> + <p> + Darius, on his arrival at the capital, was at once accepted as head of the + conspiracy, and with prudent boldness determined on pushing matters to an + immediate decision. Overruling the timidity of a party among the + conspirators, who urged delay, he armed his partisans, and proceeded, + without a moment’s pause, to the attack. According to the Greek + historians, he and his friends entered the palace in a body, and surprised + the Magus in his private apartments, where they slew him after a brief + struggle. But the authority of Darius discredits the Greek accounts, and + shows us, though with provoking brevity, that the course of events must + have been very different. The Magus was not slain in the privacy of his + palace, at Susa or Ecbatana, but met his death in a small and + insignificant fort in the part of Media called “the Maesan plain,” or, + more briefly, “Nisaea,” whither he appears to have fled with a band of + followers. Whether he was first attacked in the capital, and escaping + threw himself into this stronghold, or receiving timely warning of his + danger withdrew to it before the outbreak occurred, or merely happened to + be at the spot when the conspirators decided to make their attempt, we + have no means of determining. We only know that the scene of the last + struggle was Sictachotes, in Media; that Darius made the attack + accompanied by six Persian nobles of high rank; and that the contest + terminated in the slaughter of the Magus and of a number of his adherents, + who were involved in the fall of their master. + </p> + <p> + Nor did the vengeance of the successful conspirators stop here. Speeding + to the capital, with the head of the Magus in their hands, and exhibiting + everywhere this proof at once of the death of the late king and of his + imposture, they proceeded to authorize and aid in carrying out, a general + massacre of the Magian priests, the abettors of the later usurpation. + Every Magus who could be found was poniarded by the enraged Persians; and + the caste would have been well-nigh exterminated, if it had not been for + the approach of night. Darkness brought the carnage to an end; and the + sword, once sheathed, was not again drawn. Only, to complete the + punishment of the ambitious religionists who had insulted and deceived the + nation, the day of the massacre was appointed to be kept annually as a + solemn festival, under the name of the Magophonia; and a law was passed + that on that day no Magus should leave his house. + </p> + <p> + The accession of Darius to the vacant throne now took place (Jan. 1, B.C. + 521). According to Herodotus it was preceded by a period of debate and + irresolution, during which the royal authority was, as it were, in + commission among the Seven; and in this interval he places not only the + choice of a king, but an actual discussion on the subject of the proper + form of government to be established. Even his contemporaries, however, + could see that this last story was unworthy of credit and it may be + questioned whether any more reliance ought to be placed on the remainder + of the narrative. Probably the true account of the matter is, that, having + come to a knowledge of the facts of the case, the heads of the seven great + Persian clans or families met together in secret conclave and arranged all + their proceedings beforehand. No government but the monarchical could be + thought of for a moment, and no one could assert any claim to be king but + Darius. Darius went into the conspiracy as a pretender to the throne: the + other six were simply his “faithful men,” his friends and well-wishers. + While, however, the six were far from disputing Darius’s right, they + required and received for themselves a guarantee of certain privileges, + which may either have belonged to them previously, by law or custom, as + the heads of the great clans, or may have been now for the first time + conceded. The king-bound himself to choose his wives from among the + families of the conspirators only, and sanctioned their claim to have free + access to his person at all times without asking his permission. One of + their number, Otanes, demanded and obtained even more. He and his house + were to remain “free,” and were to receive yearly a magnificent kaftan, or + royal present. Thus, something like a check on unbridled despotism was + formally and regularly established; an hereditary nobility was + acknowledged; the king became to some extent dependent on his grandees; he + could not regard himself as the sole fountain of honor; six great nobles + stood round the throne as its supports; but their position was so near the + monarch that they detracted somewhat from his prestige and dignity. + </p> + <p> + The guarantee of these privileges was, we may be sure, given, and the + choice of Darius as king made, before the attack upon the. Magus began. It + would have been madness to allow an interval of anarchy. When Darius + reached the capital, with the head of the Pseudo-Smerdis in his + possession, he no doubt proceeded at once to the palace and took his seat + upon the vacant throne. No opposition was offered to him. The Persians + gladly saw a scion of their old royal stock installed in power. The + provincials were too far off to interfere. Such malcontents as might be + present would be cowed by the massacre that was going on in the streets. + The friends and intimates of the fallen monarch would be only anxious to + escape notice. The reign of the new king no doubt commenced amid those + acclamations which are never wanting in the East when a sovereign first + shows himself to his subjects. + </p> + <p> + The measures with which the new monarch inaugurated his reign had for + their object the re-establishment of the old worship. He rebuilt the + Zoroastrian temples which the Magus had destroyed, and probably restored + the use of the sacred chants and the other accustomed ceremonies. It may + be suspected that his religious zeal proceeded often to the length of + persecution, and that the Magian priests were not the only persons who, + under the orders which he issued, felt the weight of the secular arm. His + Zoroastrian zeal was soon known through the provinces; and the Jews + forthwith resumed the building of their temple, trusting that their + conduct would be consonant with his wishes. This trust was not misplaced: + for, when the Samaritans once more interfered and tried to induce the new + king to put a stop to the work, the only result was a fresh edict, + confirming the old decree of Cyrus, forbidding interference, and assigning + a further grant of money, cattle, corn, etc., from the royal stores, for + the furtherance of the pious undertaking. Its accomplishment was declared + to be for the advantage of the king and his house, since, when the temple + was finished, sacrifices would be offered in it to “the God of Heaven,” + and prayer would be made “for the life of the king and of his sons.” Such + was the sympathy which still united pure Zoroastrianism with the worship + of Jehovah. But the reign, which, so far, might have seemed to be + auspiciously begun, was destined ere long to meet opposition, and even to + encounter armed hostility, in various quarters. In the loosely organized + empires of the early type, a change of sovereign, especially if + accompanied by revolutionary violence, is always regarded as an + opportunity for rebellion. Doubt as to the condition of the capital + paralyzes the imperial authority in the provinces; and bold men, taking + advantage of the moment of weakness, start up in various places, asserting + independence, and seeking to obtain for themselves kingdoms out of the + chaos which they see around them. The more remote provinces are especially + liable to be thus affected, and often revolt successfully on such an + occasion. It appears that the circumstances under which Darius obtained + the throne were more than usually provocative of the spirit of + disaffection and rebellion. Not only did the governors of remote + countries, like Egypt and Lydia, assume an attitude incompatible with + their duty as subjects, but everywhere, even in the very heart of the + Empire, insurrection raised its head; and for six long years the new king + was constantly employed in reducing one province after another to + obedience. Susiana, Babylonia, Persia itself, Media, Assyria, Armenia, + Hyrcania, Parthia, Margiana, Sagartia, and Sacia, all revolted during this + space, and were successively chastised and recovered. It may be suspected + that the religious element entered into some of these struggles, and that + the unusual number of the revolts and the obstinate character of many of + them were connected with the downfall of Magism and the restoration of the + pure Zoroastrian faith, which Darius was bent on effecting. But this + explanation can only be applied partially. We must suppose, besides, a + sort of contagion of rebellion—an awakening of hopes, far and wide, + among the subject nations, as the rumor that serious troubles had broken + out reached them, and a resolution to take advantage of the critical state + of things, spreading rapidly from one people to another. + </p> + <p> + A brief sketch of these various revolts must now be given. They commenced + with a rising in Susiana, where a certain Atrines assumed the name and + state of king, and was supported by the people. Almost simultaneously a + pretender appeared in Babylon, who gave out that he was the son of the + late king, Nabonidus, and bore the world-renowned name of Nebuchadnezzar. + Darius, regarding this second revolt as the more important of the two, + while he dispatched a force to punish the Susianians, proceeded in person + against the Babylonian pretender. The rivals met at the river Tigris, + which the Babylonians held with a naval force, while their army was posted + on the right bank, ready to dispute the passage. Darius, however, crossed + the river in their dispute, and, defeating the troops of his antagonist, + pressed forward against the capital. He had nearly reached it, when the + pretender gave him battle for the second time at a small town on the banks + of the Euphrates. Fortune again declared in favor of the Persians, who + drove the host of their enemy into the water and destroyed great numbers. + The soi-disant Nebuchadnezzar escaped with a few horsemen and threw + himself into Babylon; but the city was ill prepared for a siege, and was + soon taken, the pretender falling into the hands of his enemy, who caused + him to be executed. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, in Susiana, Atrines, the original leader of the rebellion, had + been made prisoner by the troops sent against him, and, being brought to + Darius while he was on his march against Babylon, was put to death. But + this severity had little effect. A fresh leader appeared in the person of + a certain Martes, a Persian who, taking example from the Babylonian rebel, + assumed a name which connected him with the old kings of the country, and + probably claimed to be their descendant, but the hands of Darius were now + free by the termination of the Babylonian contest, and he was able to + proceed towards Susiana himself. This movement, apparently, was + unexpected; for when the Susianians heard of it they were so alarmed that + they laid hands on the pretender and slew him. + </p> + <p> + A more important rebellion followed. Three of the chief provinces of the + empire, Media, Armenia, and Assyria, revolted in concert. A Median monarch + was set up, who called himself Xathrites, and claimed descent from the + great Oyaxares; and it would seem that the three countries immediately + acknowledged his sway. Darius, seeing how formidable the revolt was, + determined to act with caution. Settling himself at the newly-conquered + city of Babylon, he resolved to employ his generals against the rebels, + and in this way to gauge the strength of the outbreak, before adventuring + his own person into the fray. Hydarnes, one of the Seven conspirators, was + sent into Media with an army, while Dadarses, an Armenian, was dispatched + into Armenia, and Vomises, a Persian, was ordered to march through Assyria + into the same country. All three generals were met by the forces of the + pretender, and several battles were fought, with results that seem not to + have been very decisive. Darius claims the victory on each occasion for + his own generals; but it is evident that his arms made little progress, + and that, in spite of several small defeats, the rebellion maintained a + bold front, and was thought not unlikely to be successful. So strong was + this feeling that two of the eastern provinces, Hyrcania and Parthia, + deserted the Persian cause in the midst of the struggle, and placed + themselves under the rule of Xathrites. Either this circumstance, or the + general position of affairs, induced Darius at length to take the field in + person. Quitting Babylon, he marched into Media, and being met by the + pretender near a town called Kudrus, he defeated him in a great battle. + This is no doubt the engagement of which Herodotus speaks, and which he + rightly regards as decisive. The battle of Kudrus gave Ecbatana into the + hands of Darius, and made the Median prince an outcast and a fugitive. He + fled towards the East, probably intending to join his partisans in + Hyrcania and Parthia, but was overtaken in the district of Rhages and made + prisoner by the troops of Darius. The king treated his captive with + extreme severity. Having cut off his nose, ears, and tongue, he kept him + for some time chained to the door of his palace, in order that there might + be no doubt of his capture. When this object had been sufficiently + secured, the wretched sufferer was allowed to end his miserable existence. + He was crucified in his capital city, Ecbatana, before the eyes of those + who had seen his former glory. + </p> + <p> + The rebellion was thus crushed in its original seat, but it had still to + be put down in the countries whereto it had extended itself. Parthia and + Hyrcania, which had embraced the cause of the pretender, were still + maintaining a conflict with their former governor, Hystaspes, Darius’s + father. Darius marched as far as Rhages to his father’s assistance, and + dispatched from that point a body of Persian troops to reinforce him. With + this important aid Hystaspes once more gave the rebels battle, and + succeeded in defeating them so entirely that they presently made their + submission. + </p> + <p> + Troubles, meanwhile, had broken out in Sagartia. A native chief, moved + probably by the success which had for a while attended the Median rebel + who claimed to rule as the descendant and representative of Cyaxares, came + forward with similar pretensions, and was accepted by the Sargartians as + their monarch. This revolt, however, proved unimportant. Darius suppressed + it with the utmost facility by means of a mixed army of Persians and + Medes, whom he placed under a Median leader, Tachamaspates. The pretender + was captured and treated almost exactly in the same way as the Mede whose + example he had followed. His nose and ears were cut off; he was chained + for a while at the palace door; and finally he was crucified at Arbela. + </p> + <p> + Another trifling revolt occurred about the same time in Margiana. The + Margians rebelled and set up a certain Phraates, a native, to be their + king. But the satrap of Bactria, within whose province Margiana lay, + quelled the revolt almost immediately. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto, however thickly troubles had come upon him, Darius could have + the satisfaction of feeling that he was contending with foreigners, and + that his own nation at any rate was faithful and true. But now this + consolation was to be taken from him. During his absence in the provinces + of the north-east Persia itself revolted against his authority, and + acknowledged for king an impostor, who, undeterred by the fate of Gomates, + and relying on the obscurity which still hung over the end of the real + Smerdis, assumed his name, and claimed to be the legitimate occupant of + the throne. The Persians at home were either deceived a second time, or + were willing to try a change of ruler; but the army of Darius, composed of + Persians and Medes, adhered to the banner under which they had so often + marched to victory, and enabled Darius, after a struggle of some duration, + to re-establish his sway. The impostor suffered two defeats at the hands + of Artabardes, one of Darius’s generals, while a force which he had + detached to excite rebellion in Arachosia was engaged by the satrap of + that province and completely routed. The so-called Smerdis was himself + captured, and suffered the usual penalty of unsuccessful revolt, + crucifixion. + </p> + <p> + Before, however, these results were accomplished—while the fortune + of war still hung in the balance—a fresh danger threatened. + Encouraged by the disaffection which appeared to be so general, and which + had at length reached the very citadel of the Empire, Babylon revolted for + the second time. A man, named Aracus, an Armenian by descent, but settled + in Babylonia, headed the insurrection, and, adopting the practice of + personation so usual at the time, assumed the name and style of + “Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabonidus.” Less alarmed on this occasion than at + the time of the first revolt, the king was content to send a Median + general against the new pretender. This officer, who is called Intaphres, + speedily chastised the rebels, capturing Babylon, and taking Aracus + prisoner. Crucifixion was again the punishment awarded to the rebel + leader. + </p> + <p> + A season of comparative tranquillity seems now to have set in; and it may + have been in this interval that Darius found time to chastise the remoter + governors, who without formally declaring themselves independent, or + assuming the title of king, had done acts savoring of rebellion. Oroetes, + the governor of Sardis, who had comported himself strangely even under + Cambyses, having ventured to entrap and put to death an ally of that + monarch’s, Polycrates of Samos, had from the time of the Magian revolution + assumed an attitude quite above that of a subject. Having a quarrel with + Mitrobates, the governor of a neighboring province, he murdered him and + annexed his territory. When Darius sent a courier to him with a message + the purport of which he disliked, he set men to waylay and assassinate + him. It was impossible to overlook such acts; and Darius must have sent an + army into Asia Minor, if one of his nobles had not undertaken to remove + Oroetes in another way. Arming himself with several written orders bearing + the king’s seal, he went to Sardis, and gradually tried the temper of the + guard which the satrap kept round his person. When he found them full of + respect for the royal authority and ready to do whatever the king + commanded, he produced an order for the governor’s execution, which they + carried into effect immediately. + </p> + <p> + The governor of Egypt, Aryandes, had shown a guilty ambition in a more + covert way. Understanding that Darius had issued a gold coinage of + remarkable purity, he, on his own authority and without consulting the + king, issued a silver coinage of a similar character. There is reason to + believe that he even placed his name upon his coins; an act which to the + Oriental mind distinctly implied a claim of independent sovereignty. + Darius taxed him with a design to revolt, and put him to death on the + charge, apparently without exciting any disturbance. + </p> + <p> + Still, however, the Empire was not wholly tranquillized. A revolt in + Susiana, suppressed by the conspirator Gobryas, and another among the + Sacse of the Tigris, quelled by Darius in person, are recorded on the rock + of Behistun, in a supplementary portion of the Inscription. We cannot + date, unless it be by approximation, these various troubles; but there is + reason to believe that they were almost all contained within a space not + exceeding five or six years. The date of the Behistun Inscription is fixed + by internal evidence to about B.C. 516-515—in other words, to the + fifth or sixth year of the reign of Darius. Its erection seems to mark the + termination of the first period of the reign, or that of disturbance, and + the commencement of the second period, or that of tranquillity, internal + progress, and patronage of the fine arts by the monarch. + </p> + <p> + It was natural that Darius, having with so much effort and difficulty + reduced the revolted provinces to obedience, should proceed to consider + within himself how the recurrence of such a time of trouble might be + prevented. His experience had shown him how weak were the ties which had + hitherto been thought sufficient to hold the Empire together, and how + slight an obstacle they opposed to the tendency, which all great empires + have, to disruption. But, however natural it might be to desire a remedy + for the evils which afflicted the State, it was not easy to devise one. + Great empires had existed in Western Asia for above seven hundred years, + and had all suffered more or less from the same inherent weakness; but no + one had as yet invented a cure, or even (so far as appears) conceived the + idea of improving on the rude system of imperial sway which the first + conqueror had instituted. It remained for Darius, not only to desire, but + to design—not only to design, but to bring into action—an + entirely new form and type of government. He has been well called “the + true founder of the Persian state.” He found the Empire a crude and + heterogeneous mass of ill-assorted elements, hanging loosely together by + the single tie of subjection to a common head; he left it a compact and + regularly organized body, united on a single well-ordered system, + permanently established everywhere. + </p> + <p> + On the nature and details of this system it will be necessary to speak at + some length. It was the first, and probably the best, instance of that + form of government which, taking its name from the Persian word for + provincial ruler, is known generally as the system of “satrapial” + administration. Its main principles were, in the first place, the + reduction of the whole Empire to a quasi-uniformity by the substitution of + one mode of governing for several; secondly, the substitution of fixed and + definite burthens on the subject in lieu of variable and uncertain calls; + and thirdly, the establishment of a variety of checks and counterpoises + among the officials to whom it was necessary that the crown should + delegate its powers, which tended greatly to the security of the monarch + and the stability of the kingdom. A consideration of the modes in which + these three principles were applied will bring before us in a convenient + form the chief points of the system. + </p> + <p> + Uniformity, or a near approach to it, was produced, not so much by the + abolition of differences as by superadding one and the same governmental + machinery in all parts of the Empire. It is an essential feature of the + satrapial system that it does not aim at destroying differences, or + assimilating to one type the various races and countries over which it is + extended. On the contrary, it allows, and indeed encourages, the several + nations to retain their languages, habits, manners, religion, laws, and + modes of local government. Only it takes care to place above all these + things a paramount state authority, which is one and the same everywhere, + whereon the unity of the kingdom is dependent. The authority instituted by + Darius was that of his satraps. He divided the whole empire into a number + of separate governments—a number which must have varied at different + times, but which seems never to have fallen short of twenty. Over each + government he placed a satrap, or supreme civil governor, charged with the + collection and transmission of the revenue, the administration of justice, + the maintenance of order, and the general supervision of the territory. + These satraps were nominated by the king at his pleasure from any class of + his subjects, and held office for no definite term, but simply until + recalled, being liable to deprivation or death at any moment, without + other formality than the presentation of the royal firman. While, however, + they remained in office they were despotic—they represented the + Great King, and were clothed with a portion of his majesty—they had + palaces, Courts, body-guards, parks or “paradises,” vast trains of eunuchs + and attendants, well-filled, seraglios. They wielded the power of life and + death. They assessed the tribute on the several towns and villages within + their jurisdiction at their pleasure, and appointed deputies—called + sometimes, like themselves, satraps—over cities or districts within + their province, whose office was regarded as one of great dignity. They + exacted from the provincials, for their own support and that of their + Court, over and above the tribute due to the crown, whatever sum they + regarded them as capable of furnishing. Favors, and even justice, had to + be purchased from them by gifts. They were sometimes guilty of gross + outrages on the persons and honor of their subjects. Nothing restrained + their tyranny but such sense of right as they might happen to possess, and + the fear of removal or execution if the voice of complaint reached the + monarch. + </p> + <p> + Besides this uniform civil administration, the Empire was pervaded + throughout by one and the same military system. The services of the + subject nations as soldiers were, as a general rule, declined, unless upon + rare and exceptional cases. Order was maintained by large and numerous + garrisons of foreign troops—Persians and Medes—quartered on + the inhabitants, who had little sympathy with those among whom they lived, + and would be sure to repress sternly any outbreak. All places of much + strength were occupied in this way; and special watch was kept upon the + great capitals, which were likely to be centres of disaffection. Thus a + great standing army, belonging to the conquering race, stood everywhere on + guard throughout the Empire, offending the provincials no doubt by their + pride, their violence, and their contemptuous bearing, but rendering a + native revolt under ordinary circumstances hopeless. + </p> + <p> + Some exceptions to the general uniformity had almost of necessity to be + made in so vast and heterogeneous an empire as the Persian. Occasionally + it was thought wise to allow the continuance of a native dynasty in a + province; and the satrap had in such a case to share with the native + prince a divided authority. This was certainly the case in Cilicia, and + probably in Paphlagonia and Phoenicia. Tribes also, included within the + geographical limits of a satrapy, were sometimes recognized as + independent; and petty wars were carried on between these hordes and their + neighbors. Robber bands in many places infested the mountains, owing no + allegiance to any one, and defied alike the satrap and the standing army. + </p> + <p> + The condition of Persia Proper was also purely exceptional. Persia paid no + tribute, and was not counted as a satrapy. Its inhabitants were, however, + bound, when the king passed through their country, to bring him gifts + according to their means. This burthen may have been felt sensibly by the + rich, but it pressed very lightly on the poor, who, if they could not + afford an ox or a sheep, might bring a little milk or cheese, a few dates, + or a handful of wild fruit. On the other hand, the king was bound, + whenever he visited Pasargadae, to present to each Persian woman who + appeared before him a sum equal to twenty Attic drachmas, or about sixteen + shillings of our money. This custom commemorated the service rendered by + the sex in the battle wherein Cyrus first repulsed the forces of Astyages. + </p> + <p> + The substitution of definite burthens on the subject in lieu of variable + and uncertain charges was aimed at, rather than effected, by the new + arrangement of the revenue which is associated with the name of Darius. + This arrangement consisted in fixing everywhere the amount of tribute in + money and in kind which each satrapy was to furnish to the crown. A + definite money payment, varying, in ordinary satrapies, from 170 to 1000 + Babylonian silver talents,330 or from L42,000. to L250,000. of our money, + and amounting, in the exceptional case of the Indian satrapy, to above a + million sterling, was required annually by the sovereign, and had to be + remitted by the satrap to the capital. Besides this, a payment, the nature + and amount of which was also fixed, had to be made in kind, each province + being required to furnish that commodity, or those commodities, for which + it was most celebrated. This latter burthen must have pressed very + unequally on different portions of the Empire, if the statement of + Herodotus be true that Babylonia and Assyria paid one-third of it. The + payment seems to have been very considerable in amount. Egypt had to + supply grain sufficient for the nutriment of 120,000 Persian troops + quartered in the country. Media had to contribute 100,000 sheep, 4000 + mules, and 3000 horses; Cappadocia, half the above number of each kind of + animal; Armenia furnished 20,000 colts; Cilicia gave 360 white horses and + a sum of 140 talents (L35,000.) in lieu of further tribute in kind. + Babylonia, besides corn, was required to furnish 500 boy eunuchs. These + charges, however, were all fixed by the crown, and may have been taken + into consideration in assessing the money payment, the main object of the + whole arrangement evidently being to make the taxation of each province + proportionate to its wealth and resources. + </p> + <p> + The assessment of the taxation upon the different portions of his province + was left to the satrap. We do not know on what principles he ordinarily + proceeded, or whether any uniform principles at all were observed + throughout the Empire. But we find some evidence that, in places at least, + the mode of exaction and collection was by a land-tax. The assessment upon + individuals, and the actual collection from them, devolved, in all + probability, on the local authorities, who distributed the burthen imposed + upon their town, village, or district as they thought proper. Thus the + foreign oppressor did not come into direct contact with the mass of the + conquered people, who no doubt paid the calls made upon them with less + reluctance through the medium of their own proper magistrates. + </p> + <p> + If the taxation of the subject had stopped here, he would have had no just + ground of complaint against his rulers. The population of the Empire + cannot be estimated at less than forty millions of souls. The highest + estimate of the value of the entire tribute, both in money and kind, will + scarcely place it at more than ten millions sterling. Thus far, then, the + burthen of taxation would certainly not have exceeded five shillings a + head per annum. Perhaps it would not have reached half that amount. But, + unhappily, neither was the tribute the sole tax which the crown exacted + from its subjects, nor had the crown the sole right of exacting taxation. + Persian subjects in many parts of the Empire paid, besides their tribute, + a water-rate, which is expressly said to have been very productive. The + rivers of the Empire were the king’s; and when water was required for + irrigation, a state officer superintended the opening of the sluices, and + regulated the amount of the precious fluid which might be drawn off by + each tribe or township. For the opening of the sluices a large sum was + paid to the officer, which found its way into the coffers of the state. + Further, it appears that such things as fisheries—and if so, + probably salt-works, mines, quarries, and forests—were regarded as + crown property, and yielded large sums to the revenue. They appear to have + been farmed to responsible persons, who undertook to pay at a certain + fixed rate, and made what profit they could by the transaction. The price + of commodities thus farmed would be greatly enhanced to the consumer. + </p> + <p> + By these means the actual burthen of taxation upon the subject was + rendered to some extent uncertain and indefinite, and the benefits of the + fixed tribute system were diminished. But the chief drawback upon it has + still to be mentioned. While the claims of the crown upon its subjects + were definite and could not be exceeded, the satrap was at liberty to make + any exactions that he pleased beyond them. There is every reason to + believe that he received no stipend, and that, consequently, the burthen + of supporting him, his body-guard, and his Court was intended to fall on + the province which had the benefit of his superintendence. Like a Roman + proconsul, he was to pay himself out of the pockets of his subjects; and, + like that class of persons, he took care to pay himself highly. It has + been calculated that one satrap of Babylon drew from his province annually + in actual coin a sum equal to L100,000. of our money. We can scarcely + doubt that the claims made by the provincial governors were, on the + average, at least equal to those of the crown; and they had the + disadvantage of being irregular, uncertain, and purely arbitrary. + </p> + <p> + Thus, what was gained by the new system was not so much the relief of the + subject from uncertain taxation as the advantage to the crown of knowing + beforehand what the revenue would be, and being able to regulate its + expenditure accordingly. Still a certain amount of benefit did undoubtedly + accrue to the provincials from the system; since it gave them the crown + for their protector. So long as the payments made to the state were + irregular, it was, or at least seemed to be, for the interest of the crown + to obtain from each province as much as it could anyhow pay. When the + state dues were once fixed, as the crown gained nothing by the rapacity of + its officers, but rather lost, since the province became exhausted, it was + interested in checking greed, and seeing that the provinces were + administered by wise and good satraps. + </p> + <p> + The control of its great officers is always the main difficulty of a + despotic government, when it is extended over a large space of territory + and embraces many millions of men. The system devised by Darius for + checking and controlling his satraps was probably the best that has ever + yet been brought into operation. His plan was to establish in every + province at least three officers holding their authority directly from the + crown, and only responsible to it, who would therefore act as checks one + upon another. These were the satrap, the military commandant, and the + secretary. The satrap was charged with the civil administration, and + especially with the department of finance. The commandant was supreme over + the troops. The office of the secretary is less clearly defined; but it + probably consisted mainly in keeping the Court informed by despatches of + all that went on in the province. Thus, if the satrap were inclined to + revolt, he had, in the first place, to persuade the commandant, who would + naturally think that, if he ran the risk, it might as well be for himself; + and, further, he had to escape the lynx eyes of the secretary, whose + general right of superintendence gave him entrance everywhere, and whose + prospects of advancement would probably depend a good deal upon the + diligence and success with which he discharged the office of “King’s Eye” + and “Ear.” So, if the commandant were ambitious of independent sway, he + must persuade the satrap, or he would have no money to pay his troops; and + he too must blind the secretary, or else bribe him into silence. As for + the secretary, having neither men nor money at his command, it was + impossible that he should think of rebellion. + </p> + <p> + But the precautions taken against revolt did not end here. Once a year, + according to Xenophon, or more probably at irregular intervals, an officer + came suddenly down from the Court with a commission to inspect a province. + Such persons were frequently of royal rank, brothers or sons of the king. + They were accompanied by an armed force, and were empowered to correct + whatever was amiss in the province, and in case of necessity to report to + the crown the insubordination or incompetency of its officers. If this + system had been properly maintained, it is evident that it would have + acted as a most powerful check upon misgovernment, and would have rendered + revolt almost impossible. + </p> + <p> + Another mode by which it was sought to secure the fidelity of the satraps + and commandants was by choosing them from among the king’s blood + relations, or else attaching them to the crown by marriage with one of the + princesses. It was thought that the affection of sons and brothers would + be a restraint upon their ambition, and that even connections by marriage + would feel that they had an interest in upholding the power and dignity of + the great house with which they had been thought worthy of alliance. This + system, which was entensively followed by Darius, had on the whole good + results, and was at any rate preferable to that barbarous policy of + prudential fratricide which has prevailed widely in Oriental governments. + </p> + <p> + The system of checks, while it was effectual for the object at which it + specially aimed, had one great disadvantage. It weakened the hands of + authority in times of difficulty. When danger, internal or external, + threatened, it was an evil that the powers of government should be + divided, and the civil authority lodged in the hands of one officer, the + military in those of another. Concentration of power is needed for rapid + and decisive action, for unity of purpose, and secrecy both of plan and of + execution. These considerations led to a modification of the original idea + of satrapial government, which was adopted partially at first—in + provinces especially exposed to danger, internal or external—but + which ultimately became almost universal. The offices of satrap, or civil + administrator, and commandant, or commander of the troops, were vested in + the same person, who came in this way to have that full and complete + authority which is possessed by Turkish pashas and modern Persian khans or + beys—an authority practically uncontrolled. This system was + advantageous for the defence of a province against foes; but it was + dangerous to the stability of the Empire, since it led naturally to the + occurrence of formidable rebellions. + </p> + <p> + Two minor points in the scheme of Darius remain to be noticed, before this + account of his governmental system can be regarded as complete. These are + his institution of posts, and his coinage of money. + </p> + <p> + In Darius’s idea of government was included rapidity of communication. + Regarding it as of the utmost importance that the orders of the Court + should be speedily transmitted to the provincial governors, and that their + reports and those of the royal secretaries should be received without + needless delay, he established along the lines of routes already existing + between the chief cities of the Empire a number of post-houses, placed at + regular intervals, according to the estimated capacity of a horse to + gallop at his best speed without stopping. At each post-house were + maintained, at the cost of the state, a number of couriers and several + relays of horses. When a despatch was to be forwarded it was taken to the + first post-house along the route, where a courier received it, and + immediately mounting on horseback galloped with it to the next station. + Here it was delivered to a new courier, who, mounted on a fresh horse, + took it the next stage on its journey; and thus it passed from hand to + hand till it reached its destination. According to Xenophon, the + messengers travelled by night as well as by day; and the conveyance was so + rapid that some even compared it to the flight of birds. Excellent inns or + caravanserais were to be found at every station; bridges or ferries were + established upon all the streams; guard-houses occurred here and there, + and the whole route was kept secure from the brigands who infested the + Empire. Ordinary travellers were glad to pursue so convenient a line of + march; it does not appear, however, that they could obtain the use of + post-horses even when the government was in no need of them. The coinage + of Darius consisted, it is probable, both of a gold and silver issue. It + is not perhaps altogether certain that he was the first king of Persia who + coined money; but, if the term “daric” is really derived from his name, + that alone would be a strong argument in favor of his claim to priority. + In any case, it is indisputable that he was the first Persian king who + coined on a large scale, and it is further certain that his gold coinage + was regarded in later times as of peculiar value on account of its purity. + His gold darics appear to have contained, on an average, not quite 124 + grains of pure metal, which would make their value about twenty two + shillings of our money. They were of the type usual at the time both in + Lydia and in Greece—flattened lumps of metal, very thick in + comparison with the size of their surface, irregular, and rudely stamped. + The silver darics were similar in general character, but exceeded the gold + in size. Their weight was from 224 to 230 grains, and they would thus have + been worth not quite three shillings of our money. It does not appear that + any other kinds of coins besides these were ever issued from the Persian + mint. They must, therefore, it would seem, have satisfied the commercial + needs of the people. + </p> + <p> + From this review of the governmental system of Darius we must now return + to the actions of his later life. The history of an Oriental monarchy must + always be composed mainly of a series of biographies; for, as the monarch + is all in all in such communities, his sayings, doings, and character, not + only determine, but constitute, the annals of the State. In the second + period of his reign, that which followed on the time of trouble and + disturbance, Darius (as has been already observed) appears to have pursued + mainly the arts of peace. Bent on settling and consolidating his Empire, + he set up everywhere the satrapial form of government, organized and + established his posts, issued his coinage, watched over the administration + of justice, and in various ways exhibited a love of order and method, and + a genius for systematic arrangement. At the same time he devoted + considerable attention to ornamental and architectural works, to + sculpture, and to literary composition. He founded the royal palace at + Susa, which was the main residence of the later kings. At Persepolis he + certainly erected one very important building; and it is on the whole most + probable that he designed—if he did not live to execute—the + Chehl Minor itself—the chief of the magnificent structures upon the + great central platform. The massive platform itself, with its grand and + stately steps, is certainly of his erection, for it is inscribed with his + name. He gave his works all the solidity and strength that is derivable + from the use of huge blocks of a good hard material. He set the example of + ornamenting the stepped approached to a palace with elaborate bas-reliefs. + He designed and caused to be constructed in his own lifetime the rock-tomb + at Nakhsh-i-Rustam, in which his remains were afterwards laid. The + rock-sculpture at Behistun was also his work. In attention to the creation + of permanent historical records he excelled all the Persian kings, both + before him and after him. The great Inscription of Behistun has no + parallel in ancient times for length, finish, and delicacy of execution, + unless it be in Assyria or in Egypt. The only really historical + inscription at Persepolis is one set up by Darius. He was the only Persian + king, except perhaps one, who placed an inscription upon his tomb. The + later monarchs in their records do little more than repeat certain + religious phrases and certain forms of self-glorification which occur in + the least remarkable inscriptions of their great predecessor. He alone + oversteps those limits, and presents us with geographical notices and + narratives of events profoundly interesting to the historian. + </p> + <p> + During this period of comparative peace, which may have extended from + about B.C. 516 to B.C. 508 or 507, the general tranquillity was + interrupted by at least one important expedition. The administrational + merits of Darius are so great that they have obscured his military + glories, and have sent him down to posterity with the character of an + unwarlike monarch—if not a mere “peddler,” as his subjects said, + yet, at any rate, a mere consolidator and arranger. But the son of + Hystaspes was no carpet prince. He had not drawn the sword against his + domestic foes to sheath it finally and forever when his triumph over them + was completed. On the contrary, he regarded it as incumbent on him to + carry on the aggressive policy of Cyrus and Cambyses, his great + predecessors, and like them to extend in one direction or another the + boundaries of the Empire. Perhaps he felt that aggression was the very law + of the Empire’s being, since if the military spirit was once allowed to + become extinct in the conquering nation, they would lose the sole + guarantee of their supremacy. At any rate, whatever his motive, we find + him, after he had snatched a brief interval of repose, engaging in great + wars both towards his eastern and his western frontier—wars which in + both instances had results of considerable importance. + </p> + <p> + The first grand expedition was towards the East. Cyrus, as we have seen, + had extended the Persian sway over the mountains of Affghanistan and the + highlands from which flow the tributaries of the Upper Indus. From these + eminences the Persian garrisons looked down on a territory possessing + every quality that could attract a powerful conqueror. Fertile, + well-watered, rich in gold, peopled by an ingenious yet warlike race, + which would add strength no less than wealth to its subjugators, the + Punjab lay at the foot of the Sufeid Koh and Suliman ranges, inviting the + attack of those who could swoop down when they pleased upon the low + country. It was against this region that Darius directed his first great + aggressive effort. Having explored the course of the Indus from Attock to + the sea by means of boats, and obtained, we may suppose, in this way some + knowledge of the country and its inhabitants, he led or sent an expedition + into the tract, which in a short time succeeded in completely reducing it. + The Punjab, and probably the whole valley of the Indus, was annexed, and + remained subject till the later times of the Empire. The results of this + conquest were the acquisition of a brave race, capable of making excellent + soldiers, an enormous increase of the revenue, a sudden and vast influx of + gold into Persia, which led probably to the introduction of the gold + coinage, and the establishment of commercial relations with the natives, + which issued in a regular trade carried on by coasting-vessels between the + mouths of the Indus and the Persian Gulf. + </p> + <p> + The next important expedition—one probably of still greater + magnitude—took exactly the opposite direction. The sea which bounded + the Persian dominion to the west and the north-west narrowed in two places + to dimensions not much exceeding those of of the greater Asiatic rivers. + The eye which looked across the Thracian Bosphorus or the Hellespont + seemed to itself to be merely contemplating the opposite bank of a pretty + wide stream. Darius, consequently being master of Asia Minor, and + separated by what seemed to him so poor a barrier from fertile tracts of + vast and indeed indefinite extent, such as were nowhere else to be found + on the borders of his empire, naturally turned his thoughts of conquest to + this quarter. His immediate desire was, probably, to annex Thrace; but he + may have already entertained wider views, and have looked to embracing in + his dominions the lovely isles and coasts of Greece also, so making good + the former threats of Cyrus. The story of the voyage and escape of + Democedes, related by Herodotus with such amplitude of detail, and + confirmed to some extent from other sources, cannot be a mere myth without + historical foundation. Nor is it probable that the expedition was designed + merely for the purpose of “indulging the exile with a short visit to his + native country,” or of collecting “interesting information.” If by the + king’s orders a vessel was fitted out at Sidon to explore the coasts of + Greece under the guidance of Democedes, which proceeded as far as Crotona + in Magna Grsecia, we may be tolerably sure that a political object lay at + the bottom of the enterprise. It would have exactly the same aim and end + as the eastern voyage of Scylax, and would be intended, like that, to pave + the way for a conquest. Darius was therefore, it would seem, already + contemplating the reduction of Greece Proper, and did not require to have + it suggested to him by any special provocation. Mentally, or actually, + surveying the map of the world, so far as it was known to him, he saw that + in this direction only there was an attractive country readily accessible. + Elsewhere his Empire abutted on seas, sandy deserts, or at best barren + steppes; here, and here only, was there a rich prize close at hand and (as + it seemed) only waiting to be grasped. + </p> + <p> + But if the aggressive force of Persia was to be turned in this direction, + if the stream of conquest was to be set westward along the flanks of + Rhodope and Haemus, it was essential to success, and even to safety, that + the line of communication with Asia should remain intact. Now, there lay + on the right flank of an army marching into Europe a vast and formidable + power, known to be capable of great efforts, which, if allowed to feel + itself secure from attack, might be expected at any time to step in, to + break the line of communication between the east and west, and to bring + the Persians who should be engaged in conquering Pseonia, Macedonia, and + Greece, into imminent danger. It is greatly to the credit of Darius that + he saw this peril—saw it and took effectual measures to guard + against it. The Scythian expedition was no insane project of a frantic + despot, burning for revenge, or ambitious of an impossible conquest. It + has all the appearance of being a well-laid plan, conceived by a moderate + and wise prince, for the furtherance of a great design, and the permanent + advantage of his empire. The lord of South-Western Asia was well aware of + the existence beyond his northern frontier of a standing menace to his + power. A century had not sufficed to wipe out the recollection of that + terrible time when Scythian hordes had carried desolation far and wide + over the fairest of the regions that were now under the Persian dominion. + What had occurred once might recur. Possibly, as a modern author suggests, + “the remembrance of ancient injuries may have been revived by recent + aggressions.” It was at any rate essential to strike terror into the + hordes of the Steppe Region in order that Western Asia might attain a + sense of security. It was still more essential to do so if the north-west + was to become the scene of war, and the Persians were to make a vigorous + effort to establish themselves permanently in Europe. Scythia, it must be + remembered, reached to the banks of the Danube. An invader, who aspired to + the conquest even of Thrace, was almost forced into collision with her + next neighbor. + </p> + <p> + Darius, having determined on his course, prefaced his expedition by a + raid, the object of which was undoubtedly to procure information. He + ordered Ariaramnes, satrap of Cappadocia, to cross the Euxine with a small + fleet, and, descending suddenly upon the Scythian coast, to carry off a + number of prisoners. Ariaramnes executed the commission skilfully, and was + so fortunate as to make prize of a native of high rank, the brother of a + Scythian chief or king. From this person and his companions the Persian + monarch was able to obtain all the information which he required. Thus + enlightened, he proceeded to make his preparations. Collecting a fleet of + 600 ships, chiefly from the Greeks of Asia, and an army estimated at from + 700,000 to 800,000 men, which was made up of contingents from all the + nations under his rule, he crossed the Bosphorus by a bridge of boats + constructed by Mandrocles a Samian; marched through Thrace along the line + of the Little Balkan, receiving the submission of the tribes as he went; + crossed the Great Balkan; conquered the Getae, who dwelt between that + range and the Danube; passed the Danube by a bridge, which the Ionian + Greeks had made with their vessels just above the apex of the Delta; and + so invaded Scythia. The natives had received intelligence of his approach, + and had resolved not to risk a battle. They retired as he advanced, and + endeavored to bring his army into difficulties by destroying the forage, + driving off the cattle, and filling in the wells. But the commissariat of + the Persians was, as usual, well arranged. Darius remained for more than + two months in Scythia without incurring any important losses. He succeeded + in parading before the eyes of the whole nation the immense military power + of his empire. He no doubt inflicted considerable damage on the hordes, + whose herds he must often have captured, and whose supplies of forage he + curtailed. It is difficult to say how far he penetrated. Herodotus was + informed that he marched east to the Tanais (Don), and thence north to the + country of the Budini, where he burnt the staple of Gelonus, which cannot + well have been below the fiftieth parallel, and was probably not far from + Voronej. It is certainly astonishing that he should have ventured so far + inland, and still more surprising that, having done so, he should have + returned with his army well-nigh intact. But we can scarcely suppose the + story that he destroyed the staple of the Greek trade a pure fiction. He + would be glad to leave his mark in the country, and might make an + extraordinary effort to reach the only town that was to be found in the + whole steppe region. Having effected his purpose by its destruction, he + would retire, falling back probably upon the coast, where he could obtain + supplies from his fleet. It is beyond dispute that he returned with the + bulk of his army, having suffered no loss but that of a few invalid troops + whom he sacrificed. Attempts had been made during his absence to induce + the Greeks, who guarded the bridge over the Danube, to break it, and so + hinder his return; but they were unsuccessful. Darius recrossed the river + after an interval of somewhat more than two months, victorious according + to his own notions, and regarded himself as entitled thenceforth to + enumerate among the subject races of his empire “the Scyths beyond the + sea.” On his return march through Thrace, he met, apparently, with no + opposition. Before passing the Bosphorus, he gave a commission to one of + his generals, a certain Megabazus, to complete the reduction of Thrace, + and assigned him for the purpose a body of 80,000 men, who remained in + Europe while Darius and the rest of his army crossed into Asia. + </p> + <p> + Megabazus appears to have been fully worthy of the trust reposed in him. + In a single campaign (B.C. 506) he overran and subjugated the entire tract + between the Propontis and the Strymon, thus pushing forward the Persian + dominion to the borders of Macedonia. Among the tribes which he conquered + were the Perinthians, Greeks; the Pseti, Cicones, Bistones, Sapaei, + Dersaei and Edoni, Thracians; and the Paeoplae and Siripasones, Pseonians. + These last, to gratify a whim of Darius, were transported into Asia. The + Thracians who submitted were especially those of the coast, no attempt, + apparently, being made to penetrate the mountain fastnesses and bring + under subjection the tribes of the interior. + </p> + <p> + The first contact between Persia and Macedonia possesses peculiar interest + from the circumstances of the later history. An ancestor of Alexander the + Great sat upon the throne of Macedon when the general of Darius was + brought in his career of conquest to the outskirts of the Macedonian + power. The kingdom was at this time comparatively small, not extending + much beyond Mount Bermius on the one hand, and not reaching very far to + the east of the Axius on the other. Megabazus saw in it, we may be sure, + not the fated destroyer of the Empire which he was extending, but a petty + state which the mere sound of the Persian name would awe into subjection. + He therefore, instead of invading the country, contented himself with + sending an embassy, with a demand for earth and water, the symbols, + according to Persian custom, of submission. Amyntas, the Macedonian king, + consented, to the demand at once; and though, owing to insolent conduct on + the part of the ambassadors, they were massacred with their whole retinue, + yet this circumstance did not prevent the completion of Macedonian + vassalage. When a second embassy was sent to inquire into the fate of the + first, Alexander, the son of Amyntas, who had arranged the massacre, + contrived to have the matter hushed up by bribing one of the envoys with a + large sum of money and the hand of his sister, Gygsea. Macedonia took up + the position of a subject kingdom, and owned for her true lord the great + monarch of Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + Megabazus, having accomplished the task assigned him, proceeded to Sardis, + where Darius had remained almost, if not quite, a full year His place was + taken by Otanes, the son of Sisamnes, a different person from the + conspirator, who rounded off the Persian conquests in these parts by + reducing, probably in B.C. 505, the cities of Byzantium, Chalcedon, + Antandrus, and Lamponium, with the two adjacent islands of Letnnos and + Imbrus. The inhabitants of all were, it appears, taxable, either with + having failed to give contingents towards the Scythian expedition, or with + having molested it on its return—crimes these, which Otanes thought + it right to punish by their general enslavement. + </p> + <p> + Darius, meanwhile, had proceeded to the seat of government, which appears + at this time to have been Susa. He had perhaps already built there the + great palace, whose remains have been recently disinterred by English + enterprise; or he may have wished to superintend the work of construction. + Susa, which was certainly from henceforth the main Persian capital, + possessed advantages over almost any other site. Its climate was softer + than that of Ecbatana and Persepolis, less sultry than that of Babylon. + Its position was convenient for communicating both with the East and with + the West. Its people were plastic, and probably more yielding and + submissive than the Medes or the Persians. The king, fatigued with his + warlike exertions, was glad for a while to rest and recruit himself at + Susa, in the tranquil life of the Court. For some years he appears to have + conceived no new aggressive project; and he might perhaps have forgotten + his designs upon Greece altogether, had not his memory been stirred by a + signal and extraordinary provocation. + </p> + <p> + The immediate circumstances which led to the Ionian Revolt belong to Greek + rather than to Persian history, and have been so fully treated of by the + historians of the Hellenic race that a knowledge of them may be assumed as + already possessed by the reader. What is chiefly remarkable about them is, + that they are so purely private and personal. A chance quarrel between + Aristagoras of Miletus and the Persian Megabates, pecuniary difficulties + pressing on the former, and the natural desire of Histiseus, father-in-law + of Aristagoras, to revisit his native place, were undoubtedly the direct + and immediate causes of what became a great national outbreak. That there + must have been other and wider predisposing causes can scarcely be + doubted. Among them two may be suggested. The presence of Darius in Asia + Minor, and his friendliness towards the tyrants who bore sway in most of + the Greek cities, were calculated to elate those persons in their own + esteem, and to encourage in them habits and acts injurious or offensive to + their subjects. Their tyranny under these circumstances would become more + oppressive and galling. At the same time the popular mind could not fail + to associate together the native despot and the foreign lord, who (it was + clear to all) supported and befriended each other. If the Greeks of Asia, + like so many of their brethren in Europe, had grown weary of their tyrants + and were desirous of rising against them, they would be compelled to + contemplate the chances of a successful resistance to the Persians. And + here there were circumstances in the recent history calculated to inspirit + them and give them hopes. Six hundred Greek ships, manned probably by + 120,000 men, had been lately brought together, and had formed a united + fleet. The fate of the Persian land-army had depended on their fidelity. + It is not surprising that a sense of strength should have been developed, + and something like a national spirit should have grown up in such a + condition of things. + </p> + <p> + If this were the state of feeling among the Greeks, the merit of + Aristagoras would be, that he perceived it, and, regardless of all class + prejudices, determined to take advantage of the chance which it gave him + of rising superior to his embarrassments. Throwing himself on the popular + feeling, the strength of which he had estimated aright, he by the same act + gave freedom to the cities, and plunged his nation into a rebellion + against Persia. It was easy for reason to show, when the matter was calmly + debated, that the probabilities of success against the might of Darius + were small. But the arrest of the tyrants by Aristagoras, and his + deliverance of them into the hands of their subjects, was an appeal to + passion against which reason was powerless. No state could resist the + temptation of getting rid of the tyranny under which it groaned. But the + expulsion of the vassal committed those who took part in it to resist in + arms the sovereign lord. + </p> + <p> + In the original revolt appear to have been included only the cities of + Ionia and AEolis. Aristagoras felt that some further strength was needed, + and determined to seek it in European Greece. Repulsed from Sparta, which + was disinclined to so distant an expedition, he applied for aid to cities + on which he had a special claim. Miletus counted Athens as her mother + state; and Eretria was indebted to her for assistance in her great war + with Chalcis. Applying in these quarters Aristagoras succeeded better, but + still obtained no very important help. Athens voted him twenty ships, + Eretria five and with the promise of these succors he hastened back to + Asia. + </p> + <p> + The European contingent soon afterwards arrived; and Aristagoras, anxious + to gain some signal success which should attract men to his cause, + determined on a most daring enterprise. This was no less than an attack on + Sardis, the chief seat of the Persian power in these parts, and by far the + most important city of Asia Minor. Sailing to Ephesus, he marched up the + valley of the Cayster, crossed Mount Tmolus, and took the Lydian capital + at the first onset. Artaphernes, the satrap, was only able to save the + citadel; the invaders began to plunder the town, and in the confusion it + caught fire and was burnt. Aristagoras and his troops hastily retreated, + but were overtaken before they could reach Ephesus by the Persians + quartered in the province, who fell upon them and gave them a severe + defeat. The expedition then broke up; the Asiatic Greeks dispersed among + their cities; the Athenians and Eretrians took ship and sailed home. + </p> + <p> + Results followed that could scarcely have been anticipated. The failure of + the expedition was swallowed up in the glory of its one achievement. It + had taken Sardis—it had burnt one of the chief cities of the Great + King. The news spread like wildfire on every side, and was proclaimed + aloud in places where the defeat of Ephesus was never even whispered. + Everywhere revolt burst out. The Greeks of the Hellespont—not only + those of Asia but likewise those of Europe—the Carians and Caunians + of the south-western coast—even the distant Cyprians broke into + rebellion; the Scythians took heart and made a plundering raid through the + Great King’s Thracian territories;4 vassal monarchs, like Miltiades, + assumed independence, and helped themselves to some of the fragments of + the Empire that seemed falling to pieces. If a great man, a Miltiades or a + Leondias, had been at the head of the movement, and if it had been + decently supported from the European side, a successful issue might + probably have been secured. + </p> + <p> + But Aristagoras was unequal to the occasion; and the struggle for + independence, which had promised so fair, was soon put down. Despite a + naval victory gained by the Greeks over the Phoenician fleet off Cyprus, + that island was recovered by the Persians within a year. Despite a courage + and a perseverance worthy of a better fate, the Carians were soon + afterwards forced to succumb. The reduction of the Hellespontine Greeks + and of the AEolians followed. The toils now closed around Ionia, and her + cities began to be attacked one by one; whereupon the incapable + Aristagoras, deserting the falling cause, betook himself to Europe, where + a just Nemesis pursued him: he died by a Thracian sword. After this the + climax soon arrived. Persia concentrated her strength upon Miletus, the + cradle of the revolt, and the acknowledged chief of the cities; and though + her sister states came gallantly to her aid, and a fleet was collected + which made it for a while doubtful which way victory might incline, yet + all was of no avail. Laziness and insubordination began and treachery + completed the work which all the force of Persia might have failed to + accomplish; the combined Ionian fleet was totally defeated in the battle + of Lade; and soon after Miletus herself fell. The bulk of her inhabitants + were transported into inner Asia and settled upon the Persian Gulf. The + whole Ionian coast was ravaged, and the cities punished by the loss of + their most beautiful maidens and youths. The islands off the coast were + swept of their inhabitants. The cities on the Hellespont and Sea of + Marmora were burnt. Miltiades barely escaped from the Chersonese with the + loss of his son and his kingdom. The flames of rebellion were everywhere + ruthlessly trampled out; and the power of the Great King was once more + firmly established over the coasts and islands of the Propontis and the + Egean Sea. + </p> + <p> + It remained, however, to take vengeance upon the foreigners who had dared + to lend their aid to the king’s revolted subjects, and had borne a part in + the burning of Sardis. The pride of the Persians felt such interference as + an insult of the grossest kind: and the tale may well be true that Darius, + from the time that he first heard the news, employed an officer to bid him + daily “remember Athens.” The schemes which he had formerly entertained + with respect to the reduction of Greece recurred with fresh force to his + mind; and the task of crushing the revolt was no sooner completed than he + proceeded to attempt their execution. Selecting Mardonius, son of Gobryas + the conspirator, and one of his own sons-in-law, for general, he gave him + the command of a powerful expedition, which was to advance by way of + Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, against Eretria and Athens. At the same + time, with a wisdom which we should scarcely have expected in an Oriental, + he commissioned him, ere he quitted Asia, to depose the tyrants who bore + rule in the Greek cities, and to allow the establishment of democracies in + their stead. Such a measure was excellently calculated to preserve the + fidelity of the Hellenic population and to prevent any renewal of + disturbance. It gave ample employment to unquiet spirits by opening to + them a career in their own states—and it removed the grievance + which, more than anything else, had produced the recent rebellion. + </p> + <p> + Mardonius having effected this change proceeded into Europe. He had a + large land force and a powerful navy, and at first was successful both by + land and sea. The fleet took Thasos, an island valuable for its mines; and + the army forced the Macedonians to exchange their position of + semi-independence for that of full Persian subjects, liable to both + tribute and military service. But this fair dawn was soon overcast. As the + fleet was rounding Athos a terrible tempest arose which, destroyed 300 + triremes and more than 20,000 men, some of whom were devoured by + sea-monsters, while the remainder perished by drowning. On shore, a night + attack of the Brygi, a Thracian tribe dwelling in the tract between the + Strymon and the Axius, brought disaster upon the land force, numbers of + which were slain, while Mardonius himself received a wound. This disgrace, + indeed, was retrieved by subsequent operations, which forced the Brygi to + make their submission; but the expedition found itself in no condition to + advance further, and Mardonius retreated into Asia. + </p> + <p> + Darius, however, did not allow failure to turn him from his purpose. The + attack of Mardonius was followed within two years by the well-known + expedition under Datis (B.C. 490), which, avoiding the dangers of Athos, + sailed direct to its object, crossing the Egean by the line of the + Cyclades, and falling upon Eretria and Attica. Eretria’s punishment warned + the Athenians to resist to the uttermost; and the skill of Miltiades, + backed by the valor of his countrymen, gave to Athens the great victory of + Marathon. Datis fell back upon Asia, having suffered worse disasters than + his predecessor, and bore to the king the melancholy tidings that his vast + force of from 100,000 to 200,000 men had been met and worsted by 20,000 + Athenians and Plataeans. + </p> + <p> + Still Darius was not shaken in his resolution. He only issued fresh orders + for the collection of men, ships, and materials. For three years Asia + resounded with the din of preparation; and it is probable that in the + fourth year a fresh expedition would have been led into Greece, had not an + important occurrence prevented it. Egypt, always discontented with its + subject position under a race which despised its religion, and perhaps + occasionally persecuted it, broke out into open revolt (B.C. 487). Darius, + it seems, determined to divide his forces, and proceed simultaneously + against both enemies; he even contemplated leading one of the two + expeditions in person; but before his preparations were completed his + vital powers failed. He died in the year following the Egyptian revolt + (B.C. 486), in the sixty-third year of his age, and the thirty-sixth of + his reign, leaving his crown to his eldest son by Atossa, Xerxes. + </p> + <p> + The character of Darius will have revealed itself with tolerable clearness + in the sketch which has been here given of the chief events of his reign. + But a brief summary of some of its main points may not be superfluous. + Darius Hystaspis was, next to Cyrus, the greatest of the Persian kings; + and he was even superior to Cyrus in some particulars. His military talent + has been underrated. Though not equal to the founder of the Empire in this + respect, he deserves the credit of energy, vigor, foresight, and judicious + management in his military expeditions, of promptness in resolving and + ability in executing, of discrimination in the selection of generals, and + of a power of combination not often found in Oriental commanders. He was + personally brave, and quite willing to expose himself, even in his old + age, to dangers and hardships. But he did not unnecessarily thrust himself + into peril. He was content to employ generals, where the task to be + accomplished did not seem to be beyond their powers; and he appears to + have been quite free from an unworthy jealousy of their successes. He was + a man of kindly and warm feeling—strongly attached to his friends; + he was clement and even generous towards conquered foes. When he thought + the occasion required it, he could be severe but his inclination was + towards mildness and indulgence. He excelled all the other Persian kings + in the arts of peace. To him, and him alone, the Empire owed its + organization. He was a skilful administrator, a good financier, and a wise + and far-seeing ruler. Of all the Persian princes he is the only one who + can be called “many-sided.” He was organizer, general, statesman, + administrator, builder, patron of arts and literature, all in one. Without + him Persia would probably have sunk as rapidly as she rose, and would be + known to us only as one of the many meteor powers which have shot athwart + the horizon of the East. + </p> + <p> + Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius by Atossa, succeeded his father by virtue + of a formal act of choice. It was a Persian custom that the king, before + he went out of his dominions on an expedition, should nominate a + successor. Darius must have done this before his campaign in Thrace and + Scythia; and if Xerxes was then, as is probable, a mere boy, it is + impossible that he should have received the appointment. Artobazanes, the + eldest of all Darius’s sons, whose mother, a daughter of Gobryas, was + married to Darius before he became king, was most likely then nominated, + and was thenceforth regarded as the heir-apparent. When, however, towards + the close of his reign Darius again proposed to head a foreign expedition, + an opportunity occurred of disturbing this arrangement, of which Atossa, + Darius’s favorite wife, whose influence over her husband was unbounded, + determined to take advantage. According to the law, a fresh signification + of the sovereign’s will was now requisite; and Atossa persuaded Darius to + make it in favor of Xerxes. The pleas put forward were, first, that he was + the eldest son of the king, and secondly, that he was descended from + Cyrus. This latter argument could not fail to have weight. Backed by the + influence of Atossa, it prevailed over all other considerations; and hence + Xerxes obtained the throne. + </p> + <p> + If we may trust the informants of Herodotus, it was the wish of Xerxes on + his accession to discontinue the preparations against Greece, and confine + his efforts to the re-conquest of Egypt. Though not devoid of ambition, he + may well have been distrustful of his own powers; and, having been + nurtured in luxury, he may have shrunk from the perils of a campaign in + unknown regions. But he was surrounded by advisers who had interests + opposed to his inclinations, and who worked on his facile temper till they + prevailed on him to take that course which seemed best calculated to + promote their designs. Mardonius was anxious to retrieve his former + failure, and expected, if Greece were conquered, that the rich prize would + become his own satrapy. The refugee princes of the family of Pisistratus + hoped to be reinstated under Persian influence as dependent despots of + Athens. Demaratus of Sparta probably cherished a similar expectation with + regard to that capital. The Persian nobles generally, who profited by the + spoils of war, and who were still full of the military spirit, looked + forward with pleasure to an expedition from which they anticipated + victory, plunder, and thousands of valuable captives. The youthful king + was soon persuaded that the example of his predecessors required him to + undertake some fresh conquest, while the honor of Persia absolutely + demanded that the wrongs inflicted upon her by Athens should be avenged. + Before, however, turning his arms against Greece, two revolts required his + attention. In the year B.C. 485—the second of his reign—he + marched into Egypt, which he rapidly reduced to obedience and punished by + increasing its burthens. Soon afterwards he seems to have provoked a + rebellion of the Babylonians by acts which they regarded as impious, and + avenged by killing their satrap, Zopyrus, and proclaiming their + independence. Megabyzus, the son of Zopyrus, recovered the city, which was + punished by the plunder and ruin of its famous temple and the desolation + of many of its shrines. + </p> + <p> + Xerxes was now free to bend all his efforts against Greece, and, + appreciating apparently to the full the magnitude and difficulty of the + task, resolved that nothing should be left undone which could possibly be + done in order to render success certain. The experience of former years + had taught some important lessons. The failure of Datis had proved that + such an expedition as could be conveyed by sea across the Egean would be + insufficient to secure the object sought, and that the only safe road for + a conqueror whose land force constituted his real strength was along the + shores of the European continent. But if a large army took this long and + circuitous route, it must be supported by a powerful fleet; and this + involved a new danger. The losses of Mardonius off Athos had shown the + perils of Egean navigation, and taught the lesson that the naval force + must be at first far more than proportionate to the needs of the army, in + order that it might still be sufficient notwithstanding some considerable + disasters. At the same time they had indicated one special place of + danger, which might be avoided, if proper measures were taken. Xerxes, in + the four years which followed on the reduction of Egypt, continued + incessantly to make the most gigantic preparations for his intended attack + upon Greece, and among them included all the precautions which a wise + foresight could devise in order to ward off every conceivable peril. A + general order was issued to all the satraps throughout the Empire, calling + on them to levy the utmost force of their province for the new war; while, + as the equipment of Oriental troops depends greatly on the purchase and + distribution of arms by their commander, a rich reward was promised to the + satrap whose contingent should appear at the appointed place and time in + the most gallant array. Orders for ships and transports of different kinds + were given to the maritime states, with such effect that above 1200 + triremes and 3000 vessels of an inferior description were collected + together. Magazines of corn were formed at various points along the + intended line of route. Above all, it was determined to bridge the + Hellespont by a firm and compact structure, which it was thought would + secure the communication of the army from interruption by the elements; + and at the same time it was resolved to cut through the isthmus which + joined Mount Athos to the continent, in order to preserve the fleet from + disaster at that most perilous part of the proposed voyage. These + remarkable works, which made a deep impression on the minds of the Greeks, + have been ascribed to a mere spirit of ostentation on the part of Xerxes; + the vain-glorious monarch wished, it is supposed, to parade his power, and + made a useless bridge and an absurd cutting merely for the purpose of + exhibiting to the world the grandeur of his ideas and the extent of his + resources. But there is no necessity for travelling beyond the line of + ordinary human motive in order to discover a reason for the works in + question. The bridge across the Hellespont was a mere repetition of the + construction by which Darius had passed into Europe when he made his + Scythian expedition, and probably seemed to a Persian not a specially + dignified or very wonderful way of crossing so narrow a strait, but merely + the natural mode of passage. The only respect in which the bridge of + Xerxes differed from constructions with which the Persians were thoroughly + familiar, was in its superior solidity and strength. The shore-cables were + of unusual size and weight, and apparently of unusual materials; the + formation of a double line—of two bridges, in fact, instead of one—was + almost without a parallel; and the completion of the work by laying on the + ordinary plank-bridge a solid causeway composed of earth and brushwood, + with a high bulwark on either side, was probably, if not unprecedented, at + any rate very uncommon. Boat-bridges were usually, as they are even now in + the East, somewhat rickety constructions, which animals unaccustomed to + them could with difficulty be induced to cross. The bridge of Xerxes was a + high-road, as AEschylus calls it along, which men, horses, and vehicles + might pass with as much comfort and facility as they could move on shore. + </p> + <p> + The utility of such a work is evident. Without it Xerxes must have been + reduced to the necessity of embarking in ships, conveying across the + strait, and disembarking, not only his entire host, but all its stores, + tents, baggage, horses, camels, and sumpter-beasts. If the numbers of his + army approached even the lowest estimate that has been formed of them, it + is not too much to say that many weeks must have been spent in this + operation. As it was, the whole expedition marched across in seven days. + In the case of ship conveyance, continual accidents would have happened: + the transport would from time to time have been interrupted by bad + weather; and great catastrophes might have occurred. By means of the + bridge the passage was probably effected without any loss of either man or + beast. Moreover, the bridge once established, there was a safe line of + communication thenceforth between the army in Europe and the headquarters + of the Persian power in Asia, along which might pass couriers, supplies, + and reinforcements, if they should be needed. Further, the grandeur, + massiveness, and apparent stability of the work was calculated to impose + upon the minds of men, and to diminish their power of resistance by + impressing them strongly with a sense of the irresistible greatness and + strength of the invader. + </p> + <p> + The canal of Athos was also quite a legitimate and judicious undertaking. + <a href="#linkCimage-0002">[PLATE LXI.]</a> No portion of the Greek coast + is so dangerous as that about Athos. Greek boatmen even at the present day + refuse to attempt the circumnavigation; and probably any government less + apathetic than that of the Turks would at once re-open the old cutting. + The work was one of very little difficulty, the breadth of the isthmus + being less than a mile and a half, the material sand and marl, and the + greatest height of the natural ground above the level of the sea about + fifty feet. The construction of a canal in such a locality was certainly + better than the formation of a ship-groove or Diolcus—the substitute + for it proposed by Ferodotus, <a href="#linkCimage-0002">[PLATE LXI.]</a> + not to mention that it is doubtful whether at the time that this cutting + was made ship-grooves were known even to the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0002" id="linkCimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate061.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate Lxi. " /> + </div> + <p> + Xerxes, having brought his preparations into a state of forwardness, + having completed his canal and his bridge—after one failure with the + latter, for which the constructors and the sea were punished—proceeded, + in the year B.C. 481, along the “Royal Road” from Susa to Sardis, and + wintered at the Lydian capital. His army is said to have accompanied him; + but more probably it joined him in the spring, flocking in, contingent + after contingent, from the various provinces of his vast Empire. + Forty-nine nations, according to Herodotus, served under his standard; and + their contingents made up a grand total of eighteen hundred thousand men. + Of these, eighty thousand were cavalry, while twenty thousand rode in + chariots or on camels; the remainder served on foot. There are no + sufficient means of testing these numbers. Figures in the mouth of an + Oriental are vague and almost unmeaning; armies are never really counted: + there is no such thing as a fixed and definite “strength” of a division or + a battalion. Herodotus tells us that a rough attempt at numbering the + infantry of the host was made on this occasion; but it was of so rude and + primitive a description that little dependence can be placed on the + results obtained by it. Ten thousand men were counted, and were made to + stand close together; a line was then drawn round them, and a wall built + on the line to the height of a man’s waist; within the enclosure thus made + all the troops in turn entered, and each time that the enclosure appeared + to be full, ten thousand were supposed to be within it. Estimated in this + way, the infantry was regarded as amounting to 1,700,000. It is clear that + such mode of counting was of the roughest kind, and might lead to gross + exaggeration. Each commander would wish his troops to be thought more + numerous than they really were, and would cause the enclosure to appear + full when several thousands more might still have found room within it. + Nevertheless there would be limits beyond which exaggeration could not go; + and if Xerxes was made to believe that the land force which he took with + him into Europe amounted to nearly two millions of men, it is scarcely + doubtful but that it must have exceeded one million. + </p> + <p> + The motley composition of such a host has been described in a former + chapter. Each nation was armed and equipped after its own fashion, and + served in a body, often under a distinct commander. The army marched + through Asia in a single column, which was not, however, continuous, but + was broken into three portions. The first portion consisted of the baggage + animals and about half of the contingents of the nations; the second was + composed wholly of native Persians, who preceded and followed the emblems + of religion and the king; the third was made up of the remaining national + contingents. The king himself rode alternately in a chariot and in a + litter. He was preceded immediately by ten sacred horses, and a sacred + chariot drawn by eight milk-white steeds. Round him and about him were the + choicest troops of the whole army, twelve thousand horse and the same + number of foot, all Persians, and those too not taken at random, but + selected carefully from the whole mass of the native soldiery. Among them + seem to have been the famous “Immortals”—a picked body of 10,000 + footmen, always maintained at exactly the same number, and thence deriving + their appellation. + </p> + <p> + The line of march from Sardis to Abydos was only partially along the + shore. The army probably descended the valley of the Hermus nearly to its + mouth, and then struck northward into the Caicus vale, crossing which it + held on its way, with Mount Kara-dagh (Cane) on the left, across the + Atarnean plain, and along the coast to Adramytium (Adramyti) and + Antandros, whence it again struck inland, and, crossing the ridge of Ida, + descended into the valley of the Scamander. Some losses were incurred from + the effects of a violent thunderstorm amid the mountains; but they cannot + have been of a any great consequence. On reaching the Scamander the army + found its first difficulty with respect to water. That stream was probably + low, and the vast host of men and animals were unable to obtain from it a + supply sufficient for their wants. This phenomenon, we are told, + frequently recurred afterwards; it surprises the English reader, but is + not really astonishing, since, in hot countries, even considerable streams + are often reduced to mere threads of water during the summer. + </p> + <p> + Rounding the hills which skirt the Scamander valley upon the east, the + army marched past Rhoeteum, Ophrynium, and Dardanus to Abydos. Here + Xerxes, seated upon a marble throne, which the people of Abydos had + erected for him on the summit of a hill, was able to see at one glance his + whole, armament, and to feast his eyes with the sight. It is not likely + that any misgivings occurred to him at such a moment. Before him lay his + vast host, covering with its dense masses the entire low ground between + the hills and the sea; beyond was the strait, and to his left the open + sea, white with the sails of four thousand ships; the green fields of the + Chersonese smiled invitingly a little further on; while, between him and + the opposite shore, the long lines of his bridges lay darkling upon the + sea, like a yoke placed upon the neck of a captive. Having seen all, the + king gave his special attention to the fleet, which he now perhaps beheld + in all its magnitude for the first time. Desirous of knowing which of his + subjects were the best sailors, he gave orders for a sailing-match, which + were at once carried out. The palm was borne off by the Phoenicians of + Sidon, who must have beaten not only their own countrymen of Tyre, but the + Greeks of Asia and the islands. + </p> + <p> + On the next day the passage took place. It was accompanied by religious + ceremonies. Waiting for the sacred hour of sunrise, the leader of the + host, as the first rays appeared, poured a libation from a golden goblet + into the sea, and prayed to Mithra that he might effect the conquest of + Europe. As he prayed he cast into the sea the golden goblet, and with it a + golden bowl and a short Persian sword. Meanwhile the multitude strewed all + the bridge with myrtle boughs, and perfumed it with clouds of incense. The + “Immortals” crossed first, wearing garlands on their heads. The king, with + the sacred chariot and horses passed over on the second day. For seven + days and seven nights the human stream flowed on without intermission + across one bridge, while the attendants and the baggage-train made use of + the other. The lash was employed to quicken the movements of laggards. At + last the whole army was in Europe, and the march resumed its regularity. + </p> + <p> + It is unnecessary to follow in detail the advance of the host along the + coast of Thrace, across Chalcidice, and round the Thermaic Gulf into + Pieria. If we except the counting of the fleet and army at Doriscus no + circumstances of much interest diversified this portion of the march, + which lay entirely through territories that had previously submitted to + the Great King. The army spread itself over a wide tract of country, + marching generally in three divisions, which proceeded by three parallel + lines—one along the coast, another at some considerable distance + inland, and a third, with which was Xerxes himself, midway between them. + At every place where Xerxes stopped along his line of route the natives + had, besides furnishing corn for his army, to entertain him and his suite + at a great banquet, the cost of which was felt as a heavy burthen. + Contributions of troops or ships were also required from all the cities + and tribes; and thus both fleet and army continually swelled as they + advanced onward. In crossing the track between the Strymon and the Axius + some damage was suffered by the baggage-train from lions, which came down + from the mountains during the night and devoured many of the camels; but + otherwise the march was effected without loss, and the fleet and army + reached the borders of Thessaly intact, and in good condition. Here it was + found that there was work for the pioneers, and a reconnaissance of the + enemy’s country before entering it was probably also thought desirable. + The army accordingly halted some days in Pieria, while preparations were + being made for crossing the Olympic range into the Thessalian lowland. + </p> + <p> + During the halt intelligence arrived which seemed to promise the invader + an easy conquest. Xerxes, while he was staying at Sardis, had sent heralds + to all the Grecian states, excepting Athens and Sparta, with a demand for + earth and water, the recognized symbols of submission. His envoys now + returned, and brought him favorable replies from at least one-third of the + continental Greeks—from the Perrhaebians, Thessalians, Dolopians, + Magnetians, Achaeans of Phthiotis, Enianians, Malians, Locrians, and from + most of the Boeotians. Unless it were the insignificant Phocis, no hostile + country seemed to intervene between the place where his army lay and the + great object of the expedition, Attica. Xerxes, therefore, having first + viewed the pass of Tempe, and seen with his own eyes that no enemy lay + encamped beyond, passed over the Olympic range by a road cut through the + woods by his army, and proceeded southwards across Thessaly and Achaea + Phthiotis into Malis, the fertile plain at the mouth of the Spercheius + river. Here, having heard that a Greek force was in the neighborhood, he + pitched his camp not far from the small town of Trachis. + </p> + <p> + Thus far had the Greeks allowed the invader to penetrate their country + without offering him any resistance. Originally there had been an + intention of defending Thessaly, and an army under Evsenetus, a Spartan + polemarch, and Themistocles, the great Athenian, had proceeded to Tempe, + in order to cooperate with the Thessalians in guarding the pass. But the + discovery that the Olympic range could be crossed in the,place where the + army of Xerxes afterwards passed it had shown that the position was + untenable; and it had been then resolved that the stand should be made at + the next defensible position, Thermopylae. <a href="#linkCimage-0003">[PLATE + LXII.]</a> Here, accordingly, a force was found—small, indeed, if it + be compared with the number of the assailants, but sufficient to defend + such a position as that where it was posted against the world in arms. + Three hundred Spartans, with their usual retinue of helots, 700 + Lacedaemonians, other Peloponnesians to the number of 2800, 1000 Phocians, + the same number of Locrians, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, formed an + army of 9000 men—quite as numerous a force as could be employed with + any effect in the defile they were sent to guard. The defile was a long + and narrow pass shut in between a high mountain, Callidromus, and the sea, + and crossed at one point by a line of wall in which was a single gateway. + Unless the command of the sea were gained, or another mode of crossing the + mountains discovered, the pass could scarcely be forced. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0003" id="linkCimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate062.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate062th (143K)" src="images/plate062th.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + Xerxes, however, confident in his numbers—after waiting four days at + Trachis, probably in the hope that his fleet would join him—proceeded + on the fifth day to the assault. First the Medes and Cissians, then the + famous “Immortals” were sent into the jaws of the pass against the + immovable foe; but neither detachment could make any impression. The long + spears, large shields, and heavy armor of the Greeks, their skilful + tactics, and steady array, were far more than a match for the inferior + equipments and discipline of the Asiatics. Though the attack was made with + great gallantry, both on this day and the next, it failed to produce the + slightest effect. Very few of the Greeks were either slain or wounded; and + it seemed as if the further advance of a million of men was to be stopped + by a force less than a hundredth part of their number. + </p> + <p> + But now information reached Xerxes which completely changed the face of + affairs. There was a rough mountain-path leading from Trachis up the gorge + of the Asopus and across Callidromus to the rear of the Greek position, + which had been unknown to the Greeks when they decided on making their + first stand at Thermopylae, and which they only discovered when their + plans no longer admitted of alteration. It was, perhaps, not much more + than a goat-track, and apparently they had regarded it as scarcely + practicable, since they had thought its defence might be safely entrusted + to a thousand Phocians. Xerxes, however, on learning the existence of the + track, resolved at once to make trial of it. His Persian soldiers were + excellent mountaineers. He ordered Hydarnes to take the “Immortals,” and, + guided by a native, to proceed along the path by night, and descend with + early dawn into the rear of the Greeks, who would then be placed between + two fires. The operation was performed with complete success. The Phocian + guard, surprised at the summit, left the path free while they sought a + place of safety. The Greeks in the pass below, warned during the night of + their danger, in part fled, in part resolved on death. When morning came, + Leonidas, at the head of about half his original army, moved forward + towards the Malian plain, and there met the advancing Persians. A bloody + combat ensued, in which the Persians lost by far the greater number; but + the ranks of the Greeks were gradually thinned, and they were beaten back + step by step into the narrowest part of the pass, where finally they all + perished, except the four hundred Thebans, who submitted and were made + prisoners. + </p> + <p> + So terminated the first struggle on the soil of Greece, between the + invaders and the invaded. It seemed to promise that, though at vast cost, + Persia would be victorious. If her loss in the three days’ combat was + 20,000 men, as Herodotus states, yet, as that of her enemy was 4000, the + proportionate advantage was on her side. + </p> + <p> + But, for the conquest of such a country as Greece, it was requisite, not + only that the invader should succeed on land, but also that he should be + superior at sea. Xerxes had felt this, and had brought with him a fleet, + calculated, as he imagined, to sweep the Greek navy from the Egean. As far + as the Pagasaean Gulf, opposite the northern extremity of Euboea, his + fleet had advanced without meeting an enemy. It had encountered one + terrible storm off the coast of Magnesia, and had lost 400 vessels; but + this loss was scarcely felt in so vast an armament. When from Aphetse, at + the mouth of the gulf, the small Greek fleet, amounting to no more than + 271 vessels, was seen at anchor off Artemisium, the only fear which the + Persian commanders entertained was lest it should escape them. They at + once detached 200 vessels to sail round the Coast coast of Euboea, and cut + off the possibility of retreat. When, however, these vessels were all lost + in a storm, and when in three engagements on three successive days, the + Greek fleet showed itself fully able to contend against the superior + numbers of its antagonist, the Persians themselves could not fail to see + that their naval supremacy was more than doubtful. The fleet at Artemisium + was not the entire Greek naval force; on another occasion it might be + augumented, while their own could scarcely expect to receive + reinforcements. The fights at Artemisium foreshadowed a day when the rival + fleets would no longer meet and part on equal terms, but Persia would have + to acknowledge herself inferior. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, however, the balance of advantage rested with the invaders. The + key of Northern Greece was won, and Phocis, Locris, Boeotia, Attica, and + the Megarid lay open to the Persian army. The Greek fleet could gain + nothing by any longer maintaining the position of Artemisium, and fell + back towards the south, while its leaders anxiously considered where it + should next take up its station. The Persians pressed on both by land and + sea. A rapid march through Phocis and Boeotia brought Xerxes to Athens, + soon after the Athenians, knowing that resistance would be vain, had + evacuated it. The Acropolis, defended by a few fanatics, was taken and + burnt. One object of the expedition was thus accomplished. Athens lay in + ruins; and the whole of Attica was occupied by the conqueror. The Persian + fleet, too, finding the channel of the Euripus clear, sailed down it, and + rounding Sunium, came to anchor in the bay of Phalerum. + </p> + <p> + In the councils of the Greeks all was doubt and irresolution. The army, + which ought to have mustered in full force at Thermopylae and Callidromus, + and which, after those passes were forced, might have defended Cithseron + and Parnes, had never ventured beyond the Isthmus of Corinth, and was + there engaged in building a wall across the neck of land from sea to sea. + The fleet lay off Salamis, where it was detained by the entreaties of the + Athenians, who had placed in that island the greater part of the + non-combatant population; but the inclination was strong on the part of + many to withdraw westward and fight the next battle, if a battle must be + fought, in the vicinity of the land force, which would be a protection in + case of defeat. Could Xerxes have had patience for a few days, the + combined fleet would have broken up. The Peloponnesian contingents would + have withdrawn to the isthmus; and the Athenians, despairing of success, + would probably have sailed away to Italy. But the Great King, when he saw + the vast disproportion between his own fleet and that of the enemy, could + not believe in the possibility of the Greeks offering a successful + resistance. Like a modern emperor, who imagined that, if only he could + have been with his fleet, all would necessarily have gone well, Xerxes + supposed that by having the sea-fight under his own eye he would be sure + of victory. Thus again, as at Artemisium, the only fear felt was lest the + Greeks should fly, and in that way escape chastisement. Orders were + therefore issued to the Persian fleet to close up at once, and blockade + the eastern end of the Salaminian strait, while a detachment repeated the + attempted manoeuvre at Euboea, and sailed round the island to guard the + channel at its western outlet. + </p> + <p> + These movements were executed late in the day on which the Persian fleet + arrived at Phalerum. During the night intelligence reached the commanders + that the retreat of the Greeks was about to commence at once; whereupon + the Persian right wing was pushed forward into the strait, and carried + beyond the Greek position so as to fill the channel where it opens into + the bay of Eleusis. The remainder of the night passed in preparations for + the battle on both sides. At daybreak both fleets advanced from their + respective shores, the Persians being rather the assailants. Their + thousand vessels were drawn up in three lines, and charged their + antagonists with such spirit that the general inclination on the part of + the Greeks was at first to retreat. Some of their ships had almost touched + the shore, when the bold example of one of the captains, or a cry of + reproach from unknown lips, produced a revulsion of feeling, and the whole + line advanced in good order. The battle was for a short time doubtful; but + soon the superiority of Greek naval tactics began to tell. The Persian + vessels became entangled one with another, and crashing together broke + each other’s oars. The triple line increased their difficulties. If a + vessel, overmatched, sought to retreat, it necessarily came into collision + with the ships stationed in its rear. These moreover pressed too eagerly + forward, since their captains were anxious to distinguish themselves in + order to merit the approval of Xerxes. The Greeks found themselves able to + practice with good effect their favorite manoeuvre of the <i>periplus</i>, + and thus increased the confusion. It was not long before the greater part + of the Persian fleet became a mere helpless mass of shattered or damaged + vessels. Five hundred are said to have been sunk—the majority by the + enemy, but some even by their own friends. The sea was covered with + wrecks, and with wretches who clung to them, till the ruthless enemy slew + them or forced them to let go their hold. + </p> + <p> + This defeat was a death-blow to the hopes of Xerxes, and sealed the fate + of the expedition. From the moment that he realized to himself the fact of + the entire inability of his fleet to cope with that of the Greeks, Xerxes + made up his mind to return with all haste to Asia. From over-confidence he + fell into the opposite extreme of despair, and made no effort to retrieve + his ill fortune. His fleet was ordered to sail straight for the + Hellespont, and to guard the bridges until he reached them with his army. + He himself retreated hastily along the same road by which he had advanced, + his whole army accompanying him as far as Thessaly, where Marnonius was + left with 260,000 picked men, to prevent pursuit, and to renew the attempt + against Greece in the ensuing year. Xerxes pressed on to the Hellespont, + losing vast numbers of his troops by famine and sickness on the way, and + finally returned into Asia, not by his magnificent bridge, which a storm + had destroyed, but on board a vessel, which, according to some, narrowly + escaped shipwreck during the passage. Even in Asia disaster pursued him. + Between Abydos and Sardis his army suffered almost as much from + over-indulgence as it had previously suffered from want; and of the mighty + host which had gone forth from the Lydian capital in the spring not very + many thousands can have re-entered it in the autumn. + </p> + <p> + Still, however, there was a possibility that the success which his own + arms had failed to achieve might reward the exertions of his lieutenants. + Mardonius had expressed himself confident that with 300,000 picked + soldiers he could overpower all resistance, and make Greece a satrapy of + Persia. Xerxes had raised his forces to that amount by sending Artabazus + back from Sestos at the head of a <i>corps d’armee</i> numbering 40,000 + men. The whole army of 300,000 wintered in Thessaly; and Mardonius, when + spring came, having vainly endeavored to detach the Athenians from the + Grecian ranks, marched through Boeotia in Attica, and occupied Athens for + the second time. Hence he proceeded to menace the Peloponnese, where he + formed an alliance with the Argives, who promised him that they would + openly embrace the Persian cause. At the same time the Athenians, finding + that Sparta took no steps to help them, began to waver in their + resistance, and to contemplate accepting the terms which Mardonius was + still willing to grant them. The fate of Greece trembled in the balance, + and apparently was determined by the accident of a death and a succession, + rather than by any wide-spread patriotic feeling or any settled course of + policy. Cleombrotus, regent for the young son of Leonidas, died, and his + brother Pausanias—a brave, clever, and ambitious man—took his + place. We can scarcely be wrong in ascribing—at least in part—to + this circumstance the unlooked-for change of policy, which electrified the + despondent ambassadors of Athens almost as soon as Pausanias was installed + in power. It was suddenly announced that Sparta would take the offensive. + Ten thousand hoplites and 400,000 light-armed—the largest army that + she ever levied—took the field, and, joined at the isthmus by above + 25,000 Peloponnesians, and soon afterwards by almost as many Athenians and + Megarians, proceeded to seek the foreigners, first in Attica, and then in + the position to which they had retired in Boeotia. On the skirts of + Citheeron, near Platsea, a hundred and eight thousand Greeks confronted + more than thrice their number of Persians and Persian subjects; and now at + length the trial was to be made whether, in fair and open fight on land, + Greece or Persia would be superior. A suspicion of what the result would + be might have been derived from Marathon. But there the Persians had been + taken at a disadvantage, when the cavalry, their most important arm, was + absent. Here the error of Datis was not likely to be repeated. Mardonius + had a numerous and well-armed cavalry, which he handled with no little + skill. It remained to be seen, when the general engagement came, whether, + with both arms brought fully into play, the vanquished at Marathon would + be the victors. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Plataea was brought on under circumstances very unfavorable + to the Greeks. Want of water and a difficulty about provisions had + necessitated a night movement on their part. The cowardice of all the + small contingents, and the obstinacy of an individual Spartan, + disconcerted the whole plan of the operation, and left the Lacedaemonians + and the Athenians at daybreak separated from each other, and deserted by + the whole body of their allies. Mardonius attacked at once, and prevented + the junction of the two allies, so that two distinct and separate + engagements went on at the same time. In both the Greeks were victorious. + The Spartans repulsed the Persian horse and foot, slew Mardonius and were + the first to assail the Persian camp. The Athenians defeated the <i>medizing</i> + Greeks, and effected a breach in the defences of the camp, on which the + Spartans had failed to make any impression. A terrible carnage followed. + The contingent of 40,000 troops under Artabazus alone drew off in good + order. + </p> + <p> + The remainder were seized with panic, and were either slaughtered like + sheep or fled in complete disarray. Seventy thousand Greeks not only + defeated but destroyed the army of 300,000 barbarians, which melted away + and disappeared making no further stand anywhere. The disaster of Marathon + was repeated on a larger scale, and without the resource of an + embarkation. Henceforth the immense superiority of Greek troops to Persian + was well known on both sides; and nothing but the distance from Greece of + her vital parts, and the quarrels of the Greek states among themselves, + preserved for nearly a century and a half the doomed empire of Persia. + </p> + <p> + The immediate result of the defeats of Salamis and Platsea was a + contraction of the Persian boundary towards the west. Though a few Persian + garrisons maintained themselves for some years on the further side of the + straits, soothing thereby the wounded vanity of the Great King, who liked + to think that he had still a hold on Europe; yet there can be no doubt + that, after the double flight of Xerxes and Artabazus, Macedonia, Pseonia, + and Thrace recovered their independence. Persia lost her European + provinces, and began the struggle to retain those of Asia. Terminus + receded, and having once receded never advanced again in this quarter. The + Greeks took the offensive. Sailing to Asia, they not only liberated from + their Persian bondage the islands which lay along the coast, but landing + their men on the continent, attacked and defeated an army of 60,000 + Persians at Mycale, and destroyed the remnant of the ships that had + escaped from Salamis. Could they have made up their minds to maintain a + powerful fleet permanently on the coast of Asia, they might at once have + deprived Persia of her whole sea-hoard on the Propontis and the Egean; but + neither of the two great powers of Greece was prepared for such a resolve. + Sparta disliked distant expeditions; and Athens did not as yet see her way + to undertaking the protection of the continental Greeks. She had much to + do at home, and had not yet discovered those weak points in her + adversary’s harness, which subsequently enabled her to secure by treaty + the freedom of the Greek cities upon the mainland. For the present, + therefore, Persia only lost the bulk of her European possessions, and the + islands of the Propontis and the Egean. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances which caused a renewal of Greek agressions upon Asia + towards the close of the reign of Xerxes are not very clearly narrated by + the authors who speak of them. It appears, however, that after twelve + years of petty operations, during which Eion was recovered, and Doriscus + frequently attacked, but without effect, the Athenians resolved, in B.C. + 466, upon a great expedition to the eastward. Collecting a fleet of 300 + vessels, which was placed under the command of Cimon, the son of + Miltiades, they sailed to the coast of Caria and Lycia, where they drove + the Persian garrisons out of the Greek towns, and augmenting their navy by + fresh contingents at every step, proceeded along the shores of Pamphylia + as far as the mouth of the river Eurymedon, where they found a Phoenician + fleet of 340 vessels, and a Persian army, stationed to protect the + territory. Engaging first the fleet they defeated it, and drove it ashore, + after which they disembarked and gained a victory over the Persian army. + As many as two hundred triremes were taken or destroyed. They then sailed + on towards Cyprus, where they met and destroyed a squadron of eighty + ships, which was on its way to reinforce the fleet at the Eurymedon. Above + a hundred vessels, 20,000 captives, and a vast amount of plunder were the + prize of this war; which had, however, no further effect on the relations + of the two powers. + </p> + <p> + In the following year the reign of Xerxes came to an end abruptly. With + this monarch seems to have begun those internal disorders of the seraglio, + which made the Court during more than a hundred and forty years a + perpetual scene of intrigues, assassinations, executions, and + conspiracies. Xerxes, who appears to have only one wife, Amestris, the + daughter (or grand-daughter) of the conspirator, Otanes, permitted himself + the free indulgence of illicit passion among the princesses of the Court, + the wives of his own near relatives. The most horrible results followed. + Amestris vented her jealous spite on those whom she regarded as guilty of + stealing from her the affections of her husband; and to prevent her + barbarities from producing rebellion, it was necessary to execute the + persons whom she had provoked, albeit they were near relations of the + monarch. The taint of incontinence spread among the members of the royal + family; and a daughter of the king, who was married to one of the most + powerful nobles, became notorious for her excesses. Eunuchs rose into + power, and fomented the evils which prevailed. The king made himself + bitter enemies among those whose position was close to his person. At + last, Artabanus, chief of the guard, a courtier of high rank, and + Aspamitres, a eunuch, who held the office of chamberlain, conspired + against their master, and murdered him in his sleeping apartment, after he + had reigned twenty years. + </p> + <p> + The character of Xerxes falls below that of any preceding monarch. + Excepting that he was not wholly devoid of a certain magnanimity, which + made him listen patiently to those who opposed his views or gave him + unpalatable advice and which prevented him from exacting vengeance on some + occasions, he had scarcely a trait whereon the mind can rest with any + satisfaction. Weak and easily led, puerile in his gusts of passion and his + complete abandonment of himself to them—selfish, fickle, boastful, + cruel, superstitious, licentious—he exhibits to us the Oriental + despot in the most contemptible of all his aspects—that wherein the + moral and the intellectual qualities are equally in defect, and the career + is one unvarying course of vice and folly. From Xerxes we have to date at + once the decline of the Empire in respect of territorial greatness and + military strength, and likewise its deterioration in regard to + administrative vigor and national spirit. With him commenced the + corruption of the Court—the fatal evil, which almost universally + weakens and destroys Oriental dynasties. His expedition against Greece + exhausted and depopulated the Empire; and though, by abstaining from + further military enterprises, he did what lay in his power to recruit its + strength, still the losses which his expedition caused were certainly not + repaired in his lifetime. + </p> + <p> + As a builder, Xerxes showed something of the same grandeur of conception + which is observable in his great military enterprise and in the works by + which it was accompanied. His Propylaea, and the sculptured staircase in + front of the Chebl Minar, which is undoubtedly his work, are among the + most magnificent erections upon the Persepolitan platform; and are quite + sufficient to place him in the foremost rank of Oriental builders. If we + were to ascribe the Chehl Minar itself to him, we should have to give him + the palm above all other kings of Persia; but on the whole it is most + probable that that edifice and its duplicate at Susa were conceived, and + in the main, constructed, by Darius. + </p> + <p> + Xerxes left behind him three sons—Darius, Hystaspes, and Artaxerxes—and + two daughters, Amytis and Rhodogune. Hystaspes was satrap of Bactria, and + at the time of their father’s death, only Darius and Artaxerxes were at + the Court. + </p> + <p> + Fearing the eldest son most, Artabanus persuaded Artaxerxes that the + assassination of Xerxes was the act of his brother, whereupon Artaxerxes + caused him to be put to death, and himself ascended the throne (B.C. 465). + </p> + <p> + Troubles, as usual, accompanied this irregular accession. Artabanus, not + content with exercising an influence under Artaxerxes such as has caused + some authors to speak of him as king, aimed at removing the young prince, + and making himself actual monarch. But his designs being betrayed to + Artaxerxes by Megabyzus, and at the same time his former crimes coming to + light, he was killed, together with his tool Aspamitres, seven months + after the murder of Xerxes. The sons of Artabanus sought to avenge his + death, but were defeated by Megabyzus in an engagement, wherein they lost + their lives. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, in Bactria, Hystaspes, who had a rightful claim to the throne, + raised the standard of revolt. Artaxerxes marched against him in person, + and engaged him in two battles, the first of which was indecisive, while + in the second the Bactrians suffered defeat, chiefly (according to + Ctesias) because the wind blew violently in their faces. So signal was + victory, that Bactria at once submitted. Hystaspes’ fate is uncertain. + </p> + <p> + Not long after the reduction of Bactria, Egypt suddenly threw off the + Persian yoke (B.C. 460). Inarus, a king of the wild African tribes who + bordered the Nile valley on the west, but himself perhaps a descendant of + the old monarchs of Egypt, led the insurrection, and, in conjunction with + an Egyptian, named Amyrtseus, attacked the Persian troops stationed in the + country, who were commanded by Achaemenes, the satrap. A battle was fought + near Papremis in the Delta, wherein the Persians were defeated, and + Achaemenes fell by the hand of Inarus himself. The Egyptians generally now + joined in the revolt; and the remnant of the Persian army was shut up in + Memphis. Inarus had asked the aid of Athens; and an Athenian fleet of 200 + sail was sent to his assistance. This fleet sailed up the Nile, defeated a + Persian squadron, and took part in the capture of Memphis and the siege of + its citade (White Castle). When the Persian king first learned what had + happened, he endeavored to rid himself of his Athenian enemies by inducing + the Spartans to invade their country; but, failing in his attempt, he had + recourse to arms, and, levying a vast host, which he placed under the + command of Megabyzus, sent that officer to recover the revolted province. + Megabyzus marched upon Memphis, defeated the Egyptians and their allies in + a great battle, relieved the citadel of Memphis from its siege, and + recovered the rest of the town. The Athenians fled to the tract called + Prosopitis, which was a a portion of the Delta, completely surrounded by + two branch streams of the Nile. Here they were besieged for eighteen + months, till Megabyzus contrived to turn the water from one of the two + streams, whereby the Athenian ships were stranded, and the Persian troops + were able to march across the river bed, and overwhelm the Athenians with + their numbers. A few only escaped to Cyrene. The entire fleet fell into + the enemy’s hands; and a reinforcement of fifty more ships, arriving soon + after the defeat, was attacked unawares after it had entered the river, + and lost more than half its number. Inarus was betrayed by some of his own + men, and, being carried prisoner to Persia, suffered death by crucifixion. + Amyrtseus fled to the fens, where for a while he maintained his + independence. Egypt, however, was with this exception recovered to the + Empire (B.C. 455); and Athens was taught that she could not always invade + the dominions of the Great King with impunity. + </p> + <p> + Six years after this, the Athenians resolved on another effort. A fleet of + 200 ships was equipped and placed under the command of the victor of the + Eurymedon, Cimon, with orders to proceed into the Eastern Mediterranean, + and seek to recover the laurels lost in Egypt. Cimon sailed to Cyprus, + where he received a communication from Amyrtseus, which induced him to + dispatch sixty ships to Egypt, while with the remaining one hundred and + forty he commenced the siege of Citium. Here he died, either of disease or + from the effects of a wound; and his armament, pressed for provisions, was + forced soon afterwards to raise the siege, and address itself to some + other enterprise. Sailing past Salamis, it found there a Cilician and + Phoenician fleet, consisting of 300 vessels, which it immediately attacked + and defeated, notwithstanding the disparity of number. Besides the ships + which were sunk, a hundred triremes were taken; and the sailors then + landed and gained a victory over a Persian army upon the shore. + Artaxerxes, upon this, fearing lest he should lose Cyprus altogether, and + thinking that, if Athens became mistress of this important island, she + would always be fomenting insurrection in Egypt, made overtures for peace + to the generals who were now in command. His propositions were favorably + received. Peace was made on the following terms:—Athens agreed to + relinquish Cyprus, and recall her squadron from Egypt; while the king + consented to grant freedom to all the Greek cities on the Asiatic + continent, and not to menace them either by land or water. The sea was + divided between the two powers, Persian ships of war were not to sail to + the west of Phaselis in the Levant, or of the Cyanean islands in the + Euxine; and Greek war-ships, we may assume, were not to show themselves + east of those limits. On these conditions there was to be peace and amity + between the Greeks and the Persians, and neither nation was to undertake + any expeditions against the territories of the other. Thus terminated the + first period of hostility between Greece and Persia, a period of exactly + half a century, commencing B.C. 499 and. ending B.C. 449, in the + seventeenth year of Artaxerxes. + </p> + <p> + It was probably not many years after the conclusion of this peace that a + rebellion broke out in Syria. Megabyzus, the satrap of that important + province, offended at the execution of Inarus, in violation of the promise + which he had himself made to him, raised a revolt against his sovereign, + defeated repeatedly the armies sent to reduce him to obedience, and + finally treated with Artaxerxes as to the terms on which he would consent + to be reconciled. Thus was set an example, if not of successful + insurrection, yet at any rate of the possibility of rebelling with + impunity—an example which could not fail to have a mischievous + effect on the future relations of the monarch with his satraps. It would + have been better for the Empire had Megabyzus suffered the fate of + Oroetes, instead of living to a good old age in high favor with the + monarch whose power he had weakened and defied. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes survived the “Peace of Callias” twenty-four years. His + relations with the Greeks continued friendly till his demise, though, on + the occasion of the revolt of Samos (B.C. 440), Pissuthnes, satrap of + Sardis, seems to have transgressed the terms of the treaty, and to have + nearly brought about a renewal of hostilities. It was probably in + retaliation for the aid given to the revolted Samians, that the Athenians, + late in the reign of Artaxerxes, made an expedition against Caunus, which + might have had important consequences, if the Caunians had not been firm + in their allegiance. A revolt of Lycia and Caria under Zopyrus, the son of + Megabyzus, assisted by the Greeks, might have proved even more difficult + to subdue than the rebellion of Syria under his father. Persia, however, + escaped this danger; and Artaxerxes, no doubt, saw with pleasure a few + years later the Greeks turn their arms against each other—Athens, + his great enemy, being forced into a contest for existence with the + Peloponnesian confederacy under Sparta. + </p> + <p> + The character of Artaxerxes, though it receives the approval of Plutarch + and Diodorus, must be pronounced on the whole poor and contemptible. His + ready belief of the charge brought by Artabanus against his brother, + Darius, admits perhaps of excuse, owing to his extreme youth; but his + surrender of Inarus to Amestris on account of her importunity, his + readiness to condone the revolt of Megabyzus, and his subjection + throughout almost the whole of his life to the evil influence of Amytis, + his sister, and Amestris, his mother—both persons of ill-regulated + lives—are indications of weakness and folly quite unpardonable in a + monarch. That he was mild in temperament, and even kind and good-natured, + is probable. But he had no other quality that deserves the slightest + commendation. In the whole course of his long reign he seems never once to + have adventured himself in the field against an enemy. He made not a + single attempt at conquest in any direction. We have no evidence that he + patronized either literature or the arts. His peace with Athens was + necessary perhaps, but disgraceful to Persia. The disorders of the Court + increased under his reign, from the license (especially) which he allowed + the Queen-mother, who sported with the lives of his subjects. The decay of + the Empire received a fatal impulse from the impunity which he permitted + to Megabyzus. + </p> + <p> + Like his father, Artaxerxes appears to have had but one legitimate wife. + This was a certain Damaspia, of whom nothing is known, except that she + died on the same day as her husband, and was the mother of his only + legitimate son, Xerxes. Seventeen other sons, who survived him, were the + issue of various concubines, chiefly—it would appear—Babylonians. + Xerxes II. succeeded to the throne on the death of his father (B.C. 425), + but reigned forty-five days only, being murdered after a festival, in + which he had indulged too freely, by his half-brother, Secydianus or + Sogdianus. Secydianus enjoyed the sovereignty for little more than half a + year, when he was in his turn put to death by another, brother, Ochus, who + on ascending the throne took the name of Darius, and became known to the + Greeks as Darius Nothus. + </p> + <p> + Darius Nothus had in his father’s lifetime been made satrap of Hyrcania, + and had married his aunt, Parysatis, a daughter of Xerxes. He had already + two children at his accession,—a daughter, Amestris, and a son, + Arsaces, who succeeded him as Artaxerxes. His reign, which lasted nineteen + years, was a constant scene of insurrections and revolts, some of which + were of great importance, since they had permanent and very disastrous + consequences. The earliest of all was raised by his full-brother, Arsites, + who rebelled in conjunction with a son of Megabyzus, and, obtaining the + support of a number of Greek mercenaries, gained two victories over the + forces dispatched against him by the king. At last, however, the fortune + of war changed. Persian gold was used to corrupt the mercenaries; and the + rebels being thus reduced to extremities, were forced to capitulate, + yielding themselves on the condition that their lives should be spared. + Parysatis induced her husband to disregard the pledges given and execute + both Arsites and his fellow-conspirator—thus proclaiming to the + world that, unless by the employment of perfidy, the Empire was incapable + of dealing with those who rebelled against its authority. + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Pissuthnes, satrap of Lydia, was the next important + outbreak. Its exact date is uncertain; but it seems not to have very long + preceded the Athenian disasters in Sicily. Pissuthnes, who had held his + satrapy for more than twenty years, was the son of a Hystaspes, and + probably a member of the royal family. His wealth—the accumulations + of so long a term of office—enabled him to hire the services of a + body of Greek mercenaries, who were commanded by an Athenian, called + Lycon. On these troops he placed his chief dependence; but they failed him + in the hour of need. Tissaphernes, the Persian general sent against him, + bribed Lycon and his men, who thereupon quitted Pissuthnes and made common + cause with his adversaries. The unfortunate satrap could no longer resist, + and therefore surrendered upon terms, and accompanied Tissaphernes to the + Court. Darius, accustomed now to disregard the pledged word of his + officers, executed him forthwith, and made over his satrapy to + Tissaphernes, as a reward for his zeal. Lycon, the Athenian traitor, + received likewise a handsome return for his services, the revenues of + several towns and districts being assigned him by the Great King. + </p> + <p> + The rebellion, however, was not wholly crushed by the destruction of its + author, Amorges, a bastard son of Pissuthnes, continued to maintain + himself in Caria, where he was master of the strong city of Iasus, on the + north coast of the Sinus Iasicus, and set the power of Tissaphernes at + defiance. Having probably inherited the wealth of his father, he hired a + number of Peloponnesian mercenaries, and succeeded in maintaining himself + as an independent monarch for some years. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition of things in Asia Minor, when intelligence arrived + of the fearful disasters which had befallen the Athenians in Sicily—disasters + without a parallel since those of Salamis—sudden, unexpected, + overwhelming. The news, flying through Asia, awoke everywhere a belief + that the power of Athens was broken, and that her hostility need no longer + be dreaded. The Persian monarch considered that under the altered + circumstances it would be safe to treat the Peace of Callias as a dead + letter, and sent down orders to the satraps of Lydia and Bithynia that + they were once more to demand and collect the tribute of the Greek cities + within their provinces. The satraps began to speculate on the advantages + which they might derive from alliance with the enemies of Athens, and + looked anxiously to see a Peloponnesian fleet appear off the coast of + Asia. Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus vied with each other in the tempting + offers which they made to Sparta, and it was not long before a formal + treaty was concluded between that state and Persia, by which the two + powers bound themselves to carry on war conjointly against Athens. + </p> + <p> + Thus the contest between Persia and her rival entered upon a new phase. + Henceforth until the liberties of Greece were lost, the Great King could + always count on having for his ally one of the principal Grecian powers. + His gold was found to possess attractions which the Greeks were quite + unable to resist. At one time Sparta, at another Athens, at another Thebes + yielded to the subtle influence; Greek generals commanded the Persian + armies; Greek captains manoeuvered the Persian fleets; the very rank and + file of the standing army came to be almost as much Greek as Persian. + Acting on the maxim, <i>Divide et impera</i>, Persia prolonged for eighty + years her tottering Empire, by the skilful use which she made of the + mutual jealousies and divisions of the Hellenic states. + </p> + <p> + It scarcely belongs to the history of Persia to trace in detail the + fortunes of the contending powers during the latter portion of the + Peloponnesian war. We need only observe that the real policy of the Court + of Susa, well understood, and, on the whole, tolerably well carried out by + the satraps, was to preserve the balance of power between Athens and + Sparta, to allow neither to obtain too decided a preponderance, to help + each in turn, and encourage each to waste the other’s strength, but to + draw back whenever the moment came for striking a decisive blow against + either side. This policy skilfully pursued by Tissaphernes (who had a + genius for intrigue and did not require an Alcibiades to give him lessons + in state-craft), more clumsily by Pharnabazus, whose character was + comparatively sincere and straightforward, prevailed until the younger + Cyrus made his appearance upon the scene, when a disturbing force came + into play which had disastrous effects both on the fortunes of Greece and + on those of Persia. The younger Cyrus had personal views of + self-aggrandizement which conflicted with the true interests of his + nation, and was so bent on paving the way for his own ascent to sovereign + power that he did not greatly care whether he injured his country or no. + As the accomplishment of his designs depended mainly on his obtaining a + powerful land-force, he regarded a Spartan as preferable to an Athenian + alliance; and, having once made his choice, he lent his ally such + effectual aid that in two years from the time of his coming down to the + coast the war was terminated. Persian gold manned and partly built the + fleet which conquered at AEgos-Potami; perhaps it contributed in a still + more decisive manner to the victory. Cyrus, by placing his stores at the + entire command of Lysander, deserved and acquired the cordial good-will of + Sparta and the Peloponnesians generally—an advantage of which we + shall find him in the sequel making good use. + </p> + <p> + The gain to Persia from the dominion which she had reacquired over the + Greeks of Asia was more than counter-balanced by a loss of territory in + another quarter, which seems to have occurred during the reign of Darius + Nothus, though in what exact year is doubtful. The revolt of Egypt is + placed by Heeren and Clinton in B.C. 414, by Eusebius in B.C. 411, by + Manetho in the last year of Darius Nothus, or B.C. 405. The earlier dates + depend on the view that the Amyrtseus of Manetho’s twenty-eighth dynasty + was the leader of the rebellion, and had a reign of six years at this + period—a view which is perhaps unsound. Manetho probably represented + Nepherites (Nefaorot) as the leader; and it is quite clear that he placed + the re-establishment of the old throne of the Pharaohs in the year that + Darius Nothus died. As his authority is the best that we can obtain upon + this obscure point, we may regard the last days of the Persian monarch as + clouded by news of a rebellion, which had been perhaps for some time + contemplated, but which did not break out until he was known to be in a + moribund condition. + </p> + <p> + A few years earlier, B.C. 408 or 409, the Medes had made an unsuccessful + attempt to recover their independence. The circumstances of this revolt, + which is mentioned by no writer but Xenophon, are wholly unknown, but we + may perhaps connect it with the rebellion of Terituchmes, a son-in-law of + the king. The story of Terituchmes, which belongs to this period, deserves + at any rate to be told, as illustrating, in a very remarkable way, the + corruption, cruelty, and dissoluteness of the Persian Court at the time to + which we have now come. Terituchmes was the son of Idernes, a Persian + noble of high rank, probably a descendant of the conspirator Hydarnes. On + the death of his father, he succeeded to his satrapy, as to a hereditary + fief, and being high in favor with Darius Nothus, he received in marriage + that monarch’s daughter, Amestris. Having, however, after his marriage + become enamored of his own half-sister, Roxana, and having persuaded her + to an incestuous commerce, he grew to detest his wife, and as he could not + rid himself of her without making an enemy of the king, he entered into a + conspiracy with 300 others, and planned to raise a rebellion. The bond of + a common crime, cruel and revolting in its character, was to secure the + fidelity of the rebels one to another. Amestris was to be placed in a + sack, and each conspirator in turn was to plunge his sword into her body. + It is not clear whether this intended murder was executed or no. Hoping to + prevent it, Darius commissioned a certain Udiastes, who was in the service + of Terituchmes, to save his daughter by any means that might be necessary; + and Udiastes, collecting a band, set upon Terituchmes and slew him after a + strenuous resistance. After this, his mother, brothers, and sisters were + apprehended by the order of Parysatis, the queen, who caused Roxana to be + hewn in pieces, and the other unfortunates to be buried alive. It was with + great difficulty that Arsaces, the heir-apparent, afterwards Artaxerxes + Mnemon, preserved his own wife, Statira, from the massacre. It happened + that she was sister to Terituchmes, and, though wholly innocent of his + offence, she would have been involved in the common destruction of her + family had not her husband with tears and entreaties begged her life of + his parents. The son of Terituchmes maintained himself for a while in his + father’s government; but Parysatis succeeded in having him taken off by + poison. + </p> + <p> + The character of Darius Nothus is seen tolerably clearly in the account of + his reign which has been here given. He was at once weak and wicked. + Contrary to his sworn word, he murdered his brothers, Secydianus and + Arsites. He broke faith with Pissuthnes. He sanctioned the wholesale + execution of Terituchmes’ relatives. Under him the eunuchs of the palace + rose to such power that one of them actually ventured to aspire to the + sovereignty. Parysatis, his wife, one of the most cruel and malignant even + of Oriental women, was in general his chosen guide and counsellor. His + severities cannot, however, in all eases be ascribed to her influence, for + he was anxious that she should put the innocent Statira to death, and, + when she refused, reproached her with being foolishly lenient. In his + administration of the Empire he was unsuccessful; for, if he gained some + tracts of Asia Minor, he lost the entire African satrapy. Under him we + trace a growing relaxation of the checks by which the great officers of + the state were intended to have been held under restraint. Satraps came to + be practically uncontrolled in their provinces, and the dangerous custom + arose of allowing sons to succeed, almost as a matter of course, to the + governments of their fathers. Powers unduly large were lodged in the hands + of a single officer, and actions, that should have brought down upon their + perpetrators sharp and signal punishment, were timorously or negligently + condoned by the supreme authority. Cunning and treachery were made the + weapons wherewith Persia contended with her enemies. Manly habits were + laid aside, and the nation learned to trust more and more to the swords of + mercenaries. + </p> + <p> + Shortly before the death of Darius there seems to have been a doubt raised + as to the succession. Parysatis, who preferred her second son to her + first-born, imagined that her influence was sufficient to induce her + husband to nominate Cyrus, instead of Arsaces, to succeed him; and Cyrus + is said to have himself expected to be preferred above his brother. He had + the claim, if claim it can be called, that he was the first son born to + his father after he became king; but his main dependence was doubtless on + his mother. Darius, however, proved less facile in his dying moments than + he had been during most of his life, and declined to set aside the rights + of the eldest son on the frivolous pretence suggested to him. His own + feelings may have inclined him towards Arsaces, who resembled him far more + than Cyrus did in character; and Cyrus, moreover, had recently offended + him, and been summoned to court, to answer a very serious charge. Arsaces, + therefore, was nominated, and took the name of Artaxerxes—as one of + a king who had reigned long, and, on the whole, prosperously. + </p> + <p> + An incident of ill omen accompanied the commencement of the new reign + (B.C. 405). The inauguration of the monarch was a religious ceremony, and + took place in a temple at Pasargadae, the old capital, to which a peculiar + sanctity was still regarded as attaching. Artaxerxes had proceeded to this + place, and was about to engage in the ceremonies, when he was interrupted + by Tissaphernes, who informed him that his life was in danger. Cyrus, he + said, proposed to hide himself in the temple, and assassinate him as he + changed his dress, a necessary part of the formalities. One of the + officiating priests—a Magus, as it would seem—confirmed the + charge. Cyrus was immediately arrested, and would have been put to death + on the spot, had not his mother interfered, and, embracing him in her + arms, made it impossible for the executioner to perform his task. With + some difficulty she persuaded Artaxerxes to spare his brother’s life and + allow him to return to his government, assuring him, and perhaps + believing, that the charges made against her favorite were without + foundation. + </p> + <p> + Cyrus returned to Asia Minor with the full determination of attacking his + brother at the earliest opportunity. He immediately began the collection + of a mercenary force, composed wholly of Greeks, on whose arms he was + disposed to place far more reliance than on those of Orientals. As + Tissaphernes had returned to the coast with him, and was closely watching + all his proceedings, it was necessary to exercise great caution, lest his + intentions should become known before he was ready to put them into + execution. He therefore had recourse to three different devices. Having + found a cause of quarrel with Tissaphernes in the ambiguous terms of their + respective commissions, he pressed it on to an actual war, which enabled + him to hire troops openly, as against this enemy; and in this way he + collected from 5000 to 6000 Greeks—chiefly Peloponnesians. He + further gave secret commissions to Greek officers, whose acquaintance he + had made when he was previously in these parts, to collect men for him, + whom they were to employ in their own quarrels until he needed their + services. From 3000 to 4000 troops were gathered for him by these persons. + Finally, when he found himself nearly ready to commence his march, he + discovered a new foe in the Pisidians of the Western Taurus, and proceeded + to levy a force against them, which amounted to some thousands more. In + all, he had in readiness 11,000 heavy-armed and about 2000 light-armed + Greeks before his purpose became so clear that Tissaphernes could no + longer mistake it, and therefore started off to carry his somewhat tardy + intelligence to the capital. + </p> + <p> + The aims of Cyrus were different from those of ordinary rebel satraps; and + we must go back to the times of Darius Hystaspis in order to find a + parallel to them. Instead of seeking to free a province from the Persian + yoke, or to carve out for himself an independent sovereignty in some + remote corner of the Empire, his intention was to dethrone his brother, + and place on his own brows the diadem of his great namesake. It was + necessary for him therefore to assume the offensive. Only by a bold + advance, and by taking his enemy to some extent unprepared, and so at a + disadvantage, could he hope to succeed in his audacious project. It is not + easy to see that he could have had any considerable party among the + Persians, or any ground for expecting to be supported by any of the + subject nations. His following must have been purely personal; and though + it may be true that he was of a character to win more admiration and + affection than his brother, yet Artaxerxes himself was far from being + unpopular with his subjects, whom he pleased by a familiarity and a + good-nature to which they were little accustomed. Cyrus knew that his + principal dependence must be on himself, on his Greeks, and on the + carelessness and dilatoriness of his adversary, who was destitute of + military talent and was even thought to be devoid of personal bravery. + </p> + <p> + Thus it was important to advance as soon as possible. Cyrus therefore + quitted Sardis before all his troops were collected (B.C. 401), and + marched through Lydia and Phrygia, by the route formally followed in the + reverse direction by the army of Xerxes, as far as Celsense, where the + remainder of his mercenaries joined him. With his Greek force thus raised + to 13,000 men, and with a native army not much short of 100,000, he + proceeded on through Phrygia and Lycaonia to the borders of Cilicia, + having determined on taking the shortest route to Babylon, through the + Cilician and Syrian passes, and then along the course of the Euphrates. At + Caystrupedion he was met by Epyaxa, consort of Syennesis, the tributary + king of Cilicia, who brought him a welcome supply of money, and probably + assured him of the friendly disposition of her husband, who was anxious to + stand well with both sides. In Lycaonia, Cyrus divided his forces, and + sending a small body of troops under Menon to escort Epyaxa across the + mountains and enter Cilicia by the more western of the two practicable + passes he proceeded himself with the bulk of his troops to the famous + Pylae Cilicias, where he probably knew that Syennesis would only make a + feint of resistance. He found the pass occupied; but it was evacuated the + next day, on the receipt of intelligence that Menon had already entered + the country and that the fleet of Cyrus—composed partly of his own + ships, partly of a squadron furnished to him by Sparta—had appeared + off the coast and threatened a landing. Cyrus thus crossed the most + difficult and dangerous of all the passes that separated him from the + heart of the Empire, without the loss of a man. + </p> + <p> + Thus far it would appear that Cyrus had to a certain extent masked his + plans. The Greek captains must have guessed, if they had not actually + learnt, his intentions; but to the bulk of the soldiery they had been + hitherto absolutely unknown. It was only in Cilicia that the light broke + in upon them, and they began to suspect that they were being marched into + the interior of Asia, there to engage in a contest with the entire power + of the Great King. Something of the horror which is ascribed to Cleomenes, + when it was suggested to him a century earlier that he should conduct his + Spartans the distance of a three months’ journey from the sea, appears to + have taken possession of the minds of the mercenaries on their awaking to + this conviction. They at once refused to proceed. It was only by the most + skilful management on the part of their captains, joined to a judicious + liberality on the part of Cyrus, that they were induced to forego their + intention of returning home at once, and so breaking up the expedition. A + perception of the difficulty of effecting a retreat, together with an + increase of pay, extorted a reluctant assent to continue the march, of + which the real term and object were even now not distinctly avowed. Cyrus + said he proposed to attack the army of Abrocomas, which he believed to be + posted on the Euphrates. If he did not find it there, a fresh consultation + might be held to consider any further movement. + </p> + <p> + The march now proceeded rapidly. The gates of Syria—a narrow pass on + the east coast of the Gulf of Issus, shut in, like Thermopylae, between + the mountains and the sea, and strengthened moreover by fortifications—were + left unguarded by Abrocomas; and the army, having traversed them without + loss, crossed the Amanus range by the pass of Beilan, and in twenty-nine + days from Tarsus reached Thapsacus on the Euphrates. The forces of + Artaxerxes had nowhere made their appearance—Abrocomas, though he + had 300,000 men at his disposal, had weakly or treacherously abandoned all + these strong and easily defensible positions; he does not seem even to + have wasted the country; but, having burnt the boats at Thapsacus, he was + content to fall back upon Phoenicia, and left the way to Babylon and Susa + open. At Thapsacus there was little difficulty in persuading the Greeks, + who had no longer the sea before their eyes, to continue the march; they + only stipulated for a further increase of pay, which was readily promised + them by the sanguine prince, who believed himself on the point of + obtaining by their aid the inexhaustible treasures of the Empire. The + river, which happened to be unusually low for the time of year, was easily + forded. Cyrus entered Mesopotamia, and continued his march down the left + bank of the Euphrates at the quickest rate that it was possible to move a + hundred thousand Orientals. In thirty-three days he had accomplished above + 600 miles, and had approached within 120 miles of Babylon without seeing + any traces of an enemy. His only difficulties were from the nature of the + country, which, after the Khabour is passed, becomes barren, excepting + close along the river. From want of fodder there was a great mortality + among the baggage-animals; the price of grain rose; and the Greeks had to + subsist almost entirely upon meat. At last, when the Babylonian alluvium + was reached, with its abundance of fodder and corn, signs of the enemy + began to be observed. Artaxerxes, who after some doubts and misgivings had + finally determined to give his enemy battle in the plain, was already on + his way from Babylon, with an army reckoned at 900,000 men and had sent + forward a body of horse, partly to reconnoitre, partly to destroy the + crops, in order to prevent Cyrus and his troops from benefiting by them. + Cyrus now advanced slowly and cautiously, at the rate of about fourteen + miles a day, expecting each morning to fight a general engagement before + evening came. On the third night, believing the battle to be imminent, he + distributed the commands and laid down a plan of operations. But morning + brought no appearance of the enemy, and the whole day passed tranquilly. + In the course of it, he came upon a wide and deep trench cut through the + plain for a distance of above forty miles—a recent work, which + Artaxerxes had intended as a barrier to stop the progress of his enemy. + But the trench was undefended and incomplete, a space of twenty feet being + left between its termination and the Euphrates. Cyrus, having passed it, + began to be convinced that his brother would not risk a battle in the + plain, but would retreat to the mountains and make his stand at Persepolis + or Ecbatana. He therefore continued his march negligently. His men piled + their arms on the wagons or laid them, across the beasts of burthen; while + he himself exchanged the horse which he usually rode for a chariot, and + proceeded on his way leisurely, having about his person a small escort, + which preserved their ranks, while all the rest of the troops were allowed + to advance in complete disarray. + </p> + <p> + Suddenly, as the army was proceeding in this disorderly manner through the + plain, a single horseman was perceived advancing at full gallop from the + opposite quarter, his steed all flecked with foam. As he drew near, he + shouted aloud to those whom he met, addressing some in Greek, others in + Persian, and warning them that the Great King, with his whole force, was + close at hand, and rapidly approaching in order of battle. The news took + every one by surprise, and at first all was hurry and confusion. The + Greeks, however, who were on the right, rapidly marshalled their line, + resting it upon the river; while Cyrus put on his armor, mounted his + horse, and arranged the ranks of his Asiatics. Ample time was given for + completing all the necessary dispositions; since three hours, at the + least, must have elapsed from the announcement of the enemy’s approach + before he actually appeared. Then a white cloud of dust arose towards the + verge of the horizon, below which a part of the plain began soon to + darken; presently gleams of light were seen to flash out from the dense + mass which was advancing, the serried lines of spears came into view, and + the component parts of the huge army grew to be discernible. On the + extreme left was a body of horsemen with white cuirasses, commanded by + Tissaphernes; next came infantry, carrying the long wicker shield, or <i>gerrhum</i> + then a solid square of Egyptians, heavily armed, and bearing wooden + shields that reached to the feet; then the contingents of many different + nations, some on foot, some on horseback, armed with bows and other + weapons. The line stretched away to the east further than the Greeks, who + were stationed on the right, could see, extending (as it would seem) more + than twice the distance which was covered by the army of Cyrus. Artaxerxes + was in the centre of his line, on horseback, surrounded by a mounted guard + of 6000 Persians. In front of the line, towards the river, were drawn up + at wide intervals a hundred and fifty scythed chariots, which were + designed to carry terror and confusion into the ranks of the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + On the other side, Cyrus had upon the extreme right a thousand + Paphlagonian cavalry with the more lightly armed of the Greeks; next, the + Greek heavy-armed, under Clearchus; and then his Asiatics, stretching in a + line to about the middle of his adversary’s army, his own special command + being in the centre; and his left wing being led by the satrap, Ariaeus. + With Ariseus was posted the great mass of the cavalry; but a band of six + hundred, clad in complete armor, with their horses also partially armed, + waited on Cyrus himself, and accompanied him wherever he went. As the + enemy drew near, and Cyrus saw how much he was outflanked upon the left, + he made an attempt to remedy the evil by ordering Clearchus to move with + his troops from the extreme right to the extreme left of the line, where + he would be opposite to Artaxerxes himself. This, no doubt, would have + been a hazardous movement to make in the face of a superior enemy; and + Clearchus, feeling this, and regarding the execution of the order as left + to his discretion, declined to move away from the river. Cyrus, who + trusted much to the Greek general’s judgment, did not any further press + the change, but prepared to fight the battle as he stood. + </p> + <p> + The combat began upon the right. When the enemy had approached within six + or seven hundred yards, the impatience of the Greeks to engage could not + be restrained. They sang the paean and started forwards at a pace which in + a short time became a run. The Persians did not await their charge. The + drivers leaped from their chariots, the line of battle behind them + wavered, and then turned and fled without striking a blow. One Greek only + was wounded by an arrow. As for the scythed chariots, they damaged their + own side more than the Greeks; for the frightened horses in many cases, + carried the vehicles into the thick of the fugitives, while the Greeks + opened their ranks and gave passage to such as charged in an opposite + direction. Moderating their pace so as to preserve their tactical + arrangement, but still advancing with great rapidity, the Greeks pressed + on the flying enemy, and pursued him a distance of two or three miles, + never giving a thought to Cyrus, who, they supposed, would conquer those + opposed to him with as much ease as themselves. + </p> + <p> + But the prince meanwhile was in difficulties. Finding himself outnumbered + and outflanked, and fearing that his whole army would be surrounded, and + even the victorious Greeks attacked in the rear, he set all upon one + desperate cast and charged with his Six Hundred against the six thousand + horse who protected his brother. Artagerses, their commander, who met him + with a Homeric invective, he slew with his own hand. The six thousand were + routed and took to flight; the person of the king was exposed to view; and + Cyrus, transported at the sight, rushed forward shouting, “I see the man,” + and hurling his javelin, struck him straight upon the breast, with such + force that the cuirass was pierced and a slight flesh-wound inflicted. The + king fell from his horse; but at the same moment Cyrus received a wound + beneath the eye from the javelin of a Persian, and in the melee which + followed he was slain with eight of his followers. The Six Hundred could + lend no effectual aid, because they had rashly dispersed in pursuit of the + flying enemy. + </p> + <p> + As the whole contest was a personal one, the victory was now decided. + Fighting, however, continued till nightfall. On learning the death of + their leader, the Asiatic troops under Ariseus fled—first to their + camp, and then, when Artaxerxes attacked them there, to the last night’s + station. The Grecian camp was assaulted by Tissaphernes, who at the + beginning of the battle had charged through the Greek light-armed, without + however, inflicting on them any loss, and had then pressed on, thinking to + capture the Grecian baggage. But the guard defended their camp with + success, and slew many of the assailants. Tissaphernes and the king drew + off after a while, and retraced their steps, in order to complete the + victory by routing the troops of Clearchus. Clearchus was at the same time + returning from his pursuit, having heard that his camp was in danger, and + as the two bodies of troops approached, he found his right threatened by + the entire host of the enemy, which might have lapped round it and + attacked it in front, in flank, and in rear. To escape this peril he was + about to wheel his line and make it rest alone its whole extent upon the + river, when the Persians passed him and resumed the position which they + had occupied at the beginning of the battle. They were then about to + attack, when once more the Greeks anticipated them and charged. The effect + was again ludicrous. The Persians would not abide the onset, but fled + faster than before. The Greeks pursued them to a village, close by which + was a knoll or mound, whither the fugitives had betaken themselves. Again + the Greeks made a movement in advance, and immediately the flight + recommenced. The last rays of the setting sun fell on scattered masses of + Persian horse and foot flying in all directions over the plain from the + little band of Greeks. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Cunaxa was a double blow to the Persian power. By the death + of Cyrus there was lost the sole chance that existed of such a + re-invigoration of the Empire as might have enabled it to start again on a + new lease of life, with ability to held its own, and strength to resume + once more the aggressive attitude of former times. The talents of Cyrus + have perhaps been overrated, but he was certainly very superior to most + Orientals; and there can be no doubt that the Empire would have greatly + gained by the substitution of his rule for that of his brother. He was + active, energetic, prompt indeed, ready in speech, faithful in the + observance of his engagements, brave, liberal—he had more foresight + and more self-contro than most Asiatics; he knew how to deal with + different classes of men; he had a great power of inspiring affection and + retaining it; he was free from the folly of national prejudice, and could + appreciate as they deserved both the character and the institutions of + foreigners. It is likely that he would have proved a better administrator + and ruler than any king of Persia since Darius Hystaspis. He would, + therefore, undoubtedly have raised his country to some extent. Whether he + could really have arrested its decline, and enabled it to avenge the + humiliations of Marathon, Salamis, and the peace of Callias, is, however, + exceedingly doubtful. For Cyrus, though he had considerable merits, was + not without great and grievous defects. As the Tartar is said always to + underlie the Russ, so the true Oriental underlay that coating of Grecian + manners and modes of thought and act, with which a real admiration of the + Hellenic race induced Cyrus to conceal his native barbarism. When he slew + his cousins for an act which he chose to construe as disrespect, and when + he executed Orontes for contemplated desertion, secretly and silently, so + that no one knew his fate, when transported with jealous rage he rushed + madly upon his brother, exposing to hazard the success of all his + carefully formed plans, and in fact ruining his cause, the acquired habits + of the Phil-Hellene gave way, and the native ferocity of the Asiatic came + to the surface. We see Cyrus under favorable circumstances, while + conciliation, tact, and self-restraint were necessities of his position, + without which he could not possibly gain his ends—we do not know + what effect success and the possession of supreme power might have had + upon his temper and conduct; but from the acts above-mentioned we may at + any rate suspect that the result would have been very injurious. + </p> + <p> + Again, intellectually, Cyrus is only great for an Asiatic. He has more + method, more foresight, more power of combination, more breadth of mind + than the other Asiatics of his day, or than the vast mass of Asiatics of + any day. But he is not entitled to the praise of a great administrator or + of a great general. His three years’ administration of Asia Minor was + chiefly marked by a barbarous severity towards criminals, and by a lavish + expenditure of the resources of his government, which left him in actual + want at the moment when he was about to commence his expedition. His + generalship failed signally at the battle of Cunaxa, for the loss of which + he is far more to be blamed than Clearchus. As he well knew that + Artaxerxes was sure to occupy the centre of his line of battle, he should + have placed his Greeks in the middle of his own line, not at one + extremity. When he saw how much his adversary outflanked him on the left—a + contingency which was so probable that it ought to have occurred to him + beforehand—he should have deployed his line in that direction, + instead of ordering such a movement as Clearchus, not unwisely, declined + to execute. He might have trusted the Greeks to fight in line, as they had + fought at Marathon; and by expanding their ranks, and moving off his + Asiatics to the left, he might, have avoided the danger of being + outflanked and surrounded. But his capital error was the wildness and + abandon of his charge with the Six Hundred—a charge which it was + probably right to make under the circumstances, but which required a + combination of coolness and courage that the Persian prince evidently did + not possess when his feelings were excited. Had he kept his Six Hundred + well in hand, checked their pursuit, and abstained from thrusting his own + person into unnecessary danger, he might have joined the Greeks as they + returned from their first victory and participated in their final triumph. + At the same time, Clearchus cannot but be blamed for pushing his suit too + far. If, when the enemy in his front fled, he had at once turned against + those who were engaging Cyrus, taking them on their left flank, which must + have been completely uncovered, he might have been in time to prevent the + fatal results of the rash charge made by his leader. + </p> + <p> + Thus the death of Cyrus, though a calamity to Persia, was scarcely the + great loss which it has been represented. A far worse result of the + Cyreian expedition was the revelation which it made of the weakness of + Persia, and of the facility with which a Greek force might penetrate to + the very midst of the Empire, defeat the largest army that could be + brought against it, and remain, or return, as it might think proper. + Hitherto Babylon and Susa had been, even to the mind of a Greek statesman, + remote localities, which it would be the extreme of rashness to attempt to + reach by force of arms, and from which it would be utter folly to suppose + that a single man could return alive except by permission of the Great + King. Henceforth these towns were looked upon as prizes quite within the + legitimate scope of Greek ambition, and their conquest came to be viewed + as little more than a question of time. The opinion of inaccessibility, + which had been Persia’s safeguard hitherto, was gone, and in its stead + grew up a conviction that the heart of the Empire might be reached with + very little difficulty. + </p> + <p> + It required, however, for the production of this whole change, not merely + that the advance to Cunaxa should have been safely made, and the + immeasurable superiority of Greek to Asiatic soldiers there exhibited, but + also that the retreat should have been effected, as it was effected, + without disaster. Had the Ten Thousand perished under the attacks of the + Persian horse, or even under the weapons of the Kurds, or amid the snows + of Armenia, the opinion of Persian invulnerability would have been + strengthened rather than weakened by the expedition. But the return to + Greece of ten thousand men, who had defeated the hosts of the Great King + in the centre of his dominions, and fought their way back to the sea + without suffering more than the common casualties of war, was an evidence + of weakness which could not but become generally known, and of which all + could feel the force. Hence the retreat was as important as the battle. If + in late autumn and mid-winter a small Greek army, without maps or guides, + could make its way for a thousand miles through Asia, and encounter no foe + over whom it could not easily triumph, it was clear that the fabric of + Persian power was rotten, and would collapse on the first serious attack. + </p> + <p> + Still, it will not be necessary to trace in detail the steps of the + retreat. It was the fact of the return, rather than the mode of its + accomplishment, which importantly affected the subsequent history of + Persia. We need only note that the retreat was successfully conducted in + spite, not merely of the military power of the Empire, but of the most + barefaced and cruel treachery—a fact which showed clearly the strong + desire that there was to hinder the invaders’ escape. Persia did not set + much store by her honor at this period; but she would scarcely have + pledged her word and broken it, without the slightest shadow of excuse, + unless she had regarded the object to be accomplished as one of vast + importance, and seen no other way which offered any prospect of the + desired result. Her failure, despite the success of her treachery, places + her military weakness in the strongest possible light. The Greeks, though + deprived of their leaders, deceived, surprised, and hemmed in by superior + numbers, amid terrific mountains, precipices, and snows, forced their way + by sheer dogged perseverance through all obstacles, and reached Trebizond + with the loss of not one fourth of their original number. + </p> + <p> + There was also another discovery made during the return which partly + indicated the weakness of the Persian power, and partly accounted for it. + The Greeks had believed that the whole vast space enclosed between the + Black Sea, Caucasus, Caspian, and Jaxartes on the one hand, and the + Arabian Desert, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean on the other, was bound + together into one single centralized monarchy, all the resources of which + were wielded by a single arm. They now found that even towards the heart + of the empire, on the confines of Media and Assyria, there existed + independent tribes which set the arms of Persia at defiance; while towards + the verge of the old dominion whole provinces, once certainly held in + subjection, had fallen away from the declining State, and succeeded in + establishing their freedom. The nineteenth satrapy of Herodotus existed no + more; in lieu of it was a mass of warlike and autonomous tribes—Chalybes, + Taochi, Chaldeans, Macronians, Scythians, Colchians, Mosynoecians, + Tibarenians—whose services, if he needed them, the King of Persia + had to buy, while ordinarily their attitude towards him was one of + distrust and hostility. Judging of the unknown from the known, the Greeks + might reasonably conclude that in all parts of the Empire similar + defections had occurred, and that thus both the dimensions and the + resources of the state had suffered serious diminution, and fell far below + the conception which they had been accustomed to form of them. + </p> + <p> + The immediate consequence of the Cyreian expedition was a rupture between + Persia and Sparta. Sparta had given aid to Cyrus, and thus provoked the + hostility of the Great King. She was not inclined to apologize or to + recede. On the contrary, she saw in the circumstances of the expedition + strong grounds for anticipating great advantages to herself from a war + with so weak an antagonist. Having, therefore, secured the services of the + returned Ten Thousand, she undertook the protection of the Asiatic Greeks + against Persia, and carried on a war upon the continent against the + satraps of Lydia and Phrygia for the space of six years (B.C. 399 to B.C. + 394). The disorganization of the Persian Empire became very manifest + during this period. So jealous were the two satraps of each other, that + either was willing at any time to make a truce with the Spartans on + condition that they proceeded to attack the other; and, on one occasion, + as much as thirty silver talents was paid by a satrap on the condition + that the war should be transferred from his own government to that, of his + rival. At the same time the native tribes were becoming more and more + inclined to rebel. The Mysians and Pisidians had for a long time been + practically independent. Now the Bithynians showed a disposition to shake + off the Persian yoke, while in Paphlagonia the native monarchs boldly + renounced their allegiance. Agesilaus, who carried on the war in Asia + Minor for three years, knew well how to avail himself of all these + advantageous circumstances; and it is not unlikely that he would have + effected the separation from Persia of the entire peninsula, had he been + able to continue the struggle a few years longer. But the league between + Argos, Thebes, and Corinth, which jealousy of Sparta caused and Persian + gold promoted, proved so formidable, that Agesilaus had to be summoned + home: and after his departure, Conon, in alliance with Pharnabazus, + recovered the supremacy of the sea for Athens, and greatly weakened + Spartan influence in Asia. Not content with this result, the two friends, + in the year B.C. 393, sailed across the Egean, and the portentous + spectacle of a Persian fleet in Greek waters was once more seen—this + time in alliance with Athens! Descents were made upon the coasts of the + Peloponnese, and the island of Cythera was seized and occupied. The long + walls of Athens were rebuilt with Persian money, and all the enemies of + Sparta were richly subsidized. Sparta was made to feel that if she had + been able at one time to make the Great King tremble for his provinces, or + even for his throne, the King could at another reach her across the Egean, + and approach Sparta as nearly as she had, with the Cyreians, approached + Babylon. + </p> + <p> + The lesson of the year B.C. 393 was not thrown away on the Spartan + government. The leading men became convinced that unless they could secure + the neutrality of the Persians, Sparta must succumb to the hostility of + her Hellenic enemies. Under these circumstances they devised, with much + skill, a scheme likely to be acceptable to the Persians, which would + weaken their chief rivals in Greece—Athens and Thebes—while it + would leave untouched their own power. They proposed a general peace, the + conditions of which should be the entire relinquishment of Asia to the + Persians, and the complete autonomy of all the Greek States in Europe. The + first attempt to procure the acceptance of these terms failed (B.C. 393); + but six years later, after Antalcidas had explained them at the Persian + Court, Artaxerxes sent down an ultimatum to the disputants, modifying the + terms slightly as regarded Athens, extending them as regarded himself so + as to include the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus, and requiring their + acceptance by all the belligerents, on pain of their incurring his + hostility. To this threat all yielded. A Persian king may be excused if he + felt it a proud achievement thus to dictate a peace to the Greeks—a + peace, moreover, which annulled the treaty of Callias, and gave back + absolutely into his hands a province which had ceased to belong to his + Empire more than sixty years previously. + </p> + <p> + It was the more important to Artaxerxes that his relations with the + European Greeks should be put upon a peaceful footing, since all the + resources of the Empire were wanted for the repression of disturbances + which had some years previously broken out in Cyprus. The exact date of + the Cyprian revolt under Evagoras, the Greek tyrant of Salamis, is + uncertain; but there is evidence that, at least as early as B.C. 391, he + was at open war with the power of Persia, and had made an alliance with + the Athenians, who both in that year and in B.C. 388 sent him aid. + Assisted also by Achoris, independent monarch of Egypt, and Hecatomnus, + vassal king of Caria, he was able to take the offensive, to conquer Tyre, + and extend his revolt into Cilicia and Idumaea. An expedition undertaken + against him by Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, seems to have failed. It + was the first object of the Persians, after concluding the “Peace of + Antalcidas,” to crush Evagoras. They collected 300 vessels, partly from + the Greeks of Asia, and brought together an army of 300,000 men. The fleet + of Evagoras numbered 200 triremes, and with these he ventured on an + attack, but was completely defeated by Tiribazus, who shut him up in + Salamis, and, after a struggle which continued for at least six years, + compelled him to submit to terms (B.C. 380 or 379). More fortunate than + former rebels, he obtained not merely a promise of pardon, which would + probably have been violated, but a recognition of his title, and + permission to remain in his government, with the single obligation of + furnishing to the Great King a certain annual tribute. + </p> + <p> + During the continuance of this war, Artaxerxes was personally engaged in + military operations in another part of his dominions. The Cadusians, who + inhabited the low and fertile tract between the Elburz range and the + Caspian, having revolted against his authority, Artaxerxes invaded their + territory at the head of an army which is estimated at 300,000 foot and + 10,000 horse. The land was little cultivated, rugged, and covered with + constant fogs; the men were brave and warlike, and having admitted him + into their country, seem to have waylaid and intercepted his convoys. His + army was soon reduced to great straits, and forced to subsist on the + cavalry horses and the baggage-animals. A most disastrous result must have + followed, had not Tiribazus, who had been recalled from Cyprus on charges + preferred against him by the commander of the land force, Orontes, + contrived very artfully to induce the rebels to make their submission. + Artaxerxes was thus enabled to withdraw from the country without serious + disaster, having shown in his short campaign that he possessed the + qualities of a soldier, but was entirely deficient in those of a general. + </p> + <p> + A time of comparative tranquillity seems to have followed the Cadusian + campaign. Artaxerxes strengthened his hold upon the Asiatic Greeks by + razing some of their towns and placing garrisons in others. His satraps + even ventured to commence the absorption of the islands off the coast; and + there is evidence that Sanaos, at any rate, was reduced and added to the + Empire. Cilicia, Phoenicia, and Idumaea were doubtless recovered soon + after the great defeat of Evagoras. There remained only one province in + this quarter which still maintained its revolt, and enjoyed, under native + monarchs, the advantages of independence. This was Egypt, which had now + continued free for above thirty years, since it shook off the yoke of + Darius Nothus. Artaxerxes, anxious to recover this portion of his + ancestral dominions, applied in B.C. 375 to Athens for the services of her + great general, Iphicrates. His request was granted, and in the next year a + vast armament was assembled at Acre under Iphicrates and Pharnabazus, + which effected a successful landing in the Delta at the Mendesian mouth of + the Nile, stormed the town commanding this branch of the river, and might + have taken Memphis, could the energetic advice of the Athenian have + stirred to action the sluggish temper of his Persian colleague. But + Pharnabazus declined to be hurried, and preferred to proceed leisurely and + according to rule. The result was that the season for hostilities passed + and nothing had been done. The Nile rose as the summer drew on, and + flooded most of the Delta; the expedition could effect nothing, and had to + return. Pharnabazus and Iphicrates parted amid mutual recriminations; and + the reduction of Egypt was deferred for above a quarter of a century. + </p> + <p> + In Greece, however, the Great King still retained that position of supreme + arbiter with which he had been invested at the “Peace of Antalcidas.” In + B.C. 372 Antalcidas was sent by Sparta a second time up to Susa, for the + purpose of obtaining an imperial rescript, prescribing the terms on which + the then existing hostilities among the Greeks should cease. In B.C. 367 + Pelopidas and Ismenias proceeded with the same object from Thebes to the + Persian capital. In the following year a rescript, more in their favor + than former ones, was obtained by Athens. Thus every one of the leading + powers of Greece applied in turn to the Great King for his royal mandate, + so erecting him by common consent into a sort of superior, whose decision + was to be final in all cases of Greek quarrel. + </p> + <p> + But this external acknowledgment of the imperial greatness of Persia did + not, and could not, check the internal decay and tendency to + disintegration, which was gradually gaining head, and threatening the + speedy dissolution of the Empire. The long reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon was + now verging towards its close. He was advanced in years, and enfeebled in + mind and body, suspicious of his sons and of his nobles, especially of + such as showed more than common ability. Under these circumstances, + revolts on the part of satraps grew frequent. First Ariobarzanes, satrap + of Phrygia, renounced his allegiance (B.C. 366), and defended himself with + success against Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, and Mausolus, native king + of Caria under Persia, to whom the task of reducing him had been + entrusted. Then Aspis, who held a part of Cappadocia, revolted and + maintained himself by the help of the Pisidians, until he was overpowered + by Datames. Next Datames himself, satrap of the rest of Cappadocia, + understanding that Artaxerxes’ mind was poisoned against him, made a + treaty with Ariobarzanes, and assumed an independent attitude in his own + province. In this position he resisted all the efforts of Autophradates to + reduce him to obedience; and Artaxerxes condescended first to make terms + with him and then to remove him by treachery. Finally (B.C. 362), there + seems to have been something like a general revolt of the western + provinces, in which the satraps of Mysia, Phrygia, and Lydia, Mausolus, + prince of Caria, and the people of Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Syria, and + Phoenicia participated. Tachos, king of Egypt, fomented the disturbances, + which were also secretly encouraged by the Spartans. A terrible conflict + appeared to be imminent; but it was avoided by the ordinary resources of + bribery and treachery. Orontes, satrap of Phrygia, and Rheomithras, one of + the revolted generals, yielding to the attractions of Persian gold, + deserted and betrayed their confederates. The insurrection was in this way + quelled, but it had raised hopes in Egypt, which did not at once subside. + Tachos, the native king, having secured the services of Agesilaus as + general, and of Chabrias, the Athenian, as admiral of his fleet, boldly + advanced into Syria, was well received by the Phoenicians, and commenced + the siege of some of the Syrian cities. Persia might have suffered + considerable loss in this quarter, had not the internal quarrels of the + Egyptians among themselves proved a better protection to her than her own + armies. Two pretenders to the throne sprang up as soon as Tachos had + quitted the country, and he was compelled to return to Egypt in order to + resist them. The force intended to strike a vigorous blow against the + power of Artaxerxes was dissipated in civil conflicts; and Persia had once + more to congratulate herself on the intestine divisions of her + adversaries. A few years after this, Artaxerxes died, having reigned + forty-six years, and lived, if we may trust Plutarch, ninety-four. Like + most of the later Persian kings, he was unfortunate in his domestic + relations. To his original queen, Statira, he was indeed fondly attached; + and she appears to have merited and returned his love, but in all other + respects his private life was unhappy. Its chief curse was Parysatis, the + queen-mother. This monster of cruelty held Artaxerxes in a species of + bondage during almost the whole of his long reign, and acted as if she + were the real sovereign of the country. She encouraged Cyrus in his + treason, and brought to most horrible ends all those who had been + prominent in frustrating it. She poisoned Statira out of hatred and + jealousy, because she had a certain degree of influence over her husband. + She encouraged Artaxerxes to contract an incestuous marriage with his + daughter Atossa, a marriage which proved a fertile source of further + calamities. Artaxerxes had three sons by Statira—Darius, Ariaspes, + and Ochus. Of these Darius, as the eldest, was formally declared the heir. + But Ochus, ambitious of reigning, intrigued with Atossa, and sought to + obtain the succession by her aid. So good seemed to Darius the chances of + his brother’s success that he took the rash step of conspiring against the + life of his father, as the only way of securing the throne. His conspiracy + was detected, and he was seized and executed, Ariaspes thereby becoming + the eldest son, and so the natural heir. Ochus then persuaded Ariaspes + that he had offended his father, and was about to be put to a cruel and + ignominious death, whereupon that prince in despair committed suicide. His + elder brothers thus removed, there still remained one rival, whom Ochus + feared. This was Arsames, one of his half-brothers, an illegitimate son of + Artaxerxes, who stood high in his favor. Assassination was the weapon + employed to get rid of this rival. It is said that this last blow was too + much for the aged and unhappy king, who died of grief on receiving + intelligence of the murder. + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes was about the weakest of all the Persian monarchs. He was mild + in temperament, affable in demeanor, goodnatured, affectionate and + well-meaning. But, possessing no strength of will, he allowed the + commission of the most atrocious acts, the most horrible cruelties, by + those about him, who were bolder and more resolute than himself. The wife + and son, whom he fondly loved, were plotted against before his eyes; and + he had neither the skill to prevent nor the courage to avenge their fate. + Incapable of resisting entreaty and importunity, he granted boons which he + ought to have refused, and condoned offences which it would have been + proper to punish. He could not maintain long the most just resentment, but + remitted punishments even when they were far milder than the crime + deserved. He was fairly successful in the management of his relations with + foreign countries, and in the suppression of disturbances within his own + dominions; but he was quite incapable of anything like a strenuous and + prolonged effort to renovate and re-invigorate the Empire. If he held + together the territories which he inherited, and bequeathed them to his + successor augmented rather than diminished, it is to be attributed more to + his good fortune than to his merits, and to the mistakes of his opponents + than to his own prudence or sagacity. + </p> + <p> + Ochus, who obtained the crown in the manner related above, was the most + cruel and sanguinary of all the Persian kings. He is indeed the only + monarch of the Achaemenian line who appears to have been bloodthirsty by + temperament. His first act on finding himself acknowledged king (B.C. 359) + was to destroy, so far as he could, all the princes of the blood royal, in + order that he might have no rival to fear. He even, if we may believe + Justin, involved in this destruction a number of the princesses, whom any + but the most ruthless of despots would have spared. Having taken these + measures for his own security, he proceeded to show himself more active + and enterprising than any monarch since Longimanus. It was now nearly half + a century since one of the important provinces of the Empire—Egypt—had + successfully asserted its independence and restored the throne of its + native kings. General after general had been employed in vain attempts to + reduce the rebels to obedience. Ochus determined to attempt the recovery + of the revolted province in person. Though a rebellion had broken out in + Asia Minor, which being supported by Thebes, threatened to become serious, + he declined to be diverted from his enterprise. Levying a vast army, he + marched into Egypt, and engaged Noctanebo, the king, in a contest for + existence. Nectanebo, however, having obtained the services of two Greek + generals, Diophantus, an Athenian, and Lamius, a citizen of Sparta, boldly + met his enemy in the field, defeated him, and completely repulsed his + expedition. Hereupon the contagion of revolt spread. Phoenicia assumed + independence under the leadership of Sidon, expelled or massacred the + Persian garrisons, which held her cities, and formed an alliance with + Egypt. Her example was followed by Cyprus, where the kings of the nine + principal towns assumed each a separate sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + The chronology of this period is somewhat involved; but it seems probable + that the attack and failure of Ochus took place about B.C. 351; that the + revolts occurred in the next year, B.C. 350; while it was not till B.C. + 346, or four years later, that Ochus undertook his second expedition into + these regions. He had, however, in the meanwhile, directed his generals or + feudatories, to attack the rebels, and bring them into subjection. The + Cyprian war he had committed to Idrieus, prince of Caria, who employed on + the service a body of 8000 Greek mercenaries, commanded by Phocion, the + Athenian, and Evagoras, son of the former Evagoras, the Cyprian monarch; + while he had committed to Belesys, satrap of Syria, and Mezseus, satrap of + Cilicia, the task of keeping the Phoenicians in check. Idrieus succeeded + in reducing Cyprus; but the two satraps suffered a single defeat at the + hands of Tennes, the Sidonian king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek + mercenaries, sent him by Nectanebo, and commanded by Mentor the Rhodian. + The Persian forces were driven out of Phoenicia; and Sidon had ample time + to strengthen its defences and make preparations for a desperate + resistance. The approach, however, of Ochus, at the head of an army of + 330,000 men, shook the resolution of the Phoenician monarch, who + endeavored to purchase his own pardon by treacherously delivering up a + hundred of the principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian + king, and then admitting him within the defences of the town. Ochus, with + the savage cruelty which was his chief characteristic, caused the hundred + citizens to be transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as + suppliants to entreat his mercy, relentlessly consigned them to the same + fate. Nor did the traitor Tennes derive any advantage from his guilty + bargain. Ochus, having obtained from him all he needed, instead of + rewarding his desertion, punished his rebellion with death. Hereupon the + Sidonians, understanding that they had nothing to hope from submission, + formed the dreadful resolution of destroying themselves and their town. + They had previously, to prevent the desertion of any of their number, + burnt their ships. Now they shut themselves up in their houses, and set + fire each to his own dwelling. Forty thousand persons lost their lives in + the conflagration; and the city was reduced to a heap of ruins, which + Ochus sold for a large sum. Thus ended the Phoenician revolt. Among its + most important results was the transfer of his services to the Persian + king on the part of Mentor the Rhodian, who appears to have been the + ablest of the mercenary leaders of whom Greece at this time produced so + many. + </p> + <p> + The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt. + Ochus, besides his 330,000 Asiatics, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks—6000 + furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor; 4000 under Mentor, consisting + of the troops which he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3000 + sent by Argos; and 1000 from Thebes. He divided his numerous armament into + three bodies, and placed at the head of each two generals—one + Persian and one Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, + Mentor of Rhodes, and Nicostratus of Argos, a man of enormous strength, + who regarded himself as a second Hercules, and adopted the traditional + costume of that hero—a club and a lion’s skin. The Persians were + Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and Bagoas, the chief of the eunuchs. Nectanebo + was only able to oppose to this vast array an army less than one third of + the size. Twenty thousand, however, out of the 100,000 troops at his + disposal were Greeks; he occupied the Nile and its various branches with a + numerous navy the character of the country, intersected by numerous + canals, and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favor; and he + might have been expected to make a prolonged, if not even a successful, + resistance. But he was deficient in generals, and over-confident in his + own powers of command: the Greek captains out-manoeuvred him; and no + sooner did he find one line of his defences forced than his ill-founded + confidence was exchanged for an alarm as little reasonable. He hastily + fell back upon Memphis, leaving the fortified towns to the defence of + their garrisons. These consisted of mixed troops, partly Greek and partly + Egyptian; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the + Persian leaders, who by these means rapidly reduced the secondary cities + of Lower Egypt, and were advancing upon Memphis, when Nectanebo in despair + quitted the country and fled southwards to Ethiopia. All Egypt submitted + to Ochus, who demolished the walls of the cities, plundered the temples, + and after amply rewarding his mercenaries, returned to his own capital + with an immense booty, and with the glory of having successfully carried + through a most difficult and important enterprise. + </p> + <p> + It has been well observed that “the reconquest of Egypt by Ochus must have + been one of the most impressive events of the age,” and that it “exalted + the Persian Empire in force and credit to a point nearly as high as it had + ever occupied before.” Ochus not only redeemed by means of it his former + failure, but elevated himself in the opinions of men to a pitch of glory + such as no previous Persian king had reached, excepting Cyrus, Cambyses, + and the first Darius. Henceforth we hear of no more revolts or rebellions. + Mentor and Bagoas, the two generals who had most distinguished themselves + in the Egyptian campaign, were advanced by the gratitude of Ochus to posts + of the highest importance, in which their vigor and energy found ample + room to display themselves. Mentor, who was governor of the entire Asiatic + sea-board, exerted himself successfully to reduce to subjection the many + chiefs who during the recent troubles had assumed an independent + authority, and in the course of a few years brought once more the whole + coast into complete submission and dependence. Bagoas, carried with him by + Ochus to the capital, became the soul of the internal administration, and + maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire. The last six + years of the reign of Ochus form an exceptional period of vigorous and + successful government, such as occurs nowhere else in the history of the + later Persian monarchy. The credit of bringing about such a state of + things may be due especially to the king’s officers, Bagoas and Mentor; + but a portion of it must reflect upon himself, as the person who selected + them, assigned them their respective tasks, and permanently maintained + them in office. + </p> + <p> + It was during this period of vigor and renewed life, when the Persian + monarchy seemed to have recovered almost its pristine force and strength, + that the attention of its rulers was called to a small cloud on the + distant horizon, which some were wise enough to see portended storm and + tempest. The growing power of Macedon, against which Demosthenes was at + this time in vain warning the careless Athenians, attracted the + consideration of Ochus or of his counsellors; and orders went forth from + the Court that Persian influence was to be used to check and depress the + rising kingdom. A force was consequently despatched to assist the Thracian + prince, Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence; and such effectual aid + was given to the city of Perinthus that the numerous and well-appointed + army with which Philip had commenced its siege was completely baffled and + compelled to give up the attempt (B.C. 340). The battle of Chseroneia had + not yet been fought, and Macedonia was still but one of the many states + which disputed for supremacy over Greece; but it is evident that she had + already awakened the suspicions of Persia, which saw a rival and a + possible assailant in the rapidly growing monarchy. + </p> + <p> + Greater and more systematic efforts might possibly have been made, and the + power of Macedon might perhaps have been kept within bounds, had not the + inveterate evil of conspiracy and revolution once more shown itself at the + Court, and paralyzed for a time the action of the Empire on communities + beyond its borders. Ochus, while he was a vigorous ruler and + administrator, was harsh and sanguinary. His violence and cruelty rendered + him hateful to his subjects; and it is not unlikely that they caused even + those who stood highest in his favor to feel insecure. Bagoas may have + feared that sooner or later he would himself be one of the monarch’s + victims, and have been induced by a genuine alarm to remove the source of + his terrors. In the year B.C. 338 he poisoned Ochus, and placed upon the + throne his youngest son, Arses, at the same time assassinating all the + brothers of the new monarch. It was evidently his aim to exercise the + supreme power himself, as counsellor to a prince who owed his position to + him, and who was moreover little more than a boy. But Arses, though + subservient for a year or two, began, as he grew older, to show that he + had a will of his own, and was even heard to utter threats against his + benefactor whereupon Bagoas, accustomed now to crime, secured himself by a + fresh series of murders. He caused Arses and his infant children to be + assassinated, and selected one of his friends, Codomannus, the son of + Arsanes, to fill the vacant throne. About the same time (B.C. 336), Philip + of Macedon was assassinated by the incensed Pausanias; and the two new + monarchs—Codomannus, who took the name of Darius, and Alexander the + Great—assumed their respective sceptres almost simultaneously. + </p> + <p> + Codomannus, the last of the Persian kings, might with some reason have + complained, like Plato, that nature had brought him in the world too late. + Personally brave, as he proved himself into the Cadusian war, tall and + strikingly handsome, amiable in temper, capable of considerable exertion, + and not altogether devoid of military capacity, he would have been a + fairly good ruler in ordinary times, and might, had he fallen upon such + times, have held an honorable place among the Persian monarchs. But he was + unequal to the difficulties of such a position as that in which he found + himself. Raised to the throne after the victory of Chaeroneia had placed + Philip at the head of Greece, and when a portion of the Macedonian forces + had already passed into Asia, he was called upon to grapple at once with a + danger of the most formidable kind, and had but little time for + preparation. It is true that Philip’s death soon after his own accession + gave him a short breathing-space: but at the same time it threw him off + his guard. The military talents of Alexander were untried, and of course + unknown; the perils which he had to encounter were patent. Codomannus may + be excused if for some months after Alexander’s accession he slackened his + preparations for defence, uncertain whether the new monarch would maintain + himself, whether he would overpower the combinations which were formed + against him in Greece, whether he would inherit his father’s genius for + war, or adopt his ambitious projects. It would have been wiser, no doubt, + as the event proved, to have joined heart and soul with Alexander’s + European enemies, and to have carried the war at once to the other side of + the Egean. But no great blame attaches to the Persian monarch for his + brief inaction. As soon as the Macedonian prince had shown by his + campaigns in Thrace, Illyria, and Boeotia that he was a person to be + dreaded, Darius Codomannus renewed the preparations which he had + discontinued, and pushed them forward with all the speed that was + possible. A fleet was rapidly got ready: the satraps of Asia Minor were + reinforced with troops of good quality from the interior of the Empire, + and were ordered to raise a strong force of mercenaries; money was sent + into Greece to the Lacedaemonians and others in order to induce them to + create disturbances in Europe; above all, Memnon the Rhodian, a brother of + Mentor, and a commander of approved skill, was sent to the Hellespont, at + the head of a body of Greeks in Persian pay, with an authority co-ordinate + to that of the satraps. + </p> + <p> + A certain amount of success at first attended these measures. Memnon was + able to act on the offensive in North-Western Asia. He marched upon + Cyzicus and was within a little of surprising it, obtaining from the lands + and villas without the walls an immense booty. He forced Parmenio to raise + the seige of Pitane; and when Callas, one of the Macedonian leaders, + endeavored to improve the condition of things by meeting the Persian + forces in the open field, he suffered a defeat and was compelled to throw + himself into Rhoeteum. + </p> + <p> + These advantages, however, were detrimental rather than serviceable to the + Persian cause; since they encouraged the Persian satraps to regard the + Macedonians as an enemy no more formidable than the various tribes of + Greeks with whom they had now carried on war in Asia Minor for + considerably more than a century. The intended invasion of Alexander + seemed to them a matter of no great moment—to be classed with + expeditions like those of Thimbron and Agesilaus, not to need, as it + really did, to be placed in a category of its own. Accordingly, they made + no efforts to dispute the passage of the Hellespont, or to oppose the + landing of the expedition on the Asiatic shore. Alexander was allowed to + transport a force of 30,000 foot and 4000 or 5000 horse from the + Chersonese to Mysia without the slightest interference on the part of the + enemy, notwithstanding that his naval power was weak and that of the + Persians very considerable. This is one of those pieces of remissness in + the Persian conduct of military matters, whereof we have already had to + note signal instances, and which constantly caused the failure of very + elaborate and judicious preparations to meet a danger. Great efforts had + been made to collect and equip a numerous fleet, and a few weeks later it + was all-powerful in the Egean. But it was absent exactly at the time when + it was wanted. Alexander’s passage and landing were unopposed, and the + Persians thus admitted within the Empire without a struggle the enemy who + was fated to destroy it. + </p> + <p> + When the Persian commanders heard that Alexander was in Asia, they were + anxious to give him battle. One alone, the Rhodian Greek, Memnon, proposed + and urged a wholly different plan of operations. Memnon advised that a + general engagement should be avoided, that the entire country should be + laid waste, and even the cities burnt, while the army should retire, cut + off stragglers, and seek to bring the enemy into difficulties. At the same + time he recommended that the fleet should be brought up, a strong land + force embarked on board it, and an effort made to transfer the war into + Europe. But Memnon’s colleagues, the satraps and commandants of the + north-western portion of Asia Minor, could not bring themselves to see + that circumstances required a line of action which they regarded as + ignominious. It is not necessary to attribute to them personal or selfish + motives. They probably thought honestly that they were a match for + Alexander with the troops at their disposal, and viewed retreat before an + enemy numerically weaker than themselves as a disgrace not to be endured + unless its necessity was palpable. Accordingly they determined to give the + invader battle. Supposing that Alexander, having crossed into Asia at + Abydos, would proceed to attack Dascyleium, the nearest satrapial capital, + they took post on the Granicus, and prepared to dispute the further + advance of the Macedonian army. They had collected a force of 20,000 + cavalry of the best quality that the Empire afforded, and nearly the same + number of infantry, who were chiefly, if not solely, Greek mercenaries. + With these they determined to defend the passage of the small stream above + mentioned—one of the many which flow from the northern flank of Ida + into the Propontis. + </p> + <p> + The battle thus offered was eagerly accepted by the Macedonian. If he + could not defeat with ease a Persian force not greatly exceeding his own, + he had miscalculated the relative goodness of the soldiers on either side, + and might as well desist from the expedition. Accordingly, he no sooner + came to the bank of the river, and saw the enemy drawn up on the other + side, than, rejecting the advice of Parmenio to wait till the next day, he + gave orders that the whole army should enter the stream and advance across + it. The Granicus was in most places fordable; but there were occasional + deeper parts, which had to be avoided; and there was thus some difficulty + in reaching the opposite bank in line. That bank itself was generally + steep and precipitous, but offered also several gentle slopes where a + landing was comparatively easy. The Persians had drawn up their cavalry + along the line of the river close to the water’s edge, and had placed + their infantry in the rear. Alexander consequently attacked with his + cavalry. The engagement began upon the right. Amytas and Ptolemy, who were + the first to reach the opposite bank, met with a strenuous resistance and + were driven back into the stream by the forces of Memnon and his sons. The + battle, however, on this side was restored by Alexander himself, who + gradually forced the Persians back after a long hand-to-hand fight, in + which he received a slight wound, and slew with his own hand several noble + Persians. Elsewhere the resistance was less determined. Parmenio crossed + on the left with comparative ease, by his advance relieving Alexander. The + Persians found the long spears of the Macedonians and their intermixture + of light-armed foot with heavy-armed cavalry irresistible. The Macedonians + seem to have received orders to strike at their adversaries’ faces—a + style of warfare which was as unpleasant to the Persians as it was to the + soldiers of Pompey at Pharsalia. Their line was broken where it was + opposed to Alexander and his immediate companions; but the contagion of + disorder rapidly spread, and the whole body of the cavalry shortly quitted + the field, after having lost a thousand of their number. Only the infantry + now remained. Against these the Macedonian phalanx was brought up in + front, while the cavalry made repeated charges on either flank with + overwhelming effect. Deserted by their horse, vastly outnumbered, and + attacked on all sides, the brave mercenaries stood firm, fought with + desperation, and were mostly slaughtered where they stood. Two thousand + out of the 20,000—probably wounded men—were made prisoners. + The rest perished, except a few who lay concealed among the heaps of + slain. + </p> + <p> + The Persians lost by the battle 20,000 of their best footmen, and one or + two thousand horse. Among their slain the proportion of men of rank was + unusually large. The list included Spithridates, satrap of Lydia, + Mithrobarzanes, governor of Cappadocia, Pharnaces, a brother-in-law, and + Mithridates, a son-in-law of Darius, Arbupales, a grandson of Artaxerxes + Mnemon, Omares, the commander of the mercenaries, Niphates, Petines, and + Ehoesaces, generals. The Greek loss is said to have been exceedingly + small. Aristobulus made the total number of the slain thirty-four; Arrian + gives it as one hundred and fifteen, or a little over. It has been + suspected that even the latter estimate is below the truth; but the + analogy furnished by the other great victories of the Greeks over the + Persians tends rather to confirm Arrian’s statement. + </p> + <p> + The battle of the Granicus threw open to Alexander the whole of Asia + Minor. There was no force left in the entire country that could venture to + resist him, unless protected by walls. Accordingly, the Macedonian + operations for the next twelve months, or during nearly the whole space + that intervened between the battles of the Granicus and of Issus, consist + of little more than a series of marches and sieges. The reader of Persian + history will scarcely wish for an account of these operations in detail. + Suffice it to say that Alexander rapidly overran Lydia, Ionia, Caria, + Lycia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Phrygia, besieged and took Miletus, + Halicarnassus, Marmareis, and Sagalassus, and received the submission of + Dascyleium, Sardis, Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, the Lycian Telmisseis, + Pinara, Xanthus, Patara, Phaselis, Side, Aspendus, Celaenee, and Gordium. + This last city was the capital of Phrygia; and there the conqueror for the + first time since his landing gave himself and his army a few months’ rest + during the latter part of the winter. + </p> + <p> + With the first breath of spring his forces were again in motion. Hitherto + anxious with respect to the state of things on the coast and in Greece, he + had remained in the western half of Asia Minor, within call of his friends + in Macedonia, at no time distant more than about 200 miles from the sea. + Now intelligence reached him which made him feel at liberty to advance + into the interior of Asia. Memnon the Rhodian fell sick and died in the + early spring of B.C. 333. It is strange that so much should have depended + on a single life; but it certainly seems that there was no one in the + Persian service who, on Memnon’s death, could replace him—no one + fitted for the difficult task of uniting Greeks and Asiatics together, + capable of influencing and managing the one while he preserved the + confidence of the other. Memnon’s death disconcerted all the plans of the + Great King, who till it occurred had fully intended to carry the war into + his enemy’s country. It induced Darius even to give up the notion of + maintaining a powerful fleet, and to transfer to the land service the most + efficient of his naval forces. At the same time it set Alexander free to + march wherever he liked, liberating him from the keen anxiety, which he + had previously felt, as to the maintenance of the Macedonian power in + Europe. + </p> + <p> + It now became the object of the Persian king to confront the daring + invader of his Western provinces with an army worthy of the Persian name + and proportionate to the vastness of the Empire. He had long been + collecting troops from many of the most warlike nations, and had got + together a force of several hundred thousand men. Forgetting the lessons + of his country’s previous history, he flattered himself that the host + which he had brought together was irresistible, and became anxious to + hurry on a general engagement. Starting from Babylon, probably about the + time that Alexander left Gordium in Phrygia, he marched up the valley of + the Euphrates, and took up a position at Sochi, which was situated in a + large open plain, not far from the modern Lake of Antioch. On his arrival + there he heard that Alexander was in Cilicia at no great distance; and the + Greeks in his service assured him that it would not be long before the + Macedonian monarch would seek him out and accept his offer of battle. But + a severe attack of illness detained Alexander at Tarsus, and when he was a + little recovered, troubles in Western Cilicia, threatening his + communications with Greece, required his presence; so that Darius grew + impatient, and, believing that his enemy had no intention of advancing + further than Cilicia, resolved to seek him in that country. Quitting the + open plain of Sochi, he marched northwards, having the range of Amanus on + his left, almost as far as the thirty-seventh parallel, when turning + sharply to the west, he crossed the chain, and descended upon Issus, in + the inner recess of the gulf which bore the same name. Here he came upon + Alexander’s hospitals, and found himself to his surprise in the rear of + his adversary, who, while Darius was proceeding northwards along the + eastern flank of Amanus, had been marching southwards between the western + flank of the same range and the sea. Alexander had crossed the Pylse, or + narrowest portion of the pass, and had reached Myriandrus—a little + beyond Iskonderum—when news reached him that Darius had occupied + Issus in his rear, and had put to death all the sick and wounded + Macedonians whom he had found in the town. At first he could not credit + the intelligence; but when it was confirmed by scouts, whom he sent out, + he prepared instantly to retrace his steps, and to fight his first great + battle with the Persian king under circumstances which he felt to be + favorable beyond anything that he could have hoped. The tract of flat land + between the base of the mountains and the sea on the borders of the Gulf + of Issus was nowhere broader than about a mile and a half. The range of + Amanus on the east rose up with rugged and broken hills, so that on this + side the operations of cavalry were impracticable. It would be impossible + to form a line of battle containing in the front rank more than about 4000 + men,1048 and difficult for either party to bring into action as many as + 30,000 of their soldiers. Thus the vast superiority of numbers on the + Persian side became in such a position absolutely useless, and even + Alexander had more troops than he could well employ. No wonder that the + Macedonian should exclaim, that “God had declared Himself on the Grecian + side by putting it into the heart of Darius to execute such a movement.” + It may be that Alexander’s superior generalship would have made him + victorious even on the open plain of Sochi; but in the defile of Issus + success was certain, and generalship superfluous. + </p> + <p> + Darius had started from Issus in pursuit of his adversary, and had reached + the banks of the Pinarus, a small stream flowing westward from Amanus into + the Mediterranean, when he heard that Alexander had hastened to retrace + his stops, and was coming to meet him. Immediately he prepared for battle. + Passing a force of horse and foot across the stream in his front, to keep + his adversary in check if he advanced too rapidly, he drew up his best + troops along the line of the river in a continuous solid mass, the ranks + of which must have been at least twenty deep. Thirty thousand Greek + mercenaries formed the centre of the line, while on either side of them + were an equal number of Asiatic “braves”—picked probably from the + mass of the army. Twenty thousand troops of a lighter and inferior class + were placed upon the rough hills on the left, the outskirts of the Amanian + range, where the nature of the ground allowed them to encircle the + Macedonian right, which, to preserve its ranks unbroken, kept the plain. + The cavalry, to the number of 30,000, was massed upon the other wing, near + the sea. + </p> + <p> + The battle began by certain movements of Alexander against the flank force + which menaced his right. These troops, assailed by the Macedonian + light-armed, retreated at once to higher ground, and by their manifest + cowardice freed Alexander from all anxiety on their account. Leaving 300 + horse to keep the 20,000 in check, he moved on his whole line at a slow + pace towards the Pinarus till it came within bow-shot of the enemy, when + he gave the order to proceed at a run. The line advanced as commanded; but + before it could reach the river, the Persian horse on the extreme right, + unable to restrain themselves any longer, dashed across the shallow + stream, and assailed Alexander’s left, where they engaged in a fierce + battle with the Thessalian cavalry, in which neither attained any decided + advantage. The infantry, meanwhile, came into conflict along the rest of + the line. Alexander himself, with the right and the right-centre, charged + the Asiatic troops on Darius’s left, who, like their brethren at Cunaxa, + instantly broke and fled. Parmenio, with the left-centre, was less + successful. The north bank of the Pinarus was in this part steep and + defended by stakes in places; the Greek mercenaries were as brave as the + Macedonians, and fought valiantly. It was not till the troops which had + routed the Persian right began, to act against their centre, assailing it + upon the flank, while it was at the same time engaged in front, that the + mercenaries were overpowered and gave way. Seeing their defeat, the horse + likewise fled, and thus the rout became general. + </p> + <p> + It is not quite clear what part Darius took in the battle, or how far he + was answerable for its untoward result. According to Arrian, he was struck + with a sudden panic on beholding the flight of his left wing, and gave + orders to his charioteer instantly to quit the field. But Curtius and + Diodorus represent him as engaged in a long struggle against Alexander + himself, and as only flying when he was in imminent danger of falling into + the enemy’s hands. Justin goes further, and states that he was actually + wounded. The character gained by Darius in his earlier years makes it + improbable that he would under any circumstances have exhibited personal + cowardice. On the whole it would seem to be most probable that the flight + of the Persian monarch occurred, not when the left wing fled, but when the + Greek mercenaries among whom he had placed himself began to give way + before the irresistible phalanx and the impetuous charges of Alexander. + Darius, not unwisely, accepted the defeat of his best troops as the loss + of the battle, and hastily retired across Amanus by the pass which had + brought him to Issus, whence he hurried on through Sochi to the Euphrates, + anxious to place that obstacle between himself and his victorious enemy. + His multitudinous host, entangled in the defiles of the mountains, + suffered by its own weight and size, the stronger fugitives treading down + the weaker, while at the same time it was ruthlessly slaughtered by the + pursuing enemy, so long as the waning light allowed. As many as 100,000—90,000 + foot and 10,000 horse—are said to have fallen. The ravines were in + places choked with the dead bodies, and Ptolemy the son of Lagus related + that in one instance he and Alexander crossed a gully on a bridge of this + kind. Among the slain were Sabaces, satrap of Egypt, Bubaces, a noble of + high rank, and Arsames, Rheomithres, and Atizyes, three of the commanders + at the Granicus. Forty thousand prisoners were made. The whole of the + Persian camp and camp-equipage fell into the enemy’s hands, who found in + the royal pavilion the mother, wife, and sister of the king, an infant + son, two daughters, and a number of female attendants, wives of noblemen. + The treasure captured amounted to 3000 silver talents. Among the trophies + of victory were the chariot, bow, shield, and robe of the king, which he + had abandoned in his hurried flight. + </p> + <p> + The loss on the side of the Macedonians was trivial. The highest estimate + places it at 450 killed, the lowest at 182. Besides these, 504 were + wounded. Thus Alexander had less than 1000 men placed hors de combat. He + himself received a slight wound in the thigh from a sword, which, used a + little more resolutely, might have changed the fortunes of the world. + </p> + <p> + The defeat of the Persians at Issus seems to have been due simply to the + fact that, practically, the two adversaries engaged with almost equal + numbers, and that the troops of Alexander were of vastly superior quality + to those of Darhis. The Asiatic infantry—notwithstanding their proud + title of “braves”—proved to be worthless; the Greek mercenaries were + personally courageous, but their inferior arms and training rendered them + incapable of coping with the Macedonian phalanx. The cavalry was the only + arm in which the Persians were not greatly at a disadvantage; and cavalry + alone cannot gain, or even save a battle. When Darius put himself into a + position where he lost all the advantages derivable from superiority of + numbers, he made his own defeat and his adversary’s triumph certain. + </p> + <p> + It remained, therefore, before the Empire could be considered as entirely + lost, that this error should be corrected, this false step retrieved. All + hope for Persia was not gone, so long as her full force had not been met + and defeated in a fair and open field. When Darius fled from Issus, it was + not simply to preserve for a few months longer his own wretched life; it + was to make an effort to redeem the past—to give his country that + last chance of maintaining her independence which she had a right to claim + at his hands—to try what the award of battle would be under the + circumstances which he had fair grounds for regarding as the most + favorable possible to his own side and the most disadvantageous to his + adversary. Before the heart of the Empire could be reached from the West, + the wide Mesopotamian plain had to be traversed—there, in those vast + flats, across which the enemy must come, a position might be chosen where + there would be room for the largest numbers that even his enormous Empire + could furnish—where cavalry and even chariots would be everywhere + free to act—where consequently he might engage the puny force of his + antagonist to the greatest advantage, outflank it, envelop it, and perhaps + destroy it. Darius would have been inexcusable had he given up the contest + without trying this last chance—the chance of a battle in the open + field with the full collected force of Persia. + </p> + <p> + His adversary gave him ample time to prepare for this final struggle. The + battle of Issus was fought in November, B.C. 333. It was not till the + summer of B.C. 331, twenty months later that the Macedonian forces were + set in motion towards the interior of the Empire. More than a year and a + half was consumed in the reduction of Phoenicia, the siege of Gaza, and + the occupation of Egypt. Alexander, apparently, was confident of defeating + Darius in a pitched battle, whenever and under whatever circumstances they + should again meet; and regarded as the only serious dangers which + threatened him, a possible interruption of his communications with Greece, + and the employment of Persian gold and Persian naval force in the raising + of troubles on the European side of the Egean. He was therefore + determined, before he plunged into the depth of the Asiatic continent, to + isolate Persia from Greece, to destroy her naval power, and to cripple her + pecuniary resources. The event showed that his decision was a wise one. By + detaching from Persia and bringing under his own sway the important + countries of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Idumsea, and Egypt, he wholly + deprived Persia of her navy, and transferred to himself the complete + supremacy of the sea, he greatly increased his own resources while he + diminished those of the enemy, and he shut out Persia altogether from + communication with Greece, excepting through his territories. He could + therefore commence his march into the interior with a feeling of entire + security as to his communications and his rear. No foe was left on the + coast capable of causing him a moment’s uneasiness. Athens and Sparta + might chafe and even intrigue; but without the Persian “archers,” it was + impossible that any force should be raised which could in the slightest + degree imperil his European dominions. + </p> + <p> + From Babylon, whither Darius proceeded straight from Issus, he appears to + have made two ineffectual attempts at negotiating with his enemy. The + first embassy was despatched soon after his arrival, and, according to + Arrian, was instructed merely to make proposals for peace, and to request + the restitution of the Queen, the Queen-mother, Sisygambis, the infant + prince, and the two princesses, captured by Alexander. To this Alexander + replied, in haughty and contemptuous terms, that if Darius would + acknowledge him as Lord of Asia, and deliver himself into his power, he + should receive back his relatives: if he intended still to dispute the + sovereignty, he ought to come and fight out the contest, and not run away. + </p> + <p> + The second embassy was sent six or eight months later, while Alexander was + engaged in the siege of Tyre. Darius now offered, as a ransom for the + members of his family held in captivity by Alexander, the large sum of ten + thousand talents (L240,000.), and was willing to purchase peace by the + cession of all the provinces lying west of the Euphrates, several of which + were not yet in Alexander’s possession. At the same time he proposed that + Alexander should marry his daughter, Statira, in order that the cession of + territory might be represented as the bestowal of a dowry. The reply of + Alexander was, if possible, ruder and haughtier than before. “What did + Darius mean by offering money and territory? All his treasure and all his + territory were Alexander’s already. As for the proposed marriage, if he + (Alexander) liked to marry a daughter of Darius, he should of course do + so, whether her father consented or not. If Darius wanted merciful + treatment, he had better come and deliver himself up at once.” + </p> + <p> + The terms of this reply rendered further negotiation impossible. Darius + had probably not hoped much from his pacific overtures, and was therefore + not greatly concerned at their rejection. He knew that the members of his + family were honorably and even kindly treated by their captor, and that, + so far at any rate, Alexander had proved himself a magnanimous conqueror. + He can scarcely have thought that a lasting peace was possible between + himself and his young antagonist, who had only just fleshed his maiden + sword, and was naturally eager to pursue his career of conquest. Indeed, + he seems from the moment of his defeat at Issus to have looked forward to + another battle as inevitable, and to have been unremitting in his efforts + to collect and arm a force which might contend, with a good hope of + victory, against the Macedonians. He replaced the panoplies lost at Issus + with fresh ones; he armed his forces anew with swords and spears longer + than the Persians had been previously accustomed to employ, on account of + the great length of the Macedonian weapons; he caused to be constructed + 200 scythed chariots; he prepared spiked balls to use against his enemy’s + cavalry; above all, he laid under contribution for the supply of troops + all the provinces, even the most remote, of his extensive Empire, and + asked and obtained important aid from allies situated beyond his borders. + The forces which he collected for the final struggle comprised—besides + Persians, Medes, Babylonians, and Susianians from the centre of the Empire—Syrians + from the banks of the Orontes, Armenians from the neighborhood of Ararat, + Cappadocians and Albanians from the regions bordering on the Euxine, + Cadusians from the Caspian, Bactrians from the Upper Oxus, Sogdians from + the Jaxartes, Arachosians from Cabul, Arians from Herat, Indians from + Punjab, and even Sacse from the country about Kashgar and Yarkand, on the + borders of the Great Desert of Gobi. Twenty-five nations followed the + standard of the Great King, and swelled the ranks of his vast army, which + amounted (according to the best authorities) to above a million of men. + Every available resource that the Empire possessed was brought into play. + Besides the three arms of cavalry, infantry, and chariots, elephants were, + for perhaps the first time in the history of military science, marshalled + in the battle-field, to which they added an unwonted element of + grotesqueness and savagery. + </p> + <p> + The field of battle was likewise selected with great care, and + artificially prepared for the encounter. Darius, it would seem, had at + last become convinced that his enemy would seek him out wherever he might + happen to be, and that consequently the choice of ground rested wholly + with himself. Leaving, therefore, the direct road to Babylon by the line + of the Euphrates undefended, he selected a position which possessed all + the advantages of the Mesopotamian plain, being open, level, fertile, and + well supplied with water, while its vicinity to the eastern and northern + provinces, made it convenient for a rendezvous. This position was on the + left or east bank of the Tigris, in the heart of the ancient Assyria, not + more than thirty miles from the site of Nineveh. Here, in the region + called by the Greeks Adiabene, extended between the Tigris and the river + Zab or Lycus, a vast plain broken by scarcely any elevations, and wholly + bare of both shrubs and trees. The few natural inequalities which + presented themselves were levelled by order of Darius, who made the entire + plain in his front practicable not only for cavalry but for chariots. At + the same time he planted, in the places where Alexander’s cavalry was + likely to charge, spiked balls to damage the feet of the horses. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, Alexander had quitted Egypt, and after delaying some months in + Syria while his preparations were being completed, had crossed the + Euphrates at Thapsacus and marched through northern Mesopotamia along the + southern flank of the Mons Masius, a district in which provisions, water, + and forage were abundant, to the Tigris, which he must have reached in + about lat. 36° 30’, thirty or forty miles above the site of Nineveh. No + resistance was made to his advance; even the passage of the great rivers + was unopposed. Arrived on the east bank of the Tigris, Alexander found + himself in Assyria Proper, with the stream upon his right and the + mountains of Gordyene Kurdistan at no great distance upon his left. But + the plain widened as he advanced, and became, as he drew near the position + of his enemy, a vast level, nowhere less than thirty miles in breadth, + between the outlying ranges of hills and the great river. Darius, whose + headquarters had been at Arbela, south of the Zab, on learning Alexander’s + approach, had crossed that stream and taken post on the prepared ground to + the north, in the neighborhood of a small town or village called + Gaugamela. Here he drew up his forces in the order which he thought best, + placing the scythed chariots in front, with supports of horse—Scythian, + Bactrian, Armenian, and Cappadocian—near to them; then, the main + line of battle, divided into a centre and two wings, and composed of horse + and foot intermixed; and finally a reserve of Babylonians. Sitaceni, and + others, massed in heavy column in the rear. His own post was, according to + invariable Persian custom, in the centre; and about him were grouped the + best troops—the Household brigade, the Melophori or Persian + foot-guards, the Mardian archers, some Albanians and Carians, the entire + body of Greek mercenaries, and the Indians with their elephants. + </p> + <p> + Alexander, on his side, determined to leave nothing to chance. Advancing + leisurely, resting his troops at intervals, carefully feeling his way by + means of scouts, and gradually learning from the prisoners whom he took, + and the deserters who came over to him, all the dispositions and + preparations of the enemy, he arrived opposite the position of Darius on + the ninth day after his passage of the Tigris. His officers were eager to + attack at once; but with great judgment he restrained them, gave his + troops a night’s rest, and obtained time to reconnoitre completely the + whole position of the enemy and the arrangement which he had made of his + forces. He then formed his own dispositions. The army with which he was to + attack above a million of men consisted of 40,300 foot and 7000 horse. + Alexander drew them up in three lines: + </p> + <p> + The first consisted of light-armed troops, horse and foot, of good + quality, which were especially intended to act against the enemy’s + chariots. The next was the main line of battle, and contained the phalanx + with the rest of the heavy infantry in the centre, the heavy cavalry upon + the two wings. The third line consisted of light troops, chiefly horse, + and was instructed to act against such of the Persians as should outflank + the Macedonian main line and so threaten their rear. As at Issus, + Alexander took the command of the right wing himself, and assigned the + left to Parmenio. + </p> + <p> + As the two armies drew near, Alexander, who found himself greatly + outflanked on both wings, and saw in front of him smooth ground carefully + prepared for the operations of chariots and cavalry, began a diagonal + movement towards the right, which tended at once to place him beyond the + levelled ground, and to bring him in contact with his enemy’s left wing + rather than with his direct front. The movement greatly disconcerted his + adversary, who sought to prevent it by extending and advancing his own + left, which was soon engaged with Alexander’s right in a fierce + hand-to-hand conflict. Alexander still pressed his slanting movement, and + in resisting it Darius’s left became separated from his centre, while at + the same time he was forced to give the signal for launching the chariots + against the foe sooner than he had intended, and under circumstances that + were not favorable. The effect of the operation was much the same as at + Cunaxa. Received by the Macedonian light-armed, the chariots were mostly + disabled before the enemy’s main line was reached; the drivers were + dragged from the chariot-boards; and the horses were cut to pieces. Such + as escaped this fate and charged the Macedonian line, were allowed to pass + through the ranks, which opened to receive them, and were then dealt with + by grooms and others in the rear of the army. + </p> + <p> + No sooner had the chariot attack failed, and the space between the two + lines of battle become clear, than Alexander, with the quick eye of a true + general, saw his opportunity: to resist his flank movement, the Bactrians + and Sacae with the greater part of the left wing had broken off from the + main Persian line, and in pressing towards the left had made a gap between + their ranks and the centre. Into this gap the Macedonian king, at the head + of the “Companion” cavalry and a portion of the phalanx, plunged. Here he + found himself in the near neighborhood of Darius, whereupon he redoubled + the vigor of his assault, knowing the great importance of any success + gained in this quarter. The Companions rushed on with loud cries, pressing + with all their weight, and thrusting their spears into the faces of their + antagonists—the phalanx, bristling with its thick array of lances, + bore them down. Alexander found himself sufficiently near Darius to hurl a + spear at him, which transfixed his charioteer. The cry arose that the king + had fallen, and the ranks at once grew unsteady. The more timid instantly + began to break and fly; the contagion of fear spread; and Darius was in a + little while almost denuded of protection on one side. Seeing this, and + regarding the battle as lost, since his line was broken, his centre and + left wing defeated, while only his right wing remained firm, the Persian + monarch yielded to his alarm, and hastily quitting the field, made his way + to Arbela. The centre and left fled with him. The right, which was under + the command of the Syrian satrap, Mazseus, made a firmer stand. On this + side the chariots had done some damage, and the horse was more than a + match for the Thessalian cavalry. Parmenio found himself in difficulties + about the time when the Persian king fled. His messengers detained a part + of the phalanx, which was about to engage in the pursuit, and even + recalled Alexander, who was hastening upon the track of Darius. The + careful prince turned back, but before he could make his way through the + crowd of fugitives to the side of his lieutenant, victory had declared in + favor of the Macedonians in this part of the field also. Mazseus and his + troops, learning that the king was fled, regarded further resistance as + useless, and quitted the field. The Persian army hurriedly recrossed the + Zab, pursued by the remorseless conquerors, who slew the unresisting + fugitives till they were weary of slaughter. Arrian says that 300,000 + fell, while a still larger number were taken prisoners. Other writers make + the loss considerably less. All, however, agree that the army was + completely routed and dispersed, that it made no attempt to rally, and + gave no further trouble to the conqueror. + </p> + <p> + The conduct of Darius in this—the crisis of his fate—cannot be + approved; but it admits of palliation, and does not compel us to withdraw + from him that respectful compassion which we commonly accord to great + misfortunes. After Issus, it was his duty to make at least one more effort + against the invader. To this object he addressed himself with earnestness + and diligence. The number and quality of the troops collected at Arbela + attests at once the zeal and success of his endeavors. His choice and + careful preparation of the field of battle are commendable; in his + disposition of his forces there is nothing with which to find fault. Every + arm of the service had full room to act; all were brought into play; if + Alexander conquered, it was because he was a consummate general, while at + the same time he commanded the best troops in the world. Arbela was not, + like Issus, won by mere fighting. It was the leader’s victory, rather than + the soldiers. Alexander’s diagonal advance, the confusion which it caused, + the break in the Persian line, and its prompt occupation by some of the + best cavalry and a portion of the phalanx, are the turning-points of the + engagement. All the rest followed as a matter of course. Far too much + importance has been assigned to Darius’s flight, which was the effect + rather than the cause of victory. When the centre of an Asiatic army is so + deeply penetrated that the person of the monarch is exposed and his near + attendants begin to fall, the battle is won. Darius did not—indeed + he could not—“set the example of flight.” Hemmed in by vast masses + of troops, it was not until their falling away from him on his left flank + at once exposed him to the enemy and gave him room to escape, that he + could extricate himself from the melee. + </p> + <p> + No doubt it would have been nobler, finer, more heroic, had the Persian + monarch, seeing that all was lost, and that the Empire of the Persians was + over, resolved not to outlive the independence of his country. Had he died + in the thick of the fight, a halo of glory would have surrounded him. But, + because he lacked, in common with many other great kings and commanders, + the quality of heroism, we are not justified in affixing to his memory the + stigma of personal cowardice. Like Pompey, like Napoleon, he yielded in + the crisis of his fate to the instinct of self-preservation. He fled from + the field where he had lost his crown, not to organize a new army, not to + renew the contest, but to prolong for a few weeks a life which had ceased + to have any public value. + </p> + <p> + It is needless to pursue further the dissolution of the Empire. The fatal + blow was struck at Arbela—all the rest was but the long death-agony. + At Arbela the crown of Cyrua passed to the Macedonian; the Fifth Monarchy + came to an end. The HE-GOAT, with the notable horn between his eyes, had + come from the west to the ram which had two horns, and had run into him + with the fury of his power. He had come close to him, and, moved with + choler, had smitten the ram and broken his two horns—there was no + power in the ram to stand before him, but he had cast him down to the + ground and stamped upon him—and there was none to deliver the ram + out of his hand. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The +Ancient Eastern World, Vol 5. 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