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diff --git a/16162-h/16162-h.htm b/16162-h/16162-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c606298 --- /dev/null +++ b/16162-h/16162-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18431 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <title> + The Seven Great Monarchies: Assyria by George Rawlinson, M.A. + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 20%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 25%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient +Eastern World, Vol 2. (of 7): Assyria, by George Rawlinson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 2. (of 7): Assyria + The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, + Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian + or New Persian Empire; With Maps and Illustrations. + +Author: George Rawlinson + +Illustrator: George Rawlinson + +Release Date: July 1, 2005 [EBook #16162] +Last Updated: September 6, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE SEVEN GREAT MONARCHIES + </h1> + <p> + OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN WORLD; OR, THE HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND ANTIQUITIES + OF CHALDAEA, ASSYRIA BABYLON, MEDIA, PERSIA, PARTHIA, AND SASSANIAN, OR + NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE. <b> BY </b> <b> GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., </b> CAMDEN + PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN THREE VOLUMES. + VOLUME I. With Maps and Illustrations <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> <b>THE SECOND MONARCHY, Part 1.</b></a> + <br /> <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> <b>CHAPTER I.</b></a> + DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY<br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> <b>CHAPTER + II.</b></a> CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS + <br /> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkB2H_4_0001"> <b>THE SECOND MONARCHY, + Part 2.</b> </a> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> <b>CHAPTER III.</b></a> + THE PEOPLE<br /><br /> <a href="#linkB2HCH0002"> <b>CHAPTER IV.</b></a> + THE CAPITAL<br /><br /> <a href="#linkB2HCH0003"> <b>CHAPTER V.</b></a> + LANGUAGE AND WRITING <br /> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkC2H_4_0001"> <b>THE + SECOND MONARCHY, Part 3.</b> </a> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkC2HCH0001"> + <b>CHAPTER VI.</b></a> ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER ARTS. + <br /> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkD2H_4_0001"> <b>THE SECOND MONARCHY, + Part 4.</b> </a> <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkD2HCH0001"> <b>CHAPTER VII.</b> + </a> MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. <br /> <br /> <br /> <a + href="#linkE2H_4_0001"> <b>THE SECOND MONARCHY, Part 4.</b> </a> <br /> + <br /> <a href="#linkE2HCH0001"> <b>CHAPTER VIII.</b></a> + RELIGION<br /><br /> <a href="#linkE2HCH0002"> <b>CHAPTER IX.</b></a> + CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY <br /> <br /> <a href="#linkE2H_APPE"> <b>APPENDIX.</b> + </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Map1 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Plate 22 </a> + </p> + <p> + 49. Signet of Kurri-galzu. King of Babylon<br /> (drawn by the author + from an impression in the<br /> possession of Sir H. Rawlinson)<br /> 50. + The Khabour, from near Arban, looking north (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Plate 23 </a> + </p> + <p> + 51. Koukab (ditto)<br /> 52. Lake of Khatouniyeh (ditto)<br /> 53. + Colossal lion, near Seruj (after Chesney)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Plate 24 </a> + </p> + <p> + 54. Plan of the ruins of Nimrud (Calah)<br /> (reduced by the Author from + Captain Jones’s survey)<br /> 55. Great wound of Nimrud or Calah (after + Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> Plate 25 </a> + </p> + <p> + 56. Hand-swipe, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 57. Assyrian lion, from Nimrud + (ditto)<br /> 58. Ibex, or wild goat, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> Plate 26 </a> + </p> + <p> + 59. Wild ass (after Ker Porter)<br /> 60. Leopard, from Nimrud (after + Layard)<br /> 61. Wild ass, from Koyunjik (from an unpublished<br /> + drawing by Mr. Boutcher in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> Plate 27 </a> + </p> + <p> + 62. Gazelle, from Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 63. Stag and hind, from + Koyunjik (from an unpublished<br /> drawing by Mr. Boutcher in the + British Museum)<br /> 64. Fallow deer, from Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> Plate 28 </a> + </p> + <p> + 65. Hare and eagles, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 66. Hare, from Khorsabad + (after Botta)<br /> 67. Chase of wild ox, from Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> + 68. Vulture, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 69. Vulture feeding on corpse, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> Plate 29 </a> + </p> + <p> + 70. Ostrich, from a cylinder (after Cullimore)<br /> 71. Ostrich, from + Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 72. Partridges, from Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> + 73. Unknown birds, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> Plate 30 </a> + </p> + <p> + 74. Assyrian garden and fish-pond, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 75. + Bactrian or two-humped camel, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 76. Mesopotamian + sheep (ditto)<br /> 77. Loading a camel, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 78. Head + of an Assyrian horse, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> Plate 31 </a> + </p> + <p> + 79. Assyrian horse, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 80. Mule ridden by two + women, Koyunjik (after Layard<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> Plate 32 </a> + </p> + <p> + 81. Loaded mule, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 82. Cart drawn by mules, Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> 83. Dog modelled in clay, from the palace of<br /> + Asshur-bani-pal, Koyunjik, (drawn by the Author<br /> from the original + in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> Plate 33 </a> + </p> + <p> + 84. Dog in relief, on a clay tablet (after Layard)<br /> 85. Assyrian + cluck, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 86. Assyrians, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0001"> Map1 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0002"> Plate 34 </a> + </p> + <p> + 87. Mesopotamian captives, from an Egyptian monument (Wilkinson)<br /> + 88. Limbs of Assyrians, from the sculptures (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0003"> Plate 35 </a> + </p> + <p> + 89. Capture of a city, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 90. Captives of Sargon, + Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0004"> Plate 36 </a> + </p> + <p> + 91. Captive women in a cart, Nimrud (Layard)<br /> 92. Ruins of Nineveh + (reduced by the Author from Captain Jones’s survey)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> Plate 37 </a> + </p> + <p> + 93. Khosr-Su and mound of Nebbi-Yunus (after Layard)<br /> 94. Gate in + the north wall, Nineveh (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> Plate 38 </a> + </p> + <p> + 95. Outer defences of Nineveh, in their present condition (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> Plate 39 </a> + </p> + <p> + 96. Assyrian cylinder (after Birch)<br /> 97. Assyrian seals (after + Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> Plate 40 </a> + </p> + <p> + 98. Assyrian clay tablets (ditto)<br /> 99. Black obelisk, from Nimrud + (after Birch)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> Partial Page 171 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> Partial Page 172 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> Partial Page 173 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> Partial Page 174 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> Page 175 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> Page 176 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> Page 177 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> Partial Page 178 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0001"> Map of Assyria </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0002"> Plate 41 </a> + </p> + <p> + 100. Terrace-wall at Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 101. Pavement-slab, + from the Northern Palace.<br /> Koyunjik (Fergusson)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0003"> Plate 42 </a> + </p> + <p> + 102. Mound of Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 103. Plan of the Palace of Sargon, + Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0004"> Plate 43 </a> + </p> + <p> + 104. Hall of Esar-haddon’s Palace, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 106. Remains of + Propyheum, or outer gateway, Khorsabad (Layard)<br /> 107. King and + attendants, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0005"> Plate 44 </a> + </p> + <p> + 105. Plan of the Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0006"> Plate 45 </a> + </p> + <p> + 108. Plan of palace gateway (ditto)<br /> 109. King punishing prisoners, + Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 111. Sargon in his war-chariot, Khorsabad (after + Botta)<br /> 112. Cornice of temple, Khorsabad (Fergusson)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0007"> Plate 46 </a> + </p> + <p> + 110. North-West Court of Sargon’s Palace at<br /> Khorsabad, restored + (after Fergusson)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0008"> Plate 47 </a> + </p> + <p> + 113. Armenian louvre ((after Botta)<br /> 114. Armenian buildings. from + Koyunjik (Layard)<br /> 116. Assyrian castle on Nimrud obelisk (drawn by<br /> + the Author from the original in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0009"> Plate 48 </a> + </p> + <p> + 115. Interior of an Assyrian palace, restored (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0010"> Plate 49 </a> + </p> + <p> + 117. Assyrian altar, from a bas-relief, Khorsabad<br /> (after Botta)<br /> + 118. Assyrian temple, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 119. Assyrian temple, from + Lord Aberdeen’s<br /> black stone (after Fergusson)<br /> 120. Assyrian + temple, Nimrud (drawn by<br /> the Author from the original in the + British Museum)<br /> 121. Assyrian temple, North Palace, Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0011"> Plate 50 </a> + </p> + <p> + 123. Basement portion of an Assyrian temple,<br /> North Palace. Koyunjik + (drawn by the Author<br /> from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0012"> Plate 51 </a> + </p> + <p> + 122. Circular pillar-base, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 124. Porch of + the Cathedral, Trent (from an<br /> original sketch made by the Author)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0013"> Plate 52 </a> + </p> + <p> + 125. Tower of a temple, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 126. Tower of + ditto, restored (by the Author)<br /> 127. Tower of great temple at + Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0014"> Plate 53 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0015"> Plate 54 </a> + </p> + <p> + 128. Basement of temple-tower, Nimrud,<br /> north and west sides (ditto)<br /> + 129. Ground-plan of Nimrud Tower (ditto)<br /> 130. Ground-plans of + temples, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0016"> Plate 55 </a> + </p> + <p> + 131. Entrance to smaller temple. Nimrud(ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0017"> Plate 56 </a> + </p> + <p> + 132. Assyrian village. Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 133. Village near Aleppo + (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0018"> Plate 57 </a> + </p> + <p> + 134. Assyrian hattlemented wall (ditto)<br /> 135. Masonry and section of + platform wall.<br /> Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 136. Masonry of + town-wall. Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0019"> Plate 58 </a> + </p> + <p> + 137. Masonry of tower or moat, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 139. Arched drain, + South-East Palace, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0020"> Plate 59 </a> + </p> + <p> + 138. Arched drain, North-West Palace, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 140. + False arch (Greek)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0021"> Plate 60 </a> + </p> + <p> + 141. Assyrian patterns, Nimrud (Layard)<br /> 142. Ditto (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0022"> Plate 61 </a> + </p> + <p> + 143. Bases and capitals of pillars (chiefly<br /> drawn by the Author + from bas-reliefs<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0023"> Plate 62 </a> + </p> + <p> + 144. Ornamental doorway, North Palace, Koyunjik<br /> (from an + unpublished drawing’by Mr. Boutcher<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> + 145. Water transport of stone for building,<br /> Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0024"> Plate 63 </a> + </p> + <p> + 146. Assyrian statue from Kileh-Sherghat (ditto)<br /> 147. Statue of + Sardanapalus I., from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 148. Clay statuettes of the + god Nebo (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0025"> Plate 64 </a> + </p> + <p> + 149. Clay statuette of the Fish-God (drawn by<br /> the Author from the + original in the British Museum)<br /> 150. Clay statuette from Khorsabad + (after Botto)<br /> 151. Lion hunt, from Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0026"> Plate 65 </a> + </p> + <p> + 152. Assyrian seizing a wild bull, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 153. Hawk-headed + figure and sphinx, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 154. Death of a wild bull, + Nimrud(ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0027"> Plate 66 </a> + </p> + <p> + 155. King killing a lion, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 156. Trees from Nimrud + (ditto)<br /> 157. Trees from Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0028"> Plate 67 </a> + </p> + <p> + 158. Groom and horses, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 159., 160. Assyrian oxen, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0029"> Plate 68 </a> + </p> + <p> + 161. Assyrian goat and sheep, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 162. Vine trained on + a fir, from the North Palace,<br /> Koyunjik (drawn by the Author from a + bas-relief<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0030"> Plate 69 </a> + </p> + <p> + 163. Lilies, from the North Palace, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 164. Death of + two wild asses, from the North Palace,<br /> Koyunjik (from an + unpublished drawing by Mr. Boutcher<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> + 165. Lion about to spring, from the North Palace,<br /> Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0031"> Plate 70 </a> + </p> + <p> + 166. Wounded wild ass seized by hounds,<br /> from the North Palace, + Koyunjik<br /> 167. Wounded lion about to fall,from the North Palace,<br /> + Koyunjik (from an unpublished drawing by Mr. Boutcher,<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0032"> Plate 71 </a> + </p> + <p> + 168. Wounded lion biting a chariot-wheel,<br /> from the North Palace, + Koyunjik<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0033"> Plate 72 </a> + </p> + <p> + 169. King shooting a lion on the spring,<br /> from the North Palace, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0034"> Plate 73 </a> + </p> + <p> + 170. Lion-hunt in a river. from the<br /> North Palace, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0035"> Plate 74 </a> + </p> + <p> + 171. Bronze lion, from Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 172. Fragments of + bronze ornaments of the throne,<br /> from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 173. + Bronze casting, from the throne, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0036"> Plate 75 </a> + </p> + <p> + 174. Feet of tripods in bronze and iron (ditto)<br /> 175. Bronze bull’s + head, from thethrone (ditto)<br /> 176. Bronze head, part of throne,<br /> + showing bitumen inside (ditto)<br /> 177. End of a sword-sheath, from<br /> + the N. W. Palace, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 178. Stool or chair, Khorsabad + (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0037"> Plate 76 </a> + </p> + <p> + 179. Engraved scarab in centre of cup,<br /> from the N. W. Palace, + Nimrud (Layard)<br /> 180. Egyptian head-dresses on bronze dishes,<br /> + from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 181. Ear-rings from Nimrud and Khorsabad + (ditto)<br /> 182. Bronze cubes inlaid with gold, original size (ditto)<br /> + 183. Egyptian scarab (from Wilkinson)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0038"> <i>onk</i> (Page 223) </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0039"> Plate 77 </a> + </p> + <p> + 184. Fragment of ivory panel, from Nimrod (after Layard)<br /> 185. + Fragment of a lion in ivory, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 187. Fragment of a stag + in ivory, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 188. Royal attendant, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0040"> Plate 78 </a> + </p> + <p> + 186. Figures and cartouche with hieroglyphics,<br /> on an ivory panel, + from the N.W. Palace, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0041"> Plate 79 </a> + </p> + <p> + 189. Arcade work, on enamelled brick, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 190. Human + figure, on enamelled brick, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 191. Ram’s head, on + enamelled brick, from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 193. Impression of ancient + Assyrian cylinder,<br /> in serpentine (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0042"> Plate 80 </a> + </p> + <p> + 192. King and attendants, on enamelled brick,<br /> from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + 197. Assyrian vases. amphorae, etc. (after Birch)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0043"> Plate 81 </a> + </p> + <p> + 194. Assyrian seals (ditto)<br /> 195. Assyrian cylinder, with Fish-God + (ditto)<br /> 196. Royal cylinder of Sennacherib (ditto)<br /> 198. + Funereal Urn from Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 200. Lustral ewer, from a + bas relief, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 201. Wine vase, from a + bas-relief, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0044"> Plate 82 </a> + </p> + <p> + 199. Nestorian and Arab workmen,<br /> with jar discovered at Nimrud + (Layard)<br /> 202. Assyrian clay-lamp, (after Layard and Birch)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0045"> Plate 83 </a> + </p> + <p> + 203. Amphora, with twisted arrns, Ninirud (Birch)<br /> 201. Assyrian + glass bottles and bowl (after Layard)<br /> 205. Glass vase, bearing the + name of Sargon,<br /> from Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 206. Fragments of hollow + tubes, in glass,<br /> from Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0046"> Plate 84 </a> + </p> + <p> + 207. Ordinary Assyrian tables, from the bas-reliefs<br /> (by the Author)<br /> + 208, 209. Assyrian tables, from bas-reliefs,<br /> Koymrjik (ditto)<br /> + 210. Table, ornamented with rain’s heads,<br /> Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> + 211. Ornamented table, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 212. Three-legged table, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 213. Sennacherib on his throne. Koyunjilc(ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0047"> Plate 85 </a> + </p> + <p> + 214. Arm-chair or throne, Khorsahad (after Botta)<br /> 215. Assyrian + ornamented seat, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 216. Assyrian couch, from a + bas-relief.<br /> Koyunjik (by the Author)<br /> 217. Assyrian footstools, + Koynnjik (ditto)<br /> 218. Stands for jars (Layyard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0048"> Plate 86 </a> + </p> + <p> + 219. Royal embroidered dresses, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 220. Embroidery on a + royal dress, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0049"> Plate 87 </a> + </p> + <p> + 221. Circular breast ornament on a royal robe,<br /> Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0050"> Plate 88 </a> + </p> + <p> + 222. Assyrians moving a human-headed bull, partly<br /> restored from a + bas-relief at Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 225. Part of a bas-relief, showing a + pulley and<br /> a warrior cutting a bucket from the rope (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkCimage-0051"> Plate 89 </a> + </p> + <p> + 223. Laborer employed in drawing a colossal bull,<br /> Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + 224. Attachment of rope to sledge, on which the bull<br /> was placed for + transport, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 226. Assyrian war-chariot, Koyunjik<br /> + from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0001"> Map1 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0002"> Plate 90 </a> + </p> + <p> + 227. Chariot-wheel of the early period, Nimrud<br /> (from the original + in the British Museum)<br /> 228. Chariot-wheel of the middle period, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 229. Chariot-wheel of the latest period, Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> 230. Ornamented ends of chariot poles, Nimrud and Koyunjik + ditto<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0003"> Plate 91 </a> + </p> + <p> + 231. End of pole, with cross-bar, Khorsabad (after Botta<br /> 232. End + of pole, with curved yoke, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 233. End of + pole, with elaborate cross-bar or yoke, Khorsabad<br /> (after Botta)<br /> + 234. Assyrian chariot containing four warriors, Koyunjik<br /> (after + Boutcher)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0004"> Plate 92 </a> + </p> + <p> + 235. Assyrian war-chariot of the early period, Nimrud<br /> (from the + original in the British Museum)<br /> 236. Assyrian war-chariot of the + later period,<br /> Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 237. Assyrian chariot of the + transition period,<br /> Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0005"> Plate 93 </a> + </p> + <p> + 238. Assyrian chariot of the early period, Nimrud<br /> (from the + original in the British Museum)<br /> 239. Chariot-horse protected by + clothing, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 240. Head of a chariot-horse, showing + collar with<br /> bells attached, Koyunjik(after Boutcher)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0006"> Plate 94 </a> + </p> + <p> + 241. Bronze bit, Nimrud (from the original<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> + 242. Bits of chariot-horses, from the sculptures,<br /> Nimrud and + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 243. Driving-whips of Assyrian charioteers,<br /> + from the sculptures (ditto)<br /> 244. Mode of tying horses’ tails, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0007"> Plate 95 </a> + </p> + <p> + 245. Mounted spearmen of the time of Sargon,<br /> Khorsabad (after + Botta)<br /> 246. Greave or laced boot of a horseman,<br /> Khorsabad + (ditto)<br /> 248. Horse archer of the latest period, Koyunjik<br /> (from + the original in the British Museum)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0008"> Plate 96 </a> + </p> + <p> + 247. Cavalry soldiers of the time of Sennacherib,<br /> Koyunjik (after + Layard)<br /> 249. Ordinary sandal of the first period, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + 250. Convex shield of the first period, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 251. + Foot spearmen of the first period, with wicker shield,<br /> Nimrud (from + the original in the British Museum)<br /> 252. Foot archer with + attendant, first period, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 253. Foot archer of the + lightest equipment, time of Sargon,<br /> Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0009"> Plate 97 </a> + </p> + <p> + 254. Foot archer of the intermediate equipment,<br /> with attendant, + time of Sargon, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 255. Foot archer of the + heavy equipment, with attendant,<br /> time of Sargon, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> + 256. Foot spearman of the time of Sargon, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 257. + Shield and greave of a spearman, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0010"> Plate 98 </a> + </p> + <p> + 258. Spear, with weight at the lower end, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 259. + Sling, Koyunjik (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> 260. Foot + archer of the heavy equipment, with attendant,<br /> time of Sennacherib, + Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 261. Foot archers of the second class, time of + Sennacherib,<br /> Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 262. Belts and head-dress of a + foot archer of the third class,<br /> time of Sennacherib, Koyunjik + (after Boutcher)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0011"> Plate 99 </a> + </p> + <p> + 263. Mode of carrying the quiver, time of Sennacherib,<br /> Koyunjik + (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> 264. Foot archers of the + lightest equipment,<br /> time of Sennacherib, Koyunjik<br /> 266. Wicker + shields, time of Sennacherib, Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in the + British Museum)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0012"> Plate 100 </a> + </p> + <p> + 267. Metal shield of the latest period, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 268. + Slinger, time of Asshur-bani-pal, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 269. + Pointed helmet, with curtain of scales, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 270. + Iron helmet, from Koyunjik, now in the British Museum<br /> (by the + Author)<br /> 271. Assyrian crested helmets, from the bas-reliefs,<br /> + Khorsabad and Koyunjik (from the originals in the British Museum)<br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0013"> Plate 101 </a> + </p> + <p> + 272. Scale, Egyptian (after Sir G. Wilkinson)<br /> 273. Arrangement of + scales in Assyrian scale-armour<br /> of the second period, Khorsabad + (after Botta)<br /> 274. Sleeve of a coat of mail-scale-armor of the + first period,<br /> Nimrud (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + 275. Assyrian gerrha, or large wicker shields (ditto)<br /> 276. Soldier + undermining a wall, sheltered by gerrhon,<br /> Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0014"> Plate 102 </a> + </p> + <p> + 277. Round shields or targes, patterned, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> + 278. Convex shields with teeth, Nimrud (from the originals<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> 279. Egyptian convex shield, worn on back (after + Sir G. Wilkinson)<br /> 280. Assyrian ditto, Koyunjik (from the original + in the British Museum<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0015"> Plate 103 </a> + </p> + <p> + 281. Assyrian convex shield, resembling the Greek, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + 282. Quiver, with arrows and javelin, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 283. + Ornamented end of bow, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 284. Stringing the + bow, Koyunjik (from the original<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0016"> Plate 104 </a> + </p> + <p> + 285. Assyrian curved bow (ditto)<br /> 286. Assyrian angular bow, + Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 287. Mode of carrying the bow in a + bow-case, Koyunjik<br /> (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + 288. Peculiar mode of carrying the quiver, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 289. + Quiver, with rich ornamentation, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 290. Quivers + of the ordinary character, Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in the + British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0017"> Plate 105 </a> + </p> + <p> + 291. Quiver with projecting rod, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 292. + Assyrian covered quivers, Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in the + British Museum)<br /> 293. Bronze arrow-heads, Nimrud and Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> 294. Flint arrow-brad; Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 295. Assyrian + arrow (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0018"> Plate 106 </a> + </p> + <p> + 296. Mode of drawing the bow, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 297. Guard + worn by an archer, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 298. Bronze spear-head, Nimrud + (from the original<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> 299. Spear-heads + (from the Sculptures)<br /> 300. Ornamented ends of spear-shafts, Nimrud + (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0019"> Plate 107 </a> + </p> + <p> + 301. Ornamented handle of short sword, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 302. + Sheathed sword, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 303. Ornamented handle of + longer sword, Nimrud<br /> (from the original in the British Museum?<br /> + 304. Assyrian curved sword, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 308. Scythian + battle-axe (after Tester)<br /> 309. Ornamented handles of daggers, + Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 310. Handle of dagger, with chain, Nimrud + (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0020"> Plate 108 </a> + </p> + <p> + 305. Head of royal mace, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 306. Maces, from the + Sculptures<br /> 307. Assyrian battle-axes, Koyunjik<br /> (from the + originals in the British Museum)<br /> 311. Sheaths of daggers, Nimrud<br /> + 312. Assyrian standard, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 313. Soldier + swimming a river, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0021"> Plate 109 </a> + </p> + <p> + 314. Royal tent, Koyunjik (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + 315. Ordinary tent, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 316. Interior of + tent, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 317. King walking in a mountainous country, + chariot following,<br /> supported by men, Koyunjik (from an obelisk in + the British Museum,<br /> after Boutcher)<br /> 318. Fortified place + belonging to an enemy of the Assyrians,<br /> Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0022"> Plate 110 </a> + </p> + <p> + 319. Gateway of castle, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 320. + Battering-rams, Khorsabad and Koyunjik (partly after Botta)<br /> 322. + Crowbar, and mining the wall, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0023"> Plate 111 </a> + </p> + <p> + 321. Assyrian balistce, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 324. Soldiers + destroying date-palms, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 325. Soldier + carrying off spoil from a temple, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 326. + Scribes taking account of the spoil, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 327. + Mace-bearer, with attendant, executing a prisoner,<br /> Koyunjtk (from + the original in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0024"> Plate 112 </a> + </p> + <p> + 323. Implement used in the destruction of cities,<br /> Khorsabad (after + Botta)<br /> 328. Swordsman decapitating a prisoner, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> + 329. Female captives, with children, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 330. + Chasuble or outer garment of the king (chiefly after Botta)<br /> 331. + King in his robes, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0025"> Plate 113 </a> + </p> + <p> + 332. Tiaras of the later and earlier Periods,<br /> Koyunjik and Nimrud + (Layard and Boutcher)<br /> 333. Fillet worn by the king, Nimrud (after + Layard)<br /> 334. Royal sandals, times of Sargon and Asshur-izir-pal<br /> + (from the originals in the British Museum)<br /> 335. Royal shoe, time of + Sennacherib, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 336. Royal necklace, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + 337. Royal collar, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0026"> Plate 114 </a> + </p> + <p> + 338. Royal armlets, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 339. Royal bracelets, + Khorsabad and Koyunjik<br /> (after Botta and Boutcher)<br /> 340. Royal + ear-rings, Nimrud (from the originals<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> + 341. Early king in his war-costume, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0027"> Plate 115 </a> + </p> + <p> + 342. King, queen, and attendants, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 343. Enlarged + figure of the queen, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 345. Heads of eunuchs, Nimrud + (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0028"> Plate 116 </a> + </p> + <p> + 344. Royal parasols, Nimrud and Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 316. The chief + eunuch, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 347. Head-dress of the vizier, Khorsabad + (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0029"> Plate 117 </a> + </p> + <p> + 348. Costumes of the vizier, times of Sennacherib and<br /> + Asshur-izir-pal, Nimrud and Koyunjik (from the originals<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0030"> Plate 118 </a> + </p> + <p> + 349. Tribute-bearers presented by the chief eunuch,<br /> Nimrud obelisk + (ditto)<br /> 350. Fans or fly-flappers, Nimrud and Koyunjik<br /> 351. + King killing a lion, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 352. King, with + attendants, spearing a lion, Koyunjik<br /> (after Boutcher)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0031"> Plate 119 </a> + </p> + <p> + 353. King, with attendant, stabbing a lion, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 354. + Lion let out of trap, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0032"> Plate 120 </a> + </p> + <p> + 355. Hound held in leash, Koyunjik (from the original<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> 356. Wounded lioness, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 351. + Fight of lion and bull, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 358. King hunting the + wild bull, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 359. King pouring libation over four dead + lions,<br /> Koyunjik (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0033"> Plate 121 </a> + </p> + <p> + 360. Hound chasing a wild ass colt, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 361. + Dead wild ass, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 362. Hounds pulling down a wild + ass, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 563. Wild ass taken with a rope, Koyunjik<br /> + (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0034"> Plate 122 </a> + </p> + <p> + 364. Hound chasing a doe, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 365. Hunted + stag taking the water, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0035"> Plate 123 </a> + </p> + <p> + 366. Net spread to take deer, Koyunjik (from the original<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> 367. Portion of net showing the arrangement of the + meshes<br /> and the pegs, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 368. Hunted ibex, flying + at full speed. Koyunjik<br /> (after Boutcher)<br /> 369. Ibex transfixed + with arrow-falling (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0036"> Plate 124 </a> + </p> + <p> + 370. Sportsman carrying a, gazelle, Khorsabad<br /> (from the original in + the British Museum)<br /> 371. Sportsman shooting, Khorsabad (after + Bntta)<br /> 372. Greyhound and hare, Niunrud (from a bronze bowl<br /> in + the British Museum)<br /> 373. Nets, pegs, and balls of string, Koyunjik<br /> + (after Boutcher)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0037"> Plate 125 </a> + </p> + <p> + 374. Man fishing, Nimrud (after Layard)<br /> 375. Man fishing, Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0038"> Plate 126 </a> + </p> + <p> + 376. Man fishing, seated on skin, Koyunjik<br /> (from the original in + the British Museum)<br /> 377. Bear standing, Nimrud (from a bronze bowl<br /> + in the British Museum)<br /> 378. Ancient Assyrian harp and harper, + Nimrud<br /> (from the originals in the British Museum)<br /> 330. + Triangular lyre, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0039"> Plate 127 </a> + </p> + <p> + 379. Later Assyrian harps and harpers, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 381. Lyre + with ten strings, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0040"> Plate 128 </a> + </p> + <p> + 382. Lyres with five and seven strings, Koyunjik<br /> (from the + originals in the British Museurn)<br /> 383. Guitar or tamboura, Koyunjik + (ditto)<br /> 384. Player on the double pipe. Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0041"> Plate 129 </a> + </p> + <p> + 385. Tambourine player and other musicians, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 387. + Assyrian tubbuls, or drums, Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in the + British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0042"> Plate 130 </a> + </p> + <p> + 386. Eunuch playing on the cymbals, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 388. + Musician playing the dulcimer, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 389. Roman trumpet + (Column of Trajan)<br /> 390. Assyrian ditto, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> + 391. Portion of an Assyrian trumpet (from the original<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0043"> Plate 131 </a> + </p> + <p> + 392. Captives playing on lyres, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0044"> Plate 132 </a> + </p> + <p> + 333. Lyre on a Hebrew coin (ditto)<br /> 394. Baud of twenty-six + musicians, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0045"> Plate 133 </a> + </p> + <p> + 395. Time-keepers, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 396. Assyrian coracle, + Nimrud (from the original<br /> in the British Museum) <br /> 397. Common + oar, time of Sennacherib, Koyunjik (ditto)<br /> 398. Steering oar, time + of Asshur-izir-pal, Nimrud (ditto)<br /> 399. Early long boat, Nimrud + (ditto)<br /> 400. Later long boat, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 401. + Phoenician bireme, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 402. Oar kept in place + by pegs, Koyunjik<br /> (from the original in the British Museum)<br /> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0046"> Plate 134 </a> + </p> + <p> + 403. Chart of the district about Nimrud, showing the<br /> course of the + ancient canal and conduit (after the<br /> survey of Captain Jones)<br /> + 404. Assyrian drill-plough (from Lori Aberdeen’s<br /> black stone, after + Fergusson.<br /> 405. Modern Turkish plough (after Sir C. Fellows)<br /> + 406. Modern Arab plough (after C. Niebuhr)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0047"> Plate 135 </a> + </p> + <p> + 407. Ornamental belt or girdle, Koyunjik<br /> (from the original in the + British Museum)<br /> 408. Ornamental cross-belt, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> + 409. Armlets of Assyrian grandees, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 410. + Head-dresses of various officials, Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in + the British Musemn)<br /> 411. Curious mode of arranging the hair, + Koyunjik<br /> (from the originals in the British Museum)<br /> 412. + Female seated (from an ivory in the British Museum)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0048"> Plate 136 </a> + </p> + <p> + 413. Females gathering grapes<br /> (from some ivory fragments in the + British Museum)<br /> 414. Necklace of flat glass beads (from the + original<br /> in the British Museum)<br /> 415. Metal mirror (ditto)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0049"> Plate 137 </a> + </p> + <p> + 416. Combs in iron and lapis lazuli (from the original<br /> in the + British Museum)<br /> 417. Assyrian joints of meat (from the Sculptures)<br /> + 418. Killing the sheep, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 419. Cooking meat + in caldron, Koyunjik (after Layard)<br /> 420. Frying, Nimrud (from the + original in the British Museum)<br /> 421. Assyrian fruits (from the + Monuments)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkDimage-0050"> Plate 138 </a> + </p> + <p> + 422. Drinking scene, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 423. Ornamental + wine-cup, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /> 424. Attendant bringing flowers to a + banquet, Koyunjik<br /> (after Layard)<br /> 425. Socket of hinge, Nimrud + (ditto)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0001"> Map1 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0004"> Page 358 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0005"> Plate 143 </a> + </p> + <p> + 448. Evil genii contending, Koyunjik (after Boutcher)<br /> 450. + Triangular altar, Khorsabad (after Botta)<br /> 451. Portable altar in an + Assyrian camp,<br /> with priests offering, Khorsabad (ditto)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0006"> Plate 144 </a> + </p> + <p> + 449. Sacrificial scene, from an obelisk found<br /> at Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + 452. Worshipper bringing an offering,<br /> from a cylinder (after + Lajard)<br /> 453. Figure of Tiglath-Pileser I.<br /> (from an original + drawing by Mr. John Taylor)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0007"> Page 371 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0008"> Page 372 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0009"> Plate 145 </a> + </p> + <p> + 454. Plan of the palace of Asshur-izir-pal (after Fergusson)<br /> 455. + Stele of Asshur-izir-pal with an altar in front, Nimrud<br /> (from the + original in the British Museum)<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0010"> Plate 146 </a> + </p> + <p> + 456. Israelites bringing tribute to Shalmaneser II.,<br /> Nimrud (ditto)<br /> + 457. Assyrian sphinx, time of Asshur-bani-pal<br /> (after Layard)<br /> + 458. Scythian soldiers, from a vase found in a Scythian tomb<br /><br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0011"> Page 508 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0012"> Page 509 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0013"> Page 510 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0014"> Page 511 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0015"> Page 512 </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0016"> Page 513 </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkEimage-0017"> Map of Media </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SECOND MONARCHY + </h2> + <h1> + ASSYRIA + </h1> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_top.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="map_top_th (118K)" src="images/map_top_th.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> + <p> + DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY. + </p> + <p> + “Greek phrase[—]”—HEROD. i. 192. + </p> + <p> + The site of the second—or great Assyrian-monarchy was the upper + portion of the Mesopotamian valley. The cities which successively formed + its capitals lay, all of them, upon the middle Tigris; and the heart of + the country was a district on either side that river, enclosed within the + thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallels. By degrees these limits were + enlarged; and the term Assyria came to be used, in a loose and vague way, + of a vast and ill-defined tract extending on all sides from this central + region. Herodotus considered the whole of Babylonia to be a mere district + of Assyria. Pliny reckoned to it all Mesopotamia. Strabo gave it, besides + these regions, a great portion of Mount Zagros (the modern Kurdistan), and + all Syria as far as Cilicia, Judaea, and Phoenicia. + </p> + <p> + If, leaving the conventional, which is thus vague and unsatisfactory, we + seek to find certain natural limits which we may regard as the proper + boundaries of the country, in two directions we seem to perceive an almost + unmistakable line of demarcation. On the east the high mountain-chain of + Zagros. penetrable only in one or two places, forms a barrier of the most + marked character, and is beyond a doubt the natural limit for which we are + looking. On the south a less striking, but not less clearly defined, line—formed + by the abutment of the upper and slightly elevated plain on the alluvium + of the lower valley—separates Assyria from Babylonia, which is best + regarded as a distinct country. In the two remaining directions, there is + more doubt as to the most proper limit. Northwards,we may either view + Mount Masius as the natural boundary, or the course of the Tigris from + Diarbekr to Til, or even perhaps the Armenian mountain-chain north of this + portion of the Tigris, from whence that river receives its early + tributaries. Westward, we might confine Assyria to the country watered by + the affluents of the Tigris, or extend it so as to in elude the Khabour + and its tributaries, or finally venture to carry it across the whole of + Mesopotamia, and make it be bounded by the Euphrates. On the whole it is + thought that in both the doubted cases the wider limits are historically + the truer ones. Assyrian remains cover the entire country between the + Tigris and the Khabour, and are frequent on both banks of the latter + stream, giving unmistakable indications of a long occupation of that + region by the great Mesopotamian people. The inscriptions show that even a + wider tract was in process of time absorbed by the conquerors; and if we + are to draw a line between the country actually taken into Assyria, and + that which was merely conquered and held in subjection, we can select no + better boundary than the Euphrates westward, and northward the snowy + mountain-chain known to the ancients as Mons Niphates. + </p> + <p> + If Assyria be allowed the extent which is here assigned to her, she will + be a country, not only very much larger than Chaldaea or Babylonia, but + positively of considerable dimensions. Reaching on the north to the + thirty-eighth and on the south to the thirty-fourth parallel, she had a + length diagonally from Diarbekr to the alluvium of 350 miles, and a + breadth between the Euphrates and Mount Zagros varying from about 300 to + 170 miles. Her area was probably not less than 75,000 square miles, which + is more than double that of Portugal, and not much below that of Great + Britain. She would thus from her mere size be calculated to play an + important (part) in history; and the more so, as during the period of her + greatness scarcely any nation with which she came in contact possessed + nearly so extensive a territory. + </p> + <p> + Within the limits here assigned to Assyria, the face of the country is + tolerably varied. Possessing, on the whole, perhaps, a predominant + character of flatness, the territory still includes some important ranges + of hills, while on the two sides it abuts upon lofty mountain-chains. + Towards the north and east it is provided by nature with an ample supply + of water, rills everywhere flowing from the Armenian and Kurdish ranges, + which soon collect into rapid and abundant rivers. The central, southern, + and western regions are, however, less bountifully supplied; for though + the Euphrates washes the whole western and south-western frontier, it + spreads fertility only along its banks; and though Mount Masius sends down + upon the Mesopotamian plain a considerable number of streams, they form in + the space of 200 miles between Balls and Mosul but two rivers, leaving + thus large tracts to languish for want of the precious fluid. The vicinity + of the Arabian and Syrian deserts is likewise felt in these regions, + which, left to themselves, tend to acquire the desert character, and have + occasionally been regarded as actual parts of Arabia. + </p> + <p> + The chief natural division of the country is that made by the Tigris, + which, having a course nearly from north to south, between Til and + Samarah, separates Assyria into a western and an eastern district. Of + these two, the eastern or that upon the left bank of the Tigris, although + considerably the smaller, has always been the more important region. + Comparatively narrow at first, it broadens as the course of the river is + descended, till it attains about the thirty-fifth parallel a width of 130 + or 140 miles. It consists chiefly of a series of rich and productive + plains, lying along the courses of the various tributaries which flow from + Mount Zagros into the Tigris, and often of a semi-alluvial character. + These plains are not, however, continuous. Detached ranges of hills, with + a general direction parallel to the Zagros chain, intersect the flat rich + country, separating the plains from one another, and supplying small + streams and brooks in addition to the various rivers, which, rising within + or beyond the great mountain barriers, traverse the plains on their way to + the Tigris. The hills themselves—known now as the Jebel Maklub, the + Ain-es-sufra, the Karachok, etc.—are for the most part bare and + sterile. In form they are hogbacked, and viewed from a distance have a + smooth and even outline but on a nearer approach they are found to be + rocky and rugged. Their limestone sides are furrowed by innumerable + ravines, and have a dry and parched appearance, being even in spring + generally naked and without vegetation. The sterility is most marked on + the western flank, which faces the hot rays of the afternoon sun; the + eastern slope is occasionally robed with a scanty covering of dwarf oak or + stunted brushwood. In the fat soil of the plains the rivers commonly run + deep and concealed from view, unless in the spring and the early summer, + when through the rains and the melting of the snows in the mountains they + are greatly swollen, and run bank full, or even overflow the level + country. + </p> + <p> + The most important of these rivers are the following:—the Kurnib or + Eastern Khabour, which joins the Tigris in lat. 37° 12’; the Greater Zab + (Zab Ala), which washes the ruins of Nimrud, and enters the main stream + almost exactly in lat. 30°; the Lesser Zab (Zab Asfal), which effects its + junction about lat. 35° 15’; the Adhem, which is received a little below + Samarah, about lat. 34°; and the Diyaleh, which now joins below Baghdad, + but from which branches have sometimes entered the Tigris a very little + below the mouth of the Adhem. Of these streams the most northern, the + Khabour, runs chiefly in an untraversed country—the district between + Julamerik and the Tigris. It rises a little west of Julamerik in one of + the highest mountain districts of Kurdistan, and runs with a general + south-westerly course to its junction with another large branch, which + reaches it from the district immediately west of Amadiyeh; it then flows + due west, or a little north of west, to Zakko, and, bending to the north + after passing that place, flows once more in a south-westerly direction + until it reaches the Tigris. The direct distance from its source to its + embouchure is about 80 miles; but that distance is more than doubled by + its windings. It is a stream of considerable size, broad and rapid; at + many seasons not fordable at all, and always forded with difficulty. + </p> + <p> + The Greater Zab is the most important of all the tributaries of the + Tigris. It rises near Konia, in the district of Karasu, about lat. 32° + 20’, long. 44° 30’, a little west of the watershed which divides the + basins of Lakes Van and Urymiyeh. Its general course for the first 150 + miles is S.S.W., after which for 25 or 30 miles it runs almost due south + through the country of the Tiyari. Near Amadiyeh it makes a sudden turn, + and flows S.E. or S.S.E. to its junction with the Rowandiz branch whence, + finally, it resumes its old direction, and runs south-west past the Nimrud + ruins into the Tigris. Its entire course, exclusive of small windings, is + above 350 miles, and of these nearly 100 are across the plain country, + which it enters soon after receiving the Rowandiz stream. Like the + Khabour, it is fordable at certain places and during the summer season; + but even then the water reaches above the bellies of horses. It is 20 + yards wide a little above its junction with the main steam. On account of + its strength and rapidity the Arabs sometimes call it the “Mad River.” + </p> + <p> + The Lesser Zab has its principal source near Legwin, about twenty miles + south of Lake Urumiyeh, in lat. 36° 40’, long. 46° 25’. The source is to + the east of the great Zagros chain; and it might have been supposed that + the waters would necessarily flow northward or eastward, towards Lake + Urumiyeh, or towards the Caspian. But the Legwin river, called even at its + source the Zei or Zab, flows from the first westward, as if determined to + pierce the mountain barrier. Failing, however, to find an opening where it + meets the range, the Little Zab turns south and even south-east along its + base, till about 25 or 30 miles from its source it suddenly resumes its + original direction, enters the mountains in lat. 36° 20’, and forces its + way through the numerous parallel ranges, flowing generally to the S.S.W., + till it debouches upon the plain near Arbela, after which it runs S.W. and + S.W. by S. to the Tigris. Its course among the mountains is from 80 to 90 + miles, exclusive of small windings; and it runs more than 100 miles + through the plain. Its ordinary width, just above its confluence with the + Tigris, is 25 feet. + </p> + <p> + The Diyaleh, which lies mostly within the limits that have been here + assigned to Assyria, is formed by the confluence of two principal streams, + known respectively as the Holwan, and the Shirwan, river. Of these, the + Shirwan seems to be the main branch. This stream rises from the most + eastern and highest of the Zagros ranges, in lat. 34° 45’, long. 47° 40’ + nearly. It flows at first west, and then north-west, parallel to the + chain, but on entering the plain of Shahrizur, where tributaries join it + from the north-east and the north-west, the Shirwan changes its course and + begins to run south of west, a direction, which, it pursues till it enters + the low country, about lat. 35° 5’, near Semiram. Thence to the Tigris it + has a course which in direct distance is 150 miles, and 200 if we include + only main windings. The whole course cannot be less than 380 miles, which + is about the length of the Great Zab river. The width attained before the + confluence with the Tigris is 60 yards, or three times the width of the + Greater, and seven times that of the Lesser Zab. + </p> + <p> + On the opposite side of the Tigris, the traveller comes upon a region far + less favored by nature than that of which we have been lately speaking. + Western Assyria has but a scanty supply of water; and unless the labor of + man is skilfully applied to compensate this natural deficiency, the + greater part of the region tends to be, for ten months out of the twelve, + a desert. The general character of the country is level, but not alluvial. + A line of mountains, rocky and precipitous, but of no great elevation, + stretches across the northern part of the region, running nearly due east + and west, and extending from the Euphrates at Rum-kaleh to Til and Chelek + upon the Tigris. Below this, a vast slightly undulating plain extends from + the northern mountains to the Babylonian alluvium, only interrupted about + midway by a range of low limestone hills called the Sinjar, which leaving + the Tigris near Mosul runs nearly from east to west across central + Mesopotamia, and strikes the Euphrates half-way between Rakkeh and + Kerkesiyeh, nearly in long. 40°. + </p> + <p> + The northern mountain region, called by Strabo “Mons Masius,” and by the + Arabs the Karajah Dagh towards the west, and towards the east the Jebel + Tur, is on the whole a tolerably fertile country. It contains a good deal + of rocky land; but has abundant springs, and in many parts is well wooded. + Towards the west it is rather hilly than mountainous; but towards the east + it rises considerably, and the cone above Mardin is both lofty and + striking. The waters flowing from the range consist, on the north, of a + small number of brooks, which after a short course fall into the Tigris; + on the south, of more numerous and more copious streams, which gradually + unite, and eventually form two rather important rivers. These rivers are + the Belik, known anciently as the Bileeha, and the Western Khabour, called + Habor in Scripture, and by the classical writers Aborrhas or Chaboras. <a + href="#linkimage-0002">[PLATE XXII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate022.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 22 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Belik rises among the hills east of Orfa, about long. 39°, lat. 37° + 10’. Its course is at first somewhat east of south; but it soon sweeps + round, and, passing by the city of Harran—the Haran of Scripture and + the classical Carrh—proceeds nearly due south to its junction, a few + miles below Rakkah, with the Euphrates. It is a small stream throughout + its whole course, which may be reckoned at 100 or 120 miles. + </p> + <p> + The Khabour is a much more considerable river. It collects the waters + which flow southward from at least two-thirds of the Mons Masius, and has, + besides, an important source, which the Arabs regard as the true “head of + the spring,” derived apparently from a spur of the Sinjar range. This + stream, which rises about lat. 36° 40’, long. 40°, flows a little south of + east to its junction near Koukab with the Jerujer or river Nisi-his, which + comes down from Mons Masius with a course not much west of south. Both of + these branches are formed by the union of a number of streams. Neither of + them is fordable for some distance above their junction; and below it, + they constitute a river of such magnitude as to be navigable for a + considerable distance by steamers. The course of the Khabour below Koukab + is tortuous; but its general direction is S.S.W. The entire length of the + stream is certainly not less than 200 miles. + </p> + <p> + The country between the “Mons Masius” and the Sinjar range is an + undulating plain, from 60 to 70 miles in width, almost as devoid of + geographical features as the alluvium of Babylonia. From a height the + whole appears to be a dead level: but the traveller finds, on descending, + that the surface, like that of the American prairies and the Roman + Campagna, really rises and falls in a manner which offers a decided + contrast to the alluvial flats nearer the sea. Great portions of the tract + are very deficient in water. Only small streams descend from the Sinjar + range, and these are soon absorbed by the thirsty soil; so that except in + the immediate vicinity of the hills north and south, and along the courses + of the Khabour, the Belik, and their affluents, there is little natural + fertility, and cultivation is difficult. The soil too is often + gypsiferous, and its salt and nitrous exudations destroy vegetation; while + at the same time the streams and springs are from the same cause for the + most part brackish and unpalatable. Volcanic action probably did not cease + in the region very much, if at all, before the historical period. + Fragments of basalt in many places strew the plain; and near the + confluence of the two chief branches of the Khabour, not only are old + craters of volcanoes distinctly visible, but a cone still rises from the + centre of one, precisely like the cones in the craters of Etna and + Vesuvius, composed entirely of loose lava, scorim, and ashes, and rising + to the height of 300 feet. The name of this remarkable hill, which is + Koukab, is even thought to imply that the volcano may have been active + within the time to which the traditions of the country extend. <a + href="#linkimage-0002">[PLATE XXII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Sheets of water are so rare in this region that the small lake of + Khatouniyeh seems to deserve especial description. This lake is situated + near the point where the Sinjar changes its character, and from a high + rocky range subsides into low broken hills. It is of oblong shape, with + its greater axis pointing nearly due east and west, in length about four + miles, and in its greatest breadth somewhat less than three. <a + href="#linkimage-0003">[PLATE XXIII., Fig. 1]</a> The banks are low and + parts marshy, more especially on the side towards the Khabour, which is + not more than ten miles distant. In the middle of the lake is a hilly + peninsula, joined to the mainland by a narrow causeway, and beyond it a + small island covered with trees. The lake abounds with fish and waterfowl; + and its water, though brackish, is regarded as remarkably wholesome both + for man and beast. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate023.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 23 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Sinjar range, which divides Western Assyria into two plains, a + northern and a southern, is a solitary limestone ridge, rising up abruptly + from the flat country, which it commands to a vast distance on both sides. + The limestone of which it is composed is white, soft, and fossiliferous; + it detaches itself in enormous flakes from the mountain-sides, which are + sometimes broken into a succession of gigantic steps, while occasionally + they present the columnar appearance of basalt. The flanks of the Sinjar + are seamed with innumerable ravines, and from these small brooks issue, + which are soon dispersed by irrigation, or absorbed in the thirsty plains. + The sides of the mountain are capable of being cultivated by means of + terraces, and produce fair crops of corn and excellent fruit; the top is + often wooded with fruit trees or forest-trees. Geographically, the Sinjar + may be regarded as the continuation of that range of hills which shuts in + the Tigris on the west, from Tekrit nearly to Mosul, and then leaving the + river strikes across the plain in a direction almost from east to west as + far as the town of Sinjar. Here the mountains change their course and bend + to the south-west, till having passed the little lake described above, + they somewhat suddenly subside, sinking from a high ridge into low + undulating hills, which pass to the south of the lake, and then disappear + in the plain altogether. According to some, the Sinjar here terminates; + but perhaps it is best to regard it as rising again in the Abd-el-aziz + hills, which, intervening between the Khabour and the Euphrates, run in + the same south-west direction from Arban to Zelabi. If this be accepted as + the true course of the Sinjar, we must view it as throwing out two + important spurs. One of these is near its eastern extremity, and runs to + the south-east, dividing the plain of Zerga from the great central level. + Like the main chain, it is of limestone; and, though low, has several + remarkable peaks which serve as landmarks from a vast distance. The Arabs + call it Kebritiyeh, or “the Sulphur range,” from a sulphurous spring which + rises at its foot. The other spur is thrown out near the western + extremity, and runs towards the north-west, parallel to the course of the + upper Khabour, which rises from its flank at Ras-el-Ain. The name of + Abd-el-aziz is applied to this spur, as well as to the continuation of the + Sinjar between Arban and Halebi. It is broken into innumerable valleys and + ravines, abounding with wild animals, and is scantily wooded with dwarf + oak. Streams of water abound in it. + </p> + <p> + South of the Sinjar range, the country resumes the same level appearance + which characterizes it between the Sinjar and the Mons Masius. A low + limestone ridge skirts the Tigris valley from Mosul to Tekrit, and near + the Euphrates the country is sometimes slightly hilly; but generally the + eye travels over a vast slightly undulating level, unbroken by eminences, + and supporting but a scanty vegetation. The description of Xenophon a + little exaggerates the flatness, but is otherwise faithful enough:—“In + these parts the country was a plain throughout, as smooth as the sea, and + full of wormwood; if any other shrub or reed grew there, it had a sweet + aromatic smell; but there was not a tree in the whole region.” Water is + still more scarce than in the plains north of the Sinjar. The brooks + descending from that range are so weak that they generally lose themselves + in the plain before they have run many miles. In one case only do they + seem sufficiently strong to form a river. The Tharthar, which flows by the + ruins of El Hadhr, is at that place a considerable stream, not indeed very + wide but so deep that horses have to swim across it. Its course above El + Hadhr has not been traced; but the most probable conjecture seems to be + that it is a continuation of the Sinjar river, which rises about the + middle of the range, in long. 41° 50’, and flows south-east through the + desert. The Tharthar appears at one time to have reached the Tigris near + Tekrit, but it now ends in a marsh or lake to the south-west of that city. + </p> + <p> + The political geography of Assyria need not occupy much of our attention. + There is no native evidence that in the time of the great monarchy the + country was formally divided into districts, to which any particular names + were attached, or which were regarded as politically separate from one + another; nor do such divisions appear in the classical writers until the + time of the later geographers, Strabo, Dionysius, and Ptolemy. If it were + not that mention is made in the Old Testament of certain districts within + the region which has been here termed Assyria, we should have no proof + that in the early times any divisions at all had been recognized. The + names, however, of Padan-Aram, Aram-Naharaim, Gozan, Halah, and (perhaps) + Huzzab, designate in Scripture particular portions of the Assyrian + territory; and as these portions appear to correspond in some degree with + the divisions of the classical geographers, we are led to suspect that + these writers may in many, if not in most cases, have followed ancient and + native traditions or authorities. The principal divisions of the classical + geographers will therefore be noticed briefly, so far at least as they are + intelligible. + </p> + <p> + According to Strabo, the district within which Nineveh stood was called + Aturia, which seems to be the word Assyria slightly corrupted, as we know + that it habitually was by the Persians. The neighboring plain country he + divides into four regions—Dolomene, Calachene, Chazene, and + Adiabene. Of Dolomene, which Strabo mentions but in one place, and which + is wholly omitted by other authors, no account can be given. Calachene, + which is perhaps the Calacine of Ptolemy, must be the tract about Calah + (Nimrud), or the country immediately north of the Upper Zab river. + Chazene, like Dolomene, is a term which cannot be explained. Adiabene, on + the contrary, is a well-known geographical expression. It is the country + of the Zab or Diab rivers, and either includes the whole of Eastern + Assyria between the mountains and the Tigris, or more strictly is applied + to the region between the Upper and Lower Zab, which consists of two large + plains separated from each other by the Karachok hills. In this way + Arbelitis, the plain between the Karachok and Zagros, would fall within + Adiabene, but it is sometimes made a distinct region, in which case + Adiabene must be restricted to the flat between the two Zabs, the Tigris, + and the harachok. Chalonitis and Apolloniatis, which Strabo seems to place + between these northern plains and Susiana, must be regarded as dividing + between them the country south of the Lesser Zab, Apolloniatis (so called + from its Greek capital, Apollonia) lying along the Tigris, and Chalonitis + along the mountains from the pass of Derbend to Gilan. Chalonitis seems to + have taken its name from a capital city called Chala, which lay on the + great route connecting Babylon with the southern Ecbatana, and in later + times was known as Holwan. Below Apolloniatis, and (like that district) + skirting the Tigris, was Sittacene, (so named from its capital, Sittace + which is commonly reckoned to Assyria, but seems more properly regarded as + Susianian territory.) Such are the chief divisions of Assyria east of the + Tigris. + </p> + <p> + West of the Tigris, the name Mesopotamia is commonly used, like the + Aram-Naharaim of the Hebrews, for the whole country between the two great + rivers. Here are again several districts, of which little is known, as + Acabene, Tigene, and Ancobaritis. Towards the north, along the flanks of + Mons Masius from Nisibis to the Euphrates, Strabo seems to place the + Mygdonians, and to regard the country as Mygdonia. Below Mygdonia, towards + the west, he puts Anthemusia, which he extends as far as the Khabour + river. The region south of the Khabour and the Sinjar he seems to regard + as inhabited entirely by Arabs. Ptolemy has, in lieu of the Mygdonia of + Strabo, a district which he calls Gauzanitis; and this name is on good + grounds identified with the Gozan of Scripture, the true original probably + of the “Mygdonia” of the Greeks. Gozan appears to represent the whole of + the upper country from which the longer affluents of the Khabour spring; + while Halah, which is coupled with it in Scripture, and which Ptolemy + calls Chalcitis, and makes border on Gauzanitis, may designate the tract + upon the main stream, as it comes down from Ras-el-Ain. The region about + the upper sources of the Belik has no special designation in Strabo, but + in Scripture it seems to be called Padan-Aram, a name which has been + explained as “the flat Syria,” or “the country stretching out from the + foot of the hills.” In the later Roman times it was known as Osrhoene; but + this name was scarcely in use before the time of the Antonines. + </p> + <p> + The true heart of Assyria was the country close along the Tigris, from + lat. 35° to 36° 30’. Within these limits were the four great cities, + marked by the mounds at Khorsabad, Mosul, Nimrud, and Kileh-Sherghat, + besides a multitude of places of inferior consequence. It has been + generally supposed that the left bank of the river was more properly + Assyria than the right; and the idea is so far correct, as that the left + bank was in truth of primary value and importance, whence it naturally + happened that three out of the four capitals were built on that side of + the stream. Still the very fact that one early capital was on the right + bank is enough to show that both shores of the stream were alike occupied + by the race from the first; and this conclusion is abundantly confirmed by + other indications throughout the region. Assyrian ruins, the remains of + considerable towns, strew the whole country between the Tigris and + Khabour, both north and south of the Sin jar range. On the banks of the + Lower Khabour are the remains of a royal palace, besides many other traces + of the tract through which it runs having been permanently occupied by the + Assyrian people. Mounds, probably Assyrian, are known to exist along the + course of the Khabour’s great western affluent; and even near Seruj, in + the country between Harlan and the Euphrates some evidence has been found + not only of conquest but of occupation. Remains are perhaps more frequent + on the opposite side of the Tigris; at any rate they are more striking and + more important. Bavian, Khorsabad, Shereef-Khan, Neb-bi-Yunus, Koyunjik, + and Nimrud, which have furnished by far the most valuable and interesting + of the Assyrian monuments, all lie east of the Tigris; while on the west + two places only have yielded relics worthy to be compared with these, + Arban and Kileh-Sherghat. + </p> + <p> + It is curious that in Assyria, as in early Chaldaea, there is a special + pre-eminence of four cities. An indication of this might seem to be + contained in Genesis, where Asshur is said to have “builded Nineveh,” and + the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen; but on the whole it is more + probable that we have here a mistranslation (which is corrected for us in + the margin), and that three cities only are ascribed by Moses to the great + patriarch. In the flourishing period of the empire, however, we actually + find four capitals, of which the native names seem to have been Ninua, + Calah, Asshur, and Bit-Sargina, or Dur-Sargina (the city of Sargon)—all + places of first-rate consequence. Besides these principal cities, which + were the sole seats of government, Assyria contained a vast number of + large towns, few of which it is possible to name, but so numerous that + they cover the whole face of the country with their ruins. Amomig; them + were Tarbisa, Arbil, Arapkha, and Khazeh, in the tract between the Tigris + and Mount Zagros; Haran, Tel-Apni, Razappa (Rezeph), and Amida, towards + the north-west frontier; Nazibina (Nisibis), on the eastern branch of the + Khabour; Sirki (Circesium), at the confluence of the Khabour with the + Euphrates; Anat, on the Euphrates, some way below this junction; Tabiti, + Magarisi, Sidikan, Katni, Beth-Khalupi,etc., in the district south of the + Sinjar, between the lower course of the Khabour and the Tigris. Here, + again, as in the case of Chaldaea, it is impossible at present to locate + with accuracy all the cities. We must once more confine ourselves to the + most important, mind seek to determine, either absolutely or with a + certain vagueness, their several positions. + </p> + <p> + It admits of no reasonable doubt that the ruins opposite Mosul are those + of Nineveh. The name of Nineveh is read on the bricks; and a uniform + tradition, reaching from the Arab conquest to comparatively recent times, + attaches to the mounds themselves the same title. They are the most + extensive ruins in Assyria; and their geographical position suits + perfectly all the notices of the geographers and historians with respect + to the great Assyrian capital. As a subsequent chapter will be devoted to + a description of this famous city, it is enough in this place to observe + that it was situated on the left or east bank of the Tigris, in lat. 36° + 21’, at the point where a considerable brook, the Khosr-su, falls into the + main stream. On its west flank flowed the broad and rapid Tigris, the + “arrow-stream,” as we may translate the word; while north, east, and + south, expanded the vast undulating plain which intervenes between the + river and the Zagros mountain-range. Mid-way in this plain, at the + distance of from 15 to 18 miles from the city, stood boldly up the Jabel + Maklub and Ain Sufra hills, calcareous ridges rising nearly 2000 feet + above the level of the Tigris, and forming by far the most prominent + objects in the natural landscape. Inside the Ain Sufra, and parallel to + it, ran the small stream of the Gomel, or Ghazir, like a ditch skirting a + wall, an additional defence in that quarter. On the south-east and south, + distant about fifteen miles, was the strong and impetuous current of the + Upper Zab, completing the natural defences of the position which was + excellently chosen to be the site of a great capital. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate024.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 24 " /> + </div> + <p> + South of Nineveh, at the distance of about twenty miles by the direct + route and thirty by the course of the Tigris, stood the second city of the + empire, Calah, the site of which is marked by the extensive ruins at + Nimrud. <a href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> Broadly, this + place may be said to have been built at the confluence of the Tigris with + the Upper Zab; but in strictness it was on the Tigris only, the Zab + flowing five or six miles further to the south, and entering the Tigris at + least nine miles below the Nimrud ruins. These ruins at present occupy an + area somewhat short of a thousand English acres, which is little more than + one-half of the area of the ruins of Nineveh; but it is thought that the + place was in ancient times considerably larger, and that the united action + of the Tigris and some winter streams has swept away no small portion of + the ruins. They form at present an irregular quadrangle, the sides of + which face the four cardinal points. On the north and east the rampart may + still be distinctly traced. It was flanked with towers along its whole + course, and pierced at uncertain intervals by gates, but was nowhere of + very great strength or dimensions. On the south side it must have been + especially weak, for there it has disappeared altogether. Here, however, + it seems probable that the Tigris and the Shor Derreh stream, to which the + present obliteration of the wall may be ascribed, formed in ancient times + a sufficient protection. Towards the west, it seems to be certain that the + Tigris (which is now a mile off) anciently flowed close to the city. On + this side, directly facing the river, and extending along it a distance of + 600 yards, or more than a third of a mile, was the royal quarter, or + portion of the city occupied by the palaces of the kings. It consisted of + a raised platform, forty feet above the level of the plain, composed in + some parts of rubbish, in others of regular layers of sun-dried bricks, + and cased on every side with solid stone masonry, containing an area of + sixty English acres, and in shape almost a regular rectangle, 560 yards + long, and from 350 to 450 broad. The platform was protected at its edges + by a parapet, and is thought to have been ascended in various places by + wide staircases, or inclined ways, leading up from the plain. The greater + part of its area is occupied by the remains of palaces constructed by + various native kings, of which a more particular account will be given in + the chapter on the architecture and other arts of the Assyrians. It + contains also the ruins of two small temples, and abuts at its + north-western angle on the most singular structure which has as yet been + discovered among the remains of the Assyrian cities. This is the famous + tower or pyramid which looms so conspicuously over the Assyrian plams, and + which has always attracted the special notice of the traveller. <a + href="#linkimage-0004">[PLATE XXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> An exact description of + this remarkable edifice will be given hereafter. + </p> + <p> + It appears from the inscriptions on its bricks to have been commenced by + one of the early kings, and completed by another. Its internal structure + has led to the supposition that it was designed to be a place of burial + for one or other of these monarchs. Another conjecture is, that it was a + watch-tower; but this seems very unlikely, since no trace of any mode by + which it could be ascended has been discovered. + </p> + <p> + Forty miles below Calah, on the opposite bank of the Tigris, was a third + great city, the native name of which appears to have been Asshur. This + place is represented by the ruins at Kileh-Sherghat, which are scarcely + inferior in extent to those at Nimrud or Calah. It will not be necessary + to describe minutely this site, as in general character it closely + resembles the other ruins of Assyria. Long lines of low mounds mark the + position of the old walls, and show that the shape of the city was + quadrangular. The chief object is a large square mound or platform, two + miles and a half in circumference, and in places a hundred feet above the + level of the plain, composed in part of sun-dried bricks, in part of + natural eminences, and exhibiting occasionally remains of a casing of hewn + stone, which may once have encircled the whole structure. About midway on + the north side of the platform, and close upon its edge, is a high cone or + pyramid. The rest of the platform is covered with the remains of walls and + with heaps of rubbish, but does not show much trace of important + buildings. This city has been supposed to represent the Biblical Resen; + but the description of that place as lying “<i>between</i> Nineveh and + Calah” seems to render the identification worse than uncertain. + </p> + <p> + The ruins at Kileh-Sherghat are the last of any extent towards the south, + possessing a decidedly Assyrian character. To complete our survey, + therefore of the chief Assyrian towns, we must return northwards, and, + passing Nineveh, direct our attention to the magnificent ruins on the + small stream of the Khosrsu, which have made the Arab village of Khorsabad + one of the best known names in Oriental topography. About nine miles from + the north-east angle of the wall of Nineveh, in a direction a very little + east of north, stands the ruin known as Khorsabad, from a small village + which formerly occupied its summit—the scene of the labors of M. + Botta, who was the first to disentomb from among the mounds of Mesopotamia + the relics of an Assyrian palace. The enclosure at Khorsabad is nearly + square in shape, each side being about 2000 yards long. No part of it is + very lofty, but the walls are on every side well marked. Their angles + point towards the cardinal points, or nearly so; and the walls themselves + consequently face the north-east, the north-west, the south-west, and the + south-east. Towards the middle of the north-west wall, and projecting + considerably beyond it, was a raised platform of the usual character; and + here stood the great palace, which is thought to have been open to the + plain, and on that side quite undefended. + </p> + <p> + Four miles only from Khorsabad, in a direction a little west of north, are + the ruins of a smaller Assyrian city, whose native name appears to have + been Tarbisa, situated not far from the modern village of Sherif-khan. + Here was a palace, built by Esarhaddon for one of his sons, as well as + several temples and other edifices. In the opposite direction at the + distance of about twenty miles, is Keremles, an Assyrian ruin, whose name + cannot yet be rendered phonetically. West of this site, and about half-way + between the ruins of Nineveh and Nimrud or Calah, is Selamiyah, a village + of some size, the walls of which are thought to be of Assyrian + construction. We may conjecture that this place was the Resen, or Dase, of + Holy Scripture, which is said to have been a large city, interposed + between Nineveh and Calah. In the same latitude, but considerably further + to the east, was the famous city of Arabil or Arbil, known to the Greeks + as Arbela, and to this day retaining its ancient appellation. These were + the principal towns, whose positions can be fixed, belonging to Assyria + Proper, or the tract in the immediate vicinity of Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + Besides these places, the inscriptions mention a large number of cities + which we cannot definitely connect with any particular site. Such are + Zaban and Zadu, beyond the Lower Zab, probably somewhere in the vicinity + of Kerkuk; Kurban, Tidu (?), Napulu, Kapa, in Adiabene; Arapkha and + Khaparkhu, the former of which names recalls the Arrapachitis of Ptolemy, + in the district about Arbela; Hurakha, Sallat (?), Dur-Tila, Dariga, + Lupdu, and many others, concerning whose situations it is not even + possible to make any reasonable conjecture. The whole country between the + Tigris and the mountains was evidently studded thickly with towns, as it + is at the present day with ruins; but until a minute and searching + examination of the entire region has taken place, it is idle to attempt an + assignment to particular localities of these comparatively obscure names. + </p> + <p> + In Western Assyria, or the tract on the right bank of the Tigris, while + there is reason to believe that population was as dense, and that cities + were as numerous, as on the opposite side of the river, even fewer sites + can be determinately fixed, owing to the early decay of population in + those parts, which seem to have fallen into their present desert condition + shortly after the destruction of the Assyrian empire by the conquering + Medes. Besides Asshur, which is fixed to the ruins at Kileh-Sherghat, we + can only locate with certainty some half-dozen places. These are Nazibina, + which is the modern Nisibin, the Nisibis of the Greeks; Amidi, which is + Amida or Diarbekr; Haran, which retains its name unchanged; Sirki, which + is the Greek Circesium, now Kerkesiyeh; Anat, now Anah, on an island in + the Euphrates; and Sidikan, now Arban, on the Lower Khabour. The other + known towns of this region, whose exact position is more or less + uncertain, are the following:—Tavnusir, which is perhaps Dunisir, + near Mardin; Guzana, or Gozan, in the vicinity of Nisibin; Razappa, or + Rezeph, probably not far from Harran; Tel Apni, about Orfah or Ras-el-Ain; + Tabiti and Magarisi, on the Jerujer, or river of Nisibin; Katni and + Beth-Khalupi, on the Lower Khabour; Tsupri and Nakarabani, on the + Euphrates, between its junction with the Khabour and Allah; and Khuzirina, + in the mountains near the source of the Tigris. Besides these, the + inscriptions contain a mention of some scores of towns wholly obscure, + concerning which we cannot even determine whether they lay west or east of + the Tigris. + </p> + <p> + Such are the chief geographical features of Assyria. It remains to notice + briefly the countries by which it was bordered. To the east lay the + mountain region of Zagros, inhabited principally, during the earlier times + of the Empire, by the Zimri, and afterwards occupied by the Medes, and + known as a portion of Media. This region is one of great strength, and at + the same time of much productiveness and fertility. Composed of a large + number of parallel ridges. Zagros contains, besides rocky and snow-clad + summits, a multitude of fertile valleys, watered by the great affluents of + the Tigris or their tributaries, and capable of producing rich crops with + very little cultivation. The sides of the hills are in most parts clothed + with forests of walnut, oak, ash, plane, and sycamore, while mulberries, + olives, and other fruit-trees abound; in many places the pasturage is + excellent; and thus, notwithstanding its mountainous character, the tract + will bear a large population. Its defensive strength is immense, equalling + that of Switzerland before military roads were constructed across the High + Alps. The few passes by which it can be traversed seem, according to the + graphic phraseology of the ancients, to be carried up ladders; they + surmount six or seven successive ridges, often reaching the elevation of + 10,000 feet, and are only open during seven months of the year. Nature + appears to have intended Zagros as a seven fold wall for the protection of + the fertile Mesopotamian lowland from the marauding tribes inhabiting the + bare plateau of Iran. + </p> + <p> + North of Assyria lays a country very similar to the Zagros region. + Armenia, like Kurdistan, consists, for the most part of a number of + parallel mountain ranges, with deep valleys between them, watered by great + rivers or their affluents. Its highest peaks, like those of Zagros, ascend + considerably above the snow-line. It has the same abundance of wood, + especially in the more northern parts; and though its valleys are scarcely + so fertile, or its products so abundant and varied, it is still a country + where a numerous population may find subsistence. The most striking + contrast which it offers to the Zagros region is in the direction of its + mountain ranges. The Zagros ridges run from north-west to south-east, like + the principal mountains of Italy, Greece, Arabia, Hindustan, and Cochin + China; those of Armenia have a course from a little north of east to a + little south of west, like the Spanish Sierras, the Swiss and Tyrolese + Alps, the Southern Carpathians, the Greater Balkan, the Cilician Taurus, + the Cyprian Olympus, and the Thian Chan. Thus the axes of the two chains + are nearly at right angles to one another, the triangular basin of Van + occurring at the point of contact, and softening the abruptness of the + transition. Again, whereas the Zagros mountains present their gradual + slope to the Mesopotamian lowland, and rise in higher and higher ridges as + they recede from the mountains of Armenia ascend at once to their full + heignt from the level of the Tigris, and the ridges then gradually decline + towards the Euxine. It follows from this last contrast, that, while Zagros + invites the inhabitants of the Mesopotamian plain to penetrate its + recesses, which are at first readily accessible, and only grow wild and + savage towards the interior, the Armenian mountains repel by presenting + their greatest difficulties and most barren aspect at once, seeming, with + their rocky sides and snow-clad summits, to form an almost insurmountable + obstacle to an invading host. Assyrian history bears traces of this + difference; for while the mountain region to the east is gradually subdued + and occupied by the people of the plain, that on the north continues to + the last in a state of hostility and semi-independence. + </p> + <p> + West of Assyria (according to the extent which has here been given to it), + the border countries were, towards the south, Arabia, and towards the + north, Syria. A desert region, similar to that which bounds Chaldaea in + this direction, extends along the Euphrates as far north as the 36th + parallel, approaching commonly within a very short distance of the river. + This has been at all times the country of the wandering Arabs. It is + traversed in places by rocky ridges of a low elevation, and intercepted by + occasional <i>wadys</i>, but otherwise it is a continuous gravelly or + sandy plain, incapable of sustaining a settled population. Between the + desert and the river intervenes commonly a narrow strip of fertile + territory, which in Assyrian times was held by the Tsukhi or Shuhites, and + the Aramaeans or Syrians. North of the 36th parallel, the general + elevation of the country west of the Euphrates rises. There is an + alternation of bare undulating hills and dry plains, producing wormwood + and other aromatic plants. Permanent rivers are found, which either + terminate in salt lakes or run into the Euphrates. In places the land is + tolerably fertile, and produces good crops of grain, besides mulberries, + pears, figs, pomegranates, olives, vines, and pistachio-nuts. Here dwelt, + in the time of the Assyrian Empire, the Khatti, or Hittites, whose chief + city, Carchemish, appears to have occupied the site of Hierapolis, now + Bambuk. In a military point of view, the tract is very much less strong + than either Armenia or Kurdistan, and presents but slight difficulties to + invading armies. + </p> + <p> + The tract south of Assyria was Chaldaea, of which a description has been + given in an earlier portion of this volume. Naturally it was at once the + weakest of the border countries, and the one possessing the greatest + attractions to a conqueror. Nature had indeed left it wholly without + defence; and though art was probably soon called in to remedy this defect, + yet it could not but continue the most open to attack of the various + regions by which Assyria was surrounded. Syria was defended by the + Euphrates—at all times a strong barrier; Arabia, not only by this + great stream, but by her arid sands and burning climate; Armenia and + Kurdistan had the protection of their lofty mountain ranges. Chaldaea was + naturally without either land or water barrier; and the mounds and dykes + whereby she strove to supply her wants were at the best poor substitutes + for Nature’s bulwarks. Here again geographical features will be found to + have had an important bearing on the course of history, the close + connection of the two countries, in almost every age, resulting from their + physical conformation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <h3> + CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. + </h3> + <p> + “Assyria, celebritate et magnitudine, et multiformi feracitate ditissima.”—AMM. + MARC. xxiii + </p> + <p> + In describing the climate and productions of Assyria, it will be necessary + to divide it into regions, since the country is so large, and the physical + geography so varied, that a single description would necessarily be both + incomplete and untrue. Eastern Assyria has a climate of its own, the + result of its position at the foot of Zagros. In Western Assyria we may + distinguish three climates, that of the upper or mountainous country + extending from Bir to Til and Jezireh, that of the middle region on either + side of the Sinjar range, and that of the lower region immediately + bordering on Babylonia. The climatic differences depend in part on + latitude; but probably in a greater degree on differences of elevation, + distance or vicinity of mountains, and the like. + </p> + <p> + Eastern Assyria, from its vicinity to the high and snow-clad range of + Zagros, has a climate at once cooler and moister than Assyria west of the + Tigris. The summer heats are tempered by breezes from the adjacent + mountains, and, though trying to the constitution of an European, are far + less oppressive than the torrid blasts which prevail on the other side of + the river. A good deal of rain falls in the winter, and even in the + spring; while, after the rains are past, there is frequently an abundant + dew, which supports vegetation and helps to give coolness to the air. The + winters are moderately severe. + </p> + <p> + In the most southern part of Assyria, from lat. 34° to 35° 30’, the + climate scarcely differs from that of Babylonia, which has been already + described. The same burning summers, and the same chilly but not really + cold winters, prevail in both districts; and the time and character of the + rainy season is alike in each. The summers are perhaps a little less hot, + and the winters a little colder than in the more southern and alluvial + region; but the difference is inconsiderable, and has never been + accurately measured. + </p> + <p> + In the central part of Western Assyria, on either side of the Sinjar + range, the climate is decidedly cooler than in the region adjoining + Babylonia. In summer, though the heat is great, especially from noon to + sunset, yet the nights are rarely oppressive, and the mornings enjoyable. + The spring-time in this region is absolutely delicious; the autumn is + pleasant; and the winter, though cold and accompanied by a good deal of + rain and snow, is rarely prolonged and never intensely rigorous. Storms of + thunder and lightning are frequent, especially in spring, and they are + often of extraordinary violence: hail-stones fall of the size of pigeon’s + eggs; the lightning is incessant; and the wind rages with fury. The force + of the tempest is, however, soon exhausted; in a few hours’ time it has + passed away, and the sky is once more cloudless: a delightful calm and + freshness pervade the air, producing mingled sensations of pleasure and + repose. + </p> + <p> + The mountain tract, which terminates Western Assyria to the north, has a + climate very much more rigorous than the central region. The elevation of + this district is considerable, and the near vicinity of the great mountain + country of Armenia, with its eternal snows and winters during half the + year, tends greatly to lower the temperature, which in the winter descends + to eight or ten degrees below zero. Much snow then falls, which usually + lies for some weeks; the spring is wet and stormy, but the summer and the + autumn are fine; and in the western portion of the region about Harran and + Orfah, the summer heat is great. The climate is here an “extreme” one, to + use on expression of Humboldt’s—the range of the thermometer being + even greater than it is in Chaldaea, reaching nearly (or perhaps + occasionally exceeding) 120 degrees. + </p> + <p> + Such is the present climate of Assyria, west and east of the Tigris. There + is no reason to believe that it was very different in ancient times. If + irrigation was then more common and cultivation more widely extended, the + temperature would no doubt have been somewhat lower and the air more + moist. But neither on physical nor on historical grounds Can it be argued + that the difference thus produced was; more than slight. The chief causes + of the remarkable heat of Mesopotamnia—so much exceeding that of + many countries under the same parallels of latitude—are its near + vicinity to the Arabian and Syrian deserts, and its want of trees, those + great refrigerators. While the first of these causes would be wholly + untouched by cultivation, the second would be affected in but a small + degree. The only tree which is known to have been anciently cultivated in + Mesopotamia is the date-palm; and as this ceases to bear fruit about lat. + 35°, its greater cultivation could have prevailed only in a very small + portion of the country, and so would have affected the general climate but + little. Historically, too, we find, among the earliest notices which have + any climatic bearing, indications that the temperature and the consequent + condition of the country were anciently very nearly what they now are. + Xenophon speaks of the barrenness of the tract between the Khabour and + Babylonia, and the entire absence of forage, in as strong terms as could + be used at the present day. Arrian, following his excellent authorities, + notes that Alexander, after crossing the Euphrates, kept close to the + hills, “because the heat there was not so scorching as it was lower down,” + and because he could then procure green food for his horses. The animals + too which Xenophon found in the country are either such as now inhabit it, + or where not such, they are the denizens of hotter rather than colder + climates and countries. + </p> + <p> + The fertility of Assyria is a favorite theme with the ancient writers. + Owing to the indefiniteness of their geographical terminology, it is + however uncertain, in many cases, whether the praise which they bestow + upon Assyria is really intended for the country here called by that name, + or whether it does not rather apply to the alluvial tract, already + described, which is more properly termed Chaldaea or Babylonia. Naturally + Babylonia is very much more fertile than the greater part of Assyria, + which being elevated above the courses of the rivers, and possessing a + saline and gypsiferous soil, tends, in the absence of a sufficient water + supply, to become a bare and arid desert. Trees are scanty in both regions + except along the river courses; but in Assyria, even grass fails after the + first burst of spring; and the plains, which for a few weeks have been + carpeted with the tenderest verdure and thickly strewn with the brightest + and loveliest flowers, become, as the summer advances, yellow, parched, + and almost herbless. Few things are more remarkable than the striking + difference between the appearance of the same tract in Assyria at + different seasons of the year. What at one time is a garden, glowing with + brilliant hues and heavy with luxuriant pasture, on which the most + numerous flocks can scarcely make any sensible impression, at another is + an absolute waste, frightful and oppressive from its sterilityr. + </p> + <p> + If we seek the cause of this curious contrast, we shall find it in the + productive qualities of the soil, wherever there is sufficient moisture to + allow of their displaying themselves, combined with the fact, already + noticed, that the actual supply of water is deficient. Speaking generally, + we may say with truth, as was said by Herodotus more than two thousand + years ago—that “but little rain falls in Assyria,” and, if water is + to be supplied in adequate quantity to the thirsty soil, it must be + derived from the rivers. In most parts of Assyria there are occasional + rains during the winter, and, in ordinary years, frequent showers in early + spring. The dependence of the present inhabitants both for pasture and for + grain is on these. There is scarcely any irrigation; and though the soil + is so productive that wherever the land is cultivated, good crops are + commonly obtained by means of the spring rains, while elsewhere nature at + once spontaneously robes herself in verdure of the richest kind, yet no + sooner does summer arrive than barrenness is spread over the scene; the + crops ripen and are gathered in; “the grass withereth, the flower fadeth;” + the delicate herbage of the plains shrinks back and disappears; all around + turns to a uniform dull straw-color; nothing continues to live but what is + coarse, dry, and sapless; and so the land, which was lately an Eden, + becomes a desert. + </p> + <p> + Far different would be the aspect of the region were a due use made of + that abundant water supply—actually most lavish in the summer time, + owing to the melting of the snows which nature has provided in the two + great Mesopotamian rivers and their tributaries. So rapid is the fall of + the two main streams in their upper course, that by channels derived from + them, with the help perhaps of dams thrown across them at certain + intervals, the water might be led to almost any part of the intervening + country, and a supply kept up during the whole year. Or, even without + works of this magnitude, by hydraulic machines of a very simple + construction, the life-giving fluid might be raised from the great streams + and their affluents in sufficient quantity to maintain a broad belt on + either side of the river-courses in perpetual verdure. Anciently, we know + that recourse was had to both of these systems. In the tract between the + Tigris and the Upper Zab, which is the only part of Assyria that has been + minutely examined, are distinct remains of at least one Assyrian canal, + wherein much ingenuity and hydraulic skill is exhibited, the work being + carried through the more elevated ground by tunnelling, and the canal led + for eight miles contrary to the natural course of every stream in the + district. Sluices and dams, cut sometimes in the solid rock, regulated the + supply of the fluid at different seasons, and enabled the natives to make + the most economical application of the great fertilizer. The use of the + hand-swipe was also certainly known, since it is mentioned by Herodotus, + and even represented upon the sculptures. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE + XXV., Fig. 1.]</a> Very probably other more elaborate machines were + likewise employed, unless the general prevalency of canals superseded + their necessity. It is certain that over wide districts, now dependent for + productive power wholly on the spring rains, and consequently quite + incapable of sustaining a settled population, there must have been + maintained in Assyrian times some effective water-system, whereby regions + that at present with difficulty furnish a few months’ subsistence to the + wandering Arab tribes, were enabled to supply to scores of populous cities + sufficient food for their consumption. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate025.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 25 " /> + </div> + <p> + We have not much account of the products of Assyria Proper in early times. + Its dates were of small repute, being greatly inferior to those of + Babylon. It grew a few olives in places, and some spicy shrubs, which + cannot be identified with any certainty. Its cereal crops were good, and + may perhaps be regarded as included in the commendations bestowed by + Herodotus and Strabo on the grain of the Mesopotamian region. The country + was particularly deficient in trees, large tracts growing nothing but + wormwood and similar low shrubs, while others were absolutely without + either tree or bush. The only products of Assyria which acquired such note + as to be called by its name were its silk and its citron trees. The silk, + according to Pliny, was the produce of a large kind of silkworm not found + elsewhere. The citron trees obtained a very great celebrity. Not only were + they admired for their perpetual fruitage, and their delicious odor; but + it was believed that the fruit which they bore was an unfailing remedy + against poisons. Numerous attempts were made to naturalize the tree in + other countries; but up to the time when Pliny wrote, every such attempt + had failed, and the citron was still confined to Assyria, Persia and + Media. + </p> + <p> + It is not to be imagined that the vegetable products of Assyria were + confined within the narrow compass which the ancient notices might seem to + indicate. Those notices are casual, and it is evident that they are + incomplete: nor will a just notion be obtained of the real character of + the region, unless we take into account such of the present products as + may be reasonably supposed to be indigenous. Now setting aside a few + plants of special importance to man, the cultivation of which may have + been introduced, such as tobacco, rice, Indian corn, and cotton, we may + fairly say that Assyria has no exotics, and that the trees, shrubs, and + vegetables now found within her limits are the same in all probability as + grew there anciently. In order to complete our survey, we may therefore + proceed to inquire what are the chief vegetable products of the region at + the present time. + </p> + <p> + In the south the date-palm grows well as far as Anah on the Euphrates and + Tekrit on the Tigris. Above that latitude it languishes, and ceases to + give fruit altogether about the junction of the Khabour with the one + stream and the Lesser Zab with the other. The unproductive tree, however, + which the Assyrians used for building purposes, will grow and attain a + considerable size to the very edge of the mountains. Of other timber trees + the principal are the sycamore and the Oriental plane, which are common in + the north the oak, which abounds about Mardin (where it yields gall-nuts + and the rare product manna), and which is also found in the Sinjar and + Abd-el-Aziz ranges; the silver poplar, which often fringes the banks of + the streams; the sumac, which is found on the Upper Euphrates; and the + walnut, which grows in the Jebel Tur, and is not uncommon between the foot + of Zagros and the outlying ranges of hills. Of fruit-trees the most + important are the orange, lemon, pomegranate, apricot, olive, vine, fig, + mulberry, and pistachio-nut. The pistachio-nut grows wild in the northern + mountains, especially between Orfah and Diarbekr. The fig is cultivated + with much care in the Sinjar. The vine is also grown in that region, but + bears better on the skirts of the hills above Orfah and Mardin. + Pomegranates flourish in various parts of the country. Oranges and lemons + belong to its more southern parts, where it verges on Babylonia. The olive + clothes the flanks of Zagros in places. Besides these rarer fruits, + Assyria has chestnuts, pears, apples, plums, cherries, wild and + cultivated, qinces, apricots, melons and filberts. + </p> + <p> + The commonest shrubs are a kind of wormwood—the <i>apsinthium</i> of + Xenophon—which grows over much of the plain extending south of the + Khabour—and the tamarisk. Green myrtles, and oleanders with their + rosy blossoms, clothe the banks of some of the smaller streams between the + Tigris and Mount Zagros; and a shrub of frequent occurrence is the + liquorice plant. Of edible vegetables there is great abundance. Truffles + and capers grow wild; while peas, beans, onions, spinach, cucumbers, and + lentils are cultivated successfully. The carob (<i>Ceratonia Siliqua</i>) + must also be mentioned as among the rarer products of this region. + </p> + <p> + It was noticed above that manna is gathered in Assyria from the dwarf oak. + It is abundant in Zagros, and is found also in the woods about Mardin, and + again between Orfah and Diarbekr. According to Mr. Rich, it is not + confined to the dwarf oak, or even to trees and shrubs, but is deposited + also on sand, rocks, and stone. It is most plentiful in wet seasons, and + especially after fogs; in dry seasons it fails almost totally. The natives + collect it in spring and autumn. The best and purest is that taken from + the ground; but by far the greater quantity is obtained from the trees, by + placing cloths under them and shaking the branches. The natives use it as + food both in its natural state and manufactured into a kind of paste. It + soon corrupts; and in order to fit it for exportation, or even for the + storeroom of the native housewife, it has to undergo the process of + boiling. When thus prepared, it is a gentle purgative; but, in its natural + state and when fresh, it may be eaten in large quantities without any + unpleasant consequences. + </p> + <p> + Assyria is far better supplied with minerals than Babylonia. Stone of a + good quality, either limestone, sandstone, or conglomerate, is always at + hand; while a tolerable clay is also to be found in most plices. If a more + durable material is required, basaltic rock may be obtained from the Mons + Masius—a substance almost as hard as granite. On the left bank of + the Tigris a soft gray alabaster abounds which is easily cut into slabs, + and forms an excellent material for the sculptor. The neighboring + mountains of Kurdistan contain marbles of many different qualities; and + these could be procured without much difficulty by means of the rivers. + From the same quarter it was easy to obtain the most useful metals. Iron, + copper, and lead are found in great abundance in the Tiyari Mountains + within a short distance of Nineveh, where they crop out upon the surface, + so that they cannot fail to be noticed. Lead and copper are also + obtainable from the neighborhood of Diarbekr. The Kurdish Mountains may + have supplied other metals. They still produce silver and antimony; and it + is possible that they may anciently have furnished gold and tin. As their + mineral riches have never been explored by scientific persons, it is very + probable that they may contain many other metals besides those which they + are at present known to yield. + </p> + <p> + Among the mineral products of Assyria, bitumen, naphtha, petroleum, + sulphur, alum, and salt have also to be reckoned. The bitumen pits of + Kerkuk, in the country between the Lesser Zab and the Adhem, are scarcely + less celebrated than those of Hit; and there are some abundant springs of + the same character close to Nimrud, in the bed of the Shor Derrell + torrent. The Assyrian palaces furnish sufficient evidence that the springs + were productive in old times; for the employment of bitumen as a cement, + though not so frequent as in Babylonia, is yet occasionally found in them. + With the bitumen are always procured both naphtha and petroleum; while at + Kerkuk there is an abundance of sulphur also. Salt is obtained from + springs in the Kerkuk country; and is also formed in certain small lakes + lying between the Sinjar and Babylonia. Alum is plentiful in the hills + about Kifri. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable wild animals of Assyria are the following: the lion, + the leopard, the lynx, the wild-cat, the hyaena, the wild ass, the bear, + the deer, the gazelle, the ibex, the wild sheep, the wild boar, the + jackal, the wolf, the fox, the beaver, the jerboa, the porcupine, the + badger, and the hare. The Assyrian lion is of the maneless kind, and in + general habits resembles the lion of Babylonia. The animal is + comparatively rare in the eastern districts, being seldom found on the + banks of the Tigris above Baghdad, and never above Kileh-Sherghat. On the + Euphrates it has been seen as high as Bir; and it is frequent on the banks + of the Khabour, and in the Sinjar. It has occasionally that remarkable + peculiarity—so commonly represented on the sculptures—a short + horny claw at the extremity of the tail in the middle of the ordinary tuft + of hair. The ibex or wild goat—also a favorite subject with the + Assyrian sculptors—is frequent in Kurdistan, and moreover abounds on + the highest ridges of the Abd-el-Aziz and the Sinjar, where it is + approached with difficulty by the hunter. The gazelle, wild boar, wolf, + jackal, fox, badger, porcupine, and hare are common in the plains, and + confined to no particular locality. The jerboa is abundant near the + Khabour. Beau’s and deer are found on the skirts of the Kurdish hills. The + leopard, hyaena, lynx, and beaver are comparatively rare. The last named + animal, very uncommon in Southern Asia, was at one time found in large + numbers on the Khabour; but in consequence of the value set upon its musk + bag, it has been hunted almost to extermination, and is now very seldom + seen. The Khabour beavers are said to be a different species from the + American. Their tail is not large and broad, but sharp and pointed; nor do + they build houses, or construct dams across the stream, but live in the + banks, making themselves large chambers above the ordinary level of the + floods, which are entered by holes beneath the water-line. + </p> + <p> + The rarest of all the animals which are still found in Assyria is the wild + ass (<i>Equus hemionous</i>). Till the present generation of travellers, + it was believed to have disappeared altogether from the region, and to + have “retired into the steppes of Mongolia and the deserts of Persia. But + a better acquaintance with the country between the rivers has shown that + wild asses, though uncommon, still inhabit the tract where, they were seen + by Xenophon.” <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> They + are delicately made, in color varying from a grayish-white in winter to a + bright bay, approaching to pink, in the summer-time; they are said to be + remarkably swift. It is impossible to take them when full grown; but the + Arabs often capture the foals, and bring them up with milk in their tents. + They then become very playful and docile; but it is found difficult to + keep them alive; and they have never, apparently, been domesticated. The + Arabs usually kill them and eat their flesh. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate026.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 26 " /> + </div> + <p> + It is probable that all these animals, and some others, inhabited Assyria + during the time of the Empire. Lions of two kinds, with and without manes, + abound in the sculptures, the former, which do not now exist in Assyria, + being the more common. <a href="#linkimage-0005">[PLATE XXV., Fig. 2.]</a> + They are represented with a skill and a truth which shows the Assyrian + sculptor to have been familiar not only with their forms and proportions, + but with their natural mode of life, their haunts, and habits. The leopard + is far less often depicted, but appears sometimes in the ornamentation of + utensils, and is frequently mentioned in the inscriptions. The wild ass is + a favorite subject with the sculptors of the late Empire, and is + represented with great spirit, though not with complete accuracy. <a + href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> The ears are too short, + the head is too fine, the legs are not fine enough, and the form + altogether approaches too nearly to the type of the horse. The deer, the + gazelle, and the ibex all occur frequently; and though the forms are to + some extent conventional, they are not wanting in spirit. <a + href="#linkimage-0007">[PLATE XXVII.]</a> Deer are apparently of two + kinds. That which is most commonly found appears to represent the gray + deer, which is the only species existing at present within the confines of + Assyria. The other sort is more delicate in shape, and spotted, seeming to + represent the fallow deer, which is not now known in Syria or the adjacent + countries. It sometimes appears wild, lying among the reeds; sometimes + tame, in the arms of a priest or of a winged figure. There is no + representation in the sculptures of the wild boar; but a wild sow and pigs + are given in one bas-relief, sufficiently indicating the Assyrian + acquaintance with this animal. Hares are often depicted, and with much + truth; generally they are carried in the hands of men, but sometimes they + are being devoured by vultures or eagles. <a href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE + XXVIII Figs. 1, 2.]</a> No representations have been found of bears, wild + cats, hyaenas, wolves, jackals, wild sheep, foxes, beavers, jerbdas, + porcupines, or badgers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate027.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 27 " /> + </div> + <p> + There is reason to believe that two other animals, which have now + altogether disappeared from the country, inhabited at least some parts of + Assyria during its flourishing period. One of these is the wild bull-often + represented on the bas-reliefs as a beast of chase, and perhaps mentioned + as such in the inscriptions. This animal, which is sometimes depicted as + en-gaged in a contest with the lion, must have been of vast strength and + boldness. It is often hunted by the king, and appears to have been + considered nearly as noble an object of pursuit as the lion. We may + presume, from the practice in the adjoining country, Palestine, 96 that + the flesh was eaten as food. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate028.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 28 " /> + </div> + <p> + The other animal, once indigenous, but which has now disappeared, was + called by the Assyrians the <i>mithin,</i> and is thought to have been the + tiger. Tigers are not now found nearer to Assyria than the country south + of the Caspian, Ghilan, and Mazanderan; but as there is no conceivable + reason why they should not inhabit Mesopotamia, and as the <i>mithin</i> + is constantly joined with the lion, as if it were a beast of the same + kind, and of nearly equal strength and courage, we may fairly conjecture + that the tiger is the animal intended. If this seem too bold a theory, we + must regard the <i>mithin</i> as the larger leopard, an animal of + considerable strength and ferocity, which, as well as the hunting leopard, + is still found in the country. <a href="#linkimage-0006">[PLATE XXVI., + Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The birds at present frequenting Assyria are chiefly the following: the + bustard (which is of two kinds—the great and the middle-sized), the + egret, the crane, the stork, the pelican, the flamingo, the red partridge, + the black partridge or francolin, the parrot, the Seleucian thrush (<i>Turdus + Seleucus</i>), the vulture, the falcon or hunting hawk, the owl, the wild + swan, the bramin goose, the ordinary wild goose, the wild duck, the teal, + the tern, the sand-grouse, the turtle dove, the nightingale, the jay, the + plover, and the snipe. There is also a large kite or eagle, called “agab,” + or “the butcher,” by the Arabs, which is greatly dreaded by fowlers, as it + will attack and kill the falcon no less than other birds. + </p> + <p> + We have little information as to which of these birds frequented the + country in ancient times. The Assyrian artists are not happy in their + delineation of the feathered tribe; and though several forms of birds are + represented upon the sculptures of Sargon and elsewhere, there are but + three which any writer has ventured to identify—the vulture, the + ostrich, and the partridge. The vulture is commonly represented flying in + the air, in attendance upon the march and the battle—sometimes + devouring, as he flies, the entrails of one of Assyria’s enemies. + Occasionally he appears upon the battle-field, perched upon the bodies of + the slain, and pecking at their eyes or their vitals. <a + href="#linkimage-0008">[PLATE XXVIII., Fig. 4.]</a> The ostrich, which we + know from Xenophon to have been a former inhabitant of the country on the + left bank of the Euphrates, but which has now retreated into the wilds of + Arabia, occurs frequently upon cylinders, dresses, and utensils; sometimes + stalking along apparently unconcerned; sometimes hastening at full speed, + as if pursued by the hunter, and, agreeably to the description of + Xenophon, using its wing for a sail. <a href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE + XXIX., Figs. 1, 2.]</a> The partridge is still more common than either of + these. He is evidently sought as food. We find him carried in the hand of + sportsmen returning from the chase, or see him flying above their heads as + they beat the coverts, or finally observe him pierced by a successful + shot, and in the act of falling a prey to his pursuers. [PLATE XXIX., Fig. + 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate029.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 29 " /> + </div> + <p> + The other birds represented upon the sculptures, though occasionally + possessing some marked peculiarities of form or habit, have not yet been + identified with any known species. <a href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE XXIX., + Fig. 2.]</a> They are commonly represented as haunting the fir-woods, and + often as perched upon the trees. One appears, in a sculpture of Sargon’s. + in the act of climbing the stein of a tree, like the nut-hatch or the + woodpecker. Another has a tail like a pheasant, but in other respects + cannot be said to resemble that bird. The artist does not appear to aim at + truth in these delineations, and it probably would be a waste of ingenuity + to conjecture which species of bird he intended. + </p> + <p> + We have no direct evidence that bustards inhabited Mesopotamia in Assyrian + times; but as they have certainly been abundant in that region front the + time of Xenophon to our own, there can be little doubt that they existed + in some parts of Assyria during the Empire. Considering their size, their + peculiar appearance, and the delicacy of their flesh, it is remarkable + that the Assyrian remains furnish no trace of them. Perhaps, as they are + extremely shy, they may have been comparatively rare in the country when + the population was numerous, and when the greater portion of the tract + between the rivers was brought under cultivation. + </p> + <p> + The fish most plentiful in Assyria are the same as in Babylonia, namely, + barbel and carp. They abound not only in the Tigris and Euphrates, but + also in the lake of Khutaniyeh, and often grow to a great size. Trout are + found in the streams which run down from Zagros; and there may be many + other sorts which have not yet been observed. The sculptures represent all + the waters, whether river, pond, or marsh, as full of fish; but the forms + are for the most part too conventional to admit of identification. <a + href="#linkimage-0009">[PLATE XXIX., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The domestic animals now found in Assyria are camels, horses, asses, + mules, sheep, goats, oxen, cows, and dogs. The camels are of three colors—white, + yellow, and dark brown or black. They are probably all of the same + species, though commonly distinguished into camels proper, and <i>delouls</i> + or dromedaries, the latter differing from the others as the English + race-horse from the cart-horse. The Bactrian or two-humped camel, though + known to the ancient Assyrians, is not now found in the country. <a + href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXX., Fig. 1.]</a> The horses are numerous, + and of the best Arab blood. Small in stature, but of exquisite symmetry + and wonderful powers of endurance, they are highly prized throughout the + East, and constitute the chief wealth of the wandering tribes who occupy + the greater portion of Mesopotamia. The sheep and goats are also of good + breeds, and produce wool of an excellent quality. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE + XXX., Fig. 2.]</a> The cows and oxen cannot be commended. The dogs kept + are chiefly greyhounds, which are used to course the hare and the gazelle. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate030.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 30 " /> + </div> + <p> + It is probable that in ancient times the animals domesticated by the + Assyrians were not very different from these. The camel appears upon the + monuments both as a beast of burden and also as ridden in war, but only by + the enemies of the Assyrians. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXX., Fig. + 3.]</a> The horse is used both for draught and for riding, but seems never + degraded to ignoble purposes. His breed is good, though he is not so + finely or delicately made as the modern Arab. The head is small and well + shaped, the nostrils large and high, the neck arched, but somewhat thick, + the body compact, the loins strong, the legs moderately slender and + sinewy. <a href="#linkimage-0010">[PLATE XXX., Fig. 4.]</a> <a + href="#linkimage-0011">[PLATE XXXI., Fig. 1.]</a> The ass is not found; + but the mule appears, sometimes ridden by women, sometimes used as a beast + of burden, sometimes employed in drawing a cart. <a href="#linkimage-0011">[PLATE + XXXI., Fig. 2]</a> <a href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE XXXII., Figs. 1, 2.]</a> + Cows, oxen, sheep, and goats are frequent; but they are foreign rather + tham Assyrian, since they occur only among the spoil taken from conquered + countries. The dog is frequent on the later sculptures; and has been found + modelled in clay, and also represented in relief on a clay tablet. <a + href="#linkimage-0012">[PLATE XXXII., Fig. 3.]</a> <a + href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 1.]</a> Their character is + that of a large mastiff or hound, and there is abundant evidence that they + were employed in hunting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate031.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 31 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate032.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 32 " /> + </div> + <p> + If the Assyrians domesticated any bird, it would seem to have been the + duck. Models of the duck are common, and seem generally to have been used + for weights. <a href="#linkimage-0013">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> The + bird is ordinarily represented with its head turned upon its back, the + attitude of the domestic duck when asleep. The Assyrians seem to have had + artificial ponds or stews, which are always represented as full of fish, + but the forms are conventional, as has been already observed. Considering + the size to which the carp and barbel actually grow at the present day, + the ancient representations are smaller than might have been expected. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate033.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 33 " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /><br /> <br /><br /> =============== <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2H_4_0001" id="linkB2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SECOND MONARCHY + </h2> + <h1> + ASSYRIA + </h1> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0001" id="linkBimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_top.jpg"><img alt="map_top_th (118K)" + src="images/map_top_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" + id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <h3> + THE PEOPLE. + </h3> + <p> + “The Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon, fair of branches, and with a + shadowing shroud, and of high stature; and his top was among the thick + boughs. . . . Nor was any tree in the garden of God like unto him in his + beauty.”—EZEK. xxxi. 3 and 8. + </p> + <p> + The ethnic character of the ancient Assyrians, like that of the + Chaldaeans, was in former times a matter of controversy. When nothing was + known of the original language of the people beyond the names of certain + kings, princes, and generals, believed to have belonged to the race, it + was difficult to arrive at any determinate conclusion on the subject. The + ingenuity of etymologists displayed itself in suggesting derivations for + the words in question, which were sometimes absurd, sometimes plausible, + but never more than very doubtful conjectures. No sound historical critic + could be content to base a positive view on any such unstable foundation, + and nothing remained but to decide the controversy on other than + linguistic considerations. + </p> + <p> + Various grounds existed on which it was felt that a conclusion could be + drawn. The Scriptural genealogies connected Asshur with Aran, Pier, and + Joktan, the allowed progenitors of the Armaeians or Syrians, the + Israelites or Hebrews, and the northern or Joktanian Arabs. The languages, + physical type, and moral characteristics of these races were well known: + they all belonged evidently to a single family the family known to + ethnologists as the Semitic. Again, the manners and customs, especially + the religious customs, of the Assyrians connected then plainly with the + Syrians and Phoenicians, with whose practices they were closely allied. + Further it was observed that the modern Chaldaeans of Kurdistan, who + regard themselves as descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the + neighboring Assyria, still speak a Semitic dialect. These three distinct + and convergent lines of testimony were sufficient to justify historians in + the conclusion, which they commonly drew, that the ancient Assyrians + belonged to the Semitic family, and were more or less closely connected + with the Syrians, the (later) Babylonians, the Phoenicians, the + Israelites, and the Arabs of the northern portion of the peninsula. + </p> + <p> + Recent linguistic discoveries have entirely confirmed the conclusion thus, + arrived at. We now possess in the engraved slabs, the clay tablets, the + cylinders, and the bricks, exhumed from the ruins of the great Assyrian + cities, copious documentary evidence of the character of the Assyrian + language, and (so far as language is a proof) of the ethnic character of + the race. It appears to be doubted by none who have examined the evidence, + that the language of these records is Semitic. However imperfect the + acquaintance which our best Oriental archaeologists have as yet obtained + with this ancient and difficult form of speech, its connection with the + Syriac, the later Babylonian, the Hebrew, and the Arabic does not seem to + admit of a doubt. + </p> + <p> + Another curious confirmation of the ordinary belief is to be found in the + physical characteristics of the people, as revealed to us by the + sculptures. Few persons in any way familiar with these works of art can + have failed to remark the striking resemblance to the Jewish physiognomy + which is presented by the sculptured effigies of the Assyrians. The + forehead straight but not high, the full brow, the eye large and + almond-shaped, the aquiline nose, a little coarse at the end, and unduly + depressed, the strong, firm mouth, with lips somewhat over thick, the + well-formed chin—best seen in the representation of eunuchs—the + abundant hair and ample beard, both colored as black—all these + recall the chief peculiarities of the Jew more especially as he appears in + southern countries. <a href="images/plate033.jpg">[PLATE XXXIII., Fig. 3.]</a> + They are less like the traits of the Arab, though to them also they bear a + considerable resemblance. Chateaubriand’s description of the Bedouin—“<i>la + tete ovale, le front haut et argue, le nez aquilia, les yeux grandes et + coupe en amandes, le regard humide et singulierement doux</i>” would serve + in many respects equally well for a description of the physiognomy of the + Assyrians, as they appear upon the monuments. The traits, in fact, are for + the most part common to the Semitic race generally, and not distinctive of + any particular subdivision of it. They are seen now alike in the Arab, the + Jew, and the Chalaedeans of Kurdistan, while anciently they not only + characterized the Assyrians, but probably belonged also to the + Phoenicians, the Syrians, and other minor Semetic races. It is evident, + even from the mannered and conventional sculptures of Egypt, that the + physiognomy was regarded as characteristic of the western Asiatic races. + Three captives on the monuments of Amenophis III., represented as + belonging to the Patana (people of Bashan?), the Asuru (Assyrians), and + the Karukamishi (people of Carchemish), present to us the sane style of + face, only slightly modified by Egyptian ideas. <a href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE. + XXXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0002" id="linkBimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate034.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 34 " /> + </div> + <p> + White in face the Assyrians appear thus to have borne a most close + resemblance to the Jews, in shape and make they are perhaps more nearly + represented by their descendants, the Chaldaeans of Kurdistan. While the + Oriental Jew has a spare form and a weak muscular development, the + Assyrian, like the modern Chaldaean, is robust, broad-shouldered, and + large-limbed. Nowhere have we a race represented to us monumentally of a + stronger or more muscular type than the ancient Assyrian. The great brawny + limbs are too large for beauty; but they indicate a physical power which + we may well believe to have belonged to this nation—the Romans of + Asia—the resolute and sturdy people which succeeded in imposing its + yoke upon all its neighbors. <a href="#linkBimage-0002">[PLATE XXXIV., + Fig, 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + If from physical we proceed to mental characteristics, we seem again to + have in the Jewish character the best and closest analogy to the Assyrian. + In the first place, there is observable in each a strong and marked + prominency of the religious principle. Inscriptions of Assyrian kings + begin and end, almost without exception, with praises, invocations, and + prayers to the principal objects of their adoration. All the monarch’s + successes, all his conquests and victories, and even his good fortune in + the chase, are ascribed continually to the protection and favor of + guardian deities. Wherever he goes, he takes care to “set up the emblems + of Asshur,” or of “the great gods;” and forces the vanquished to do them + homage. The choicest of the spoil is dedicated as a thank-offering in the + temples. The temples themselves are adorned, repaired, beautified, + enlarged, increased in manner, by almost, every monarch. The kings worship + them in person, and offer sacrifices. They embellish their palaces, not + only with representations of their own victories and hunting expeditions, + but also with religious figures—the emblems of some of the principal + deities, and with scenes in which are portrayed acts of adoration. Their + signets, and indeed those of the Assyrians generally, have a religious + character. In every way religion seems to hold a marked and prominent + place in the thoughts of the people, who fight more for the honor of their + gods than even of their king, and aim at extending their belief as much as + their dominion. + </p> + <p> + Again, combined with this prominency of the religious principle, is a + sensuousness—such as we observe in Judaism continually struggling + against a higher and purer element—but which in this less favored + branch of the Semitic family reigns uncontrolled, and gives to its + religion a gross, material, and even voluptuous character. The ideal and + the spiritual find little favor with this practical people, which, not + content with symbols, must have gods of wood and stone whereto to pray, + and which in its complicated mythological system, its priestly hierarchy, + its gorgeous ceremonial, and finally in its lascivious ceremonies, is a + counterpart to that Egypt, from which the Jew was privileged to make his + escape. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians are characterized in Scripture as “a fierce people.” Their + victories seem to have been owing to their combining individual bravery + and hardihood with a skill and proficiency in the arts of war not + possessed by their more uncivilized neighbors. This bravery and hardihood + were kept up, partly (like that of the Romans) by their perpetual wars, + partly by the training afforded to their manly qualities by the pursuit + and destruction of wild animals. The lion—the king of beasts—abounded + in their country, together with many other dangerous and ferocious + animals. Unlike the ordinary Asiatic, who trembles before the great beasts + of prey and avoids a collision by flight if possible, the ancient Assyrian + sought out the strongest and fiercest of the animals, provoked them to the + encounter, and engaged with them in hand-to-hand combats. The spirit of + Nimrod, the “mighty hunter before the Lord,” not only animated his own + people, but spread on from them to their northern neighbors; and, as far + as we can judge by the monuments, prevailed even more in Assyria than in + Chaldaea itself. The favorite objects of chase with the Assyrians seem to + have been the lion and the wild bull, both beasts of vast strength and + courage, which could not be attacked without great danger to the bold + assailant. + </p> + <p> + No doubt the courage of the Assyrians was tinged with ferocity. The nation + was “a mighty and strong one, which, as a tempest of hail and a destroying + storm, as a flood of mighty waters overflowing, cast down to the earth + with the hand.” Its capital might well deserve to be called “a bloody + city,” or “a city of bloods.” Few conquering races have been + tender-hearted, or much inclined to spare; and undoubtedly carnage, ruin, + and desolation followed upon the track of an Assyrian army, and raised + feelings of fear and hatred among their adversaries. But we have no reason + to believe that the nation was especially bloodthirsty or unfeeling. The + mutilation of the slain—not by way of insult, but in proof of their + slayer’s prowess was indeed practised among them; but otherwise there is + little indication of any barbarous, much less of any really cruel, usages. + The Assyrian listens to the enemy who asks for quarter; he prefers making + prisoners to slaying; he is very terrible in the battle and the assault, + but afterwards he forgives, and spares. Of course in some cases he makes + exceptions. When a town has rebelled and been subdued, he impales some of + the most guilty <a href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXXV., Fig. 1]</a>; and + in two or three instances prisoners are represented as led before the king + by a rope fastened to a ring which passes through the under lip, while now + and then one appears in the act of being flayed with it knife <a + href="#linkBimage-0003">[PLATE XXXV., Fig. 2.]</a> But, generally, + captives are either released, or else transferred, without unnecessary + suffering, from their own country to some other portion of the empire. + There seems even to be something of real tenderness in the treatment of + captured women, who are never manacled, and are often allowed to ride on + mules, or in carts. <a href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE XXXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0003" id="linkBimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate035.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 35 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0004" id="linkBimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate036.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 36 " /> + </div> + <p> + The worst feature in the character of the Assyrians was their treachery. + “Woe to thee that spoilest, though thou wast not spoiled, and dealest + treacherously, though they dealt not treacherously with thee!” is the + denunciation of the evangelical prophet. And in the same spirit the author + of “The Burthen of Nineveh” declares that city to be “full of lies and + robbery”—or, more correctly, full of lying and violence. Falsehood + and treachery are commonly regarded as the vices of the weak, who are + driven to defend themselves against superior strength by the weapon of + cunning; but they are perhaps quite as often employed by the strong as + furnishing short cuts to success, and even where the moral standard is + low, as being in themselves creditable. It certainly was not necessity + which made the Assyrians covenant-breakers; it seems to have been in part + the wantonness of power—because they “despised the cities and + regarded no man;” perhaps it was in part also their imperfect moral + perception, which may have failed to draw the proper distinction between + craft and cleverness. + </p> + <p> + Another unpleasant feature in the Assyrian character—but one at + which we can feel no surprise—was their pride. This is the quality + which draws forth the sternest denunciations of Scripture, and is + expressly declared to have called down the Divine judgments upon the race. + Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Zephaniah alike dwell upon it. It pervades the + inscriptions. Without being so rampant or offensive as the pride of some + Orientals—as, for instance, the Chinese, it is of a marked and + decided color: the Assyrian feels himself infinitely superior to all the + nations with whom he is brought into contact; he alone enjoys the favor of + the gods; he alone is either truly wise or truly valiant; the armies of + his enemies are driven like chaff before him; he sweeps them away, like + heaps of stubble; either they fear to fight, or they are at once defeated; + he carries his victorious arms just as far as it pleases him, and never + under any circumstances admits that he has suffered a reverse. The only + merit that he allows to foreigners is some skill in the mechanical and + mimetic arts, and his acknowledgment of this is tacit rather than express, + being chiefly known from the recorded fact that he employs foreign artists + to ornament his edifices. + </p> + <p> + According to the notions which the Greeks derived from Ctesias, and passed + on to the Romans, and through them to the moderns generally, the greatest + defect in the Assyrian character—the besetting sin of their leading + men—was luxuriousness of living and sensuality. From Ninyas to + Sardanapalus—from the commencement to the close of the Empire—a + line of voluptuaries, according to Ctesias and his followers, held + possession of the throne; and the principle was established from the + first, that happiness consisted in freedom from all cares or troubles, and + unchecked indulgence in every species of sensual pleasure. This account, + intrinsically suspicious, is now directly contradicted by the authentic + records which we possess of the warlike character and manly pursuits of so + many of the kings. It probably, however, contains a germ of truth. In a + flourishing kingdom like Assyria, luxury must have gradually advanced; and + when the empire fell under the combined attack of its two most powerful + neighbors, no doubt it had lost much of its pristine vigor. The monuments + lend some support to the view that luxury was among the causes which + produced the fall of Assyria; although it may be questioned whether, even + to the last, the predominant spirit was not warlike and manly, or even + fierce and violent. Among the many denunciations of Assyria in Scripture, + there is only one which can even be thought to point to luxury as a cause + of her downfall; and that is a passage of very doubtful interpretation. In + general it is her violence, her treachery, and her pride that are + denounced. When Nineveh repented in the time of Jonah, it was by each man + “turning from his evil way and from the violence which was in their + hands.” When Nahum announces the final destruction, it is on “the bloody + city, full of lies and robbery.” In the emblematic language of prophecy, + the <i>lion</i> is taken as the fittest among animals to symbolize + Assyria, even at this late period of her history. She is still “the lion + that did tear in pieces enough for his whelps, and strangled for his + lioness, and filled his holes with prey, and his dens with ravin.” The + favorite national emblem, if it may be so called, is accepted as the true + type of the people; and blood, ravin, and robbery are their + characteristics in the mind of the Hebrew prophet. + </p> + <p> + In mental power the Assyrians certainly deserve to be considered as among + the foremost of the Asiatic races. They had not perhaps so much + originality as the Chaldaeans, from whom they appear to have derived the + greater part of their civilization; but in many respects it is clear that + they surpassed their instructors, and introduced improvements which gave a + greatly increased value and almost a new character to arts previously + discovered. The genius of the people will best be seen from the accounts + hereafter to be given of their language, their arts, and their system of + government. If it must be allowed that these have all a certain smack of + rudeness and primitive simplicity, still they are advances upon aught that + had previously existed—not only in Mesopotamia—but in the + world. Fully to appreciate the Assyrians, we should compare them with the + much-lauded Egyptians, who in all important points are very decidedly + their inferiors. The spirit and progressive character of their art offers + the strongest contrast to the stiff, lifeless, and unchanging + conventionalism of the dwellers on the Nile. Their language and alphabet + are confessedly in advance of the Egyptian. Their religion is more earnest + and less degraded. In courage and military genius their superiority is + very striking; for the Egyptians are essentially an unwarlike people. The + one point of advantage to which Egypt may fairly lay claim is the grandeur + and durability of her architecture. The Assyrian palaces, magnificent, as + they undoubtedly were, must yield the palm to the vast structures of + Egyptian Thebes. No nation, not even Rome, has equalled Egypt in the size + and solemn grandeur of its buildings. But, except in this one respect, the + great African kingdom must be regarded as inferior to her Asiatic rival—which + was indeed “a cedar in Lebanon, exalted above all the trees of the field—fair + in greatness and in the length of his branches—so that all the trees + that were in the garden of God envied him, and not one was like unto him + in his beauty.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0002" id="linkB2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <h3> + THE CAPITAL. + </h3> + <p> + “Fuit et Ninus, imposita Tigri, ad solis occasum spectans, quondam + clarissima.”—PLIN. H. N. vi. 13. + </p> + <p> + The site of the great capital of Assyria had generally been regarded as + fixed with sufficient certainty to the tract immediately opposite Mosul, + alike by local tradition and by the statements of ancient writers, when + the discovery by modern travellers of architectural remains of great + magnificence at some considerable distance from this position, threw a + doubt upon the generally received belief, and made the true situation of + the ancient Nineveh once more a matter of controversy. When the noble + sculptures and vast palaces of Nimrud were first uncovered, it was natural + to suppose that they marked the real site; for it seemed unlikely that any + mere provincial city should have been adorned by a long series of monarchs + with buildings at once on so grand a scale and so richly ornamented. A + passage of Strabo, and another of Ptolemy, were thought to lend + confirmation to this theory, which placed the Assyrian capital nearly at + the junction of the Upper Zab with the Tigris; and for awhile the old + opinion was displaced, and the name of Nineveh was attached very generally + in this country to the ruins at Nimrud. + </p> + <p> + Shortly afterwards a rival claimant started up in the regions further to + the north. Excavations carried on at the village of Khorsabad showed that + a magnificent palace and a considerable town had existed in Assyrian times + at that site. In spite of the obvious objection that the Khorsabad ruins + lay at the distance of fifteen miles from the Tigris, which according to + every writer of weight anciently washed the walls of Nineveh, it was + assumed by the excavator that the discovery of the capital had been + reserved for himself, and the splendid work representing the Khorsabad + bas-reliefs and inscriptions, which was published in France under the + title of “Monument de Ninive,” caused the reception of M. Botta’s theory + in many parts of the Continent. + </p> + <p> + After awhile an attempt was made to reconcile the rival claims by a + theory, the grandeur of which gained it acceptance, despite its + improbability. It was suggested that the various ruins, which had hitherto + disputed the name, were in fact all included within the circuit of the + ancient Nineveh; which was described as a rectangle, or oblong square, + eighteen miles long and twelve broad. The remains of Khorsabad, Koyunjik, + Nimrud, and Keremles marked the four corners of this vast quadrangle, + which contained an area of 216 square miles—about ten times that of + London! In confirmation of this view was urged, first, the description in + Diodorus, derived probably from Ctesias, which corresponded (it was said) + both with the proportions and with the actual distances; and next, the + statements contained in the book of Jonah, which (it was argued) implied a + city of some such dimensions. The parallel of Babylon, according to the + description given by Herodotus, might fairly have been cited as a further + argument; since it might have seemed reasonable to suppose that there was + no great difference of size between the chief cities of the two kindred + empires. + </p> + <p> + Attractive, however, as this theory is from its grandeur, and harmonious + as it must be allowed to be with the reports of the Greeks, we have + nevertheless to reject it on two grounds, the one historical and the other + topographical. The ruins of Khorsabad, Keremles, Nimrud, and Koyunjik bear + on their bricks distinct local titles; and these titles are found + attaching to distinct cities in the historical inscriptions. Nimrud, as + already observed, is Calah; and Khorsabad is Dur-Sargina, or “the city of + Sargon.” Keremles has also its own appellation Dur-* * *, “the city of the + God [—].” Now the Assyrian writers do not consider these places to + be parts of Nineveh, but speak of them as distinct and separate cities. + Calah for a long time is the capital, while Nineveh is mentioned as a + provincial town. Dur-Sargina is built by Sargon, not at Nineveh, but “near + to Nineveh.” Scripture, it must be remembered, similarly distinguishes + Calah as a place separate from Nineveh, and so far from it that there was + room for “a great city” between them. And the geographers, while they give + the name of Aturia or Assyria Proper to the country about the one town, + call the region which surrounds the other by a distinct name, Calachene. + Again, when the country is closely examined, it is found, not only that + there are no signs of any continuous town over the space included within + the four sites of Nimrud, Keremles. Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, nor any + remains of walls or ditches connecting them, but that the four sites + themselves are as carefully fortified on what, by the theory we are + examining, would be the inside of the city as in other directions. It + perhaps need scarcely be added, unless to meet the argument drawn from + Diodorus, that the four sites in question are not so placed as to form the + “oblong square” of his description, but mark the angles of a rhombus very + munch slanted from the perpendicular. + </p> + <p> + The argument derived from the book of Jonah deserves more attention than + that which rests upon the authority of Diodorus and Ctesias. Unlike + Ctesias, Jonah saw Nineveh while it still stood; and though the writer of + the prophetical book may not have been Jonah himself, he probably lived + not very many years later. Thus his evidence is that of a contemporary, + though (it may be) not that of an eye-witness; and, even apart from the + inspiration which guided his pen, he is entitled to be heard with the + utmost respect. Now the statements of this writer, which have a bearing on + the size of Nineveh, are two. He tells us, in one place, that it was “an + exceeding great city, of three days’ journey;” in another, that “in it + were more than 120,000 persons who could not discern between their right + hand and their left.” These passages are clearly intended to describe a + city of a size unusual at the time; but both of them are to such an extent + vague and indistinct, that it is impossible to draw front either + separately, or even from the two combined, an exact definite notion. “A + city of three days’ journey” may be one which it requires three days to + traverse from end to end, or one which is three days’ journey in + circumference, or, lastly, one which cannot be thoroughly visited and + explored by a prophet commissioned to warn the inhabitants of a coming + danger in less than three days’ time. Persons not able to distinguish + their right hand from their left may (if taken literally) mean children, + and 120,000 such persons may therefore indicate a total population of + 600,000; or, the phrase may perhaps with greater probability be understood + of moral ignorance, and the intention would in that case be to designate + by it all the inhabitants. If Nineveh was in Jonah’s time a city + containing a population of 120,000, it would sufficiently deserve the + title of “an exceeding great city;” and the prophet might well be occupied + for three days in traversing its squares and streets. We shall find + hereafter that the ruins opposite Mosul have an extent more than equal to + the accommodation of this number of persons. + </p> + <p> + The weight of the argument from the supposed parallel ease of Babylon must + depend on the degree of confidence which can be reposed in the statement + made by Herodotus, and on the opinion which is ultimately formed with + regard to the real size of that capital. It would be improper to + anticipate here the conclusions which may be arrived at hereafter + concerning the real dimensions of “Babylon the Great;” but it may be + observed that grave doubts are entertained in many quarters as to the + ancient statements on the subject, and that the ruins do not cover much + more than one twenty-fifth of the space which Herodotus assigns to the + city. + </p> + <p> + We may, therefore, without much hesitation, set aside the theory which + would ascribe to the ancient Nineveh dimensions nine or ten times greater + than those of London, and proceed to a description of the group of ruins + believed by the best judges to mark the true site. + </p> + <p> + The ruins opposite Mosul consist of two principal Mounds, known + respectively as Nebbi-Yunus and Koyunjik. <a href="#linkBimage-0004">[PLATE + XXXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> The Koyunjik mound, which lies to the north-west of + the other, at the distance of 900 yards, or a little more than half a + mile, is very much the more considerable of the two. Its shape is an + irregular oval, elongated to a point towards the north-east, in the line + of its greater axis. The surface is nearly flat; the sides slope at a + steep angle, and are furrowed with numerous ravines, worn in the soft + material by the rains of some thirty centuries. The greatest height of the + mound above the plum is towards the south-eastern extremity, where it + overhangs the small stream of the Khosr; the elevation in this part being + about ninety-five feet. The area covered by the mound is estimated at a + hundred acres, and the entire mass is said to contain 14,500,000 tons of + earth. The labor of a man would scarcely excavate and place in position + more than 120 tons of earth in a year; it would require, therefore, the + united exertions of 10,000 men for twelve years, or 20,000 men for six + years, to complete the structure. On this artificial eminence were raised + in ancient times the palaces and temples of the Assyrian monarchs, which + are now imbedded in the debris of their own ruins. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate037.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 37 " /> + </div> + <p> + The mound of Nebbi-Ymus is at its base nearly triangular: <a + href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE XXXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> It covers an area of + about forty acres. It is loftier, and its sides are more precipitous, than + Koyunjik, especially on the west, where it abutted upon the wall of the + city. The surface is mostly flat, but is divided about the middle by a + deep ravine, running nearly from north to south, and separating the mound + into an eastern and a western portion. The so-called tomb of Jonah is + conspicuous on the north edge of the western portion of the mound, and + about it are grouped the cottages of the Kurds and Turcomans to whom the + site of the ancient Nineveh belongs. The eastern portion of the mound + forms a burial-ground, to which the bodies of Mahometans are brought from + considerable distances. The mass of earth is calculated at six and a half + millions of tons; so that its erection would have given full employment to + 10,000 men for the space of five years and a half. + </p> + <p> + These two vast mounds—the platforms on which palaces and temples + were raised—are both in the same line, and abutted, both of them, on + the western wall of the city. Their position in that wall is thought to + have been determined, not by chance, but by design; since they break the + western face of the city into three nearly equal portions. The entire + length of this side of Nineveh was 13,600 feet, or somewhat more than two + and a half miles. Anciently it seems to have immediately overhung the + Tigris, which has now moved off to the west, leaving a plain nearly a mile + in width between its eastern edge and the old rampart of the city. This + rampart followed, apparently, the natural course of the river-bank; and + hence, while on the whole it is tolerably straight, in the most southern + of the three portions it exhibits a gentle curve, where the river + evidently made a sweep, altering its course from south-east nearly to + south. + </p> + <p> + The western wall at its northern extremity approaches the present course + of the Tigris, and is here joined, exactly at right angles, by the + northern, or rather the north-western, rampart, which runs in a perfectly + straight line to the north-eastern angle of the city, and is said to + measure exactly 7000 feet. This wall is again divided, like the western, + but with even more preciseness, into three equal portions. Commencing at + the north-eastern angle, one-third of it is carried along comparatively + high ground, after which for the remaining two-thirds of its course it + falls by a gentle decline towards the Tigris. Exactly midway in this slope + the rampart is broken by a road, adjoining which is a remarkable mound, + covering one of the chief gates of the city. + </p> + <p> + At its other extremity the western wall forms a very obtuse angle with the + southern, which impends over a deep ravine formed by it winter torrent, + and runs in a straight line for about 1000 yards, when it meets the + eastern wall, with which it forms a slightly acute angle. + </p> + <p> + It remains to describe the eastern wall, which is the longest and the + least regular of the four. Tins barrier skirts the edge of a ridge of + conglomerate rock, which here rises somewhat above the level of the plain, + and presents a slightly convex sweep to the north east. At first it runs + nearly parallel to the western, and at right angles to the northern wall; + but, after pursuing this course for about three quarters of a mile, it is + forced by the natural convexity of the ridge to retire a little, and + curving gently inwards it takes a direction much more southerly than at + first, thus drawing continually nearer to the western wall, whose course + is almost exactly south-east. The entire length of this wall is 16,000 + feet, or above three miles. It is divided into two portions, whereof the + southern is somewhat the longer, by the stream of the Khosr-Su; which + coming from the north west, finds its way through the ruins of the city, + and then runs on across the low plain to the Tigris. + </p> + <p> + The enceinte of Nineveh forms thus an irregular trapezium, or a “triangle + with its apex abruptly cut off to the south.” The breadth, even in the + broadest part—that towards the north—is very disproportionate + to the length, standing to it as four to nine, or as 1 to 2.25. The town + is thus of an oblong shape, and so far Diodorus truly described it; though + his dimensions greatly exceed the truth. The circuit of the walls is + somewhat less than eight miles, instead of being more than fifty and the + area which they include is 1100 English acres, instead of being 112,000! + </p> + <p> + It is reckoned that in a populous Oriental town we may compute the + inhabitants at nearly, if not quite, a hundred per acre. This allows a + considerable space for streets, open squares, and gardens, since it + assigns but one individual to every space of fifty square yards. According + to such a mode of reckoning, the population of ancient Nineveh, within the + enceinte here described, may be estimated at 175,000 souls. No city of + Western Asia is at the present day so populous. + </p> + <p> + In the above description of the ramparts surrounding Nineveh, no account + has been given of their width or height. According to Diodorus, the wall + wherewith Ninus surrounded his capital was 100 feet high, and so broad + that three chariots might drive side by side along the top. Xenophon, who + passed close to the ruins on his retreat with the Ten Thousand, calls the + height 150 feet, and the width 50 feet. The actual greatest height at + present seems to be 46 feet; but the <i>debris</i> at the foot of the + walls are so great, and the crumbled character of the walls themselves is + so evident, that the chief modern explorer inclines to regard the + computation of Diodorus as probably no exaggeration of the truth. The + width of the walls, in their crumbled condition, is from 100 to 200 feet. + </p> + <p> + The mode in which the walls were constructed seems to have been the + following. Up to a certain height—fifty feet, according to Xenophon—they + were composed of neatly-hewn blocks of a fossiliferous limestone, smoothed + and polished on the outside. Above this, the material used was sun-dried + brick. The stone masonry was certainly ornamented along its top by a + continuous series of battlements or gradines in the same material <a + href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE XXXVII., Fig. 2]</a> and it is not unlikely + that a similar ornamentation crowned the upper brick structure. The wall + was pierced at irregular intervals by gates, above which rose lofty + towers; while towers, probably of lesser elevation, occurred also in the + portions of the wall intervening between one gate and another. A gate in + the north-western rampart has been cleared by means of excavation, the + form and construction of which will best appear from the annexed + ground-plan. <a href="#linkBimage-0005">[PLATE XXXVII., Fig. 3.]</a> It + seems to have consisted of three gateways, whereof the inner and outer + were ornamented with colossal human-headed hulls and other figures, while + the central one was merely panelled with slabs of alabaster. Between the + gateways were two large chambers, 70 feet long by 23 feet wide, which were + thus capable of containing a considerable body of soldiers. The chambers + and gateways are supposed to have been arched over, like the castles’ + gates on the bas-reliefs. The gates themselves have wholly disappeared: + but the debris which filled both the chambers and the passages contained + so much charcoal that it is thought they must have been made, not of + bronze, like the gates of Babylon, but of wood. The ground within the + gate-way was paved with large slabs of limestone, still bearing the marks + of chariot wheels. + </p> + <p> + The castellated rampart which thus surrounded and guarded Nineveh did not + constitute by any means its sole defence. Outside the stone basement wall + lay on every side a water barrier, consisting on the west and south of + natural river courses; on the north and east, of artificial channels into + which water was conducted from the Khosr-su. The northern and eastern + walls were skirted along their whole length by a broad and deep moat, into + which the Khosr-su was made to flow by occupying its natural bed with a + strong dam carried across it in the line of the eastern wall, and at the + point where the stream now enters the enclosure. On meeting this + obstruction, of which there are still some remains, the waters divided, + and while part flowed to the south-east, and reached the Tigris by the + ravine immediately to the south of the city, which is a natural + water-course, part turned at an acute angle to the north-west, and, + washing the remainder of the eastern and the whole of the northern wall, + gained the Tigris at the north-west angle of the city, where a second dam + kept it at a sufficient height. Moreover, on the eastern face, which + appears to have been regarded as the weakest, a series of outworks were + erected for the further defence of the city. North of the Khosr, between + the city wall and that river, which there runs parallel to the wall and + forms a sort of second or outermost moat, there are traces of a detached + fort of considerable size, which must have strengthened the defences in + that quarter. South and south-east of the Khosr, the works are still more + elaborate. In the first place, from a point where the Khosr leaves the + hills and debouches upon comparatively low ground, a deep ditch, 200 feet + broad, was carried through compact silicious conglomerate for upwards of + two miles, till it joined the ravine which formed the natural protection + of the city upon the south. On either side of this ditch, which could be + readily supplied with water from the Khosr at its northern extremity, was + built a broad and lofty wall; the eastern one, which forms the outermost + of the defences, rises even now a hundred feet above the bottom of the + ditch on which it adjoins. Further, between this outer barrier and the + city moat wall interposed a species of demilune, guarded by a double wall + and a broad ditch and connected (as is thought) by a covered way with + Neneveh itself. Thus the city was protected on this, its most vulnerable + side, towards the centre by five walls and three broad and deep moats; + towards the north, by a wall, a moat, the Khosr, and a strong outpost; + towards the south by two moats and three lines of rampart. The breadth of + the whole fortification on this side is 2200 feet, or not far from half a + mile. <a href="#linkBimage-0006">[PLATE XXXVIII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate038.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 38 " /> + </div> + <p> + Such was the site, and such were the defences, of the capital of Assyria. + Of its internal arrangements but little can be said at present, since no + general examination of the space within the ramparts has been as yet made, + and no ancient account of the interior has come down to us. We can only + see that the side of the city which was most fashionable was the western, + which immediately overhung the Tigris; since here were the palaces of the + kings, and here seem also to have been the dwellings of the richer + citizens; at least, it is on this side in the space intervening between + Koyunjik and the northern rampart, that the only very evident remains of + edifices—besides the great Mounds of Koyunjik and Nebbi-Yunus—are + found. The river was no doubt the main attraction; but perhaps the western + side was also considered the most secure, as lying furthest frown the + quarter whence alone the inhabitants expected to be attacked, namely, the + east. It is impossible at present to give any account of the character of + the houses or the the direction of the streets. Perhaps the time may not + be far distant when more systematic and continuous efforts will be made by + the enterprise of Europe to obtain full knowledge of all the remains which + still lie buried at this interesting site. No such discoveries are indeed + to be expected as those which have recently startled the world but patient + explorers would still be sure of an ample reward, were they to glean, + after Layard in the field from which he swept so magnificent a harvest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkB2HCH0003" id="linkB2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <h3> + LANGUAGE AND WRITING. + </h3> + <p> + Greek phrase [—]—HEROD. iv. 137. + </p> + <p> + There has never been much difference of opinion among the learned with + regard to the language spoken by the Assyrians. As the Biblical genealogy + connected Asshur with Eber and Aram, while the Greeks plainly regarded the + Syrians, Assyrians, and Babylonians as a single race, it was always + supposed that the people thus associated must have possessed a tongue + allied, more or less closely, to the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Chaldee. + These tongues were known to be dialectic varieties of a single form of + speech the Semitic; and it was consequently the general belief, before any + Assyrian inscriptions had been disinterred, that the Assyrian language was + of this type, either a sister tongue to the three above mentioned, or else + identical with some one of them. The only difficulty in the way of this + theory was the supposed Medo-Persic or Arian character of a certain number + of Assyrian royal names; but this difficulty was thought to be + sufficiently met by a suggestion that the ruling tribe might have been of + Median descent, and have maintained its own national appellatives, while + the mass of the population belonged to a different race. Recent + discoveries have shown that this last suggestion was needless, as the + difficulty which it was intended to meet does not exist. The Assyrian + names which either <i>history</i> or the monuments have handed down to us + are Semitic, and not Arian. It is only among the fabulous accounts of the + Assyrian Empire put forth by Ctesias that Arian names, such as Xerxes, + Arius, Armamithres, Mithraus, etc., are to be found. + </p> + <p> + Together with the true names of the Assyrian kings, the mounds of + Mesopotamia have yielded up a mass of documents in the Assyrian language, + from which it is possible that we may one day acquire as full a knowledge + of its structure and vocabulary as we possess at present of Greek or + Latin. These documents have confirmed the previous belief that the tongue + is Semitic. They consist, in the first place, of long inscriptions upon + the slabs of stone with which the walls of palaces were panelled, + sometimes occupying the stone to the exclusion of any sculpture, sometimes + carried across the dress of figures, always carefully cut, and generally + in good preservation. Next in importance to these memorials are the hollow + cylinders, or, more strictly speaking, hexagonal or octagonal prisms, made + in extremely fine and thin terra cotta, which the Assyrian kings used to + deposit at the corners of temples, inscribed with an account of their + chief acts and with numerous religious invocations. <a + href="#linkBimage-0007">[PLATE XXXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> These cylinders vary + from a foot and a half to three feet in height, and are covered closely + with a small writing, which it often requires a good magnifying glass to + decipher. A cylinder of Tiglath-Pileser I. (about B.C. 1180) contains + thirty lines in a space of six inches, or five lines to an inch, which is + nearly as close as the type of the present volume. This degree of + closeness is exceeded on a cylinder of Asshur-bani-pal’s (about B.C. 660), + where the lines are six to the inch, or as near together as the type of + the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. If the complexity of the Assyrian characters + be taken into account, and if it be remembered that the whole inscription + was in every ease impressed by the hand, this minuteness must be allowed + to be very surprising. It is not favorable to legibility; and the patience + of cuneiform scholars has been severely tried by a mode of writing which + sacrifices everything to the desire of crowding the greatest possible + quantity of words into the smallest possible space. In one respect, + however, facility of reading is consulted, for the inscriptions on the + cylinders are not carried on in continuous lines round all the sides, but + are written in columns, each column occupying a side. The lines are thus + tolerably short; and the whole of a sentence is brought before the eye at + once. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate039.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 39 " /> + </div> + <p> + Besides slabs and cylinders, the written memorials of Assyria comprise + inscribed bulls and lions, stone obelisks, clay tablets, bricks, and + engraved seals. Tin seals generally resemble those of the Chaldaeans, + which have been already described: but are somewhat more elaborate, and + more varied in their character. <a href="#linkBimage-0007">[PLATE XXXIX., + Fig. 2.]</a> They do not very often exhibit any writing; but occasionally + they are inscribed with the name of their owner, while in a few instances + they show an inscription of some length. The clay tablets are both + numerous and curious. They are of various sizes, ranging from nine inches + long by six and a half wide, to an inch and a half long by an inch wide, + or even less. <a href="#linkBimage-0008">[PLATE XL., Fig. 2.]</a> + Sometimes they are entirely covered with writing; while sometimes they + exhibit on a portion of their surface the impressions of seals, + mythological emblems, and the like. Some thousands of them have been + recovered; and they are found to be of the most varied character. Many are + historical, still more mythological; some are linguistic, some geographic, + some again astronomical. It is anticipated that, when they are deciphered, + we shall obtain a complete eneyclopaedia of Assyrian science, and shall be + able by this means to trace a large portion of the knowledge of the Greeks + to an Oriental source. Here is a mine still very little worked, from which + patient and cautious investigators may one day extract the most valuable + literary treasures. The stone obelisks are but few, and are mostly in a + fragmentary condition. One alone is perfect—the obelisk in black + basalt, discovered by Mr. Layard at Nimrud, which has now for many years + been in the British Museum. <a href="#linkBimage-0008">[PLATE XL., Fig. 1.]</a> + This monument is sculptured on each of its four sides, in part with + writing and in part with bas-reliefs. It is about seven feet high, and two + feet broad at the base, tapering gently towards the summit, which is + crowned with three low steps, or gradines. The inscription, which occupies + the upper and lower portion of each side, and is also carried along the + spaces between the bas-reliefs, consists of 210 clearly cut lines, and is + one of the most important documents that has come down to us. It gives an + account of various victories gained by the monarch who set it up, and of + the tribute brought him by several princes. The inscribed lions and bulls + are numerous. They commonly guard the portals of palaces, and are raised + in a bold relief on alabaster slabs. The writing does not often trench + upon the sculpture, but covers all those portions of the slabs which are + not occupied by the animal. It is usually a full account of some + particular campaign, which was thus specially commemorated, giving in + detail what is far more briefly expressed in the obelisk and slab + inscriptions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate040.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 40 " /> + </div> + <p> + This review of the various kinds of documents which have been discovered + in the ancient cities of Assyria, seems to show that two materials were + principally in use among the people for literary purposes, namely, stone + and moist clay. The monarchs used the former most commonly, though + sometimes they condescended for some special object to the coarser and + more fragile material. Private persons in their business transactions, + literary and scientific men in their compositions, employed the latter, on + which it was possible to write rapidly with a triangular instrument, and + which was no doubt far cheaper than the slabs of fine stone, which were + preferred for the royal inscriptions. The clay documents, when wanted for + instruction or as evidence, were carefully baked; and thus it is that they + have come down to us, despite their fragility, often in as legible a + condition, with the letters as clear and sharp, as any legend on marble, + stone, or metal that we possess belonging to Greek or even to Roman times. + The best clay, skilfully baked, is a material quite as enduring as either + stone or metal, resisting many influences better than either of those + materials. + </p> + <p> + It may still be asked, did not the Assyrians use other materials also? Did + they not write with ink of some kind on paper, or leather, or parchment? + It is certain that the Egyptians had invented a kind of thick paper many + centuries before the Assyrian power arose; and it is further certain that + the later Assyrian kings had a good deal of intercourse with Egypt. Under + such circumstances, can we suppose that they did not import paper from + that country? Again, the Persians, we are told, used parchment for their + public records. Are not the Assyrians a much more ingenious people, likely + to have done the same, at any rate to some extent? There is no direct + evidence by which these questions can be determinately answered. No + document on any of the materials suggested has been found. No ancient + author states that the Assyrians or the Babylonians used them. Had it not + been for one piece of indirect evidence, it would have seemed nearly + certain that they were not employed by the Mesopotamian races. In some of + the royal palaces, however, small humps of fine clay have been found, + bearing the impressions of seals, and exhibiting traces of the string by + which they were attached to documents, while the documents themselves, + being of a different material, have perished. It seems probable that in + these instances some substance like paper or parchment was used; and thus + we are led to the conclusion that, while clay was the most common, and + stone an ordinary writing material among the Assyrians, some third + substance, probably Egyptian paper, was also known, and was used + occasionally, though somewhat rarely, for public documents. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0171.jpg" width="100%" alt="Partial Page 171 " /> + </div> + <p> + The number of characters is very great. Sir H. Rawlinson, in the year + 1851, published a list of 216, or, including variants, 366 characters, as + occurring in the inscriptions known to him. M. Oppei t, in 1858, gave 318 + forms as those “most in use.” Of course it is at once evident that this + alphabet cannot represent elementary sounds. The Assyrian characters do, + in fact, correspond, not to letters, according to our notion of letters, + but to syllables. These syllables are either mere vowel sounds, such as we + represent by our vowels and diphthongs, or such sounds accompanied by one + or two consonants. + </p> + <p> + The vowels are not very numerous. The Assyrians recognize three only as + fundamental—<i>a, i</i>, and <i>u</i>. Besides these they have the + diphthongs <i>ai</i>, nearly equivalent to <i>e</i>, and <i>au</i>, nearly + equivalent to <i>o</i>. The vowels <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> have also the + powers, respectively, of <i>y</i> and <i>v</i>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0172.jpg" width="100%" alt="Partial Page 172 " /> + </div> + <p> + From these sounds, combined with the simple vowels, comes the Assyrian + syllabarium, to which, and not to the consonants themselves, the + characters were assigned. In the first place, each consonant being capable + of two combinations with each simple vowel, could give birth naturally to + six simple syllables, each of which would be in the Assyrian system + represented by a character. Six characters, for instance, entirely + different from one another, represented <i>pa, pi, pu, ap, ip, up</i>; six + others, <i>ka, ki, ke, ak, ik, uk</i>; six others again, <i>ta, ti, tu, + at, it, ut</i>. + </p> + <p> + If this rule were carried out in every case, the sixteen consonant sounds + would, it is evident, produce ninety-six characters. The actual number, + however, formed in this way, is only seventy-five. Since these are seven + of the consonants which only combine with the vowels in one way. Thus we + have <i>ba, bi, bu</i>, but not <i>ab, ib, ub; ga, qi, gu</i>, but not <i>ay, + iq,ug</i>; and so on. The sounds regarded as capable of only one + combination are the <i>mediae, b, q, d</i>; the aspirates <i>kh, tj</i>; + and the sibilants <i>ts and z</i>. + </p> + <p> + Such is the first and simplest syllabarium: but the Assyrian system does + not stop here. It proceeds to combine with each simple vowel sound two + consonants, one preceding the vowel and the other following it. If this + plan were followed out to the utmost possible extent, the result would be + an addition to the syllabarium of seven hundred and sixty-eight sounds, + each having its proper character, which would raise the number of + characters to between eight and nine hundred! Fortunately for the student, + phonetic laws and other causes have intervened to check this extreme + luxuriance; and the combinations of this kind which are known to exist, + instead of amounting to the full limit of seven hundred and sixty-eight, + are under one hundred and fifty. The known Assyrian alphabet is, however, + in this way raised from eighty, or, including variants, one hundred, to + between two hundred and forty and two hundred and fifty characters. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0173.jpg" width="100%" alt="Partial Page 173 " /> + </div> + <p> + Finally, there are a certain number of characters which have been called + “ideographs,” or “monograms.” Most of the gods, and various cities and + countries, are represented by a group of wedges, which is thought not to + have a real phonetic force, but to be a conventional sign for an idea, + much as the Arabic numerals, 1, 2, 3. etc., are non-phonetic signs + representing the ideas, one, two, three, etc. The known characters of this + description are between twenty and thirty. + </p> + <p> + The known Assyrian characters are thus brought up nearly to three hundred! + There still remain a considerable number which are either wholly unknown, + or of which the meaning is known, while the phonetic value cannot at + present be determined. M. Oppert’s Catalogue contains fourteen of the + former and fifty-nine of the latter class. + </p> + <p> + It has already been observed that the monumental evidence accords with the + traditional belief in regard to the character of the Assyrian language, + which is unmistakably Semitic. Not only does the vocabulary present + constant analogies to other Semitic dialects, but the phonetic laws and + the grammatical forms are equally of this type. At the same time the + language has peculiarities of its own, which separate it from its kindred + tongues, and constitute it a distinct form of Semitic speech, not a mere + variety of any known form. It is neither Hebrew, nor Arabic, nor + Phoenician, nor Chaldee, nor Syriac, but a sister tongue to these, having + some analogies with all of them, and others, more or fewer, with each. On + the whole, its closest relationship seems to be with the Hebrew, and its + greatest divergence from the Aramaic or Syriac, with which it was yet, + locally, in immediate connection. + </p> + <p> + To attempt anything like a full illustration of these statements in the + present place would be manifestly unfitting. It would be to quit the + province of the historian and archeologist, in order to enter upon that of + the comparative philologer or the grammarian. At the same time a certain + amount of illustration seems necessary, in order to show that the + statements above made are not mere theories, but have a substantial basis. + </p> + <p> + The Semitic character of the vocabulary will probably be felt to be + sufficiently established by the following lists: + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0174.jpg" width="100%" alt="Partial Page 174 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0175.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 175 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0176.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 176 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0177.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 177 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0178.jpg" width="100%" alt="Partial Page 178 " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> ======================== <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkC2H_4_0001" id="linkC2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SECOND MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + ASSYRIA. <a name="linkCimage-0001" id="linkCimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_top.jpg"><img alt="map_top_th (118K)" + src="images/map_top_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a> [Click on the Map to + Enlarge] <a name="linkC2HCH0001" id="linkC2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <h3> + ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER ARTS. + </h3> + <p> + “Architecti multarum artium solertes.”—Mos. CHOR. (De Assyriis) i. + 15. + </p> + <p> + The luxury and magnificence of the Assyrians, and the advanced condition + of the arts among them which such words imply, were matters familiar to + the Greeks and Romans, who, however, had little ocular evidence of the + fact, but accepted it upon the strength of a very clear and uniform + tradition. More fortunate than the nations of classical antiquity, whose + comparative proximity to the time proved no advantage to them, we possess + in the exhumed remains of this interesting people a mass of evidence upon + the point, which, although in many respects sadly incomplete, still + enables us to form a judgment for ourselves upon the subject, and to + believe—on better grounds than they possessed—the artistic + genius and multiform ingenuity of the Assyrians. As architects, as + designers, as sculptors, as metallurgists, as engravers, as upholsterers, + as workers in ivory, as glass-blowers, as embroiderers of dresses, it is + evident that they equalled, if they did not exceed, all other Oriental + nations. It is the object of the present chapter to give some account of + their skill in these various respects. Something is now known of them all; + and though in every case there are points still involved in obscurity, and + recourse must therefore be had upon occasion to conjecture, enough appears + certainly made out to justify such an attempt as the present, and to + supply a solid groundwork of fact valuable in itself, even if it be + insufficient to sustain in addition any large amount of hypothetical + superstructure. + </p> + <p> + The architecture of the Assyrians will naturally engage our attention at + the outset. It is from an examination of their edifices that we have + derived almost all the knowledge which we possess of their progress in + every art; and it is further as architects that they always enjoyed a + special repute among their neighbors. Hebrew and Armenian united with + Greek tradition in representing the Assyrians as notable builders at a + very early time. When Asshur “went forth out of the land of Shinar,” it + was to build cities, one of which is expressly called “a great city.” When + the Armenians had to give an account of the palaces and other vast + structures in their country, they ascribed their erection to the + Assyrians. Similarly. when the Greeks sought to trace the civilization of + Asia to its source, they carried it back to Ninus and Semiramis, whom they + made the founders, respectively, of Nineveh and Babylon, the two chief + cities of the early world. + </p> + <p> + Among the architectural works of the Assyrians, the first place is + challenged by their palaces. Less religious, or more servile, than the + Egyptians and the Greeks, they make their temples insignificant in + comparison with the dwellings of their kings, to which indeed the temple + is most commonly a sort of appendage. In the palace their art culminates—there + every effort is made, every ornament lavished. If the architecture of the + Assyrian palaces be fully considered, very little need be said on the + subject of their other buildings. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian palace stood uniformly on an artificial platform. Commonly + this platform was composed of sun-dried-bricks in regular layers; but + occasionally the material used was merely earth or rubbish, excepting + towards the exposed parts—the sides and the surface which were + always either of brick or of stone. In most cases the sides were protected + by massive stone masonry, carried perpendicularly from the natural ground + to a height somewhat exceeding that of the plat-form, and either made + plain at the top or else crowned with stone battlements cut into gradines. + The pavement consisted in part of stone slabs, part of kiln-dried bricks + of a large size, often as much as two feet square. The stone slabs were + sometimes inscribed, sometimes ornamented with an elegant pattern. + Occasionally the terrace was + divided into portions at different elevations, which were connected by + staircases or inclined planes. The terrace communicated in the same way + with the level ground at its base, being (as is probable) sometimes + ascended in a single place, sometimes in several. These ascents were + always on the side where the palace adjoined upon the neighboring town, + and were thus protected from hostile attack by the town walls. <a + href="#linkCimage-0002">[PLATE XLI., Fig. 1]</a> Where the palace abutted + upon the walls or projected beyond them—and the palace was always + placed at the edge of a town, for the double advantage, probably, of a + clear view and of fresh air—the platform rose perpendicularly or + nearly so; and generally a water protection, a river, a moat, or a broad + lake, lay at its base, thus rendering attack, except on the city side, + almost impossible. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0002" id="linkCimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate041.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 41 " /> + </div> + <p> + The platform appears to have been, in general shape, a rectangle, or where + it had different elevations, to have been composed of a rectangles. The + mound of Khorsabad, which is of this latter character, resembles a + gigantic T. <a href="#linkCimage-0003">[PLATE XLII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0003" id="linkCimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate042.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 42 " /> + </div> + <p> + It must not be supposed, however, that the rectangle was always exact. + Sometimes its outline was broken by angular projections and indentations, + as in the plan <a href="#linkCimage-0003">[PLATE XLII., Fig. 21.]</a> + where the shaded parts represent actual discoveries. Sometimes it grew to + be irregular, by the addition of fresh portions, as new kings arose who + determined on fresh erections. This is the ease at Nimrud, where the + platform broadens towards its lower or southern end, and still more at + Koyunjik and Nebbi Yunus, where the rectangular idea has been so overlaid + as to have almost wholly disappeared. Palaces were commonly placed near + one edge of the mound—more especially near the river edge probably + for the better enjoyment of the prospect, and of the cool air over the + water. + </p> + <p> + The palace itself was composed of three main elements, courts, grand + halls, and small private apartments. A palace has usually from two to four + courts, which are either square or oblong, and vary in size according to + the general scale of the building. In the north-west palace at Nimrud, the + most ancient of the edifices yet explored, one court only has been found, + the dimensions of which are 120 feet by 90. At Khorsabad, the palace of + Sargon has four courts. <a href="#linkCimage-0003">[PLATE XLII., Fig. 2.]</a> + Three of them are nearly square, the largest of these measuring 180 feet + each Way, and the smallest about 120 feet; the fourth is oblong, and must + have been at least 250 feet long and 150 feet wide. The palace of + Sennacherib at Koyunjik, a much larger edifice than the palace of Sargon, + has also three courts, which are respectively 93 feet by 84, 124 feet by + 90, and 154 feet by 125. Esarhaddon’s palace at Nimrud has a court 220 + feet long and 100 wide. These courts were all paved either with baked + bricks of large size, or with stone slabs, which were frequently + patterned. Sometimes the courts were surrounded with buildings; sometimes + they abutted upon the edge of the platform: in this latter case they were + protected by a stone parapet, which (at least in places) was six feet + high. + </p> + <p> + The grand halls of the Assyrian palaces constitute their most remarkable + feature. Each palace has commonly several. They are apartments narrow for + their length, measuring from three to five times their own width, and thus + having always somewhat the appearance of galleries. The scale upon which + they are built is, commonly, magnificent. In the palace of Asshur-izir-pal + at Nimrud, the earliest of the discovered edifices, the great hall was 160 + feet long by nearly 40 broad. In Sargon’s palace at Khorsabad the size of + no single room was so great; but the number of halls was remarkable, there + being no fewer than five of nearly equal dimensions. The largest was 116 + feet long, and 33 wide; the smallest 87 feet long, and 25 wide. The palace + of Sennacherib at Koyuhjik contained the most spacious apartment yet + exhumed. It was immediately inside the great portal, and extended in + length 180 feet, with a uniform width of forty feet. In one instance only, + so far as appears, was an attempt made to exceed this width. In the palace + of Esarhaddon, the son of Sennacherib, a hall was designed intended to + surpass all former ones. <a href="#linkCimage-0004">[PLATE XLIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + Its length was to be 165 feet, and its width 62; consequently it would + have been nearly one-third larger than the great hall of Sennacherib, its + area exceeding 10,000 square feet. But the builder who had designed this + grand structure appears to have been unable to overcome the difficulty of + carrying a roof over so vast an expanse. He was therefore obliged to + divide his hall by a wall down the middle; which, though he broke it in an + unusual way into portions, and kept it at some distance from both ends of + the apartment, still had the actual effect of subdividing his grand room + into four apartments of only moderate size. The halls were paved with + sun-burnt brick. They were ornamented throughout by the elaborate + sculptures, now so familiar to us, carried generally in a single, but + sometimes in a double line, round the four walls of the apartment. The + sculptured slabs rested on the ground, and clothed the walls to the height + of 10 or 12 feet. Above, for a space which we cannot positively fix, but + which was certainly not less than four or five feet, the crude brick wall + was continued, faced here with burnt brick enamelled on the side towards + the apartment, pleasingly and sometimes even brilliantly colored. 10 The + whole height of the walls was probably from 15 to 20 feet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0004" id="linkCimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate043.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 43 " /> + </div> + <p> + By the side of the halls, or at their ends, and opening into them, or + sometimes collected together into groups, with no hall near, are the + smaller chambers of which mention has been already made. These chambers + are in every case rectangular: in their proportions they vary from squares + to narrow oblongs. 90 feet by 17, 85 by 16, 80 by 15, and the like. When + they are square, the side is never more than about 25 feet. They are often + as richly decorated as the halls, but sometimes are merely faced with + plain slabs or plastered; while occasionally they have no facing at all, + but exhibit throughout the crude brick. This, however, is unusual. + </p> + <p> + The number of chambers in a palace is very large. In Sennacherib’s palace + at Koyunjik, where great part of the building remains still unexplored, + the excavated chambers amount to sixty-eight—all, be it remembered, + upon the ground floor. The space covered by them and by their walls + exceeds 40,000 square yards. As Mr. Fergusson observes, “the imperial + palace of Sennacherib is, of all the buildings of antiquity, surpassed in + magnitude only by the great palace-temple of Karnak; and when we consider + the vastness of the mound on which it was raised, and the richness of the + ornaments with which it was adorned, it is by no means clear that it was + not as great, or at least as expensive, a work as the great palace-temple + at Thebes.” Elsewhere the excavated apartments are less numerous; but in + no case is it probable that a palace contained on its ground floor fewer + than forty or fifty chambers. + </p> + <p> + The most striking peculiarity which the ground-plans of the palaces + disclose is the uniform adoption throughout of straight and parallel + lines. No plan exhibits a curve of any kind, or any angle but a right + angle. Courts, chambers, and halls are, in most cases, exact rectangles; + and even where any variety occurs, it is only by the introduction of + squared recesses or projections, which are moreover shallow and + infrequent. When a palace has its own special platform, the lines of the + building are further exactly parallel with those of the mound on which it + is placed; and the parallelism extends to any other detached buildings + that there may be anywhere upon the platform. When a mound is occupied by + more palaces than one, sometimes this law still obtains, as at Nimrud, + where it seems to embrace at any rate the greater number of the palaces; + sometimes, as at Koyunjik, the rule ceases to be observed, and the + ground-plan of each palace seems formed separately and independently, with + no reference to any neighboring edifice. + </p> + <p> + Apart from this feature, the buildings do not affect much regularity. In + courts and facades, to a certain extent, there is correspondence; but in + the internal arrangements, regularity is decidedly the exception. The two + sides of an edifice never correspond; room never answers to room; doorways + are rarely in the middle of walls; where a rooms has several doorways, + they are seldom opposite to one another, or in situations at all + corresponding. + </p> + <p> + There is a great awkwardness in the communications. Very few corridors or + passages exist in any of the buildings. Groups of rooms, often amounting + to ten or twelve, open into one another; and we find comparatively few + rooms to which there is any access except through some other room. Again, + whole sets of apartments are sometimes found, between which and the rest + of the palace all communication is cut off by thick walls. Another + peculiarity in the internal arrangements is the number of doorways in the + larger apartments, and their apparently needless multiplication. We + constantly find two or even three doorways leading from a court into a + hall, or from one hall into a second. It is difficult to see what could be + gained by such an arrangement. + </p> + <p> + The disposition of the various parts of a palace will probably be better + apprehended from an exact account of a single building than from any + further general statements. For this purpose it is necessary to select a + specimen from among the various edifices that have been disentombed by the + labors of recent excavators. The specimen should be, if possible, + complete; it should have been accurately surveyed, and the survey should + have been scientifically recorded; it should further stand single and + separate, that there may be no danger of confusion between its remains and + those of adjacent edifices. These requirements, though nowhere exactly + met, are very nearly met by the building at Khorsabad, which stands on a + mound of its own, unmixed with other edifices, has been most carefully + examined, and most excellently represented and described, and which, + though not completely excavated, has been excavated with a nearer approach + to completeness than any other edifice in Assyria. The Khorsabad building—which + is believed to be a palace built by Sargon, the son of Sennacherib—will + therefore be selected for minute description in this place, as the palace + most favorably circumstanced, and the one of which we have, on the whole, + the most complete and exact knowledge. <a href="#linkCimage-0005">[PLATE + XLIV.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0005" id="linkCimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate044.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 44 " /> + </div> + <p> + The situation of the town, whereof the palace of Sargon formed a part, has + been already described in a former part of this volume. The shape, it has + been noted, was square, the angles facing the four cardinal points. Almost + exactly in the centre of the north-west wall occurs the palace platform, a + huge mass of crude brick, from 20 to 30 feet high, shaped like a T, the + upper limb lying within the city walls, and the lower limb (which is at a + higher elevation) projecting beyond the line of the walls to a distance of + at least 500 feet. At present there is a considerable space between the + ends of the wall and the palace mound; but anciently it is provable that + they either abutted on the mound, or were separated from it merely by + gateways. The mound, or at any rate the part of it which projected beyond + the walls, was faced with hewn stone, carried perpendicularly from the + plain to the top of the platform, and even beyond, so as to form a parapet + protecting the edge of the platform. On the more elevated portion of the + mound—that which projected beyond the walls stood the palace, + consisting of three groups of buildings, the principal group lying towards + the mound’s northern angle. On the lower portion of the platform were + several detached buildings, the most remarkable being a huge gateway or + propylaeum, through which the entrance lay to the palace from the city. + Beyond and below this, on the level of the city, the first or outer + portals were placed, giving entrance to a court in front of the lower + terrace. + </p> + <p> + A visitor approaching the palace had in the first place to pass through + these portals. They were ornamented with colossal human-headed bulls on + either side, and probably spanned by an arch above, the archivolte being + covered with enamelled bricks disposed in a pattern. Received within the + portals, the visitor found himself in front of a long wall of solid stone + masonry, the revetement of the lower terrace, which rose from the outer + court to a height of at least twenty feet. Either an inclined-way or a + flight of steps—probably the latter—must have led up from the + outer court to this terrace. Here the visitor found another portal or + propylaeum of a magnificent character. <a href="#linkCimage-0004">[PLATE + XLIII., Fig. 1.]</a> Midway in the south-east side of the lower terrace, + and about fifty feet from its edge, stood this grand structure, gateway + ninety-feet in width, and at least twenty-five in depth, having on each + side three winged bulls of gigantic size, two of them fifteen feet high, + and the third nineteen feet. Between the two small bulls, which styled + back to back, presenting their sides to the spectator, was a colossal + figure, strangling a lion—the Assyria Hercules, according to most + writers. The larger bulls stood at right angles to these figures, + withdrawn within the portal, and facing the spectator. The space between + the bulls, which is nearly twenty feet, was (it is probable) arched over. + Perhaps the archway led into a chamber beyond which was a second archway + and an inner portal, as marked in Mr. Fergusson’s plan: but this is at + present uncertain. + </p> + <p> + Besides the great portal, the only buildings as yet discovered on this + lower platform, are a suite of not very extensive apartments. They are + remarkable for their ornamentation. The walls are neither lined with + slabs, nor yet (as is sometimes the case) painted, but the plaster of + which they are composed is formed into sets of half pillars or reeding, + separated from one another by pilasters with square sunk panels. The + former kind of ornamentation is found also in Lower Chaldaea, and has been + already represented; the latter is peculiar to this building. It is + suggested that these apartments formed the quarters of the soldiers who + kept watch over the royal residence. + </p> + <p> + About 300 feet from the outer edge of the lower terrace, the upper terrace + seems to have commenced. It was raised probably about ten feet above the + lower one. The mode of access has not been discovered, but is presumed to + have been by a flight of steps, not directly opposite the propylaeum, but + somewhat to the right, whereby entrance was given to the great court, into + which opened the main gateways of the palace itself. The court was + probably 250 feet long by 160 or 170 feet wide. The visitor, on mounting + the steps, perhaps passed through another propylaeum (<i>b</i> in the + plan); after which, if his business was with the monarch, he crossed the + full length of the court, leaving a magnificent triple entrance, which is + thought to have led to the king’s <i>hareem</i>, on his left and making + his way to the public gate of the palace, which fronted him when he + mounted the steps. The <i>hareem</i> portal, which he passed, resembled in + the main the great propylaeum of the lower platform; but, being triple, it + was still more magnificent exhibiting two other entrances on either side + of the main one, guarded each by a single pair of winged bulls of the + smaller size. Along the <i>hareem</i> wall, from the gateway to the angle + of the court, was a row of sculptured bas-reliefs, ten feet in height, + representing the monarch with his attendant guards and officers. <a + href="#linkCimage-0004">[PLATE XLIII., Fig. 3.]</a> The facade occupying + the end of the court was of inferior grandeur. <a href="#linkCimage-0006">[PLATE + XLV., Fig.1. ]</a> Sculptures similar to those along the <i>hareem</i> + wall adorned it; but its centre showed only a single gateway, guarded by + one pair of the larger bulls, fronting the spectator, and standing each in + a sort of recess, the character of which will be best understood by the + ground-plan in the illustration. Just inside the bulls was the great door + of the palace, a single door made of wood-apparently of mulberry,—opening + inwards, and fastened on the inside by a bolt at bottom, and also by an + enormous lock. This door gave entrance into a passage, 70 feet long and + about 10 feet wide, paved with large slabs of stone, and adorned on either + side with inscriptions, and with a double row of sculptures, representing + the arrival of tribute and gifts for the monarch. All the figures here + faced one way, towards the inner palace court into which the passage led. + M. Botta believes that the passage was uncovered; while Mx. Fergusson + imagines that it was vaulted throughout. It must in any case have been + lighted from above; for it would have been impossible to read the + inscriptions, or even to see the sculptures, merely by the light admitted + at the two ends. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0006" id="linkCimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate045.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 45 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0006a" id="linkCimage-0006a"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate045a (55K)" src="images/plate045a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + From the passage in question—one of the few in the edifice—no + doorway opened out either on the right hand or on the left. The visitor + necessarily proceeded along its whole extent, as he saw the figures + proceeding in sculptures, and, passing through a second portal, found + himself in the great inner court of the palace, a square of about 100 or + 160 feet, enclosed on two sides—the south-east and the south-west-by + buildings, on the other two sides reaching to the edge of the terrace, + which here gave upon, the open country. The buildings on the + south-eastside, looking towards the north-west, and and joining the + gateway by which the had entered, were of comparatively minor importance. + They consisted of a few chambers suitable for officers of the court, and + were approached from the court by two doorways, one on either side of the + passage through which he had come. To his left, looking towards the + north-east, were the great state apartments, the principal part of the + palace, forming a facade, of which some idea may perhaps be formed from + the representation. <a href="#linkCimage-0007">[PLATE XLVI.]</a> The upper + part of this representation is indeed purely conjectural; and when we come + to consider the mode in which the Assyrian palaces were roofed and + lighted, we shall perhaps find reason to regard it as not very near the + truth; but the lower part, up to the top of the sculptures, the court + itself, and the various accessories, are correctly given, and furnish the + only <i>perspective</i> view of this part of the palace which has been as + yet published. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0007" id="linkCimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate046big.jpg"><img + alt="plate046 (142K)" src="images/plate046.jpg" width="100%" /></a> [Click + on the Image to Enlarge] + </p> + <p> + The great state apartments consisted of a suite of ten rooms. Five of + these were halls of large dimensions; one was a long and somewhat narrow + chamber, and the remaining four were square or slightly oblong apartments + of minor consequence. All of them were lined throughout with sculpture. + The most important seem to have been three halls <i>en-suite</i> (VIII., + V., and II. in the plan), which are, both in their external and internal + decorations, by far the most splendid of the whole palace. The first lay + just within the north-east facade, and ran parallel to it. It was entered + by three doorways, the central one ornamented externally. with two + colossal bulls of the largest size, one on either side within the + entrance, and with two pairs of smaller bulls, back to back, on the + projecting pylons; the side ones guarded by winged genii, human or + hawk-headed. The length of the chamber was 116 feet 6 inches, and its + breadth 33 feet. Its sculptures represented the monarch receiving + prisoners, and either personally or by deputy punishing them: <a + href="#linkCimage-0006">[PLATE XLV., Fig. 3.]</a> We may call it, for + distinction’s sake, “the Hall of Punishment.” + </p> + <p> + The second hall (V. in the plan) ran parallel with the first, but did not + extend along its whole length. It measured from end to end about 86 feet, + and from side to side 21 feet 6 inches. Two doorways led into it from the + first chamber, and two others led from it into two large apartments. One + communicated with a lateral hall (marked VI. in the plan), the other with + the third hall of the suite which is here the special object of our + attention. This third hall (II. in the plan) was of the same length as the + first, but was less wide by about three feet. It opened by three doorways + upon a square, court, which has been called “the Temple Court,” from a + building on one side of it which will be described presently. + </p> + <p> + The sculptures of the second and third halls represented in a double row, + separated by an inscribed space about two feet in width, chiefly the wars + of the monarch, his battles, sieges, reception of captives and of spoil, + etc. The monarch himself appeared at least four times standing in his + chariot, thrice in calm procession, and once shooting his arrows against + his enemies. <a href="#linkCimage-0006a">[PLATE XLV., Fig. 2.]</a> Besides + these, the upper sculptures on one side exhibited sacred ceremonies. + </p> + <p> + Placed at right angles to this primary suite of three halls were two + others, one (IV. in the plan) of dimensions little, if at all, inferior to + those of the largest (No. VIII), the other (VI. in the plan) nearly of the + same length, but as narrow as the narrowest of the three (No. V.). Of + these two lateral halls the former communicated directly with No. VIII., + and also by a narrow passage room (III. in the plan with No. II.) The + other had direct communication both with No. II and No. V., but none with + No. VIII. With this hall (No. VI. ) three smaller chambers were connected + (Nos. IX., XI., and XI.); with the other lateral hall, two only (Nos. III. + and VII. ). One chamber attached to this block of buildings (I. in the + plan) opened only on the Temple Court. It has been suggested that it + contained a staircase; but of this there is no evidence. + </p> + <p> + The Temple Court—a square of 150 feet—was occupied by + buildings on three sides, and open on one only—that to the + north-west. The state apartments closed it in on the north-east, the + temple on the south-west: on the south-east it was bounded by the range of + buildings called “Priests’ Rooms” in the plan, chambers of less pretension + than almost any that have been excavated. The principal facade here was + that of the state apartments, on the north-east. On this, as on the + opposite side of the palace, were three portals; but the two fronts were + not of equal magnificence. On the side of the Temple Court a single pair + of bulls, facing the spectator, guarded the middle portals; the side + portals exhibited only figures of genii, while the spaces between the + portals were occupied, not with bulls, but merely with a series of human + figures, resembling those in the first or outer court, of which a + representation has been already given. Two peculiarities marked the + south-east facade. In the first place, it lay in a perfectly straight + line, unbroken by any projection, which is very unusual in Assyrian + architecture. In the second place, as if to compensate for this monotony + in its facial line, it was pierced by no fewer than five doorways, all of + considerable width, and two of them garnished with bulls, of namely, the + second and the fourth. The bulls of the second gateway were of the larger, + those of the fourth were of the smaller size; they stood in the usual + manner, a little withdrawn within the gateways and looking towards the + spectator. + </p> + <p> + Of the curious building which closed in the court on the third or + south-west side, which is believed to have been a temple, the remains are + unfortunately very slight. It stood so near the edge of the terrace that + the greater part of it has fallen into the plain. Less than half of the + ground-plan is left, and only a few feet of the elevation. The building + may originally have been a square, or it may have been an oblong, as + represented in the plan. It was approached from the court by a a flight of + stone stops, probably six in number, of which four remain in place. This + flight of steps was placed directly opposite to the central door of the + south-west palace facade. From the level of the court, to that of the top + of the steps, a height of about six feet, a solid platform of crude brick + was raised as a basis for the temple; and this was faced, probably + throughout its whole extent, with a solid wall of hard black basalt, + ornamented with a cornice in gray limestone, of which the accompanying + figures are representations. <a href="#linkCimage-0006">[PLATE. XLV., Fig. + 4.]</a> above this the external work has disappeared. Internally, two + chambers may be traced, floored with a mixture of stones and chalk; and + round one of these are some fragments of bas-reliefs, representing sacred + subjects, cut on the same black basalt as that by which the platform is + cased, and sufficient to show that the same style of ornamentation + prevailed here as in the palace. + </p> + <p> + The principal doorway on the north-west side of the Temple Court + communicated by a passage, with another and similar doorway (<i>d</i> on + the plan), which opened into a fourth court, the smallest and least + ornamented of those on the upper platform. + </p> + <p> + The mass of building whereof this court occupied the centre, is believed + to have constituted the <i>hareem</i> or private apartments of the + monarch. It adjoined the state apartments at its northern angle, but had + no direct communication with them. To enter it from them the visitor had + either to cross the Temple Court and proceed by the passage above + indicated, or else to go round by the great entrance (X in the plan ) and + obtain admission by the grand portals on the south-west side of the outer + court. These latter portals, it is to be observed, are so placed as to + command no view into the <i>Hareem</i> Court, though it is opposite to + them. The passages by which they gave entrance into that court must have + formed some such angles as those marked by the dotted lines in the plan, + the result being that visitors, while passing through the outer court, + would be unable to catch any sight of what was going on in the <i>Hareem</i> + Court. even if the great doors happened to be open. Those admitted so far + into the palace as the Temple Court were more favored or less feared. The + doorway (<i>d</i>) on the south-east side of the <i>Hareem</i> Court is + exactly opposite the chief doorway on the north-west side of the Temple + Court, and there can be no reasonable doubt that a straight passage + connected the two. + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain whether the <i>Hareem</i> Court was surrounded by + buildings on every side, or open towards the south-west. M. Botta believed + that it was open; and the analogy of the other courts would seem to make + this probable. It is to be regretted, however, that this portion of the + great Khorsabad ruin still remains so incompletely examined. Consisting of + the private apartments, it is naturally less rich in sculptures than other + parts; and hence it has been comparatively neglected. The labor would, + nevertheless, be well employed which should be devoted to this part of the + ruin, as it would give us (what we do not now possess) the complete + ground-plan of an Assyrian palace. It is earnestly to be hoped that future + excavators will direct their efforts to this easily attainable and + interesting object. + </p> + <p> + The ground-pins of the palaces, and some sixteen feet of their elevations, + are all that fire and time have left us of these remarkable monuments. The + total destruction of the upper portion of every palatial building in + Assyria, combined with the want of any representation of the royal + residences upon the bas-reliefs, reduces us to mere conjecture with + respect to their height, to the mode in which they were roofed and + lighted, and even to the question whether they had or had not an upper + story. On these subjects various views have been put forward by persons + entitled to consideration; and to these it is proposed now to direct the + reader’s attention. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, then, had they an upper story? Mr. Layard and Mr. + Fergusson decide this question in the affirmative. Mr. Layard even goes so + far as to say that the fact is one which “can no longer be doubted.” He + rests this conclusion on two grounds first, on a belief that “upper + chambers” are mentioned in the Inscriptions, and, secondly, on the + discovery by himself, in Sennacherib’s palace at Koyunjik, of what seemed + to be an inclined way, by which he supposes that the ascent was made to an + upper story. The former of these two arguments must be set aside as wholly + uncertain. The interpretation of the architectural inscriptions of the + Assyrians is a matter of far too much doubt at present to serve as a + groundwork upon which theories can properly be raised as to the plan of + their buildings. With regard to the inclined passage, it is to be observed + that it did not appear to what it led. It may have conducted to a gallery + looking into one of the great halls, or to an external balcony overhanging + an outer court; or it may have been the ascent to the top of a tower, + whence a look-out was kept up and down the river. Is it not more likely + that this ascent should have been made for some exceptional purpose, than + that it should be the only specimen left of the ordinary mode by which one + half of a palace was rendered accessible? It is to be remembered that no + remains of a staircase, whether of stone or of wood have been found in any + of the palaces, and that there is no other instance in any of them even of + an inclined passage. Those who think the palaces had second stories, + believe these stories to have been reached by staircases of wood, placed + in various parts of the buildings, which were totally destroyed by the + conflagrations in which the palaces perished. But it is at least + remarkable that no signs have been found in any existing walls of rests + for the ends of beams, or of anything implying staircases. Hence M. Botta, + the most careful and the most scientific of recent excavators, came to a + very positive conclusion that the Khorsabad buildings had had no second + story, a conclusion which it would not, perhaps, be very bold to extend to + Assyrian edifices generally. + </p> + <p> + It has been urged by Mr. Fergusson that there must have been an upper + story, because otherwise all the advantage of the commanding position of + the palaces, perched on their lofty platforms, would have been lost. The + platform at Khorsabad was protected, in the only places where its edge has + been laid bare, by a stone wall or parapet <i>six feet in height</i>. Such + a parapet continued along the whole of the platform would effectually have + shut out all prospect of the open country, both from the platform itself + and also from the gateways of the palace, which are on the same level. Nor + could there well be any view at all from the ground chambers, which had no + windows, at any rate within fifteen feet of the floor. To enjoy a view of + anything but the dead wall skirting the mound, it was necessary (Mr. + Fergusson thinks) to mount to a second story, which he ingeniously places, + not over the ground rooms, but on the top of the outer and party walls, + whose structure is so massive that their area falls (he observes) but + little short of the area of the ground-rooms themselves. + </p> + <p> + This reasoning is sufficiently answered, in the first place, by observing + that we know not whether the Assyrians appreciated the advantage of a + view, or raised their palace platforms for any such object. They may have + constructed them for security only, or for greater dignity and greater + seclusion. They may have looked chiefly for comfort and have reared them + in order to receive the benefit of every breeze, and at the same time to + be above the elevation to which gnats and mosquitoes commonly rise. Or + there may be a fallacy in concluding, from the very slight data furnished + by the excavations of M. Botta, that a palace platform was, in any case, + skirted along its whole length, by a six-foot parapet. Nothing is more + probable than that in places the Khorsabad parapet may have been very much + lower than this; and elsewhere it is not even ascertained that any parapet + at all edged the platform. On the whole we seem to have no right to + conclude, merely on account of the small portions of parapet wall + uncovered by M. Botta, that an upper story was a necessity to the palaces. + If the Assyrians valued a view, they may easily have made their parapets + low in places: if they cared so little for it as to shut it out from all + their halls and terraces, they may not improbably have dispensed with the + advantage altogether. + </p> + <p> + The two questions of the roofing and lighting of the Assyrian palaces are + so closely connected together that they will most conveniently be treated + in combination. The first conjecture published on the subject of roofing + was that of M. Flandin. who suggested that the chambers generally—the + great halls at any rate—had been ceiled with a brick vault. He + thought that the complete filling up of the apartments to the height of + fifteen or twenty feet was thus best explained; and he believed that there + were traces of the fallen vaulting in the <i>debris</i> with which the + apartments were filled. His conjecture was combated, soon after he put it + forth, by M. Botta, who gave it as his opinion—first, that the walls + of the chambers, notwithstanding their great thickness, would have been + unable, considering their material, to sustain the weight, and (still more + to bear) the lateral thrust, of a vaulted roof; and, secondly, that such a + roof, if it had existed at all, must have been made of baked brick or + stone-crude brick being too weak for the purpose—and when it fell + must have left ample traces of itself within the apartments, whereas, in + none of them, though he searched, could he find any such traces. On this + latter point M. Botta and M. Flandin—both eye witnesses—were + at variance. M. Flandin believed that he had seen such traces, not only in + numerous broken fragments of burnt brick strewn through all the chambers, + but in occasional masses of brick-work contained in some of them actual + portions, as he thought, of the original vaulting. M. Botta, however, + observed—first, that the quantity of baked brick within the chambers + was quite insufficient for a vaulted roof; and, secondly, that the + position of the masses of brickwork noticed by M. Flandin was always + towards the sides, never towards the centres of the apartments; a clear + proof that they had fallen from the upper part of the walls above the + sculptures, and not from a ceiling covering the whole room. He further + observed that the quantity of charred wood and charcoal within the + chambers, and the calcined appearance of all the slabs, were phenomena + incompatible with any other theory than that of the destruction of the + palace by the conflagration of a roof mainly of wood. + </p> + <p> + To these arguments of M. Botta may be added another from the improbability + of the Assyrians being sufficiently advanced in architectural science to + be able to construct an arch of the width necessary to cover some of the + chambers. The principle of the arch was, indeed, as will be hereafter + shown, well known to the Assyrians, but hitherto we possess no proof that + they were capable of applying it on a large scale. The widest arch which + has been found in any of the buildings is that of the Khorsabad town-gate + uncovered by M. Place, which spans a space of (at most) fourteen or + fifteen feet. But the great halls of the Assyrian palaces have a width of + twenty-five, thirty, and even forty feet. It is at any rate uncertain + whether the constructive skill of their architects could have grappled + successfully with the difficulty of throwing a vault over so wide an + interval as even the least of these. + </p> + <p> + M. Botta, after objecting, certainly with great force, to the theory of M. + Flandin, proceeded to suggest a theory of his own. After carefully + reviewing all the circumstances, he gave it as his opinion that the + Khorsabad building had been roofed throughout with a flat, earth-covered + roofing of wood. He observed that some of the buildings on the bas-reliefs + had flat roofs, that flat roofs are still the fashion of the country, and + that the debris within the chambers were exactly such as a roof of that + kind would be likely, if destroyed by fire, to have produced. He further + noticed that on the floors of the chambers, in various parts of the + palace, there had been discovered stone rollers closely resembling those + still in use at Mosul and Baghdad, for keeping close-pressed and hard the + earthen surface of such roofs; which rollers had, in all probability, been + applied to the same use by the Assyrians, and, being kept on the roofs, + had fallen through during the conflagration. + </p> + <p> + The first difficulty which presented itself here was one of those regarded + as most fatal to the vaulting theory, namely, the width of the chambers. + Where flat timber roofs prevail in the East, their span seems never to + exceed twenty-five feet. The ordinary chambers in the Assyrian palaces + might, undoubtedly, therefore, have been roofed in this way, by a series + of horizontal beans laid across them from side to side, with the ends + resting upon the tops of the side walls. But the great halls seemed too + wide to have borne such a roofing without supports. Accordingly, M. Botts + suggested that in the greater apartments a single or a double row of + pillars ran down the middle, reaching to the roof and sustaining it. His + theory was afterwards warmly embraced by Mr. Fergusson, who endeavored to + point out the exact position of the pillars in the three great halls of + Sargon at Khorsabad. It seems, however, a strong and almost a fatal + objection to this theory, that no bases of pillars have been found within + the apartments, nor any marks on the brick floors of such bases or of the + pressure of the pillars. M. Botta states that he made a careful search for + bases, or for marks of pillars, on the pavement of the north-east hall + (No. VIII.) at Khorsabad, but that he <i>entirely failed to discover any</i>. + This negative evidence is the more noticeable as stone pillar-bases have + been found in wide doorways, where they would have been less necessary + than in the chambers, as pillars in doorways could have had but little + weight to sustain. + </p> + <p> + M. Botta and Mr. Fergusson, who both suppose that in an Assyrian palace + the entire edifice was roofed in, and only the courts left open to the + sky, suggest two very different modes by which the buildings may have been + lighted. M. Botta brings light in from the roof by means of wooden <i>louvres</i>, + such as are still employed for the purpose in Armenia and parts of India, + whereof he gives the representation which is reproduced. <a + href="#linkCimage-0008">[PLATE XLVII., Fig. 7.]</a> Mr. Fergusson + introduces light from the sides, by supposing that the roof did not rest + directly on the walls, but on rows of wooden pillars placed along the edge + of the walls both internally towards the apartments and externally towards + the outer air. The only ground for this supposition, which is of a very + startling character, seems to be the occurrence in a single bas-relief, + representing a city in Armenia, of what is regarded as a similar + arrangement. But it must be noted that the lower portion of the building, + represented opposite, bears no resemblance at all to the same part of an + Assyrian palace, since in it perpendicular lines prevail, whereas, in the + Assyrian palaces, the lower hues were almost wholly horizontal; and that + it is not even Certain that the upper portion, where the pillars occur, is + an arrangement for admitting light, since it may be merely an + ornamentation. + </p> + <p> + The difficulties attaching to every theory of roofing and lighting which + places the whole of an Assyrian palace under covert, has led some to + suggest that the system actually adopted in the larger apartments was that + <i>hypoethral</i> one which is generally believed to have prevailed in the + Greek temples, and which was undoubtedly followed in the ordinary Roman + house. Mr. Layard was the first to post forward the view that the larger + halls, at any rate, were uncovered, a projecting ledge, sufficiently wide + to afford shelter and shade, being carried round the four sides of the + apartment while the centre remained open to the sky. The objections taken + to this view are—first, that far too much heat and light would + thereby have been admitted into the palace; secondly, that in the rainy + season far too much rain would have come in for comfort; and, thirdly, + that the pavement of the halls, being mere sun-dried brick, would, under + such circumstances, have been turned into mud. If these objections are not + removed, they would be, at any rate, greatly lessened by supposing the + roofing to have extended to two-thirds or three-fourths of the apartment, + and the opening to have been comparatively narrow. We may also suppose + that on very bright and on very rainy days carpets or other awnings were + stretched across the opening, which furnished a tolerable defence against + the weather. + </p> + <p> + On the whole, our choice seems to lie—so far as the great halls are + concerned—between this theory of the mode in which they were roofed + and lighted, and a supposition from which archaeologists have hitherto + shrunk, namely, that they were actually spanned from side to side by + beams. If we remember that the Assyrians did not content themselves with + the woods produced in their own country, but habitually cut timber in the + forests of distant regions, as, for instance, of Amanus, Hermon, and + Lebanon, which they conveyed to Nineveh, we shall perhaps not think it + impassible that they may have been able to accomplish the feat of roofing + in this simple fashion even chambers of thirteen or fourteen yards in + width. Mr. Layard observes that rooms of almost equal width with the + Assyrian halls are to this day covered in with beams laid horizontally + from side to side in many parts of Mesopotamia, although the only timber + used is that furnished by the indigenous palms and poplars. May not more + have been accomplished in this way by the Assyrain architects, who had at + their disposal the lofty firs and cedars of the above mentioned regions? + </p> + <p> + If the halls were roofed in this way, they may have been lighted by <i>louvres</i>; + or the upper portion of the walls, which is now destroyed, may have been + pierced by windows, which are of frequent occurrence, and seem generally + to be some-what high placed, in the representations of buildings upon the + sculptures. <a href="#linkCimage-0008">[PLATE XLVII Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0008" id="linkCimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate047.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 47 " /> + </div> + <p> + It might have been expected that the difficulties with respect to Assyrian + roofing and lighting which have necessitated this long discussion, would + have received illustration, or even solution, from the forms of buildings + which occur so frequently on the bas-reliefs. But this is not found to be + the actual result. The forms are rarely Assyrian, since they occur + commonly in the sculptures which represent the foreign campaigns of the + kings; and they have the appearance of being to a great extent + conventional, being nearly the same, whatever country is the object of + attack. In the few cases where there is ground for regarding the building + as native and not foreign, it is never palatial, but belongs either to + sacred or to domestic architecture. Thus the monumental representations of + Assyrian buildings which have come down to us, throw little or no light on + the construction of their palaces. As, however, they have an interest of + their own, and will serve to illustrate in some degree the domestic and + sacred architecture of the people, some of the most remarkable of them + will be here introduced. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0009" id="linkCimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/plate048big.jpg"><img + alt="Plate_48 (172K)" src="images/plate048.jpg" width="100%" /></a> [Click + on the Image to Enlarge] + </p> + <p> + The representation No. I. is from a slab at Khorsabad. <a + href="#linkCimage-0008">[PLATE XLVII., Fig. 4.]</a> It is placed on the + summit of a hill, and is regarded by M. Botta as an altar. No. II. is from + the same slab. <a href="#linkCimage-0010">[PLATE XLIX., Fig. 1.]</a> It + stands at the foot of the hill crowned by No. I. It has been called a + “fishing pavilion;” but it is most probably a small temple, since it bears + a good deal of resemblance to other representations which are undoubted + temples, as (particularly) to No. V. No. III., which is from Lord + Aberdeen’s black stone, is certainly a temple, since it is accompanied by + a priest, a sacred tree, and an ox for sacrifice. <a + href="#linkCimage-0010">[PLATE XLIX., Fig. 2.]</a> The representation No. + IV. is also thought to be a temple. <a href="#linkCimage-0010">[PLATE + XLIX., Fig. 3.]</a> It is of earlier date than any of the others, being + taken from a slab belonging to the North-west Palace at Nimrud, and is + remarkable in many ways. First, the want of symmetry is curious, and + unusual. Irregular as are the palaces of the Assyrian kings, there is for + the most part no want of regularity in their sacred buildings. The two + specimens here adduced (No. II. and No. III.) are proof of this; and such + remains of actual temples as exist are in accordance with the sculptures + in this particular. The right-hand aisle in No. IV., having nothing + correspondent to it on the other side, is thus an anomaly in Assyrian + architecture. The patterning of the pillars with chevrons is also + remarkable; and their capitals are altogether unique. No. V. is a temple + of a more elaborate character. <a href="#linkCimage-0010">[PLATE XLIX., + Fig. 4.]</a> It is from the sculptures of Asshur-banipal, the son of + Esar-haddon, and possesses several features of great interest. The body of + the temple is a columnar structure, exhibiting at either corner a broad + pilaster surmounted by a capital composed of two sets of volutes placed + one over the other. Between the two pilasters are two pillars resting upon + very extraordinary rounded bases, and crowned by capitals not unlike the + Corinthian. We might have supposed the bases mere figments of the + sculptor, but for an independent evidence of the actual employment by the + Assyrians of rounded pillar-bases. Mr. Layard discovered at Koyunjik a set + of “circular pedestals,” whereof he gives the representation which is + figured. <a href="#linkCimage-0012">[PLATE LI., Fig. 1.]</a> They appeared + to form part of a double line of similar objects, extending from the edge + of the platform to an entrance of the palace, and probably (as Mr. Layard + suggests) supported the wooden pillars of a covered way by which the + palace was approached on this side. Above the pillars the temple (No. V.) + exhibits a heavy cornice or entablature projecting considerably, and + finished at the top with a row of gradines. (Compare No. II.) At one side + of this main building is a small chapel or oratory, also finished with + gradines, against the wall of which is a representation of a king, + standing in a species of frame arched at the top. A road leads straight up + to this royal tablet, and in this road within a little distance of the + king stands an altar. The temple occupies the top of a mound, which is + covered with trees of two different kinds, and watered by rivulets. On the + right is a “hanging garden,” artificially elevated to the level of the + temple by means of masonry supported on an arcade, the arch here used + being not the round arch but a pointed one. No. VI. <a + href="#linkCimage-0011">[PLATE L.]</a> is unfortunately very imperfect, + the entire upper portion having been lost. Even, however, in its present + mutilated state it represents by far the most magnificent building that + has yet been found upon the bas-reliefs. The facade, as it now stands, + exhibits four broad pilasters and four pillars, alternating in pairs, + excepting that, as in the smaller temples, pilasters occupy both corners. + In two cases, the base of the pilaster is carved into the figure of a + winged bull, closely resembling the bulls which commonly guarded the outer + gates of palaces. In the other two the base is plain—a piece of + negligence, probably, on the part of the artist. The four pillars all + exhibit a rounded base, nearly though not quite similar to that of the + pillars in No. V.; and this rounded base in every case rests upon the back + of a walking lion. We might perhaps have imagined that this was a mere + fanciful or mythological device of the artist’s, on a par with the + representations at Bavian, where figures, supposed to be Assyrian deities, + stand upon the backs of animals resembling dogs. But one of M. Place’s + architectural discoveries seems to make it possible, or even probable, + that a real feature in Assyrian building is here represented M. Place + found the arch of the town gateway which he exhumed at Khorsabad to spring + from the backs of the two bulls which guarded it on either side. Thus the + lions at the base of the pillars may be real architectural forms, as well + as the winged bulls which support the pilasters. The lion was undoubtedly + a sacred animal, emblematic of divine power, and especially assigned to + Nergal, the Assyrian Mars, the god at once of war and of hunting. His + introduction on the exteriors of buildings was common in Asia Minor but no + other example occurs of his being made to support a pillar, excepting in + the so-called Byzantine architecture of Northern Italy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0010" id="linkCimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate049.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 49 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0011" id="linkCimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate050.jpg" height="585" width="1018" alt="Plate 50 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0012" id="linkCimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate051.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 51 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0013" id="linkCimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate052.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 52 " /> + </div> + <p> + No. VII. <i>a</i> <a href="#linkCimage-0013">[PLATE LII., Fig. 1]</a> + introduces us to another kind of Assyrian temple, or perhaps it should + rather be said to another feature of Assyrian temples—common to them + with Babylonian—the tower or ziggurat. This appears to have been + always built in stages, which probably varied in number—never, + how-ever, so far as appears, exceeding seven. The sculptured example + before us, which is from a bas-relief found at Koyunjik, distinctly + exhibits four stages, of which the topmost, owing to the destruction of + the upper portion of the tablet, is imperfect. It is not unlikely that in + this instance there was above the fourth a fifth stage, consisting of a + shrine like that which at Babylon crowned the great temple of Belus. The + complete elevation would then have been nearly as in No. VII. <i>b</i>. <a + href="#linkCimage-0002">[PLATE XLI., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The following features are worth of remark in this temple. The basement + story is panelled with indented rectangular recesses, as was the ease at + Nimrud <a href="#linkCimage-0014">[PLATE LIII.]</a> and at the Birs the + remainder are plain, as are most of the stages in the Birs temple. Up to + the second of these squared recesses on either side there runs what seems + to be a road or path, which sweeps away down the hill whereon the temple + stands in a bold curve, each path closely matching the other. The whole + building is perfectly symmetrical, except that the panelling is not quite + uniform in width nor arranged quite regularly. On the second stage, + exactly in the middle, there is evidently a doorway, and on either side of + it a shallow buttress or pilaster. In the centre of the third story, + exactly over the doorway of the second, is a squared niche. In front of + the temple, but not exactly opposite its centre, may be seen the <i>prophylaea,</i> + consisting of a squared doorway placed under a battlemented wall, between + two towers also battlemented. It is curious that the paths do not lead to + the propylaea, but seen to curve round the hill. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0014" id="linkCimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate053.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 53 " /> + </div> + <p> + Remains of <i>ziggurats</i> similar to this have been discovered at + Khorsabad, at Nimrud, and at Kileh-Sherghat. The conical mound at + Khorsabad explored by M. Place was found to contain a tower in seven + stages; that of Nimrud, which is so striking an object from the plain, and + which was carefully examined by Mr. Layard, presented no positive proof of + more than a single stage; but from its conical shape, and from the general + analogy of such towers, it is believed to have had several stages. <a + href="#linkCimage-0013">[PLATE LII., Fig. 2.]</a> Mr. Layard makes their + number five, and crowns the fifth with a circular tower terminating in a + heavy cornice; but for this last there is no authority at all, and the + actual number of the stages is wholly uncertain. The base of this ziggurat + was a square, 167 feet 6 inches each way, composed of a solid mass of + sun-dried brick, faced at bottom to the height of twenty feet with a wall + of hewn stones, more than eight feet and a half in thickness. The outer + stones were bevelled at the edges, and on the two most conspicuous sides + the wall was ornamented with a series of shallow recesses arranged without + very much attention to regularity. The other two sides, one of which + abutted on and was concealed by the palace mound, while the other faced + towards the city, were perfectly plain. At the top of the stone masonry + was a row of gradines, such as are often represented in the sculptures as + crowning an edifice. Above the stone masonry the tower was continued at + nearly the same width, the casing of stone being simply replaced by one of + burnt brick of inferior thickness. It is supposed that the upper stages + were constructed in the same way. As the actual present height of the ruin + is 140 feet, and the upper stages have so entirely crumbled away, it can + scarcely be supposed that the original height fell much short of 200 feet. + </p> + <p> + The most curious of the discoveries made during the examination of this + building, was the existence in its interior of a species of chamber or + gallery, the true object of which still re-mains wholly unexplained. This + gallery was 100 feet long, 12 feet high, and no more than 6 feet broad. It + was arched or vaulted at top, both the side walls and the vaulting being + of sun-dried brick. <a href="#linkCimage-0015">[PLATE LIV., Fig. 2.]</a> + Its position was exactly half-way between the tower’s northern and + southern faces, and with these it ran parallel, its height in the tower + being such that its floor was exactly on a level with the top of the stone + masonry, which again was level with the terrace or platform whereupon the + Nimrud palaces stood. There was no trace of any way by which the gallery + was intended to be entered; its walls showed no signs of inscription, + sculpture, or other ornament; and absolutely nothing was found in it. Mr. + Layard, prepossessed with an opinion derived from several confused notices + in the classical writers, believed the tower to be a sepulchral monument, + and the gallery to be the tomb in which was originally deposited “the + embalmed body of the king.” To account for the complete disappearance, not + only of the body, but of all the ornaments and vessels found commonly in + the Mesopotamian tombs, he suggested that the gallery had been rifled in + times long anterior to his visit; and he thought that he found traces, + both internally and externally, of the tunnel by which it had been + entered. But certainly, if this long and narrow vault was intended to + receive a body, it is most extraordinarily shaped for the purpose. What + other sepulchral chamber is there anywhere of so enormous a, length? + Without pretending to say what the real object of the gallery was, we may + feel tolerably sure that it was not a tomb. The building which contained + it was a temple tower, and it is not likely that the religious feelings of + the Assyrians would have allowed the application of a religious edifice to + so utilitarian a purpose. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0015" id="linkCimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate054.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 54 " /> + </div> + <p> + Besides the ziggerat or tower, which may commonly have been surmounted by + a chapel or shrine, an Assyrian temple had always a number of basement + chambers, in one of which was the principal shrine of the god. <a + href="#linkCimage-0015">[PLATE LIV.,Fig. 1.]</a> This was a square or + slightly oblong recess at the end of an oblong apartment, raised somewhat + above its level; it was paved (sometimes, if not always) with a single + slab, the weight of which must occasionally have been as much as thirty + tons. One or two small closets opened out from the shrine, in which it is + likely that the priests kept the sacerdotal garments and the sacrificial + utensils. Sometimes the cell of the temple or chamber into which the + shrine opened was reached through another apartment, corresponding to the + Greek <i>pronaos</i>. In such a case, care seems to have been taken so to + arrange the outer and inner doorways of the vestibule that persons passing + by the outer doorway should not be able to catch a sight of the shrine. + Where there was no vestibule, the entrance into the cell or body of the + temple seems to have been placed at the side, instead of at the end, + probably with the same object. Besides these main parts of a temple, a + certain number of chambers are always found, which appear to have been + priests’ apartments. + </p> + <p> + The ornamentation of temples, to judge by the few specimens which remain, + was very similar to that of palaces. The great gateways were guarded by + colossal bulls or lions see <a href="#linkCimage-0016">[PLATE LV.]</a>, + accompanied by the usual sacred figures, and sometimes covered with + inscriptions. The entrances and some portions of the chambers were + ornamented with the customary sculptured slabs, representing here none but + religious subjects. No great proportion of the interior, however, was + covered in this way, the walls being in general only plastered and then + painted with figures or patterns. Externally, enamelled bricks were used + as a decoration wherever sculptured slabs did not hide the crude brick. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0016" id="linkCimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate055.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 55 " /> + </div> + <p> + Much the sane doubts and difficulties beset the subjects of the roofing + and lighting of the temples as those which have been discussed already in + connection with the palaces. Though the span of the temple-chambers is + less than that of the great palace halls, still it is considerable, + sometimes exceeding thirty feet. No effort seems made to keep the + temple-chambers narrow, for their width is sometimes as much as two-thirds + of their length. Perhaps, therefore, they were hypaethral, like the + temples of the Greeks. All that seems to be certain is that what roofing + they had was of wood, which at Nimrud was cedar, brought probably from the + mountains of Syria. + </p> + <p> + Of the domestic architecture of the Assyrians we possess absolutely no + specimen. Excavation has been hitherto confined to the most elevated + portions of the mounds which mark the sites of cities, where it was likely + that remains of the greatest interest would be found. Palaces, temples, + and the great gates which gave entrance to towns, have in this way seen + the light; but the humbler buildings, the ordinary dwellings of the + people, remain buried beneath the soil, unexplored and even unsought for. + In this entire default of any actual specimen of an ordinary Assyrian + house, we naturally turn to the sculptured representations which are so + abundant and represent so many different sorts of scenes. Even here, + however, we obtain but little light. The bulk of the slabs exhibit the + wars of the kings in foreign countries, and thus place before us foreign + rather than Assyrian architecture. The processional slabs, which are + another large class, contain rarely any building at all, and, where they + furnish one, exhibit to us a temple rather than a house. The hunting + scenes, representing wilds far from the dwellings of man, afford us, as + might be expected, no help. Assyrian buildings, other than temples, are + thus most rarely placed before us. In one case, indeed, we have an + Assyrian city, which a foreign enemy is passing; but the only edifices + represented are the walls and towers of the exterior, and the temple <a + href="#linkCimage-0011">[No. VI., PLATE L.]</a> whose columns rest upon + lions. In one other we seem to have an unfortified Assyrian village; and + from this single specimen we are forced to form our ideas of the ordinary + character of Assyrian houses. + </p> + <p> + It is observable here, its the first place, that the houses have no + windows, and are, therefore, probably lighted from the roof; next, that + the roofs are very curious, since, although flat in some instances, they + consist more often either of hemispherical domes, such as are still so + common in the East, or of steep and high cones, such as are but seldom + seen anywhere. Mr. Layard finds a parallel for these last in certain + villages of Northern Syria, where all the houses have conical roofs, built + of mud, which present a very singular appearance. <a + href="#linkCimage-0017">[PLATE LVI., Fig. 2.]</a> Both the domes and the + cones of the Assyrian example have evidently an opening at the top, which + may have admitted as much light into the houses as was thought necessary. + The doors are of two kinds, square at the top, and arched; they are placed + commonly towards the sides of the houses. The houses themselves seem to + stand separate, though in close juxtaposition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0017" id="linkCimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate056.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 56 " /> + </div> + <p> + The only other buildings of the Assyrians which appear to require some + notice are the fortified enceintes of their towns. The simplest of these + consisted of a single battlemented wall, carried in lines nearly or quite + straight along the four sides of the place, pierced with gates, and + guarded at the angles, at the gates, and at intervals along the curtain + with projecting towers, raised not very much higher than the walls, and + (apparently) square in shape. <a href="#linkCimage-0018">[PLATE LVII., Fig + 1.]</a> In the sculptures we sometimes find the battlemented wall repeated + twice or thrice in lines placed one above the other, the intention being + to represent the defence of a city by two or three walls, such as we have + seen existed on one side of Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0018" id="linkCimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate057.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 57 " /> + </div> + <p> + The walls were often, if not always, guarded by moats. Internally they + were, in every case, constructed of crude brick; while externally it was + common to face them with hewn stone, either from top to bottom, or at any + rate to a certain height. At Khorsabad the stone revetement of one portion + at least of the wall was complete; at Nimrud (Calah) and at Nineveh + itself, it was partial, being carried at the former of those places only + to the height of twenty feet. The masonry at Khorsabad was of three kinds. + That of the palace mound, which formed a portion of the outer defence, was + composed entirely of blocks of stone, square-hewn and of great size, the + length of the blocks varying from two to three yards, while the width was + one yard, and the height from five to six feet. <a href="#linkCimage-0018">[PLATE + LVII., Fig.2.]</a> The masonry was laid somewhat curiously. The blocks (A + A) were placed alternately long-wise and end-wise against the crude brick + (B), so as not merely to lie against it, but to penetrate it with their + ends in many places. <a href="#linkCimage-0018">[PLATE LVII, Fig. 2.]</a> + Care was also taken to make the angles especially strong, as will be seen + by the accompanying section. + </p> + <p> + The rest of the defences at Khorsabad were of an inferior character. The + wall of the town had a width of about forty-five feet, and its basement, + to the height of three feet, was constructed of stone; but the blocks were + neither so large, nor were they hewn with the same care, as those of the + palace platform. <a href="#linkCimage-0018">[PLATE LVII., Fig. 3.]</a> The + angles, indeed, were of squared stone; but even there the blocks measured + no more than three feet in length and a foot in height: the rest of the + masonry consisted of small polygonal stones, merely smoothed on their + outer face, and roughly fitting together in a manner recalling the + Cyclopian walls of Greece and Italy. They were not united by any cement. + Above the stone basement was a massive structure of crude brick, without + any facing either of burnt brick or of stone. + </p> + <p> + The third kind of masonry at Khorsabad was found outside the main wall, + and may have formed either part of the lining of the moat or a portion of + a tower, which may have projected in advance of the wall at this point. <a + href="#linkCimage-0019">[PLATE LVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> It was entirely of + stone. The lowest course was formed of small and very irregular polygonal + blocks roughly fitted together; above this came two courses of carefully + squared stones more than a foot long, but less than six inches in width, + which were placed end-wise, one over the other, care being taken that the + joints of the upper tier should never coincide exactly with those of the + lower. Above these was a third course of hewn stones, somewhat smaller + than the others, which were laid in the ordinary manner. Here the + construction, as discovered, terminated; but it was evident, from the <i>debris</i> + of hewn stones at the foot of the wall, that originally the courses had + been continued to a much greater height. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0019" id="linkCimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate058.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 58 " /> + </div> + <p> + In this description of the buildings raised by the Assyrians it has been + noticed more than once that they were not ignorant of the use of the arch. + The old notion that the round arch was a discovery of the Roman, and the + pointed of the Gothic architecture, has gradually faded away with our + ever-increasing knowledge of the actual state of the ancient world; and + antiquarians were not, perhaps, very much surprised to learn, by the + discoveries of Mr. Layard, that the Assyrians knew and used both kinds of + arch in their constructions. Some interest, however, will probably be felt + to attach to the two questions, how they formed their arches, and to what + uses they applied them. + </p> + <p> + All the Assyrian arches hitherto discovered are of brick. The round arches + are both of the crude and of the kiln-dried material, and are formed, in + each case, of brick made expressly for vaulting, slightly convex at top + and slightly concave at bottom, with one broader and one narrower end. The + arches are of the simplest kind, being exactly semicircular, and rising + from plain perpendicular jambs. The greatest width which any such arch has + been hitherto found to span is about fifteen feet. + </p> + <p> + The only pointed arch actually discovered is of burnt brick. The bricks + are of the ordinary shape, and not intended for vaulting. They are laid + side by side up to a certain point, being bent into a slight arch by the + interposition between them of thin wedges of mortar. The two sides of the + arch having been in this way carried up to a point where the lower + extremities of the two innermost bricks nearly touched, while a + considerable space remained between their upper extremities instead of a + key-stone, or a key-brick fitting the aperture, ordinary bricks were + placed in it longitudinally, and so the space was filled in. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0020" id="linkCimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate059.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 59 " /> + </div> + <p> + Another mode of constructing a pointed arch seems to be intended in a + bas-relief, whereof a representation has been already given. The masonry + of the arcade in No. V. <a href="#linkCimage-0020">[PLATE XLIX., Fig. 4]</a> + runs (it will be seen) in horizontal lines up to the very edge of the + arch, thus suggesting a construction common in many of the early Greek + arches, where the stones are so cut away that an arched opening is formed, + though the real constructive principle of the arch has no place in such + specimens. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the uses whereto the Assyrians applied the arch, it would + certainly seem, from the evidence which we possess, that they neither + employed it as a great decorative feature, nor yet as a main principle of + construction. So far as appears, their chief use of it was for doorways + and gateways. Not only are the town gates of Khorsabad found to have been + arched over, but in the representations of edifices, whether native or + foreign, upon the bas-reliefs, the arch for doors is commoner than the + square top. It is most probable that the great palace gateways were thus + covered in, while it is certain that some of the interior doorways in + palaces had rounded tops. Besides this use of the arch for doors and + gates, the Assyrians are known to have employed it for drains, aqueducts, + and narrow chambers or galleries. <a href="#linkCimage-0019">[PLATE LVIII. + Fig. 2.]</a>; <a href="#linkCimage-0020">[PLATE LIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + It has been suggested that the Assyrians applied the two kinds of arches + to different purposes, “thereby showing more science and discrimination + than we do in our architectural works;” that “they used the pointed arch + for underground work, where they feared great superincumbent pressure on + the apex, and the round arch above ground, where that was not to be + dreaded.” <a href="#linkCimage-0020">[PLATE LIX., Fig. 2.]</a> But this + ingenious theory is scarcely borne out by the facts. The round arch is + employed underground in two instances at Nimrud, besides occurring in the + basement story of the great tower, where the superincumbent weight must + have been enormous. And the pointed arch is used above ground for the + aqueduct and hanging garden in the bas-relief (see <a + href="#linkCimage-0010">[PLATE XLIX., Fig. 4]</a>), where the pressure, + though considerable, would not have been very extraordinary. It would + seem, therefore, to be doubtful whether the Assyrians were really guided + by any constructive principle in their preference of one form of the arch + over the other. + </p> + <p> + In describing generally the construction of the palaces and other chief + buildings of the Assyrians, it has been necessary occasionally to refer to + their ornamentation; but the subject is far from exhausted, and will now + claim, for a short space, our special attention. Beyond a doubt the chief + adornment, both of palaces and temples, consisted of the colossal bulls + and lions guarding the great gateways, together with the sculptured slabs + wherewith the walls, both internal and external, were ordinarily covered + to the height of twelve or sometimes even of fifteen feet. These slabs and + carved figures will necessarily be considered in connection with Assyrian + sculpture, of which they form the most important part. It will, therefore, + only be noted at present that the extent of wall covered with the slabs + was, in the Khorsabad palace, at least 4000 feet, or nearly four-fifths of + a mile, while in each of the Koyunjik palaces the sculptures extended to + considerably more than that distance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0021" id="linkCimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate060.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 60 " /> + </div> + <p> + The ornamentation of the walls above the slabs, both internally and + externally, was by means of bricks painted on the exposed side and covered + with an enamel. The colors are for the most part somewhat pale, but + occasionally they possess some brilliancy. <a href="#linkCimage-0021">[PLATE + LX., Fig 1.]</a> Predominant among the tints are a pale blue, an olive + green, and a dull yellow. White is also largely used; brown and black are + not infrequent; red is comparatively rare. The subjects represented are + either such scenes as occur upon the sculptured slabs, or else mere + patterns—scrolls, honeysuckles, chevrons, gradines, guilloches, etc. + In the scenes some attempt seems to be made at representing objects in + their natural colors. The size of the figures is small; and it is + difficult to imagine that any great effect could have been produced on the + beholder by such minute drawings placed at such a height from the ground. + Probably the most effective ornamentation of this kind was by means of + patterns, which are often graceful and striking. <a href="#linkCimage-0021">[PLATE + LX., 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + It has been observed that, so far as the evidence at present goes, the use + of the column in Assyrian architecture would seem to have been very rare + indeed. In palaces we have no grounds for thinking that they were employed + at all excepting in certain of the interior doorways, which, being of + unusual breadth, seem to have been divided into three distinct portals by + means of two pillars placed towards the sides of the opening. The bases of + these pillars were of stone, and have been found <i>in situ</i>; their + shafts and capitals had disappeared, and can only be supplied by + conjecture. In the temples, as we have seen, the use of the column was + more frequent. Its dimensions greatly varied. Ordinarily it was too short + and thick for beauty, while occasionally it had the opposite defect, being + too tall and slender. Its base was sometimes quite plain, sometimes + diversified by a few mouldings, sometimes curiously and rather clumsily + rounded (as in No. II., <a href="#linkCimage-0022">[PLATE LXI., Fig. 1]</a>). + The shaft was occasionally patterned. The capital, in one instance (No. + I., <a href="#linkCimage-0022">[PLATE LXI., Fig. 3]</a>), approaches to + the Corinthian; in another (No. II.) it reminds us of the Ionic; but the + volutes are double, and the upper ones are surmounted by an + awkward-looking abacus. A third (No. III., <a href="#linkCimage-0022">[PLATE. + LXI., Fig. 2]</a>) is very peculiar, and to some extent explains the + origin of the second. It consists of two pairs of ibex horns, placed one + over the other. With this maybe compared another (No. IV.). the most + remarkable of all, where we have first a single pair of ibex horns, and + then, at the summit, a complete figure of an ibex very graphically + portrayed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0022" id="linkCimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate061.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 61 " /> + </div> + <p> + The beauty of Assyrian patterning has been already noticed. Patterned work + is found not only on the enamelled bricks, but on stone pavement slabs, + and around arched doorways leading from one chamber to another, where the + patterns are carved with great care and delicacy upon the alabaster. The + accompanying specimen of a doorway, which is taken from an unpublished + drawing by Mr. Boutcher, is very rich and elegant, though it exhibits none + but the very commonest of the Assyrian patterns. <a href="#linkCimage-0023">[PLATE + LXII., Fig. 1.]</a> A carving of a more elaborate type, and one presenting + even greater delicacy of workmanship, has been given in an earlier portion + of this chapter as an example of a patterned pavement slab. Slabs of this + kind have been found in many of the palaces, and well deserve the + attention of modern designers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0023" id="linkCimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate062.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 62 " /> + </div> + <p> + When the architecture of the Assyrians is compared with that of other + nations possessing about the same degree of civilization, the impression + that it leaves is perhaps somewhat disappointing. Vast labor and skill, + exquisite finish, the most extraordinary elaboration, were bestowed on + edifices so essentially fragile and perishable that no care could have + preserved them for manly centuries. Sun-dried brick, a material but little + superior to the natural clay of which it was composed, constituted + everywhere the actual fabric, which was then covered thinly and just + screened from view by a facing, seldom more than a few inches in depth, of + a more enduring and handsomer substance. The tendency of the platform + mounds, as soon as formed, must have been to settle down, to bulge at the + sides and become uneven at the top, to burst their stone or brick facings + and precipitated them into the ditch below, at the same time disarranging + and breaking up the brick pavements which covered their surface. The + weight of the buildings raised upon the monads must have tended to hasten + these catastrophes, while the unsteadiness of their foundations and the + character of their composition must have soon had the effect of throwing + the buildings themselves into disorder, of loosening the slabs from the + walls, causing the enamelled bricks to start from their places, the + colossal bulls and lions to lean over, and the roofs to become shattered + and fall in. The fact that the earlier palaces were to a great extent + dismantled by the later kings is perhaps to be attributed, not so much to + a barbarous resolve that they would destroy the memorials of a former and + a hostile dynasty, as to the circumstance that the more ancient buildings + had fallen into decay and ceased to be habitable. The rapid succession of + palaces, the fact that, at any rate from Sargon downwards, each monarch + raises a residence, or residences, for himself, is yet more indicative of + the rapid deterioration and dilapidation (so to speak) of the great + edifices. Probably a palace began to show unmistakable symptoms of decay + and to become an unpleasant residence at the end of some twenty-five or + thirty years from the date of its completion; effective repairs were, by + the very nature of the case, almost impossible; and it was at once easier + and more to the credit of the monarch that he should raise a fresh + platform and build himself a fresh dwelling than that he should devote his + efforts to keeping in a comfortable condition the crumbling habitation of + his predecessor. + </p> + <p> + It is surprising that, under these circumstances, a new style of + architecture did not arise. The Assyrians were not, like the Babylonians, + compelled by the nature of the country in which they lived to use brick as + their chief building material. M. Botta expresses his astonishment at the + preference of brick to stone exhibited by the builders of Khorsabad, when + the neighborhood abounds in rocky hills capable of furnishing an + inexhaustible supply of the better material. The limestone range of the + Jebel Maklub is but a few miles distant, and many out-lying rocky + elevations might have been worked with still greater facility. Even at + Nineveh itself, and at Calah or Nimrud, though the hills were further + removed, stone was, in reality, plentiful. The cliffs a little above + Koyunjik are composed of a “hard sandstone,” and a part of the moat of the + town is carried through “compact silicious conglomerate.” The town is, in + fact, situated on “a spur of rock” thrown off from the Jebel Dlakiub, + which, terminates at the edge of the ravine whereby Nineveh was protected + on the south. Calah, too, was built on a number of “rocky undulations,” + and its western wall skirts the edge of “conglomerate” cliffs, which have + been scarped by the hand of man. A very tolerable stone was thus + procurable on the actual sites of these ancient cities; and if a better + material had been wanted, it might have been obtained in any quantity, and + of whatever quality was desired, from the Zagros range and its outlying + rocky barriers. Transport could scarcely have caused much difficulty, as + the blocks might have been brought from the quarries where they were hewn + to the sites selected for the cities by water-carriage—a mode of + transport well known to the Assyrians, as is made evident to us by the + bas-reliefs. (See <a href="#linkCimage-0023">[PLATE LXII. Fig. 2.]</a>) + </p> + <p> + If the best possible building material was thus plentiful in Assyria, and + its conveyance thus easy to manage, to what are we to ascribe the decided + preference shown for so inferior a substance as brick? No considerable + difficulty can have been experienced in quarrying the stone of the + country, which is seldom very hard, and which was, in fact, cut by the + Assyrians, whenever they had any sufficient motive for removing or making + use of it. One answer only can be reasonably given to the question. The + Assyrians had learnt a certain style of architecture in the alluvial + Babylonia, and having brought it with them into A country far less fitted + for it, maintained it from habit, not withstanding its unsuitableness. In + some few respects, indeed, they made a slight change. The abundance of + stone in the country induced them to substitute it in several places where + in Babylonia it was necessary to use burnt brick, as in the facings of + platforms and of temples, in dams across streams, in pavements sometimes, + and universally in the ornamentation of the lover portions of palace and + temple walls. But otherwise they remained faithful to their architectural + traditions, and raised in the comparatively hilly Assyria the exact type + of building which nature and necessity had led them to invent and use in + the flat and stoneless alluvium where they had had their primitive abode. + As platforms were required both for security and for comfort in the lower + region, they retained them, instead of choosing natural elevations in the + upper one. As clay was the only possible material in the one place, clay + was still employed, notwithstanding the abundance of stone, in the other. + Being devoid of any great inventive genius, the Assyrians found it easier + to maintain and slightly modify a system with which they had been familiar + in their original country than to devise a new one more adapted to the + land of their adoption. + </p> + <p> + Next to the architecture of the Assyrians, their mimetic art seems to + deserve attention. Though the representations in the works of Layard and + Botta, combined with the presence of so many specimens in the great + national museums of London and Paris, have produced a general familiarity + with the subject, still, as a connected view of it in its several stages + and branches is up to the present time a desideratum in our literature, it + may not be superfluous here to attempt a brief account of the different + classes into which their productions in this kind of art fall, and the + different eras and styles under which they naturally range themselves. + </p> + <p> + Assyrian mimetic art consists of statues, bas-reliefs, metal-castings, + carvings in ivory, statuettes in clay, enamellings on brick, and intaglios + on stones and gems. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0024" id="linkCimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate063.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 63 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian statues are comparatively rare, and, when they occur, are among + the least satisfactory of this people’s productions. They are coarse, + clumsy, purely formal in their design, and generally characterized by an + undue flatness, or want of breadth in the side view, as if they were only + intended to be seen directly in front. Sometimes, however, this defect is + not apparent. A sitting statue in black basalt, of the size of life, + representing an early king, which Mr. Layard discovered at Kileh-Sherghat + <a href="#linkCimage-0024">[PLATE LXIII, Fig. 1]</a>, and which is now in + the British Museum, may be instanced as quite free from this + disproportion. It is very observable, however, in another of the royal + statues recently recovered <a href="#linkCimage-0024">[PLATE LXIII, Fig. 2]</a>, + as it is also in the monolith bulls and lions universally. Otherwise, the + proportions of the figures are commonly correct. They bear a resemblance + to the archaic Greek, especially to that form of it which we find in the + sculptures from Branchidae. They have just the same rudeness, heaviness, + and stiff formality. It is difficult to judge of their execution, as they + have mostly suffered great injury from the hand of man, or from the + weather; but the royal statue here represented, which is in better + preservation than any other Assyrian work “in the round” that has come + down to us, exhibits a rather high finish. It is smaller than life, being + about three and a half feet high: the features are majestic, and well + marked; the hair and beard are elaborately curled; the arms and hands are + well shaped, and finished with care. The dress is fringed elaborately, and + descends to the ground, concealing all the lower part of the figure. The + only statues recovered besides these are two of the god Nebo, brought from + Nimrud, a mutilated one of Ishtar, or Astarte, found at Koyunjik [PLATE + LXIII., Fig. 3], and a tolerably perfect one of Sargon, which was + discovered at Idalium, in the island of Cyprus. + </p> + <p> + The clay statuettes of the Assyrians possess even less artistic merit than + their statues. They are chiefly images of gods or genii, and have most + commonly something grotesque in their appearance. Among the most usual are + figures which represent either Mylitta (Bettis), or Ishtar. They are made + in a fine terra cotta, which has turned of a pale red in baking, and are + colored with a cretaceous coating, so as greatly to resemble Greek + pottery. Another type is that of an old man, bearded, and with hands + clasped, which we may perhaps identify with Nebo, the Assyrian Mercury, + since his statues in the British Museum have a somewhat similar character. + Other forms are the fish-god Nin, or Nin-ip <a href="#linkCimage-0025">[PLATE + LXIV., Fig. 1]</a>; and the deities, not yet identified, which were found + by M. Botta under the pavement-bricks at Khorsahad. <a + href="#linkCimage-0025">[PLATE LXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> These specimens have + the formal character of the statues, and are even more rudely shaped. + Other examples, which carry the grotesque to an excess, appear to have + been designed with greater spirit and freedom. Animal and human forms are + sometimes intermixed in them; and while it cannot be denied that they are + rude and coarse, it must be allowed, on the other hand, that they possess + plenty of vigor. M. Botta has engraved several specimens, including two + which have the hind legs and tail of a bull, with a human neck and arms, + the head bearing the usual horned cap. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0025" id="linkCimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate064.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 64 " /> + </div> + <p> + Small figures of animals in terra cotta have also been found. They consist + chiefly of dogs and ducks. A representation of each has been given in the + chapter on the productions of Assyria. The dogs discovered are made of a + coarse clay, and seem to have been originally painted. They are not + wanting in spirit; but it detracts from their merit that the limbs are + merely in relief, the whole space below the belly of the animal being + filled up with a mass of clay for the sake of greater strength. The ducks + are of a fine yellow material, and represent the bird asleep, with its + head lying along its back. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Assyrian works of art which have come down to us, by far the + most important are the bas-reliefs. It is here especially, if not solely, + that we can trace progress in style; and it is here alone that we see the + real artistic genius of the people. What sculpture in its full form, or in + the slightly modified form of very high relief, was to the Greeks, what + painting has been to modern European nations since the time of Cimabue, + that low relief was to the Assyrians—the practical mode in which + artistic power found vent among them. They used it for almost every + purpose to which mimetic art is applicable; to express their religious + feelings and ideas, to glorify their kings, to hand down to posterity the + nation’s history and its deeds of prowess, to depict home scenes and + domestic occupations, to represent landscape and architecture, to imitate + animal and vegetable forms, even to illustrate the mechanical methods + which they employed in the construction of those vast architectural works + of which the reliefs were the principal ornamentation. It is not too much + to say that we know the Assyrians, not merely artistically, but + historically and ethnologically, <i>chiefly</i> through their bas reliefs, + which seem to represent to us almost the entire life of the people. + </p> + <p> + The reliefs may be divided under five principal heads:—1, War + scenes, including battles, sieges, devastations of an enemy’s country, + naval expeditions, and triumphant returns from foreign war, with the + trophies and fruits of victory; 2. Religious scenes, either mythical or + real; 3. Processions generally of tribute-bearers, bringing the produce of + their several countries to the Great King; 4. hunting and sporting scenes, + including the chase of savage animals, and of animals sought for food, the + spreading of nets, the shooting of birds, and the like; and 5. Scenes of + ordinary life, as those representing the transport and erection of + colossal bulls, landscapes, temples, interiors, gardens, etc. + </p> + <p> + The earliest art is that of the most ancient palaces at Nimrud. It belongs + to the latter part of the tenth century before our era; the time of Asa in + Judaea, of Omri and Ahab in Samaria, and of the Sheshonks in Egypt. It is + characterized by much spirit and variety in the design, by strength and + firmness, combined with a good deal of heaviness, in the execution, by an + entire contempt for perspective, and by the rigid preservation in almost + every case, both human and animal, of the exact profile both of figure and + face. Of the illustrations already given in the present volume a + considerable number belong to this period. The heads <a + href="#linkCimage-0004">[PLATE XXXIII.]</a>, and the figures <a + href="#linkCimage-0005">[PLATE XXXV.]</a>, represent the ordinary + appearance of the men, while animal forms of the time will be found in the + lion <a href="images/plate025.jpg">[PLATE XXV.]</a>, the ibex <a + href="images/plate025.jpg">[PLATE XXV.]</a>, the gazelle <a + href="images/plate027.jpg">[PLATE XXVII.]</a>, the horse <a + href="images/plate031.jpg">[PLATE XXXI.]</a>, and the horse and wild bull + <a href="images/plate028.jpg">[PLATE XXVIII.]</a> It will be seen upon + reference that the animal are very much superior to the human forms, a + characteristic which is not, however, peculiar to the style of this + period, but belongs to all Assyrian art, from its earliest to its latest + stage. A favorable specimen of the style will be found in the lion-hunt + which Mr. Layard has engraved in his “Monuments,” and of which he himself + observes, that it is “one of the finest specimens hitherto discovered of + Assyrian sculpture.” in <a href="#linkCimage-0025">[PLATE LXIV., Fig. 3.]</a> + The composition is at once simple and effective. The king forms the + principal object, nearly in the centre of the picture, and by the superior + height of his conical head-dress, and the position of the two arrows which + he holds in the hand that draws the bow-string, dominates over the entire + composition. As he turns round to shoot down at the lion which assails him + from behind, his body is naturally and gracefully bent, while his + charioteer, being engaged in urging his horses forward, leans naturally in + the opposite direction, thus contrasting with the main figure and + balancing it. The lion immediately behind the chariot is outlined with + great spirit and freedom; his head is masterly; the fillings up of the + body, however, have too much conventionality. As he rises to attack the + monarch, he conducts the eye up to the main figure, while at the same time + by this attitude his principal lines form a pleasing contrast to the + predominant perpendicular and horizontal lines of the general composition. + The dead lion in front of the chariot balances the living one behind it, + and, with its crouching attitude, and drooping head and tail, contrasts + admirably with the upreared form of its fellow. Two attendants, armed with + sword and shield, following behind the living lion, serve to balance the + horses drawing the chariot, without rendering the composition too + symmetrical. The horses themselves are the weakest part of the picture; + the forelegs are stiff and too slight, and the heads possess little + spirit. + </p> + <p> + It is seldom that designs of this early period can boast nearly so much + merit. The religious and processional pieces are stiff in the extreme; the + battle scenes are overcrowded and confused; the hunting’ scenes are + superior to these, but in general they too fall far below the level of the + above-described composition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0026" id="linkCimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate065.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 65 " /> + </div> + <p> + The best drawing of this period is found in the figures forming the + patterns or embroidery of dresses. The gazelle, the ibex, the horse, and + the horseman hunting the wild bull of which representations have been + given, are from ornamental work of this kind. They are favorable specimens + perhaps; but, still, they are representative of a considerable class. Some + examples even exceed these in the freedom of their outline, and the + vigorous action which they depict, as, for instance, the man seizing a + wild bull by the horn and foreleg, which is figured. <a + href="#linkCimage-0026">[PLATE LXV., Fig. 1.]</a> In general, however, + there is a tendency in these early drawings to the grotesque. Lions and + bulls appear in absurd attitudes; hawk-headed figures in petticoats + threaten human-headed lions with a mace or a strap, sometimes holding them + by a paw, sometimes grasping then round the middle of the tail <a + href="#linkCimage-0026">[PLATE LXV. Fig. 2]</a>; priests hold up ibexes at + arm’s length by one of their hindlegs, so that their heads trail upon the + ground; griffins claw after antelopes, or antelopes toy with winged lions; + even in the hunting scenes, which are less simply ludicrous, there seems + to be an occasional striving after strange and laughable attitudes, as + when a stricken bull tumbles upon his head, with his tail tossed straight + in the air <a href="#linkCimage-0026">[PLATE LXV., Fig. 31]</a>, or when a + lion receives his death-wound with arms outspread, and mouth wildly agape. + <a href="#linkCimage-0027">[PLATE LXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0027" id="linkCimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate66a (15K)" src="images/plate66a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate066.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 66 " /> + </div> + <p> + The second period of Assyrian mimetic art extends from the latter part of + the eighth to nearly the middle of the seventh century before our era; or, + more exactly, from about B.C. 721 to B.C. 667. It belongs to the reigns of + the three consecutive kings—Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon, + who were contemporary with Hezekiah and Manasseh in Judaea, and with the + Sabacos (Shebeks) and Tirhakah (Tehiak) in Egypt. The sources which + chiefly illustrate this period are the magnificent series of engravings + published by MM. Flandin and Botta, together with the originals of a + certain portion of them in the Louvre; the engravings in Mr. Layard’s + first folio work, from plate 68 to 83; those in his second folio work from + plate 7 to 44, and from plate 50 to 56; the originals of many of these in + the British Museum; several monuments procured for the British Museum by + Mr. Loftus; and a series of unpublished drawings by Mr. Boutcher in the + same great national collection. + </p> + <p> + The most obvious characteristic of this period, when we compare it with + the preceding one, is the advance which the artists have made in their + vegetable forms, and the pre-Raphaelite accuracy which they affect in all + the accessories of their representations. In the bas-reliefs of the first + period we have for the most part no backgrounds. Figures alone occupy the + slabs, or figures and buildings. In some few instances water is + represented in a very rude fashion; and once or twice only do we meet with + trees, which, when they occur, are of the poorest and strangest character. + (See <a href="#linkCimage-0027">[PLATE LXVI., Fig. 1.]</a>) In the second + period, on the contrary, backgrounds are the rule, and slabs without them + form the exception. The vegetable forms are abundant and varied, though + still somewhat too conventional. Date-palms, firs, and vines are + delineated with skill and spirit; other varieties are more difficult to + recognize. <a href="#linkCimage-0027">[PLATE LXVI., Fig. 3.]</a> The + character of the countries through which armies march is almost always + given—their streams, lakes, and rivers, their hills and mountains, + their trees, and in the case of marshy districts, their tall reeds. At the + same time, animals in the wild state are freely introduced without their + having any bearing on the general subject of the picture. The water teems + with fish, and, where the sea is represented, with crabs, turtle, + star-fish, sea-serpents, and other monsters. The woods are alive with + birds; wild swine and stags people the marshes. Nature is evidently more + and more studied; and the artist takes a delight in adorning the scenes of + violence, which he is forced to depict, with quiet touches of a gentle + character—rustics fishing or irrigating their grounds, fish + disporting themselves, birds flying from tree to tree, or watching the + callow young which look up to them from the nest for protection. + </p> + <p> + In regard to human forms, no great advance marks this period. A larger + variety in their attitudes is indeed to be traced, and a greater energy + and life appears in most of the figures; but there is still much the same + heaviness of outline, the same over-muscularity, and the same general + clumsiness and want of grace. Animal forms show a much more considerable + improvement. Horses are excellently portrayed, the attitudes being varied, + and the heads especially delineated with great spirit. Mules and camels + are well expressed, but have scarcely the vigor of the horses. Horned + cattle, as oxen, both with and without humps, goats, and sheep are very + skilfully treated, being represented with much character, in natural yet + varied attitudes, and often admirably grouped. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0028" id="linkCimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate067.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 67 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0029" id="linkCimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate068.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 68 " /> + </div> + <p> + The composition during this period is more complicated and more ambitious + than during the preceding one; but it may be questioned whether it is so + effective. No single scene of the time can compare for grandeur with the + lion-hunt above described. The battles and siege are spirited, but want + unity; the hunting scenes are comparatively tame; the representations of + the transport of colossal bulls possess more interest than artistic merit. + On the other hand, the manipulation is decidedly superior; the relief is + higher, the outline is more flowing, the finish of the features more + delicate. What is lost in grandeur of composition is, on the whole, more + than made up by variety, naturalness, improved handling, and higher + finish. + </p> + <p> + The highest perfection of Assyrian art is in the third period, which + extends from B.C. 667 to about B.C. 640. It synchronizes with the reign of + Asshur-bani-pal, the son of Essarhaddon, who appears to have been + contemporary with Gyges in Lydia, and with Psammetichus in Egypt. The + characteristics of the time are a less conventional type in the vegetable + forms, a wonderful freedom spirit, and variety in the forms of animals, + extreme minuteness and finish in the human figures, and a delicacy in the + handling considerably beyond that of even the second or middle period. The + sources illustrative of this stage of the art consist of the plates in Mr. + Layard’s “Second Series of Monuments,” from plate 45 to 49, the originals + of these in the British Museum, the noble series of slabs obtained by Mr. + Loftus from the northern palace of Koyunjik, and of the drawings made from + them, and from other slabs, which were in a more damaged condition by Mr. + Boutcher, who accompanied Mr. Loftus in the capacity of artist. + </p> + <p> + Vegetable forms are, on the whole, somewhat rare. The artists have + relinquished the design of representing scenes with perfect truthfulness, + and have recurred as a general rule to the plain backgrounds of the first + period. This is particularly the case in the hunting scenes, which are + seldom accompanied by any landscape whatsoever. In processional and + military scenes landscape is introduced, but sparingly; the forms, for the + most part, resembling those of the second period. Now and then, however, + in such scenes the landscape has been made the object of special + attention, becoming the prominent part, while the human figures are + accessories. It is here that an advance in art is particularly + discernible. In one set of slabs a garden seems to be represented. Vines + are trained upon trees, which may be either firs or cypresses, winding + elegantly around their stems, and on either side letting fall their + pendent branches laden with fruit. <a href="#linkCimage-0029">[PLATE + LXVIII.. Fig. 2.]</a> Leaves. branches, and tendrils are delineated with + equal truth and finish, a most pleasing and graceful effect being thereby + produced. Irregularly among the trees occur groups of lilies, some in bud, + some in full blow, all natural, graceful, and spirited. <a + href="#linkCimage-0030">[PLATE LXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0030" id="linkCimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate069.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 69 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0031" id="linkCimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate070.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 70 " /> + </div> + <p> + It is difficult to do justice to the animal delineation of this period. + without reproducing before the eye of the reader the entire series of + reliefs and drawings which belong to it. It is the infinite variety in the + attitudes, even more than the truth and naturalness of any particular + specimens, that impresses us as we contemplate the series. Lions, wild + asses, dogs, deer, wild goats, horses, are represented in profusion: and + we scarcely find a single form which is repeated. Some specimens have been + already given, as the hunted stag and hind <a href="images/plate027.jpg">[PLATE + XXVII.]</a> and the startled wild ass <a href="images/plate026.jpg">[PLATE + XXVI.]</a> Others will occur among the illustrations of the next chapter. + For the present it may suffice to draw attention to the spirit of the two + falling asses in the illustration <a href="#linkCimage-0030">[PLATE LXIX., + Fig. 3]</a>, and of the crouching lion in the illustration <a + href="#linkCimage-0030">[PLATE LXIX., Fig. 2]</a>; to the lifelike force + of both ass and hounds in the representation <a href="#linkCimage-0031">[PLATE + LXX., Fig. 1]</a>, and here particularly to the bold drawing of one of the + dogs’ heads in full, instead of in profile—a novelty now first + occurring in the bas-reliefs. As instances of still bolder attempts at + unusual attitudes, and at the same time of a certain amount of + foreshortening, two further illustrations are appended. The sorely wounded + lion in the first <a href="#linkCimage-0031">[PLATE LXX., Fig. 2]</a> + turns his head piteously towards the cruel shaft, while he totters to his + fall, his limbs failing him, and his eyes beginning to close. The more + slightly stricken king of beasts in the second <a href="#linkCimage-0032">[PLATE + LXXI.]</a>, urged to fury by the smart of his wound, rushes at the chariot + whence the shaft was sped, and in his mad agony springs upon a wheel, + clutches it with his two fore-paws, and frantically grinds it between his + teeth. Assyrian art, so far as is yet known, has no finer specimen of + animal drawing than this head, which may challenge comparison with + anything of the kind that either classic or modern art has produced. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0032" id="linkCimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate071.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 71 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0033" id="linkCimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate072.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 72 " /> + </div> + <p> + As a specimen at once of animal vigor and of the delicacy and finish of + the workmanship in the human forms of the time, a bas-relief of the king + receiving the spring of a lion, and shooting an arrow into his mouth, + while a second lion advances at a rapid pace a little behind the first, + may be adduced. (See <a href="#linkCimage-0033">[PLATE LXXII.]</a>) The + boldness of the composition, which represents the first lion actually in + mid-air, is remarkable; the drawing of the brute’s fore-paws, expanded to + seize his intended prey, is lifelike and very spirited, while the head is + massive and full of vigor. There is something noble in the calmness of the + monarch contrasted with the comparative eagerness of the attendant, who + stretches forward with shield and spear to protect has master from + destruction, if the arrow fails. The head of the king is, unfortunately, + injured; but the remainder of the figure is perfect and here, in the + elaborate ornamentation of the whole dress, we have an example of the + careful finish of the time—a finish, which is so light and delicate + that it does not interfere with the general effect, being scarcely visible + at a few yards’ distance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0034" id="linkCimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate073.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 73 " /> + </div> + <p> + The faults which still remain in this best period of Assyrian art are + heaviness and stiffness of outline in the human forms; a want of + expression in the faces, and of variety and animation in the attitudes; + and an almost complete disregard of perspective. If the worst of these + faults are anywhere overcome, it would seem to be in the land lion-hunt, + from which the noble head represented below is taken; and in the + river-hunt of the same, beast, found on a slab too much injured to be + re-moved, of which a representation is given. <a href="#linkCimage-0034">[PLATE + LXXIII.]</a> From what appears to have remained of the four figures + towards the prow of the boat, we may conclude that there was a good deal + of animation here. The drawing must certainly have been less stiff than + usual; and if there is not much variety in the attitudes of the three + spearmen in front, at any rate those attitudes contrast well, both with + the stillness of the unengaged attendants in the rear, and with the + animated but very different attitude of the king. + </p> + <p> + Before the subject of Assyrian sculpture is dismissed, it is necessary to + touch the question whether the Assyrians applied color to statuary, and, + if so, in what way and to what extent. Did they, like the Egyptians, cover + the whole surface of the stone with a layer of stucco, and then paint the + sculptured parts with strong colors—red, blue, yellow, white, and + black? Or did they, like the Greeks, apply paint to certain portions of + their sculptures only, as the hair, eyes, beard and draperies? Or finally, + did they simply leave the stone in its natural condition, like the + Italians and the modern sculptors generally? + </p> + <p> + The present appearance of the sculptures is most in accordance with the + last of these three theories, or at any rate with that theory very + slightly modified by the second. The slabs now offer only the faintest and + most occasional traces of color. The evidence, however, of the original + explorers is distinct, that <i>at the time of discovery</i> these traces + were very much more abundant. Mr. Layard observed color at Nimrud on the + hair, beard, and eyes of the figures, on the sandals and the bows, on the + tongues of the eagle-headed mythological emblems, on a garland round the + head of a winged priest(?), and on the representation of fire in the + bas-relief of a siege. At Khorsabad, MM. Botta and Flandin found paint on + the fringes of draperies, on fillets, on the mitre of the king, on the + flowers carried by the winged figures, on bows and spearshafts, on the + harness of the horses, on the chariots, on the sandals, on the birds, and + sometimes on the trees. The torches used to fire cities, and the flames of + the cities themselves, were invariably colored red. M. Flandin also + believed that he could detect, in some instances, a faint trace of yellow + ochre on the flesh and on the background of bas-reliefs, whence he + concluded that this tint was spread over every part not otherwise colored. + </p> + <p> + It is evident, therefore, that the theory of an absence of color, or of a + very rare use of it, must be set aside. Indeed, as it is certain that the + upper portions of the palace walls, both inside and outside, were + patterned with colored bricks, covering the whole space above the slabs, + it must be allowed to be extremely improbable that at a particular line + color would suddenly and totally cease. The laws of decorative harmony + forbid such abrupt transitions; and to these laws all nations with any + taste instinctively and unwittingly conform. The Assyrian reliefs were + therefore, we may be sure, to some extent colored. The real question is, + to what extent in the Egyptian or in the classical style? + </p> + <p> + In Mr. Layard’s first series of “Monuments,” a preference was expressed + for what may be called the Egyptian theory. In the Frontispiece of that + work, and in the second Plate, containing the restoration of a palace + interior, the entire bas-reliefs were represented as strongly colored. A + jet-black was assigned to the hair and beards of men and of all + human-headed figures, to the manes and tails of horses, to vultures, eagle + heads, and the like: a coarse red-brown to winged lions, to human flesh, + to horses’ bodies, and to various ornaments, a deep yellow to common + lions, to chariot wheels, quivers, fringes, belts, sandals, and other + portions of human apparel; white to robes, helmets, shields. tunic’s, + towns, trees, etc.; and a dull blue to some of the feathers of winged + lions and genii, and to large portions of the ground from which the + sculptures stood out. This conception of Assyrian coloring, framed + confessedly on the assumption of a close analogy between the ornamentation + of Assyria and that of Egypt, was at once accepted by the unlearned, and + naturally enough was adopted by most of those who sought to popularize the + new knowledge among their countrymen. Hence the strange travesties of + Assyrian art which have been seen in so-called “Assyrian Courts,” where + all the delicacy of the real sculpture has disappeared, and the spectator + has been revolted by grim figures of bulls and lions, from which a thick + layer of coarse paint has taken away all dignity, and by reliefs which, + from the same cause, have lost all spirit and refinement. + </p> + <p> + It is sufficient objection to the theory here treated of, that it has no + solid basis of fact to rest upon. Color has only been <i>found</i> on + portions of the bas-reliefs, as on the hair and beards of men, on + head-ornaments, to a small extent on draperies, on the harness of horses, + on sandals, weapons, birds, flowers, and the like. Neither the flesh of + men, nor the bodies of animals, nor the draperies generally, nor the + backgrounds (except perhaps at Khorsabad), present the slightest + appearance of having been touched by paint. It is inconceivable that, if + these portions of the sculptures were universally or even ordinarily + colored, the color should have so entirely disappeared in every instance. + It is moreover inconceivable that the sculptor, if he knew his work was + about to be concealed beneath a coating of paint, should have cared to + give it the delicate elaboration which is found at any rate in the later + examples. All leads to the conclusion that in Assyrian as in classical + sculpture, color was sparingly applied, being confined to such parts as + the hair, eyes, and beards of men, to the fringes of dresses, to horse + trappings, and other accessory parts of the representations. In this way + the lower part of the wall was made to harmonize sufficiently with the + upper portion, which was wholly colored, but chiefly with pale hues. At + the same time a greater distinctness was given to the scenes represented + upon the sculptured slabs, the color being judiciously applied to + disentangle human from animal figures, dress from flesh, or human figures + from one another. + </p> + <p> + The colors actually found upon the bas-reliefs are four only—red, + blue, black, and white. The red is a good bright tint, far exceeding in + brilliancy that of Egypt. On the sculptures of Khorsabad it approaches to + vermilion, while on those of Nimrud it inclines to a crimson or a lake + tint. It is found alternating with the natural stone on the royal parasol + and mitre; with blue on the crests of helmets, the trappings of horses, on + flowers, sandals, and on fillets; and besides, it occurs, unaccompanied by + any other color, on the stems and branches of trees, on the claws of + birds, the shafts of spears and arrows, bows, belts, fillets, quivers, + maces, reins, sandals, flowers, and the fringe of dresses. It is uncertain + whence the coloring matter was derived; perhaps the substance used was the + suboxide of copper, with which the Assyrians are known to have colored + their red glass. + </p> + <p> + The blue of the Assyrian monuments is an oxide of copper, sometimes + containing also a trace of lead. Besides occurring in combination with red + in the cases already mentioned, it was employed to color the foliage of + trees, the plumage of birds, the heads of arrows, and sometimes quivers, + and sandals. + </p> + <p> + White occurs very rarely indeed upon the sculptures. At Khorsabad it was + not found of all; at Nimrud it was confined to the inner part of the eye + on either side of the pupil, and in this position it occurred only on the + colossal lions and bulls, and a very few other figures. On bricks and + pottery it was frequent, and their (sp.) it is found to have been derived + from tin; but it is uncertain whether the white of the sculptures was not + derived from a commoner material. + </p> + <p> + Black is applied in the sculptures chiefly to the hair, beards, and + eyebrows of men. It was also used to color the eyeballs not only of men, + but also of the colossal lions and bulls. Sometimes, when the eyeball was + thus marked, a line of black was further carried round the inner edge of + both the upper and the lower eyelid. In one place black bars have been + introduced to ornament an antelope’s horns. On the older sculptures black + was also the common color for sandals, which however were then edged with + red. The composition of the black is uncertain. Browns upon the enamelled + bricks are found to have been derived from, iron; but Mr. Layard believes + the black upon the sculptures to have been, like the Egyptian, a bone + black mixed with a little gum. + </p> + <p> + The ornamental metallurgy of the Assyrians deserves attention next to + their sculpture. It is of three kinds, consisting, in the first place, of + entire figures, or parts of figures, cast in a solid shape; secondly, of + castings in a low relief; and thirdly, of embossed work wrought mainly + with the hammer, but finished by a sparing use of the graving tool. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0035" id="linkCimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate074.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 74 " /> + </div> + <p> + The solid castings are comparatively rare, and represented none but animal + forms. Lions, which seem to have been used as weights, occur most + frequently, <a href="#linkCimage-0035">[PLATE LXXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> None + are of any great size; nor have we any evidence that the Assyrians could + cast large masses of metal. They seem to have used castings, not (as the + Greeks and the moderns) for the greater works of art, but only for the + smaller. The forms of the few casts which have come down to us are good, + and are free from the narrowness which characterizes the representations + in stone. + </p> + <p> + Castings in a low relief formed the ornamentation of thrones <a + href="#linkCimage-0035">[PLATE LXXIV., Figs. 2, 3]</a>, stools, and + sometimes probably of chariots. They consisted of animal and human + figures, winged deities, griffins, and the like. The castings were chiefly + in open-work, and were attached to the furniture which they ornamented by + means of small nails. They have no peculiar merit, being merely + repetitions of the forms with which we are familiar from their occurrence + on embroidered dresses and on the cylinders. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0036" id="linkCimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate075.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 75 " /> + </div> + <p> + The embossed work of the Assyrians is the most curious and the most + artistic portion of their metallurgy. Sometimes it consisted of mere heads + and feet of animals, hammered into shape upon a model composed of clay + mixed with bitumen. <a href="#linkCimage-0036">[PLATE LXXV., Figs. 1, 2.]</a> + Sometimes it extended to entire figures, as (probably) in the case of the + lions clasping each other, so common at the ends of sword-sheaths (see <a + href="#linkCimage-0036">[PLATE LXXV., Fig. 3]</a>), the human figures + which ornament the sides of chairs or stools, and the like. <a + href="#linkCimage-0036">[PLATE. LXXV., Fig. 3.]</a> Occasionally it was of + a less solid but at the same time of a more elaborate character. In a + palace inhabited by Sargon at Nimrud, and in close juxtaposition with a + monument certainly of his time, were discovered by Mr. Layard a number of + dishes, plates, and bowls, embossed with great taste and skill, which are + among the most elegant specimens of Assyrian art discovered during the + recent researches. Upon these were represented sometimes hunting scenes, + sometimes combats between griffins and lions, or between men and lions, + sometimes landscapes with trees and figures of animals, sometimes mere + rows of animals following one another. One or two representations from + these bowls have been already given. They usually contain a star or scarab + in the centre, beyond which is a series of bands or borders, patterned + most commonly with figures. <a href="#linkCimage-0037">[PLATE LXXVI., Fig + 1.]</a> It is impossible to give an adequate idea of the delicacy and + spirit of the drawings, or of the variety and elegance of the other + patterns, in a work of moderate dimensions like the present. Mr. Layard, + in his Second Series of “Monuments,” has done justice to the subject by + pictorial representation, while in his “Nineveh and Babylon” he has + described the more important of the vessels separately. The curious + student will do well to consult these two works, after which he may + examine with advantage the originals in the British Museum. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0037" id="linkCimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate076.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 76 " /> + </div> + <p> + One of the most remarkable features observable in this whole series of + monuments, is its semi-Egyptian character. The occurrence of the scarab + has been just noticed. It appears on the bowls frequently, as do sphinxes + of an Egyptian type; while sometimes heads and head-dresses purely + Egyptian are found, as in <a href="#linkCimage-0037">[PLATE LXXVI., Fig. 2]</a>, + which are well-known forms, and have nothing Assyrian about them and in + one or two instances we meet with hieroglyphics, the <i>onk</i> <a + name="linkCimage-0038" id="linkCimage-0038"></a> <img + alt="page0233_onk (1K)" src="images/page0233_onk.jpg" height="60" + width="37" /> (or symbol of life), the ibis, etc. These facts may seem at + first sight to raise a great question namely, whether, afterall, the art + of the Assyrians was really of home growth, or was not rather imported + from the Egyptians, either directly or by way of Phoenicia. Such a view + has been sometimes taken; but the most cursory study of the Assyrian + remains <i>in chronological order</i>, is sufficient to disprove the + theory, since it will at once show that the earliest specimens of Assyrian + art are the most un-Egyptian in character. No doubt there are certain + analogies even here, as the preference for the profile, the stiffness and + formality, the ignorance or disregard of perspective, and the like; but + the analogies are exactly such as would be tolerably sure to occur in the + early efforts of any two races not very dissimilar to one another, while + the little resemblances which alone prove connection, are entirely + wanting. These do not appear until we come to monuments which belong to + the time of Sargon, when direct connection between Egypt and Assyria seems + to have begun, and Egyptian captives are known to have been transported + into Mesopotamia in large numbers. It has been suggested that the entire + series of Nimrud vessels is Phoenician, and that they were either carried + off as spoil from Tyre and other Phoenician towns, or else were the + workmanship of Phoenician captives removed into Assyria from their own + country. The Sidonians and their kindred were, it is remarked, the most + renowned workers in metal of the ancient world, and their intermediate + position between Egypt and Assyria may, it is suggested, have been the + cause of the existence among them of a mixed art, half Assyrian, half + Egyptian. The theory is plausible; but upon the whole it seems mere + consonant with all the facts to regard the series in question as in + reality Assyrian, modified from the ordinary style by an influence derived + from Egypt. Either Egyptian artificers—captives probably—may + have wrought the bowls after Assyrian models, and have accidentally varied + the common forms, more or less, in the direction which was natural to them + from old habits; or Assyrian artificers, acquainted with the art of Egypt, + and anxious to improve their own from it, may have consciously adopted + certain details from the rival country. The workmanship, subjects, and + mode of treatment, are all, it is granted, “more Assyrian than Egyptian,” + the Assyrian character being decidedly more marked than in the case of the + ivories which will be presently considered; yet even in that case the + legitimate conclusions seems to be that the specimens are to be regarded + as native Assyrian, but as produced abnormally, under a strong foreign + influence. + </p> + <p> + The usual material of the Assyrian ornamental metallurgy is bronze, + composed of one part of tin to ten of copper which are exactly the + proportions considered to be best by the Greeks and Romans, and still in + ordinary use at the present day. In some instances, where more than common + strength was required, as in the legs of tripods and tables, the bronze + was ingeniously cast over an inner structure of iron. This practice was + unknown to modern metallurgists until the discovery of the Assyrian + specimens, from which it has been successfully imitated. + </p> + <p> + We may presume that, besides bronze, the Assyrians used, to a certain + extent, silver and gold as materials for ornamental metal-work. The + earrings, bracelets, and armlets worn by the kings and the great officers + of state were probably of the more valuable metal, while the similar + ornaments worn by those of minor may have been of silver. <a + href="#linkCimage-0037">[PLATE LXXVI., Fig. 3.]</a> One solitary specimen + only of either class has been found; but Mr. Layard discovered several + moulds, with tasteful designs for earrings, both at Nimrud and at + Koyunjik; and the sculptures show that both in these and the other + personal ornaments a good deal of artistic excellence was exhibited. The + earrings are frequent in the form of a cross, and are sometimes delicately + chased. The armlets and bracelets generally terminate in the heads of rams + or bulls, which seem to have been rendered with spirit and taste. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0039" id="linkCimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate077.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 77 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0040" id="linkCimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate078.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 78 " /> + </div> + <p> + By one or two instances it appears that the Assyrians knew how to inlay + one metal with another. <a href="#linkCimage-0037">[PLATE LXXVI, Fig. 5.]</a> + The specimens discovered are scarcely of an artistic character, being + merely winged scarabaei, outlined in gold on a bronze ground <a + href="#linkCimage-0037">[PLATE LXXVI., Fig. 4.]</a> The work, however, is + delicate, and the form very much more true to nature than that which + prevailed in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + The ivories of the Assyrians are inferior both to their metal castings and + to their bas-reliefs. They consist almost entirely of a single series, + discovered by Mr. Layard in a chamber of the North-West Palace at Nimrud, + in the near vicinity of slabs on which was engraved the name of Sargon. + The most remarkable point connected with them is the thoroughly Egyptian + character of the greater number which at first sight have almost the + appearance of being importations from the valley of the Nile. Egyptian + profiles, head-dresses, fashions of dressing the hair, ornaments, + attitudes, meet us at every turn; while sometimes we find the + representations of Egyptian gods, and in two cases hieroglyphics within + cartouches. (See <a href="#linkCimage-0040">[PLATE LXXVIII.]</a>) A few + specimens only are of a distinctly Assyrian type, as a fragment of a + panel, figured by Mr. Layard <a href="#linkCimage-0039">[PLATE LXXVII., + Fig. 1]</a>, and one or two others, in which the guilloche border appears. + These carvings are usually mere low reliefs, occupying small panels or + tablets, which were mortised or glued to the woodwork of furniture. They + were sometimes inlaid in parts with blue grass, or with blue and green + pastes let into the ivory, and at the same time decorated with gilding. + Now and then the relief is tolerably high, and presents fragments of forms + which seem to have had some artistic merit. The best of these is the fore + part of a lion walking among reeds (p. 373), which presents analogies with + the early art of Asia Minor. <a href="#linkCimage-0039">[PLATE LXXVII., + Fig. 3.]</a> One or two stags’ heads have likewise been found, designed + and wrought with much spirit and delicacy. <a href="#linkCimage-0039">[PLATE + LXXVII., Fig. 3.]</a> It is remarked that several of the specimens show + not only a considerable acquaintance with art, but also an intimate + knowledge of the method of working in ivory. One head of a lion was “of + singular beauty,” but unfortunately it fell to pieces at the very moment + of discovery. + </p> + <p> + It is possible that some of the objects here described may be actual + specimens of Egyptian art, sent to Sargon as tribute or presents, or else + carried off as plunder in his Egyptian expedition. The appearance, + however, which even the most Egyptian of them present, on a close + examination, is rather that of Assyrian works imitated from Egyptian + models than of genuine Egyptian productions. For instance, in the tablet + figured on the page opposite, where we see hieroglyphics within a + cartouche, the <i>onk</i> or symbol of life, the solar disk, the double + ostrich-plume, the long hair-dress called <i>namms</i>, and the <i>tam</i> + or <i>kukupha</i> sceptre, all unmistakable Egyptian features—we + observe a style of drapery which is quite unknown in Egypt, while in + several respects it is Assyrian, or at least Mesopotamian. It is scanty, + like that of all Assyrian robed figures; striped, like the draperies of + the Chaldaeans and Babylonians: fringed with a broad fringe elaborately + colored, as Assyrian fringes are known to have been, and it has large + hanging sleeves also fringed, a fashion which appears once or twice upon + the Nimrud sculptures. <a href="#linkCimage-0039">[PLATE LXXVII, Fig. 4.]</a> + But if this specimen, notwithstanding its numerous and striking Egyptian + features, is rightly regarded as Mesopotamian, it would seem to follow + that the rest of the series must still more decidedly be assigned to + native genius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0041" id="linkCimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate079.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 79 " /> + </div> + <p> + The enamelled bricks of the Assyrians are among the most interesting + remains of their art. It is from these bricks alone that we are able to + judge at all fully of their knowledge and ideas with respect to color; and + it is from them also chiefly that an analysis has been made of the + coloring materials employed by the Assyrian artists. The bricks may be + divided into two classes—those which are merely patterned, and those + which contain designs representing men and animals. The patterned bricks + have nothing about them which is very remarkable. They present the usual + guilloches, rosettes, bands, scrolls, etc., such as are found in the + painted chambers and in the ornaments on dresses, varied with geometrical + figures, as circles, hexagons, octagons, and the like; and sometimes with + a sort of arcade-work, which is curious, if not very beautiful. <a + href="#linkCimage-0041">[PLATE LXXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> The colors chiefly + used in the patterns are pale green, pale yellow, dark brown, and white. + Now and then an intense blue and a bright red occur, generally together; + but these positive hues are rare, and the taste of the Assyrians seems to + have led them to prefer, for their patterned walls, pale and dull hues. + The same preference appears, even more strikingly, in the bricks on which + designs are represented. There the tints almost exclusively used are pale + yellow, pale greenish blue, olive green, white, and a brownish black. It + is suggested that the colors have faded, but of this there is no evidence. + The Assyrians, when they used the primitive hues, seem, except in the case + of red, to have employed subdued tints of them, and red they appear to + have introduced very sparingly. Olive-green they affected for grounds, and + they occasionally used other half-tints. A pale orange and a delicate + lilac or pale purple were found at Khorsabad, while brown (as already + observed) is far more common on the bricks than black. Thus the general + tone of their coloring is quiet, not to say sombre. There is no striving + after brilliant effects. The Assyrian artist seeks to please by the + elegance of his forms and the harmony of his hues, not to startle by a + display of bright and strongly-contrasted colors. The tints used in a + single composition vary from three to five, which latter number they seem + never to exceed. The following are the combinations of five hues which + occur: brown, green, blue, dark yellow, and pale yellow; orange, lilac, + white, yellow, and olive-green. Combinations of four hues are much more + common: e.q., red, white, yellow, and black; deep yellow, brown lilac, + white, and pale yellow; lilac, yellow, white, and green; yellow, blue, + white, and brown, and yellow, blue, white, and olive-green. Sometimes the + tints are as few as three, the ground in these cases being generally of a + hue used also in the figures. Thus we have yellow, blue, and white on a + blue ground and again the same colors on a yellow ground. We have also the + simple combinations of white and yellow on a blue ground, and of white and + yellow on an olive-green ground. + </p> + <p> + In every ease there is at harmony in the coloring. We find no harsh + contrasts. Either the tones are all subdued, or if any are intense and + positive, then all (or almost all) are so. Intense red occurs in two + fragments of patterned bricks found by Mr. Layard. It is balanced by + intense blue, and accompanied in each case by a full brown and a clear + white, while in one case it is further accompanied by a pale green, which + has a very good effect. A similar red appears on a design figured by M. + Botta. Its accompaniments are white, black, and full yellow. Where lilac + occurs, it is balanced by its complementary color, yellow, or by yellow + and orange, and further accompanied by white. It is noticeable also that + bright hues are not placed one against the other, but are separated by + narrow bands of white, or brown and white. This use of white gives a great + delicacy and refinement to the coloring, which is saved by it, even where + the hues are the strongest, from being coarse or vulgar. + </p> + <p> + The drawing of the designs resembles that of the sculptures except that + the figures are generally slimmer and less muscular. The chief peculiarity + is the strength of the outline, which is almost always colored differently + from the object drawn, either white, black, yellow, or brown. Generally it + is of a uniform thickness (as in No. I., <a href="#linkCimage-0041">[PLATE + LXXIX., Fig. 2]</a>), sometimes, though rarely, it has that variety which + characterizes good drawing (as in No. II., <a href="#linkCimage-0041">[PLATE + LXXIX Fig. 2]</a>). Occasionally there is a curious combination of the two + styles, as in the specimen <a href="#linkCimage-0042">[PLATE LXXX., Fig. 1]</a>—the + most interesting yet discovered—where the dresses of the two main + figures are coarsely outlined in yellow, while the remainder of the design + is very lightly sketched in a brownish black. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0042" id="linkCimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate080.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 80 " /> + </div> + <p> + The size of the designs varies considerably. Ordinarily the figures are + small, each brick containing several; but sometimes a scale has been + adopted of such a size that portions of the same figure must have been on + different bricks. A foot and leg brought by Mr. Layard from Nimrud must + have belonged to a man a foot high; while part of a human face discovered + in the same locality is said to indicate the form to which it belonged, a + height of three feet. Such a size as this is, however, very unusual. + </p> + <p> + It is scarcely necessary to state that the designs on the bricks are + entirely destitute of <i>chiaroscuro</i>. The browns and blacks, like the + blues, yellows, and reds, are simply used to express local color. They are + employed for hair, eyes, eye-brows, and sometimes for bows and sandals. + The other colors are applied as follows: yellow is used for flesh, for + shafts of weapons, for horse trappings, sometimes for horses, for + chariots, cups, earrings bracelets, fringes, for wing-feathers, + occasionally for helmets, and almost always for the hoofs of horses; blue + is used for shields, for horses, for some parts of horse-trappings, armor, + and dresses, for fish, and for feathers; white is employed for the inner + part of the eye, for the linen shirts worn by men, for the marking on fish + and feathers, for horses, for buildings, for patterns on dresses, for + rams’ heads, and for portions of the tiara of the king. Olive-green seems + to occur only as a ground; red only in some parts of the royal tiara, + orange and lilac only in the wings of winged monsters. It is doubtful how + far we may trust the colors on the bricks as accurately or approximately + resembling the real local hues. In some cases the intention evidently is + to be true to nature, as in the eyes and hair of men, in the + representations of flesh, fish, shields, bows, buildings, etc. The yellow + of horses may represent cream-color, and the blue may stand for gray, as + distinct from white, which seems to have been correctly rendered. The + scarlet and white of the king’s tiara is likely to be true. When, however, + we find eyeballs and eyebrows white, while the inner part of the eye is + yellow, the blade of swords yellow, and horses’ hoofs blue we seem to have + proof that, sometimes at any rate, local color was intentionally + neglected, the artist limiting himself to certain hues, and being + therefore obliged to render some objects untruly. Thus we must not + conclude front the colors of dresses and horse trappings on the bricks + which are three only, yellow, blue and white—that the Assyrians used + no other hues than those, even for the robes of their kings. It is far + more probable that they employed a variety of tints in their apparel, but + did not attempt to render that variety on the ordinary painted bricks. + </p> + <p> + The pigments used by the Assyrians seem to have derived their tints + entirely from minerals. The opaque white is found to be oxide of tin; the + yellow is the antimoniate of lead, or Naples yellow, with a slight + admixture of tin; the blue is oxide of copper, without any cobalt; the + green is also from copper; the brown is from iron; and the red is a + suboxide of copper. The bricks were slightly baked before being painted; + they were then taken from the kiln, painted and enamelled on one side + only, the flux and glazes used being composed of silicate of soda aided by + oxide of lead; thus prepared, they were again submitted to the action of + fire, care being taken to place the painted side upwards, and having been + thoroughly baked were then ready for use. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian intaglios on stones and gems are commonly of a rude + description; but occasionally they exhibit a good deal of delicacy, and + sometimes even of grace. They are cut upon serpentine, jasper, chalcedony, + cornelian, agate, sienite, quartz, loadstone, amazon-stone, and + lapis-lazuli. The usual form of the stone is cylindrical; the sides, + however, being either slightly convex or slightly concave, most frequently + the latter. <a href="#linkCimage-0041">[PLATE LXXIX., Fig. 3.]</a> The + cylinder is always perforated in the direction of its axis. Besides this + ordinary form, a few gems shaped like the Greek—that is, either + round or oval—have been found: and numerous impressions from such + gems on sealing-clay show that they must have been a tolerably common. The + subjects which occur are mostly the same as those on the sculptures—warriors + pursuing their foes, hunters in full chase, the king slaying a lion, + winged bulls before the sacred tree, acts of worship and other religious + or mythological scenes. <a href="#linkCimage-0043">[PLATE LXXXI. Fig. 1.]</a> + There appears to have been a gradual improvement in the workmanship from + the earliest period to the time of Sennacherib, when the art culminates. A + cylinder found in the ruins of Sennacherib’s palace at Koyunjik, which is + believed with reason to have been his signet, is scarcely surpassed in + delicacy of execution by any intaglio of the Greeks. <a + href="#linkCimage-0043">[PLATE LXXXI., Fig. 1.]</a> The design has a good + deal of the usual stiffness, though even here something may be said for + the ibex or wild-goat which stands upon the lotus flower to the left: but + the special excellence of the gem is in the fineness and minuteness of its + execution. The intaglio is not very deep but all the details are + beautifully sharp and distinct, while they are on so small a scale that it + requires a magnifying glass to distinguish them. The material of the + cylinder is translucent green felspar, or amazon-stone, one of the hardest + substances known to the lapidary. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0043" id="linkCimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate081.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 81 " /> + </div> + <p> + The fictile art of the Assyrians in its higher branches, as employed for + directly artistic purposes, has been already considered; but a few pages + may be now devoted to the humbler divisions of the subject, where the + useful preponderates over the ornamental. The pottery of Assyria bears a + general resemblance in shape, form, and use to that of Egypt; but still it + has certain specific differences. According to Mr. Birch, it is, generally + speaking, “finer in its paste, brighter in its color, employed in thinner + masses, and for purposes not known in Egypt.” Abundant and excellent clay + is furnished by the valley of the Tigris, more especially by those parts + of it which are subject to the annual inundation. The chief employment of + this material by the Assyrians was for bricks, which were either simply + dried in the sun, or exposed to the action of fire in a kiln. In this + latter case they seem to have been uniformly slack-baked; they are light + for their size, and are of a pale-red color. The clay of which the bricks + were composed was mixed with stubble or vegetable fibre, for the purpose + of holding it together—a practice common to the Assyrians with the + Egyptians and the Babylonians. This fibre still appears in the sun-dried + bricks, but has been destroyed by the heat of the kiln in the case of the + baked bricks, leaving behind it, however, in the clay traces of the stalks + or stems. The size and shape of the bricks vary. They are most commonly + square, or nearly so; but occasionally the shape more resembles that of + the ancient Egyptian and modern English brick, the width being about half + the length, and the thickness half or two-thirds of the width. The + greatest size to which the square bricks attain is a length and width of + about two feet. From this maximum they descend by manifold gradations to a + minimum of one foot. The oblong bricks are smaller; they seldom much + exceed a foot in length, and in width vary from six to seven and a half + inches. Whatever the shape and size of the bricks, their thickness is + nearly uniform, the thinnest being as much as three inches in thickness, + and the thickest not more than four inches or four and a half. Each brick + was made in a wooden frame or mould. Most of the baked bricks were + inscribed, not however like the Chaldaean, the Egyptian, and the + Babylonian, with an inscription in a small square or oval depression near + the centre of one of the broad faces, but with one which either covered + the whole of one such face, or else ran along the edge. It is uncertain + whether the inscription was stamped upon the bricks by a single + impression, or whether it was inscribed by the potter with a triangular + style. Mr. Birch thinks the former was the means used, “as the trouble of + writing upon each brick would have been endless.” Mr. Layard, however, is + of a different opinion. + </p> + <p> + In speaking of the Assyrian writing, some mention has been made of the + terra cotta cylinders and tablets, which in Assyria replaced the parchment + and papyrus of other nations, being the most ordinary writing material in + use through the country. The purity and fineness of the material thus + employed is very remarkable, as well as its strength, of which advantage + was taken to make the cylinders hollow, and thus at once to render them + cheaper and more portable. The terra cotta of the cylinders and tablets is + sometimes unglazed; sometimes the natural surface has been covered with a + “vitreous silicious glaze or white coating.” The color varies, being + sometimes a bright polished brown, sometimes a pale yellow, sometimes + pink, and sometimes a very dark tint, nearly black. The most usual color + however for cylinders is pale yellow, and for tablets light red, or pink. + There is no doubt that in both these cases the characters were impressed + separately by the hand, a small metal style of rod being used for the + purpose. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0044" id="linkCimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate082.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 82 " /> + </div> + <p> + Terra cotta vessels, glazed and unglazed, were in common use among the + Assyrians, for drinking and other domestic purposes. They comprised vases, + lamps, jugs, amphorae, saucers, jars, etc. <a href="#linkCimage-0042">[PLATE + LXXX., Fig. 2.]</a> The material of the vessels is fine, though generally + rather yellow in tone. The shapes present no great novelty, being for the + most part such as are found both in the old Chaldaean tombs, and in + ordinary Roman sepulchres. Among the most elegant are the funeral urns + discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad, which are with a small opening at + top, a short and very scanty pedestal, and two raised rings, one rather + delicately chased, by way of ornament. <a href="#linkCimage-0043">[PLATE + LXXXI., Fig. 2.]</a> Another graceful form is that of the large jars + uncovered at Nimrud <a href="#linkCimage-0044">[PLATE LXXXII., Fig. 1]</a>, + of which Mr. Layard gives a representation. Still more tasteful are some + of the examples which occur upon the bas-reliefs, and seemingly represent + earthen vases. Among these may be particularized a lustral ewer resting in + a stand supported by bulls’ feet, which appears in front of a temple at + Khorsabad <a href="#linkCimage-0043">[PLATE LXXXI., Fig. 3]</a>, and a + wine vase (see <a href="#linkCimage-0043">[PLATE LXXXI., Fig. 4]</a>) of + ample dimensions, which is found in a banquet scene at the same place. + Some of the lamps are also graceful enough, and seem to be the prototypes + out of which were developed the more elaborate productions of the Greeks. + <a href="#linkCimage-0044">[PLATE LXXXII., Fig. 2.]</a> Others are more + simple, being without ornament of any kind, and nearly resembling a modern + tea-pot (see No., IV. <a href="#linkCimage-0044">[PLATE LXXXII., Fig. 2.]</a>) + The glazed pottery is, for the most part, tastefully colored. An amphora, + with twisted arms, found at Nimrud (see <a href="#linkCimage-0045">[PLATE + LXXXIII., Fig. 1]</a>) is of two colors, a warm yellow, and a cold bluish + green. The green predominates in the upper, the yellow in the under + portion; but there is a certain amount of blending or mottling in the + mid-region, which has a very pleasant effect. A similarly mottled + character is presented by two other amphorae from the same place, where + the general hue is a yellow which varies in intensity, and the mottling is + with a violet blue. In some cases the colors are not blended, but sharply + defined by lines, as in a curious spouted cup figured by Mr. Layard, and + in several fragmentary specimens. Painted patterns are not uncommon upon + the glazed pottery, though upon the unglazed they are scarcely ever found. + The most usual colors are blue, yellow, and white; brown, purple, and + lilac have been met with occasionally. These colors are thought to be + derived chiefly from metallic oxides, over which was laid as a glazing a + vitreous silicated substance. On the whole, porcelain of this fine kind is + rare in the Assyrian remains, and must be regarded as a material that was + precious and used by few. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0045" id="linkCimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate083.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 83 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian glass is among the most beautiful of the objects which have been + exhumed. M. Botta compared it to certain fabrics of Venice and Bohemia, + into which a number sit different colors are artificially introduced. But + a careful analysis has shown that the lovely prismatic hues which delight + us in the Assyrian specimens, varying under different lights with all the + delicacy and brilliancy of the opal, are due, not to art, but to the + wonder-working hand of time, which, as it destroys the fabric, + compassionately invests it with additional grace and beauty. Assyrian + glass was either transparent or stained with a single uniform color. It + was composed, in the usual way, by a mixture of sand or silex with + alkalis, and, like the Egyptian, appears to have been first rudely + fashioned into shape by the blowpipe. It was then more carefully shaped, + and, where necessary, hollowed out by a turning machine, the Marks of + which are sometimes still visible. The principal specimens which have been + discovered are small bottles and bowls, the former not more than three or + four inches high, the latter from four to five inches in diameter, <a + href="#linkCimage-0045">[PLATE LXXXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> The vessels are + occasionally inscribed with the name of a king, as is the case in the + famous vase of Sargon, found by Mr. Layard at Nimrud, which is here + figured. <a href="#linkCimage-0045">[PLATE LXXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> This is + the earliest known specimen of <i>transparent glass</i>, which is not + found in Egypt until the time of the Psammetichi. The Assyrians used also + opaque glass, which they colored, sometimes red, with the suboxide of + copper, sometimes white, sometimes of other hues. They seem not to have + been able to form masses of glass of any considerable size; and thus the + employment of the material must have been limited to a few ornamental, + rather than useful, purposes. A curious specimen is that of a pipe or + tube, honey-combed externally, which Mr. Layard exhumed at Koyunjik, and + of which the cut <a href="#linkCimage-0045">[PLATE LXXXIII., Fig. 1]</a> + is a rough representation. + </p> + <p> + An object found at Nimrud, in close connection with several glass vessels, + is of a character sufficiently similar to render its introduction in this + place not inappropriate. This is a lens composed of rock crystal, about an + inch and a half in diameter, and nearly an inch thick, having one plain + and one convex surface, and somewhat rudely shaped and polished which, + however gives a tolerably distinct focus at the distance of 4 1/2 inches + from the plane side, and which may have been used either as a magnifying + glass or to concentrate the rays of the sun. The form is slightly oval, + the longest diameter being one and six-tenths inch, the shortest one and + four-tenths inch. The thickness is not uniform, but greater on one side + than on the other. The plane surface is ill-polished and scratched, the + convex one, not polished on a concave spherical disk, but fashioned on a + lapidary’s wheel, or by some method equally rude. As a burn, glass the + lens has no great power; but it magnifies fairly, and may have been of + great use to those who inscribed, or to those who sought to decipher, the + royal memoirs. It is the only object of the kind that has been found among + the remains of antiquity, though it cannot he doubled that lenses were + known and were used as burning glasses by the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + Some examples have been already given illustrating the tasteful + ornamentation of Assyrian furniture. It consisted, so far as we know, of + tables, chairs, couches, high stools, foot-stools, and stands with shelves + to hold the articles needed for domestic purposes. As the objects + themselves have in all cases ceased to exist, leaving behind them only a + few fragments, it is necessary to have recourse to the bas-reliefs for + such notices as may be thence derived of their construction and character. + In these representations the most ordinary form of table is one in which + the principal of our camp-stools seems to be adopted, the legs crossing + each other as in the illustrations <a href="#linkCimage-0046">[PLATE + LXXXIV.]</a>. only two legs are represented, but we must undoubtedly + regard these two as concealing two others of the same kind at the opposite + end of the table. The legs ordinarily terminate in the feet of animals, + sometimes of bulls, but more commonly of horses. Sometimes between the two + legs we see a species of central pillar, which, however, is not traceable + below the point where the legs cross one another. The pillar itself is + either twisted or plain (see No. III., <a href="#linkCimage-0046">[PLATE + LXXXIV.]</a>). Another form of table, less often met with, but simpler, + closely resembles the common table of the moderns. It has merely the + necessary flat top, with perpendicular legs at the corners. The skill of + the cabinet-makers enabled them to dispense in most instances with + cross-bars (see No. I.), which are, however, sometimes seen (see No. II., + No. III., and No. IV.), uniting the legs of this kind of tables. The + corners are often ornamented with lions’ or rams’ heads, and the feet are + frequently in imitation of some animal form (see No. III. and No. IV.). + Occasionally we find a representation of a three-legged table, as the + specimen <a href="#linkCimage-0046">[PLATE LXXXIV., Fig. 4]</a>, which is + from a relief at Koyunjik. The height of tables appears to have been + greater than with ourselves; the lowest reach easily to a man’s middle; + the highest are level with the upper part of the chest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0046" id="linkCimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate084.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 84 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian thrones and chairs were very elaborate. The throne of Sennacherib + exhibited on its sides and arms three rows of carved figures, one above + another <a href="#linkCimage-0046">[PLATE LXXXIV.,Fig. 3]</a>, supporting + the bars with their hands. The bars, the arms, and the back were + patterned. The legs ended in a pine-shaped ornament very common in + Assyrian furniture. Over the back was thrown an embroidered cloth hinged + at the end, which hung down nearly to the floor. A throne of Sargon’s was + adorned on its sides with three human figures, apparently representations + of the king, below which was the war-horse of the monarch, caparisoned as + for battle. <a href="#linkCimage-0047">[PLATE LXXXV., Fig. 1.]</a> Another + throne of the same monarch’s had two large and four small figures of men + at the side, while the back was supported on either side by a human figure + of superior dimensions. The use of chairs with high backs, like these, was + apparently confined to the monarchs. Persons of less exalted rank were + content to sit on seats which were either stools, or chairs with a low + back level with the arms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0047" id="linkCimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate085.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 85 " /> + </div> + <p> + Seats of this kind, whether thrones or chairs, were no doubt constructed + mainly of wood. The ornamental work may, however, have been of bronze, + either cast into the necessary shape, or wrought into it by the hammer. + The animal heads at the ends of arms seem to have fallen under the latter + description <a href="#linkCimage-0047">[PLATE LXXXV., Fig. 2.]</a> In some + cases, ivory was among the materials used: it has been found in the legs + of a throne at Koyunjik, and may not improbably have entered into the + ornamentation of the best furniture very much more generally. + </p> + <p> + The couches which we find represented upon the sculptures are of a simple + character. The body is flat, not curved; the legs are commonly plain, and + fastened to each other by a cross-bar, sometimes terminating in the + favorite pine-shaped ornament. One end only is raised, and this usually + curves inward nearly in a semicircle. [PLATE LXXXV., Fig. 3.] The couches + are decidedly lower than the Egyptian; and do not, like them, require a + stool or steps in order to ascend them. + </p> + <p> + Stools, however, are used with the chairs or thrones of which mention was + made above—lofty seats, where such a support for the sitter’s feet + was imperatively required. <a href="#linkCimage-0047">[PLATE LXXXV., Fig. + 4.]</a> They are sometimes plain at the sides, and merely cut <i>en + chevron</i> at the base; sometimes highly ornamented, terminating in + lions’ feet supported on cones, in the same (or in volutes), supported on + balls, and otherwise adorned with volutes, lion castings, and the like. + The most elaborate specimen is the stool (No. III.) which supports the + feet of Asshur-bani-pal’s queen on a relief brought from the North Palace + at Koyunjik, and now in the National Collection. Here the upper corners + exhibit the favorite gradines, guarding and keeping in place an + embroidered cushion; the legs are ornamented with rosettes and with + horizontal mouldings, they are connected together by two bars, the lower + one adorned with a number of double volutes, and the upper one with two + lions standing back to back; the stool stands on balls, surmounted first + by a double moulding, and then by volutes. + </p> + <p> + Stands with shelves often terminate, like other articles of furniture, in + animals’ feet, most commonly lions’, as in the accompanying specimens. <a + href="#linkCimage-0047">[PLATE LXXXV., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Of the embroidered robes and draperies of the Assyrians, as of their + furniture, we can judge only by the representations made of them upon the + bas-reliefs. The delicate texture of such fabrics has prevented them from + descending to our day even in the most tattered condition; and the ancient + testimonies on the subject are for the most part too remote from the times + of the Assyrians to be of much value. Ezekiel’s notice is the only one + which comes within such a period of Assyria’s fall as to make it an + important testimony, and even from this we cannot gather much that goes + beyond the evidence of the sculptures. The sculptures show us that robes + and draperies of all kinds were almost always more or less patterned; and + this patterning, which is generally of an extremely elaborate kind, it is + reasonable to conclude was the work of the needle. Sometimes the + ornamentation is confined to certain portions of garments, as to the ends + of sleeves and the bottoms of robes or tunics; at others it is extended + over the whole dress. This is more particularly the case with the garments + of the kings, which are of a magnificence difficult to describe, or to + represent within a narrow compass. <a href="#linkCimage-0048">[PLATE + LXXXVI, Fig. 1.]</a> One or two specimens, however, may be given almost at + random, indicating different styles of ornamentation usual in the royal + apparel. Other examples will be seen in the many illustrations throughout + this volume where the king is represented. It is remarkable that the + earliest representations exhibit the most elaborate types of all, after + which a reaction seems to set in simplicity is affected, which, however, + is gradually trenched upon, until at last a magnificence is reached little + short of that which prevailed in the age of the first monuments. The + draperies of Asshur-izir-pal in the north-west palace at Nimrud, are at + once more minutely labored and more tasteful than those of any later time. + Besides elegant but unmeaning patterns, they exhibit human and animal + forms, sacred trees, sphinxes, griffins, winged horses, and occasionally + bull-hunts and lion-hunts. The upper part of this king’s dress is in one + instance almost covered with figures, which range themselves round a + circular breast ornament, whereof the cut opposite is a representation. + Elsewhere his apparel is less superb, and indeed it presents almost every + degree of richness, from the wonderful embroidery of the robe just + mentioned to absolute plainness. In the celebrated picture of the + lion-hunt. <a href="#linkCimage-0048">[PLATE LXXXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> With + Sargon, the next king who has left many monuments, the case is remarkably + different. Sargon is represented always in the same dress—a long + fringed robe, embroidered simply with rosettes, which are spread somewhat + scantily over its whole surface. Sennacherib’s apparel is nearly of the + same kind, or, if anything, richer, though sometimes the rosettes are + omitted His grandson, Asshur-bani-pal, also affects the rosette ornament, + but reverts alike to the taste and the elaboration of the early kings. He + wears a breast ornament containing human figures, around which are ranged + a number of minute and elaborate patterns. <a href="#linkCimage-0049">[PLATE + LXXXVII.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0048" id="linkCimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate086.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 86 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0049" id="linkCimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate087.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 87 " /> + </div> + <p> + To this account of the arts, mimetic and other, in which the Assyrians + appear to have excelled, it might be expected that there should be added a + sketch of their scientific knowledge. On this subject, however, so little + is at present known, while so much may possibly become known within a + short time, that it seems best to omit it, or to touch it only in the + lightest and most cursory manner. When the numerous tablets now in the + British Museum shall have been deciphered, studied, and translated, it + will probably be found that they contain a tolerably full indication of + what Assyrian science really was, and it will then be seen how far it was + real and valuable, in what respects mistaken and illusory. At present this + mine is almost unworked, nothing more having been ascertained than that + the subjects whereof the tables treat are various, and their apparent + value very different. Comparative philology seems to have been largely + studied, and the works upon it exhibit great care and diligence. + Chronology is evidently much valued, and very exact records are kept + whereby the lapse of time can even now be accurately measured. Geography + and history have each an important place in Assyrian learning; while + astronomy and mythology occupy at least as great a share of attention. The + astronomical observations recorded are thought to be frequently + inaccurate, as might be expected when there were no instruments, or none + of any great value. Mythology is a very favorite subject, and appears to + be treated most fully; but hitherto cuneiform scholars have scarcely + penetrated below the surface of the mythological tablets, baffled by the + obscurity of the subject and the difficulty of the dialect (in) which they + are written. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0050" id="linkCimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate088.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 88 " /> + </div> + <p> + On one point alone, belonging to the domain of science, do the Assyrian + representations of their life enable us to comprehend, at least to some + extent, their attainments. The degree of knowledge which this people + possessed on the subject of practical mechanics is illustrated with + tolerable fulness in the bas-reliefs, more especially in the important + series discovered at Koyunjik, where the transport of the colossal bulls + from the quarry to the palace gateways is represented in the most + elaborate detail. <a href="#linkCimage-0050">[PLATE LXXXVIII.]</a> The + very fact that they were able to transport masses of stone, many tons in + weight, over a considerable space of ground, and to place then on the + summit of artificial platforms from thirty to eighty (or ninety) feet + high, would alone indicate considerable mechanical knowledge. The further + fact, now made clear from the bas-reliefs, that they wrought all the + elaborate carving of the colossi before they proceeded to raise them or + put them in place, is an additional argument of their skill, since it + shows that they had no fear of any accident happening in the transport. It + appears from the representations that they placed their colossus in a + standing posture, not on a truck or wagon of any kind, but on a huge + wooden sledge, shaped nearly like a boat, casing it with an openwork of + spars or beams, which crossed each other at right angles, and were made + perfectly tight by means of wedges. To avert the great danger of the mass + toppling over sideways, ropes were attached to the top of the casing, at + the point where the beams crossed one another, and were held taut by two + parties of laborers, one on either side of the statue. Besides these, + wooden forks or props were applied on either side to the second set of + horizontal cross-beams, held also by men whose business it would be to + resist the least inclination of the huge stone to lean to one side more + than to the other. The front of the sledge on which the colossus stood was + curved gently upwards, to facilitate its sliding along the ground, and to + enable it to rise with readiness upon the rollers, which were continually + placed before it by laborers just in front, while others following behind + gathered them up when the bulky mass had passed over there. The motive + power was applied in front by four gangs of men who held on to four large + cables, at which they pulled by means of small ropes or straps fastened to + them, and passed under one shoulder and over the other—an + arrangement which enabled them to pull by weight as much as by muscular + strength, as the annexed figure will plainly show. <a + href="#linkCimage-0051">[PLATE LXXXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> The cables appear to + have been of great strength, and are fastened carefully to four strong + projecting pins—two near the front, two at the back part of the + sledge, by a knot so tied that it would be sure not to slip. <a + href="#linkCimage-0051">[PLATE LXXXIX., Fig. 4.]</a> Finally, as in spite + of the rollers, whose use in diminishing friction, and so facilitating + progress, was evidently well understood, and in spite of the amount of + force applied in front, it would have been difficult to give the first + impetus to so great a mass, a lever was skilfully applied behind to raise + the hind part of the sledge slightly, and so propel it forward, while to + secure a sound and firm fulcrum, wedges of wood were inserted between the + lever and the ground. The greater power of a lever at a distance from the + fulcrum being known, ropes were attached to its upper end, which could not + otherwise have been reached, and the lever was worked by means of them. + </p> + <p> + We have thus unimpeachable evidence as to the mode whereby the conveyance + of huge blocks of stone along level ground was effected. But it may be + further asked, how were the blocks raised up to the elevation at which we + find them placed? Upon this point there is no direct evidence; but the + probability is that they were drawn up inclined ways, sloping gently from + the natural ground to the top of the platforms. The Assyrians were + familiar with inclined ways, which they used almost always in their + attacks on walled places, and which in many cases they constructed either + of brick or stone. The Egyptians certainly employed them for the elevation + of large blocks; and probably in the earlier times most nations who + affected massive architecture had recourse to the same simple but + uneconomical plan. The crane and pulley were applied to this purpose + later. In the Assyrian sculptures we find no application of either to + building, and no instance at all of the two in combination. Still each + appears on the bas-reliefs separately—the crane employed for drawing + water from the rivers, and spreading it over the lands, the pulley for + lowering and raising the bucket in wells. <a href="#linkCimage-0051">[PLATE + LXXXIX., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkCimage-0051" id="linkCimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate089.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 89 " /> + </div> + <p> + We must conclude from these facts that the Assyrians had made considerable + advances in mechanical knowledge, and were, in fact, acquainted, more or + less, with most of the contrivances whereby heavy weights have commonly + been moved and raised among the civilized nations of Europe. We have also + evidence of their skill in the mechanical processes of shaping pottery and + glass, of casting and embossing metals, and of cutting intaglios upon hard + stones. Thus it was not merely in the ruder and coarser, but likewise in + the more delicate processes, that they excelled. The secrets of + metallurgy, of dyeing, enamelling, inlaying, glass-blowing, as well as + most of the ordinary manufacturing processes, were known to them. In all + the common arts and appliances of life, they must be pronounced at least + on a par with the Egyptians, while in taste they greatly exceeded, not + that nation only, but all the Orientals. Their “high art” is no doubt much + inferior to that of Greece; but it has real merit, and is most remarkable + considering the time when it was produced. It has grandeur, dignity, + boldness, strength, and sometimes even freedom and delicacy; it is honest + and painstaking, unsparing of labor, and always anxious for truth. Above + all, it is not lifeless and stationary, like the art of the Egyptians and + the Chinese, but progressive and aiming at improvement. To judge by the + advance over previous works which we observe in the sculptures of the son + of Esarhaddon, it would seem that if Assyria had not been assailed by + barbaric enemies about his time, she might have anticipated by above a + century the finished excellence of the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> =========================== <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkD2H_4_0001" id="linkD2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SECOND MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + ASSYRIA. <a name="linkDimage-0001" id="linkDimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_top.jpg"><img alt="map_top_th (118K)" + src="images/map_top_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a> <a name="linkD2HCH0001" + id="linkD2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <h3> + MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. + </h3> + <p> + “Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their horses’ hoofs + shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind.”—ISA. + v. 28. + </p> + <p> + In reviewing, so far as our materials permit, the manners and customs of + the Assyrians, it will be convenient to consider separately their warlike + and their peaceful usages. The sculptures furnish very full illustration + of the former, while on the latter they throw light far more sparingly. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians fought in chariots, on horseback, and on foot. Like most + ancient nations, as the Egyptians, the Greeks in the heroic times, the + Canaanites, the Syrians, the Jews and Israelites, the Persians, the Gauls, + the Britons, and many others, the Assyrians preferred the chariot as most + honorable, and probably as most safe. The king invariably went out to war + in a chariot, and always fought from it, excepting at the siege of a town, + when he occasionally dismounted and shot his arrows on foot. The chief + state-officers and other personages of high rank followed the same + practice. Inferior persons served either as cavalry or as foot-soldiers. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian war-chariot is thought to have been made of wood. Like the + Greek and the Egyptian, it appears to have been mounted from behind where + it was completely open, or closed only by means of a shield, which (as it + seems) could be hung across the aperture. It was completely panelled at + the sides, and often highly ornamented, as will be seen from the various + illustrations given in this chapter. The wheels were two in number, and + were placed far back, at or very near the extreme end of the body, so that + the weight pressed considerably upon the pole, as was the case also in + Egypt. They had remarkably broad felloes, thin and delicate spokes, and + small or moderate sized axels. <a href="images/plate089.jpg">[PLATE + LXXXIX. Fig. 2]</a>, and <a href="#linkDimage-0002">[PLATE XC., Figs. 1, + 2.]</a> The number of the spokes was either six or eight. The felloes + appear to have been formed of three distinct circles of wood, the middle + one being the thinnest, and the outer one far the thickest of the three. + Sometimes these circles were fastened together externally by bands of + mental, hatchet-shaped. In one or two instances we find the outermost + circle divided by cross-bars, as if it had been composed of four different + pieces. Occasionally there is a fourth circle, which seems to represent a + metal tire outside the felloe, whereby it was guarded from injury. This + tire is either plain or ornamented. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0002" id="linkDimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate090.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 90 " /> + </div> + <p> + The wheels were attached to an axletree, about which they revolved, in the + usual manner. The body was placed directly upon the axletree and upon the + pole, without the intervention of any springs. The pole started from the + middle of the axle-tree, and, passing below the floor of the body in a + horizontal direction, thence commonly curved upwards till it had risen to + about half the height of the body, when it was again horizontal for + awhile, once more curving upwards at the end. It usually terminated in an + ornament, which was sometimes the head of an animal—a bull, a horse, + or a duck—sometimes a more elaborate and complicated work of art. <a + href="#linkDimage-0002">[PLATE XC., Fig. 3.]</a> Now and then the pole + continued level with the bottom of the body till it had reached its full + projection, and then rose suddenly to the height of the top of the + chariot. It was often strengthened by one or more thin bars, probably of + metal; which united it to the upper part of the chariot-front. + </p> + <p> + Chariots were drawn either by two or three, never by four, horses. They + seem to have had but a single pole. Where three horses were used, one must + therefore have been attached merely by a rope or thong, like the side + horses of the Greeks, and, can scarcely have been of much service for + drawing the vehicle. He seems rightly regarded as a supernumerary, + intended to take the place of one of the others, should either be disabled + by a wound or accident. It is not easy to determine from the sculptures + how the two draught horses were attached to the pole. Where chariots are + represented without horses, we find indeed that they have always a + cross-bar or yoke; but where horses are represented in the act of drawing + a chariot, the cross-bar commonly disappears altogether. It would seem + that the Assyrian artists, despairing of their ability to represent the + yoke properly when it was presented to the eye end-wise, preferred, for + the most part, suppressing it wholly to rendering it in an unsatisfactory + manner. Probably a yoke did really in every case pass over the shoulders + of the two draught horses, and was fastened by straps to the collar which + is always seen round their necks. + </p> + <p> + These yokes, or cross-bars, were of various kinds. Sometimes they appear + to have consisted of a mere slight circular bar, probably of metal, which + passed through the pole; sometimes of a thicker spar, through which the + pole itself passed. In this latter case the extremities were occasionally + adorned with heads of animals. <a href="#linkDimage-0003">[PLATE XCI., + Fig. 1.]</a> The most common kind of yoke exhibits a double curve, so as + to resemble a species of bow unstrung. <a href="#linkDimage-0003">[PLATE + XCI., Fig. 2.]</a> Now and then a specimen is found very curiously + complicated, being formed of a bar curved strongly at either end, and + exhibiting along its course four other distinct curvatures having opposite + to there apertures resembling eyes, with an upper and a lower eyelid. <a + href="#linkDimage-0003">[PLATE XCI., Fig. 3.]</a> It has been suggested + that this yoke belonged to a four-horse chariot, and that to each of the + four eyes (<i>a a a a</i>) there was a steed attached; but, as no + representation of a four-horse chariot has been found, this suggestion + must be regarded as inadmissible. The probability seems to be that this + yoke, like the others, was for two horses, on whose necks it rested at the + points marked <i>b b</i>, the apertures (<i>c c c c</i>) lying thus on + either side of the animals’ necks, and furnishing the means whereby the he + was fastened to the collar. It is just possible that we have in the + sculptures of the later period a representation of the extremities (<i>d d</i>) + of this kind of yoke, since in them a curious curve appears sometimes on + the necks of chariot-horses, just above the upper end of the collar. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0003" id="linkDimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate091.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 91 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian chariots are exceedingly short: but, apparently, they must have + been of a considerable width. They contain two persons at the least; and + this number is often increased to three, and sometimes even to four. <a + href="#linkDimage-0003">[PLATE XCI. Fig. 4.]</a> The warrior who fights + from a chariot is necessarily attended by his charioteer; and where he is + a king, or a personage of high importance, he is accompanied by a second + attendant, who in battle-scenes always bears a shield, with which he + guards the person of his master. Sometimes, though rarely, four persons + are seen in a chariot—the king or chief, the charioteer, and two + guards, who protect the monarch on either side with circular shields or + targes. The charioteer is always stationed by the side of the warrior, not + as frequently with the Greeks, behind him. The guards stand behind, and, + owing to the shortness of the chariot, must have experienced some + difficulty in keeping their places. They are evidently forced to lean + back-wards from want of room, and would probably have often fallen out, + had they not grasped with one hand a rope or strap firmly fixed to the + front of the vehicle. + </p> + <p> + There are two principal types of chariots in the Assyrian sculptures, + which may be distinguished as the earlier and the later. The earlier are + comparatively low and short. The wheels are six-spoked, and of small + diameter. The body is plain, or only ornamented by a border, and is + rounded in front, like the Egyptian and the classical chariots. <a + href="#linkDimage-0004">[PLATE XCII., Fig 1.]</a> Two quivers are + suspended diagonally at the side of the body, while a rest for a spear, + commonly fashioned into the shape of a human head, occupies the upper + corner at the back. From the front of the body to the further end of the + pole, which is generally patterned and terminates in the head and neck of + a ball or a duck, extends an ornamented structure, thought to have been of + linen or silk stitched upon a framework of wood, which is very conspicuous + in the representation. A shield commonly hangs behind these chariots, + perhaps closing the entrance; and a standard is sometimes fixed in them + towards the front, connected with the end of the pole by a rope or bar. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0004" id="linkDimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate092.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 92 " /> + </div> + <p> + The later chariots are loftier and altogether larger than the earlier. The + wheel is eight spoked, and reaches as high as the shoulders of the horses, + which implies a diameter of about five feet. <a href="#linkDimage-0004">[PLATE + XCII., Fig. 2. ]</a> The body rises a foot or rather more, above this; and + the riders thus from their elevated position command the whole + battle-field. The body is not rounded, but made square in front: it has no + quivers attached to it externally, but has, instead, a projection at one + or both of the corners which seems to have served as an arrow-case. This + projection is commonly patterned, as is in many cases the entire body of + the chariot, though sometimes the ornamentation is confined to an elegant + but somewhat scanty border. The poles are plain, not patterned, sometimes, + however, terminating in the head of a horse; there is no ornamental + framework connecting them with the chariot, but in its stead we see a thin + bar, attached to which, either above or below, there is in most instances + a loop, whereto we may suppose that the reins were occasionally fastened. + No shield is suspended behind these chariots; but we sometimes observe an + embroidered drapery hanging over the back, in a way which would seem to + imply that they were closed behind, at any rate by a cross-bar. + </p> + <p> + The trappings of the chariot-horses belonging to the two periods are not + very different. They consist principally of a headstall, a collar, a + breast-ornament, and a sort of huge tassel pendent at the horse’s side. + The headstall was formed commonly of three straps: one was attached to the + bit at either end, and passed behind the ears over the neck; another, + which was joined to this above, encircled the smallest part of the neck; + while a third, crossing the first at right angles, was carried round the + forehead and the cheek bones. At the point where the first and second + joined, or a little in front of this, rose frequently a waving plume, or a + crest composed of three huge tassels, one above another; while at the + intersection of the second and third was placed a rosette or other + suitable ornament. The first strap was divided where it approached the bit + into two or three smaller straps, which were attached to the bit in + different places. A fourth strap sometimes passed across the nose from the + point where the first strap subdivided. All the straps were frequently + patterned; the bit was sometimes shaped into an animal form and streamers + occasional floated from the nodding plume or crest which crowned the heads + of the war-steeds. + </p> + <p> + The collar is ordinarily represented as a mere broad band passing round + the neck, not of the withers (as with ourselves). but considerably higher + up, almost midway between the withers and the cheek-bone. Sometimes it is + of uniform width while often it narrows greatly as it approaches the back + of the neck. It is generally patterned, and appears to have been a mere + flat leathern band. It is impossible to say in what exact way the pole was + attached to it, though in the later sculptures we have elaborate + representations of the fastening. The earlier sculptures seem to append to + the collar one or more patterned straps, which, passing round the horse’s + belly immediately behind the fore legs, served to keep it in place, while + at the same time they were probably regarded as ornamental; but under the + later kings these belly Lands were either reduced to a single strap, or + else dispensed with altogether. + </p> + <p> + The breast-ornament consists commonly of a fringe, more or less + complicated. The simplest form, which is that of the most ancient times, + exhibits a patterned strap with a single row of long tassels pendent from + it, as in the annexed representation. At a later date we find a double and + even a triple row of tassels. + </p> + <p> + The pendent side-ornament is a very conspicuous portion of the trappings. + It is attached to the collar either by a long straight strap or by a + circular band which falls on either side of the neck. The upper extremity + is often shaped into the form of an animal’s head, below which comes most + commonly a circle or disk, ornamented with a rosette, a Maltese cross, a + winged bull, or other sacred emblem, while below the circle hang huge + tassels in a single row or smaller ones arranged in several rows. In the + sculptures of Sargon at Khorsabad, the tassels of both the breast and side + ornaments were colored, the tints being in most cases alternately red and + blue. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally the chariot-horses were covered from the ears almost to the + tail with rich cloths, magnificently embroidered over their whole + surface.’ <a href="#linkDimage-0005">[PLATE XCIII., Fig. 2.]</a> These + cloths encircled the neck, which they closely fitted, and, falling on + either side of the body, were then kept in place by means of a broad strap + round the rump and a girth under the belly. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0005" id="linkDimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate093.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 93 " /> + </div> + <p> + A simpler style of clothing chariot-horses is found towards the close of + the later period, where we observe, below the collar, a sort of triple + breastplate, and over the rest of the body a plain cloth, square cut, with + flaps descending at the arms and quarters, which is secured in its place + by three narrow straps fastened on externally. The earlier kind of + clothing has the appearance of being for ornament but this looks as if it + was meant solely for protection. + </p> + <p> + Besides the trappings already noticed, the Assyrian chariot-horses had + frequently strings of beads suspended round their necks, between the ears + and the collar; they had also, not unfrequently, tassels or bells attached + to different parts of the headstall <a href="#linkDimage-0005">[PLATE + XCIII., Fig. 3]</a>, and finally they had, in the later period most + commonly, a curious ornament upon the forehead, which covered almost the + whole space between the ears and the eyes, and was composed of a number of + minute bosses, colored, like the tassels of the breast ornament, + alternately red and blue. + </p> + <p> + Each horse appears to have been driven by two reins—one attached to + either end of the bit in the ordinary manner, and each passed through a + ring or loop in the harness, whereby the rein was kept down and a stronger + purchase secured to the driver. The shape of the bit within the mouth, if + we may judge by the single instance of an actual bit which remains to us, + bore a near resemblance to the modern snaffle. <a href="#linkDimage-0006">[PLATE + XCIV., Fig. 1.]</a> Externally the bit was large, and in most cases clumsy—a + sort of cross-bar extending across the whole side of the horse’s face, + commonly resembling a double axe-head, or a hammer. Occasionally the shape + was varied, the hatchet or hammer being replaced by forms similar to those + annexed, or by the figure of a horse at full gallop. The rein seems, in + the early times, to have been attached about midway in the cross-bar, + while afterwards it became usual to attach it near the lower end. This + latter arrangement was probably found to increase the power of the driver. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0006" id="linkDimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate094.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 94 " /> + </div> + <p> + The use of the bearing-rein, which prevailed in Egypt, was unknown to the + Assyrians, or disapproved by them. The driving-reins were separate, not + stitched or buckled together, and were held in the two hands separately. + The right hand grasped the reins, whatever their number, which were + attached at the horses’ right cheeks, while the left hand performed the + same office with the remaining reins. The charioteer urged his horses + onward with a powerful whip, having a short handle, and a thick plaited or + twisted lash, attached like the lash of a modern horsewhip, sometimes + with, sometimes without, a loop, and often subdivided at the end into two + or three tails. <a href="#linkDimage-0006">[PLATE XCIV., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Chariot-horses were trained to three paces, a walk, a trot, and a gallop. + In battle-pieces they are commonly represented at full speed, in marches + trotting, in processions walking in a stately manner. Their manes were + frequently hogged, though more commonly they lay on the neck, falling + (apparently) upon either side indifferently. Occasionally a portion only + was hogged, while the greater part remained in its natural condition. The + tail was uncut, and generally almost swept the ground, but was confined by + a string or ribbon tied tightly around it about midway. Sometimes, more + especially in the later sculptures, the lower half of the tail is plaited + and tied up into a loop or bunch <a href="#linkDimage-0006">[PLATE XCIV., + Fig. 5]</a>, according to the fashion which prevails in the present day + through most parts of Turkey and Persia. + </p> + <p> + The warrior who fought from a chariot was sometimes merely dressed in a + tunic, confined at the waist by a belt; sometimes, however, he wore a coat + of mail, very like the Egyptian, consisting of a sort of shirt covered + with small plates or scales of metal. This shirt reached at least as low + as the knees, beneath which the chariot itself was sufficient protection. + It had short sleeves, which covered the shoulder and upper part of the + arm, but left the elbow and fore-arm quite undefended. The chief weapon of + the warrior was the bow, which is always seen in his hands, usually with + the arrow upon the string; he wears, besides, a short sword, suspended at + his left side by a strap, and he has commonly a spear within his reach; + but we never see him using either of these weapons. He either discharges + his arrows against the foe from the standing-board of his chariot, or, + commanding the charioteer to halt, descends, and, advancing a few steps + before his horses’ heads, takes a surer and more deadly aim from <i>terra + firma</i>. In this case his attendant defends him from missiles by + extending in front of him a shield, which he holds in his left hand, while + at the same time he makes ready to repel any close assailant by means of a + spear or sword grasped firmly in his right. The warrior’s face and arms + are always bare; sometimes the entire head is undefended, though more + commonly it has the protection of a helmet. This, however, is without a + visor, and does not often so much as cover the ears. In some few instances + only is it furnished with flaps or lappets, which, where they exist, seem + to be made of metal scales, and, falling over the shoulders, entirely + conceal the ears, the back of the head, the neck, and even the chin. + </p> + <p> + The position occupied by chariots in the military system of Assyria is + indicated in several passages of Scripture, and distinctly noticed by many + of the classical writers. When Isaiah began to warn his countrymen of the + ‘miseries in store for them at the hands of the new enemy which first + attacked Judea in his day, he described them as a people “whose arrows + were sharp, and all their bows bent, whose horses’ hoofs should be counted + like flint, and their wheels like a whirlwind.” When in after days he was + commissioned to raise their drooping courage by assuring them that they + would escape Sennacherib, who had angered God by his pride, he noticed, as + one special provocation of Jehovah, that monarch’s confidence in the + multitude of his chariots. Nahum again, having to denounce the approaching + downfall of the haughty nation, declares that God is “against her, and + will burn her chariots in the smoke.” In the fabulous account which + Ctesias gave of the origin of Assyrian greatness, the war-chariots of + Ninus were represented as amounting to nearly eleven thousand, while those + of his wife and successor, Semiramis, were estimated at the extravagant + number of a hundred thousand. Ctesias further stated that the Assyrian + chariots, even at this early period, were armed with scythes, a statement + contradicted by Xenophon, who ascribes this invention to the Persians, and + one which receives no confirmation from the monuments. Amid all this + exaggeration and inventiveness, one may still trace a knowledge of the + fact that war-chariots were highly esteemed by the Assyrians from a very + ancient date, while from other notices we may gather that they continued + to be reckoned an important arm of the military service to the very end of + the empire. + </p> + <p> + Next to the war-chariots of the Assyrians we must place their cavalry, + which seems to have been of scarcely less importance in their wars. + Ctesias, who amid all his exaggerations shows glimpses of some real + knowledge of the ancient condition of the Assyrian people, makes the + number of the horsemen in their armies always greatly exceed that of the + chariots. The writer of the book of Judith gives Holofernes 12,000 + horse-archers, and Ezekiel seems to speak of all the “desirable young men” + as “horsemen riding upon horses.” The sculptures show on the whole a + considerable excess of cavalry over chariots, though the preponderance is + not uniformly exhibited throughout the different periods. + </p> + <p> + During the time of the Upper dynasty, cavalry appears to have been but + little used. Tiglath-Pileser I. in the whole of his long Inscription has + not a single mention of them, though he speaks of his chariots + continually. In the sculptures of Asshur-izir-pal, the father of the + Black-Obelisk king, while chariots abound, horsemen occur only in rare + instances. Afterwards, under Sargon and Sennacherib, we notice a great + change in this respect. The chariot comes to be almost confined to the + king, while horsemen are frequent in the battle scenes. + </p> + <p> + In the first period the horses’ trappings consisted of a head-stall, a + collar, and one or more strings of beads. The head-stall was somewhat + heavy, closely resembling that of the chariot-horses of the time, + representations of which have been already given. It had the same heavy + axe-shaped bit, the same arrangement of straps, and nearly the same + ornamentation. The only marked difference was the omission of the crest or + plume, with its occasional accompaniment of streamers. The collar was very + peculiar. It consisted of a broad flap, probably of leather, shaped almost + like a half-moon, which was placed on the neck about half way between the + ears and the withers, and thence depended over the breast, where it was + broadened out and ornamented by large drooping tassels. Occasionally the + collar was plain, but more often it was elaborately patterned. Sometimes + pomegranates hung from it, alternating with the tassels. + </p> + <p> + The cavalry soldiers of this period ride without any saddle. Their legs + and feet are bare, and their seat is very remarkable. Instead of allowing + their legs to hang naturally down the horses’ sides, they draw them up + till their knees are on a level with their chargers’ backs, the object + (apparently) being to obtain a firm seat by pressing the base of the + horse’s neck between the two knees. The naked legs seem to indicate that + it was found necessary to obtain the fullest and freest play of the + muscles to escape the inconveniences of a fall. + </p> + <p> + The chief weapon of the cavalry at this time is the bow. Sword and shield + indeed are worn, but in no instance do we see them used. Cavalry soldiers + are either archers or mere attendants who are without weapons of offence. + One of these latter accompanies each horse-archer in battle, for the + purpose of holding and guiding his steed while he discharges his arrows. + The attendant wears a skull cap and a plain tunic, the archer has an + embroidered tunic, a belt to which his sword is attached, and one of the + ordinary pointed helmets. + </p> + <p> + In the second period the cavalry consists in part of archers, in part of + spearmen. Unarmed attendants are no longer found, both spearmen and + archers appearing to be able to manage their own horses. Saddles have now + come into common use: they consist of a simple cloth, or flap of leather, + which is either cut square, or shaped somewhat like the saddle-cloths of + our own cavalry. A single girth beneath the belly is their ordinary + fastening; but sometimes they are further secured by means of a strap or + band passed round the breast, and a few instances occur of a second strap + passed round the quarters. The breast-strap is generally of a highly + ornamented character. The headstall of this period is not unlike the + earlier one, from which it differs chiefly in having a crest, and also a + forehead ornament composed of a number of small bosses. It has likewise + commonly a strap across the nose, but none under the cheek-bones. It is + often richly ornamented, particularly with rosettes, bells, and tassels. + </p> + <p> + The old pendent collar is replaced by one encircling the neck about + halfway up, or is sometimes dispensed with altogether. Where it occurs, it + is generally of uniform width, and is ornamented with rosettes or tassels. + No conjecture has been formed of any use which either form of collar could + serve; and the probability is that they were intended solely for ornament. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0007" id="linkDimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate095.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 95 " /> + </div> + <p> + A great change is observable in the sculptures of the second period with + respect to the dress of the riders. <a href="#linkDimage-0007">[PLATE + XCV., Fig. 1.]</a> The cavalry soldier is now completely clothed, with the + exception of his two arms, which are bare from a little below the + shoulder. He wears most commonly a tunic which fits him closely about the + body, but below the waist expands into a loose kilt or petticoat, very + much longer behind than in front, which is sometimes patterned, and always + terminates in a fringe. Round his waist he has a broad belt; and another, + of inferior width, from which a sword hangs, passes over his left + shoulder. His legs are encased in a close-fitting pantaloon or trouser, + over which he wears a laced boot or greave, which generally reaches nearly + to the knee, though sometimes it only covers about half the calf. <a + href="#linkDimage-0007">[PLATE XCV., Fig. 2.]</a> This costume, which is + first found in the time of Sargon, and continues to the reign of + Asshur-bani-pal, Esarhaddon’s son, may probably be regarded as the regular + cavalry uniform under the monarchs of the Lower Empire. In Sennacherib’s + reign there is found in conjunction with it another costume, which is + unknown to the earlier sculptures. This consists of a dress closely + fitting the whole body, composed apparently of a coat of mail, leather or + felt breeches, and a high greave or jack boot. <a href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE + XCVI., Fig. 1.]</a> The wearers of this costume are spearmen or archers + indifferently. The former carry a long weapon, which has generally a + rather small head, and is grasped low down the shaft. The bow of the + latter is either round-arched or angular, and seems to be not more than + four feet in length; the arrows measure less than three feet, and are + slung in a quiver at the archer’s back. Both spearmen and archers commonly + carry swords, which are hung on the left side, in a diagonal, and + sometimes nearly in a horizontal position. In some few cases the spearman + is also an archer, and carries his bow on his right arm, apparently as a + reserve in case he should break or lose his spear. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0008" id="linkDimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate096.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 96 " /> + </div> + <p> + The seat of the horseman is far more graceful in the second than in the + first period his limbs appear to move freely, and his mastery over his + horse is such that he needs no attendant. The spearman holds the bridle in + his left hand; the archer boldly lays it upon the neck of his steed, who + is trained either to continue his charge, or to stand firm while a steady + aim is taken. <a href="#linkDimage-0007">[PLATE XCV., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In the sculptures of the son and successor of Esarhaddon, the horses of + the cavalry carry not unfrequently, in addition to the ordinary saddle or + pad, a large cloth nearly similar to that worn sometimes by + chariot-horses, of which a representation has been already given. It is + cut square with two drooping lappets, and covers the greater part of the + body. Occasionally it is united to a sort of breastplate which protects + the neck, descending about halfway clown the chest. The material may be + supposed to have been thick felt or leather, either of which would have + been a considerable protection against weapons. + </p> + <p> + While the cavalry and the chariots were regarded as the most important + portions of the military force, and were the favorite services with the + rich and powerful, there is still abundant reason to believe that Assyrian + armies, like most others, consisted mainly of foot. Ctesias gives Minis + 1,700,000 footmen to 210,000 horsemen, and 10,600 chariots. Xenophon + contrasts the multitude of the Assyrian infantry with the comparatively + scanty numbers of the other two services: Herodotus makes the Assyrians + serve in the army of Xerxes on foot only. The author of the book of Judith + assigns to Holofernes an infantry force ten times as numerous as his + cavalry.—The Assyrian monuments entirely bear out the general truth + involved in all these assertions, showing us, as they do, at least ten + Assyrian warriors on foot for each one mounted on horseback, and at least + a hundred for each one who rides in a chariot. However terrible to the + foes of the Assyrians may have been the shock of their chariots and the + impetuosity of their horsemen, it was probably to the solidity of the + infantry, to their valor, equipment, and discipline, that the empire was + mainly indebted for its long series of victories. + </p> + <p> + In the time of the earliest sculptures, all the Assyrian foot-soldiers + seem to have worn nearly the same costume. This consisted of a short + tunic, not quite reaching to the knees, confined round the waist by a + broad belt, fringed, and generally opening in front, together with a + pointed helmet, probably of metal. The arms, legs, neck, and even the + feet, were ordinarily bare, although these last had sometimes the + protection of a very simple sandal. <a href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE + XCVI., Fig. 2.]</a> Swordsmen used a small straight sword or dagger which + they wore at their left side in an ornamented sheath, and a shield which + was either convex and probably of metal, or oblong-square and composed of + wickerwork. <a href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE XCVI., Fig. 2.]</a> Spearmen + had shields of a similar shape and construction, and carried in their + right hands a short pike or javelin, certainly not exceeding five feet in + length. <a href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE XCVI., Fig. 4.]</a> Sometimes, + but not always, they carried, besides the pike, a short sword. Archers had + rounded bows about four feet in length, and arrows a little more than + three feet long. Their quivers, which were often highly ornamented, hung + at their backs, either over the right or over the left shoulder. <a + href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE XCVI., Fig. 4.]</a> They had swords + suspended at their left sides by a cross-belt, and often carried maces, + probably of bronze or iron, which bore a rosette or other ornament at one + end, and a ring or strap at the other. The tunics of archers were + sometimes elaborately embroidered; and on the whole they seem to have been + regarded as the flower of the foot-soldiery. Generally they are + represented in pairs, the two being in most cases armed and equipped + alike; but, occasionally, one of the pair acts as guard while the other + takes his aim. In this case both kneel on one knee, and the guard, + advancing his long wicker shield, protects both himself and his comrade + from missiles, while he has at the same time his sword drawn to repel all + hand-to-hand assailants. <a href="#linkDimage-0009">[PLATE XCVII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0009" id="linkDimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate097.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 97 " /> + </div> + <p> + In the early part of the second period, which synchronizes with the reign + of Sargon, the difference in the costumes of the foot-soldiers becomes + much more marked. The Assyrian infantry now consists of two great classes, + archers and spear-men. The archers are either light-armed or heavy-armed, + and of the latter there are two clearly distinct varieties. The + light-armed have no helmet, but wear on their heads a mere fillet or band, + which is either plain or patterned. <a href="#linkDimage-0008">[PLATE + XCVI., Fig. 3.]</a> Except for a cross-belt which supports the quiver, + they are wholly naked to the middle. Their only garment is a tunic of the + scantiest dimensions, beginning at the waist, round which it is fastened + by a broad belt or girdle, and descending little more than half-way down + the thigh. In its make it sometimes closely resembles the tunic of the + first period, but more often it has the peculiar pendent ornament which + has been compared to the scotch phillibeg, and which will be here given + that name. It is often patterned with squares and gradines. The + light-armed archer has usually bare feet; occasionally, however, he wears + the slight sandal of this period, which is little more than a cap for the + heel held in place by two or three strings passed across the instep. There + is nothing remarkable in his arms, which resemble those of the preceding + period: but it may be observed that, while shooting, he frequently holds + two arrows in his right hand besides that which is upon the string. He + shoots either kneeling or standing, generally the latter. His ordinary + position is in the van of battle, though sometimes a portion of the + heavy-armed troops precede him. He has no shield, and is not protected by + an attendant, thus running more risk than any of the rest of the army. + </p> + <p> + The more simply equipped of the heavy archers are clothed in a coat of + mail, which reaches from their neck to their middle, and partially covers + the arms. Below this they wear a fringed tunic reaching to the knees, and + confined at the waist by a broad belt of the ordinary character. Their + feet have in most instances the protection of a sandal, and they wear on + their heads the common or pointed helmet. They usually discharge their + arrows kneeling on the left knee, with the right foot advanced before + them. Daring this operation they are protected by an attendant, who is + sometimes dressed like themselves, sometimes merely clad a tunic, without + a coat of mail. Like them, he wears a pointed helmet; and while in one + hand he carries a spear, with the other he holds forward a shield, which + is either of a round form—apparently, of metal embossed with figures—or + oblong-square in shape, and evidently made of wickerwork. Archers of this + class are the least common, and scarcely ever occur unless in combination + with some of the class which has the heaviest equipment. + </p> + <p> + The principal characteristic of the third or most heavily armed class of + archers is the long robe, richly fringed, which descends nearly to their + feet, thus completely protecting all the lower part of their person. <a + href="#linkDimage-0009">[PLATE XCVII., Fig. 2.]</a> Above this they wear a + coat of mail exactly resembling that of archers of the intermediate class, + which is sometimes crossed by a belt ornamented with crossbars. Their head + is covered by the usual pointed helmet, and their feet are always, or + nearly always, protected by sandals. They are occasionally represented + without either sword or quiver, but more usually they have a short sword + at their left side, which appears to have been passed through their coat + of mail, between the armor plates, and in a few instances they have also + quivers at their backs. Where these are lacking, they generally either + carry two extra arrows in their right hand, or have the same number borne + for them by an attendant. They are never seen unattended: sometimes they + have one, sometimes two attendants, who accompany them, and guard them + from attack. One of these almost always bears the long wicker shield, + called by the Greeks [_yeppov_] which he rests firmly upon the ground in + front of himself and comrade. The other, where there is a second, stands a + little in the rear, and guards the archer’s head with a round shield or + targe. Both attendants are dressed in a short tunic, a phillibeg, a belt, + and a pointed helmet. Generally they wear also a coat of mail and sandals, + like those of the archer. They carry swords at their left sides, and the + principal attendant, except when he bears the archer’s arrows, guards him + from attack by holding in advance a short spear. The archers of this class + never kneel, but always discharge their arrows standing. They seem to be + regarded as the most important of the foot-soldiers, their services being + more particularly valuable in the siege of fortified places. + </p> + <p> + The spearmen of this period are scarcely better armed than the second or + intermediate class of archers. Except in very rare instances they have no + coat of mail, and their tunic, which is either plain or covered with small + squares, barely reaches to the knee. The most noticeable point about them + is their helmet, which is never the common pointed or conical one, but is + always surmounted by a crest of one kind or another. <a + href="#linkDimage-0009">[PLATE XCVII.. Fig. 3.]</a> Another very frequent + peculiarity is the arrangement of their cross-belts, which meet on the + back and breast, and are ornamented at the points of junction with a + circular disk, probably of metal. The shield of the spearman is also + circular, and is formed generally, if not always—of wickerwork, with + (occasionally) a central boss of wood or metal. <a href="#linkDimage-0009">[PLATE + XCVII., Fig. 4.]</a> In most cases their legs are wholly bare; but + sometimes they have sandals, while in one or two instances they wear a low + boot or greave laced in front, and resembling that of the cavalry. <a + href="#linkDimage-0009">[PLATE XCVII.. Fig. 4.]</a> The spear with which + they are armed varies in length, from about four to six feet. <a + href="#linkDimage-0010">[PLATE XCVIII.. Fig. 1.]</a> It is grasped near + the lower extremity, at which a weight was sometimes attached, in order + the better to preserve the balance. Besides this weapon they have the + ordinary short sword. The spear-men play an important part in the Assyrian + wars, particularly at sieges, where they always form the strength of the + storming party. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0010" id="linkDimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate098.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 98 " /> + </div> + <p> + Some important changes seen to have been made under Sennacherib in the + equipment and organization of the infantry force. These consisted chiefly + in the establishment of a greater number of distinct corps differently + armed, and in an improved equipment of the more important of them. + Sennacherib appears to have been the first to institute a corps of + slingers, who at any rate make their earliest appearance in his + sculptures. They were kind of soldier well-known to the Egyptians and + Sennacherib’s acquaintance with the Egyptian warfare may have led to their + introduction among the troops of Assyria. The slinger in most countries + where his services were employed was lightly clad, and reckoned almost as + a supernumerary. It is remarkable that in Assyria he is, at first, + completely armed according to Assyrian ideas of completeness, having a + helmet, a coat of mail to the waist, a tunic to the knees, a close-fitting + trouser, and a short boot or greave. The weapon which distinguishes him + appears to have consisted of two pieces of rope or string, attached to a + short leathern strap which received the stone. <a href="#linkDimage-0010">[PLATE + XCVIII., Fig. 4.]</a> Previous to making his throw, the slinger seems to + have whirled the weapon round his head two or three times, in order to + obtain on increased impetus—a practice which was also known to the + Egyptians and the Romans. With regard to ammunition, it does not clearly + appear how the Assyrian slinger was supplied. He has no bag like the + Hebrew slinger, no <i>sinus</i> like the Roman. Frequently we see him + simply provided with a single extra stone, which he carries in his left + hand. Sometimes, besides this reserve, he has a small heap of stones at + his feet; but whether he has collected them from the field, or has brought + them with him and deposited them where they lie, is not apparent. + </p> + <p> + Sennacherib’s archers fall into four classes, two of which may be called + heavy-armed and two light-armed. None of them exactly resemble the archers + of Sargon. The most heavily equipped wears a tunic, a coat of mail + reaching to the waist, a pointed helmet, a close-fitting trouser, and a + short boot or greave. <a href="#linkDimage-0010">[PLATE XCVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + He is accompanied by an attendant (or sometimes by two attendants) + similarly attired, and fights behind a large wicker shield or <i>gerrhon</i>. + A modification of this costume is worn by the second class, the archers of + which have bare legs, a tunic which seems to open at the side, and a + phillibeg. They fight without the protection of a shield, generally in + pairs, who shoot together. <a href="#linkDimage-0010">[PLATE XCVIII., Fig. + 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The better equipped of the light-armed archers of this period have a + costume which is very striking. Their head-dress consists of a broad + fillet, elaborately patterned, from which there often depends on either + side of the head a large lappet, also richly ornamented, generally of an + oblong-square shape, and terminating in a fringe. <a + href="#linkDimage-0010">[PLATE XCVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> Below this they wear + a closely fitting tunic, as short as that worn by the light-armed archers + of Sargon, sometimes patterned, like that, with squares and gradines, + sometimes absolutely plain. The upper part of this tunic is crossed by two + belts of very unusual breadth, which pass respectively over the right and + the left shoulder. There is also a third broad belt round the waist; and + both this and the transverse belts are adorned with elegant patterns. The + phillibeg depends from the girdle, and is seen in its full extent, hanging + either in front or on the right side. The arms are naked from the + shoulder, and the legs from considerably above the knee, the feet alone + being protected by a scanty sandal. The ordinary short sword is worn at + the side, and a quiver is carried at the back; the latter is sometimes + kept in place by means of a horizontal strap which passes over it and + round the body. <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE XCIX., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0011" id="linkDimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate099.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 99 " /> + </div> + <p> + The archers of the lightest equipment wear nothing but a fillet, with or + without lappets, upon the head, and a striped tunic, longer behind than in + front, which extends from the neck to the knees, and is confined at the + waist by a girdle. <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE XCIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + Their arms, legs, and feet are bare, they have seldom any sword, and their + quiver seems to be suspended only by a single horizontal strap, like that + represented in <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE XCIX., Fig. 2.]</a> They + do not appear very often upon the monuments: when seen, they are + interspersed among archers and soldiers of other classes. + </p> + <p> + Sennacherib’s foot spearmen are of two classes only. The better armed have + pointed helmets, with lappets protecting the ears, a coat of mail + descending to the waist and also covering all the upper part of the arms, + a tunic opening at the side, a phillibeg, close-fitting trousers, and + greaves of the ordinary character. <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE + XCIX., Fig. 3.]</a> They carry a large convex shield, apparently of metal, + which covers them almost from head to foot, and a spear somewhat less than + their own height. Commonly they have a short sword at their right side. + Their shield is often ornamented with rows of bosses towards the centre + and around the edge. It is ordinarily carried in front; but when the + warrior is merely upon the march, he often bears it slung at his back, as + in the accompanying representation. There is reason to suspect that the + spearmen of this description constituted the royal bodyguard. They are + comparatively few in number, and are usually seen in close proximity to + the monarch, or in positions which imply trust, as in the care of + prisoners and of the spoil. They never make the attacks in sieges, and are + rarely observed to be engaged in battle. Where several of them are seen + together, it is almost always in attendance upon the king whom they + constantly precede upon his journeys. + </p> + <p> + The inferior spearmen of Sennacherib are armed nearly like those of + Sargon. They have crested helmets, plain tunics confined at the waist by a + broad girdle, cross-belts ornamented with circular disks where they meet + in the centre of the breast, and, most commonly, round wicker shields. The + chief points wherein they differ from Sargon’s spearmen is the following: + they usually (though not universally) wear trousers and greaves; they have + sleeves to their tunics, winch descend nearly to the elbow; and they carry + sometimes, instead of the round shield, a long convex one arched at the + top. <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE XCIX., fig. 4.]</a> Where they have + not this defence, but the far commoner targe, it is always of larger + dimensions than the targe of Sargon, and is generally surrounded by a rim. + <a href="#linkDimage-0011">[PLATE XCIX., Fig. 4.]</a> Sometimes it appears + to be of metal: but more often it is of wickerwork, either of the plain + construction common in Sargon’s time, or of one considerably more + elaborate. + </p> + <p> + Among the foot soldiers of Sennacherib we seem to find a corps of + pioneers. They wear the same dress as the better equipped of the spearmen, + but carry in their hands, instead of a spear, a doubled-headed axe or + hatchet, wherewith they clear the ground for the passage and movements of + the army. They work in pairs, one pulling at the tree by its branches + while the other attacks the stem with his weapon. + </p> + <p> + After Sennacherib’s time we find but few alterations in the equipment of + the foot soldiers. Esarhaddon has left us no sculptures, and in those of + his son and successor, Asshur-bani pal, the costumes of Sennacherib are + for the most part reproduced almost exactly. The chief difference is that + there are not at this time quite so many varieties of equipment, both + archers and spearmen being alike divided into two classes only, light + armed and heavy-armed. The light-armed archers correspond to Sennacherib’s + bowmen of the third class. They have the fillet, the plain tunic, the + cross-belts, the broad girdle, and the phillibeg. They differ only in + having no lappets over the ears and no sandals. The heavy-armed archers + resemble the first class of Sennacherib exactly, except that they are not + seen shooting from behind the <i>gerrhon</i>. + </p> + <p> + In the case of the spearmen, the only novelty consists in the shields. The + spearmen of the heavier equipment, though sometimes they carry the old + convex oval shield, more often have one which is made straight at the + bottom, and rounded only at top. <a href="#linkDimage-0012">[PLATE C., + Fig. 1. ]</a> The spearmen of the lighter equipment have likewise commonly + a shield of this shape, but it is of wicker work instead of metal, like + that borne occasionally by the light-armed spearmen of Sennacherib. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0012" id="linkDimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate100.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 100 " /> + </div> + <p> + Besides spearmen and archers, we see among the foot soldiers of + Asshur-bani-pal, slingers, mace-bearers, and men armed with battle axes. + For the slingers Sennacherib’s heavy equipment has been discarded; and + they wear nothing but a plain tunic, with a girdle and cross-belts. <a + href="#linkDimage-0012">[PLATE C., Fig. 2.]</a> The mace-bearers and men + with axes have the exact dress of Asshur-bani-pal’s heavy-armed spearmen, + and may possibly be spearmen who have broken or lost their weapons. It + makes, however, against this view, that they have no shields, which + spearmen always carry. Perhaps, therefore, we must conclude that towards + the close of the empire, besides spearmen, slingers, and archers, there + were distinct corps of mace-bearers and axe-bearers. + </p> + <p> + The arms used by the Assyrians have been mentioned, and to a certain + extent described, in the foregoing remarks upon the various classes of + their soldiers. Some further details may, however, be now added on their + character and on the variety observable in them. + </p> + <p> + The common Assyrian pointed helmet has been sufficiently described + already, and has received abundant illustration both in the present and in + former chapters. It was at first regarded as Scythic in character; but Mr. + Layard long ago observed that the resemblance which it bears to the + Scythian cap is too slight to prove any connection. That cap appears, + whether we follow the foreign, or the native representations of it, to + have been of felt, whereas the Assyrian pointed helmet was made of metal: + it was much taller than the Assyrian head-dress, and it was less upright. + <a href="#linkDimage-0012">[PLATE C, Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The pointed helmet admitted of but few varieties. In its simplest form it + was a plain conical casque, with one or two rings round the base, and + generally with a half-disk in front directly over the forehead. <a + href="#linkDimage-0012">[PLATE C. Fig. 4.]</a> Sometimes, however, there + was appended to it a falling curtain covered with metal scales, whereby + the chin, neck, ears, and back of the head were protected. More often it + had, in lieu of this effectual but cumbrous guard, a mere lappet or + cheek-piece, consisting of a plate of metal, attached to the rim, which + descended over the ears in the form of a half-oval or semicircle. If we + may judge by the remains actually found, the chief material of the helmet + was iron; copper was used only for the rings and the half-disk in front, + which were inlaid into the harder metal. + </p> + <p> + As if to compensate themselves for the uniformity to which they submitted + in this instance, the Assyrians indulged in a variety of crested helmets. + <a href="#linkDimage-0012">[PLATE. C., Fig. 5.]</a> We cannot positively + say that they invented the crest; but they certainly dealt with it in the + free spirit which is usually seen where a custom is of home growth and not + a foreign importation. They used either a plain metal crest, or one + surmounted by tuffs of hair; and they either simply curved the crest + forwards over the front of the helmet, or extended it and carried it + back-wards also. In this latter case they generally made the curve a + complete semicircle, while occasionally they were content with a small + segment, less even than a quarter of a circle. They also varied + considerably the shape of the lappet over the ear, and the depth of the + helmet behind and before the lappet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0013" id="linkDimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate101.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 101 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian coats of mail were of three sizes, and of two different + constructions. In the earlier times they were worn long, descending either + to the feet or to the knees; and at this period they seem to have been + composed simply of successive rows of similar iron scales sewn on to a + shirt of linen or felt. <a href="#linkDimage-0013">[PLATE CI., Fig. 1.]</a> + Under the later monarchs the coat of mail reached no lower than the waist, + and it was composed of alternate bands of dissimilar arrangement and + perhaps of different material. Mr. Layard suggests that at this time the + scales, which were larger than before, were “fastened to bands of iron or + copper.” But it is perhaps more probable that scales of the old character + alternated in rows with scales of a new shape and smaller dimensions. <a + href="#linkDimage-0013">[PLATE CI., Fig. 2.]</a> The old scales were + oblong, squared at one end and rounded at the other, very much resembling + the Egyptian. They were from two to three inches, or more, in length, and + were placed side by side, so that their greater length corresponded with + the height of the wearer. The new scales seem to have been not more than + an inch long; they appear to have been pointed at one end, and to have + been laid horizontally, each a little overlapping its fellow. It was + probably found that this construction, while possessing quite as much + strength as the other, was more favorable to facility of movement. + </p> + <p> + Remains of armor belonging to the second period have been discovered in + the Assyrian ruins. The scales are frequently embossed over their whole + surface with groups of figures and fanciful ornaments. The small scales of + the first period have no such elaborate ornamentation, being simply + embossed in the centre with a single straight line, which is of copper + inlaid into the iron. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian coat of mail, like the Egyptian, had commonly a short sleeve, + extending about half way down to the elbow. <a href="#linkDimage-0013">[PLATE + CI.. Fig. 1.]</a> This was either composed of scales set similarly to + those of the rest of the cuirass, or of two, three, or more rows placed at + right angles to the others. The greater part of the arm was left without + any protection. + </p> + <p> + A remarkable variety existed in the form and construction of the Assyrian + shields. The most imposing kind is that which has been termed the <i>gerrhon</i>, + from its apparent resemblance to the Persian shield mentioned under that + name by Herodotus. <a href="#linkDimage-0013">[PLATE CI.. Fig. 1.]</a> + This was a structure in wickerwork, which equalled or exceeded the warrior + in height, and which was broad enough to give shelter to two or even three + men. In shape it was either an oblong square, or such a square with a + projection at top, which stood out at right angles to the body of the + shield; or, lastly, and most usually, it curved inwards from a certain + height, gradually narrowing at the same time, and finally ending in a + point. Of course a shield of this vast size, even although formed of a + light material, was too heavy to be very readily carried upon the arm. The + plan adopted was to rest it upon the ground, on which it was generally + held steady by a warrior armed with sword or spear, while his comrade, + whose weapon was the bow, discharged his arrows from behind its shelter. + Its proper place was in sieges, where the roof-like structure at the top + was especially useful in warding off the stones and other missiles which + the besieged threw down upon their assailants. We sometimes see it + employed by single soldiers, who lean the point against the wall of the + place, and, ensconcing themselves beneath the penthouse thus improvised, + proceed to carry on the most critical operations of the siege in almost + complete security. + </p> + <p> + Modifications of this shield, reducing it to a smaller and more portable + size, were common in the earlier times, when among the shields most + usually borne we find one of wicker-work oblong-square in shape, and + either perfectly fiat, or else curving slightly inwards both at top and at + bottom. This shield was commonly about half the height of a man, or a + little more; it was often used as a protection for two, but must have been + scanty for that purpose. + </p> + <p> + Round shields were commoner in Assyria than any others. They were used by + most of those who fought in chariots, by the early monarchs’ personal + attendants, by the cross-belted spear-men, and by many of the spearmen who + guarded archers. In the most ancient times they seem to have been + universally made of solid metal, and consequently they were small, perhaps + not often exceeding two feet, or two feet and a half, in diameter. They + were managed by means of a very simple handle, placed in the middle of the + shield at the back, and fastened to it by studs or nails, which was not + passed over the arm but grasped by the hand. The rim was bent inwards, so + as to form a deep groove all round the edge. The material of which these + shields were composed was in some cases certainly bronze; in others it may + have been iron: in a few silver, or even gold. Some metal shields were + perfectly plain; others exhibited a number of concentric rings, others + again were inlaid or embossed with tasteful and elaborate patterns. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0014" id="linkDimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate102.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 102 " /> + </div> + <p> + Among the later Assyrians the round metal shield seems to have been almost + entirely disused, its place being supplied by a wicker buckler of the same + shape, with a rim round the edge made of solid wood or of metal, and + sometimes with a boss in the centre. <a href="#linkDimage-0014">[PLATE + CII., Fig. 1.]</a> The weight of the metal shield must have been + considerable; and this both limited their size and made it difficult to + move them with rapidity. With the change of material we perceive a decided + increase of magnitude, the diameter of the wicker buckler being often + fully half the warrior’s height, or not much short of three feet. + </p> + <p> + Convex shields, generally of an oblong form, were also in common use + during the later period, and one kind is found in the very earliest + sculptures. This is of small dimensions and of a clumsy make. Its curve is + slight, and it is generally ornamented with a perpendicular row of spikes + or teeth, in the centre of which we often see the head of a lion. <a + href="#linkDimage-0014">[PLATE CII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The convex shields of later date were very much larger than these. <a + href="#linkDimage-0015">[PLATE CIII., Fig. 3.]</a> They were sometimes + square at bottom and rounded at top, in which case they were either made + of wickerwork, or (apparently) of metal. These latter had generally a boss + in the centre, and both this and the edge of the shield were often + ornamented with a row of rosettes or rings. Shields of this shape were + from four to five feet in height, and protected the warrior from the head + to the knee. On a march they were often worn upon the back, like the + convex shield of the Egyptians, which they greatly resembled. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0015" id="linkDimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate103.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 103 " /> + </div> + <p> + The more ordinary convex shield was of an oval form, like the convex + shield of the Greeks, but larger, and with a more prominent centre. <a + href="#linkDimage-0015">[PLATE CIII., Fig. 1.]</a> In its greater diameter + it must often have exceeded five feet, though no doubt sometimes it was + smaller. It was generally ornamented with narrow bands round the edge and + round the boss at the centre, the space between the bands being frequently + patterned with ring; or otherwise. Like the other form of convex shield, + it could be slung at the back, and was so carried on marches, on crossing + rivers, and other similar occasions. + </p> + <p> + The offensive arms certainly used by the Assyrians were the bow, the + spear, the sword, the mace, the sling, the axe or hatchet, and the dagger. + They may also have occasionally made use of the javelin, which is + sometimes seen among the arrows of a quiver. But the actual employment of + this weapon in war has not yet been found upon the bas-reliefs. If + faithfully represented, it must have been very short,—scarcely, if + at all, exceeding three feet. <a href="#linkDimage-0015">[PLATE CIII., + Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Assyrian bows were of two kinds, curved and angular. Compared with the + Egyptian, and with the bows used by the archers of the middle ages, they + were short, the greatest length of the strung bow being about four feet. + They seem to have been made of a single piece of wood, which in the + angular bow was nearly of the same thickness throughout, but in the curved + one tapered gradually towards the two extremities. At either end was a + small knob or button, in the later times often carved into the + representation of a duck’s head. <a href="#linkDimage-0015">[PLATE CIII, + Fig. 3.]</a> Close above this was a notch or groove, whereby the string + was held in place. The mode of stringing was one still frequently + practised in the East. The bowman stooped, and placing his right knee + against the middle of the bow on its inner side, pressed it downwards, at + the same time drawing the two ends of the bow upwards with his two hands. + <a href="#linkDimage-0015">[PLATE CIII, Fig. 4.]</a> A comrade stood by, + and, when the ends were brought sufficiently near, slipped the string over + the knob into the groove, where it necessarily remained. The bend of the + bow, thus strung, was slight. When full drawn, however, it took the shape + of a half-moon, which shows that it must have possessed great elasticity. + <a href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE CIV., Fig. 4.]</a> The bow was known to + be full drawn when the head of the arrow touched the archer’s left hand. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0016" id="linkDimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate104.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 104 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Assyrian angular bow was of smaller size than the curved one. It was + not often carried unless as a reserve by those who also possessed the + larger and better weapon. <a href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE CIV., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Bows were but seldom unstrung. When not in use, they were carried strung, + the archer either holding them by the middle with his left hand, or + putting his arm through them, and letting them rest upon his shoulders, or + finally carrying them at his back in a bow case. <a href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE + CIV., Fig. I. ]</a> The bow-case was a portion of the quiver, as + frequently with the Greeks, and held only the lower half of the bow, the + upper portion projecting from it. + </p> + <p> + Quivers were carried by foot and horse archers at their backs, in a + diagonal position, so that the arrows could readily be drawn from them + over the right shoulder. They were commonly slung in this position by a + strap of their own, attached to two rings, one near the top and the other + near the bottom of the quiver, which the archer slipped over his left arm + and his head. Sometimes, however, this strap seems to have been wanting, + and the quiver was either thrust through one of the cross-belts, or + attached by a strap which passed horizontally round the body a little + above the girdle. <a href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE CIV.,Fig. 2.]</a> The + archers who rode in chariots carried their quivers at the chariot’s side, + in the manner which has been already described and illustrated. + </p> + <p> + The ornamentation of quivers was generally elaborate. <a + href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE CIV., Fig. 3.]</a> Rosettes and bands + constituted their most usual adornment; but sometimes these gave place to + designs of a more artistic character, as wild bulls, griffins, and other + mythic figures. Several examples of a rich type have been already given in + the representations of chariots, but none exhibit this peculiarity. One + further specimen of a chariot quiver is therefore appended, which is among + the most tasteful hitherto discovered. <a href="#linkDimage-0016">[PLATE + CIV., Fig. 3. ]</a> + </p> + <p> + The quivers of the foot and horse archers were less richly adorned than + those of the bowmen who rode in chariots, but still they were in almost + every case more or less patterned. The rosette and the band here too + constituted the chief resource of the artist, who, however, often + introduced with good effect other well-known ornaments, as the guilloche, + the boss and cross, the zigzag, etc. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the quiver had an ornamented rod attached to it, which projected + beyond the arrows and terminated in a pomegranate blossom or other similar + carving. <a href="#linkDimage-0017">[PLATE CV. Fig. 1]</a>. To this rod + was attached the rings which received the quiver strap, a triple tassel + hanging from them at the point of attachment. The strap was probably of + leather, and appears to have been twisted or plaited. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0017" id="linkDimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate105.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 105 " /> + </div> + <p> + It is uncertain whether the material of the quivers was wood or metal. As, + however, no remains of quivers have been discovered in any of the ruins, + while helmets, shields, diggers, spear-heads, and arrow-heads have been + found in tolerable abundance, we may perhaps assume that they were of the + more fragile substance, which would account for their destruction. In this + case their ornamentation may have been either by carving or painting, the + bosses and rosettes being perhaps in some cases of metal, mother-of-pearl, + or ivory. Ornaments of this kind were discovered by hundreds at Nimrud in + a chamber which contained arms of many descriptions. Quivers have in some + cases a curious rounded head, which seems to have been a lid or cap used + for covering the arrows. They have also, occasionally, instead of this, a + kind of bag at their top, which falls backwards, and is ornamented with + tassels. <a href="#linkDimage-0017">[PLATE CV., Fig. 2.]</a> Both these + constructions, however, are exceptional, a very large majority of the + quivers being open, and having the feathered ends of the arrows projecting + from them. + </p> + <p> + There is nothing remarkable in the Assyrian arrows except their perfect + finish and completeness in all that constitutes the excellence of such a + weapon. The shaft was thin and straight, and was probably of reed, or of + some light and tough wood. The head was of metal, either of bronze or + iron, and was generally diamond-shaped, like a miniature spear-head. <a + href="#linkDimage-0017">[PLATE CV., Fig. 4. ]</a> It was flattish, and for + greater strength had commonly a strongly raised line down the centre. The + lower end was hollowed, and the shaft was inserted into it. The notching + and feathering of the shaft were carefully attended to. It is doubtful + whether three feathers were used, as by ourselves and by the Egyptians, or + two only as by many nations. The fact that we never see more than two + feathers upon the monuments cannot be considered decisive, since the + Assyrian artists, from their small knowledge of perspective, would have + been unable to represent all three feathers. So far as we can judge from + the representations, it would seem that the feathers were glued to the + wood exactly as they are with ourselves. The notch was somewhat large, + projecting beyond the line of the shaft—a construction rendered + necessary by the thickness of the bowstring., which was seldom less than + of the arrow it-self. <a href="#linkDimage-0017">[PLATE CV., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The mode of drawing the bow was peculiar. It was drawn neither to the ear, + nor to the breast, but to the shoulder. In the older sculptures the hand + that draws it is represented in a curiously cramped and unnatural + position, which can scarcely be supposed to be true to nature. But in the + later bas-reliefs greater accuracy seems to have been attained, and there + we probably see the exact mode in which the shooting was actually managed. + The arrow was taken below the feathers by the thumb and forefinger of the + right hand, the forefinger bent down upon it in the way represented in the + accompanying illustration, and the notch being then placed upon the + string, the arrow was drawn backwards by the thumb and forefinger only, + the remaining three fingers taking no part in the operation. <a + href="#linkDimage-0018">[PLATE CVI., Fig. 1.]</a> The bow was grasped by + the left hand between the fingers and the muscle of the thumb, the thumb + itself being raised, and the arrow made to pass between it and the bow, by + which it was kept in place and prevented from slipping. The arrow was then + drawn till the cold metal head touched the forefinger of the left hand, + upon which the right hand quitted its hold, and the shaft sped on its way. + To save the left arm from being bruised or cut by the bowstring, a guard, + often simply yet effectively ornamented, was placed upon it, at one end + passing round the thumb and at the other round the arm a little above the + elbow. <a href="#linkDimage-0018">[PLATE CVI., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0018" id="linkDimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate106.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 106 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Assyrians had two kinds of spears, one a comparatively short weapon, + varying from five to six feet in length, with which they armed a portion + of their foot soldiers, the other a weapon nine or ten feet long, which + was carried by most of their cavalry. The shaft seems in both cases to + have been of wood, and the head was certainly of metal, either bronze or + iron. <a href="#linkDimage-0018">[PLATE CVI., Fig. 3.]</a> It was most + usually diamond-shaped, but sometimes the side angles were rounded off, + and the contour became that of an elongated pear. <a + href="#linkDimage-0018">[PLATE CVI., Fig. 4.]</a> In other instances, the + jambs of the spear-head were exceedingly short, and the point long and + tapering. The upper end of the shaft was sometimes weighted, and it was + often carved into some ornamental form, as a fir-cone or a pomegranate + blossom, while in the earlier times it was further occasionally adorned + with streamers. <a href="#linkDimage-0018">[PLATE CVI., Fig. 4.]</a> The + spear of the Assyrians seems never to have been thrown, like that of the + Greeks, but was only used to thrust with, as a pike. + </p> + <p> + The common sword of the Assyrians was a short straight weapon, like the + sword of the Egyptians, or the <i>acinaces</i> of the Persians. It was + worn at the left side, generally slung by a belt of its own which was + passed over the right shoulder, but sometimes thrust through the girdle or + (apparently) through the armor. It had a short rounded handle, more or + less ornamented <a href="#linkDimage-0019">[PLATE CVII.. Fig. 1]</a>, but + without any cross-bar or guard, and a short blade which tapered gradually + from the handle to the point. The swordsman commonly thrust with his + weapon, but he could cut with it likewise, for it was with this arm that + the Assyrian warrior was wont to decapitate his fallen enemy. The sheath + of the sword was almost always tastefully designed, and sometimes + possessed artistic excellence of a high order. <a href="#linkDimage-0019">[PLATE + CVII., Fig. 3.]</a> The favorite terminal ornament consisted of two lions + clasping one another, with their heads averted and their mouths agape. + Above this, patterns in excellent taste usually adorned the scabbard, + which moreover exhibited occasionally groups of figures, sacred trees, and + other mythological objects. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0019" id="linkDimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate107.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 107 " /> + </div> + <p> + Instead of the short sword, the earlier warriors had a weapon of a + considerable length. This was invariably slung at the side by a cross-belt + passing over the shoulder. In its ornamentation it closely resembled the + later short sword, but its hilt was longer and more tasteful. + </p> + <p> + One or two instances occur where the sword of an Assyrian warrior is + represented as curved slightly. The sheath in these cases is plain, and + terminates in a button. <a href="#linkDimage-0019">[PLATE CVII, Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian mace was a short thin weapon, and must either have been made + of a very tough wood, or—and this is more probable of metal. <a + href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE CVIII., Fig. 7.]</a> It had an ornamented + head, which was sometimes very beautifully modelled and generally a strap + or string at the lower end, by which it could be grasped with greater + firmness. Foot archers frequently carried it in battle, especially those + who were in close attendance upon the king’s person. It seems, however, + not to have been often used as a warlike weapon until the time of the + latest sculptures, when we see it wielded, generally with both hands, by a + certain number of the combatants. In peace it was very commonly borne by + the royal attendants, and it seems also to have been among the weapons + used by the monarch himself, for whom it is constantly carried by one of + those who wait most closely upon his person. <a href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE., + CVIII., Fig. I.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0020" id="linkDimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate108.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 108 " /> + </div> + <p> + The battle-axe was a weapon but rarely employed by the Assyrians. It is + only in the very latest sculptures and in a very few instances that we + find axes represented as used by the warriors for any other purpose + besides the felling of trees. Where they are seen in use against the + enemy, the handle is short, the head somewhat large, and the weapon + wielded with one hand. Battle-axes had heads of two kinds. <a + href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE CVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> Some were made with + two blades, like the <i>bipennis</i> of the Romans. and the <i>labra</i> + of the Lydians and Carians; others more nearly resembled the weapons used + by our own knights in the middle ages, having a single blade, and a mere + ornamental point on the other side of the haft. + </p> + <p> + The dagger was worn by the Assyrian kings at almost all times in their + girdles, and was further often assigned to the mythic winged beings, hawk + headed or human-headed, which occur so frequently in the sculptures; but + it seems to have been very seldom carried by subjects. It had commonly a + straight handle, slightly concave, and very richly chased, exhibiting the + usual Assyrian patterns, rosettes, chevrons, guilloches, pine-cones, and + the like. <a href="#linkDimage-0019">[PLATE CVII., Fig. 6.]</a> Sometimes, + however, it was still more artistically shaped, being cast into the form + of a horse’s head and neck. In this case there was occasionally a chain + attached at one end to the horse’s chin, and at the other to the bottom of + his neck, which, passing outside the hand, would give it a firmer hold on + the weapon. The sheaths of daggers seem generally to have been plain, or + nearly so, but occasionally they terminated in the head of an animal, from + whose mouth depended a tassel. <a href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE CVIII., + Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Though the Assyrian troops were not marshalled by the aid of standards, + like the Roman and the Egyptian, yet still a kind of standard is + occasionally to be recognized in the bas-reliefs. This consists of a pole + of no great height, fixed upright at the front of a chariot, between the + charioteer and the warrior, and carrying at the top a circular frame, + within which are artistic representations of gods or sacred animals. Two + bulls, back to back, either trotting or running at speed, are a favorite + device. Above there sometimes stands a figure in a horned cap, shooting + his arrows against the enemy. Occasionally only one bull is represented, + and the archer shoots standing upon the bull’s back. Below the circular + framework are minor ornaments, as lions’ and bulls’ heads, or streamers + adorned with tassels. <a href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE CVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + We do not obtain much information from the monuments with respect to the + military organization or the the tactics of the Assyrians. It is clear, + however, that they had advanced beyond the first period in military + matters, when men fight in a confused mass of mingled horse, foot, and + chariots, heavy-armed and light-armed spear-men, archers, and stingers, + each standing and moving as mere chance may determine. It is even certain + that they had advanced beyond the second period, when the phalanx order of + battle is adopted, the confused mass being replaced by a single serried + body presenting its best armed troops to the enemy, and keeping in the + rear, to add their weight to the charge, the weaker and more imperfectly + protected. It was not really left for Cyaxares the Mede to be the first to + organize an Asiatic army—to divide the troops into companies and + form distinct bodies of the spearmen, the archers, and the cavalry. The + Assyrian troops were organized in this way, at least from the time of + Sennacherib, on whose sculptures we find, in the first place, bodies of + cavalry on the march unaccompanied by infantry; secondly, engagements + where cavalry only are acting against the enemy; thirdly, long lines of + spearmen on foot marching in double file, and sometimes divided into + companies; and, fourthly, archers drawn up together, but similarly divided + into companies, each distinguished by its own uniform. We also meet with a + corps of pioneers, wearing a uniform and armed only with a hatchet, and + with bodies of slingers, who are all armed and clothed alike. If, in the + battles and the sieges of this time, the troops seem to be to a great + extent confused together, we may account for it partly by the inability of + the Assyrian artists to represent bodies of troops in perspective, partly + by their not aiming at an actual, but rather at a typical representation + of events, and partly also by their fondness for representing, not the + preparation for battle or its first shock, but the rout and flight of the + enemy and their own hasty pursuit of them. + </p> + <p> + The wars of the Assyrians, like those of ancient Rome, consisted of annual + inroads into the territories of their neighbors, repeated year after year, + till the enemy was exhausted, sued for peace, and admitted the suzerainty + of the more powerful nation. The king in person usually led forth his + army, in spring or early summer, when the mountain passes were opened, + and, crossing his own borders, invaded some one or other of the adjacent + countries. The monarch himself invariably rode forth in his chariot, + arrayed in his regal robes, and with the tiara upon his head: he was + accompanied by numerous attendants, and generally preceded and followed by + the spearmen of the Royal Guard, and a detachment of horse-archers. + Conspicuous among the attendants were the charioteer who managed the + reins, and the parasol-bearer, commonly a eunuch, who, standing in the + chariot behind the monarch, held the emblem of sovereignty over his head. + A bow-bearer, a quiver-bearer, and a mace-bearer were usually also in + attendance, walking before or behind the chariot of the king, who, + however, did not often depend for arms wholly upon them, but carried a bow + in his left hand, and one or more arrows in his right, while he had a + further store of the latter either in or outside his chariot. Two or three + led horses were always at hand, to furnish a means of escape in any + difficulty. The army, marshalled in its several corps, in part preceded + the royal <i>cortege</i>, in part followed at a little distance behind it. + </p> + <p> + On entering the enemy’s country, if a wooded tract presented itself, the + corps of pioneers was thrown out in advance, and cleared away the + obstructions. When a river was reached too deep to be forded, the horses + were detached from the royal and other chariots by grooms and attendants; + the chariots themselves were embarked upon boats and rowed across the + stream; while the horses, attached by ropes to a post near the stern of + the boat, swam after it. The horses of the cavalry were similarly drawn + across by their riders. The troops, both cavalry and infantry, and the + attendants, a very numerous body, swam the stream, generally upon inflated + skins, which they placed under them, holding the neck in their left hand, + and sometimes increasing the inflation as they went by applying the + orifice at the top of the neck to their mouths. <a href="#linkDimage-0020">[PLATE + CVIII., Fig. 3.]</a> We have no direct evidence as to the mode in which + the baggage of an army, which must have been very considerable, was + conveyed, either along the general line of route, or when it was necessary + to cross a river. We may conjecture that in the latter case it was + probably placed upon rafts supported on inflated skins, such as those + which conveyed stones from distant quarries to be used in the Assyrian + buildings. In the former, we may perhaps assume that the conveyance was + chiefly by beasts of burden, camels and asses, as the author of the book + of Judith imagined. Carts may have been used to some extent; since they + were certainly employed to convey back to Assyria the spoil of the + conquered nations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0021" id="linkDimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate109.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 109 " /> + </div> + <p> + It does not appear whether the army generally was provided with tents or + not. Possibly the bulk of the soldiers may have bivouacked in the open + field, unless when they were able to obtain shelter in towns or villages + taken from the enemy. Tents, however, were certainly provided for the + monarch and his suite. <a href="#linkDimage-0021">[PLATE CIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + Like the tents of the Romans, these appear to have been commonly pitched + within a fortified enclosure, which was of an oval shape. They were + disposed in rows, and were all nearly similar in construction and form, + the royal tent being perhaps distinguished from the others by a certain + amount of ornamentation and by a slight superiority of size. The material + used for the covering was probably felt. All the tents were made open to + the sky in the centre, but closed in at either extremity with a curious + semicircular top. <a href="#linkDimage-0021">[PLATE CIX., Fig. 1.]</a> The + two tops were unequal of size. Internally, either both of them, or at any + rate the larger ones, were supported by a central pole, which threw out + branches in different directions resembling the branches of a tree or the + spokes of a parasol. Sometimes the walls of the tent had likewise the + support of poles, which were kept in place by ropes passed obliquely from + the top of each to the ground in front of them, and then firmly secured by + pegs. Each tent had a door, square-headed, which was placed at the side, + near the end which had the smaller covering. The furniture of tents + consisted of tables, couches, footstools, and domestic utensils of various + kinds. <a href="#linkDimage-0021">[PLATE CIX., Fig. 1.]</a> Within the + fortified enclosure, but outside the tents, were the chariot and horses of + the monarch, an altar where sacrifice could be made, and a number of + animals suitable for food, as oxen, sheep, and goats. + </p> + <p> + It appears that occasionally the advance of the troops was along a road. + Ordinarily, however, they found no such convenience, but had to press + forward through woods and over mountains as they best could. Whatever the + obstructions, the chariot of the monarch was in some way or other conveyed + across them, though it is difficult to suppose that he could have always + remained, as he is represented, seated in it. Probably he occasionally + dismounted, and made use of one of the led horses by which he was always + accompanied, while sometimes he even condescended to proceed on foot. <a + href="#linkDimage-0021">[PLATE CIX., Fig. 2.]</a> Tile use of palanquins + or litters seem not to have been known to the Assyrians, though it was + undoubtedly very ancient in Asia; but the king was sometimes carried on + men’s shoulders, seated on his throne in the way that we see the enthroned + gods borne in many of the sculptures. + </p> + <p> + The first object in entering a country was to fight, if possible, a + pitched battle with the inhabitants. The Assyrians were always confident + of victory in such an encounter, being better armed, better disciplined, + and perhaps of stronger frames than any of their neighbors. There is no + evidence to show how their armies were drawn up, or how the troops were + handled in an engagement; but it would seem that in most cases, after a + longer or a shorter resistance, the enemy broke and fled, sometimes + throwing away his arms, at other tunes fighting as he retired, always + vigorously pursued by horse and foot, and sometimes driven headlong into a + river. Quarter was not very often given in a battle. The barbarous + practice of rewarding those who carried back to camp the heads of foemen + prevailed; and this led to the massacre in many cases even of the wounded, + the disarmed, and the unresisting, though occasionally quarter was given, + more especially to generals and other leading personages whom it was of + importance to take alive. Even while the engagement continued, it would + seem that soldiers might quit the ranks, decapitate a fallen foe, and + carry off his head to the rear, without incurring any reproof; and it is + certain that, so soon as the engagement was over, the whole army turned to + beheading the fallen, using for this purpose the short sword which almost + every warrior carried at his left side. A few unable to obtain heads, were + forced to be content with gathering the spoils of the slain and of the + fled, especially their arms, such as quivers, hews, helmets, and the like; + while their more fortunate comrades, proceeding to an appointed spot in + the rear, exhibited the tokens of their valor, or of their good luck, to + the royal scribes, who took an exact account of the amount, of the spoil, + and of the number of the enemy killed. + </p> + <p> + When the enemy could no longer resist in the open field, he usually fled + to his strongholds. Almost all the nations with whom the Assyrians waged + their wars possessed fortified cities, or castles, which seem to have been + places constructed with a good deal of skill, and possessed of no + inconsiderable strength. According to the representations of the + sculptures, they were all nearly similar in character, the defences + consisting of high battlemented walls, pierced with loopholes or windows + towards their upper part, and flanked at intervals along their whole + course by towers. <a href="#linkDimage-0021">[PLATE CIX., Fig. 3.]</a> + Often they possessed two or more <i>enceintes</i>, which in the + bas-reliefs are represented one above the other; and in these cases the + outermost circuit was sometimes a mere plain continuous wall, as in the + illustration. They were entered by large gateways, most commonly arched, + and closed by two huge gates or doors, which completely filled up the + aperture. Occasionally, however, the gateways were square-headed, as in + the illustration, where there occurs, moreover, a very curious + ornamentation of the battlements. <a href="#linkDimage-0022">[PLATE CX., + Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0022" id="linkDimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate110.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 110 " /> + </div> + <p> + These fortified places the Assyrians attacked in three principal ways. + Sometimes they endeavored to take them by escalade, advancing for this + purpose a number of long ladders against different parts of the walls, + thus distracting the enemy’s attention and seeking to find a weak point. + Up the ladders proceeded companies of spearmen and archers in combination, + the spearmen invariably taking the lead, since their large shields + afforded them a protection which archers advancing in file up a ladder + could not have. Meanwhile from below a constant discharge was kept up by + bowmen and slingers, the former of whom were generally protected by the <i>gerrhon</i> + or high wicker shield, held in front of them by a comrade. The besieged + endeavored to dislodge and break the ladders, which are often represented + in fragments; or, failing in this attempt, sought by hurling down large + stones, and by discharges from their bows and slings, to precipitate and + destroy their assailants. If finally they were unable by these means to + keep the Assyrians from reaching the topmost rounds of the ladders, they + had recourse to their spears, and man to man, spear to spear, and shield + to shield, they still struggled to defend themselves. The Assyrians always + represent the sieges which they conduct as terminating successfully: but + we may be tolerably sure that in many instances the invader was beaten + back, and forced to relinquish his prey, or to try fresh methods of + obtaining it. + </p> + <p> + If the escalade failed, or if it was thought unadvisable to attempt it, + the plan most commonly adopted was to try the effect of the battering-ram. + <a href="#linkDimage-0022">[PLATE CX., Fig. 3.]</a> The Assyrian armies + were abundantly supplied with these engines, of which we see as many as + seven engaged in a single siege. They were variously designed and + arranged. Some had a head shaped like the point of a spear; others, one + more resembling the end of a blunderbuss. All of them were covered with a + frame-work, which was of ozier, wood, felt, or skins, for the better + protection of those who worked the implement; but some appear to have been + stationary, having their framework resting on the ground itself, while + others were moveable, being provided with wheels, which in the early times + were six, but in the later times four only. Again, sometimes, combined + with the ram and its framework was a moveable tower containing soldiers, + who at once fought the enemy on a level, and protected the engine from + their attacks. Fire was the weapon usually turned against the ram, + torches, burning tow, or other inflammable substances being cast from the + walls upon its framework, which, wherever it was of ozier or of wood, + could be easily set alight and consumed. To prevent this result, the + workers of the ram were sometimes provided with a supply of water, which + they could direct through leathern or metal pipes against the + combustibles. At other times they sought to protect themselves by + suspending from a pole in front of their engine a curtain of cloth, + leather, or some other non-inflammable substance. + </p> + <p> + Another mode of meeting the attacks of the battering-ram was by catching + the point with a chain suspended by its two ends from the walls, and then, + when the ram was worked, diverting the stroke by drawing the head upwards. + To oppose this device, the besiegers provided some of their number with + strong metal hooks, and stationed them below the ram, where they watched + for the descent of the chain. As soon as ever it caught the head of the + ram, they inserted their hooks into its links, and then hanging upon it + with their whole weight, prevented its interference with the stroke. + </p> + <p> + Battering-rams were frequently used against the walls from the natural + ground at their foot. Sometimes, however, the besiegers raised vast mounds + against the ramparts, and advanced their engines up these, thus bringing + theirs on a level with the upper and weaker portions of the defences. Of + this nature probably were the mounds spoken of in Scripture as employed by + the Babylonians and Egyptians, as well as the Assyrians, in their sieges + of cities. The intention was not so much to pile up the mounds till they + were on a level with the top of the walls as to work the battering-ram + with greater advantage from them. A similar use was made of mounds by the + Peloponnesian Greeks, who nearly succeeded in taking Plataea in this way. + The mounds were not always composed entirely of earth; the upper portion + was often made of several layers of stone or brick, arranged in regular + order, so as to form a sort of paved road, up which the rams might be + dragged with no great difficulty. Trees, too, were sometimes cut down and + built into the mound. + </p> + <p> + Besides battering-rams, the Assyrians appear to have been acquainted with + an engine resembling the catapult, or rather the <i>balista</i> of the + Romans. <a href="#linkDimage-0023">[PLATE CXI., Fig. 1.]</a> This engine, + which was of great height, and threw stones of a large size, was + protected, like the ram, by a framework, apparently of wood, covered with + canvas, felt, or hides. The stones thrown from the engine were of + irregular shape, and it was able to discharge several at the same time. + The besiegers worked it from a mound or inclined plane, which enabled them + to send their missiles to the top of the ramparts. It had to be’ brought + very close to the walls in order to be effective—a position which + gave the besieged an opportunity of assailing it by fire. Perhaps it was + this liability which caused the infrequent use of the engine in question, + which is rare upon the earlier, and absent from the later, sculptures. + </p> + <p> + The third mode of attack employed by the Assyrians in their sieges of + fortified places was the mine. While the engines were in full play, and + the troops drawn up around the place assailed the defenders of the walls + with their slings and bows, warriors, singly, or in twos and threes, + advanced stealthily to the foot of the ramparts, and either with their + swords and the points of their spears, or with implements better suited + for the purpose, such as crowbars and pickaxes, attacked the foundations + of the walls, endeavoring to remove the stones one by one, and so to force + an entrance. While thus employed, the assailant commonly either held his + shield above him as a protection or was guarded by the shield of a + comrade; or, finally, if he carried the curved <i>gerrhon</i>, leant it + against the wall, and then placed himself under its shelter. <a + href="#linkDimage-0022">[PLATE CX., Fig. 2.]</a> Sometimes, however, he + dispensed with the protection of a shield altogether, and, trusting his + helmet and coat of mail, which covered him at all vital points, pursued + his labor without paying any attention to the weapons aimed at him by the + enemy. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally the efforts of the besiegers were directed against the gates, + which they endeavored to break open with axes, or to set on fire by an + application of the torch. From this latter circumstance we may gather that + the gates were ordinarily of wood, not, like those of Babylon and Veii, of + brass. In the hot climate of Southern Asia wood becomes so dry by exposure + to the sun that the most solid doors may readily be ignited and consumed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0023" id="linkDimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate111.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 111 " /> + </div> + <p> + When at last the city or castle was by some of these means reduced, and + the garrison consented to surrender itself, the work of demolition, + already begun, was completed. Generally the place was set on fire; + sometimes workmen provided with pickaxes and other tools mounted upon the + ramparts and towers, hurled down the battlements, broke breaches in the + walls, or even levelled the whole building. <a href="#linkDimage-0024">[PLATE + CXII., Fig. 1.]</a> Vengeance was further taken by the destruction of the + valuable trees in the vicinity, more especially the highly prized + date-palms, which were cut with hatchets half through their stems at the + distance of about two feet from the ground, and then pulled or pushed + down. <a href="#linkDimage-0023">[PLATE CXI., Fig. 2.]</a> Other trees + were either treated similarly, or denuded of their branches. Occasionally + the destruction was of a less wanton and vengeful character. Timber-trees + were cut down for transport to Assyria, where they were used in the + construction of the royal-palaces; and fruit-trees were occasionally taken + up by the roots, removed carefully, and planted in the gardens and + orchards of the conquerors. Meanwhile there was a general plundering of + the captured place. The temples were entered, and the images of the gods, + together, with the sacred vessels, which were often of gold and silver, + were seized and carried off in triumph. <a href="#linkDimage-0023">[PLATE + CXI., Fig. 4.]</a> This was not mere cupidity. It was regarded as of the + utmost importance to show that the gods of the Assyrians were superior to + those of other countries, who were powerless to protect either their + votaries or even themselves from the irresistible might of the servants of + Asshur. The ordinary practice was to convey the images of the foreign gods + from the temples of the captured places to Assyria, and there to offer + then at the shrines of the principal Assyrian deities. Hence the special + force of the proud question, “Where <i>are</i> the gods of Hanath and of + Arpad? <i>Where are</i> the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah? Where are + they but carried captive to Assyria, prisoners and slaves in the temples + of those deities whose power they ventured to resist?” + </p> + <p> + The houses of the city were also commonly plundered, and everything of + value in them was carried off. Long files of men, each bearing some + article of furniture out of the gate of a captured town, are frequent upon + the bas-reliefs, where we likewise often observe in the train of a + returning army carts laden with household stuff of every kind, alternating + with long strings of captives. All the spoil seems to have been first + brought by the individual plunderers to one place, where it was carefully + sorted and counted in the presence and under the superintendence of royal + scribes, who took an exact inventory of the whole before it was carried + away by its captors. <a href="#linkDimage-0023">[PLATE CXI., Fig. 3.]</a> + Scales were used to determine the weight of articles made of the precious + metals, which might otherwise have been subjected to clipping. We may + conclude from these practices that a certain proportion of the value of + all private spoil was either due to the royal treasury, or required to be + paid to the gods in acknowledgment of their aid and protection. Besides + the private spoil, there was a portion which was from the first set apart + exclusively for the monarch. This consisted especially of the public + treasure of the captured city, the gold and silver, whether in bullion, + plate, or ornaments, from the palace of its prince, and the idols, and + probably the other valuables from the temples. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants of a captured place were usually treated with more or less + of severity. Those regarded as most responsible for the resistance or the + rebellion were seized; generally their hands were manacled either before + them or behind their backs, while sometimes fetters were attached to their + feet, and even rings passed through their lips, and in this abject guise + they were brought into the presence of the Assyrian king. Seated on his + throne in his fortified camp without the place, and surrounded by his + attendants, he received them one by one, and instantly pronounced their + doom. On some he proudly placed his foot, some he pardoned, a few he + ordered for execution, many he sentenced to be torn from their homes and + carried into slavery. + </p> + <p> + Various modes of execution seem to have been employed in the case of + condemned captives. One of them was empalement. This has always been, and + still remains, a common mode of punishment in the East; but the manner of + empaling which the Assyrians adopted was peculiar. They pointed a stake at + one end, and, having fixed the other end firmly into the ground, placed + their criminal with the pit of his stomach upon the point, and made it + enter his body just below the breastbone. This method of empaling must + have destroyed life tolerably soon, and have thus been a far less cruel + punishment than the crucifixion of the Romans. We do not observe it very + often in the Assyrian sculptures, nor do we ever see it applied to more + than a few individuals. It was probably reserved for those who were + considered the worst criminals. Another very common mode of executing + captives was by beating in their skulls with a mace. In this case the + victim commonly knelt; his two hands were placed before him upon a block + or cushion: behind him stood two executioners, one of whom held him by a + cord round the neck, while the other, seizing his back hair in one hand, + struck him a furious blow upon the head with a mace which he held in the + other. <a href="#linkDimage-0023">[PLATE CXI., Fig. 5.]</a> It must have + been rarely, if ever, that a second blow was needed. + </p> + <p> + Decapitation was less frequently practised. The expression, indeed. “I cut + off their heads,” is common in the Inscriptions but in most instances it + evidently refers to the practice, already noticed, of collecting the heads + of those who had fallen in battle. Still there are instances, both in the + Inscriptions and in the sculptures, of what appears to have been a formal + execution of captives by beheading. In these cases the criminal, it would + seem, stood upright, or bending a little forwards, and the executioner, + taking him by a lock of hair with his left hand, struck his head from his + shoulders with a short sword, which he held in his right. <a + href="#linkDimage-0024">[PLATE CXII., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain whether a punishment even more barbarous than these was + not occasionally resorted to. In two or three bas-reliefs executioners are + represented in the act of flaying prisoners with a knife. The bodies are + extended upon the ground or against a wall, to which they are fastened by + means of four pegs attached by strings or thongs to the two wrists and the + two ankles. The executioner leans over the victim, and with his knife + detaches the skin from the flesh. One would trust that this operation was + not performed until life was extinct. We know that it was the practice of + the Persians, and even of the barbarous Scythians, to flay the corpses, + and not the living forms, of criminals and of enemies; we may hope, + therefore, that the Assyrians removed the skin from the dead, to use it as + a trophy or as a warning, and did not inflict so cruel a torture on the + living. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the punishment awarded to a prisoner was mutilation instead of + death. Cutting off the ears close to the head, blinding the eyes with + burning-irons, cutting off the nose, and plucking out the tongue by the + roots, have been in all ages favorite Oriental punishments. We have + distinct evidence that some at least of these cruelties were practised by + the Assyrians. Asshur-izir-pal tells us in his great Inscription that he + often cut off the noses and the ears of prisoners; while a slab of + Asshur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, shows a captive in the hands of + the torturers, one of whom holds his head firm and fast, while another + thrusts his hand into his mouth for the purpose of tearing out the tongue. + </p> + <p> + The captives carried away by the conquerors consisted of men, women, and + children. The men were formed into bands, under the conduct of officers, + who urged theme forward on their way by blows, with small regard to their + sufferings. Commonly they were conveyed to the capital, where they were + employed by the monarchs in the lower or higher departments of labor, + according to their capacities. The skilled workmen were in request to + assist in the ornamentation of shrines and palaces, while the great mass + of the unskilled were made use of to quarry and drag stone, to raise + mounds, make bricks, and the like. Sometimes, instead of being thus + employed in task-work in or near the capital, the captives were simply + settled in new regions, where it was thought that they would maintain the + Assyrian power against native malcontents. Thus Esarhaddon planted + Babylonians, Susanchites, Dehavites, Elamites, and others in Samaria, + while Sargon settled his Samaritan captives in Gauzanitis and in “the + cities of the Medes.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0024" id="linkDimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate112.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 112 " /> + </div> + <p> + The women and children carried off by the conquerors were treated with + more tenderness than the men. <a href="#linkDimage-0024">[PLATE CXII., + Fig. 2.]</a> Sometimes on foot, but often mounted on mules, or seated in + carts drawn by bullocks or asses, they followed in the train of their new + masters, not always perhaps unwilling to exchange the monotony of domestic + life at home for the excitement of a new and unknown condition in a fresh + country. We seldom see them exhibiting any signs of grief. The women and + children are together, and the mothers lavish on their little ones the + usual caresses and kind offices, taking them in their laps, giving then + the breast, carrying them upon their shoulders, or else leading them by + the hand. At intervals they were allowed to stop and rest; and it was not + even the practice to deprive them of such portion of their household stuff + as they might have contrived to secure before quitting their homes. This + they commonly bore in a bag or sack, which was either held in the hand or + thrown over one shoulder, When they reached Assyria, it would seem that + they were commonly assigned as wives to the soldiers of the Assyrian army. + </p> + <p> + Together with their captives, the Assyrians carried off vast quantities of + the domesticated animals, such as oxen, sheep, goats, horses, asses, + camels, and mules. The numbers mentioned in the Inscriptions are sometimes + almost incredible. Sennacherib, for instance, says that in one foray he + bore off from the tribes on the Euphrates “7200 horses and mares, 5230 + camels, 11,000 mules, 120,000 oxen, and 800,000 sheep”! Other kings omit + particulars, but speak of the captured animals which they led away as + being “too numerous to be counted,” or “countless as the stars of heaven.” + The Assyrian sculptors are limited by the nature of their art to + comparatively small numbers, but they show us horses, camels, and mules in + the train of a returning army, together with groups of the other animals, + indicative of the vast flocks and herds continually mentioned in the + Inscriptions. + </p> + <p> + Occasionally the monarchs were not content with bringing home domesticated + animals only, but took the trouble to transport from distant regions into + Assyria wild beasts of various kinds. Tiglath-Pileser I. informs us in + general terms that, besides carrying off the droves of the horses, cattle, + and asses that he obtained from the subjugated countries, he “took away + and drove off the herds of the wild goats and the ibexes, the wild sheep + and the wild cattle;” and another monarch mentions that in one expedition + he carried off from the middle Euphrates a drove of forty wild cattle, and + also a flock of twenty ostriches. The object seems to have been to stock + Assyria with a variety and an abundance of animals of chase. + </p> + <p> + The foes of the Assyrians would sometimes, when hard pressed, desert the + dry land, and betake themselves to the marshes, or cross the sea to + islands where they trusted that they might be secure from attack. Not + unfrequently they obtained their object by such a retreat, for the + Assyrians were not a maritime people. Sometimes, however, they were + pursued. The Assyrians would penetrate into the marshes by means of reed + boats, probably not very different from the <i>terradas</i> at present in + use among the Arabs of the Mesopotamian marsh districts. Such boats are + represented upon the bas-reliefs as capable of holding from three to five + armed men. On these the Assyrian foot-soldiers would embark, taking with + them a single boatman to each boat, who propelled the vessel much as a + Venetian gondolier propels his gondola, i.e., with a single long oar or + paddle, which he pushed from him standing at the stern. They would then in + these boats attack the vessels of the enemy, which are always represented + as smaller than theirs, run them down or board them, kill their crews or + force them into the water, or perhaps allow them to surrender. Meanwhile, + the Assyrian cavalry was stationed round the marsh among the tall reeds + which thickly clothed its edge, ready to seize or slay such of the + fugitives as might escape from the foot. + </p> + <p> + When the refuge sought was an island, if it lay near the shore, the + Assyrians would sometimes employ the natives of the adjacent coast to + transport beams of wood and other materials by means of their boats, in + order to form a sort of bridge or mole reaching from the mainland to the + isle whereto their foes had fled. Such a design was entertained, or at + least professed, by Xerxes after the destruction of his fleet in the + battle of Salamis, and it was successfully executed by Alexander the + Great, who took in this way the new or island of Tyre. From a series of + reliefs discovered at Khorsabad wo may conclude that more than two hundred + years before the earlier of these two occasions, the Assyrians had + conceived the idea, and even succeeded in carrying out the plan, of + reducing islands near the coast by moles. + </p> + <p> + Under the Chaldaeans, whose “cry was in their ships,” the Assyrians seem + very rarely to have adventured themselves upon the deep. If their enemies + fled to islands which could not be reached by moles, or to lands across + the sea, in almost every instance they escaped. Such escapes are + represented upon the sculptures, where we see the Assyrians taking a + maritime town at one end, while at the other the natives are embarking + their women and children, and putting to sea, without any pursuit being + made after them. In none of the bas-reliefs do we observe any sea-going + vessels with Assyrians on board and history tells us of but two or three + expeditions by sea in which they took part. One of these was an expedition + by Sennacharib against the coast of the Persian Gulf, to which his + Chaldaean enemies had fled. On this occasion he brought shipwrights from + Phoenicia to Assyria, and made them build him ships there, which were then + launched upon the Tigris, and conveyed down to the sea. With a fleet thus + constructed, and probably manned, by Phoenicians, Sennacherib crossed to + the opposite coast, defeated the refugees, and embarking his prisoners on + board, returned in triumph to the mainland. Another expedition was that of + Shalmaneser IV. against the island Tyre. Assyrians are said to have been + personally engaged in it; but here again we are told that they embarked in + ships furnished to then by the Phoenicians, and maimed chiefly by + Phoenician sailors. + </p> + <p> + When a country was regarded as subjugated, the Assyrian monarch commonly + marked the establishment of his sovereignty by erecting a memorial in some + conspicuous or important situation within the territory conquered, as an + enduring sign of his having taken possession. These memorials were either + engraved on the natural rock or on solid blocks of stone cut into the form + of a broad low stele. They contained a figure of the king, usually + enclosed in an arched frame; and an inscription, of greater or less + length, setting forth his name, his titles, and some of his exploits. More + than thirty such memorials are mentioned in the extant Inscriptions, and + the researches of recent times have recovered some ten or twelve of them. + They uniformly represent the king in his sacerdotal robes, with the sacred + collar round his neck, and the emblems of the gods above his head, raising + the right hand in the act of adoration, as if he were giving thanks to + Asshur and his guardian deities on account of his successes. + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + It is now time to pass from the military customs of the Assyrians to a + consideration of their habits and usages in time of peace, so far as they + are made known to us either by historical records or by the pictorial + evidence of the has reliefs. And here it may be convenient to treat + separately of the public life of the king and court, and of the private + life of the people. + </p> + <p> + In Assyria, as in most Oriental countries, the keystone of the social + arch, the central point of the system, round which all else revolved, and + on which all else depended, was the monarch. “<i>L’etat, c’est moi</i>” + might have been said with more truth by an Assyrian prince than even by + the “<i>Grand Monarque</i>,” whose dictum it is reported to have been. + Alike in the historical notices, and in the sculptures, we have the person + of the king presented to us with consistent prominence, and it is + consequently with him that we most naturally commence the present portion + of our inquiry. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary dress of the monarch in time of peace was a long flowing + robe, reaching to the ankles, elaborately patterned and fringed, over + which was worn, first, a broad belt, and then a species of open mantle, or + chasuble, very curiously contrived. <a href="#linkDimage-0024">[PLATE + CXII., Fig. 3.]</a> This consisted mainly of two large flaps, both of + which were commonly rounded, though sometimes one of them was square at + bottom. These fell over the robe in front and behind, leaving the sides + open, and so exposing the under dress to view. The two flaps must have + been sewn together at the places marked with the dotted lines <i>a b</i> + and <i>c d</i>, the space from <i>a</i> to <i>c</i> being left open, and + the mantle passed by that means over the head. At <i>d g</i> there was + commonly a short sleeve <i>(h)</i>, which covered the upper part of the + left arm, but the right arm was left free, the mantle falling of either + side of it. Sometimes, besides the flaps, the mantle seems to have had two + pointed wings attached to the shoulders (<i>a f b</i> and <i>c e h</i> in + the illustration), which were made to fall over in front. Occasionally + there was worn above the chasuble a broad diagonal belt ornamented with a + deep fringe and sometimes there depended at the back of the dress a + species of large hood. + </p> + <p> + The special royal head-dress was a tall mitre or tiara, which at first + took the shape of the head, but rose above it to a certain height in a + gracefully curved line, when it was covered in with a top, flat, like that + of a hat, but having a projection towards the centre, which rose up into a + sort of apex, or peak, not however pointed, but either rounded or squared + off. The tiara was generally ornamented with a succession of bands, + between which were commonly patterns more or less elaborate. Ordinarily + the lowest band, instead of running parallel with the others, rose with a + gentle curve towards the front, allowing room for a large rosette over the + forehead, and for other similar ornaments. If we may trust the + representations on the enamelled bricks, supported as they are to some + extent by the tinted reliefs, we may say that the tiara was of three + colors, red, yellow, and white. The red and white alternated in broad + bands; the ornaments upon them were yellow, being probably either + embroidered on the material of the head-dress in threads of gold, or + composed of thin gold plates which may have been sown on. The general + material of the tiara is likely to have been cloth or felt; it can + scarcely have been metal, if the deep crimson tint of the bricks and the + reliefs is true. <a href="#linkDimage-0024">[PLATE CXII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In the early sculptures the tiara is more depressed than in the later, and + it is also less richly ornamented. It has seldom more than two bands, + viz., a narrow one at top, and at bottom a broader curved one, rising + towards the front. To this last are attached two long strings or lappets, + which fall behind the monarch’s back to a level with his elbow. <a + href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE CXIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0025" id="linkDimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate113.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 113 " /> + </div> + <p> + Another head-dress which the monarch sometimes wore was a sort of band or + fillet. This was either elevated in front and ornamented with a single + rosette, like the lowest band of the tiara, or else of uniform width and + patterned along its whole course. In either case there depended from it, + on each side of the back hair, a long ribbon or streamer, fringed at the + end and sometimes ornamented with a delicate pattern. <a + href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE CXIII., Fig 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The monarch’s feet were protected by sandals or shoes. In the early + sculptures sandals only appear in use, shoes being unknown (as it would + seem) until the time of Sennacherib. The sandals worn were of two kinds. + The simplest sort had a very thin sole and a small cap for the heel, made + apparently of a number of strips of leather sewn together. It was held in + place by a loop over the great-toe, attached to the fore part of the sole, + and by a string which was laced backwards and forwards across the instep, + and then tied in a bow. <a href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE CXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The other kind of sandal had a very different sort of sole; it was of + considerable thickness, especially at the heel, from which it gradually + tapered to the toe. Attached to this was an upper leather which protected + the heel and the whole of the side of the foot, but left the toes and the + instep exposed. A loop fastened to the sole received the great-toe, and at + the point where the loop was inserted two straps were also made fast, + which were then carried on either side the great-toe to the top of the + foot, where they crossed each other, and, passing twice through rings + attached to the edge of the upper leather, were finally fastened, probably + by a buckle, at the top of the instep. <a href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE + CXIII., Fig. 6.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The shoe worn by the later kings was of a coarse and clumsy make, very + much rounded at the toe, patterned with rosettes, crescents, and the like, + and (apparently) laced in front. In this respect it differed from the shoe + of the queen, which will be represented presently, and also from the shoes + worn by the tribute-bearers. <a href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE CXIII, Fig. + 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The accessory portions of the royal costume were chiefly belts, necklaces, + armlets, bracelets, and earrings. Besides the belt round the waist, in + which two or three highly ornamented daggers were frequently thrust, and + the broad fringed cross-belt, of which mention was made above, the + Assyrian monarch wore a narrow cross-belt passing across his right + shoulder, from which his sword hung at his left side. This belt was + sometimes patterned with rosettes. It was worn over the front flap of the + chasuble, but under the back flap, and was crossed at right angles by the + broad fringed belt, which was passed over the right arm and head so as to + fall across the left shoulder. + </p> + <p> + The royal necklaces were of two kinds. Some consisted merely of one or + more strings of long lozenge-shaped beads slightly chased, and connected + by small links, ribbed perpendicularly. <a href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE + CXIII., Fig. 7.]</a> The other kind was a band or collar, perhaps of gold, + on which were hung a number of sacred emblems: as the crescent or emblem + of the Moon-God, Sin; the four-rayed disk, the emblem of the Sun-God, + Shamas; the six-rayed or eight-rayed disk, the emblem of Gula, the + Sun-Goddess; the horned cap, perhaps the emblem of the king’s guardian + genius; and the double or triple bolt, which was the emblem of Vul, the + god of the atmosphere. This sacred collar was a part of the king’s civil + and not merely of his sacerdotal dress; as appears from the fact that it + was sometimes worn when the king was merely receiving prisoners. <a + href="#linkDimage-0025">[PLATE CXIII., Fig. 8.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The monarch wore a variety of armlets. The most common was a plain bar of + a single twist, the ends of which slightly overlapped each other. A more + elegant kind was similar to this, except that the bar terminated in animal + heads carefully wrought, among which the heads of rams, horses, and ducks + were the most common. A third sort has the appearance of being composed of + a number of long strings or wires, confined at intervals of less than an + inch by cross bands at right angles to the wires. This sort was carried + round the arm twice, and even then its ends overlapped considerably. It is + probable that all the armlets were of metal, and that the appearance of + the last was given to it by the workman in imitation of an earlier and + ruder armlet of worsted or leather. <a href="#linkDimage-0026">[PLATE + CXIV., Fig. 1. ]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0026" id="linkDimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate114.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 114 " /> + </div> + <p> + The bracelets of the king, like his armlets, were sometimes mere bars of + metal, quite plain and without ornament. More often, however, they were + ribbed and adorned with a large rosette at the centre. Sometimes, instead + of one simple rosette, we see three double rosettes, between which project + small points, shaped like the head of a spear. Occasionally these double + rosettes appear to be set on the surface of a broad bar, which is chased + so as to represent brickwork. In no case can we see how the bracelets were + fastened; perhaps they were elastic, and were slipped over the hand. <a + href="#linkDimage-0026">[PLATE CXIV., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Specimens of royal earrings have been already given in an earlier chapter + of this volume. The most ordinary form in the more ancient times was a + long drop, which was sometimes delicately chased Another common kind was + an incomplete Maltese cross, one arm of the four being left out because it + would have interfered with the ear. <a href="#linkDimage-0026">[PLATE + CXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> In later times there was a good deal of variety in the + details; but the drop and the cross were always favorite features. + </p> + <p> + When the monarch went out to the hunt or to the battle, he laid aside such + ornaments as encumbered him, reserving however his earrings, bracelets, + and armlets, and then, stripping off his upper dress or chasuble, appeared + in the under robe which has been already described. This robe was confined + at the waist by a broad cincture or girdle, outside of which was worn a + narrowish belt wherein daggers were often thrust. In early times this + cincture seems to have been fastened by a ribbon with long streaming ends, + which are very conspicuous in the Nimrud sculptures. At the same period + the monarch often wore, when he hunted or went out to battle, a garment + which might have been called an apron, if it had not been worn behind + instead of in front. This was generally patterned and fringed very richly, + besides being ornamented with one or more long pendent tassels. <a + href="#linkDimage-0026">[PLATE CXIV., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The sacerdotal dress of the king, or that which he commonly wore when + engaged in the rites of his religion, differed considerably from his + ordinary costume. His inner garment, indeed, seems to have been the usual + long gown with a fringe descending to the ankles; but this was almost + entirely concealed under an ample outer robe, which was closely wrapped + round the form and kept in place by a girdle. A deep fringe, arranged in + two rows, one above the other, and carried round the robe in curved sweeps + at an angle with the horizontal line, is the most striking feature of this + dress, which is also remarkable for the manner in which it confines and + conceals the left arm, while the right is left free and exposed to view. A + representation of a king thus apparelled will be found in an earlier part + of this work, taken from a statue now in the British Museum. It is + peculiar in having the head uncovered, and in the form of the implement + borne in the right hand. It is also incomplete as a representation, from + the fact that all the front of the breast is occupied by an inscription. + Other examples show that the tiara was commonly worn as a part of the + sacerdotal costume; that the sacred collar adorned the breast, necklaces + the neck, and bracelets the two arms; while in the belt, which was + generally to some extent knotted, were borne two or three daggers. The + mace seems to have been a necessary appendage to the costume, and was + always grasped just below its head by the left hand. + </p> + <p> + We have but one representation of an Assyrian queen. Despite the + well-known stories of Semiramis and her manifold exploits, it would seem + that the Assyrians secluded their females with as rigid and watchful a + jealousy as modern Turks or Persians. The care taken with respect to the + direction of the passages in the royal hareem has been noticed already. It + is quite in accordance with the spirit thus indicated, and with the + general tenor of Oriental habits, that neither in inscriptions nor in + sculptured representations do the Assyrians allow their women to make more + than a most rare and occasional appearance. Fortunately for us, their + jealousy was sometimes relaxed to a certain extent; and in one scene, + recovered from the <i>debris</i> of an Assyrian palace we are enabled to + contemplate at once the domestic life of the monarch and the attire and + even the features of his consort. + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate115a (47K)" src="images/plate115a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + It appears that in the private apartments, while the king, like the Romans + and the modern Orientals, reclined upon a couch leaning his weight partly + upon his left elbow, and having his right arm free and disposable, her + majesty the queen sat in a chair of state by the couch’s side, near its + foot, and facing her lord. <a href="#linkDimage-0027">[PLATE CXV., Fig. 1.]</a> + Two eunuchs provided with large fans were in attendance upon the monarch, + and the same number waited upon the queen, standing behind her chair. Her + majesty, whose hair was arranged nearly like that of her royal consort, + wore upon her head a band or fillet having something of the appearance of + a crown of towers, such as encircles the brow of Cybele on Greek coins and + statues. Her dress was a long-sleeved gown reaching from the neck to the + feet, flounced and trimmed at the bottom in an elaborate way, and + elsewhere patterned with rosettes, over which she wore a fringed tunic or + frock descending half-way between the knees and the feet. <a + href="#linkDimage-0027">[PLATE CXV., Fig. 3.]</a> In addition to these two + garments, she wore upon her back and shoulders a light cloak or cape, + patterned (like the rest of her dress) with rosettes and edged with a deep + fringe. Her feet were encased in shoes of a clumsy make, also patterned. + Her ornaments, besides the crown upon her head, were earrings, a necklace, + and bracelets. Her hair was cushioned, and adorned with a drapery which + hung over the back. Her feet rested on a handsome footstool, also + cushioned. + </p> + <p> + On the slab from which this description is taken the royal pair seem to be + refreshing themselves with wine. Each supports on the thumb and fingers of + the right hand a saucer or shallow drinking-cup, probably of some precious + metal, which they raise to their lips simultaneously, as if they were + pledging one another. The scene of the entertainment is the palace garden; + for trees grow on either side of the main figures, while over their heads, + a vine hangs its festoons and its rich clusters. By the side of the royal + couch, and in front of the queen, is a table covered with a table-cloth, + on which are a small box or casket, a species of shallow bowl which may + have held incense or perfume of some kind, and a third article frequently + seen in close proximity to the king, but of whose use it is impossible to + form a conjecture. At the couch’s head stands another curious article, a + sort of tall vase surmounted by a sugarloaf, which probably represents an + altar. The king bears in his left hand the lotus or sacred flower, while + the queen holds in hers what looks like a modern fan. All the lower part + of the monarch’s person is concealed beneath a coverlet, which is plain, + except that it has tassels at the corners and an embroidered border. + </p> + <p> + The officers in close attendance upon the monarch varied according to his + employment. In war he was accompanied by his charioteer, his shield-bearer + or shield-bearers, his groom, his quiver-bearer, his mace-bearer, and + sometimes by his parasol-bearer. In peace the parasol-bearer is always + represented as in attendance, except in hunting expeditions, or where he + is replaced by a fan-bearer. The parasol, which exactly resembled that + still in use throughout the East, was reserved exclusively for the + monarch. <a href="#linkDimage-0028">[PLATE CXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> It had a + tall and thick pole, which the bearer grasped with both his hands, and in + the early times a somewhat small circular top. Under the later kings the + size of the head was considerably enlarged; and, at the same time, a + curtain or flap was attached, which, falling from the edge of the parasol, + more effectually protected the monarch from the sun’s rays. The head of + the parasol was fringed with tassels, and the upper extremity of the pole + commonly terminated in a flower or other ornament. In the later time both + the head and the curtain which depended from it were richly patterned. If + we may trust the remains of color upon the Khorsabad sculptures, the tints + preferred were red and white, which alternated in bands upon the parasol + as upon the royal tiara. + </p> + <p> + There was nothing very remarkable in the dress or quality of the royal + attendants. Except the groom, the charioteer, and the shield-bearers, they + were in the early times almost invariably eunuchs; but the later kings + seem to have preferred eunuchs for the offices of parasol-bearer and + fan-bearer only. The dress of the eunuchs is most commonly a long fringed + gown, reaching from the neck to the feet, with very short sleeves, and a + broad belt or girdle confining the gown at the waist. Sometimes they have + a cross-belt also; and occasionally both this and the girdle round the + waist are richly fringed. The eunuchs commonly wear earrings, and + sometimes armlets and bracelets; in a few instances they have their necks + adorned with necklaces, and their long dresses elaborately patterned. + Their heads are either bare, or at most encircled with a fillet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0027" id="linkDimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate115.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 115 " /> + </div> + <p> + A peculiar physiognomy is assigned to this class of persons—the + forehead low, the nose small and rounded, the lips full, the chin large + and double, the cheeks bloated. <a href="#linkDimage-0027">[PLATE CXV., + Fig. 2.]</a> They are generally represented as shorter and stouter than + the other Assyrians. Though placed in confidential situations about the + person of the monarch, they seem not to have held very high or important + offices. The royal Vizier is never a eunuch, and eunuchs are rarely seen + among the soldiers; they are scribes, cooks, musicians, perhaps priests; + as they are grooms-in-waiting, huntsmen, parasol-bearers, and fan-bearers; + but it cannot be said with truth that they had the same power in Assyria + which they have commonly possessed in the more degraded of the Oriental + monarchies. It is perhaps a sound interpretation of the name Rabsaris in + Scripture to understand it as titular, not appellative, and to translate + it “the Chief Eunuch” or “the Master of the Eunuchs;” and if so, we have + an instance of the employment by one Assyrian king of a person of this + class on an embassy to a petty sovereign: but the sculptures are far from + bearing out the notion that eunuchs held the same high position in the + Assyrian court as they have since held generally in the East, where they + have not only continually filled the highest offices of state, but have + even attained to sovereign power. On the contrary, their special charge + seems rather to have been the menial offices about the person of the + monarch, which imply confidence in the fidelity of those to whom they are + entrusted, but not submission to their influence in the conduct of state + affairs. And it is worthy of notice that, instead of becoming more + influential as time went on, they appear to have become less so; in the + later sculptures the royal attendants are far less generally eunuchs than + in the earlier ones; and the difference is most marked in the more + important offices. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0028" id="linkDimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate116.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 116 " /> + </div> + <p> + It is not quite certain that the Chief Eunuch is represented upon the + sculptures. Perhaps we may recognize him in an attendant, who commonly + bears a fan, but whose special badge of office is a long fringed scarf or + band, which hangs down below his middle both before him and behind him, + being passed over the left shoulder. <a href="#linkDimage-0028">[PLATE + CXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> This officer appears, in one bas-relief, alone in + front of the king; in another, he stands on the right hand of the Vizier, + level with him, facing the king as he drinks; in a third, he receives + prisoners after a battle; while in another part of the same sculpture he + is in the king’s camp preparing the table for his master’s supper. There + is always a good deal of ornamentation about his dress, which otherwise + nearly resembles that of the inferior royal attendants, consisting of a + long fringed gown or robe, a girdle fringed or plain, a cross-belt + generally fringed, and the scarf already described. His head and feet are + generally bare, though sometimes the latter are protected by sandals. He + is found only upon the sculptures of the early period. + </p> + <p> + Among the officers who have free access to the royal person, there is one + who stands out with such marked prominence from the rest that he has been + properly recognized as the Grand Vizier or prime minister at once the + chief counsellor of the monarch, and the man whose special business it was + to signify and execute his will. The dress of the Grand Vizier is more + rich than that of any other person except the monarch; and there are + certain portions of his apparel which he and the king have alone the + privilege of wearing. These are, principally, the tasselled apron and the + fringed band depending from the fillet, the former of which is found in + the early period only, while the latter belongs to no particular time, but + throughout the whole series of sculptures is the distinctive mark of royal + or quasi-royal authority. To these two may be added the long ribbon or + scarf, with double streamers at the ends, which depended from, and perhaps + fastened, the belt—a royal ornament worn also by the Vizier in at + least one representation. <a href="#linkDimage-0028">[PLATE CXVI., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The chief garment of the Vizier is always a long fringed robe, reaching + from the neck to the feet. This is generally trimmed with embroidery at + the top, round the sleeves, and round the bottom. It is either seen to be + confined by a broad belt round the waist, or else is covered from the + waist to the knees by two falls of a heavy and deep fringe. In this latter + case, a broad cross-belt is worn over the left shoulder, and the upper + fall of fringe hangs from the cross-belt. A fillet is worn upon the head, + which is often highly ornamented. The feet are sometimes bare, but more + often are protected by sandals, or (as in the accompanying representation) + by embroidered shoes. Earrings adorn the ears; bracelets, sometimes + accompanied by armlets, the arms. A sword is generally worn at the left + side. + </p> + <p> + The Vizier is ordinarily represented in one of two attitudes. Either he + stands with his two hands joined in front of him, the right hand in the + left, and the fingers not clasped, but left loose—the ordinary + attitude of passive and respectful attention, in which officers who carry + nothing await the orders of the king,—or he has the right arm + raised, the elbow bent, and the right hand brought to a level with his + month, while the left hand rests upon the hilt of the sword worn at his + left side. <a href="#linkDimage-0029">[PLATE CXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> In this + latter case it may be presumed that we have the attitude of conversation, + as in the former we have that of attentive listening. When the Vizier + assumes this energetic posture he is commonly either introducing prisoners + or bringing in spoil to the king. When he is quiescent, he stands before + the throne to receive the king’s orders, or witnesses the ceremony with + which it was usual to conclude a successful hunting expedition. + </p> + <p> + The pre-eminent rank and dignity of this officer is shown, not only by his + participation in the insignia of royal authority, but also and very + clearly by the fact that, when he is present, no one ever intervenes + between him and the king. He has the undisputed right of precedence, so + that he is evidently the first subject of the crown, and he alone, is seen + addressing the monarch. He does not always accompany the king on his + military expeditions but when he attends them, he still maintains his + position, having a dignity greater than that of any general, and so taking + the entire direction of the prisoners and of the spoil. + </p> + <p> + The royal fan-bearers were two in number. They were invariably eunuchs. + Their ordinary position was behind the monarch, on whom they attended + alike in the retirement of private life and in religious and civil + ceremonies. On some occasions, however, one of the two was privileged to + leave his station behind the king’s chair or throne, and, advancing in + front, to perform certain functions before the face of his master. He + handed his master the sacred cup, and waited to receive it back, at the + same time diligently discharging the ordinary duties of his office by + keeping up a current of air and chasing away those plagues of the East—the + flies. The fan-bearer thus privileged wears always the long tasselled + scarf, which seems to have been a badge of office, and may not improbably + mark him for the chief Eunuch. In the absence of the Vizier, or sometimes + in subordination to him, he introduced the tribute-bearers to the king, + reading out their names and titles from a scroll or tablet which he held + in his left hand. <a href="#linkDimage-0029">[PLATE CXVII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0029" id="linkDimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate117.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 117 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0030" id="linkDimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate118.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 118 " /> + </div> + <p> + The fan carried by these attendants seems in most instances to have been + made of feathers. It had a shortish handle, which was generally mere or + less ornamented, and frequently terminated in the head of a ram or other + animal. <a href="#linkDimage-0030">[PLATE CXVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> The + feathers were sometimes of great length, and bent gracefully by their own + weight, as they were pointed slantingly towards the monarch. Occasionally + a comparatively short fan was used, and the feathers were replaced by a + sort of brush, which may have been made of horse-hair, or possibly of some + vegetable fibre. + </p> + <p> + The other attendants on the monarch require no special notice. With regard + to their number, however, it may be observed that, although the sculptures + generally do not represent them as very numerous, there is reason to + believe that they amounted to several hundreds. The enormous size of the + palaces can scarcely be otherwise accounted for: and in one sculpture of + an exceptional character, where the artist seems to have aimed at + representing his subject in full, we can count above seventy attendants + present with the monarch at one time. Of these less than one-half are + eunuch; and these wear the long robe with the fringed belt and cross-belt. + The other attendants wear in many cases the same costume; sometimes, + however, they are dressed in a tunic and greaves, like the soldiers. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that the court ceremonial of the Assyrians was + stately and imposing. The monarch seems indeed not to have affected that + privacy and seclusion which forms a predominant feature of the ceremonial + observed in most Oriental monarchies. He showed himself very freely to his + subjects on many occasions. He superintended in person the accomplishment + of his great works. In war and in the chase he rode in an open chariot, + never using a litter, though litters were not unknown to the Assyrians. In + his expeditions he would often descend from his chariot, and march or + fight on foot like the meanest of his subjects. But though thus + familiarizing the multitude with his features and appearance, he was far + from allowing familiarity of address. Both in peace and war he was + attended by various officers of state, and no one had speech of him except + through them. It would even seem as if two persons only were entitled to + open a conversation with him—the Vizier and the Chief Eunuch. When + he received them, he generally placed himself upon his throne, sitting, + while they stood to address him. It is strongly indicative of the haughty + pride of these sovereigns that they carried with them in their distant + expeditions the cumbrous thrones whereon they were wont to sit when they + dispensed justice or received homage. On these thrones they sat, in or + near their fortified camps, when the battle or the siege was ended, and + thus sitting they received in state the spoil and the prisoners. Behind + them on such occasions were the two fan-bearers, while near at hand were + guards, scribes, grooms, and other attendants. In their palace halls + undoubtedly the ceremonial used was stricter, grander, and more imposing. + The sculptures, however, furnish no direct evidence on this point, for + there is nothing to mark the scene of the great processional pieces. + </p> + <p> + In the pseudo-history of Ctesias, the Assyrian kings were represented as + voluptuaries of the extremest kind, who passed their whole lives within + the palace, in the company of their concubines and their eunuchs, + indulging themselves in perpetual ease, pleasure, and luxury. We have + already seen how the warlike character of so many monarchs gives the lie + to these statements, so far as they tax the Assyrian kings with sloth and + idleness. It remains to examine the charge of over-addiction to sensual + delights, especially to those of the lowest and grossest description. Now + it is at least remarkable that, so far as we have any real evidence, the + Assyrian kings appear as monogamists. In the inscription on the god Nebo, + the artist dedicates his statue to his “lord Vol-lush (?) and his <i>lady</i>, + Sammuramit.” In the solitary sculptured representation of the private life + of the king, he is seen in the company of one female only. Even in the + very narrative of Ctesias, Ninus has but one wife, Semiramis; and + Sardanapalus, notwithstanding his many concubines, has but five children, + three sons and two daughters. It is not intended to press these arguments + to an extreme, or to assume, on the strength of them, that the Assyrian + monarchs were really faithful to one woman. They may have had—nay, + it is probable that they had—a certain number of concubines; but + there is really not the least ground for believing that they carried + concubinage to an excess, or over-stepped in this respect the practice of + the best Eastern sovereigns. At any rate they were not the voluptuaries + which Ctesias represented them. A considerable portion of their lives was + passed in the toils and dangers of war; and their peaceful hours, instead + of being devoted to sloth and luxury in the retirement of the palace, were + chiefly employed, as we shall presently see, in active and manly exercises + in the field, which involved much exertion and no small personal peril. + </p> + <p> + The favorite occupation of the king in peace was the chase of the lion. In + the early times he usually started on a hunting expedition in his chariot, + dressed as when he went out to war, and attended by his charioteer, some + swordsmen, and a groom holding a led horse. He carried a bow and arrows, a + sword, one or two daggers, and a spear, which last stood in a rest made + for it at the back of the chariot. Two quivers, each containing an axe and + an abundant supply of arrows, hung from the chariot transversely across + its right side, while a shield armed with teeth was suspended behind. When + a lion was found, the king pursued it in his chariot, letting fly his + arrows as he went, and especially seeking to pierce the animal about the + heart and head. Sometimes he transfixed the beast with three or four + shafts before it succumbed. Occasionally the lion attacked him in his + chariot, and was met with spear and shield, or with a fresh arrow, + according to the exigencies of the moment, or the monarch’s preference for + one or the other weapon. On rare occasions the monarch descended to the + ground, and fought on foot. He would then engage the lion in close combat + with no other weapon but a short sword, which he strove to plunge, and + often plunged, into his heart. <a href="#linkDimage-0030">[PLATE CXVIII., + Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In the later time, though the chariot was still employed to some extent in + the lion-hunts, it appears to have been far more usual for the king to + enjoy the sport on foot. He carried a straight sword, which seems to have + been a formidable weapon; it was strong, very broad, and two feet or a + little more in length. Two attendants waited closely upon the monarch, one + of whom carried a bow and arrows, while the other was commonly provided + with one or two spears. From these attendants the king took the bow or + spear at pleasure, usually commencing the attack with his arrows, and + finally despatching the spent animal with sword or spear, as he deemed + best. Sometimes, but not very often, the spearman in attendance carried + also a shield, and held both spear and shield in advance of his master to + protect him from the animal’s spring. Generally the monarch faced the + danger with no such protection, and received the brute on his sword, or + thrust him through with his pike. <a href="#linkDimage-0030">[PLATE + CXVIII., Fig. 3;]</a> <a href="#linkDimage-0031">[PLATE CXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + Perhaps the sculptures exaggerate the danger which he affronted at such + moments; but we can hardly suppose that there was not a good deal of peril + incurred in these hand-to-hand contests. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0031" id="linkDimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate119.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 119 " /> + </div> + <p> + Two modes of hunting the king of beasts were followed at this time. Either + he was sought in his native haunts, which were then, as now, the reedy + coverts by the side of the canals and great streams; or he was procured + beforehand, conveyed to the hunting-ground, and there turned out before + the hunters. In the former case the monarch took the field accompanied by + his huntsmen and beaters on horse and foot, these last often holding dogs + in leash, which, apparently, were used only to discover and arouse the + game, but were not slipped at it when started. No doubt the hunt was + sometimes entirely on the land, the monarch accompanying his beaters along + one or other of the two banks of a canal or stream. But a different plan + is known to have been adopted on some occasions. Disposing his beaters to + the right and left upon both banks, the monarch with a small band of + attendants would take ship, and, while his huntsmen sought to start the + game on either side, he would have himself rowed along so as just to keep + pace with them, and would find his sport in attacking such lions as took + the water. The monarch’s place on these occasions was the middle of the + boat. Before him and behind him were guards armed with spears, who were + thus ready to protect their master, whether the beast attacked him in + front or rear. The monarch used a round bow, like that commonly carried in + war, and aimed either at the heart or at the head. The spearmen presented + their weapons at the same time, while the sides of the boat were also + sufficiently high above the water to afford a considerable protection + against the animal’s spring. An attendant immediately behind the monarch + held additional arrows ready for him; and after piercing the noble brute + with three or four of these weapons, the monarch had commonly the + satisfaction of seeing him sink down and expire. The carcass was then + taken from the water, the fore and hind legs were lashed together with + string, and the beast was suspended from the hinder part of the boat, + where he hung over the water just out of the sweep of the oars. + </p> + <p> + At other times, when it was felt that the natural chase of the animal + might afford little or no sport, the Assyrians (as above stated) called + art to their assistance, and, having obtained a supply of lions from a + distance, brought them in traps or cages to the hunting-ground, and there + turned them out before the monarch. The walls of the cage was made of + thick spars of wood, with interstices between them, through which the lion + could both see and be seen: probably the top was entirely covered with + boards, and upon these was raised a sort of low hut or sentry-box, just + large enough to contain a man, who, when the proper moment arrived, peeped + forth from his concealment and cautiously raised the front of the trap, + which was a kind of drop-door working in a groove. <a + href="#linkDimage-0031">[PLATE CXIX., Fig. 2.]</a> The trap being thus + opened, the lion stole out, looking somewhat ashamed of his confinement, + but doubtless anxious to vent his spleen on the first convenient object. + The king, prepared for his attack, saluted him, as he left his cage, with + an arrow, and, as he advanced, with others, which sometimes stretched him + dead upon the plain, sometimes merely disabled him, while now and then + they only goaded him to fury. In this case he would spring at the royal + chariot, clutch some part of it, and in his agony grind it between his + teeth, or endeavor to reach the inmates of the car from behind. If the + king had descended from the car to the plain, the infuriated beast might + make his spring at the royal person, in which case it must have required a + stout heart to stand unmoved, and aim a fresh arrow at a vital part while + the creature was in mid-air, especially if (as we sometimes see + represented) a second lion was following close upon the first, and would + have to be received within a few seconds. It would seem that the lions on + some occasions were not to be goaded into making an attack, but simply + endeavored to escape by flight. To prevent this, troops were drawn up in a + double line of spearmen and archers round the space within which the lions + were let loose, the large shields of the front or spearmen line forming a + sort of wall, and the spears a <i>chevaux de frise</i>, through which it + was almost impossible for the beasts to break. In front of the soldiers, + attendants held hounds in leashes, which either by their baying and + struggling frightened the animals back, or perhaps assisted to despatch + them. <a href="#linkDimage-0031">[PLATE CXIX., Fig. 3.]</a> The king + meanwhile plied his bow, and covered the plain with carcasses, often + striking a single beast with five or six shafts. + </p> + <p> + The number of lions destroyed at these royal <i>battues</i> is very + surprising. In one representation no fewer than eighteen are seen upon the + field, of which eleven are dead and five seriously wounded. The + introduction of trapped beasts would seem to imply that the game, which + under the earlier monarchs had been exceedingly abundant,—failed + comparatively under the later ones, who therefore imported it from a + distance. It is evident, however, that this scarcity was not allowed to + curtail the royal amusement. To gratify the monarch, hunters sought remote + and savage districts, where the beast was still plentiful, and, trapping + their prey, conveyed it many hundreds of miles to yield a momentary + pleasure to the royal sportsman. + </p> + <p> + It is instructive to contrast with the boldness shown in the lion-hunts of + this remote period the feelings and conduct of the present inhabitants of + the region. The Arabs, by whom it is in the main possessed, are a warlike + race, accustomed from infancy to arms and inured to combat. “Their hand is + against every man, and every man’s hand is against them.” Yet they tremble + if a lion is but known to be near, and can only with the utmost difficulty + be persuaded by an European to take any part in the chase of so dangerous + an animal. + </p> + <p> + The lioness, no less than the lion, appears as a beast of chase upon the + sculptures. It seems that in modern times she is quite as much feared as + her consort. Indeed, when she has laid up cubs, she is even thought to be + actually the more dangerous of the two. <a href="#linkDimage-0032">[PLATE + CXX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0032" id="linkDimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate120.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 120 " /> + </div> + <p> + Next to the chase of the lion and lioness, the early Assyrian monarchs + delighted in that of the wild bull. It is not quite certain what exact + species of animal is sought to be expressed by the representations upon + the sculptures; but on the whole it is perhaps most probable that the + Aurochs or European bison (<i>Bos urus</i> of naturalists) is the beast + intended. At any rate it was an animal of such strength and courage that, + according to the Assyrian belief, it ventured to contend with the lion. <a + href="#linkDimage-0032">[PLATE CXX., Fig. 2.]</a> The Assyrian monarchs + chased the wild bull in their chariots without dogs, but with the + assistance of horsemen, who turned the animals when they fled, and brought + them within the monarch’s reach. <a href="#linkDimage-0032">[PLATE CXX., + Fig. 3.]</a> The king then aimed his arrows at them, and the attendant + horsemen, who were provided with bows, seem to have been permitted to do + the same. The bull seldom fell until he had received a number of wounds; + and we sometimes see as many as five arrows still fixed in the body of one + that has succumbed. It would seem that the bull, when pushed, would, like + the lion, make a rush at the king’s chariot, in which case the monarch + seized him by one of the horns and gave him the <i>coup de grace</i> with + his sword. + </p> + <p> + The special zest with which this animal was pursued may have arisen in + part from its scarcity. The Aurochs is wild and shy; it dislikes the + neighborhood of man, and has retired before him till it is now found only + in the forests of Lithuania, Carpathia, and the Caucasus. It seems nearly + certain that, in the time of the later kings, the species of wild cattle + previously limited, whatever it was, had disappeared from Assyria + altogether; at least this is the only probable account that can be given + of its non-occurrence in the later sculptures, more especially in those of + Asshur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, which seem intended to represent + the chase under every aspect known at the time. We might therefore presume + it to have been, even in the early period, already a somewhat rare animal. + And so we find in the Inscriptions that the animal, or animals, which + appear to represent wild cattle, were only met with in outlying districts + of the empire—on the borders of Syria and in the country about + Harrah; and then in such small numbers as to imply that even there they + were not very abundant. + </p> + <p> + When the chase of the nobler animals—the lion and the wild bull—had + been conducted to a successful issue, the hunters returned in a grand + procession to the capital, carrying with then as trophies of their prowess + the bodies of the slain. These were borne aloft on the shoulders of men, + three or four being required to carry each beast. Having been brought to + an appointed spot, they were arranged side by side upon the ground, the + heads of all pointing the same way; and the monarch, attended by several + of his principal officers, as the Vizier, the Chief Eunuch, the + fan-bearers, the bow and mace bearers, and also by a number of musicians, + came to the place, and solemnly poured a libation over the prostrate + forms, first how-ever (as it would seem) raising the cup to his own lips. + It is probable that this ceremony had to some extent a religious + character. The Assyrian monarchs commonly ascribe the success of their + hunting expeditions to the gods Nin (or Ninip) and Nergal; and we may well + understand that a triumphant return would be accompanied by a + thank-offering to the great protectors under whose auspices success had + been achieved. <a href="#linkDimage-0032">[PLATE CXX., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Besides the wild bull and the lion, the Assyrians are known to have hunted + the following animals: the onager or wild ass, the stag, the ibex or wild + goat, the gazelle, and the hare. + </p> + <p> + The chase of the wild ass was conducted in various ways. The animal was + most commonly pursued with dogs. The large and powerful hounds of the + Assyrians, of which a certain use was made even in the chase of the lion, + have been already noticed; but it may be desirable in this place to give a + fuller account of them. They were of a type approaching to that of our + mastiff, being smooth haired, strong limbed, with a somewhat heavy head + and neck, small pointed but drooping ears, and a long tail, which was + bushy and a little inclined to curl. They seem to have been very broad + across the chest, and altogether better developed as to their fore than as + to their hind parts, though even their hind legs were tolerably strong and + sinewy. They must have been exceedingly bold, if they really faced the + hunted lion; and their pace must have been considerable, if they were + found of service in chasing the wild ass. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0033" id="linkDimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate121.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 121 " /> + </div> + <p> + The hunters are represented as finding the wild asses in herds, among + which are seen a certain number of foals. The King and his chief + attendants pursue the game on horseback, armed with bows and arrows, and + discharging their arrows as they go. Hounds also—not now held in + leash, but free—join in the hunt, pressing on the game, and + generally singling out some one individual from the herd, either a young + colt or sometimes a full-grown animal. <a href="#linkDimage-0033">[PLATE + CXXI., Fig. 1.]</a> The horsemen occasionally brought down the asses with + their shafts. <a href="#linkDimage-0033">[PLATE CXXI.. Fig. 2.]</a> When + their archery failed of success, the chase depended on the hounds, which + are represented as running even the full-grown animal to a stand, and then + worrying him till the hunters came up to give the last blow. Considering + the speed of the full-grown wild ass, which is now regarded as almost + impossible to take, we may perhaps conclude that the animals thus run down + by the hounds were such as the hunters had previously wounded; for it can + scarcely be supposed that such heavily-made dogs as the Assyrian could + really have caught an unwounded and full-grown wild ass. <a + href="#linkDimage-0033">[PLATE CXXI., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Instead of shooting the wild ass, or hunting him to the death with hounds, + an endeavor was sometimes made to take him alive. <a + href="#linkDimage-0033">[PLATE CXXI., Fig. 4]</a> A species of noose seems + to have been made by means of two ropes interlaced, which were passed—how, + we cannot say—round the neck of the animal, and held him in such a + way that all his struggles to release himself were vain. This mode of + capture recalls the use of the lasso by the South Americans and the + employment of nooses by various nations, not merely in hunting, but in + warfare. It is doubtful, however, if the Assyrian practice approached at + all closely to any of these. The noose, if it may be so called, was of a + very peculiar kind. It was not formed by means of a slip-knot at the end + of a single cord, but resulted from the interlacing of two ropes one with + the other. There is great difficulty in understanding how the ropes were + got into their position. Certainly no single throw could have placed then, + round the neck of the animal in the manner represented, nor could the + capture have been effected, according to all appearance, by a single + hunter. Two persons, at least, must have been required to combine their + efforts—one before and one behind the creature which it was designed + to capture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0034" id="linkDimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate122.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 122 " /> + </div> + <p> + Deer, which have always abounded in Assyria were either hunted with dogs, + or driven by beaters into nets, or sometimes shot with arrows by + sportsmen. The illustration <a href="#linkDimage-0034">[PLATE CXXII., Fig. + 1]</a> represents a dog in chase of a hind, and shows that the hounds + which the Assyrians used for this purpose were of the same breed as those + employed in the hunt of the lion and of the wild ass. In <a + href="#linkDimage-0034">[PLATE CXXII., Fig. 2.]</a> we have a stricken + stag, which may, perhaps, have been also hard pressed by hounds, in the + act of leaping from rocky ground into water. It is interesting to find + this habit of the stag, with which the modern English sportsman is so + familiar, not merely existing in Assyria, but noticed by Assyrian + sculptors, at the distance of more than twenty-five centuries from our own + time. + </p> + <p> + When deer were to be taken by nets, the sportsman began by setting in an + upright position, with the help of numerous poles and pegs, a long, low + net, like the [dikrvov] of the Greeks. <a href="#linkDimage-0034">[PLATE + CXXII., Fig. 1.]</a> This was carried round in a curved line of + considerable length, so as to enclose an ample space on every side + excepting one, which was left open for the deer to enter. The meshes of + the net were large and not very regular. They were carefully secured by + knots at all the angles. The net was bordered both at top and at bottom by + a rope of much greater strength and thickness than that which formed the + network; and this was fastened to the ground at the two extremities by + pegs of superior size. <a href="#linkDimage-0035">[PLATE CXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + The general height of the net was about that of a man, but the two ends + were sloped gently to the ground. Beaters, probably accompanied by dogs, + roused the game in the coverts, which was then driven by shouts and + barkings towards the place where the net was set. If it once entered + within the two extremities of the net (<i>a b</i>, <a + href="#linkDimage-0035">[PLATE CXXIII., Fig. 1]</a>), its destruction was + certain; for the beaters, following on its traces, occupied the space by + which it had entered, and the net itself was not sufficiently visible for + the deer to rise at it and clear it by a leap. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0035" id="linkDimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate123.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 123 " /> + </div> + <p> + In the chase of the ibex or wild goat, horsemen were employed to discover + the animals, which are generally found in herds, and to drive them towards + the sportsman, who waited in ambush until the game appeared within + bowshot. <a href="#linkDimage-0035">[PLATE CXXIII., Fig. 3.]</a> An arrow + was then let fly at the nearest or the choicest animal, which often fell + at the first discharge. <a href="#linkDimage-0035">[PLATE CXXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> + The sport was tame compared with many other kinds, and was probably not + much affected by the higher orders. + </p> + <p> + The chase of the gazelle is not shown on the sculptures. In modern times + they are taken by the grayhound and the falcon, separately or in + conjunction, the two being often trained to hunt together. They are + somewhat difficult to run down with dogs only, except immediately after + they have drunk water in hot weather. That the Assyrians sometimes + captured them, appears by a hunting scene which Mr. Layard discovered at + Khorsabad, where an attendant is represented carrying a gazelle on his + shoulders, and holding a hare in his right hand. <a href="#linkDimage-0036">[PLATE + CXXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> As gazelles are very abundant both in the Sinjar + country and in the district between the Tigris and the Zagros range, we + may suppose that the Assyrians sometimes came upon them unawares, and + transfixed them with their arrows before they could make their escape. + They may also have taken them in nets, as they were accustomed to take + deer; but we have no evidence that they did so. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0036" id="linkDimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate124.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 124 " /> + </div> + <p> + The hare is seen very commonly in the hands of those who attend upon the + huntsmen. It is always represented as very small in proportion to the size + of the men, whence we may perhaps conclude that the full-grown animal was + less esteemed than the leveret. As the huntsmen in these representations + have neither nets nor dogs, but seem to obtain their game solely by the + bow, we must presume that they were expert enough to strike the hare as it + ran. + </p> + <p> + There is no difficulty in making such a supposition as this, since the + Assyrians have left us an evidence of their skill as marksmen which + implies even greater dexterity. The game which they principally sought in + the districts where they occasionally killed the hare and the gazelle + seems to have been the partridge; and this game they had to bring down + when upon the wing. We see the sportsmen in the sculptures aiming their + arrows at the birds as they mount into the air <a href="#linkDimage-0036">[PLATE + CXXIV., Fig. 21,]</a> and in one instance we observe one of the birds in + the act of falling to the ground, transfixed by a well aimed shaft. Such + skill is not uncommon among savage hunting tribes, whose existence depends + on the dexterity with which they employ their weapons; but it is rarely + that a people which has passed out of this stage, and hunts for sport + rather than subsistence, retains its old expertness. + </p> + <p> + Hunting the hare with dogs was probably not very common, as it is only in + a single instance that the Assyrian remains exhibit a trace of it. On one + of the bronze dishes discovered by Mr. Layard at Nimrud may be seen a + series of alternate dogs and hares, which shows that coursing was not + unknown to the Assyrians. <a href="#linkDimage-0036">[PLATE CXXIV., Fig. + 3.]</a> The dog is of a kind not seen elsewhere in the remains of Assyrian + art. The head bears a resemblance to that of the wolf; but the form + generally is that of a coarse grayhound, the legs and neck long, the body + slim, and the tail curved at the end; offering thus a strong contrast to + the ordinary Assyrian hound, which has been already represented more than + once. + </p> + <p> + Nets may sometimes have been employed for the capture of small game, such + as hares and rabbits, since we occasionally see beaters or other + attendants carrying upon poles, which they hold over their shoulders, nets + of dimensions far too small for them to have been used in the deer-hunts, + with balls of string and pegs wherewith to extend them. <a + href="#linkDimage-0036">[PLATE CXXIV., Fig. 4.]</a> The nets in this case + are squared at the ends, and seem to have been about eight or nine feet + long, and less than a foot in height. They have large meshes, and, like + the deer nets, are bordered both at top and bottom with a strong cord, to + which the net-work is attached. Like the classical [evodia], they were + probably placed across the runs of the animals, which, being baffled by + then and turned from their accustomed tracks, would grow bewildered, and + fall an easy prey to the hunters. Or, possibly, several of them may have + been joined together, and a considerable space may then have been + enclosed, within which the game may have been driven by the beaters. The + ease of these three weak and tinnier animals, the gazelle, the hare, and + the partridge, was not regarded as worthy of the monarch. When the king is + represented as present, he takes no part in it, but merely drives in his + chariot through the woods where the sportsmen are amusing themselves. + Persons, however, of a good position, as appears from their dress and the + number of their attendants, indulged in the sport, more especially + eunuchs, who were probably those of the royal household. It is not + unlikely that the special object was to supply the royal table with game. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0037" id="linkDimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate125.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 125 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Assyrians do not seem to have had much skill as fishermen. They were + unacquainted with the rod, and fished by means of a simple line thrown + into the water, one end of which was held in the hand. <a + href="#linkDimage-0037">[PLATE CXXV., Figs. 1, 2.]</a> No float was used, + and the bait must consequently have sunk to the bottom, unless prevented + from so doing by the force of the stream. This method of fishing was + likewise known and practised in Egypt, where, however, it was far more + common to angle with a rod. Though Assyrian fish-hooks have not been + found, there can be no doubt that that invention was one with which they + were acquainted, as were both the Egyptians and the early Chaldaeans. + </p> + <p> + Fishing was carried on both in rivers and in stews or ponds. The angler + sometimes stood or squatted upon the bank; at other times, not content + with commanding the mere edge of the water, he plunged in, and is seen + mid-stream, astride upon an inflated skin, quietly pursuing his avocation. + <a href="#linkDimage-0038">[PLATE CXXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> Occasionally he + improved his position by amounting upon a raft, and, seated at the stern, + with his back to the rower, threw out his line and drew the fish from the + water. Now and then the fisherman was provided with a plaited basket, made + of rushes or flags, which was fastened round his neck with a string, and + hung at his back, ready to receive the produce of his exertions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0038" id="linkDimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate126.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 126 " /> + </div> + <p> + It does not appear that angling was practised by the Assyrians the way + that the monuments show it to have been practised in Egypt, as an + amusement of the rich. The fishermen are always poorly clothed, and seem + to have belonged to the class which worked for its living. It is + remarkable that do not anywhere in the sculptures see nets used for + fishing; but perhaps we ought not to conclude from this that they were + never so employed in Assyria. The Assyrian sculptors represented only + occasionally the scenes of common everyday life; and we are seldom + justified in drawing a negative conclusion as to the peaceful habits of + the people on any point from the mere fact that the bas-reliefs contain no + positive evidence on the subject. + </p> + <p> + A few other animals were probably, but not certainly, chased by the + Assyrians, as especially the ostrich and the bear. The gigantic bird, + which remained in Mesopotamia as late as the time of Xenophon, was well + known to the Assyrian artists, who could scarcely have represented it with + so much success, unless its habits had been described by hunters. The bear + is much less frequent upon the remains than the ostrich; but its + occurrence and the truthfulness of its delineation where it occurs, + indicate a familiarity which may no doubt be due to other causes, but is + probably traceable to the intimate knowledge acquired by those who hunted + it. <a href="#linkDimage-0038">[PLATE CXXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Of the other amusements and occupations of the Assyrians our knowledge is + comparatively scanty; but some pages may be here devoted to their music, + their navigation, their commerce, and their agriculture. On the first and + second of these a good deal of light is thrown by the monuments, while + some interesting facts with respect to the third and fourth may be + gathered both from this source and also from ancient writers. + </p> + <p> + That the Babylonians, the neighbors of the Assyrians, and, in a certain + sense, the inheritors of their empire, had a passion for music, and + delighted in a great variety of musical instruments, has long been known + and admitted. The repeated mention by Daniel, in his third chapter, of the + cornet, flute, harp sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of music—or, + at any rate, of a number of instruments for which those terms were once + thought the best English equivalents—has familiarized us with the + fact that in Babylonia, as early as the sixth century B.C., musical + instruments of many different kinds were in use. It is also apparent from + the book of Psalms, that a variety of instruments were employed by the + Jews. And we know that in Egypt as many as thirteen or fourteen different + kinds were common. In Assyria, if there was not so much variety as this, + there were at any rate eight or nine quite different sorts, some stringed, + some wind, some merely instruments of percussion. In the early sculptures, + indeed, only two or three musical instruments are represented. One is a + kind of harp, held between the left arm and the side, and played with one + hand by means of a quill or <i>plectrum</i>. <a href="#linkDimage-0038">[PLATE + CXXVI., Fig. 3.]</a> Another is a lyre, played by the hand; while a third + is apparently cymbal. But in the later times we see besides these + instruments—a harp of a different make played with both hands, two + or three kinds of lyre, the double pipe, the guitar or cithern, the + tambourine, a nameless instrument, and more than one kind of drum. + </p> + <p> + The harp of the early ages was a triangular instrument, consisting of a + horizontal board which seems to have been about three feet in length, an + upright bar inserted into one end of the board, commonly surmounted by an + imitation of the human hand, and a number of strings which crossed + diagonally from the board to the bar, and, passing through the latter, + hung down some way, terminating in tassels of no great size. The strings + were eight, nine, or ten in number, and (apparently) were made fast to the + board, but could be tightened or relaxed by means of a row of pegs + inserted into the upright bar, round which the strings were probably + wound. No difference is apparent in the thickness of the strings; and it + would seem therefore that variety of tone was produced solely by + difference of length. It is thought that this instrument must have been + suspended round the player’s neck. It was carried at the left side, and + was played (as already observed) with a quill or electrum held in the + right hand, while the left hand seems to have been employed in pressing + the strings so as to modify the tone, or stop the vibrations, of the + notes. The performers on this kind of harp, and indeed all other Assyrian + musicians, are universally represented as standing while they play. + </p> + <p> + The harp of later times was constructed, held, and played differently. It + was still triangular, or nearly so; but the frame now consisted of a + rounded and evidently hollow, sounding-board, to which the strings were + attached with the help of pegs, and a plain bar whereto they were made + fast below, and from which their ends depended like a fringe. The number + of strings was greater than in the earlier harp, being sometimes as many + as seventeen. The instrument was carried in such a way that the strings + were perpendicular and the bar horizontal, while the sounding-board + projected forwards at an angle above the player’s head. It was played by + the naked hand, without a plectrum; and both hands seem to have found + their employment in pulling the strings. <a href="#linkDimage-0039">[PLATE + CXXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0039" id="linkDimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate127.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 127 " /> + </div> + <p> + Three varieties of the lyre are seen in the Assyrian sculptures. One of + them is triangular, or nearly so, and has only four strings, which, being + carried from one side of the triangle to the other, parallel to the base, + are necessarily of very unequal length. Its frame is apparently of wood, + very simple, and entirely devoid of ornament. This sort of lyre has been + found only in the latest sculptures. <a href="#linkDimage-0038">[PLATE + CXXVI., Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Another variety nearly resembles in its general shape the lyre of the + Egyptians. It has a large square bottom or sounding-board, which is held, + like the Egyptian, under the left elbow, two straight arms only slightly + diverging, and a plain cross-bar at top. The number of strings visible in + the least imperfect representation is eight; but judging by the width of + the instrument, we may fairly assume that the full complement was nine or + ten. The strings run from the cross-bar to the sounding-board, and must + have been of a uniform length. This lyre was played by both hands, and for + greater security was attached by a band passing round the player’s neck. + <a href="#linkDimage-0039">[PLATE CXXVII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The third sort of lyre was larger than either of the others, and + considerably more elaborate. It had probably a sounding-board at bottom, + like the lyre just described, though this, being carried under the left + elbow, is concealed in the representations. Hence there branched out two + curved arms, more or less ornamented, which were of very unequal length; + and these were joined together by a cross-bar, also curved, and projecting + considerably beyond the end of the longer of the two arms. Owing to the + inequality of the arms, the cross-bar sloped at an angle to the base, and + the strings, which passed from the one to the other, consequently differed + in length. The number of the strings in this lyre seems to have been + either five or seven. <a href="#linkDimage-0040">[PLATE CXXVIII., Figs. 2, + 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0040" id="linkDimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate128.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 128 " /> + </div> + <p> + The Assyrian guitar is remarkable for the small size of the hollow body or + sounding-board, and the great proportionate length of the neck or handle. + There is nothing to show what was the number of the strings, nor whether + they were stretched by pegs and elevated by means of a bridge. Both hands + seen to be employed in playing the instrument, which is held across the + chest in a sloping direction, and was probably kept in place by a ribbon + or strap passed round the neck. <a href="#linkDimage-0040">[PLATE + CXXVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + It is curious that in the Assyrian remains, while the double pipe is + common, we find no instance at all either of the flute or of the single + pipe. All three were employed in Egypt, and occur on the monuments of that + country frequently; and though among the Greeks and Romans the double pipe + was more common than the single one, yet the single pipe was well known, + and its employment was not unusual. The Greeks regarded the pipe as + altogether Asiatic, and ascribed its invention to Marsyas the Phrygian, or + to Olympus, his disciple. We may conclude from this that they at any rate + learnt the invention from Asia; and in their decided preference of the + double over the single pipe we may not improbably have a trace of the + influence which Assyria exercised over Asiatic, and thus even over Greek, + music. <a href="#linkDimage-0040">[PLATE CXXVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian double pipe was short, probably not exceeding ten or twelve + inches in length. It is uncertain whether it was really a single + instrument consisting of two tubes united by a common mouthpiece, or + whether it was not composed of two quite separate pipes, as was the case + with the double pipes of the Greeks and Romans. + </p> + <p> + The two pipes constituting a pair seem in Assyria to have been always of + the same length, not, like the Roman “right” and “left pipes,” of unequal + length, and so of different pitches. They were held and played, like the + classical one, with either hand of the performer. There can be little + doubt that they were in reality quite straight, though sometimes they have + been awkwardly represented as crooked by the artist. + </p> + <p> + The tambourine of the Assyrian was round, like that in common use at the + present day; not square, like the ordinary Egyptian. It seems to have + consisted simply of a skin stretched on a circular frame, and to have been + destitute altogether of the metal rings or balls which produce the + jingling sound of the modern instrument. It was held at bottom by the left + hand in a perpendicular position, and was struck at the side with the + fingers of the right. <a href="#linkDimage-0041">[PLATE CXXIX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0041" id="linkDimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate129.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 129 " /> + </div> + <p> + Assyrian cymbals closely resembled those in common use throughout the East + at the present day. They consisted of two hemispheres of metal, probably + of bronze, running off to a point, which was elongated into a bar or + handle. The player grasped a cymbal in each hand, and either clashed theme + together horizontally, or else, holding one cupwise in his left, brought + the other down upon it perpendicularly with his right. <a + href="#linkDimage-0042">[PLATE CXXX., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Two drums are represented on the Assyrian sculptures. + </p> + <p> + One is a small instrument resembling the <i>tubbul</i>, now frequently + used by Eastern dancing girls. The other is of larger size, like the <i>tubbul</i> + at top, but descending gradually in the shape of an inverted cone, and + terminating almost in a point at bottom. Both were carried in front, + against the stomach of the player—attached, apparently, to his + girdle; and both were played in the same way, namely, with the fingers of + the open hands on the top. <a href="#linkDimage-0042">[PLATE CXXX., Fig. + 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0042" id="linkDimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate130.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 130 " /> + </div> + <p> + A few instruments carried by musicians are of an anomalous appearance, and + do not admit of identification with any known species. One, which is borne + by a musician in a processional scene belonging to the time of + Sennacherib, resembles in shape a bag turned upside-down. By the manner in + which it is held, we may conjecture that it was a sort of rattle—a + hollow square box of wood or metal, containing stones or other hard + substances which produced a jingling noise when shaken. But the purpose of + the semicircular bow which hangs from the box is difficult to explain, + unless we suppose that it was merely a handle by which to carry the + instrument when not in use. Rattles of different kinds are found among the + musical instruments of Egypt; and one of them consists of a box with a + long handle attached to it. The jingling noise produced by such + instruments may have corresponded to the sound now emitted by the + side-rings of the tambourine. + </p> + <p> + Another curious-looking instrument occurs in a processional scene of the + time of Asshur-bani-pal, which has been compared to the modern <i>santour</i>, + a sort of dulcimer. It consisted (apparently) of a number of strings, + certainly not fewer than ten stretched over a hollow case or + sounding-board. The musician seems to have struck the strings with a small + bar or hammer held in his right hand, while at the same time he made some + use of his left hand in pressing them so as to produce the right note. It + is clear that this instrument must have been suspended round the neck, + though the Assyrian artist has omitted to represent the belt which kept it + in place. <a href="#linkDimage-0041">[PLATE CXXIX., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In addition to all these various instruments, it is possible that the + Assyrians may have made use of a sort of horn. An object is represented on + a slab of Sennacherib’s which is certainly either a horn or a + speaking-trumpet. It is carried by one of the supervisors of the works in + a scene representing the conveyance of a colossal bull to its destination. + In shape it no doubt resembles the modern speaking-trumpet, but it is + almost equally near to the tuba or military trumpet of the Greeks and + Romans. This will appear sufficiently on a comparison of the two + representations, one of which is taken from Mr. Layard’s representation of + Sennacherib’s slab, while the other is from a sculpture on the column of + Trajan. As we have no mention of the speaking-trumpet in any ancient + writer, as the shape of the object under consideration is that of a known + ancient instrument of music, and as an ordinary horn would have been of + great use in giving signals to workmen engaged as the laborers are upon + the sculpture, it seems best to regard the object in question as such a + horn—an instrument of great power, but of little compass—more + suitable therefore for signal-giving than for concerts. <a + href="#linkDimage-0042">[PLATE CXXX., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Passing now from the instruments of the Assyrians to the general features + and character of their music, we may observe, in the first place, that + while it is fair to suppose them acquainted with each form of the triple + symphony, there is only evidence that they knew of two forms out of the + three—viz, the harmony of instruments, and that of instruments and + voices in combination. Of these two they seem greatly to have preferred + the concert of instruments without voices; indeed, one instance alone + shows that they were not wholly ignorant of the more complex harmony. Even + this leaves it doubtful whether they themselves practised it: for the + singers and musicians represented as uniting their efforts are not + Assyrians, but Susianians, who come out to greet their conquerors, and do + honor to the new sovereign who has been imposed on them, with singing, + playing, and dancing. + </p> + <p> + Assyrian bands were variously composed. The simplest consisted of two + harpers. A band of this limited number seems to have been an established + part of the religious ceremonial on the return of the monarch from the + chase, when a libation was poured over the dead game. The instrument in + use on these occasions was the antique harp, which was played, not with + the hand, but with the <i>plectrum</i>. A similar band appears on one + occasion in a triumphal return from a military expedition belonging to the + time of Sennacherib. <a href="#linkDimage-0043">[PLATE CXXI.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0043" id="linkDimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate131.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 131 " /> + </div> + <p> + In several instances we find bands of three musicians. In one case all + three play the lyre. The musicians here are certainly captives, whom the + Assyrians have borne off front their own country. It has been thought that + their physiognomy is Jewish, and that the lyre which they bear in their + hands may represent that “kind of harp” which the children of the later + captivity hung up upon the willows when they wept by the rivers of + Babylon. There are no sufficient grounds, however, for this + identification. The lyre may be pronounced foreign, since it is unlike any + other specimen; but its ornamentation with an animal head is sufficient to + show that it is not Jewish. And the Jewish <i>kinnor</i> was rather a harp + than a lyre, and had certainly more than four strings. Still, the + employment of captives as musicians is interesting, though we cannot say + that the captives are Jews. It shows us that the Assyrians, like the later + Babylonians, were in the habit of “requiring” music from their prisoners, + who, when transported into a “strange land,” had to entertain their + masters with their native melodies. + </p> + <p> + Another band of three exhibits to us a harper, a player on the lyre, and a + player on the double pipe. A third shows a harper, a player on the lyre, + and a musician whose instrument is uncertain. In this latter case it is + quite possible that there may originally have been more musicians than + three, for the sculpture is imperfect, terminating in the middle of a + figure. + </p> + <p> + Bands of four performers are about as common as bands of three. On an + obelisk belonging to the time of Asshur-izir-pal we see a band composed of + two cymbal-players and two performers on the lyre. A slab of Sennacherib’s + exhibits four harpers arranged in two pairs, all playing with the <i>plectrum</i> + on the antique harp. Another of the same date, which is incomplete, shows + us a tambourine-player, a cymbal-player, a player on the nondescript + instrument which has been called a sort of rattle, and another whose + instrument cannot be distinguished. In a sculpture of a later period, + which is represented above, we see a band of four, composed of a + tambourine-player, two players on two different sorts of lyres, and a + cymbal-player. + </p> + <p> + It is not often that we find representations of bands containing more than + four performers. On the sculptures hitherto discovered there seem to be + only three instances where this number was exceeded. A bas-relief of + Sennacherib’s showed five players, of whom two had tambourines; two, harps + of the antique pattern; and one, cymbals. Another, belonging to the time + of his grandson, exhibited a band of seven, three of whom played upon + harps of the later fashion, two on the double pipe, one on the guitar, and + one on the long drum with the conical bottom. Finally, we have the + remarkable scene represented in the illustration, a work of the sane date, + where no fewer than twenty-six performers are seen uniting their efforts. + Of these, eleven are players on instruments, while the remaining fifteen + are vocalists. The instruments consist of seven harps, two double pipes, a + small drum or tubbel, and the curious instrument which has been compared + to the modern <i>santour</i>. The players are all men, six out of the + eleven being eunuchs. The singers consist of six women and nine children + of various ages, the latter of whom seem to accompany their singing, as + the Hebrews and Egyptians sometimes did, with clapping of the hands. Three + out of the first four musicians are represented with one leg raised, as if + dancing to the measure. <a href="#linkDimage-0044">[PLATE CXXXII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0044" id="linkDimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate132.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 132 " /> + </div> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate132a (58K)" src="images/plate132a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + Bands in Assyria had sometimes, though not always, time-keepers or + leaders, who took the direction of the performance. These were commonly + eunuchs, as indeed were the greater number of the musicians. They held in + one hand a double rod or wand, with which most probably they made their + signals, and stood side by side facing the performers. <a + href="#linkDimage-0044">[PLATE CXXXII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians seem to have employed music chiefly for festive and + religious purposes. The favorite instrument in the religious ceremonies + was the antique harp, which continued in use as a sacred instrument from + the earliest to the latest times. On festive occasions the lyre was + preferred, or a mixed band with a variety of instruments. In the quiet of + domestic life the monarch and his sultana were entertained with concerted + music played by a large number of performers: while in processions and + pageants, whether of a civil or of a military character, bands were also + very generally employed, consisting of two, three, four, five, or possibly + more, musicians. Cymbals, the tambourine, and the instrument which has + been above regarded as a sort of rattle, were peculiar to these + processional occasions: the harp, the lyre, and the double pipe had + likewise a place in them. + </p> + <p> + In actual war, it would appear that music was employed very sparingly, if + at all, by the Assyrians. No musicians are ever represented in the + battle-scenes: nor are the troops accompanied by any when upon the march. + Musicians are only seen conjoined with troops in one or two marching + processions, apparently of a triumphal character. It may consequently be + doubted whether the Assyrian armies, when they went out on their + expeditions, were attended, like the Egyptian and Roman armies, by + military bands. Possibly, the musicians in the processional scenes alluded + to belong to the court rather than to the camp, and merely take part as + civilians in a pageant, wherein a share is also assigned to the soldiery. + </p> + <p> + In proceeding, as already proposed, to speak of the navigation of the + Assyrians, it must be at once premised that it is not as mariners, but + only as fresh-water sailors, that they come within the category of + navigators at all. Originally an inland people, they had no power, in the + earlier ages of their history, to engage in any but the secondary and + inferior kind of navigation; and it would seem that, by the time when they + succeeded in opening to themselves through their conquests a way to the + Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, their habits had become so fixed in + this respect that they no longer admitted of change. There is satisfactory + evidence which shows that they left the navigation of the two seas at the + two extremities of their empire to the subject nations—the + Phoenicians and the Babylonians contenting themselves with the profits + without sharing the dangers of marine voyages, while their own attention + was concentrated upon their two great rivers—the Tigris and the + Euphrates, which formed the natural line of communication between the seas + in question. + </p> + <p> + The navigation of these streams was important to the Assyrians in two + ways. In the first place it was a military necessity that they should be + able, <i>readily and without delay</i>, to effect the passage of both of + them, and also of their tributaries, which were frequently too deep to be + forded. Now from very early times it was probably found tolerably easy to + pass an army over a great river by swimming, more especially with the aid + of inflated skins, which would be soon employed for the purpose. But the + <i>materiel</i> of the army—the provisions, the chariots, and the + siege machines—was not so readily transported, and indeed could only + be conveyed across deep rivers by means of bridges, rafts, or boats. On + the great streams of the Tigris and Euphrates, with their enormous spring + floods, no bridge, in the ordinary sense of the word, is possible. Bridges + of boats are still the only ones that exist on either river below the + point at which they issue from the gorges of the mountains. And these + would be comparatively late inventions, long subsequent to the employment + of single ferry boats. Probably the earliest contrivance for transporting + the chariots, the stores, and the engines across a river was a raft, + composed hastily of the trees and bushes growing in the neighborhood of + the stream, and rendered capable of sustaining a considerable weight by + the attachment to it of a number of inflated skins. A representation of + such a raft, taken from a slab of Sennacherib, has been already given. + Rafts of this kind are still largely employed in the navigation of the + Mesopotamian streams, and, being extremely simple in their construction, + may reasonably be supposed to have been employed by the Assyrians from the + very foundation of their empire. + </p> + <p> + To these rafts would naturally have succeeded boats of one kind or + another. As early as the time of Tiglath-Pileser I. (ab. B.C. 1120) we + find a mention of boats as employed in the passage of the Euphrates. These + would probably be of the kind described by Herodotus, and represented on + one of the most ancient bas-reliefs—round structures like the Welsh + coracles, made of wickerwork and covered with skins, smeared over with a + coating of bitumen. Boats of this construction were made of a considerable + size. The one represented contains a chariot, and is navigated by two men. + <a href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 1.]</a> In the later + sculptures the number of navigators is raised to four, and the boats carry + a heavy load of stone or other material. The mode of propulsion is curious + and very unusual. The rowers sit at the stem and stern, facing each other, + and while those at the stem pull, those at the stern must have pushed, as + Herodotus tells us that they did. The make of the oars is also singular. + In the earliest sculptures they are short poles, terminating in a head, + shaped like a small axe or hammer; in the later, below this axe-like + appendage, they have a sort of curved blade, which is, however, not solid, + but perforated, so as to form a mere framework, which seems to require + filling up. <a href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0045" id="linkDimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate133.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 133 " /> + </div> + <p> + Beside these round boats, which correspond closely with the <i>kufas</i> + in use upon the Tigris and Euphrates at the present day, the Assyrians + employed for the passage of rivers, even in very early times, a vessel of + a more scientific construction. The early bas-reliefs exhibit to us, + together with the <i>kufas</i>, a second and much larger vessel, manned + with a crew of seven men—a helmsman and six rowers, three upon + either side and capable of conveying across a broad stream two chariots at + a time, or a chariot and two or three passengers. This vessel appears to + have been made of planks. It was long, and comparatively narrow. It had a + flattish bottom, and was rounded off towards the stem and stern, much as + boats are rounded off towards the bows at the present day. It did not + possess either mast or sail, but was propelled wholly by oars, which were + of the same shape as those used anciently by the rowers in the round + boats. In the steersman’s hand is seen an oar of a different kind. It is + much longer than the rowing oars, and terminates in an oval blade, which + would have given it considerable power in the water. <a + href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 4.]</a> The helmsman steered + with both hands; and it seems that his oar was lashed to an upright post + near the stern of the vessel. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that before armies could look habitually to being + transported across the Mesopotamian streams, wherever they might happen to + strike them in their expeditions, by boats of these two kinds, either + ferries must have been established at convenient intervals upon them, or + traffic along their courses by means of boats must have been pretty + regular. An Assyrian army did not carry its boats with it, as a modern + army does its pontoons. Boats were commonly found in sufficient numbers on + the streams themselves when an army needed them, and were impressed, or + hired, to convey the troops across. And thus we see that the actual + navigation of the streams had another object besides the military one of + transport from bank to bank. Rivers are Nature’s roads; and we may be sure + that the country had not been long settled before a water communication + began to be established between towns upon the river-courses, and + commodities began to be transported by means of them. The very position of + the chief towns upon time banks of the streams was probably connected with + this sort of transport, the rivers furnishing the means by which large + quantities of building material could be conveniently concentrated at a + given spot, and by which supplies could afterwards be regularly received + from a distance. We see in the Assyrian sculptures the conveyance of + stones, planks, etc. along the rivers, as well as the passage of chariots, + horses, and persons across them. Rafts and round boats were most commonly + used for this purpose. When a mass of unusual size, as a huge + paving-stone, or a colossal bull or lion, had to be moved, a long, + flat-bottomed boat was employed, which the mass sometimes more than + covered. In this case, as there was no room for rower’s, trackers were + engaged, who dragged the vessel along by means of ropes, which were + fastened either to the boat itself or to its burden. <a + href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + During the later period of the monarchy various improvements took place in + Assyrian boat-building. The Phoenician and Cyprian expeditions of the + later kings made the Assyrians well acquainted with the ships of + first-rate nautical nations; and they seem to have immediately profited by + this acquaintance, in order to improve the appearance and the quality of + their own river boats. The clumsy and inelegant long-boat of the earlier + times, as replaced, even for ordinary traffic, by a light and graceful + fabric, which was evidently a copy from Phoenician models. Modifications, + which would seem trifling if described, changed the whole character of the + vessels, in which light and graceful curves took the place of straight + lines and angles only just rounded off. The stem and stern were raised + high above the body of the boat, and were shaped like fishes’ tails or + carved into the heads of animals. <a href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE + CXXXIII., Fig. 2.]</a> Oars, shaped nearly like modern ones, came into + vogue, and the rowers were placed so as all to look one way, and to pull + instead of pushing with their oars. Finally, the principle of the bireme + was adopted, and river-galleys were constructed of such a size that they + had to be manned by thirty rowers, who sat in two tiers one above the + other at the sides of the galley, while the centre part, which seems to + have been decked, was occupied by eight or ten other persons. + </p> + <p> + In galleys of this kind the naval architecture of the Assyrians seems to + have culminated. They never, so far as appears, adopted for their boats + the inventions with which their intercourse with Phoenicia had rendered + them perfectly familiar, of masts, and sails. This is probably to be + explained from the extreme rapidity of the Mesopotamian rivers, on which + sailing boats are still uncommon. The unfailing strength of rowers was + needed in order to meet and stem the force of the currents; and this + strength being provided in abundance, it was not thought necessary to + husband it or eke it out by the addition of a second motive power. Again, + the boats, being intended only for peaceful purposes, were unprovided with + beaks, another invention well known to the Assyrians, and frequently + introduced into their sculptures in the representations of Phoenician + vessels. <a href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 5.]</a> + </p> + <p> + In the Assyrian biremes the oars of the lower tier were worked through + holes in the vessel’s sides. This arrangement would of course at once + supply a fulcrum and keep the oars in their places. But it is not so easy + to see how the oar of a common row-boat, or the uppermost tier of a + bireme, obtained their purchase on the vessel, and were prevented from + slipping along its side. Assyrian vessels had no rowlocks, and in general + the oars are represented as simply rested without any support on the upper + edge of the bulwark. But this can scarcely have been the real practice; + and one or two representations, where a support is provided, may be fairly + regarded as showing what the practice actually was. In the figure of a <i>kufa</i>, + or round boat, already given, it will be seen that one oar is worked by + means of a thong, like the [—] or [—] of the Greeks, which is + attached to a ring in the bulwark. In another bas-relief, several of the + oars of similar boats are represented as kept in place by means of two + pegs fixed into the top of the bulwark and inclined at an angle to one + another. <a href="#linkDimage-0045">[PLATE CXXXIII., Fig. 6.]</a> Probably + one or other of these two methods of steadying the oar was in reality + adopted in every instance. + </p> + <p> + With regard to Assyrian commerce, it must at the outset be remarked that + direct notices in ancient writers of any real authority are scanty in the + extreme. The prophet Nahum says indeed, in a broad and general way, of + Nineveh, “Thou hast multiplied thy merchants above the stars of heaven;” + and Ezekiel tells us, more particularly, that Assyrian merchants, along + with others, traded with Tyre “in blue clothes, and broidered work, and in + chests of rich apparel.” But, except these two, there seem to be no + notices of Assyrian trade in any contemporary or quasi-contemporary + author. Herodotus, writing nearly two hundred years after the empire had + come to an end, mentions casually that “Assyrian wares” had in very + ancient times been conveyed by the Phoenicians to Greece, and there sold + to the inhabitants. He speaks also of a river traffic in his own day + between Armenia and Babylon along the course of the Euphrates, a fact + which indirectly throws light upon the habits of earlier ages. Diodorus, + following Ctesias, declares that a number of cities were established from + very ancient times on the banks of both the Tigris and the Euphrates, to + serve as marts of trade to the merchants who imported into Assyria the + commodities of Media and Paraetacene. Among the most important of these + marts, as we learn from Strabo, were Tiphsach or Thapsacus on the + Euphrates, and Opis upon the Tigris. + </p> + <p> + It is from notices thus scanty, partial, and incidental, eked out by + probability, and further helped by a certain number of important facts + with respect to the commodities actually used in the country, whereof + evidence has been furnished to us by the recent discoveries, that we have + to form our estimate of the ancient commerce of the Assyrians. The + Inscriptions throw little or no light upon the subject. They record the + march of armies against foreign enemies, and their triumphant return laden + with plunder and tribute, sometimes showing incidentally what products of + a country were most in request among the Assyrians; but they contain no + accounts of the journeys of merchants, or of the commodities which entered + or quitted the country in the common course of trade. + </p> + <p> + The favorable situation of Assyria for trade has often attracted remark. + Lying on the middle courses of two great navigable streams, it was readily + approached by water both from the north-west and from the south-east. The + communication between the Mediterranean and the Southern or Indian Ocean + naturally—almost necessarily—followed this route. If Europe + wanted the wares and products of India, or if India required the + commodities of Europe, by far the shortest and easiest course was the line + from the eastern Mediterranean across Northern Syria, and thence by one or + other of the two great streams to the innermost recess of the Persian + Gulf. The route by the Nile, the canal of Neco, and the Red Sea, was + decidedly inferior, more especially on account of the dangerous navigation + of that sea, but also because it was circuitous, and involved a voyage in + the open ocean of at least twice the length of the other. + </p> + <p> + Again, Assyria lay almost necessarily on the line of land communication + between the north-east and the south-west. The lofty Armenian + mountain-chains—Niphates and the other parallel ranges—towards + the north, and the great Arabian Desert towards the south, offered + difficulties to companies of land-traders which they were unwilling to + face, and naturally led them to select routes intermediate between these + two obstacles, which could not fail to pass through some part or other of + the Mesopotamian region. + </p> + <p> + The established lines of land trade between Assyria and her neighbors were + probably very numerous, but the most important must have been some five or + six. One almost certainly led from the Urumiyeh basin over the <i>Keli-shin</i> + pass (lat. 37°, long. (45° nearly)), descending on Rowandiz, and thence + following the course of the Greater Zab to Herir, whence it crossed the + plain to Nineveh. At the summit of the Kell-shin pass is a pillar of dark + blue stone, six feet in height, two in breadth, and one in depth, let into + a basement block of the same material, and covered with a cuneiform + inscription in the Scythic character. At a short distance to the westward + on the same route is another similar pillar. The date of the inscriptions + falls within the most flourishing time of the Assyrian empire, and their + erection is a strong argument in favor of the use of this route (which is + one of the very few possible modes of crossing the Zagros range) in the + time when that empire was in full vigor. + </p> + <p> + Another line of land traffic probably passed over the same mountain-range + considerably further to the south. It united Assyria with Media, leading + from the Northern Ecbatana (Takht-i-Suleiman) by the Banneh pass to + Suleimaniyeh, and thence by Kerkuk and Altura-Kiupri to Arbela and + Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + There may have been also a route up the valley of the Lesser Zab, by + Koi-Sinjah and over the great Kandil range into Lajihan. There are said to + be Assyrian remains near Koi-Sinjah, at a place called the Bihisht and + Jehennen (“the Heaven and Hell”) of Nimrud, but no account has been given + of them by any European traveller. + </p> + <p> + Westward there were probably two chief lines of trade with Syria and the + adjacent countries. One passed along the foot of the Sinjar range by + Sidikan (<i>Arban</i>) on the Khabour to Tiphsach (or Thapsacus) on the + Euphrates, where it crossed the Great River. Thence it bent southwards, + and, passing through Tadmor, was directed upon Phoenicia most likely by + way of Damascus. Another took a more northern line by the Mons Masius to + Harran and Seruj, crossing the Euphrates at Bir, and thence communicating + both with Upper Syria and with Asia Minor. The former of these two routes + is marked as a line of traffic by the foreign objects discovered in such + abundance at Arban, by the name Tiphsach, which means “passage,” and by + the admitted object of Solomon in building Tadmor. The other rests on less + direct evidence; but there are indications of it in the trade of Harran + with Tyre which is mentioned by Ezekiel, and in the Assyrian remains near + Seruj, which is on the route from Harran to the Bir fordway. + </p> + <p> + Towards the north, probably, the route most used was that which is thought + by many to be the line followed by Xenophon, first up the valley of the + Tigris to Til or Tilleh, and then along the Bitlis Chai to the lake of Van + and the adjacent country. Another route may have led from Nineveh to + Nisibis, thence through the Jebel Tur to Diarbekr, and from Diarbekr up + the Western Tigris to Arghana, Kharput, Malatiyeh, and Asia Minor. + Assyrian remains have been found at various points along this latter line, + while the former is almost certain to have connected the Assyrian with the + Armenian capital. + </p> + <p> + Armenian productions would, however, reach Nineveh and the other great + central cities mainly by the Tigris, down which they could easily have + been floated from Tilleh. or even from Diarbekr. Similarly, Babylonian and + Susianian productions, together with the commodities which either or both + of those countries imported by sea, would find their way into Assyria up + the courses of the two streams, which were navigated by vessels capable of + stemming the force of the current, at least as high as Opis and Thapsacus. + </p> + <p> + We may now proceed to inquire what were the commodities which Assyria, + either certainly or probably, imported by these various lines of land and + water communication. Those of which we seem to have some indication in the + existing remains are gold, tin, ivory, lead, stones of various kinds, + cedar-wood, pearls, and engraved seals. + </p> + <p> + Many articles in gold have been recovered at the various Assyrian sites + where excavations have been made; and indications have been found of the + employment of this precious metal in the ornamentation of palaces and of + furniture. The actual quantity discovered has, indeed, been small; but + this may be accounted for without calling in question the reality of that + extraordinary wealth in the precious metals which is ascribed by all + antiquity to Assyria. This wealth no doubt flowed in, to a considerable + extent, from the plunder of conquered nations and the tribute paid by + dependent monarchs. But the quantity obtained in this way would hardly + have sufficed to maintain the luxury of the court and at the same time to + accumulate, so that when Nineveh was taken there was “none end” of the + store. It has been suggested that “mines of gold were probably once worked + within the Assyrian dominions,” although no gold is now known to be + produced anywhere within her limits. But perhaps it is more probable that, + like Judaea and Phoenicia, she obtained her gold in a great measure from + commerce, taking it either from the Phoenicians, who derived it both from + Arabia and from the West African coast, or else from the Babylonians, who + may have imported it by sea from India. + </p> + <p> + Tin, which has not been found in a pure state in the remains of the + Assyrians, but which enters regularly as an element into their bronze, + where it forms from one-tenth to one-seventh of the mass, was also, + probably, an importation. Tin is a comparatively rare metal. Abundant + enough in certain places, it is not diffused at all widely over the + earth’s surface. Neither Assyria itself nor any of the neighboring + countries are known to have ever produced this mineral. Phoenicia + certainly imported it, directly or indirectly, from Cornwall and the + Scilly Isles, which therefore became first known in ancient geography as + the Cassiterides or “Tin Islands.” It is a reasonable supposition that the + tin wherewith the Assyrians hardened their bronze was obtained by their + merchants from the Phoenicians in exchange for textile fabrics and (it may + be) other commodities. If so, we may believe that in many instances the + produce of our own tin mines which left our shores more than twenty-five + centuries ago, has, after twice travelling a distance of many thousand + miles, returned to seek a final rest in its native country. + </p> + <p> + Ivory was used by the Assyrians extensively in their furniture, and was + probably supplied by them to the Phoenicians and the Greeks. It was no + doubt sometimes brought to them by subject nations as tribute; but this + source of supply is not sufficient to account, at once, for the + consumption in Assyria itself, and for the exports from Assyria to foreign + countries. A regular trade for ivory seems to have been carried on from + very early times between India and Dedan (Bahrein,?) in the Persian Gulf. + The travelling companies of the Dedanim, who conveyed this precious + merchandise from their own country to Phoenicia, passed probably along the + course of the Euphrates, and left a portion of their wares in the marts + upon that stream, which may have been thence conveyed to the great + Assyrian cities. Or the same people may have traded directly with Assyria + by the route of the Tigris. Again, it is quite conceivable—indeed, + it is probable—that there was a land traffic between Assyria and + Western India by the way of Cabal, Herat, the Caspian Gates, and Media. Of + this route we have a trace in the land animals engraved upon the + well-known Black Obelisk, where the combination of the small-eared or + Indian elephant and the rhinoceros with the two-humped Bactrian camel, + sufficiently marks the line by which the productions of India, + occasionally at, any rate, reached Assyria. The animals themselves were, + we may be sure, very rarely transported. Indeed, it is not till the very + close of the Persian empire that we find elephants possessed—and + even then in scanty numbers—by the western Asiatic monarchs. But the + more portable products of the Indus region, elephants’ tusks, gold, and + perhaps shawls and muslins, are likely to have passed to the west by this + route with far greater frequency. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians were connoisseurs in hard stones and gems, which they seem + to have imported from all quarters. The lapis lazuli, which is found + frequently among the remains as the material of seals, combs, rings, jars, + and other small objects, probably came from Bactria or the adjacent + regions, whence alone it is procurable at the present day. The cornelian + used for cylinders may have come from Babylonia, which, according to Pliny + furnished it of the best quality in the more ancient times. The agates or + onyxes may have been imported from Susiana, where they were found in the + bed of the Choaspes (<i>Kerkhah</i>), or they may possibly have been + brought from India. Other varieties are likely to have been furnished by + Armenia, which is rich in stones; and hence too was probably obtained the + <i>shamir</i>, or emery-stone, by means of which the Assyrians were + enabled to engrave all the other hard substances known to them. + </p> + <p> + That cedar-wood was imported into Assyria is sufficiently indicated by the + fact that, although no cedars grew in the country, the beams in the + palaces were frequently of this material. It may not, however, have been + exactly an article of commerce, since the kings appear to have cut it + after their successful expeditions into Syria, and to have carried it off + from Lebanon and Amanus as part of the plunder of the country. + </p> + <p> + Pearls, which have been found in Assyrian ear rings, must have been + procured from the Persian Gulf, one of the few places frequented by the + shell-fish which produces then. The pearl fisheries in these parts were + pointed out to Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander, and had no doubt been + made to yield their treasures to the natives of the coasts and islands + from a remote antiquity. The familiarity of the author of the book of Job + with pearls is to be ascribed to the ancient trade in them throughout the + regions adjoining the Gulf, which could not fail to bring them at an early + date to the knowledge of the Hebrews. + </p> + <p> + Engraved stones, generally in the shape of scarabs, seem to have been + largely imported from Egypt into Assyria, where they were probably used + either as amulets or as seals. They have been found in the greatest plenty + at Arban on the lower Khabour, the ancient Sidikan or Shadikanni, which + lies nearly at the extreme west of the Assyrian territory; but many + specimens have likewise been obtained from Nineveh and other of the + central Assyrian cities. + </p> + <p> + If we were to indulge in conjecture, we might add to this list of Assyrian + importations at least an equal number of commodities which, though they + have not been found in the ancient remains, may be fairly regarded, on + grounds of probability, as objects of trade between Assyria and her + neighbors. Frankincense, which was burnt in such lavish profusion in the + great temple at Babylon, was probably offered in considerable quantities + upon Assyrian altars, and could only have been obtained from Arabia. + Cinnamon, which was used by the Jews from the time of the Exodus, and + which was early imported into Greece by the Phoenicians, who received it + from the Arabians can scarcely have been unknown in Assyria when the + Hebrews were familiar with it. This precious spice must have reached the + Arabians from Ceylon or Malabar, the most accessible of the countries + producing it. Mullins, shawls, and other tissues are likely to have come + by the same route as the cinnamon; and these may possibly have been among + the “blue clothes and broidered work and rich apparel” which the merchants + of Asshur carried to Tyre in “chests, bound with cords and made of + cedar-wood.” Dyes, such as the Indian lacca, raw cotton, ebony and other + woods, may have come by the same line of trade; while horses and mules are + likely to have been imported from Armenia, and slaves from the country + between Armenia and the Halys River. + </p> + <p> + If from the imports of Assyria we pass to her exports, we leave a region + of uncertain light to enter upon one of almost total darkness. That the + “wares of Assyria” were among the commodities which the Phoenicians + imported into Greece at a very early period, we have the testimony of + Herodotus; but he leaves us wholly without information as to the nature of + the wares themselves. No other classical writer of real authority touches + the subject; and any conclusions that we may form upon it must be derived + from one of two sources, either general probability, or the single passage + in a sacred author which gives us a certain amount of authentic + information. From the passage in question, which has been already quoted + at length, we learn that the chief of the Assyrian exports to Phoenicia + were textile fabrics, apparently of great value, since they were most + carefully packed in chests of cedar-wood secured by cords. These fabrics + may have been “blue cloaks,” or “embroidery,” or “rich dresses” of any + kind, for all these are mentioned by Ezekiel; but we cannot say definitely + which Assyria traded in, since the merchants of various other countries + are joined in the passage with hers. Judging by the monuments, we should + conclude that at least a portion of the embroidered work was from her + looms and workshops; for, as has been already shown, the embroidery of the + Assyrians was of the most delicate and elaborate description. She is also + likely to have traded in rich apparel of all kinds, both such as she + manufactured at home, and such as she imported from the far East by the + lines of traffic which have been pointed out. Some of her own fabrics may + possibly have been of silk, which in Roman times was a principal Assyrian + export. Whether she exported her other peculiar productions, her + transparent and colored glass, her exquisite metal bowls, plates, and + dishes, her beautifully carved ivories, we cannot say. They have not + hitherto been found in any place beyond her dominion, so that it would + rather seem that she produced them only for home consumption. Some ancient + notices appear to imply a belief on the part of the Greeks and Romans that + she produced and exported various spices. Horace speaks of Assyrian nard + Virgil of Assyrian <i>amomuum</i>, Tibullus of Assyrian odors generally. + AEschylus has an allusion of the same kind in his Agamemnon. Euripide, and + Theocritus, who mention respectively Syrian myrrh and Syrian frankincense, + probably use the word “Syrian” for “Assyrian.” The belief thus implied is + not, however, borne out by inquiry. Neither the spikenard nor the amonmum, + nor the myrrh tree, nor the frankincense tree, nor any other actual spice, + is produced within the limits of Assyria, which must always have imported + its own spices from abroad, and can only have supplied them to other + countries as a carrier. In this capacity she may very probably, even in + the time of her early greatness, have conveyed on to the coast of Syria + the spicy products of Arabia and India, and thus have created an + impression, which afterwards remained as a tradition, that she was a great + spice-producer as well as a spice-seller. + </p> + <p> + In the same way, as a carrier, Assyria may have exported many other + commodities. She may have traded with the Phoenicians, not only in her own + products, but in the goods which she received from the south and east, + from Bactria, India, and the Persian Gulf,—such as lapis lazuli, + pearls, cinnamon, muslins, shawls, ivory, ebony, cotton. On the other + hand, she may have conveyed to India, or at least to Babylon, the + productions which the Phoenicians brought to Tyre and Sidon from the + various countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea and even the + Atlantic Ocean, as tin, hides, pottery, oil, wine, linen. On this point, + however, we have at present no evidence at all; and as it is not the + proper office of a historian to indulge at any length in mere conjecture, + the consideration of the commercial dealings of the Assyrians may be here + brought to a close. + </p> + <p> + On the agriculture of the Assyrians a very few remarks will be offered. It + has been already explained that the extent of cultivation depended + entirely on the conveyance of water. There is good reason to believe that + the Assyrians found a way to spread water over almost the whole of their + territory. Either by the system of <i>kanats</i> or subterranean + aqueducts, which has prevailed in the East from very early times, or by an + elaborate network of canals, the fertilizing fluid was conveyed to nearly + every part of Mesopotamia, which shows by its innumerable mounds, in + regions which are now deserts, how large a population it was made to + sustain under the wise management of the great Assyrians monarchs. Huge + dams seem to have been thrown across the Tigris in various places, one of + which (the Afrui) still remains, seriously impeding the navigation. It is + formed of large masses of squared stones, united together by cramps of + iron. Such artificial barriers were intended, not (as Strabo believed) for + the protection of the towns upon the river from a hostile fleet, but to + raise the level of the stream, in order that its water might flow off into + canals on one bank or the other, whence they could be spread by means of + minor channels over large tracts of territory. The canals themselves have + in most cases been gradually filled up. In one instance, however, owing + either to the peculiar nature of the soil or to some unexplained cause, we + are still able to trace the course of an Assyrian work of this class and + to observe the manner and principles of its construction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0046" id="linkDimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate134.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 134 " /> + </div> + <p> + In the tract of land lying between the lower course of the Great Zab River + and the Tigris, in which was situated the important town of Calah (now + Nimrud), a tract which is partly alluvial, but more generally of secondary + formation, hard gravel, sandstone, or conglomerate, are the remains of a + canal undoubtedly Assyrian, which was carried for a distance of more than + five-and-twenty miles from a point on the Khazr or Ghazr Su, a tributary + of the Zab, to the south-eastern corner of the Nimrud ruins. <a + href="#linkDimage-0046">[PLATE CXXXIV., Fig. 1.]</a> Originally the canal + seems to have been derived from the Zab itself, the water of which was + drawn off, on its northern bank, through a short tunnel—the modern + Negoub—and then conducted along a cutting, first by the side of the + Zab, and afterwards in a tortuous course across the undulating plain, into + the ravine formed by the Shor-Derreh torrent. The Zab, when this part of + the work was constructed, ran deep along its northern bank, and, sending a + portion of its waters into the tunnel, maintained a constant stream in the + canal. But after awhile the river abandoned its north bank for the + opposite shore; and, water ceasing to flow through the Negoub tunnel, it + became necessary to obtain it in some other way. Accordingly the canal was + extended northwards, partly by cutting and partly by tunnelling to the + Ghazr Su at about two miles above its mouth, and a permanent supply was + thenceforth obtained from that stream. The work may have been intended in + part to supply Calah with mountain water; but the remains of dams and + sluices along its course sufficiently show that it was a canal for + irrigation also. From it water was probably derived to fertilize the whole + triangle lying south of Nimrud between the two streams, a tract containing + nearly thirty square miles of territory, mostly very fertile, and with + careful cultivation well capable of supporting the almost metropolitan + city on which it abutted. + </p> + <p> + In Assyria it must have been seldom that the Babylonian system of + irrigation could have been found applicable, and the water simply derived + from the rivers by side-cuts, leading it off from the natural channel. + There is but little of Assyria which is flat and alluvial; the land + generally undulates, and most of it stands at a considerable height above + the various streams. The water therefore requires to be raised from the + level of the rivers to that of the lands before it can be spread over + them, and for this purpose hydraulic machinery of one kind or another is + requisite. In cases where the subterranean conduit was employed, the + Assyrians probably (like the ancient and the modern Persians) sank wells + at intervals, and raised the water from them by means of a bucket and + rope, the latter working over a pulley. Where they could obtain a bank of + a convenient height overhanging a river, they made use of the hand-swipe, + and with its aid lifted the water into a tank or reservoir, whence they + could distribute it over their fields. In some instances, it would seem, + they brought water to the tops of hills by means of aqueducts, and then, + constructing a number of small channels, let the fluid trickle down them + among their trees and crops. They may have occasionally, like the modern + Arabs, employed the labor of an animal to raise the fluid; but the + monuments do not furnish us with any evidence of their use of this method. + Neither do we find any trace of water-wheels, such as are employed upon + the Orontes and other swift rivers, whereby a stream can itself be made to + raise water from the land along its bunks. + </p> + <p> + According to Herodotus, the kinds of grain cultivated in Assyria in his + time were wheat, barley, sesame, and millet. As these still constitute at + the present day the principal agricultural products of the county, we may + conclude that they were in all probability the chief species cultivated + under the Empire. The plough used, if we may judge by the single + representation of it which has come down to us, was of a rude and + primitive construction—a construction, however, which will bear + comparison with that of the implements to this day in use through modern + Turkey and Persia. Of other agricultural implements we have no specimens + at all, unless the square instrument with a small circle or wheel at each + corner, which appears on the same monument as the plough, may be regarded + as intended for some farming purpose. <a href="#linkDimage-0046">[PLATE + CXXXIV., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Besides grain, it seems certain that the Assyrians cultivated the vine. + The vine will grow well in many parts of Assyria; and the monuments + represent vines, with a great deal of truth, not merely as growing in the + countries to which the Assyrians made their expeditions, but as cultivated + along the sides of the rivers near Nineveh, and in the gardens belonging + to the palaces of the kings. In the former case they appear to grow + without any support, and are seen in orchards intermixed with other + fruit-trees, as pomegranates and figs. In the latter they are trained upon + tall trees resembling firs, round whose stems they twine themselves, and + from which their rich clusters droop. Sometimes the long lithe boughs pass + across from tree to tree, forming a canopy under which the monarch and his + consort sip their wine. + </p> + <p> + Before concluding this chapter, a few remarks will be added upon the + ordinary private life of the Assyrians, so far as the monuments reveal it + to us. Under this head will be included their dress, their food, their + houses, furniture, utensils, carriages, etc., their various kinds of + labor, and the implements of labor which were known to them. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary dress of the common people in Assyria was a mere plain tunic, + or skirt, reaching from the neck to a little above the knee, with very + short sleeves, and confined round the waist by a broad belt or girdle. + Nothing was worn either upon the head or upon the feet. The thick hair, + carried in large waves from the forehead to the back of the head, and then + carefully arranged in three, four, or five rows of stiff curls, was + regarded as a sufficient protection both from sun and rain. No + head-covering was ever worn, except by soldiers, and by certain officials, + as the king, priests, and musicians. Sometimes, if the hair was very + luxuriant, it was confined by a band or fillet, which was generally tied + behind the back of the head. The beard was worn long, and arranged with + great care, the elaboration being pretty nearly the same in the case of + the king and of the common laborer. Laborers of a rank a little above the + lowest wore sandals, indulged in a fringed tunic, and occasionally in a + phillibeg, while a still higher class had a fringed tunic and phillibeg, + together with the close-fitting trouser and boot worn by soldiers. These + last are frequently eunuchs, who probably belonged to a corps of eunuch + laborers in the employ of the king. + </p> + <p> + Persons of the humbler laboring class wear no ornament, neither armlet, + bracelet, nor earrings. Armlets and bracelets mark high rank, and indeed + are rarely found unless the wearer is either an officer of the court, or + at any rate a personage of some consideration. Earrings seem to have + descended lower. They are worn by the attendants on sportsmen, by + musicians, by cavalry soldiers, and even occasionally by foot soldiers. In + this last case they are seldom more than a simple ring, which may have + been of bronze or of bone. In other cases the ring mostly supports a long + pendant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0047" id="linkDimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate135.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 135 " /> + </div> + <p> + Men of rank appear to have worn commonly a long fringed robe reaching + nearly to the feet. The sleeves were short, only just covering the + shoulder. Down to the waist, the dress closely fitted the form, + resembling, so far, a modern jersey; below this there was a slight + expansion, but still the scantiness of the robe is very remarkable. It had + no folds, and must have greatly interfered with the free play of the + limbs, rendering rapid movements almost impossible. A belt or girdle + confined it at the waist, which was always patterned, sometimes + elaborately. <a href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE CXXXV., Fig. 1.]</a> If a + sword was carried, as was frequently the case, it was suspended, nearly in + a horizontal position, by a belt over the left shoulder, to which it was + attached by a ring, or rings, in the sheath. There is often great elegance + in these cross-belts, which look as if they were embroidered with pearls + or beads. <a href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE CXXXV., Fig. 2.]</a> Fillets, + earrings, armlets, and (in most instances) bracelets were also worn by + Assyrians of the upper classes. The armlets are commonly simple bands, + twisted round the arm once or twice, and often overlapping’ at the ends, + which are plain, not ornamented. <a href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE CXXXV.]</a> + The bracelets are of slighter construction; their ends do not meet; they + would seem to have been of thin metal, and sufficiently elastic to be + slipped over the hand on to the wrist, which they then fitted closely. + Generally they were quite plain; but sometimes, like the royal bracelets, + they bore in their centre a rosette. Sandals, or in the later times shoes, + completed the ordinary costume of the Assyrian “gentleman.” + </p> + <p> + Sometimes both the girdle round the waist, and the cross-belt, which was + often worn without a sword, were deeply fringed, the two fringes falling + one over the other, and covering the whole body from the chest to the + knee. Sometimes, but more rarely, the long robe was discarded, and the + Assyrian of some rank wore the short tunic, which was then, however, + always fringed, and commonly ornamented with a phillibeg. + </p> + <p> + Certain peculiar head-dresses and peculiar modes of arranging the hair + deserve special attention from their singularity. <a + href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE CXXXV., Fig. 4.]</a> They belong in general + to musicians, priests, and other official personages, and may perhaps have + been badges of office. For instance, musicians sometimes wear on their + heads a tall stiff cap shaped like a fish’s tail; at other times their + head-dress is a sort of tiara of feathers. + </p> + <p> + Their hair is generally arranged in the ordinary Assyrian fashion; but + sometimes it is worn comparatively short, and terminates in a double row + of crisp curls. Priests have head-dresses shaped like truncated cones. A + cook in one instance, wears a cap not unlike the tiara of the monarch, + except that it is plain, and is not surmounted by an apex or peak. A + harper has the head covered with a close-fitting cap, encircled with a row + of large beads or pearl; from which a lappet depends behind, similarly + ornamented. A colossal figure in a doorway, apparently a man, though + possibly representing a god, has the hair arranged in six monstrous curls, + the lowest three resting upon the shoulder. <a href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE + CXXXV., Fig. 6.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Women of the better sort seem to have been dressed in sleeved gowns, less + scanty than those of the men, and either striped or else patterned and + fringed. Outside this they sometimes wore a short cloak of the same + pattern as the gown, open in front and falling over the arms, which it + covered nearly to the elbows. Their hair was either arranged over the + whole of the head in short crisp curls, or carried back in waves to the + ears, and then in part twisted into long pendent ringlets, in part curled, + like that of the men, in three or four rows at the back of the neck. <a + href="#linkDimage-0047">[PLATE CXXXV., Fig. 5.]</a> A girdle was probably + worn round the waist, such as we see in the representations of goddesses, + while a fringed cross-belt passed diagonally across the breast, being + carried under the right arm and over the left shoulder. The feet seem to + have been naked, or at best protected by a sandal. The head was sometimes + encircled with a fillet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0048" id="linkDimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate136.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 136 " /> + </div> + <p> + Women thus apparelled are either represented as sitting in chairs and + drinking from a shallow cup, or else as gathering grapes, which, instead + of growing naturally, hang up on branches that issue from a winged circle. + The circle would seem to be emblematic of the divine power which bestows + the fruits of the earth upon man. <a href="#linkDimage-0048">[PLATE + CXXXVI., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The lower class of Assyrian women are not represented upon the sculptures. + We may perhaps presume that they did not dress very differently from the + female captives so frequent on the bas-reliefs, whose ordinary costume is + a short gown not covering the ankles, and an outer garment somewhat + resembling the chasuble of the king. The head of these women is often + covered with a hood where the hair appears, it usually descends in a + single long curl. The feet are in every case naked. + </p> + <p> + The ornaments worn by women appear to have been nearly the same as those + assumed by men. They consisted principally of earrings, necklaces, and + bracelets. Earrings have been found in gold laid in bronze, some with and + some without places for jewels. One gold earring still held its adornment + of petals. Bracelets were sometimes of glass, and were slipped over the + hand. Necklaces seem commonly to have been of beads, strung together. A + necklace in the British Museum is composed of glass beads of a light blue + color, square in shape and flat, with horizontal flutings. <a + href="#linkDimage-0048">[PLATE CXXXVI., Fig. 2.]</a> Glass finger-rings + have also been found, which were probably worn by women. + </p> + <p> + We have a few remains of Assyrian toilet articles. A bronze disk, about + nine inches in diameter, with a long handle attached, is thought to have + been a mirror. In its general shape it resembles both the Egyptian and the + classical mirrors; but, unlike them, it is perfectly plain, even the + handle being a mere flat bar. <a href="#linkDimage-0048">[PLATE CXXXVI., + Fig. 3.]</a> We have also a few combs. One of these is of iron, about + three and a half inches long, by two inches broad in the middle. It is + double, like a modern small-tooth comb, but does not present the feature, + common in Egypt, of a difference in the size of the teeth on the two + sides. The very ancient use of this toilet article in Mesopotamia is + evidenced by the fact, already noticed, that it was one of the original + hieroglyphs whence the later letters were derived. Another comb is of + lapis lazuli, and has only a single row of teeth. <a + href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE CXXXVII., Fig. 1.]</a> The small vases of + alabaster or fine clay, and the small glass bottles which have been + discovered in tolerable abundance, were also in all probability intended + chiefly for the toilet. They would hold the perfumed unguents which the + Assyrians, like other Orientals, were doubtless in the habit of using, and + the dyes wherewith they sought to increase the beauty of the countenance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0049" id="linkDimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate137.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 137 " /> + </div> + <p> + No doubt the luxury of the Assyrian women in these and other respects was + great and excessive. They are not likely to have fallen short of their + Jewish sisters either in the refinements or in the corruptions of + civilization. When then we hear of the “tinkling ornaments” of the Jewish + women in Isaiah’s time, “their combs, and round tires like the moon,” + their “chains and bracelets and mufflers,” their “bonnets, and ornaments + of the legs, and head-bands, and tablets and ear-rings,” their “rings and + nose-jewels,” their “changeable suits of apparel, and mantles, and + wimples, and crisping-pins,” their “glasses, and fine linen, and hoods, + and veils,” their “sweet smells, and girdles, and well-set hair, and + stomachers,” we may be sure that in Assyria too these various refinements, + or others similar to them, were in use, and consequently that the art of + the toilet was tolerably well advanced under the second great Asiatic + Empire. That the monuments contain little evidence on the point need not + cause any surprise; since it is the natural consequence of the spirit of + jealous reserve common to the Oriental nations, which makes them rarely + either represent women in their mimetic art or speak of them in their + public documents. + </p> + <p> + If various kinds of grain were cultivated in Assyria, such as wheat, + barley, sesame, and millet, we may assume that the food of the + inhabitants, like that of other agricultural nations, consisted in part of + bread. Sesame was no doubt used, as it is at the present day, principally + for making oil; while wheat, barley, and millet were employed for food, + and were made into cakes or loaves. The grain used, whatever it was, would + be ground between two stones, according to the universal Oriental practice + even at the present day. It would then he moistened with water, kneaded in + a dish or bowl, and either rolled into thin cakes, or pressed by the hand + into smalls balls or loaves. Bread and cakes made in this way still form + the chief food of the Arabs of these parts, who retain the habits of + antiquity. Wheaten bread is generally eaten by preference; but the poorer + sort are compelled to be content with the coarse millet or <i>durra</i> + flour, which is made into cakes, and then eaten with milk, butter, oil, or + the fat of animals. + </p> + <p> + Dates, the principal support of the inhabitants of Chaldaea, or Babylonia, + both in ancient and in modern times, were no doubt also an article of food + in Assyria, though scarcely to any great extent. The date-palm does not + bear well above the alluvium, and such fruit as it produces in the upper + country is very little esteemed. Olives were certainly cultivated under + the Empire, and the oil extracted from them was in great request. Honey + was abundant, and wine plentiful. Sennacherib called his land “a land of + corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive and of + honey;” and the products here enumerated were probably those which formed + the chief sustenance of the bulk of the people. + </p> + <p> + Meat, which is never eaten to any great extent in the East was probably + beyond the means of most persons. Soldiers, however, upon an expedition + were able to obtain this dainty at the expense of others; and accordingly + we find that on such occasions they freely indulged in it. We see them, + after their victories, killing and cutting up sheep and. oxen, and then + roasting the joints, which are not unlike our own, on the embers of a + wood-fires <a href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE CXXXVII., Fig. 2.]</a> In the + representations of entrenched camps we are shown the mode in which animals + were prepared for the royal dinner. They were placed upon their backs on a + high table, with their heads hanging over its edge; one man held them + steady in this position, while another, taking hold of the neck, cut the + throat a little below the chin. The blood dripped into a bowl or basin + placed beneath the head on the ground. <a href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE + CXXXVII., Fig. 3.]</a> The animal was then no doubt, paunched, after which + it was placed either whole, or in joints—in a huge pot or caldron, + and, a fire being lighted underneath, it was boiled to such a point as + suited the taste of the king. <a href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE CXXXVII., + Fig. 5.]</a> While the boiling progressed, some portions were perhaps + fried on the fire below. <a href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE CXXXVII., Fig. + 5.]</a> Mutton appears to have been the favorite meat in the camp. At the + court there would be a supply of venison, antelope’s flesh, hares, + partridges, and other game, varied perhaps occasionally with such + delicacies as the flesh of the wild ox and the onager. + </p> + <p> + Fish must have been an article of food in Assyria, or the monuments would + not have presented us; with so many instances of fishermen. Locusts were + also eaten, and were accounted a delicacy, as is proved by their + occurrence among the choice dainties of a banquet, which the royal + attendants are represented in one bas-relief as bringing into the palace + of the king. Fruits, as was natural in so hot a climate, were highly + prized; among those of most repute were pomegranates, grapes, citrons, + and, apparently, pineapples. <a href="#linkDimage-0049">[PLATE CXXXVII., + Fig. 4.]</a> + </p> + <p> + There is reason to believe that the Assyrians drank wine very freely. The + vine was cultivated extensively, in the neighborhood of Nimrud and + elsewhere; and though there is no doubt that, grapes were eaten, both raw + and dried, still the main purpose of the vineyards was unquestionably the + production of wine. Assyria was “a land of corn and wine,” emphatically + and before all else. Great banquets seem to have been frequent at the + court, as at the courts of Babylon and Persia, in which drinking was + practised on a large scale. The Ninevites generally are reproached as + drunkards by Nahum. In the banquet-scenes of the sculptures, it is + drinking and not eating that is represented. Attendants dip the wine-cups + into a huge bowl or vase, which stands on the ground and reaches as high + as a man’s chest and carry them full of liquor to the guests, who + straightway fall to a carouse. <a href="#linkDimage-0050">[PLATE + CXXXVIII., Fig. 1.]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkDimage-0050" id="linkDimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate138.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 138 " /> + </div> + <p> + The arrangement of the banquets is curious. The guests, who are in one + instance some forty or fifty in number, instead of being received at a + common table, are divided into messes of four, who sit together, two and + two, facing each other, each mess having its own table and its own + attendant. The guests are all clothed in the long tasselled gown, over + which they wear the deeply fringed belt and cross-belt. They have sandals + on their feet, and on their arias armlets and bracelets. They sit on high + stools, from which their legs dangle; but in no case have they footstools, + which would apparently have been a great convenience. Most of the guests + are bearded men, but intermixed with them we see a few eunuchs. Every + guest holds in his right hand a wine-cup of a most elegant shape, the + lower part modelled into the form of a lion’s head, from which the cup + itself rises in a graceful curve. <a href="#linkDimage-0050">[PLATE + CXXXVIII., Fig. 2.]</a> They all raise their cups to a level with their + heads, and look as if they were either pledging each other, or else one + and all drinking the same toast. Both the stools and the tables are + handsome, and tastefully, though not very richly, ornamented. Each table + is overspread with a table-cloth, which hangs down on either side opposite + the guests, but does not cover the ends of the table, which are thus fully + exposed to view. In their general make the tables exactly resemble that + used in a banquet scene by a king of a later date, but their ornamentation + is much less elaborate. On each of them appears to have been placed the + enigmatical article of which mention has been already made as a strange + object generally accompanying the king. Alongside of it we see in most + instances a sort of rude crescent. These objects have probably, both of + them, a sacred import, the crescent being the emblem of Sin, the Moon-God, + while the nameless article had some unknown religious use or meaning. + </p> + <p> + In the great banqueting scene at Khorsabad, from which the above + description is chiefly taken, it is shown that the Assyrians, like the + Egyptians and the Greeks in the heroic times, had the entertainment of + music at their grand feasts and drinking bouts. At one end of the long + series of figures representing guests and attendants was a band of + performers, at least three in number, two of whom certainly played upon + the lyre. The lyres were ten-stringed, of a square shape, and hung round + the player’s neck by a string or ribbon. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians also resembled the Greeks and Romans in introducing flowers + into their feasts. We have no evidence that they wore garlands, or crowned + themselves with chaplets of flowers, or scattered roses over their rooms; + but still they appreciated the delightful adornment which flowers furnish. + In the long train of attendance represented at Koyunjik as bringing the + materials of a banquet into the palace of the king, a considerable number + bear vases of flowers. <a href="#linkDimage-0050">[PLATE CXXXVIII., Fig. + 3.]</a> These were probably placed on stands, like those which are often + seen supporting jars, and dispersed about the apartment in which the feast + was held, but not put upon the tables. + </p> + <p> + We have no knowledge of the ordinary houses of the Assyrians other than + that which we derive from the single representation which the sculptures + furnish of a village certainly Assyrian. It appears from this specimen + that the houses were small, isolated from one another, and either + flat-roofed, or else covered in with a dome or a high cone. They had no + windows, but must have been lighted from the top, where, in some of the + roofs, an aperture is discernible. The doorway was generally placed + towards one end of the house; it was sometimes arched, but more often + square-headed. + </p> + <p> + The doors in Assyrian houses were either single, as commonly with + ourselves, or folding (<i>fores</i> or <i>valvoe</i>), as with the Greeks + and Romans, and with the modern French and Italians. Folding-doors were + the most common in palaces. They were not hung upon hinges, like modern + doors, but, like those of the classical nations, turned upon pivots. At + Khorsabad the pavement slabs in the doorways showed everywhere the holes + in which these pivots had worked, while in no instance did the wall at the + side present any trace of the insertion of a hinge. Hinges, however, in + the proper sense of the term, were not unknown to the Assyrians; for two + massive bronze sockets found at Nimrud, which weighed more than six pounds + each, and had a diameter of about five inches, must have been designed to + receive the hinges of a door or gate, hung exactly as gates are now hung + among ourselves. <a href="#linkDimage-0050">[PLATE CXXXVIII., Fig. 4.]</a> + The folding-doors were fastened by bolts, which were shot into the + pavement at the point where the two doors met; but in the case of single + doors a lock seems to have been used, which was placed about four feet + from the ground, and projected from the door itself, so that a recess had + to be made in the wall behind the door to receive the lock when the door + stood open. The bolt of the lock was of an oblong square shape and was + shot into the wall against which the door closed. + </p> + <p> + The ordinary character of Assyrian furniture did not greatly differ from + the furniture of modern times. That of the poorer classes was for the most + part extremely plain, consisting probably of such tables, couches, and low + stools as we see in the representations which are so frequent, of the + interiors of soldier’s tents. In these the tables are generally of the + cross-legged kind; the couches follow the pattern given in a previous page + of this volume, except that the legs do not end in pine-shaped ornaments; + and the stools are either square blocks, or merely cut <i>en chevron</i>. + There are no chairs. The low stools evidently form the ordinary seats of + the people, on which they sit to converse or to rest themselves. The + couches seem to have been the beds whereon the soldiers slept, and it may + be doubted if the Assyrians knew of any other. In the case of the monarch + we have seen that the bedding consisted of a mattress, a large round + pillow or cushion, and a coverlet; but in these simple couches of the poor + we observe only a mattress, the upper part of which is slightly raised and + fitted into the curvature of the arm, so as to make a substitute for a + pillow. Perhaps, however, the day-laborer may have enjoyed on a couch of + this simple character slumbers sounder and more refreshing than + Sardanapalus amid his comparative luxury. + </p> + <p> + The household utensils seen in combination with these simple articles of + furniture are few and somewhat rudely shaped. A jug with a long neck, an + angular handle, and a pointed bottom, is common: it usually hangs from a + nail or hook inserted into the tent-pole. Vases and bowls of a simple form + occur, but are less frequent. The men are seen with knives in their hands, + and appear sometimes to be preparing food for their meals; but the form of + the knife is marked very indistinctly. Some of the household articles + represented have a strange and unusual appearance. One is a sort of short + ladder, but with semicircular projections at the bottom, the use of which + is not apparent; another may be a board at which some game was played; + while a third is quite inexplicable. From actual discoveries of the + utensils themselves, we know that the Assyrians used dishes of stone, + alabaster, and bronze. They had also bronze cups, bowls, and plates, often + elaborately patterned. The dishes had commonly a handle at the side, + either fixed or movable, by which, when not in use, they could be carried + or hung on pegs. Chaldrons of bronze were also common: they varied from + five feet to eighteen inches in height, and from two feet and a half to + six feet in diameter. Jugs, funnels, ladles, and jars have been found in + the same metal; one of the funnels is shaped nearly like a modern wine + strainer. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians made use of bronze bells with iron tongues, and, to render + the sound of these more pleasing, they increased the proportion of the tin + to the copper, raising it front ten to fourteen per cent. The bells were + always of small size, never (so far as appears) exceeding three inches and + a quarter in height and two inches and a quarter in diameter. It is + uncertain whether they were used, as modern bells, to summon attendants, + or only attached, as we see them on the sculptures, to the collars and + headstalls of horses. + </p> + <p> + Some houses, but probably not very many, had gardens attached to them. The + Assyrian taste in gardening was like that of the French. Trees of a + similar character, or tall trees alternating with short ones, were planted + in straight rows at an equal distance from one another, while straight + paths and walks, meeting each other at right angles, traversed the + grounds. Water was abundantly supplied by means of canals drawn off from a + neighboring river, or was brought by an aqueduct from a distance. A + national taste of a peculiar kind, artificial and extravagant to a degree, + caused the Assyrians to add to the cultivation of the natural ground the + monstrous invention of “Hanging Gardens:” an invention introduced into + Babylonia at a comparatively late date, but known in Assyria as early as + the time of Sennacherib. A “hanging garden” was sometimes combined with an + aqueduct, the banks of the stream which the aqueduct bore being planted + with trees of different kinds. At other times it occupied the roof of a + building, probably raised for the purpose, and was supported upon a number + of pillars. + </p> + <p> + The employments of the Assyrians, which receive some illustration from the + monuments, are, besides war and hunting—subjects already discussed + at length—chiefly building, boating, and agriculture. Of + agricultural laborers, there occur two or three only, introduced by the + artists into a slab of Sennacherib’s which represents the transport of a + winged bull. They are dressed in the ordinary short tunic and belt, and + are employed in drawing water from a river by the help of hand-swipes for + the purpose of irrigating their lands. Boatmen are far more common. They + are seen employed in the conveyance of masses of stone, and of other + materials for building, ferrying men and horses across a river, guiding + their boat while a fisherman plies his craft from it, assisting soldiers + to pursue the enemy, and the like. They wear the short tunic and belt, and + sometimes have their hair encircled with a fillet. Of laborers, employed + in work connected with building, the examples are numerous. In the long + series of slabs representing the construction of some of Sennacherib’s + great works, although the bulk of those employed as laborers appear to be + foreign captives, there are a certain number of the duties—duties + less purely mechanical than the others which are devolved on Assyrians. + Assyrians load the hand-carts, and sometimes even draw them, convey the + implements—pickaxes, saws, shovels, hatchets, beams, forks, coils of + rope—place the rollers, arrange the lever and work it, keep the + carved masses of stone steady as they are moved along to their proper + places, urge on the gangs of forced laborers with sticks, and finally + direct the whole of the proceedings by signals, which they give with their + voice or with a long horn. Thus, however ample the command of naked human + strength enjoyed by the Assyrian king, who had always at his absolute + disposal the labor of many thousand captives, still there was in every + great work much which could only be intrusted to Assyrians, who appear to + have been employed largely in the grand constructions of their monarchs. + </p> + <p> + The implements of labor have a considerable resemblance to those in + present use among ourselves. The saws were two-handed; but as the handle + was in the same line with the blade, instead of being set at right angles + to it, they must have been somewhat awkward to use. The shovels were + heart-shaped, like those which Sir C. Fellows noticed in Asia Minor. The + pickaxes had a single instead of a double head, while the hatchets were + double-headed, though here probably the second head was a mere knob + intended to increase the force of the blow. The hand-carts were small and + of very simple construction: they were made open in front and behind, but + had a slight framework at the sides. They had a pole rising a little in + front, and were generally drawn by two men. The wheels were commonly + four-spoked. When the load had been placed on the cart, it seems to have + been in general secured by two bands or ropes, which were passed over it + diagonally, so as to cross each other at the top. + </p> + <p> + Carts drawn by animals were no doubt used in the country; but they are not + found except in the scenes representing the triumphant returns of armies, + where it is more probable that the vehicles are foreign than Assyrian. + They have poles—not shafts—and are drawn by two animals, + either oxen, mules, or asses. The wheels have generally a large number of + spokes—sometimes as many as eleven. Representations of these carts + will be found in early pages. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians appear to have made occasional use of covered carriages. + Several vehicles of this kind are represented on an obelisk in the British + Museum. They have a high and clumsy body, which shows no window, and is + placed on four disproportionately low wheels, which raise it only about a + foot from the ground. In front of this body is a small driving-place, + enclosed in trelliswork, inside which the coachman stands to drive. Each + of these vehicles is drawn by two horses. It is probable that they were + used to convey the ladies of the court; and they were therefore carefully + closed, in order that no curious glance of passers-by might rest upon the + charming inmates. The <i>carpentum</i>, in which the Roman matrons rode at + the great public festivals, was similarly closed, both in front and + behind, as is evident from the representations which we have of it on + medals and tombs. + </p> + <p> + Except in the case of these covered vehicles, and of the chariots used in + war and hunting, horses (as already observed) were not employed for + draught. The Assyrians appear to have regarded them as too noble for this + purpose, unless where the monarch and those near to him were concerned, + for whose needs nothing was too precious. On the military expeditions the + horses were carefully fed and tended. Portable mangers were taken with the + army for their convenience; and their food, which was probably barley, was + brought to them by grooms in sieves or shallow boxes, whence no doubt it + was transferred to the mangers. They appear to have been allowed to go + loose in the camp, without being either hobbled or picketed. Care was + taken to keep their coats clean and glossy by the use of the curry-comb, + which was probably of iron. + </p> + <p> + Halters of two kinds were employed. Sometimes they consisted of a mere + simple noose, which was placed in the horse’s mouth, and then drawn tight + round the chin. More often (as in the illustration) the rope was attached + to a headstall, not unlike that of an ordinary bridle, but simpler, and + probably of a cheaper material. Leading reins, fastened to the bit of an + ordinary bridle, were also common. + </p> + <p> + Such are the principal points connected with the peaceful customs of the + Assyrians, on which the monuments recently discovered throw a tolerable + amount of light. Much still remains in obscurity. It is not possible as + yet, without drawing largely on the imagination, to portray in any + completeness the private life even of the Assyrian nobles, much less that + of the common people. All that can be done is to gather up the fragments + which time has spared; to arrange them in something like order, and + present them faithfully to the general reader, who, it is hoped, will feel + a certain degree of interest in them severally, as matters of archeology, + and who will probably further find that he obtains from them in + combination a fair notion of the general character and condition of the + race, of its mingled barbarism and civilization, knowledge and ignorance, + art and rudeness, luxury and simplicity of habits. The novelist and even + the essayist may commendably eke out the scantiness of facts by a free + indulgence in the wide field of supposition and conjecture: but the + historian is not entitled to stray into this enchanted ground. He must be + content to remain within the tame and narrow circle of established fact. + Where his materials are abundant. he is entitled to draw graphic sketches + of the general condition of the people; but where they are scanty, as in + the present instance, he must be content to forego such pleasant pictures, + in which the coloring and the filling-up would necessarily be derived, not + from authentic data, but from his own fancy. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> =============================== <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkE2H_4_0001" id="linkE2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SECOND MONARCHY. + </h2> + <p> + ASSYRIA. <a name="linkEimage-0001" id="linkEimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_top.jpg"><img alt="map_top_th (118K)" + src="images/map_top_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a> <br /> <br /> <a + href="images/map_bottom.jpg"><img alt="map_bottom_th (92K)" + src="images/map_bottom_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a> <br />[Click on Maps to + Enlarge] <a name="linkE2HCH0001" id="linkE2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <h3> + RELIGION. + </h3> + <p> + “The graven image, and the molten image.”—NAHUM i. 14 + </p> + <p> + The religion of the Assyrians so nearly resembled—at least in its + external aspect, in which alone we can contemplate it—the religion + of the primitive Chaldaeans, that it will be unnecessary, after the full + treatment which that subject received in an earlier portion of this work, + to do much more than notice in the present place certain peculiarities by + which it would appear that the cult of Assyria was distinguished from that + of the neighboring and closely connected country. With the exception that + the first god in the Babylonian Pantheon was replaced by a distinct and + thoroughly national deity in the Pantheon of Assyria, and that certain + deities whose position was prominent in the one occupied a subordinate + position in the other, the two religious systems may be pronounced, not + similar merely but identical. Each of them, without any real monotheism, + commences with the same preeminence of a single deity, which is followed + by the same groupings of identically the same divinities; and after that, + by a multitudinous polytheism, which is chiefly of a local character. Each + country, so far as we can see, has nearly the same worship-temples, + altars, and ceremonies of the same type—the same religious emblems—the + same ideas. The only difference here is, that in Assyria ampler evidence + exists of what was material in the religious system, more abundant + representations of the objects and modes of worship; so that it will be + possible to give, by means of illustrations, a more graphic portraiture of + the externals of the religion of the Assyrians than the scantiness of the + remains permitted in the case of the primitive Chaldaeans. + </p> + <p> + At the head of the Assyrian Pantheon stood the “great god.” Asshur. His + usual titles are “the great Lord,” “the King of all the Gods,” “he who + rules supreme over the Gods.” Sometimes he is called “the Father of the + Gods,” though that is a title which is more properly assigned to Belus. + His place is always first in invocations. He is regarded throughout all + the Assyrian inscriptions as the especial tutelary deity both of the kings + and of the country. He places the monarchs upon their throne, firmly + establishes then in the government, lengthens the years of their reigns, + preserves their power, protects their forts and armies, makes their name + celebrated, and the like. To him they look to give them victory over their + enemies, to grant them all the wishes of their heart, and to allow them to + be succeeded on their thrones by their sons and their sons’ sons, to a + remote posterity. Their usual phrase when speaking of him is “Asshur, my + lord.” They represent themselves as passing their lives in his service. It + is to spread his worship that they carry on their wars. They fight, + ravage, destroy in his name. Finally, when they subdue a country, they are + careful to “set up the emblems of Asshur,” and teach the people his laws + and his worship. + </p> + <p> + The tutelage of Asshur over Assyria is strongly marked by the identity of + his name with that of the country, which in the original is complete. It + is also indicated by the curious fact that, unlike the other gods, Asshur + had no notorious temple or shrine in any particular city of Assyria, a + sign that his worship was spread equally throughout the whole land, and + not to any extent localized. As the national deity, he had given name to + the original capital; but even at Asshur (<i>Kileh-Sherghat</i>) it may be + doubted whether there was any building which was specially his. Therefore + it is a reasonable conjectures that all the shrines throughout Assyria + were open to his worship, to whatever minor god they might happen to be + dedicated. + </p> + <p> + In the inscriptions the Assyrians are constantly described as “the + servants of Asshur,” and their enemies as “the enemies of Asshur.” The + Assyrian religion is “the worship of Asshur.” No similar phrases are used + with respect to any of the other gods of the Pantheon. + </p> + <p> + We can scarcely doubt that originally the god Asshur was the great + progenitor of the race, Asshur, the son of Shen, deified. It was not long, + however, before this notion was lost, and Asshur came to be viewed simply + as a celestial being—the first and highest of all the divine agents + who ruled over heaven and earth. It is indicative of the (comparatively + speaking) elevated character of Assyrian polytheism that this exalted and + awful deity continued from first to last the main object of worship, and + was not superseded in the thoughts of men by the lower and more + intelligible divinities, such as Shamas and Sin, the Sun and Moon, Nergal + the God of War, Nin the God of Hunting, or Vul the wielder of the + thunderbolt. + </p> + <p> + The favorite emblem under which the Assyrians appear to have represented + Asshur in their works of art was the winged circle or globe, from which a + figure in a horned cap is frequently seen to issue, sometimes simply + holding a bow (Fig. I.), sometimes shooting his arrows against the + Assyrians’ enemies (Fig II.). This emblem has been variously explained; + but the most probable conjecture would seem to be that the circle typifies + eternity, while the wings express omnipresence, and the human figure + symbolizes wisdom or intelligence. The emblem appears under many + varieties. Sometimes the figure which issues from it has no bow, and is + represented as simply extending the right hand (Fig. III.); occasionally + both hands are extended, and the left holds a ring or chaplet (Fig. IV.). + In one instance we see a very remarkable variation: for the complete human + figure is substituted a mere pair of hands, which seem to come from behind + the winged disk, the right open and exhibiting the palm, the left closed + and holding a bow. In a large number of cases all sign of a person is + dispensed with, the winged circle appearing alone, with the disk either + plain or ornamented. On the other hand, there are one or two instances + where the emblem exhibits three human heads instead of one—the + central figure having on either side of it, a head, which seems to rest + upon the feathers of the wing. + </p> + <p> + It is the opinion of some critics, based upon this form of the emblem, + that the supreme deity of the Assyrians, whom the winged circle seems + always to represent, was in reality a triune god. Now certainly the triple + human form is very remarkable, and lends a color to this conjecture; but, + as there is absolutely nothing, either in the statements of ancient + writers, or in the Assyrian inscriptions, so far as they have been + deciphered, to confirm the supposition, it can hardly be accepted as the + true explanation of the phenomenon. The doctrine of the Trinity, scarcely + apprehended with any distinctness even by the ancient Jews, does not + appear to have been one of those which primeval revelation made known + throughout the heathen world. It is a fanciful mysticism which finds a + Trinity in the Eicton, Cneph, and Phtha of the Egyptians, the Oromasdes, + Mithras, and Arhimanius of the Persians, and the Monas, Logos and Psyche + of Pythagoras and Plato. There are abundant Triads in ancient mythology, + but no real Trinity. The case of Asshur is, however, one of simple unity, + He is not even regularly included in any Triad. It is possible, however, + that the triple figure shows him to us in temporary combination with two + other gods, who may be exceptionally represented in this way rather than + by their usual emblems. Or the three heads may be merely an exaggeration + of that principle of repetition which gives rise so often to a double + representation of a king or a god, and which is seen at Bavian in the + threefold repetition of another sacred emblem, the horned cap. + </p> + <p> + It is observable that in the sculptures the winged circle is seldom found + except in immediate connection with the monarch. The great King wears it + embroidered upon his robes, carries it engraved upon his cylinder, + represents it above his head in the rock-tablets on which he carves his + image a stands or kneels in adoration before it, fights under its shadow, + under its protection returns victorious, places it conspicuously in the + scenes where he himself is represented on his obelisks. And in these + various representations he makes the emblem in a great measure conform to + the circumstances in which he himself is engaged at the time. Where he is + fighting, Asshur too has his arrow on the string, and points it against + the king’s adversaries. Where he is returning from victory, with the + disused bow in the left hand and the right hand outstretched and elevated, + Asshur takes the same attitude. In peaceful scenes the bow disappears + altogether. If the king worships, the god holds out his hand to aid; if he + is engaged in secular arts, the divine presence is thought to be + sufficiently marked by the circle and wings without the human figure. + </p> + <p> + An emblem found in such frequent connection with the symbol of Asshur as + to warrant the belief that it was attached in a special way to his + worship, is the sacred or symbolical tree. Like the winged circle, this + emblem has various forms. The simplest consists of a short pillar + springing from a single pair of rams’ horns, and surmounted by a capital + composed of two pairs of rams’ horns separated by one, two, or three + horizontal bands; above which there is, first, a scroll resembling that + which commonly surmounts the winged circle, and then a flower, very much + like the “honeysuckle ornament” of the Greeks. More advanced specimens + show the pillar elongated with a capital in the middle in addition to the + capital at the top, while the blossom above the upper capital, and + generally the stem likewise, throw out a number of similar smaller + blossoms, which are sometimes replaced by fir-cones or pomegranates. Where + the tree is most elaborately portrayed, we see, besides the stem and the + blossoms, a complicated network of branches, which after interlacing with + one another form a sort of arch surrounding the tree itself as with a + frame. + </p> + <p> + It is a subject of curious speculation, whether this sacred tree does not + stand connected with the <i>Asherah</i> of the Phoenicians, which was + certainly not a “grove,” in the sense in which we commonly understand that + word. The <i>Asherah</i> which the Jews adopted from the idolatrous + nations with whom they came in contact, was an artificial structure, + originally of wood, but in the later times probably of metal, capable of + being “set” in the temple at Jerusalem by one king, and “brought out” by + another. It was a structure for which “hangings” could be made, to cover + and protect it, while at the same time it was so far like a tree that it + could be properly said to be “cut down,” rather than “broken” or otherwise + demolished. The name itself seems to imply something which stood, straight + up; and the conjecture is reasonable that its essential element was “the + straight stem of a tree,” though whether the idea connected with the + emblem was of the same nature with that which underlay the phallic rites + of the Greeks is (to say the least) extremely uncertain. We have no + distinct evidence that the Assyrian sacred tree was a real tangible + object: it may have been, as Mr. Layard supposes, a mere type. But it is + perhaps on the whole more likely to have been an actual object; in which + case we can not but suspect that it stood in the Assyrian system in much + the same position as the <i>Asherah</i> in the Phoenician, being closely + connected with the worship of the supreme god, and having certainly a + symbolic character, though of what exact kind it may not be easy to + determine. + </p> + <p> + An analogy has been suggested between this Assyrian emblem and the + Scriptural “tree of life,” which is thought to be variously reflected in + the multiform mythology of the East. Are not such speculations somewhat + over-fanciful There is perhaps, in the emblem itself, which combines the + horns of the ram—an animal noted for procreative power—with + the image of a fruit or flower-producing tree, ground for supposing that + some allusion is intended to the prolific or generative energy in nature; + but more than this can scarcely be said without venturing upon mere + speculation. The time perhaps ere long arrive when, by the interpretation + of the mythological tablets of the Assyrians, their real notions on this + and other kindred subjects may become known to us. Till then, it is best + to remain content with such facts as are ascertainable, without seeking to + penetrate mysteries at which we can but guess, and where, even if we guess + aright, we cannot know that we do so. + </p> + <p> + The gods worshipped in Assyria in the next degree to Asshur appear to have + been, in the early times, Anu and Vul; in the later, Bel, Sin, Shamas, + Vul, Nin or Ninip, and Nergal. Gula, Ishtar, and Beltis were favorite + goddesses. Hoa, Nebo, and Merodach, though occasional objects of worship, + more especially under the later empire, were in far less repute in Assyria + than in Babylonia; and the two last-named may almost be said to have been + introduced into the former country from the latter during the historical + period. + </p> + <p> + For the special characteristics of these various gods—common objects + of worship to the Assyrians and the Babylonians from a very remote epoch—the + reader is referred to the first part of this volume, where their several + attributes and their position in the Chaldaean Pantheon have been noted. + The general resemblance of the two religious systems is such, that almost + everything which has been stated with respect to the gods of the First + Empire may be taken us applying equally to those of the Second; and the + reader is requested to make this application in all cases, except where + some shade of difference, more or less strongly marked, shall be pointed + out. In the following pages, without repeating what has been said in the + first part of this volume, some account will be given of the worship of + the principal gods in Assyria and of the chief temples dedicated to their + service. + </p> + <p> + ANU. + </p> + <p> + The worship of Anu seems to have been introduced into Assyria from + Babylonia during the times of Chaldaean supremacy which preceded the + establishment of the independent Assyrian kingdom. Shamas-Vul, the son of + Ishii-Dagon, king of Chaldaea, built a temple to Anu and Vul at Asshur, + which was then the Assyrian capital, about B.C. 1820. An inscription of + Tiglath-Pileser I., states that this temple lasted for 621 years, when, + having fallen into decay, it was taken down by Asshurdayan, his own + great-grandfather. Its site remained vacant for sixty years. Then + Tiglath-Pileser I., in the beginning of his reign, rebuilt the temple more + magnificently than before; and from that time it seems to have remained + among the principal shrines in Assyria. It was from a tradition connected + with this ancient temple of Shamas-Vul, that Asshur in later times + acquired the name of Telane, or “the Mound of Anu,” which it bears in + Stephen. + </p> + <p> + Anu’s place among the “Great Gods” of Assyria is not so well marked as + that of many other divinities. His name does not occur as an element in + the names of kings or of other important personages. He is omitted + altogether from many solemn invocations. It is doubtful whether he is one + of the gods whose emblems were worn by the king and inscribed upon the + rock-tablets. But, on the other hand, where he occurs in lists, he is + invariably placed directly after Asshur; and he is often coupled with that + deity in a way which is strongly indicative of his exalted character. + Tiglath-Pileser I., though omitting him from his opening invocation, + speaks of him in the latter part of his great Inscription, as his lord and + protector in the next place to Asshur. Asshur-izir-pal uses expressions as + if he were Anu’s special votary, calling himself “him who honors Anu,” or + “him who honors Anu and Dugan.” His son, the Black-Obelisk king, assigns + him the second place in the invocation of thirteen gods with which he + begins his record. The kings of the Lower Dynasty do not generally hold + him in much repute; Sargon, however, is an exception, perhaps because his + own name closely resembled that of a god mentioned as one of Anu’s sons. + Sargon not infrequently glorifies Anu, coupling him with Bel or Bil, the + second god of the first Triad. He even made Anu the tutelary god of one of + the gates of his new city, Bit-Sargina (Khorsabad), joining him in this + capacity with the goddess Ishtar. + </p> + <p> + Anu had but few temples in Assyria. He seems to have had none at either + Nineveh or Calah, and none of any importance in all Assyria, except that + at Asshur. There is, however, reason, to believe that he was occasionally + honored with a shrine in a temple dedicated to another deity. + </p> + <p> + BIL, or BEL. + </p> + <p> + The classical writers represent Bel as especially a Babylonian god, and + scarcely mention his worship by the Assyrians; but the monuments show that + the true Bel (called in the first part of this volume Bel-Nimrod) was + worshipped at least as much in the northern as in the southern country. + Indeed, as early as the time of Tiglath-Pileser I., the Assyrians, as a + nation, were especially entitled by their monarchs “the, people of Belus;” + and the same periphrasis was in use during the period of the Lower Empire. + According to some authorities, a particular quarter of the city of Nineveh + was denominated “the city of Belus” which would imply that it was in a + peculiar way under his protection. The word Bel does not occur very + frequently as an element in royal names: it was borne, however, by at + least three early Assyrian kings: and there is evidence that in later + times it entered as an element into the names of leading personages with + almost as much frequency as Asshur. + </p> + <p> + The high rank of Bel in Assyria is very strongly marked. In the + invocations his place is either the third or the second. The former is his + proper position, but occasionally Anu is omitted, and the name of Bel + follows immediately on that of Asshur. In one or two places he is made + third, notwithstanding that Anu is omitted, Shamas, the Sun-god, being + advanced over his head; but this is very unusual. + </p> + <p> + The worship of Bel in the earliest Assyrian times is marked by the royal + names of Bel-snmili-kapi and Bel-lush, borne by two of the most ancient + kings. He had a temple at Asshur in conjunction with Il or Ra, which must + have been of great antiquity, for by the time of Tiglath-Pileser I. (B.C. + 1130) it had fallen to decay and required a complete restoration, which it + received from that monarch. He had another temple at Calah; besides which + he had four “arks” or “tabernacles,” the emplacement of which is + uncertain. Among the latter kings, Sargon especially paid him honor. + Besides coupling him with Anu in his royal titles, he dedicated to him—in + conjunction with Beltis, his wife—one of the gates of his city, and + in many passages he ascribes his royal authority to the favor of Bel and + Merodach. He also calls Bel, in the dedication of the eastern gate at + Khorsabad, “the establisher of the foundations of his city.” + </p> + <p> + It may be suspected that the horned cap, which was no doubt a general + emblem of divinity, was also in an especial way the symbol of this god. + Esarhaddon states that he setup over “the image of his majesty the emblems + of Asshur, the Sun, Bel, Nin, and Ishtar.” The other kings always include + Bel among the chief objects of their worship. We should thus expect to + find his emblem among those which the kings specially affected; and as all + the other common emblems are assigned to distinct gods with tolerable + certainty, the horned cap alone remaining doubtful, the most reasonable + conjecture seems to be that it was Bel’s symbol. + </p> + <p> + It has been assumed in some quarters that the Bel of the Assyrians was + identical with the Phoenician Dagon. A word which reads <i>Da-gan</i> is + found in the native lists of divinities, and in one place the explanation + attached seems to show that the term was among the titles of Bel. But this + verbal resemblance between the name Dagon and one of Bel’s titles is + probably a mere accident, and affords no ground for assuming any + connection between the two gods, who have nothing in common one with the + other. The Bel of the Assyrians was certainly not their Fish-god; nor had + his epithet Da-gaga any real connection with the word <i>dag,</i> “a + fish.” To speak of “Bel-Dagon” is thus to mislead the ordinary reader, who + naturally supposes from the term that he is to identify the great god + Belus, the second deity of the first Triad, with the fish forms upon the + sculptures. + </p> + <p> + HEA, or HOA. + </p> + <p> + Hen, or Hoa, the third god of the first Triad, was not a prominent object + of worship in Assyria. Asshur-izir-pal mentions him as having allotted to + the four thousand deities of heaven and earth the senses of hearing, + seeing, and understanding; and then, stating that the four thousand + deities had transferred all these senses to himself, proceeds to take + Hoa’s titles, and, as it were, to identify himself with the god. His son, + Shalmaneser II., the Black-Obelisk king gives Hoa his proper place in his + opening invocation, mentioning him between Bel and Sin. Sargon puts one of + the gates of his new city under Hoa’s care, joining him with Bilat Ili—“the + mistress of the gods”—who is, perhaps, the Sun-goddess, Gula. + Sennacherib, after a successful expedition across a portion of the Persian + Gulf, offers sacrifice to Hoa on the seashore, presenting him with a + golden boat, a golden fish, and a golden coffer. But these are exceptional + instances; and on the whole it is evident that in Assyria Hoa was not a + favorite god. The serpent, which is his emblem, though found on the black + stones recording benefactions, and frequent on the Babylonian + cylinder-seals, is not adopted by the Assyrian kings among the divine + symbols which they wear, or among those which they inscribe above their + effigies. The word Hoa does not enter as an element into Assyrian names. + The kings rarely invoke him. So far as we can tell, he had but two temples + in Assyria, one at Asshur (Kileh-Sherghat) and the other at Calah + (Nimrud). Perhaps the devotion of the Assyrians to Nin—the tutelary + god of their kings and of their capital—who in so many respects + resembled Hoa, caused the worship of Hoa to decline and that of Nin + gradually to supersede it. + </p> + <p> + MYLITTA, or BELTIS. + </p> + <p> + Beltis, the “Great Mother,” the feminine counterpart of Bel, ranked in + Assyria next to the Triad consisting of Anu, Bel, and Hoa. She is + generally mentioned in close connection with Bel, her husband, in the + Assyrian records. She appears to have been regarded in Assyria as + especially “the queen of fertility,” or “fecundity,” and so as “the queen + of the lands,” thus resembling the Greek Demeter, who, like Beltis, was + known as: “the Great Mother.” Sargon placed one of his gates under the + protection of Beltis in conjunction with her husband, Bel: and + Asshur-bani-pal, his great-grandson, repaired and rededicated to her a + temple at Nineveh, which stood on the great mound of Koyunjik. She had + another temple at Asshur, and probably a third at Calah. She seems to have + been really known as Beltis in Assyria, and as Mylitta (Mulita) in + Babylonia, though we should naturally have gathered the reverse from the + extant classical notices. + </p> + <p> + SIN, or THE MOON. + </p> + <p> + Sin, the Moon-god, ranked next to Beltis in Assyrian mythology, and his + place is thus either fifth or sixth in the full lists, according as Beltis + is, or is not, inserted. His worship in the time of the early empire + appears from the invocation of Tiglath-Pileser I., where he occurs in the + third place, between Bel and Shamas. His emblem, the crescent, was worn by + Asshur-izir-pal, and is found wherever divine symbols are inscribed over + their effigies by the Assyrian kings. There is no sign which is more + frequent on the cylinder-seals, whether Babylonian or Assyrian, and it + would thus seem that Sin was among the most popular of Assyria’s deities. + His name occurs sometimes, though not so frequently as some others, in the + appellations of important personages, as <i>e, g.</i> in that of + Sennacherib, which is explained to mean “Sin multiplies brethren.” Sargon, + who thus named one of his sons, appears to have been specially attached to + the worship of Sin, to whom, in conjunction with Shamas, he built a temple + at Khorsabad, and to whom he assigned the second place among the tutelary + deities of his city. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian monarchs appear to have had a curious belief in the special + antiquity of the Moon-god. When they wished to mark a very remote period, + they used the expression “from the origin of the god Sin.” This is perhaps + a trace of the ancient connection of Assyria with Babylonia, where the + earliest capital, Ur, was under the Moon-god’s protection, and the most + primeval temple was dedicated to his honor. + </p> + <p> + Only two temples are known to have been erected to Sin in Assyria. One is + that already mentioned as dedicated by Sargon at Bit-Sargina (Khorsabad) + to the Sun and Moon in conjunction. The other was at Calah, and in that + Sin had no associate. + </p> + <p> + SHAMAS. + </p> + <p> + Shamas, the Sun-god, though in rank inferior to Sin, seems to have been a + still more favorite and more universal object of worship. From many + passages we should have gathered that he was second only to Asshur in the + estimation of the Assyrian monarchs, who sometimes actually place him + above Bel in their lists. His emblem, the four-rayed orb, is worn by the + king upon his neck, and seen more commonly than almost any other upon the + cylinder-seals. It is even in some instances united with that of Asshur, + the central circle of Asshur’s emblem being marked by the fourfold rays of + Shamas. + </p> + <p> + The worship of Shamas was ancient in Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser I., not only + names him in his invocation, but represents himself as ruling especially + under his auspices. Asshur-izir-pal mentions Asshur and Shamas as the + tutelary deities under whose influence he carried on his various wars. His + son, the Black-Obelisk king, assigns to Shamas his proper place among the + gods whose favor he invokes at the commencement of his long Inscription. + The kings of the Lower Empire were even more devoted to him than their + predecessors. Sargon dedicated to him the north gate of his city, in + conjunction with Vul, the god of the air, built a temple to him at + Khorsabad in conjunction with Sin, and assigned him the third place among + the tutelary deities of his new town. Sennacherib and Esarhaddon mention + his name next to Asshur’s in passages where they enumerate the gods whom + they regard as their chief protectors. + </p> + <p> + Excepting at Khorsabad, where he had a temple (as above mentioned) in + conjunction with Sin, Shamas does not appear to have had any special + buildings dedicated to his honor. His images are, however, often noticed + in the lists of idols, and it is probable therefore that he received + worship in temples dedicated to other deities. His emblem is generally + found conjoined with that of the moon, the two being placed side by side, + or the one directly under the other. + </p> + <p> + VUL, or IVA. + </p> + <p> + This god, whose name is still so uncertain, was known in Assyria from + times anterior to the independence, a temple having been raised in his + sole honor at Asshur, the original Assyrian capital, by Shamas-Vul, the + son of the Chaldaean king Ismi-Dagon, besides the temple (already + mentioned) which the same monarch dedicated to him in conjunction with + Anu. These buildings having fallen to ruin by the time of Tiglath-Pileser + I., were by him rebuilt from their base; and Vul, who was worshipped in + both, appears to have been regarded by that monarch as one of his special + “guardian deities.” In the Black-Obelisk invocation Vul holds the place + intermediate between Sin and Shamas, and on the same monument is recorded + the fact that the king who erected it held, on one occasion, a festival to + Vul in conjunction with Asshur. Sargon names Vul in the fourth place among + the tutelary deities of his city, and dedicates to him the north gate in + conjunction with the Sun-god, Shamas. Sennacherib speaks of hurling + thunder on his enemies like Vul, and other kings use similar expressions. + The term Vul was frequently employed as an element in royal and other + names; and the emblem which seems to have symbolized him—the double + or triple bolt—appears constantly among those worn by the kings, and + engraved above their heads on the rock-tablets. + </p> + <p> + Vul had a temple at Calah besides the two temples in which he received + worship at Asshur. It was dedicated to him in conjunction with the goddess + Shala, who appears to have been regarded as his wife. + </p> + <p> + It is not quite certain whether we can recognize any representations of + Vul in the Assyrian remains. Perhaps the figure with four wings and a + horned cap, who wields a thunderbolt in either hand, and attacks therewith + the monster, half lion, half eagle, which is known to us from the Nimrod + sculptures, may be intended for this deity. If so, it will be reasonable + also to recognize him in the figure with uplifted foot, sometimes perched + upon an ox, and bearing, like the other, one or two thunderbolts, which + occasionally occurs upon the cylinders. It is uncertain, however, whether + the former of these figures is not one of the many different + representations of Nin, the Assyrian Hercules; and, should that prove the + true explanation in the one case, no very great confidence could be felt + in the suggested identification in the other. + </p> + <p> + GULA. + </p> + <p> + Gula, the Sum-goddess, does not occupy a very high position among the + deities of Assyria. Her emblem, indeed, the eight-rayed disk, is borne, + together with her husband’s, by the Assyrian monarchs, and is inscribed on + the rock-tablets, on the stones recording benefactions, and on the + cylinder-seals, with remarkable frequency. But her name occurs rarely in + the inscriptions, and, where it is found, appears low down in the lists. + In the Black-Obelisk invocation, out of thirteen deities named, she is the + twelfth. Elsewhere she scarcely appears, unless in inscriptions of a + purely religious character. Perhaps she was commonly regarded as so much + one with her husband that a separate and distinct mention of her seemed + not to be requisite. + </p> + <p> + Gula is known to have had at least two temples in Assyria. One of these + was at Asshur, where she was worshipped in combination with ten other + deities, of whom one only, Ishtar, was of high rank. The other was at + Calah, where her husband had also a temple. She is perhaps to be + identified with <i>Bilat-Ili</i>, “the mistress of the gods,” to whom + Sargon dedicated one of his gates in conjunction with Hoa. + </p> + <p> + NINIP, or NIN. + </p> + <p> + Among the gods of the second order, there is none whom the Assyrians + worshipped with more devotion than Nin, or Ninip. In traditions which are + probably ancient, the race of their kings was derived from him, and after + him was called the mighty city which ultimately became their capital. As + early as the thirteenth century B.C. the name of Nin was used as an + element in royal appellations; and the first king who has; left us an + historical inscription regarded himself as being in an especial way under + Nin’s guardianship. Tiglath-Pileser I., is “the illustrious prince whom + Asshur and Nin have exalted to the utmost wishes of his heart.” He speaks + of Nin sometimes singly, sometimes in conjunction with Asshur, as his + “guardian deity.” Nin and Nergal make his weapons sharp for him, and under + Nin’s auspices the fiercest beasts of the field fall beneath them. + Asshur-izir-pal built him a magnificent temple at Nimrud (Calah). + Shamas-Vul, the grandson of this king, dedicated to him the obelisk which + he set up at that place in commemoration of his victories. Sargon placed + his newly-built city in part under his protection, and specially invoked + him to guard his magnificent palace. The ornamentation of that edifice + indicated in a very striking way the reverence of the builder for this + god, whose symbol, the winged bull, guarded all its main gateways, and who + seems to have been actually represented by the figure strangling a lion, + so conspicuous on the <i>Hareem</i> portal facing the great court. Nor did + Sargon regard Nin as his protector only in peace. He ascribed to his + influence the successful issue of his wars; and it is probably to indicate + the belief which he entertained on this point that he occasionally placed + Nin’s emblems on the sculptures representing his expeditions. Sennacherib, + the son and successor of Sargon, appears to have had much the same + feelings towards Nin, as his father, since in his buildings he gave the + same prominence to the winged bull and to the figure strangling the lion; + placing the former at almost all his doorways, and giving the latter a + conspicuous position on the grand facade of his chief palace. Esarhaddon + relates that he continued in the worship of Nin, setting up his emblem + over his own royal effigy, together with those of Asshur, Shamas, Bel, and + Ishtar. + </p> + <p> + It appears at first sight as if, notwithstanding the general prominency of + Nin in the Assyrian religious system, there was one respect in which he + stood below a considerable number of the gods. We seldom find his name + used openly as an element in the royal appellations. In the list of kings + three only will be found with names into which the terms Nin enters. But + there is reason to believe that, in the case of this god, it was usual to + speak of him under a periphrasis; and this periphrasis entered into names + in lieu of the god’s proper designation. Five kings (if this be admitted) + may be regarded as named after him, which is as large a number as we find + named after any god but Vul and Asshur. + </p> + <p> + The principal temples known to have been dedicated to Nin in Assyria were + at Calah, the modern Nimrud. There the vast structure at the north-western + angle of the great mound, including the pyramidical eminence which is the + most striking feature of the ruins, was a temple dedicated to the honor of + Nin by Asshur-izir-pal, the builder of the North-West Palace. We can have + little doubt that this building represents the “busta Nini” of the + clasical writers, the place where Ninus (Nin or Nin-ip), who was regarded + by the Greeks as the hero-founder of the nation, was interred and + specially worshipped. Nin had also a second temple in this town, which + bore the name of <i>Bit-kura</i> (or Beth-kura), as the other one did of + <i>Bit-zira</i> (or Beth-zira). It seems to have been from the fame of + Beth-zira that Nin had the title <i>Pal-zira</i>, which forms a substitute + for Nin, as already noticed, in one of the royal names. + </p> + <p> + MERODACH. + </p> + <p> + Most of the early kings of Assyria mention Merodach in their opening + invocations, and we sometimes find an allusion in their inscriptions, + which seems to imply that he was viewed as a god of great power. But he is + decidedly not a favorite object of worship in Assyria until a + comparatively recent period. Vul-lush III., indeed claims to have been the + first to give him a prominent place in the Assyrian Pantheon; and it may + be conjectured that the Babylonian expeditions of this monarch furnished + the impulse which led to a modification in this respect of the Assyrian + religious system. The later kings, Sargon and his successors, maintain the + worship introduced by Vul-lush. Sargon habitually regards his power as + conferred upon him by the combined favor of Merodach and Asshur, while + Esarhaddon sculptures Merodach’s emblem, together with that of Asshur, + over the images of foreign gods brought to him by a suppliant prince. No + temple to Merodach, is, however, known to have existed in Assyria, even + under the later kings. His name, however, was not infrequently used as an + element in the appellations of Assyrians. + </p> + <p> + NERGAL. + </p> + <p> + Among the Minor gods, Nergal is one whom the Assyrians seem to have + regarded with extraordinary reverence. He was the divine ancestor from + whom the monarchs loved to boast that they derived their descent—the + line being traceable, according to Sargon, through three hundred and fifty + generations. They symbolized him by the winged lion with a human head, or + possibly sometimes by the mere natural lion; and it was to mark their + confident dependence on his protection that they made his emblems so + conspicuous in their palaces. Nin and Nergal—the gods of war and + hunting, the occupations in which the Assyrian monarchs passed their lives—were + tutelary divinities of the race, the life, and the homes of the kings, who + associate the two equally in their inscriptions and their sculptures. + </p> + <p> + Nergal, though thus honored by the frequent mention of his name and + erection of his emblem, did not (so far as appears) often receive the + tribute of a temple. Sennacherib dedicated one to him at Tarbisi (now + Sherif-khan), near Khorsabad; and he may have had another at Calah + (Nimrud), of which he is said to have been one of the “resident gods.” But + generally it would seem that the Assyrians were content to pay him honor + in other ways without constructing special buildings devoted exclusively + to his worship. + </p> + <p> + ISHTAR. + </p> + <p> + Ishtar was very generally worshipped by the Assyrian monarchs, who called + her “their lady,” and sometimes in their invocations coupled her with the + supreme god Asshur. She had a very ancient temple at Asshur, the primeval + capital, which Tiglath-Pileser I., repaired and beautified. + Asshur-izir-pal built her a second temple at Nineveh, and she had a third + at Arbela, which Asshur-bani-pal states that he restored. Sargon placed + under her protection, conjointly with Anu, the western gate of his city; + and his son, Sennacherib, seems to have viewed Asshur and Ishtar as the + special guardians of his progeny. Asshur-bani-pal, the great hunting king + was a devotee of the goddess, whom he regarded as presiding over his + special diversion, the chase. + </p> + <p> + What is most remarkable in the Assyrian worship of Ishtar is the local + character assigned to her. The Ishtar of Nineveh is distinguished from the + Ishtar of Arbela, and both from the Ishtar of Babylon, separate addresses + being made to them in one and the same invocation. It would appear that in + this case there was, more decidedly than in any other, an identification + of the divinity with her idols, from which resulted the multiplication of + one goddess into many. + </p> + <p> + The name of Ishtar appears to have been rarely used in Assyria in royal or + other appellations. It is difficult to account for this fact, which is the + more remarkable, since in Phoenicia Astarte, which corresponds closely to + Ishtar, is found repeatedly as an element in the royal titles. + </p> + <p> + NEBO. + </p> + <p> + Nebo must have been acknowledged as a god by the Assyrians from very + ancient times, for his name occurs as an element in a royal appellation as + early as the twelfth century B.C. He seems, however, to have been very + little worshipped till the time of Vud-lush III., who first brought him + prominently forward in the Pantheon of Assyria after an expedition which + he conducted into Babylonia, where Nebo had always been in high favor. + Vul-lush set up two statues to Nebo at Calah and probably built him the + temple there which was known as Bit-Siggil, or Beth-Saggil, from whence + the god derived one of his appellations. He did not receive much honor + from Sargon; but both Sennacherib and Esarhaddon held him in considerable + reverence, the latter even placing him above Merodach in an important + invocation. Asshur-bani-pal also paid him considerable respect, mentioning + him and his wife Warmita, as the deities under whose auspices he undertook + certain literary labors. + </p> + <p> + It is curious that Nebo, though he may thus almost be called a late + importation into Assyria, became under the Later Dynasty (apparently) one + of most popular of the gods. In the latter portion of the list of Eponyms + obtained from the celebrated “Canon,” we find Nebo an element in the names + as frequently as any other god excepting Asshur. Regarding this as a test + of popularity we should say that Asshur held the first place; but that his + supremacy was closely contested by Bel and Nebo, who were held in nearly + equal repute, both being far in advance of any other deity. + </p> + <p> + Besides these principal gods, the Assyrians acknowledged and worshipped a + vast number of minor divinities, of whom, however, some few only appear to + deserve special mention. It may be noticed in the first place, as a + remarkable feature of this people’s mythological system, that each + important god was closely associated with a goddess, who is commonly + called his wife, but who yet does not take rank in the Pantheon at all in + accordance with the dignity of her husband. Some of these goddesses have + been already mentioned, as Beltis, the feminine counterpart of Bel; Gala, + the Sun-goddess, the wife of Shamas; and Ishtar, who is sometimes + represented as the wife of Nebo. To the same class belong Sheruha, the + wife of Asshur; Anata or Anuta, the wife of Anu; Dav-Kina, the wife of Hea + or Hoa; Shales, the wife of Vul or Iva; Zir-banit, the wife of Merodach; + and Laz, the wife of Nergal. Nin, the Assyrian Hercules, and Sin, the + Moon-god, have also wives, whose proper names are unknown, but who are + entitled respectively “the Queen of the Land” and “the great Lady.” Nebo’s + wife, according to most of the Inscriptions, is Warmita; but occasionally, + as above remarked, this name is replaced by that of Ishtar. A tabular view + of the gods and goddesses, thus far, will probably be found of use by the + reader towards obtaining a clear conception of the Assyrian Pantheon: + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0004" id="linkEimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0358.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 358 " /> + </div> + <p> + It appears to have been the general Assyrian practice to unite together in + the same worship, under the same roof, the female and the male principle. + The female deities had in fact, for the most part, an unsubstantial + character: they were ordinarily the mere reflex image of the male, and + consequently could not stand alone, but required the support of the + stronger sex to give then something of substance and reality. This was the + general rule; but at the same time it was not without certain exceptions. + Ishtar appears almost always as an independent and unattached divinity; + while Beltis and Gula are presented to us in colors as strong and a form + as distinct as their husbands, Bel and Shamas. Again, there are minor + goddesses, such as Telita, the goddess of the great marshes near Babylon, + who stand alone, unaccompanied by any male. The minor male divinities are + also, it would seem, very generally without female counterparts. + </p> + <p> + Of these minor male divinities the most noticeable are Martu, a son of + Anu, who is called “the minister of the deep,” and seems to correspond to + the Greek Erebus; Sargana, another son of Anu, from whom Sargon is thought + by some to have derived his name Idak, god of the Tigris; Supulat, lord of + the Euphrates; and Il or Ra, who seems to be the Babylonian chief god + transferred to Assyria, and there placed in a humble position. Besides + these, cuneiform scholars recognize in the Inscriptions some scores of + divine names, of more or less doubtful etymology, some of which are + thought to designate distinct gods, while others may be names of deities + known familiarly to us under a different appellation. Into this branch of + the subject it is not proposed to enter in the present work, which + addresses itself to the general reader. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that, besides gods, the Assyrians acknowledged the + existence of a number of genii, some of whom they regarded as powers of + good, others as powers of evil. The winged figure wearing the horned cap, + which is so constantly represented as attending upon the monarch when he + is employed in any sacred function, would seem to be his tutelary genius—a + benignant spirit who watches over him, and protects him from the spirits + of darkness. This figure commonly bears in the right hand either a + pomegranate or a pine-cone, while the left is either free or else supports + a sort of plaited bag or basket. Where the pine-cone is carried, it is + invariably pointed towards the monarch, as if it were the means of + communication between the protector and the protected, the instrument by + which grace and power passed from the genius to the mortal whom he had + undertaken to guard. Why the pine-cone was chosen for this purpose it is + difficult to form a conjecture. Perhaps it had originally become a sacred + emblem merely as a symbol of productiveness after which it was made to + subserve a further purpose, without much regard to its old symbolical + meaning. + </p> + <p> + The sacred basket, held in the left hand, is of still more dubious + interpretation. It is an object of great elegance, always elaborately and + sometimes very tastefully ornamented. Possibly it may represent the + receptacle in which the divine gifts are stored, and from which they can + be taken by the genius at his discretion, to be bestowed upon the mortal + under his care. + </p> + <p> + Another good genius would seem to be represented by the hawk-headed + figure, which is likewise found in attendance upon the monarch, + attentively watching his proceedings. This figure has been called that of + a god, and has been supposed to represent the Nisroch of Holy Scripture; + but the only ground for such an identification is the conjectural + derivation of Nisroch from a root <i>nisr</i>, which in some Semitic + languages signifies a “hawk” or “falcon.” As <i>nisr</i>, however, has not + been found with any such meaning in Assyrian, and as the word “Nisroch” + nowhere appears in the Inscriptions, it must be regarded as in the highest + degree doubtful whether there is any real connection between the + hawk-headed figure and the god in whose temple Sennacherib was + assassinated. The various readings of the Septuagint version make it + extremely uncertain what was the name actually written in the original + Hebrew text. Nisroch, which is utterly unlike any divine name hitherto + found in the Assyrian records, is most probable a corruption. At any rate + there are no sufficient grounds for identifying the god mentioned, + whatever the true reading of his name may be, with the hawk-headed figure, + which has the appearance of an attendant genius rather than that of a god, + and which was certainly not included among the main deities of Assyria. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0005" id="linkEimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate143.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 143 " /> + </div> + <p> + Representations of evil genii are comparatively infrequent; but we can + scarcely be mistaken in regarding as either an evil genius, or a + representation of the evil principle, the monster—half lion, half + eagle—which in the Nimrud sculptures retreats from the attacks of a + god, probably Vul, who assails him with thunderbolts. <a + href="#linkEimage-0005">[PLATE CXLIII., Fig. I.]</a> Again, in the case of + certain grotesque statuettes found at Khorsabad, one of which has already + been represented, where a human figure has the head of a lion with the + ears of an ass, the most natural explanation seems to be that an evil + genius is intended. In another instance, where we see two monsters with + heads like the statuette just mentioned, placed on human bodies, the legs + of which terminate in eagles’ claws—both of them armed with daggers + and maces, and engaged in a struggle with one another—we seem to + have a symbolical representation of the tendency of evil to turn upon + itself, and reduce itself to feebleness by internal quarrel and disorder. + A considerable number of instances occur in which a human figure, with the + head of a hawk or eagle, threatens a winged human-headed lion—the + emblem of Nergal—with a strap or mace. In these we may have a spirit + of evil assailing a god, or possibly one god opposing another—the + hawk-headed god or genius driving Nergal (i.e., War) beyond the Assyrian + borders. + </p> + <p> + If we pass from the objects to the mode of worship in Assyria, we must + notice at the outset the strongly idolatrous character of the religion. + Not only were images of the gods worshipped set up, as a matter of course, + in every temple dedicated to their honor, but the gods were sometimes so + identified with their images as to be multiplied in popular estimation + when they had several famous temples, in each of which was a famous image. + Thus we hear of the Ishtar of Arbela, the Ishtar of Nineveh, and the + Ishtar of Babylon, and find these goddesses invoked separately, as + distinct divinities, by one and the same king in one and the same + Inscription. In other cases, without this multiplication, we observe + expressions which imply a similar identification of the actual god with + the mere image. Tiglath-Pileser I., boasts that he has set Anu and Vul + (i.e., their images) up in their places. He identifies repeatedly the + images which he carries off from foreign countries with the gods of those + countries. In a similar spirit Sennacherib asks, by the mouth of + Rabshakeh, “<i>Where are the gods</i> of Hamath and of Arpad? <i>Where are + the gods</i> of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah?”—and again unable to + rise to the conception of a purely spiritual deity, supposes that, because + Hezekiah has destroyed all the images throughout Judaea, he has left his + people without any divine protection. The carrying off of the idols from + conquered countries, which we find universally practised, was not perhaps + intended as a mere sign of the power of the conqueror, and of the + superiority of his gods to those of his enemies; it was probably designed + further to weaken those enemies by depriving them of their celestial + protectors; and it may even have been viewed as strengthening of the + conqueror by multiplying his divine guardians. It was certainly usual to + remove the images in a reverential manner; and it was the custom to + deposit them in some of the principal temples of Assyria. We may presume + that there lay at the root of this practice a real belief in the + super-natural power of the in images themselves, and a notion that, with + the possession of the images, this power likewise changed sides and passed + over from the conquered to the conquerors. + </p> + <p> + Assyrian idols were in stone, baked clay, or metal. Some images of Nebo + and of Ishtar have been obtained from the ruins. Those of Nebo are + standing figures, of a larger size than the human, though not greatly + exceeding it. They have been much injured by time, and it is difficult to + pronounce decidedly on their original workmanship: but, judging by what + appears, it would seem to have been of a ruder and coarser character than + that of the slabs or of the royal statues. The Nebo images are heavy, + formal, inexpressive, and not over well-proportioned; but they are not + wanting in a certain quiet dignity which impresses the beholder. They are + unfortunately disfigured, like so many of the lions and bulls, by several + lines of cuneiform writing inscribed round their bodies; but this artistic + defect is pardoned by the antiquarian, who learns from the inscribed lines + the fact that the statues represent Nebo, and the time and circumstances + of their dedication. + </p> + <p> + Clay idols are very frequent. They are generally in a good material, and + are of various sizes, yet never approaching to the full stature of + humanity. Generally they are mere statuettes, less than a foot in height. + Specimens have been selected for representation in the preceding volume, + from which a general idea of their character is obtainable. They are, like + the stone idols, formal and inexpressive in style, while they are even + ruder and coarser than those figures in workmanship. We must regard them + as intended chiefly for private use among the mass of the population, + while we must view the stone idols as the objects of public worship in the + shrines and temples. + </p> + <p> + Idols in metal have not hitherto appeared among the objects recovered from + the Assyrian cities. We may conclude, however, from the passage of Nahum + prefixed to this chapter, as well as from general probability, that they + were known and used by the Assyrians, who seem to have even admitted them—no + less than stone statues—into their temples. The ordinary metal used + was no doubt bronze; but in Assyria, as in Babylonia, silver, and perhaps + in some few instances gold, may have been employed for idols, in cases + where they were intended as proofs to the world at large of the wealth and + magnificence of a monarch. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians worshipped their gods chiefly with sacrifices and offerings, + Tiglath-Pileser I., relates that he offered sacrifice to Anu and Vul on + completing the repairs of their temple. Asshur-izir-pal says that he + sacrificed to the gods after embarking on the Mediterranean. Vul-lush IV, + sacrificed to Bel-Merodach, Nebo, and Nergal, in their respective high + seats at Babylon, Borsippa, and Cutha. Sennacherib offered sacrifices to + Hoa on the sea-shore after an expedition in the Persian Gulf. Esarhaddon + “slew great and costly sacrifices” at Nineveh upon completing his great + palace in that capital. Sacrifice was clearly regarded as a duty by the + kings generally, and was the ordinary mode by which they propitiated the + favor of the national deities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0006" id="linkEimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate144.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 144 " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="plate144a (39K)" src="images/plate144a.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + With respect to the mode of sacrifice we have only a small amount of + information, derived from a very few bas-reliefs. These unite in + representing the bull as the special sacrificial animal. In one we simply + see a bull brought up to a temple by the king; but in another, which is + more elaborate, we seem to have the whole of a sacrificial scene fairly, + if not exactly, brought before us. <a href="#linkEimage-0006">[PLATE + CXLIV., Fig. 1.]</a> Towards the front of the temple, where the god, + recognizable by his horned cap, appears seated upon a throne, with an + attendant priest, who is beardless, paying adoration to him, advances a + procession consisting of the king and six priests, one of whom carries a + cup, while the other five are employed about the animal. The king pours a + libation over a large bowl, fixed in a stand, immediately in front of a + tall fire-altar, from which flames are rising. Close behind this stands + the priest with a cup, from which we may suppose that the monarch will + pour a second libation. Next we observe a bearded priest directly in front + of the bull, checking the advance of the animal, which is not to be + offered till the libation is over. The bull is also held by a pair of + priests, who walk behind him and restrain him with a rope attached to one + of his fore-legs a little above the hoof. Another pair of priests, + following closely on the footsteps of the first pair, completes the + procession: the four seem, from the position of their heads and arms, to + be engaged in a solemn chant. It is probable, from the flame upon the + altar, that there is to be some burning of the sacrifice; while it is + evident, from the altar being of such a small size, that only certain + parts of the animal can be consumed upon it. We may conclude therefore + that the Assyrian sacrifices resembled those of the classical nations, + consisting not of whole burnt offerings, but of a selection of choice + parts, regarded as specially pleasing to the gods, which were placed upon + the altar and burnt, while the remainder of the victim was consumed by + priest or people. + </p> + <p> + Assyrian altars were of various shapes and sizes. One type was square, and + of no great height; it had its top ornamented with gradines, below which + the sides were either plain or fluted. Another which was also of moderate + height, was triangular, but with a circular top, consisting of a single + flat stone, perfectly plain, except that it was sometimes inscribed round + the edge. <a href="#linkEimage-0005">[PLATE CXLIII. Fig. 2.]</a> A third + type is that represented in the sacrificial scene. <a + href="#linkEimage-0006">[PLATE CXLIV.]</a> This is a sort of portable + stand—narrow, but of considerable height, reaching nearly to a man’s + chin. Altars of this kind seem to have been carried about by the Assyrians + in their expeditions: we see them occasionally in the entrenched camps, + and observe priests officiating at them in their dress of office. <a + href="#linkEimage-0005">[PLATE CXLIII., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Besides their sacrifices of animals, the Assyrian kings were accustomed to + deposit in the temples of their gods, as thank-offerings, many precious + products from the countries which they overran in their expeditions. + Stones and marbles of various kinds, rare metals, and images of foreign + deities, are particularly mentioned; but it would seem to be most probable + that some portion of all the more valuable articles was thus dedicated. + Silver and gold were certainly used largely in the adornment of the + temples, which are sometimes said to have been made “as splendid as the + sun,” by reason of the profuse employment upon them of these precious + metals. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to determine how the ordinary worship of the gods was + conducted. The sculptures are for the most part monuments erected by + kings; and when these have a religious character, they represent the + performance by the kings of their own religious duties, from which little + can be concluded as to the religious observances of the people. The kings + seem to have united the priestly with the regal character; and in the + religious scenes representing their acts of worship, no priest ever + intervenes between them and the god, or appears to assume any but a very + subordinate position. The king himself stands and worships in close + proximity to the holy tree; with his own hand he pours libations; and it + is not unlikely that he was entitled with his own arm to sacrifice + victims. + </p> + <p> + But we can scarcely suppose that the people had these privileges. + Sacerdotal ideas have prevailed in almost all Oriental monarchies, and it + is notorious that they had a strong hold upon the neighboring and nearly + connected kingdom of Babylon. The Assyrians generally, it is probable, + approached the gods through their priests; and it would seem to be these + priests who are represented upon the cylinders as introducing worshippers + to the gods, dressed themselves in long robes, and with a curious mitre + upon their heads. The worshipper seldom comes empty-handed. He carries + commonly in his arms an antelope or young goat, which we may presume to be + an offering intended to propitiate the deity. <a href="#linkEimage-0006">[PLATE + CXLIV., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + It is remarkable that the priests in the sculptures are generally, if not + invariably, beardless. It is scarcely probable that they were eunuchs, + since mutilation is in the East always regarded as a species of + degradation. Perhaps they merely shaved the beard for greater cleanliness, + like the priests of the Egyptians and possibly it was a custom only + obligatory on the upper grades of the priesthood. + </p> + <p> + We have no evidence of the establishment of set festivals in Assyria. + Apparently the monarchs decided, of their own will, when a feast should be + held to any god; and, proclamation being made, the feast was held + accordingly. Vast numbers, especially of the chief men, were assembled on + such occasions; numerous sacrifices were offered, and the festivities + lasted for several days. A considerable proportion of the worshippers were + accommodated in the royal palace, to which the temple was ordinarily a + mere adjunct, being fed at the king’s cost, and lodged in the halls and + other apartments. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians made occasionally a religious use of fasting. The evidence + on this point is confined to the Book of Jonah, which, however, distinctly + shows both the fact and the nature of the usage. When a fast was + proclaimed, the king, the nobles, and the people exchanged their ordinary + apparel for sackcloth, sprinkled ashes upon their heads, and abstained + alike from food and drink until the fast was over. The animals also that + were within the walls of the city where the fast was commanded, had + sackcloth placed upon them; and the same abstinence was enforced upon them + as was enjoined on the inhabitants. Ordinary business was suspended, and + the whole population united in prayer to Asshur, the supreme god, whose + pardon they entreated, and whose favor they sought to propitiate. These + proceedings were not merely formal. On the occasion mentioned in the book + of Jonah, the repentance of the Ninevites seems to have been sincere. “God + saw their works, that they turned from their evil way; and God repented of + the evil that he had said that he would do unto them: and he did it not.” + </p> + <p> + The religious sentiment appears, on the whole, to have been strong and + deep-seated among the Assyrians. Although religion had not the prominence + in Assyria which it possessed in Egypt, or even in Greece—although + the temple was subordinated to the palace, and the most imposing of the + representations of the gods were degraded to mere architectural ornaments—yet + the Assyrians appear to have been really, nay, even earnestly, religious. + Their religion, it must be admitted, was of a sensuous character. They not + only practised Eimage-worship, but believed in the actual power of the + idols to give protection or work mischief; nor could they rise to the + conception of a purely spiritual and immaterial deity. Their ordinary + worship was less one of prayer than one by means of sacrifices and + offerings. They could, however, we know, in the time of trouble, utter + sincere prayers; and we are bound therefore to credit them with an honest + purpose in respect of the many solemn addresses and invocations which + occur both in their public and their private documents. The numerous + mythological tablets testify to the large amount of attention which was + paid to religious subjects by the learned; while the general character of + their names, and the practice of inscribing sacred figures and emblems + upon their signets, which was almost universal, seem to indicate a spirit + of piety on the part of the mass of the people. + </p> + <p> + The sensuous cast of the religion naturally led to a pompous ceremonial, a + fondness for processional display, and the use of magnificent vestments. + These last are represented with great minuteness in the Nimrud sculptures. + The dresses of those engaged in sacred functions seem to have been + elaborately embroidered, for the most part with religious figures and + emblems, such as the winged circle, the pine-cone, the pomegranate, the + sacred tree, the human-headed lion, and the like. Armlets, bracelets, + necklaces, and earrings were worn by the officiating priests, whose heads + were either encircled with a richly-ornamented fillet, or covered with a + mitre or high cap of imposing appearance. Musicians had a place in the + processions, and accompanied the religious ceremonies with playing or + chanting, or, in some instances, possibly with both. + </p> + <p> + It is remarkable that the religious emblems of the Assyrian are almost + always free from that character of grossness which in the classical works + of art, so often offends modern delicacy. The sculptured remains present + us with no representations at all parallel to the phallic emblems of the + Greeks. Still we are perhaps not entitled to conclude, from this + comparative purity, that the Assyrian religion was really exempt from that + worst feature of idolatrous systems—a licensed religious sensualism. + According to Herodotus the Babylonian worship of Beltis was disgraced by a + practice which even he, heathen as he was, regarded as “most shameful.” + Women were required once in their lives to repair to the temple of this + goddess, and there offer themselves to the embrace of the first man who + desired their company. In the Apocryphal Book of Baruch we find a clear + allusion to the same custom, so that there can be little doubt of its + having really obtained in Babylonia; but if so, it would seem to follow, + almost as a matter of course, that the worship of the same identical + goddess in the an joining country included a similar usage. It may be to + this practice that the prophet Nahum alludes, where he denounces Nineveh + as a “well-favored harlot,” the multitude of whose harlotries was + notorious. + </p> + <p> + Such then was the general character of the Assyrian religion. We have no + means of determining whether the cosmogony of the Chaldaeans formed any + part of the Assyrian system, or was confined to the lower country. No + ancient writer tells us anything of the Assyrian notions on this subject, + nor has the decipherment of the monuments thrown as yet any light upon it. + It would be idle therefore to prolong the present chapter by speculating + upon a matter concerning which we have at present no authentic data. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkE2HCH0002" id="linkE2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <h3> + CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. + </h3> + <p> + The chronology of the Assyrian kingdom has long exercised, and divided, + the judgments of the learned. On the one hand, Ctesias and his numerous + followers—including, among the ancients, Cephalion, Castor, Diodorus + Siculus, Nicolas of Damascus, Trogus Pompeius, Velleius Paterculus, + Josephus, Eusebius, and Moses of Chorene; among the moderns, Freret, + Rollin, and Clinton have given the kingdom a duration of between thirteen + and fourteen hundred years, and carried hack its antiquity to a time + almost coeval with the founding of Babylon; on the other, Herodotus, + Volney, Ileeren, B. G. Niebuhr, Brandis, and many others, have preferred a + chronology which limits the duration of the kingdom to about six centuries + and a half, and places the commencement in the thirteenth century B.C. + when a flourishing empire had already existed in Chaldaea, or Babylonia, + for a thousand years, or more. The questions thus mooted remain still, + despite of the volumes which have been written upon them, so far + undecided, that it will be necessary to entertain and discuss theirs at + some length in this place, before entering on the historical sketch which + is needed to complete our account of the Second Monarchy. + </p> + <p> + The duration of a single unbroken empire continuously for 1306 (or 1360) + years, which is the time assigned to the Assyrian Monarchy by Ctesias, + must be admitted to be a thing hard of belief, if not actually incredible. + The Roman State, with all its elements of strength, had (we are told), as + kingdom, commonwealth, and empire, a duration of no more than twelve + centuries. The Chaldaean Monarchy lasted, as we have seen, about a + thousand years, from the time of the Elamite conquest. The duration of the + Parthian was about five centuries of the first Persian, less than two and + a half; of the Median, at the utmost, one and a half; of the later + Babylonian, less than one. The only monarchy existing under conditions at + all similar to Assyria, whereto an equally long—or rather a still + longer—duration has been assigned with some show of reason, is + Egypt. But there it is admitted that the continuity was interrupted by the + long foreign domination of the Hyksos, and by at least one other foreign + conquest—that of the Ethiopian Sabacos or Shebeks. According to + Ctesias, one and the same dynasty occupied the Assyrian throne during the + whole period, of thirteen hundred years. Sardanapalus, the last king in + his list, being the descendant and legitimate successor of Ninus. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that a monarchy lasting about six centuries and a + half, and ruled by at least two or three different dynasties, is per se a + thing far more probable than one ruled by one and the same dynasty for + more than thirteen centuries. And therefore, if the historical evidence in + the two cases is at all equal—or rather, if that which supports the + more improbable account does not greatly preponderate—we ought to + give credence to the more moderate and probable of the two statements. + </p> + <p> + Now, putting aside authors who merely re-echo the statements of others, + there seem to be, in the present case, two and two only distinct original + authorities—Herodotus and Ctesias. Of these two, Herodotus is the + earlier. He writes within two centuries of the termination of the Assyrian + rule, whereas Ctesias writes at least thirty years later. He is of + unimpeachable honesty, and may be thoroughly trusted to have reported only + what he had heard. He had travelled in the East, and had done his best to + obtain accurate information upon Oriental matters, consulting on the + subject, among others, the Chaldaeans of Babylon. He had, moreover, taken + special pains to inform himself upon all that related to Assyria, which he + designed to make the subject of an elaborate work distinct from his + general history. + </p> + <p> + Ctesias, like Herodotus, had had the advantage of visiting the East. It + may be argued that he possessed even better opportunities than the earlier + writer for becoming acquainted with the views which the Orientals + entertained of their own past. Herodotus probably devoted but a few + months, or at most a year or two, to his Oriental travels; Ctesias passed + seventeen years at the Court of Persia. Herodotus was merely an ordinary + traveller, and had no peculiar facilities for acquiring information in the + East; Ctesias was court-physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, and was thus + likely to gain access to any archives which the Persian kings might have + in their keeping. But these advantages seem to have been more than + neutralized by the temper and spirit of the man. He commenced his work + with the broad assertion that Herodotus was “a liar,” and was therefore + bound to differ from him when he treated of the same periods or nations. + He does differ from him, and also from Thucydides, whenever they handle + the same transactions; but in scarcely a single instance where he differs + from either writer does his narrative seem to be worthy of credit. The + cuneiform monuments, while they generally confirm Herodotus, contradict + Ctesias perpetually. He is at variance with Manetho on Egyptian, with + Ptolemy on Babylonian, chronology. No independent writer confirms him on + any important point. His Oriental history is quite incompatible with the + narrative of Scripture. On every ground, the judgment of Aristotle, of + Plutarch, of Arrian, of Scaliger, and of almost all the best critics of + modern times, with respect to the credibility of Ctesias, is to be + maintained, and his authority is to be regarded as of the very slightest + value in determining any controverted matter. + </p> + <p> + The chronology of Herodotus, which is on all accounts to be preferred, + assigns the commencement of the Assyrian Empire to about B.C. 1250, or a + little earlier, and gives the monarchy a duration of nearly 650 years from + that time. The Assyrians, according to him, held the undisputed supremacy + of Western Asia for 520 years, or from about B.C. 1250 to about B.C. 730—after + which they maintained themselves in an independent but less exalted + position for about 130 years longer, till nearly the close of the seventh + century before our era. These dates are not indeed to be accepted without + reserve; but they are approximate to the truth, and are, at any rate, + greatly preferable to those of Ctesias. + </p> + <p> + The chronology of Berosus was, apparently, not very different from that of + Herodotus. There can be no reasonable doubt that his sixth Babylonian + dynasty represents the line of kings which ruled in Babylon during the + period known as that of the Old Empire in Assyria. Now this line, which + was Semitic, appears to have been placed upon the throne by the Assyrians, + and to have been among the first results of that conquering energy which + the Assyrians at this time began to develop. Its commencement should + therefore synchronize with the foundation of an Assyrian Empire. The views + of Berosus on this latter subject may be gathered from what he says of the + former. Now the scheme of Berosus gave as the date of the establishment of + this dynasty about the year B.C. 1300; and as Berosus undoubtedly placed + the fall of the Assyrian Empire in B.C. 625, it may be concluded, and with + a near approach to certainty, that he would have assigned the Empire a + duration of about 675 years, making it commence with the beginning of the + thirteenth century before our era, and terminate midway in the latter half + of the seventh. + </p> + <p> + If this be a true account of the ideas of Berosus, his scheme of Assyrian + chronology would have differed only slightly from that of Herodotus; as + will be seen if we place the two schemes side by side. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0007" id="linkEimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0371.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 371 " /> + </div> + <p> + In the case of a history so ancient as that of Assyria, we might well be + content if our chronology were vague merely to the extent of the + variations here indicated. The parade of exact dates with reference to + very early times is generally fallacious, unless it be understood as + adopted simply for the sake of convenience. In the history of Assyria, + however, we may make a nearer approach to exactness than in most others of + the same antiquity, owing to the existence of two chronological documents + of first-rate importance. One of these is the famous Canon of Ptolemy, + which, though it is directly a Babylonian record, has important bearings + on the chronology of Assyria. The other is an Assyrian Canon, discovered + and edited by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1862, which gives the succession of the + kings for 251 years, commencing (as is thought) B.C. 911 and terminating + B. C. 660, eight years after the accession of the son and successor of + Esarhaddon. These two documents, which harmonize admirably, carry up an + exact Assyrian chronology almost from the close of the Empire to the tenth + century before our era. For the period anterior to this we have, in the + Assyrian records, one or two isolated dates, dates fixed in later times + with more or less of exactness; and of these we might have been inclined + to think little, but that they harmonize remarkably with the statements of + Berosus and Herodotus, which place the commencement of the Empire about + B.C. 1300, or a little later. We have, further, certain lists of kings, + forming continuous lines of descent from father to son, by means of which + we may fill up the blanks that would otherwise remain in our chronological + scheme with approximate dates calculated from an estimate of generations. + From these various sources the subjoined scheme has been composed, the + sources being indicated at the side, and the fixed dates being carefully + distinguished from those which are uncertain or approximate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0008" id="linkEimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0372.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 372 " /> + </div> + <p> + It will be observed that in this list the chronology of Assyria is carried + back to a period nearly a century and a half anterior to B.C. 1300, the + approximate date, according to Herodotus and Berosus, of the establishment + of the “Empire.” It might have been concluded, from the mere statement of + Herodotus, that Assyria existed before the time of which he spoke, since + an empire can only be formed by a people already flourishing. Assyria as + an independent kingdom is the natural antecedent of Assyria as an Imperial + power: and this earlier phase of her existence might reasonably have been + presumed from the later. The monuments furnish distinct evidence of the + time in question in the fourth, fifth, and sixth kings of the above list, + who reigned while the Chaldaean empire was still flourishing in Lower + Mesopotamia. Chronological and other considerations induce a belief that + the four kings who follow like-wise belonged to it; and that, the “Empire” + commenced with Tiglathi-Nin I., who is the first great conqueror. + </p> + <p> + The date assigned to the accession of this king, B.C. 1300, which accords + so nearly with Berosus’s date for the commencement of his 526 years, is + obtained from the monuments in the following manner. First, Sennacherib, + in an inscription set up in or about his tenth year (which was B.C. 694), + states that he recovered from Babylon certain images of gods, which had + been carried thither by Meroclach-idbin-akhi, king of Babylon, who had + obtained them in his war with Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, 418 years + previously. This gives for the date of the war with Tiglath-Pileser the + year B.C. 1112. As that monarch does not mention the Babylonian war in the + annals which relate the events of his early years, we must suppose his + defeat to have taken place towards the close of his reign, and assign him + the space from B.C. 1130 to B.C. 1110, as, approximately, that during + which he is likely to have held the throne. Allowing then to the six + monumental kings who preceded Tiglath-Pileser average reigns of twenty + years each, which is the actual average furnished by the lines of direct + descent in Assyria, where the length of each reign is known, and allowing + fifty years for the break between Tiglathi-Nin and Bel-kudur-uzur, we are + brought to (1130 + 120 + 50) B.C. 1300 for the accession of the first + Tiglathi-Nin, who took Babylon, and is the first king of whom extensive + conquests are recorded. Secondly. Sennacherib in another inscription + reckons 600 years from his first conquest of Babylon (B.C. 703) to a year + in the reign of this monarch. This “six hundred” may be used as a round + number; but as Sennacherib considered that he had the means of calculating + exactly, he would probably not have used a round number, unless it was + tolerably near to the truth. Six hundred years before B.C. 703 brings us + to B.C. 1303. + </p> + <p> + The chief uncertainty which attaches to the numbers in this part of the + list arises from the fact that the nine kings from Tiglathi-Nin downwards + do not form a single direct line. The inscriptions fail to connect + Bel-kudur-uzur with Tiglathi-Nin, and there is thus a probable interval + between the two reigns, the length of which can only be conjectured. + </p> + <p> + The dates assigned to the later kings, from Vul-lush II., to Esarhaddon + inclusive, are derived from the Assyrian Canon taken in combination with + the famous Canon of Ptolemy. The agreement between these documents, and + between the latter and the Assyrian records generally, is exact; and a + conformation is thus afforded to Ptolemy which is of no small importance. + The dates from the accession of Vul-lush II. (B.C. 911) to the death of + Esarhaddon (B.C. 668) would seem to have the same degree of accuracy and + certainty which has been generally admitted to attach to the numbers of + Ptolemy. They have been confirmed by the notice of a great eclipse in the + eighth year of Asshur-dayan III., which is undoubtedly that of June 15, + B.C. 763. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), the son and successor of + Esarhaddon, which commenced B.C. 668, is carried down to B.C. 626 on the + combined authority of Berosus, Ptolemy, and the monuments. The monuments + show that Asshur-bani-pal proclaimed himself king of Babylon after the + death of Saul-mugina whose last year was (according to Ptolemy) B.C. 647: + and that from the date of this proclamation he reigned over Babylon at + least twenty years. Polyhistor, who reports Berosus, has left us + statements which are in close accordance, and from which we gather that + the exact length of the reign of Asshur-bani-pal over Babylon was + twenty-one years. Hence, B.C. 626 is obtained as the year of his death. As + Nineveh appears to have been destroyed B.C. 625 or 624, two years only are + left for Asshur-bani-pal’s son and successor, Asshur-emid-illin, the + Saracus of Abydenus. + </p> + <p> + The framework of Assyrian chronology being thus approximately, and, to + some extent, provisionally settled, we may proceed to arrange upon it the + facts so far as they have come down to us, of Assyrian history. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, then, if we ask ourselves where the Assyrians came + from, and at what time they settled in the country which thenceforth bore + their name, we seem to have an answer,at any rate to the former of these + two questions, in Scripture. “Out of that land”—the land of Shinar—“went + forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh.” The Assyrians, previously to their + settlement on the middle Tigris, had dwelt in the lower part of the great + valley—the flat alluvial plain towards the mouths of the two + streams. It was here, in this productive region, where nature does so much + for man, and so little needs to be supplied by himself, that they had + grown from a family into a people; that they had learnt or developed a + religion, and that they had acquired a knowledge of the most useful and + necessary of the arts. It has been observed in a former chapter that the + whole character of the Assyrian architecture is such as to indicate that + their style was formed in the low flat alluvium, where there were no + natural elevations, and stone was not to be had. It has also been remarked + that their writing is manifestly derived from the Chaldaean; and that + their religion is almost identical with that which prevailed in the lower + country from a very early time. The evidence of the monuments accords + thus, in the most striking way, with the statement of the Bible, + exhibiting to us the Assyrians as a people who had once dwelt to the + south, in close contact with the Chaldaeans, and had removed after awhile + to a more northern position. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the date of their removal, we can only say that it was + certainly anterior to the time of the Chaldaean kings, Purna-puriyas and + Kurri-galzu, who seem to have reigned in the fifteenth century before our + era. If we could be sure that the city called in later times Asshur bore + that name when Shamas-Vul, the son of Ismi-Dagon, erected a temple there + to Anu and Vul, we might assign to the movement a still higher antiquity + for Shamas-Vul belongs to the nineteenth century B.C. As, however, we have + no direct evidence that either the city or the country was known as Asshur + until four centuries later, we must be content to lay it down that the + Assyrians had moved to the north certainly as early as B.C. 1440, and that + their removal may not improbably have taken place several centuries + earlier. + </p> + <p> + The motive of the removal is shrouded in complete obscurity. It may have + been a forced colonization, commanded and carried out by the Chaldaean + kings, who may have originated a system of transplanting to distant + regions subject tribes of doubtful fidelity; or it may have been the + voluntary self-expatriation of an increasing race, pressed for room and + discontented with its condition. Again, it may have taken place by a + single great movement, like that of the Tartar tribes, who transferred + their allegiance from Russia to China in the reign of the Empress + Catherine, and emigrated in a body from the banks of the Dun to the + eastern limits of Mongolia or it may have been a gradual and protracted + change, covering a long term of years, like most of the migrations whereof + we read in history. On the whole, there is perhaps some reason to believe + that a spirit of enterprise about this time possessed the Semitic + inhabitants of Lower Mesopotamia, who voluntarily proceeded northwards in + the hope of bettering their condition. Terah conducted one body from Ur to + Harran: another removed itself from the shores of the Persian Gulf to + those of the Mediterranean; while probably a third, larger than either of + these two, ascended the course of the Tigris, occupied Adiabene, with the + adjacent regions, and, giving its own tribal name of Asshur to its chief + city and territory, became known to its neighbors first as a distinct, and + then as an independent and powerful people. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrians for some time after their change of abode were probably + governed by Babylonian rulers, who held their office under the Chaldaean + Emperor. Bricks of a Babylonian character have been found at + Kileh-Sherghat, the original Assyrian capital, which are thought to be of + greater antiquity than any of the purely Assyrian remains, and which may + have been stamped by these provincial governors. Ere long, however, the + yoke was thrown off, and the Assyrians established a separate monarchy of + their own in the upper country, while the Chaldaean Empire was still + flourishing under native monarchs of the old ethnic type in the regions + nearer to the sea. The special evidence which we possess of the + co-existence side by side of these two kingdoms is furnished by a broken + tablet of a considerably later date, which seems to have contained, when + complete, a brief but continuous sketch of the synchronous history of + Babylonia and Assyria, and of the various transactions in which the + monarchs of the two countries had been engaged one with another, from the + most ancient times. This tablet has preserved to its the names of three + very early Assyrian kings—Asshur-bil-nisi-su, Buzur Asshur, and + Asshur-upallit, of whom the two former are recorded to have made treaties + of peace with the contemporary kings of Babylon; while the last-named + intervened in the domestic affair’s of the country, depriving an usurping + monarch of the throne, and restoring it to the legitimate claimant, who + was his own relation. Intermarriages, it appears, took place at this early + date between the royal families of Assyria and Chaldaea; and + Asshur-upallit, the third of the three kings, had united one of his + daughters to Purna-puriyas, a Chaldaean monarch who has received notice in + the preceding volume. On the death of Purna-puriyas, Kara-khar-das, the + issue of this marriage, ascended the throne; but he had not reigned long + before his subjects rebelled against his authority. A struggle ensued, in + which he was slain, whereupon a certain Nazi-bugas, an usurper, became + king, the line of Purna-puriyas being set aside. Asshur-upallit, upon + this, interposed. Marching an army into Babylonia, he defeated and slew + the usurper, after which he placed on the throne another son of + Purna-puriyas, the Kurri-galzu already mentioned in the account of the + king’s of Chaldaea. + </p> + <p> + What is most remarkable in the glimpse of history which this tablet opens + to us is the power of Assyria, and the apparent terms of equality on which + she stands with her neighbor. Not only does she treat as an equal with the + great Southern Empire—not only is her royal house deemed worthy of + furnishing wives to its princes but when dynastic troubles arise there, + she exercises a predominant influence over the fortunes of the contending + parties, and secures victory to the side whose cause she espouses. Jealous + as all nations are of foreign inter-position in their affairs, we may be + sure that Babylonia would not have succumbed on this occasion to Assyria’s + influence, had not her weight been such that, added to one side in a civil + struggle, it produced a preponderance which defied resistance. + </p> + <p> + After this one short lift, the curtain again drops over the history of + Assyria for a space of about sixty years, during which our records tell us + nothing but the mere names of the king’s. It appears from the bricks of + Kileh-Sherghat that Asshur-upallit was succeeded upon the throne by his + son, Bel-lush, or Behiklhus (Belochush), who was in his turn followed by + his son, Pudil, his grandson. Vul-lush, and his great-grandson, + Shahmaneser, the first of the name. Of Bel-lush, Pudil, and Vul-lush I., + we know only that they raised or repaired important buildings in their + city of Asshur (now Kileh-Sherghat), which in their time, and for some + centuries later, was the capital of the monarchy. + </p> + <p> + This place was not very favorably situated, being on the right bank of the + Tigris, which is a far less fertile region than the left, and not being + naturally a place of any great strength. The Assyrian territory did not at + this time, it is probable, extend very far to the north: at any rate, no + need was as yet felt for a second city higher up the Tigris valley, much + less for a transfer of the seat of government in that direction. Calah was + certainly, and Nineveh probably, not yet built; but still the kingdom had + obtained a name among the nations; the term Assyria was applied + geographically to the whole valley of the middle Tigris; and a prophetic + eye could see in the hitherto quiescent power the nation fated to send + expeditions into Palestine, and to bear off its inhabitants into + captivity. + </p> + <p> + Shahnaneser I. (ab. B.C. 1320) is chiefly known in Assyrian history as the + founder of Calah (Nimrud), the second, apparently, of those great cities + which the Assyrian monarchs delighted to build and embellish. This + foundation would of itself be sufficient to imply the growth of Assyria in + his time towards the north, and would also mark its full establishment as + the dominant power on the left as well as the right bank of the Tigris. + Calah was very advantageously situated in a region of great fertility and + of much natural strength, being protected on one side by the Tigris, and + on the other by the Shor-Derreh torrent, while the Greater Zab further + defended it at the distance of a few miles on the south and south-east, + and the Khazr or Ghazr-Su on the north east. Its settlement must have + secured to the Assyrians the undisturbed possession of the fruitful and + important district between the Tigris and the mountains, the Aturia or + Assyria Proper of later times, which ultimately became the great + metropolitan region in which almost all the chief towns were situated. + </p> + <p> + It is quite in accordance with this erection of a sort of second capital, + further to the north than the old one, to find, as we do, by the + inscriptions of Asshur-izir-pal, that Shalmaneser undertook expeditions + against the tribes on the upper Tigris, and even founded cities in those + parts, which he colonized with settlers brought from a distance. We do not + know what the exact bounds of Assyria towards the north were before his + time, but there can be no doubt that he advanced them; and he is thus + entitled to the distinction of being the first known Assyrian conqueror. + </p> + <p> + With Tiglathi-Nin, the son and successor of Shalmaneser I., the spirit of + conquest displayed itself in a more signal and striking manner. The + probable date of this monarch has already been shown to synchronize + closely with the time assigned by Berosus to the connnencement of his + sixth Babylonian dynasty, and by Herodotus to the beginning of his + Assyrian Empire. Now Tiglathi-Nin appears in the Inscriptions as the + prince who first aspired to transfer to Assyria the supremacy hitherto + exercised, or at any rate claimed, by Babylon. He made war upon the + southern kingdom, and with such success that he felt himself entitled to + claim its conquuest, and to inscribe upon his signet-seal the proud title + of “Conqueror of Babylonia.” This signet-seal, left by him (as is + probable) at Babylon, and recovered about six hundred years later by + Sennacherib, shows to us that he reigned for some time in person at the + southern capital, where it would seem that he afterwards established an + Assyrian dynasty—a branch perhaps of his own family. This is + probably the exact event of which Berosus spoke as occurring 526 years + before Phul or Pul, and which Herodotus regarded as marking the + commencement of the Assyrian “Empire.” We must not, however, suppose that + Babylonia was from this time really subject continuously to the Court of + Nineveh. The subjection may have been maintained for a little less than a + century; but about that time we find evidence that the yoke of Assyria had + been shaken off, and that the Babylonian monarchs, who have Semitic names, + and are probably Assyrians by descent, had become hostile to the Ninevite + kings, and were engaged in frequent wars with them. No real permanent + subjection of the Lower country to the Upper was effected till the time of + Sargon; and even under the Sargonid dynasty revolts were frequent; nor + were the Babylonians reconciled to the Assyrian sway till Esarhaddon + united the two Crowns in his own person, and reigned alternately at the + two capitals. Still, it is probable that, from the time of Tiglathi-Nin, + the Upper country was recognized as the superior of the two: it had shown + its might by a conquest and the imposition of a dynasty—proofs of + power which were far from counterbalanced by a few retaliatory raids + adventured upon under favorable circumstances by the Babylonian princes. + Its influence was therefore felt, even while its yoke was refused; and the + Semitizing of the Chaldaeans, commenced under Tiglathi-Nin, continued + during the whole time of Assyrian preponderance; no effectual Turanian + reaction ever set in; the Babylonian rulers, whether submissive to Assyria + or engaged in hostilities against her, have equally Semitic names; and it + does not appear that any effort was at any time made to recover to the + Turanian element of the population its early supremacy. + </p> + <p> + The line of direct descent, which has been traced in uninterrupted + succession through eight monarchs, beginning with Asshur-bel-nisi-su, here + terminates; and an interval occurs which can only be roughly estimated as + probably not exceeding fifty years. Another consecutive series of eight + kings follows, known to us chiefly through the famous Tiglath-Pileser + cylinder (which gives the succession of five of them), but completed from + the combined evidence of several other documents. These monarchs, it is + probable, reigned from about B.C. 1230 to B C. 1070. + </p> + <p> + Bel-kudur-uzur, the first monarch of this second series, is known to us + wholly through his unfortunate war with the contemporary king of Babylon. + It seems that the Semitic line of kings, which the Assyrians had + established in Babylon, was not content to remain very long in a subject + position. In the time of Bel-kudur-uzur, Vul-baladan, the Babylonian + vassal monarch, revolted; and a war followed between him and his Assyrian + suzerain, which terminated in the defeat and death of the latter, who fell + in a great battle, about B.C. 1210. + </p> + <p> + Nin-pala-zira succeeded. It is uncertain whether he was any relation to + his predecessor, but clear that he avenged him. He is called “the king who + organized the country of Assyria, and established the troops of Assyria in + authority.” It appears that shortly after his accession, Vul-baladan of + Babylon, elated by his previous successes, made an expedition against the + Assyrian capital, and a battle was fought under the walls of Asshur in + which Nin-pala-zira was completely successful. The Babylonians fled, and + left Assyria in peace during the remainder of the reign of this monarch. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-dayan, the third king of the series, had a long and prosperous + reign. He made a successful inroad into Babylonia, and returned into his + own land with a rich and valuable booty. He likewise took down the temple + which Shamas-Vul, the son of Ismi-Dagon, had erected to the gods Asshur + and Vul at Asshur, the Assyrian capital, because it was in a ruinous + condition, and required to be destroyed or rebuilt. Asshur-dayan seems to + have shrunk from the task of restoring so great a work, and therefore + demolished the structure which was not rebuilt for the space of sixty + years from its demolition. He was succeeded upon the throne by his son + Mutaggil-Nebo. + </p> + <p> + Mutaggil-Nebo reigned probably from about B.C. 1170 to B.C. 1150. We are + informed that “Asshur, the great Lord, aided him according to the wishes + of his heart, and established him in strength in the government of + Assyria.” Perhaps these expressions allude to internal troubles at the + commencement of his reign, over which he was so fortunate as to triumph. + We have no further particulars of this monarch. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-ris-ilim, the fourth king of the series, the son and successor of + Mutaggil-Nebo, whose reign may be placed between B.C. 1150 and B.C. 1130, + is a monarch of greater pretensions than most of his predecessors. In his + son’s Inscription he is called “the powerful king, the subduer of + rebellious countries, he who has reduced all the accursed.” These + expressions are so broad, that we must conclude from them, not merely that + Asshur-ris-ilim, unlike the previous kings of the line, engaged in foreign + wars, but that his expeditions had a great success, and paved the way for + the extensive conquests of his son and successor, Tiglath-Pileser. + Probably he turned his arms in various directions, like that monarch. + Certainly he carried them south-wards into Babylonia, where, as we learn + from the synchronistic tablet of Babylonian and Assyrian history, he was + engaged for some time in a war with Nebuchadnezzar (<i>Nabuk-udor-uzur</i>), + the first known king of that name. It has been conjectured that he + likewise carried them into Southern Syria and Palestine, and that, in + fact, he is the monarch designated in the book of Judges by the name of + Chushan-ris-athaim, who is called “the king of Mesopotamia + (Aram-Naharaim),” and is said to have exercised dominion over the + Israelites for eight years. This identification, however, is too uncertain + to be assumed without further proof. The probable date of + Chushan-ris-athaim is some two (or three) centuries earlier; and his + title, “king of Mesopotamia,” is one which is not elsewhere applied to + Assyrians monarchs. + </p> + <p> + A few details have come clown to us with respect to the Babylonian war of + Asshur-ris-ilim. It appears that Nebuchadnezzar was the assailant. He + began the war by a march up the Diyalch and an advance on Assyria along + the outlying Zegros hills, the route afterwards taken by the great Persian + road described by Herodotus. Asshur-ris-ilim went out to meet him in + person, engaged him in the mountain region, and repulsed his attack. Upon + this the Babylonian monarch retired, and after an interval; the duration + of which is unknown, advanced a second time against Assyria, but took now + the direct line across the plain. Asshur-ris-ilim on this occasion was + content to employ a general against the invader. He “sent” his chariots + and his soldiers towards his southern border, and was again successful, + gaining a second victory over his antagonist, who fled away, leaving in + his hands forty chariots and a banner. + </p> + <p> + Tiglath-Pileser I., who succeeded Asshur-ris-ilim about B.C. 1130, is the + first Assyrian monarch of whose history we possess copious details which + can be set forth at some length. This is owing to the preservation and + recovery of a lengthy document belonging to his reign in which are + recorded the events of his first five years. As this document is the chief + evidence we possess of the condition of Assyria, the character and tone of + thought of the king, and indeed of the general state of the Eastern world, + at the period in question—which synchronizes certainly with some + portion of the dominion of the Judges over Israel, and probably with the + early conquests of the Dorians in Greece—it is thought advisable to + give in this place such an account of it, and such a number of extracts as + shall enable the reader to form his own judgment on these several points. + </p> + <p> + The document opens with an enumeration and glorification of the “great + gods” who “rule over heaven and earth,” and are “the guardians of the + kingdom of Tiglath-Pileser.” These are “Asshur, the great Lord, ruling + supreme over the gods; Bel, the lord, father of the gods, lord of the + world; Sin, the leader(?) the lord of empire(?); Shamus, the establisher + of heaven and earth; Vul, he who causes the tempest to rage over hostile + lands; Nin, the champion who subdues evil spirits and enemies; and Ishtar, + the source of the gods, the queen of victory, she who arranges battles.” + These deities, who (it is declared) have placed Tiglath-Pileser upon the + throne, have “made him firm, have confided to him the supreme crown, have + appointed him in might to the sovereignty of the people of Bel, and have + granted him preeminence, exaltation, and warlike power,” are invoked to + make the “duration of his empire continue forever to his royal posterity, + lasting as the great temple of Kharris-Matira.” + </p> + <p> + In the next section the king glorifies himself, enumerating his royal + titles as follows: “Tiglath-Pileser, the powerful king, king of the people + of various tongues; king of the four regions; king of all kings; lord of + lords; the supreme (?); monarch of monarchs; the illustrious chief, who, + under the auspices of the Sun-god, being armed with the sceptre and girt + with the girdle of power over mankind, rules over all the people of Bel; + the mighty prince, whose praise is blazoned forth among the kings; the + exalted sovereign, whose servants Asshur has appointed to the government + of the four regions, and whose name he has made celebrated to posterity; + the conqueror of many plains and mountains of the Upper and Lower country; + the victorious hero, the terror of whose mane has overwhelmed all regions; + the bright constellation who, as he wished, has warred against foreign + countries, and under the auspices of Bel—there being no equal to him—has + subdued the enemies of Asshur.” + </p> + <p> + The royal historian, after this introduction, proceeds to narrate his + actions first in general terms declaring that he has subdued all the lands + and the peoples round about, and then proceeding to particularize the + various campaigns which he had conducted during the first five years of + his reign. The earliest of these was against the Muskai, or Moschians, who + are probably identical with the Meshech of Holy Scripture—a people + governed (it is said) by five kings, and inhabiting the countries of Alzi + and Purukhuz, parts (apparently) of Taurus or Niphates. These Moschians + are said to have neglected for fifty years to pay the tribute due from + them to the Assyrians, from which it would appear that they had revolted + during the reign of Asshur-dayan, having previously been subject to + Assyria. At this time, with a force amounting to 20,000 men, they had + invaded the neighboring district of Qummukh (Commagene), an Assyrian + dependency, and had made themselves masters of it. Tiglath-Pileser + attacked them in this newly-conquered country, and completely defeated + their army. He then reduced Commagene, despite the assistance which the + inhabitants received from some of their neighbors. He burnt the cities, + plundered the temples, ravaged the open country, and carried off, either + in the shape of plunder or of tribute, vast quantities of cattle and + treasure. + </p> + <p> + The character of the warfare is indicated by such a passage as the + following: + </p> + <p> + “The country of Kasiyara, a difficult region, I passed through. With their + 20,000 men and their five kings, in the country of Qummukh I engaged. I + defeated them. The ranks of their warriors in fighting the battle were + beaten down as if by the tempest. Their carcasses covered the valleys and + the tops of the mountains, I cut off their heads. Of the battlements of + their cities I made heaps, like mounds of earth (?). Their moveables, + their wealth, and their valuables I plundered to a countless amount. Six + thousand of their common soldiers, who fled before my servants, and + accepted my yoke, I took and gave over to the men of my own territory as + slaves.” + </p> + <p> + The second campaign was partly in the same region and with the same + people. The Moschians, who were still loth to pay tribute, were again + attacked and reduced. Commagene was completely overrun, and the territory + was attached to the Assyrian empire. The neighboring tribes were assailed + in their fastnesses, their cities burnt, and their territories ravaged. At + the same time war was made upon several other peoples or nations. Among + these the most remarkable are the Khatti (Hittites), two of whose tribes, + the Kaskiaits and Urumians, had committed an aggression on the Assyrian + territory: for this they were chastised by an invasion which they did not + venture to resist, by the plundering of their valuables, and the carrying + off of 120 of their chariots. In another direction the Lower Zab was + crossed, and the Assyrian arms were carried into the mountain region of + Zagros, where certain strongholds were reduced and a good deal of treasure + taken. + </p> + <p> + The third campaign was against the numerous tribes of the Nairi, who seem + to have dwelt at this time partly to the east of the Euphrates, but partly + also in the mountain country west of the stream from Smmeisat to the Gulf + of Iskenderun. These tribes, it is said, had never previously made their + submission to the Assyrians. They were governed by a number of petty + chiefs or “kings,” of whom no fewer than twenty-three are particularized. + The tribes east of the Euphrates seem to have been reduced with little + resistance, while those who dwelt west of the river, on the contrary, + collected their troops together, gave battle to the invaders, and made a + prolonged and desperate defence. All, however, was in vain. The Assyrian + monarch gained a great victory, taking 120 chariots, and then pursued the + vanquished Nairi and their allies as far as “the Upper Sea,”—i.e., + the Mediterranean. The usual ravage and destruction followed, with the + peculiarity that the lives of the “kings” were spared, and that the + country was put to a moderate tribute, viz., 1200 horses and 200 head of + cattle. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth campaign the Aramaeans or Syrians were attacked by the + ambitious monarch. They occupied at this time the valley of the Euphrates, + from the borders of the Tsukhi, or Shuhites, who held the river from about + Anah to Hit, as high up as Carchemish, the frontier town and chief + stronghold of the Khatti or Hittites. Carchemish was not, as has commonly + been supposed, Circesium, at the junction of the Khabour with the + Euphrates, but was considerably higher up the stream, certainly near to, + perhaps on the very site of, the later city of Mabog or Hierapolis. Thus + the Aramaeans had a territory of no great width, but 230 miles long + between its north-western and its south-eastern extremities. + Tiglath-Pileser smote this region, as he tells us, “at one blow.” First + attacking and plundering the eastern or left bank of the river, he then + crossed the stream in boats covered with skins, took and burned six cities + on the right bank, and returned in safety with an immense plunder. + </p> + <p> + The fifth and last campaign was against the country of Musr or Muzr, by + which some Orientalists have understood Lower Egypt. This, however, + appears to be a mistake. The Assyrian Inscriptions designate two countries + by the name of Musr or Muzr, one of them being Egypt, and the other a + portion of Upper Kurdistan. The expedition of Tiglath-Pileser I., was + against the eastern Musr, a highly mountainous country, consisting + (apparently) of the outlying ranges of Zagros between the greater Zab and + the Eastern Khabour. Notwithstanding its natural strength and the + resistance of the inhabitants, this country was completely overrun in an + incredibly short space. The armies which defended it were defeated, the + cities burnt, the strongholds taken. Arin, the capital, submitted, and was + spared, after which a set tribute was imposed on the entire region, the + amount of which is not mentioned. The Assyrian arms were then turned + against a neighboring district, the country of the Comani. The Comani, + though Assyrian subjects, had lent assistance to the people of Musr, and + it was to punish this insolence that Tiglath-Pileser resolved to invade + their territory. Having defeated their main army, consisting of 20,000 + men, he proceeded to the attack of the various castles and towns, some of + which were stormed, while others surrendered at discretion. In both eases + alike the fortifications were broken down and destroyed, the cities which + surrendered being spared, while those taken by storm were burnt with fire. + Ere long the whole of the “far-spreading country of the Comani” was + reduced to subjection, and a tribute was imposed exceeding that which had + previously been required from the people. + </p> + <p> + After this account of the fifth campaign, the whole result of the wars is + thus briefly summed up:—“There fell into my hands altogether, + between the commencement of my reign and my fifth year, forty-two + countries with their kings, from the banks of the river Zab to the banks + of the river Euphrates, the country of the Rhatti, and the upper ocean of + the setting sun. I brought them under one government; I took hostages from + them; and I imposed on them tribute and offerings.” + </p> + <p> + From describing his military achievements, the monarch turns to an account + of his exploits in the chase. In the country of the Hittites he boasts + that he had slain “four wild bulls, strong and fierce,” with his arrows; + while in the neighborhood of Harran, on the banks of the river Khabour, he + had killed ten large wild buffaloes (?), and taken four alive. These + captured animals he had carried with him on his return to Asshur, his + capital city, together with the horns and skins of the slain beasts. The + lions which he had destroyed in his various journeys he estimates at 920. + All these successes he ascribes to the powerful protection of Nin and + Nergal. + </p> + <p> + The royal historiographer proceeds, after this, to give an account of his + domestic administration, of the buildings which he had erected, and the + various improvements which he had introduced. Among the former he mentions + temples to Ishtar. Martu, Bel, Il or Ra, and the presiding deities of the + city of Asshur, palaces for his own use, and castles for the protection of + his territory. Among the latter he enumerates the construction of works of + irrigation, the introduction into Assyria of foreign cattle and of + numerous beasts of chase, the naturalization of foreign vegetable + products, the multiplication of chariots, the extension of the territory, + and the augmentation of the population of the country. + </p> + <p> + A more particular account is then given of the restoration by the monarch + of two very ancient and venerable temples in the great city of Asshur. + This account is preceded by a formal statement of the particulars of the + monarch’s descent from Ninpala-zira, the king who seems to be regarded as + the founder of the dynasty—which breaks the thread of the narrative + somewhat strangely and awkwardly. Perhaps the occasion of its introduction + was, in the mind of the writer, the necessary mention, in connection with + one of the two temples, of Asshur-dayan, the great-grandfather of the + monarch. It appears that in the reign of Asshur-dayan, this temple, which, + having stood for 641 years, was in a very ruinous condition, had been + taken down, while no fresh building had been raised in its room. The site + remained vacant for sixty years, till Tiglath-Pileser, having lately + ascended the throne, determined to erect on the spot a new temple to the + old gods, who were Anu and Vul, probably the tutelary deities of the city. + His own account of the circumstances of the building and dedication is as + follows:— + </p> + <p> + “In the beginning of my reign, Anu and Vul, the great gods, my lords, + guardians of my steps, gave me a command to repair this their shrine. So I + made bricks; I levelled the earth; I took its dimensions (?); I laid down + its foundations upon a mass of strong rock. This place, throughout its + whole extent, I paved with bricks in set order (?); fifty feet deep I + prepared the ground; and upon this substructure I laid the lower + foundations of the temple of Anu and Vul. From its foundations to its roof + I built it up better than it was before. I also built two lofty towers (?) + in honor of their noble godships, and the holy place, a spacious hall, I + consecrated for the convenience of their worshippers, and to accommodate + their votaries, who were numerous as the stars of heaven. I repaired, and + built, and completed my work. Outside the temple I fashioned everything + with the same care as inside. The mound of earth on which it was built I + enlarged like the firmament of the rising stars (?), and I beautified the + entire building. Its towers I raised up to heaven, and its roofs I built + entirely of brick. An inviolable shrine(?) for their noble godships I laid + down near at hand. Anu and Vul, the great gods, I glorified inside the + shrine. I set them up in their honored purity, and the hearts of their + noble godships I delighted.” + </p> + <p> + The other restoration mentioned is that of a temple to Vul only, which, + like that to Anu and Vul conjointly, had been originally built by + Shamas-Vul, the son of Ismi-Dagon. This building had likewise fallen into + decay, but had not been taken down like the other. Tiglath-Pileser states + that he “levelled its site,” and then rebuilt it “from its foundations to + its roofs.” enlarging it beyond its former limits, and adorning it. Inside + of it he “sacrificed precious victims to his lord, Vul.” He also deposited + in the temple a number of rare stones or marbles, which he had obtained in + the country of the Nairi in the course of his expeditions. + </p> + <p> + The inscription then terminates with the following long invocation:— + </p> + <p> + “Since a holy place, a noble hall, I have thus consecrated for the use of + the Great Gods, my lords Anu and Vul, and have laid down an adytum for + their special worship, and have finished it successfully, and have + delighted the hearts of their noble godships, may Anu and Vul preserve me + in power! May they support the men of my government! May they establish + the authority of my officers! May they bring the rain, the joy of the + year, on the cultivated land and the desert, during my time! In war and in + battle may they preserve me victorious! Many foreign countries, turbulent + nations, and hostile kings I have reduced under my yoke! to my children + and my descendants, may they keep them in firm allegiance! I will lead my + steps” (or, “may they establish my feet”), “firm as the mountains, to the + last days, before Asshur and their noble godships! + </p> + <p> + “The list of my victories and the catalogue of my triumphs over foreigners + hostile to Asshur, which Anu and Vul have granted to my arms, I have + inscribed on my tablets and cylinders, and I have placed, [to remain] to + the last days, in the temple of my lords, Ann and Vul. And I have made + clean (?) the tablets of Shamas-Vul, my ancestor; I have made sacrifices, + and sacrificed victims before them, and have set them up in their places. + In after times, and in the latter days..., if the temple of the Great + Gods, my lords Anu and Vul, and these shrines should become old and fall + into decay, may the Prince who comes after me repair the ruins! May he + raise altars and sacrifice victims before my tablets and cylinders, and + may he set them up again in their places, and may he inscribe his name on + them together with my name! As Anu and Vul, the Great Gods, have ordained, + may he worship honestly with a good heart and full trust! + </p> + <p> + “Whoever shall abrade or injure my tablets and cylinders, or shall moisten + them with water, or scorch them with fire, or expose them to the air, or + in the holy place of God shall assign them a place where they cannot be + seen or understood, or shall erase the writing and inscribe his own name, + or shall divide the sculptures (?) and break them off from my tablets, may + Anu and Vul, the Great Gods, my lords, consign his name to perdition! May + they curse him with an irrevocable curse! May they cause his sovereignty + to perish! May they pluck out the stability of the throne of his empire! + Let not his offspring survive him in the kingdom! Let his servants be + broken! Let his troops be defeated! Let him fly vanquished before his + enemies! May Vul in his fury tear up the produce of his land! May a + scarcity of food and of the necessaries of life afflict his country! For + one day may he not be called happy! May his name and his race perish!” + </p> + <p> + The document is then dated—“In the month Kuzalla (Chisleu), on the + 29th day, in the year presided over by Inailiya-pallik, the Rabbi-Turi.” + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the most striking feature of this inscription, when it is compared + with other historical documents of the same kind belonging to other ages + and nations, is its intensely religious character. The long and solemn + invocation of the Great Gods with which it opens, the distinct ascription + to their assistance and guardianship of the whole series of royal + successes, whether in war or in the chase; the pervading idea that the + wars were undertaken for the chastisement of the enemies of Asshur, and + that their result was the establishment in an ever-widening circle of the + worship of Asshur; the careful account which is given of the erection and + renovation of temples, and the dedication of offerings; and the striking + final prayer—all these are so many proofs of the prominent place + which religion held in the thoughts of the king who set up the + inscription, and may fairly be accepted as indications of the general tone + and temper of his people. It is evident that we have here displayed to us, + not a decent lip-service, not a conventional piety, but a real, hearty + earnest religious faith—a faith bordering on fanaticism—a + spirit akin to that with which the Jews were possessed in their warfare + with the nations of Canaan, or which the soldiers of Mahomet breathed + forth when they fleshed their maiden swords upon the infidels. The king + glorifies himself much; but he glorifies the gods more. He fights, in + part, for his own credit, and for the extension of his territory; but he + fights also for the honor of the gods, whom the surrounding nations + reject, and for the diffusion of their worship far and wide throughout all + known regions. His wars are religious wars, at least as much as wars of + conquest; his buildings, or, at any rate, those on whose construction he + dwells with most complacency, are religious buildings; the whole tone of + his mind is deeply and sincerely religious; besides formal + acknowledgments, he is continually letting drop little expressions which + show that his gods are “in all his thoughts,” and represent to him real + powers governing and directing all the various circumstances of human + life. The religious spirit displayed is, as might have been expected, in + the highest degree exclusive and intolerant; but it is earnest, constant, + and all-pervading. + </p> + <p> + In the next place, we cannot fail to be struck with the energetic + character of the monarch, so different from the temper which Ctesias + ascribes, in the broadest and most sweeping terms, to all the successors + of Ninus. Within the first five years of his reign the indefatigable + prince conducts in person expeditions into almost every country upon his + borders; attacks and reduces six important nations, besides numerous petty + tribes; receiving the submission of forty-two kings; traversing the most + difficult mountain regions; defeating armies, besieging towns, destroying + forts and strongholds, ravaging territories; never allowing himself a + moment of repose; when he is not engaged in military operations, devoting + himself to the chase, contending with the wild bull and the lion, proving + himself (like the first Mesopotamian king) in very deed “a mighty hunter,” + since he counts his victims by hundreds; and all the while having regard + also to the material welfare of his country, adorning it with buildings, + enriching it with the products of other lands, both animal and vegetable, + fertilizing it by means of works of irrigation, and in every way + “improving the condition of the people, and obtaining for them abundance + and security.” + </p> + <p> + With respect to the general condition of Assyria, it may be noted, in the + first place, that the capital is still Asshur, and that no mention is made + of any other native city. The king calls himself “king of the four + regions,” which would seem to imply a division of the territory into + districts, like that which certainly obtained in later times. The mention + of “four” districts is curious, since the same number was from the first + affected by the Chaldaeans, while we have also evidence that, at least + after the time of Sargon, there was a pre-eminence of four great cities in + Assyria. The limits of the territory at the time of the Inscription are + not very dearly marked; but they do not seem to extend beyond the outer + ranges of Zagros on the east, Niphates on the north, and the Euphrates + upon the west. The southern boundary at the time was probably the + commencement of the alluvium; but this cannot be gathered from the + Inscription, which contains no notice of any expedition in the direction + of Babylonia. The internal condition of Assyria is evidently flourishing. + Wealth flows in from the plunder of the neighboring countries; labor is + cheapened by the introduction of enslaved captives; irrigation is cared + for; new fruits and animals are introduced; fortifications are repaired, + palaces renovated, and temples beautified or rebuilt. + </p> + <p> + The countries adjoining upon Assyria at the west, the north, and the east, + in which are carried on the wars of the period, present indications of + great political weakness. They are divided up among a vast number of + peoples, nations, and tribes, whereof the most powerful is only able to + bring into the field a force of 20,000 men. The peoples and nations + possess but little unity. Each consists of various separate communities, + ruled by their own kings, who in war unite their troops against the common + enemy; but are so jealous of each other, that they do not seem even to + appoint a generalissimo. On the Euphrates, between Hit and Carchemish, + are, first, the Tsukhi or Shuhites, of whom no particulars are given; and, + next, the Aramaeans or Syrians, who occupy both banks of the river, and + possess a number of cities, no one of which is of much strength. Above the + Aramaeans are the Khatti or Hittites, whose chief city, Carchemish, is an + important place; they are divided into tribes, and, like the Aramaeans, + occupy both banks of the great stream. North and north-west of their + country, probably beyond the mountain-range of Amanus, are the Muskai + (Moschi), an aggressive people, who were seeking to extend their territory + eastward into the land of the Qummukh or people of Commagene. These + Qummukh hold the mountain country on both sides of the Upper Tigris, and + have a number of strongholds, chiefly on the right bank. To the east they + adjoin on the Kirkhi, who must have inhabited the skirts of Niphates, + while to the south they touch the Nairi, who stretch from Lake Van, along + the line of the Tigris, to the tract known as Commagene to the Romans. The + Nairi have, at the least, twenty-three kings, each of whom governs his own + tribe or city. South of the more eastern Nairi is the country of Muzra + mountain tract well peopled and full of castles, probably the region about + Amadiyeh and Rowandiz. Adjoining Muzr to the east or north-east, are the + __Quwanu or Comani, who are among the most powerful of Assyria’s + neighbors, being able, like the Moschi, to bring into the field an army of + 20,000 men. At this time they are close allies of the people of Muzr—finally, + across the lower Zab, on the skirts of Zagros, are various petty tribes of + small account, who offer but little resistance to the arms of the invader. + </p> + <p> + Such was the position of Assyria among her neighbors in the latter part of + the twelfth century before Christ. She was a compact and powerful kingdom, + centralized under a single monarch, and with a single great capital, in + the midst of wild tribes which clung to a separate independence, each in + its own valley or village. At the approach of a great danger, these tribes + might consent to coalesce and to form alliances, or even confederations; + but the federal tie, never one of much tenacity, and rarely capable of + holding its ground in the presence of monarchic vigor, was here especially + weak. After one defeat of their joint forces by the Assyrian troops, the + confederates commonly dispersed, each flying to the defence of his own + city or territory, with a short-sighted selfishness which deserved and + ensured defeat. In one direction only was Assyria confronted by a rival + state pomsessing a power and organization in character not unlike her own, + though scarcely of equal strength. On her southern frontier, in the broad + flat plain intervening between the Mesopotamian upland and the sea—the + kingdom of Babylon was still existing; its Semitic kings, though + originally established upon the throne by Assyrian influence, had + dissolved all connection with their old protectors, and asserted their + thorough independence. Here, then, was a considerable state, as much + centralized as Assyria herself, and not greatly inferior either in extent + of territory or in population, existing side by side with her, and + constituting a species of check, whereby something like a balance of power + was still maintained in Western Asia, and Assyria: was prevented from + feeling herself the absolute mistress of the East, and the uncontrolled + arbitress of the world’s destinies. + </p> + <p> + Besides the great cylinder inscription of Tiglath-Pileser there exist five + more years of his annals in fragments, from which we learn that he + continued his aggressive expeditious during this space, chiefly towards + the north west, subduing the Lulumi in Northern Syria, attacking and + taking Carchemish, and pursuing the inhabitants across the Euphrates in + boats. + </p> + <p> + No mention is made during this time of any collision between Assyria and + her great rival. Babylon. The result of the wars waged by Asshur-ris-ilim + against Nebuchadnezzar I., had, apparently, been to produce in the + belligerents a feeling of mutual respect; and Tiglath-Pileser, in his + earlier years, neither trespassed on the Babylonian territory in his + aggressive raids, nor found himself called upon to meet and repel any + invasion of his own dominions by his southern neighbors. Before the close + of his reign, however, active hostilities broke out between the two + powers. Either provoked by some border ravage or actuated simply by lust + of conquest, Tiglath-Pileser marched his troops into Babylonia. For two + consecutive years he wasted with fire and sword the “upper” or northern + provinces, taking the cities of Kurri-Galzu—now Akkerkuf—Sippara + of the Sun, and Sippara of Anunit (the Sepharvaim or “two Sipparas” of the + Hebrews), and Hupa or Opis, on the Tigris; and finally capturing Babylon + itself, which, strong as it was, proved unable to resist the invader. On + his return be passed up the valley of the Euphrates, and took several + cities from the Tsukhi. But here, it would seem that he suffered a + reverse. Merodach-iddiu-akhi, his opponent, if he did not actually defeat + his army, must, at any rate, have greatly harassed it on its retreat; for + he captured an important part of its baggage. Indulging a superstition + common in ancient times, Tiglath-Pileser had carried with him in his + expedition certain images of gods, whose presence would, it was thought, + secure victory to his arms. Merodach-iddiu akhi obtained possession of + these idols, and succeeded in carrying them off to Babylon, where they + were preserved for more than 400 years, and considered as mementoes of + victory. + </p> + <p> + The latter days of this great Assyrian prince were thus, unhappily, + clouded by disaster. Neither he, nor his descendants, nor any Assyrian + monarch for four centuries succeeded in recovering the lost idols, and + replacing them in the shrines from which they were taken. A hostile and + jealous spirit appears henceforth in the relations between Assyria and + Babylon; we find no more intermarriages of the one royal house with the + other; wars are frequent—almost constant—nearly every Assyrian + monarch, whose history is known to us in any detail, conducting at least + one expedition into Babylonia. + </p> + <p> + A work still remains, belonging to the reign of this king, from which it + appears that the peculiar character of Assyrian mimetic art was already + fixed in his time, the style of representation being exactly such as + prevailed at the most flourishing period, and the workmanship, apparently, + not very inferior. In a cavern from which the Tsupnat river or eastern + branch of the Tigris rises, close to a village called Korkhar, and about + fifty or sixty miles north of Drarbekr, is a bas-relief sculptured on the + natural rock, which has been smoothed for the purpose, consisting of a + figure of the king in his sacerdotal dress with the right arm extended and + the left hand grasping the sacrificial mace, accompanied by an inscription + which is read as follows:—“By the grace of Asshur, Shamas, and Vul, + the Great Gods, I., Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, son of + Asshurris-ilim, king of Assyria, who was the son of Mutaggil-Nebo, king of + Assyria, marching from the great sea of Akhiri’ (the Mediterranean) to the + sea of Nairi” (Lake of Van) “for the third time have invaded the country + of Nairi.” <a href="#linkEimage-0006">[PLATE CXLIV Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The fact of his having warred in Lower Mesopotamia is almost the whole + that is known of Tiglath-Pileser’s son and successor, Asshur-bil-kala. A + contest in which he was engaged with the Babylonian prince, + Merodach-shapik-ziri (who seems to have been the successor of + Merodach-iddin-akhi), is recorded on the famous synchronistic tablet, in + conjunction with the Babylonian wars of his father and grandfather; but + the tablet is so injured in this place that no particulars can be gathered + from it. From a monument of Asshur-bil-kala’s own time—one of the + earliest Assyrian sculptures that has cone down to us—we may perhaps + further conclude that he inherited something of the religious spirit of + his father, and gave a portion of his attention to the adornment of + temples, and the setting up of images. + </p> + <p> + The probable date of the reign of Asshur-bil-kala is about B.C. 1110-1090. + He appears to have been succeeded on the throne by his younger brother, + Shamas-Vul, of whom nothing is known, but that he built, or repaired, a + temple at Nineveh. His reign probably occupied the interval between B.. + 1090 and 1070. He would thus seem to have been contemporary with <i>Smendes</i> + in Egypt and with Samuel or Saul in Israel. So apparently insignificant an + event as the establishment of a kingdom in Palestine was not likely to + disturb the thoughts, even if it came to the knowledge, of an Assyrian + monarch. Shamas-Vul would no doubt have regarded with utter contempt the + petty sovereign of so small a territory as Palestine, and would have + looked upon the new kingdom as scarcely more worthy of his notice than any + other of the ten thousand little principalities which lay on or near his + borders. Could he, however, have possessed for a few moments the prophetic + foresight vouchsafed some centuries earlier to one who may almost be + called his countryman, he would have been astonished to recognize in the + humble kingdom just lifting its head in the far West, and struggling to + hold its own against Philistine cruelty and oppression, a power which in + little more than fifty years would stand forth before the world as the + equal, if not the superior, of his own state. The imperial splendor of the + kingdom of David and Solomon did, in fact, eclipse for awhile the more + ancient glories of Assyria. It is a notable circumstance that, exactly at + the time when a great and powerful monarchy grew up in the tract between + Egypt and the Euphrates, Assyria passed under a cloud. The history of the + country is almost a blank for two centuries between the reigns of + Shamas-Vul and the second Tiglathi-Nin, whose accession is fixed by the + Assyrian Canon to B.C. 889. During more than three-fourths of this time, + from about B.C. 1070 to B.C. 930, the very names of the monarchs are + almost wholly unknown to us. It seems as if there was not room in Western + Asia for two first-class monarchies to exist and flourish at the same + time; and so, although there was no contention, or even contact, between + the two empires of Judaea and Assyria, yet the rise of the one to + greatness could only take place under the condition of a coincident + weakness of the other. + </p> + <p> + It is very remarkable that exactly in this interval of darkness, when + Assyria would seem, from the failure both of buildings and records, to + have been especially and exceptionally weak, occurs the first appearance + of her having extended her influence beyond Syria into the great and + ancient monarchy of Egypt. In the twenty-second Egyptian dynasty, which + began with Sheshonk I., or Shishak, the contemporary of Solomon, about + B.C. 900, Assyrian names appear for the first time in the Egyptian + dynastic lists. It has been supposed from this circumstance that the + entire twenty-second dynasty, together with that which succeeded it, was + Assyrian; but the condition of Assyria at the time renders such a + hypothesis most improbable. The true explanation would seem to be that the + Egyptian kings of this period sometimes married. Assyrian wives, who + naturally gave Assyrian names to some of their children. These wives were + perhaps members of the Assyrian royal family; or perhaps they were the + daughters of the Assyrian nobles who from time to time were appointed as + viceroys of the towns and small states which the Ninevite monarchs + conquered on the skirts of their empire. Either of these suppositions is + more probable than the establishment in Egypt of a dynasty really Assyrian + at a time of extraordinary weakness and depression. + </p> + <p> + When at the close of this long period of obscurity, Assyria once more + comes into sight, we have at first only a dim and indistinct view of her + through the mists which still enfold and shroud her form. We observe that + her capital is still fixed at Kileh-Sherghat, where a new series of kings, + bearing names which, for the most part, resemble those of the earlier + period, are found employing themselves in the repair and enlargement of + public buildings, in connection with which they obtain honorable mention + in an inscription of a later monarch. Asshur-dayan, the first monarch of + this group, probably ascended the throne about B.C. 930, shortly after the + separation of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. He appears to have + reigned from about B.C. 930 to B.C. 911. He was succeeded in B.C. 911 by + his son Vul-lush II., who held the throne from B.C. 911 to B.C. 889. + Nothing is known at present of the history of these two monarchs. No + historical inscriptions belonging to their reigns have been recovered; no + exploits are recorded of them in the inscriptions of later sovereigns. + They stand up before us the mere “shadows of mighty names”—proofs of + the, uncertainty of posthumous fame, which is almost as often the award of + chance as the deserved recompense of superior merit. + </p> + <p> + Of Tiglathi-Nin, the second monarch of the name, and the third king of the + group which we are considering, one important historical notice, contained + in an inscription of his son, has come down to us. In the annals of the + great Asshur-izirpal inscribed on the Nimrud monolith, that prince, while + commemorating his war-like exploits, informs us that he set up his + sculptures at the sources of the Tsupnat river alongside of sculptures + previously set up by his ancestors Tiglath-Pileser and Tiglathi-Nin. That + Tiglathi-Nin should have made so distant an expedition is the more + remarkable from the brevity of his reign, which only lasted for six years. + According to the Canon, he ascended the throne in the year B.C. 889; he + was succeeded in B.C. 883 by his son Asshur-izir-pal. + </p> + <p> + With Asshur-izir-pal commences one of the most flourishing periods of the + Empire. During the twenty-five years of his active and laborious reign. + Assyria enlarged her bounds and increased her influence in almost every + direction, while, at the same time, she advanced rapidly in wealth and in + the arts; in the latter respect leaping suddenly to an eminence which (so + far as we know) had not previously been reached by human genius. The size + and magnificence of Asshur-izir-pal’s buildings, the artistic excellence + of their ornamentation, the pomp and splendor which they set before us as + familiar to the king who raised them, the skill in various useful arts + which they display or imply, have excited the admiration of Europe, which + has seen with astonishment that many of its inventions were anticipated, + and that its luxury was almost equalled, by an Asiatic people nine + centuries before the Christian era. It will be our pleasing task at this + point of the history, after briefly sketching Asshur-izir-pal’s wars, to + give such an account of the great works which he constructed as will + convey to the reader at least a general idea of the civilization and + refinement of the Assyrians at the period to which we are now come. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-izir-pal’s first campaign was in north-western Kurdistan and in the + adjoining parts of Armenia. It does not present any very remarkable + features, though he claims to have penetrated to a region “never + approached by the kings his fathers.” His enemies are the Numi or Elami + (i.e., the mountaineers) and the Kirkhi, who seem to have left their name + in the modern Kurkh. Neither people appears to have been able to make much + head against him: no battle was fought: the natives merely sought to + defend their fortified places; but these were mostly taken and destroyed + by the invader. One chief, who was made prisoner, received very barbarous + treatment; he was carried to Arbela, and there flayed and hung up upon the + town wall. + </p> + <p> + The second expedition of Asshur-izir-pal, which took place in the same + year as his first, was directed against the regions to the west and + north-west of Assyria. Traversing the country of Qummukh, and receiving + its tribute, as well as that of Serki and Sidikan (Arban), he advanced + against the Laki, who seem to have been at this time the chief people of + Central Mesopotamia, extending from the vicinity of Hatra as far as, or + even beyond, the middle Euphrates. Here the people of a city called Assura + had rebelled, murdered their governor, and called in a foreigner to rule + over them. Asshur-izir-pal marched hastily against the rebels, who + submitted at his approach, delivering up to his mercy both their city and + their new king. The latter he bound with fetters and carried with him to + Nineveh; the former he treated with almost unexampled severity. Having + first plundered the whole place, he gave up the houses of the chief men to + his own officers, established an Assyrian governor in the palace, and + then, selecting from the inhabitants the most guilty, he crucified some, + burnt others, and punished the remainder by cutting off their ears or + their noses. We can feel no surprise when we are informed that, while he + was thus “arranging” these matters, the remaining kings of the Laki + submissively sent in their tribute to the conqueror, paying it with + apparent cheerfulness, though it was “a heavy and much increased burden.” + </p> + <p> + In his third expedition, which was in his second year, Asshur-izir-pal + turned his arms to the north, and marched towards the Upper Tigris, where + he forced the kings of the Nairi, who had, it appears, regained their + independence, to give in their submission, and appointed them an annual + tribute in gold, silver, horses, cattle, and other commodities. It was in + the course of this expedition that, having ascended to the sources of the + Tsupnat river, or Eastern Tigris, Asshur-izir-pal set up his memorial side + by side with monuments previously erected on the same site by + Tiglath-Pileser and by the first or second Tiglathi-Nin. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-izir-pal’s fourth campaign was towards the south-east. He crossed + the Lesser Zab, and, entering the Zagros range, carried fire and sword + through its fruitful valleys—pushing his arms further than any of + his ancestors, capturing some scores of towns, and accepting or extorting + tribute from a dozen petty kings. The furthest extent of his march was + probably the district of Zohab across the Shirwan branch of the Diyaleh, + to which he gives the name of Edisa. On his return he built, or rather + rebuilt, a city, which a Babylonian king called Tsibir had destroyed at a + remote period, and gave to his new foundation the name of Dur-Asshur, in + grateful acknowledgment of the protection vouchsafed him by “the chief of + the gods.” + </p> + <p> + In his fifth campaign the warlike monarch once more directed his steps + towards the north. Passing through the country of the Qummukh, and + receiving their tribute, he proceeded to war in the eastern portion of the + Mons Masius, where he took the cities of Matyat (now Mediyat) and + Kapranisa. He then appears to have crossed the Tigris and warred on the + flanks of Niphates, where his chief enemy was the people of Kasiyara. + Returning thence, he entered the territory of the Nairi, where he declares + that he overthrew and destroyed 250 strong walled cities, and put to death + a considerable number of the princes. + </p> + <p> + The sixth campaign of Asshur-izir-pal was in a westerly direction. + Starting from Calah or Nimrud, he crossed the Tigris, and, marching + through the middle of Mesopotamia a little to the north of the Sinjar + range, took tribute from a number of subject towns along the courses of + the rivers Jerujer, Khabour, and Euphrates, among which the most important + were Sidikan (now Arban), Sirki, and Anat (now Anah). From Anat, + apparently his frontier-town in this direction, he invaded the country of + the Tsukhi (Shuhites), captured their city Tsur, and forced them, + notwithstanding the assistance which they received from their neighbors + the Babylonians, to surrender the themselves. He then entered Chaldaea, + and chastised the Chaldaeans, after which he returned in triumph to his + own country. + </p> + <p> + His seventh campaign was also against the Shuhites. Released from the + immediate pressure of his arms, they had rebelled, and had even ventured + to invade the Assyrian Empire. The Laki, whose territory adjoined that of + the Shuhites towards the north and east, assisted them. The combined army, + which the allies were able to bring into the field amounted probably to + 20,000 men, including a large number of warriors who fought in chariots. + Asshur-izir-pal first attacked the cities on the left bank of the + Euphrates, which had felt his might on the former occasion; and, having + reduced these and punished their rebellion with great severity, he crossed + the river on rafts, and fought a battle with the main army of the enemy. + In this engagement he was completely victorious, defeating the Tsukhi and + their allies with great slaughter, and driving their routed forces + headlong into the Euphrates, where great numbers perished by drowning. Six + thousand five hundred of the rebels fell in the battle; and the entire + country on the right bank of the river, which had escaped invasion in the + former campaign, was ravaged furiously with fire and sword by the incensed + monarch. The cities and castles were burnt, the males put to the sword, + the women, children, and cattle carried off. Two kings of the Laki are + mentioned, of whom one escaped, while the other was made prisoner, and + conveyed to Assyria by the conqueror. A rate of tribute was then imposed + on the land considerably in advance of that to which it had previously + been liable. Besides this, to strengthen his hold on the country, the + conqueror built two new cities, one on either bank of the Euphrates, + naming the city on the left bank after himself, and that on the right bank + after the god Asshur. Both of these places were no doubt left well + garrisoned with Assyrian soldiers, on whom the conqueror could place + entire reliance. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-izir-pal’s eighth campaign was nearly in the same quarter; but its + exact scene lay, apparently, somewhat higher up the Euphrates. Hazilu, the + king of the Laki, who escaped capture in the preceding expedition, had + owed his safety to the refuge given him by the people of Beth-Adina. + Asshur-izir-pal, who seems to have regarded their conduct on this occasion + as an insult to himself, and was resolved to punish their presumption, + made his eighth expedition solely against this bold but weak people. + Unable to meet his forces in the field, they shut themselves up in their + chief city, Kabrabi (?), which was immediately besieged, and soon taken + and burnt by the Assyrians. The country of Beth-Adina, which lay on the + left or east bank of the Euphrates, in the vicinity of the modern Balis, + was overrun and added to the empire. Two thousand five hundred prisoners + were carried off and settled at Calah. + </p> + <p> + The most interesting of Asshur-izir-pal’s campaigns is the ninth, which + was against Syria. Marching across Upper-Mesopotamia, and receiving + various tributes upon his way, the Assyrian monarch passed the Euphrates + on rafts, and, entering the city of Carchemish, received the submission of + Sangara, the Hittite prince, who ruled in that town, and of various other + chiefs, “who came reverently and kissed his sceptre.” He then “gave + command” to advance towards Lebanon. Entering the territory of the Patena, + who adjoined upon the northern Hittites, and held the country about + Antioch and Aleppo, he occupied the capital, Kinalua, which was between + the Abri (or Afrin) and the Orontes; alarmed the rebel king, Lubarna, so + that he submitted, and consented to pay a tribute; and then, crossing the + Orontes and destroying certain cities of the Patena, passed along the + northern flank of Lebanon, and reached the Mediterranean. Here he erected + altars and offered sacrifices to the gods, after which he received the + submission of the principal Phoenician states, among which Tyre, Sidon, + Byblus, and Aradus may be distinctly recognized. He then proceeded inland, + and visited the mountain range of Amanus, where he cut timber, set up a + sculptured memorial, and offered sacrifice. After this he returned to + Assyria, carrying with him, besides other plunder, a quantity of wooden + beams, probably cedar, which he carefully conveyed to Nineveh, to be used + in his public buildings. + </p> + <p> + The tenth campaign of Asshur-izir-pai, and the last which is recorded, was + in the region of the Upper Tigris. The geographical details here are + difficult to follow. We can only say that, as usual, the Assyrian monarch + claims to have over-powered all resistance, to have defeated armies, burnt + cities, and carried off vast numbers of prisoners. The “royal city” of the + monarch chiefly attacked was Amidi, now Diarbekr, which sufficiently marks + the main locality of the expedition. + </p> + <p> + While engaged in these important wars, which were all included within his + first six years, Asshur-izir-pal, like his great predecessor, + Tiglath-Pileser, occasionally so far unbent as to indulge in the + recreation of hunting. He interrupts the account of his military + achievements to record, for the benefit of posterity, that on one occasion + he slew fifty large wild bulls on the left bank of the Euphrates, and + captured eight of the same animals; while, on another, he killed twenty + ostriches (?), and took captive the same number. We may conclude, from the + example of Tiglath-Pileser, and from other inscriptions of Asshur-izir-pal + himself, that the captured animals were convoyed to Assyria either as + curiosities, or, more probably, as objects of chase. Asshur-izir-pal’s + sculptures show that the pursuit of the wild bull was one of his favorite + occupations; and as the animals were scarce in Assyria, he may have found + it expedient to import them. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-izir-pal appears, however, to have possessed a menagerie park in + the neighborhood of Nineveh, in which were maintained a variety of strange + and curious animals. Animals called <i>paguts</i> or <i>pagats</i>—perhaps + elephants—were received as tribute from the Phoenicians during his + reign, on at least one occasion, and placed in this enclosure, where (he + tells us) they throve and bred. So well was his taste for such curiosities + known, that even neighboring sovereigns sought to gratify it; and the king + of Egypt, a Pharaoh probably of the twenty-second dynasty, sent him a + present of strange animals when he was in Southern Syria, as a compliment + likely to be appreciated. This love of the chase, which he no doubt + indulged to some extent at home, found in Syria, and in the country on the + Upper Tigris, its amplest and most varied exercise. In an obelisk + inscription, designed especially to commemorate a great hunting expedition + into these regions, he tells us that, besides antelopes of all sorts, + which he took and sent to Asshur, he captured and destroyed the following + animals:—lions, wild sheep, red deer, fallow-deer, wild goats or + ibexes, leopards large and small, bears, wolves, jackals, wild boars, + ostriches, foxes, hyaenas, wild asses, and a few kinds which have not been + identified. From another inscription we learn that, in the course of + another expedition, which seems to have been in the Mesopotamian desert, + he destroyed 360 large lions, 257 large wild cattle, and thirty buffaloes, + while he took and sent to Calah fifteen full-grown lions, fifty young + lions, some leopards, several pairs of wild buffaloes and wild cattle, + together with ostriches, wolves, red deer, bears, cheetas, and hyeenas. + Thus in his peaceful hours he was still actively employed, and in the + chase of many dangerous beasts was able to exercise the same qualities of + courage, coolness, and skill in the use of weapons which procured him in + his wars such frequent and such great successes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0009" id="linkEimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate145.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 145 " /> + </div> + <p> + Thus distinguished, both as a hunter and as a warrior, Asshur-izir-pal, + nevertheless, excelled his predecessors most remarkably in the grandeur of + his public buildings and the free use which he made of the mimetic and + other arts in their ornamentation. The constructions of the earlier kings + at Asshur (or Kileh-Sherghat), whatever merit they may have had, were + beyond a doubt far inferior to those which, from the time of + Asshur-izir-pal, were raised in rapid succession at Calah, Nineveh, and + Beth-Sargina by that monarch and his successors upon the throne. The + mounds of Kileh-Sherghat have yielded no bas-reliefs, nor do they show any + traces of buildings on the scale of those which, at Nimrud, Koyunjik, and + Khorsabad, provoke the admiration of the traveller. The great palace of + Asshur-izir-pal was at Calah, which he first raised from a provincial town + to be the metropolis of the empire. <a href="#linkEimage-0009">[PLATE + CXLV., Fig. 1.]</a> It was a building 360 feet long by 300 broad, + consisting of seven or eight large halls, and a far greater number of + small chambers, grouped round a central court 130 feet long and nearly 100 + wide. The longest of the halls, which faced towards the north, and was the + first room entered by one who approached from the town, was in length 154 + and in breadth 33 feet. The others varied between a size little short of + this, and a length of 65 with a breadth of less than 20 feet. The chambers + were generally square, or nearly so, and in their greatest dimensions + rarely exceeded ten yards. The whole palace was raised upon a lofty + platform, made of sun-burnt brick, but externally cased on every side with + hewn stone. There were two grand facades, one facing the north, on which + side there was an ascent to the platform from the town: and the other + facing the Tigris, which anciently flowed at the foot of the platform + towards the west. On the northern front two or three gateways, flanked + with andro-sphinxes, gave direct access to the principal hall or audience + chamber, a noble apartment, but too narrow for its length, lined + throughout with sculptured slabs representing the various actions of the + king, and containing at the upper or eastern end a raised stone platform + cut into steps, which, it is probable, was intended to support at a proper + elevation the carved throne of the monarch. A grand portal in the southern + wall of the chamber, guarded on either side by winged human-headed bulls + in yellow limestone, conducted into a second hall considerably smaller + than the first, and having less variety of ornament, which communicated + with the central court by a handsome gateway towards the south; and, + towards the east, was connected with a third hall, one of the most + remarkable in the palace. This chamber was a better-proportioned room than + most, being about ninety feet long by twenty-six wide; it ran along the + eastern side of the great court, with which it communicated by two + gateways, and, internally, it was adorned with sculptures of a more + finished and elaborate character than any other room in the building. + Behind this eastern hall was another opening into it, of somewhat greater + length, but only twenty feet wide; and this led to five small chambers, + which here bounded the palace. South of the Great Court were, again, two + halls communicating with each other; but they were of inferior size to + those on the north and west, and were far less richly ornamented. It is + conjectured that there were also two or three halls on the west side of + the court between it and the river; but of this there was no very clear + evidence, and it may be doubted whether the court towards the west was + not, at least partially, open to the river. Almost every hall had one or + two small chambers attached to it, which were most usually at the ends of + the halls, and connected with them by large doorways. + </p> + <p> + Such was the general plan of the palace of Asshur-izir-pal. Its great + halls, so narrow for their length, were probably roofed with beams + stretching across them from side to side, and lighted by small <i>louvres</i> + in their roofs after the manner already described elsewhere. Its square + chambers may have been domed, and perhaps were not lighted at all, or only + by lamps and torches. They were generally without ornamentation. The grand + halls, on the contrary, and some of the narrower chambers, were decorated + on every side, first with sculptures to the height of nine or ten feet, + and then with enamelled bricks, or patterns painted in fresco, to the + height, probably, of seven or eight feet more. The entire height of the + rooms was thus from sixteen to seventeen or eighteen feet. + </p> + <p> + The character of Asshur-izir-pal’s sculptures has been sufficiently + described in an earlier chapter. They have great spirit, boldness, and + force; occasionally they show real merit in the design; but they are + clumsy in the drawing and somewhat coarse in the execution. What chiefly + surprises us in regard to them is the suddenness with which the art they + manifest appears to have sprung up, without going through the usual stages + of rudeness and imperfection. Setting aside one mutilated statue, of very + poor execution, and a single rock tablet, we have no specimens remaining + of Assyrian mimetic art more ancient than this monarch. That art almost + seems to start in Assyria, like Minerva from the head of Jove, full-grown. + Asshur-izir-pal had undoubtedly some constructions of former monarchs to + copy from, both in his palatial and in his sacred edifices; the old + palaces and temples at Kileh-Sherghat must have had a certain grandeur; + and in his architecture this monarch may have merely amplified and + improved upon the models left him by his predecessors; but his + ornamentation, so far as appears, was his own. The mounds of + Kileh-Sherghat have yielded bricks in abundance, but not a single fragment + of a sculptured slab. We cannot prove that ornamental bas-reliefs did not + exist before the time of Asshur-izir-pal; indeed the rock tablets which + earlier monarchs set up were sculptures of this character; but to + Asshur-izir-pal seems at any rate to belong the merit of having first + adopted bas-reliefs on an extensive scale as an architectural ornament, + and of having employed them so as to represent by their means all the + public life of the monarch. + </p> + <p> + The other arts employed by this king in the adornment of his buildings + were those of enamelling bricks and painting in fresco upon a plaster. + Both involve considerable skill in the preparation of colors, and the + former especially implies much dexterity in the management of several very + delicate processes. + </p> + <p> + The sculptures of Asshur-izir-pal, besides proving directly the high + condition of mimetic art in Assyria at this time, furnish indirect + evidence of the wonderful progress which had been made in various + important manufactures. The metallurgy which produced the swords, + sword-sheaths, daggers, earrings, necklaces, armlets, and bracelets of + this period, must have been of a very advanced description. The + coach-building which constructed the chariots, the saddlery which made the + harness of the horses, the embroidery which ornamented the robes, must, + similarly, have been of a superior character. The evidence of the + sculptures alone is quite sufficient to show that, in the time of + Asshur-izir-pal, the Assyrians were already a great and luxurious people, + that most of the useful arts not only existed among them, but were + cultivated to a high pitch, and that in dress, furniture, jewelry, etc., + they were not very much behind the moderns. + </p> + <p> + Besides the magnificent palace which he built at Calah, Asshur-izir-pal is + known also to have erected a certain number of temples. The most important + of these have been already described. They stood at the north-western + corner of the Nimrud platform, and consisted of two edifices, one exactly + at the angle, comprising the higher tower or <i>ziggurat</i>, which stood + out as a sort of corner buttress from the great mound, and a shrine with + chambers at the tower’s base; the other, a little further to the east, + consisting of a shrine and chambers without a tower. These temples were + richly ornamented both within and without; and in front of the larger one + was an erection which seems to show that the Assyrian monarchs, either + during their lifetime, or at any rate after their decease, received divine + honors from their subjects. On a plain square pedestal about two feet in + height was raised a solid block of limestone cut into the shape of an + arched frame, and within this frame was carved the monarch in his + sacerdotal dress, and with the sacred collar round his neck, while the + five principal divine emblems were represented above his head. In front of + this figure, marking (apparently) the object of its erection, was a + triangular altar with a circular top, very much resembling the tripod of + the Greeks. Here we may presume were laid the offerings with which the + credulous and the servile propitiated the new god,—many a gift, not + improbably, being intercepted on its way to the deity of the temple. <a + href="#linkEimage-0009">[PLATE CXLV., Fig. 2.]</a> + </p> + <p> + Another temple built by this monarch was one dedicated to Beltis at + Nineveh. It was perhaps for the ornamentation of this edifice that he cut + “great trees” in Amanus and elsewhere during his Syrian expedition, and + had them conveyed across Mesopotamia to Assyria. It is expressly stated + that these beams were carried, not to Calah, where Asshur-izir-pal usually + resided, but to Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + A remarkable work, probably erected by this monarch, and set up as a + memorial of his reign at the same city, is an obelisk in white stone, now + in the British Museum. On this monument, which was covered on all its four + sides with sculptures and inscriptions, now nearly obliterated, + Asshur-izir-pal commemorated his wars and hunting exploits in various + countries. The obelisk is a monolith, about twelve or thirteen feet high, + and two feet broad at the base. It tapers slightly, and, like the Black + Obelisk erected by this monarch’s son, is crowned at the summit by three + steps or gradines. This thoroughly Assyrian ornamentation seems to show + that the idea of the obelisk was not derived from Egypt, where the + pyramidical apex was universally used, being regarded as essential to this + class of ornaments. If we must seek a foreign origin for the invention, we + may perhaps find it in the pillars [Greek —— ——] + which the Phoenicians employed, as ornaments or memorials, from a remote + antiquity, objects possibly seen by the monarch who took tribute from + Tyre, Sidon, Aradus, Byblus, and most of the maritime Syrian cities. + </p> + <p> + Another most important work of this great monarch was the tunnel and canal + already described at length, by which at a vast expenditure of money and + labor he brought the water of the Greater Zab to Calah. Asshur-izir-pal + mentions this great work as his in his annals; and he was likewise + commemorated as its author in the tablet set up in the tunnel by + Sennacherib, when, two centuries later, he repaired it and brought it once + more into use. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that Asshur-izir-pal, though he adorned and beautified both + the old capital, Asshur, and the now rising city of Nineveh, regarded the + town of Calah with more favor than any other, making it the ordinary + residence of his court, and bestowing on it his chief care and attention. + It would seem that the Assyrian dominion had by this time spread so far to + the north that the situation of Asshur (or Kileh-Sherghat) was no longer + sufficiently central for the capital. The seat of government was + consequently moved forty miles further up the river. At the same time it + was transferred from the west bank to the east, and placed in the fertile + region of Adiabene, near the junction of the Greater Zab with the Tigris. + Here, in a strong and healthy position, on a low spur from the Jebel + Maklub, protected on either side by a deep river, the new capital grew to + greatness. Palace after palace rose on its lofty platform, rich with + carved woodwork, gilding, painting, sculpture, and enamel, each aiming to + outshine its predecessors; while stone lions, sphinxes, obelisks, + shrines,and temple-towers embellished the scene, breaking its monotonous + sameness by variety. The lofty <i>ziggurat</i> attached to the temple of + Nin or Hercules, dominating over the whole, gave unity to the vast mass of + palatial and sacred edifices. The Tigris, skirting the entire western base + of the mound, glassed the whole in its waves, and, doubling the apparent + height, rendered less observable the chief weakness of the architecture. + When the setting sun lighted up the view with the gorgeous hues seen only + under an eastern sky, Calah must have seemed to the traveller who beheld + it for the first time like a vision from fairy-land. + </p> + <p> + After reigning gloriously for twenty-five years, from B.C. 883 to B.C. + 858, this great prince—“the conqueror” (as he styles himself), “from + the upper passage of the Tigris to Lebanon and the Great Sea, who has + reduced under his authority all countries from the rising of the sun to + the going down of the same”—died, probably at no very advanced age, + and left his throne to his son, who bore the name of Shalmaneser. + </p> + <p> + Shalmaneser II., the son of Asshur-izir-pal, who may probably have been + trained to arms under his father, seems to have inherited to the full his + military spirit, and to have warred with at least as much success against + his neighbors. His reign was extended to the unusual length of thirty-five + years, during which time he conducted in person no fewer than twenty-three + military expeditions, besides entrusting three or four others to a + favorite general. It would be a wearisome task to follow out in detail + these numerous and generally uninteresting campaigns, where invasion, + battle, flight, siege, submission, and triumphant return succeeded one + another with monotonous uniformity. The style of the court historians of + Assyria does not improve as time goes on. Nothing can well be more dry and + commonplace than the historical literature of this period, which recalls + the early efforts of the Greeks in this department, and exhibits a decided + inferiority to the compositions of Stowe and Holinshed. The + historiographer of Tiglath-Pileser I., between two and three centuries + earlier, is much superior, as a writer, to those of the period to which we + are come, who eschew all graces of style, contenting themselves with the + curtest and dryest of phrases, and with sentences modelled on a single + unvarying type. + </p> + <p> + Instead, therefore, of following in the direct track of the annalist whom + Shalmaneser employed to record his exploits, and proceeding to analyze his + account of the twenty-seven campaigns belonging to this reign, I shall + simply present the reader with the general result in a few words, and then + draw his special attention to a few of the expeditions which are of more + than common importance. + </p> + <p> + It appears, then, that Shalmaneser, during the first twenty-seven years of + his reign, led in person twenty-three expeditions into the territories of + his neighbors, attacking in the course of these inroads, besides petty + tribes, the following nations and countries:—Babylonia, Chaldaea, + Media, the Zimri, Armenia, Upper Mesopotamia, the country about the + head-streams of the Tigris, the Hittites, the Patena, the Tibareni, the + Hamathites, and the Syrians of Damascus. He took tribute during the same + time from the Phoenieian cities of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus, from the + Tsukhi or Shuhites, from the people of Muzr, from the Bartsu or Partsu, + who are almost certainly the Persians, and from the Israelites. He thus + traversed in person the entire country between the Persian Gulf on the + south and Mount Niphates upon the north, and between the Zagros range (or + perhaps the Persian desert) eastward, and, westward, the shores of the + Mediterranean. Over the whole of this region he made his power felt, and + even beyond it the nations feared him and gladly placed themselves under + his protection. During the later years of his reign, when he was becoming + less fit for warlike toils, he seems in general to have deputed the + command of his armies to a subject in whom he had great confidence, a + noble named Dayan-Asshur. This chief, who held an important office as + early as Shahnaneser’s fifth year, was in his twenty-seventh, + twenty-eighth, thirtieth, and thirty-first employed as commander-in-chief, + and sent out, at the head of the main army of Assyria, to conduct + campaigns against the Armenians, against the revolted Patena, and against + the inhabitants of the modern Kurdistan. It is uncertain whether the king + himself took any part in the campaigns of these years, the native record + the first and third persons are continually interchanged, some of the + actions related being ascribed to the monarch and others to the general; + but on the whole the impression left by the narrative is that the king, in + the spirit of a well-known legal maxim assumes as his own the acts which + he has accomplished through his representative. In his twenty-ninth year, + however, Shalmaneser seems to have led an expedition in person into Khirki + (the Niphates country), where he “overturned, beat to pieces, and consumed + with fire the towns, swept the country with his troops, and impressed on + the inhabitants the fear of his presence.” + </p> + <p> + The campaigns of Shalmaneser which have the greatest interest are those of + his sixth, eighth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, eighteenth, and + twenty-first years. Two of these were directed against Babylonia, three + against Ben-hadad of Damascus, and two against Khazail (Hazael) of + Damascus. + </p> + <p> + In his eighth year Shalmaneser took advantage of a civil war in Babylonia + between King Merodach-sum-adin and a younger brother, Merodach-bel-usati + (?), whose power was about evenly balanced, to interfere in the affairs of + that country, and under pretence of helping the legitimate monarch, to + make himself master of several towns. In the following year he was still + more fortunate. Having engaged, defeated, and slain the pretender to the + Babylonian crown, he marched on to Babylon itself, where he was probably + welcomed as a deliverer, and from thence proceeded into Chaldaea, or the + tract upon the coast, which was at this time independent of Babylon, and + forced its kings to become his tributaries. “The power of his army,” he + tells us, “struck terror as far as the sea.” + </p> + <p> + The wars of Shalmaneser in Southern Syria commenced as early as his ninth + year. He had succeeded to a dominion in Northern Syria which extended over + the Patena, and probably over most of the northern Hittites; and this made + his territories conterminous with those of the Phoenicians, the + Hamathites, the southern Hittites, and perhaps the Syrians of Damascus. At + any rate the last named people felt themselves threatened by the growing + power on or near their borders, and, convinced that they would soon be + attacked, prepared for resistance by entering into a close league with + their neighbors. The king of Damascus, who was the great Ben-hadad, + Tsakhulena, king of Hamath, Ahab, king of Israel, the kings of the + southern Hittites, those of the Phoenician cities on the coast, and + others, formed an alliance, and, uniting their forces, went out boldly to + meet Shalnaneser, offering him battle. Despite, however, of this + confidence, or perhaps in consequence of it, the allies suffered a defeat. + Twenty thousand men fell in the battle. Many chariots and much of the + material of war were captured by the Assyrians. But still no conquest was + effected. Shalmaneser does not assert that he either received submission + or imposed a tribute; and the fact that he did not venture to renew the + war for five years seems to show that the resistance which he had + encountered made him hesitate about continuing the struggle. + </p> + <p> + Five years, however, having elapsed, and the power of Assyria being + increased by her successes in Lower Mesopotamia, Shalmaneser, in the + eleventh year of his reign, advanced a second time against Hamath and the + southern Hittites. Entering their territories unexpectedly, he was at + first unopposed, and succeeded in taking a large number of their towns. + But the troops of Ben-hadad soon appeared in the field. Phoenicia, + apparently, stood aloof, and Hamath was occupied with her own + difficulties; but Ben-hadad, having joined the Hittites, again gave + Shalmaneser battle; and though that monarch, as usual, claims the victory, + it is evident that he gained no important advantage by his success. He had + once more to return to his own land without having extended his sway, and + this time (as it would seem) without even any trophies of conquest. + </p> + <p> + Three years later, he made another desperate effort. Collecting his people + “in multitudes that were not to be counted,” he crossed the Euphrates with + above a hundred thousand men. Marching southwards, he soon encountered a + large army of the allies, Damascenes, Hamathites, Hittites, and perhaps + Phoenicians, the first-named still commanded by the undaunted Ben-hadad. + This time the success of the Assyrians is beyond dispute. Not only were + the allies put to flight, not only did they lose most of their chariots + and implements of war, but they appear to have lost hope, and, formally or + tacitly, to have forthwith dissolved their confederacy. The Hittites and + Hamathites probably submitted to the conqueror; the Phoenicians withdrew + to their own towns, and Damascus was left without allies, to defend + herself as she best might, when the tide of conquest should once more flow + in this direction. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth year the flow of the tide came. Shalmaneser, once more + advancing southward, found the Syrians of Damascus strongly posted in the + fastnesses of the Anti-Lebanon. Since his last invasion they had changed + their ruler. The brave and experienced Ben-hadad had perished by the + treachery of an ambitious subject, and his assassin, the infamous Hazael, + held the throne. Left to his own resources by the dissolution of the old + league, this monarch had exerted himself to the utmost in order to repel + the attack which he knew was impending. He had collected a very large + army, including above eleven hundred chariots, and, determined to leave + nothing to chance, had carefully taken up a very strong position in the + mountain range which separated his territory from the neighboring kingdom + of Hamath, or valley of Coele-Syria. Here he was attacked by Shalmaneser, + and completely defeated, with the loss of 16,000 of his troops, 1121 of + his chariots, a quantity of his war material, and his camp. This blow + apparently prostrated him; and when, three years later, Shalmaneser + invaded his territory, Hazael brought no army into the field, but let his + towns, one after another, be taken and plundered by the Assyrians. + </p> + <p> + It was probably upon this last occasion, when the spirit of Damascus was + cowed, and the Phoenician cities, trembling at the thought of their own + rashness in having assisted Hazael and Ben-hadad, hastened to make their + submission and to resume the rank of Assyrian tributaries, that the + sovereign of another Syrian country, taking warning from the fate of his + neighbors, determined to anticipate the subjection which he could not + avoid, and, making a virtue of necessity, to place himself under the + Assyrian yoke. Jehu, “son of Omri,” as he is termed in the Inscription—i.e., + successor and supposed descendant of the great Omri who built Samaria, + sent as tribute to Shalmaneser a quantity of gold and silver in bullion, + together with a number of manufactured articles in the more precious of + the two metals. In the sculptures which represent the Israelitish + ambassadors presenting this tribute to the great king, these articles + appear carried in the hands, or on the shoulders, of the envoys, but they + are in general too indistinctly traced for us to pronounce with any + confidence upon their character. <a href="#linkEimage-0010">[PLATE CXLVI., + Fig. 1]</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0010" id="linkEimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/plate146.jpg" width="100%" alt="Plate 146 " /> + </div> + <p> + Shalmaneser had the same taste as his father for architecture and the + other arts. He completed the <i>ziggurat</i> of the Great Temple of Nin at + Calah, which his father had left unfinished, and not content with the + palace of that monarch, built for himself a new and (probably) more + magnificent residence on the same lofty platform, at the distance of about + 150 yards. This edifice was found by Mr. Layard in so ruined a condition, + through the violence which it had suffered, apparently at the hands of + Esarhaddon, that it was impossible either to trace its plan or to form a + clear notion of its ornamentation. Two gigantic winged bulls, partly + destroyed, served to show that the grand portals of the chambers were + similar in character and design to those of the earlier monarch, while + from a number of sculptured fragments it was sufficiently plain that the + walls had been adorned with bas-reliefs of the style used in + Asshur-izir-pal’s edifice. The only difference observable was in the size + and subjects of the sculptures, which seemed to have been on a grander + scale and more generally mythological than those of the North-West palace. + </p> + <p> + The monument of Shalmaneser which has attracted most attention in this + country is an obelisk in black marble, similar in shape and general + arrangement to that of Asshur-izir-pal, already described, but of a + handsomer and better material. This work of art was discovered in a + prostrate position under the debris which covered up Shalmaneser’s palace. + It contained bas-reliefs in twenty compartments, five on each of its four + sides; the space above, between, and below then being covered with + cuneiform writing, sharply inscribed in a minute character. The whole was + in most excellent preservation. + </p> + <p> + The bas-reliefs represent the monarch, accompanied by his vizier and other + chief officers, receiving the tribute of five nations, whose envoys are + ushered into the royal presence by officers of the court, and prostrate + themselves at the Great King’s feet ere they present their offerings. The + gifts brought are, in part, objects carried in the hand—gold, + silver, copper in bars and cubes, goblets, elephants’ tusks, tissues, and + the like—in part, animals such as horses, camels, monkeys and + baboons of different kinds, stags, lions, wild bulls, antelopes, and—strangest + of all—the rhinoceros and the elephant. One of the nations, as + already mentioned, is that of the Israelites. The others are, first, the + people of Kirzan, a country bordering on Armenia, who present gold, + silver, copper, horses, and camels, and fill the four highest compartments + with a train of nine envoys: secondly, the Muzri, or people of Muzr, a + country nearly in the same quarter, who are represented in the four + central compartments, with six envoys conducting various wild animals; + thirdly, the Tsukhi, or Shuhites, from the Euphrates, to whom belong the + four compartments below the Muzri, which are filled by a train of thirteen + envoys, bringing two lions, a stag, and various precious articles, among + which bars of metal, elephants’ tusks, and shawls or tissues are + conspicuous; and lastly, the Patera, from the Orontes, who fill three of + the lowest compartments with a train of twelve envoys bearing gifts like + those of the Israelites. + </p> + <p> + Besides this interesting monument, there are very few remains of art which + can be ascribed to Shalmaneser’s time with any confidence. The sculptures + found on the site of his palace belonged to a later monarch, who restored + and embellished it. His own bas-reliefs were torn from their places by + Esarhaddon, and by him defaced and used as materials in the construction + of a new palace. We are thus left almost without materials for judging of + the progress made by art during Shalmaneser’s reign. Architecture, it may + be conjectured, was modified to a certain extent, precious woods being + employed more frequently and more largely than before; a fact of which we + seem to have an indication in the frequent expeditions made by Shalmaneser + into Syria, for the single purpose of cutting timber in its forests. + Sculpture, to judge from the obelisk, made no advance. The same formality, + the same heaviness of outline, the same rigid adherence to the profile in + all representations both of man and beast, characterize the reliefs of + both reigns equally, so far as we have any means of judging. + </p> + <p> + Shalmaneser seems to have held his court ordinarily at Calah, where he + built his palace and set up his obelisk; but sometimes he would reside for + a time at Nineveh or at Asshur. He does not appear to have built any + important edifice at either of these two cities, but at the latter he left + a monument which possesses some interest. This is the stone statue, now in + a mutilated condition, representing a king seated, which was found by Mr. + Layard at Kileh-Sherghat, and of which some notice has already been taken. + Its proportions are better than those of the small statue of the monarch’s + father, standing in his sacrificial dress, which was found at Nimrud; and + it is superior to that work of art, in being of the size of life; but + either its execution was originally very rude, or it must have suffered + grievously by exposure, for it is now wholly rough and unpolished. + </p> + <p> + The later years of Shahuaneser appear to have been troubled by a dangerous + rebellion. The infirmities of age were probably creeping upon him. He had + ceased to go out with his armies; and had handed over a portion of his + authority to the favorite general who was entrusted with the command of + his forces year after year. The favor thus shown may have provoked + jealousy and even alarm. It may have been thought that the legitimate + successor was imperilled by the exaltation of a subject whose position + would enable him to in gratiate himself with the troops, and who might be + expected, on the death of his patron, to make an effort to place the crown + on his own head. Fears of this kind may very probably have so worked on + the mind of the heir apparent as to determine him not to await his + father’s demise, but rather to raise the standard of revolt during his + lifetime, and to endeavor, by an unexpected <i>coup-de-main,</i> to + anticipate and ruin his rival. Or, possibly, Asshur-danin-pal, the eldest + son of Shalmaneser, like too many royal youths, may have been impatient of + the long life of his father, and have conceived the guilty desire, with + which our fourth Henry is said to have taxed his first-born, a “hunger for + the empty chair” of which the aged monarch, still held possession. At any + rate, whatever may have been the motive that urged him on, it is certain + that Asshur-danin-pal rebelled against his sire’s authority, and, raising + the standard of revolt, succeeded in carrying with him a great part of the + kingdom. At Asshur, the old metropolis, which may have hoped to lure back + the Court by its subservience, at Arbela in the Zab region, at Amidi on + the Upper Tigris, at Tel-Apni near the site of Orfa, and at more than + twenty other fortified places, Asshur-danin-pal was pro-claimed king, and + accepted by the inhabitants for their sovereign. Shalmaneser must have + felt himself in imminent peril of losing his crown. Under these + circumstances he called to his assistance his second son Shamas-Vul, and + placing him at the head of such of his troops as remained firm to their + allegiance, invested him with full power to act as he thought best in the + existing emergency. Shamas-Vul at once took the field, attacked and + reduced the rebellious cities one after another, and in a little time + completely crushed the revolt and reestablished peace throughout the + empire. Asshur-danin-pal, the arch conspirator, was probably put to death; + his life was justly forfeit; and neither Shamas-Vul nor his father is + likely to have been withheld by any inconvenient tenderness from punishing + treason in a near relative, as they would have punished it in any other + person. The suppressor of the revolt became the heir of the kingdom; and + when, shortly afterwards, Shalmaneser died, the piety or prudence if his + faithful son was rewarded by the rich inheritance of the Assyrian Empire. + </p> + <p> + Shalmaneser reigned, in all, thirty-five years, from B.C. 858 to B.C. 823. + His successor, Shamas-Vul, held the throne for thirteen years, from B.C. + 823 to B.C. 810. Before entering upon the consideration of this latter + monarch’s reign, it will be well to cast your eyes once more over the + Assyrian Empire, such as it has now become, and over the nations with + which its growth had brought it into contact. Considerable changes had + occurred since the time of Tiglath-Pileser I., the Assyrian boundaries + having been advanced in several directions, while either this progress, or + the movements of races beyond the frontier, had brought into view many new + and some very important nations. + </p> + <p> + The chief advance which the “Terminus” of the Assyrians had made was + towards the west and the north-west. Instead of their dominion in this + quarter being bounded by the Euphrates, they had established their + authority over the whole of Upper Syria, over Phoenicia, Hamath, and + Samaria, or the kingdom of the Israelites. These countries were not indeed + reduced to the form of provinces; on the contrary, they still retained + their own laws, administration, and native princes; but they were + henceforth really subject to Assyria, acknowledging her suzerainty, paying + her an annual tribute, and giving a free passage to her armies through + their territories. The limit of the Assyrian Empire towards the west was + consequently at this time the Mediterranean, from the Gulf of Iskanderun + to Cape Carmel, or perhaps we should say to Joppa. Their north-western + boundary was the range of Taurus next beyond Amanus, the tract between the + two belonging to the Tibareni (Tubal), who had submitted to become + tributaries. Northwards, little if any progress had been made. The chain + of Niphates—“the high grounds over the effluents of the Tigris and + Euphrates”—where Shalmaneser set up “an image of his majesty,” seems + still to be the furthest limit. In other words, Armenia is unconquered, + the strength of the region and the valor of its inhabitants still + protecting it from the Assyrian arms. Towards the east some territory + seems to have been gained, more especially in the central Zagros region, + the district between the Lower Zab and Holwan, which at this period bore + the name of Hupuska; but the tribes north and south of this tract were + still for the most part unsubdued. The southern frontier may be regarded + as wholly unchanged: for although Shalmaneser warred in Babylonia, and + even took tribute on one occasion from the petty kings of the Chaldaean + towns, he seems to have made no permanent impression in this quarter. The + Tsukhi or Shuhites are still the most southern of his subjects. + </p> + <p> + The principal changes which time and conquest had made among the neighbors + of Assyria were the following. Towards the west she was brought into + contact with the kingdom of Damascus, and, through her tributary Samaria + with Judea. On the north-west she had new enemies in the <i>Quins</i> + (Coans?) who dwelt on the further side of Amanus, near the Tibareni, in a + part of the country afterwards called Cilicia, and the Cilicians + themselves, who are now first mentioned. The Moschi seem to have withdrawn + a little from this neighborhood, since they no longer appear either among + Assyria’s enemies or her tributaries. On the north all minor powers had + disappeared; and the Armenians (Urarda) were now Assyria’s sole neighbors. + Towards the east she had come into contact with the <i>Mannai,</i> or + Minni, about Lake Urumiyeh, with the Harkhar in the Van region and in + north-western Kurdistan, with the Bartsu or Persians and the Mada or Medes + in the country east of Zagros, the modern province of Ardelan, and with + the Tsimri, or Zimri, in Upper Luristan. Among all her fresh enemies, she + had not, however, as yet found one calculated to inspire any serious fear. + No new organized monarchy presented itself. The tribes and nations upon + her borders were still either weak in numbers or powerless from their + intestine divisions; and there was thus every reason to expect a long + continuance of the success which had naturally attended a large + centralized state in her contests with small kingdoms or loosely-united + confederacies. Names celebrated in the after history of the world, as + those of the Medes and Persians, are now indeed for the first time + emerging into light from the complete obscurity which has shrouded there + hitherto; and tinged as they are with the radiance of their later glories, + they show brightly among the many insignificant tribes and nations with + which Assyria has been warring for centuries; but it would be a mistake to + suppose that these names have any present importance in the narrative or + represent powers capable as yet of contending on equal terms with the + Assyrian Empire, or even of seriously checking the progress of her + successes. The Medes and Persians are at this period no more powerful than + the Zimri, the Minni, the Urarda, or than half a dozen others of the + border nations, whose appellations sound strange in the ears even of the + advanced student. Neither of the two great Arian peoples had as yet a + capital city, neither was united under a king: separated into numerous + tribes, each under its chief, dispersed in scattered towns and villages, + poorly fortified or not fortified at, all, they were in the same condition + as the Nairi, the Qummukh, the Patena, the Hittites, and the other border + races whose relative weakness Assyria had abundantly proved in a long + course of wars wherein she had uniformly been the victor. + </p> + <p> + The short reign of Shamas-Vul II., presents but little that calls for + remark. Like Shalmaneser II., he resided chiefly at Calah, where, + following the example of his father and grandfather, he set up an obelisk + (or rather a stele) in commemoration of his various exploits. This + monument, which is covered on three sides with an inscription in the + hieratic or cursive character, contains an opening invocation to Nin or + Hercules, conceived in the ordinary terms, the genealogy and titles of the + king, an account of the rebellion of Asshur-bani-pal, together with its + suppression, and Shamas-Vul’s own annals for the first four years of his + reign. From these we learn that he displayed the same active spirit as his + two predecessors, carrying his arms against the Nairi on the north, + against Media and Arazias on the east, and against Babylonia on the south. + The people of Hupuska, the Minni, and the Persians (Bartsu) paid him + tribute. His principal success was that of his fourth campaign, which was + against Babylon. He entered the country by a route often used, which + skirted the Zagros mountain range for some distance, and then crossed the + flat, probably along the course of the Diyaleh, to the southern capital. + The Babylonians, alarmed at his advance, occupied a strongly fortified + place on his line of route, which he besieged and took after a vigorous + resistance, wherein the blood of the garrison was shed like water. + Eighteen thousand were slain; three thousand were made prisoners; the city + itself was plundered and burnt, and Shamas-Vul pressed forward against the + flying enemy. Hereupon the Babylonian monarch, Merodach-belatzu-ikbi, + collecting his own troops and those of his allies, the Chaldaeans, the + Aramaeans or Syrians, and the Zimri—a vast host—met the + invader on the river Daban—perhaps a branch of the Euphrates—and + fought a great battle in defence of his city. He was, however, defeated by + the Assyrians, with the loss of 5000 killed, 2000 prisoners, 100 chariots, + 200 tents, and the royal standard and pavilion. What further military or + political results the victory may have had is uncertain. Shamas-Vul’s + annals terminate abruptly at this point, and we are left to conjecture the + consequences of the campaign and battle. It is possible that they were in + the highest degree important; for we find, in the next reign, that + Babylonia, which has so long been a separate and independent kingdom, is + reduced to the condition of a tributary, while we have no account of its + reduction by the succeeding monarch, whose relations with the Babylonians, + so far as we know, were of a purely peaceful character. + </p> + <p> + The stele of Shamas-Vul contains one allusion to a hunting exploit, by + which we learn that this monarch inherited his grandfather’s partiality + for the chase. He found wild bulls at the foot of Zagros when he was + marching to invade Babylonia, and delaying his advance to hunt them, was + so fortunate as to kill several. + </p> + <p> + We know nothing of Shamas-Vul as a builder, and but little of him as a + patron of art. He seems to have been content with the palaces of his + father and grandfather, and to have been devoid of any wish to outshine + them by raising edifices which should throw theirs into the shade. In his + stele he shows no originality; for it is the mere reproduction of a + monument well known to his predecessors, and of which we have several + specimens from the time of Asshur-izir-pal downwards. It consists of a + single figure in relief—a figure representing the king dressed in + his priestly robes, and wearing the sacred emblems round his neck, + standing with the right arm upraised, and enclosed in the customary arched + frame. This figure, which is somewhat larger than life, is cut on a single + solid block of stone, and then placed on another broader block, which + serves as a pedestal. It closely resembles the figure of Asshur-izir-pal, + whereof a representation has been already given. + </p> + <p> + The successor of Shamas-Vul was his son Vul-lush, the third monarch of + that name, who ascended the throne B.C. 810, and held it for twenty-nine + years, from B.C. 810 to B.C. 781. The memorials which we possess of this + king’s reign are but scanty. They consist of one or two slabs found at + Nimrod, of a short dedicatory inscription on duplicate statues of the god + Nebo brought from the same place, of some brick inscriptions from the + mound of Nebbi Vunus, and of the briefest possible notices of the quarters + in which he carried on war, contained in one copy of the Canon. As none of + these records are in the shape of annals except the last, and as only + these and the slab notices are historical, it is impossible to give any + detailed account of this long and apparently important reign. We can only + say that Vul-lush III., was as warlike a monarch as any of his + predecessors, and that his efforts seem to have extended the Assyrian + dominion in almost every quarter. He made seven expeditions across the + Zagros range into Media, two into the Van country, and three into Syria. + He tells us that in one of these expeditions he succeeded in making + himself master of the great city of Damascus, whose kings had defied (as + we have seen) the repeated attacks of Shalmaneser. He reckons as his + tributaries in these parts, besides Damascus, the cities of Tyre and + Sidon, and the countries of Khumri or Samaria, of Palestine or Philistia, + and of Hudum (Idumaea or Edom). On the north and east he received tokens + of submission from the Nairi, the Minni, the Medes, and the Partsu, or + Persians. On the south, he exercised a power, which seems like that of a + sovereign, in Babylonia; where homage was paid him by the Chaldaeans, and + where, in the great cities of Babylon, Borsippa, and Cutha (or Tiggaba), + he was allowed’to offer sacrifice to the gods Bel, Nebo, and Nergal. There + is, further, some reason to suspect that, before quitting Babylonia, he + established one of his sons as viceroy over the country; since he seems to + style himself in one place “the king to whose son Asshur, the chief of the + gods, has granted the kingdom of Babylon.” + </p> + <p> + It thus appears that by the time of Vul-lush III., or early in the eighth + century u.e., Assyria had with one hand grasped Babylonia, while with the + other she had laid hold of Philistia and Edom. She thus touched the + Persian Gulf on the one side, while on the other she was brought into + contact with Egypt. At the same time she had received the submission of at + least some portion of the great nation of the Medes, who were now probably + moving southwards from Azerbijan and gradually occupying the territory + which was regarded as Media Proper by the Greeks and Romans. She held + Southern Armenia, from Lake Van to the sources of the Tigris; she + possessed all Upper Syria, including Commagene and Amanus she had + tributaries even on the further side of that mountain range; she bore sway + over the whole Syrian coast from Issus to Gaza; her authority was + acknowledged, probably, by all the tribes and kingdoms between the coast + and the desert, certainly by the Phoenicians, the Hamathites, the Patena, + the Hittites, the Syrians of Damascus, the people of Israel, and the + Idumaeans, or people of Edom. On the east she had reduced almost all the + valleys of Zagros, and had tributaries in the great upland on the eastern + side of the range. On the south, if she had not absorbed Babylonia, she + had at least made her influence paramount there. The full height of her + greatness was not indeed attained till a century later; but already the + “tall cedar” was “exalted above all the trees of the field; his boughs + were multiplied; his branches had become long; and under his shadow dwelt + great nations.” + </p> + <p> + Not much is known of Vul-lush III., as a builder, or as a patron of art. + He calls himself the “restorer of noble buildings which had gone to + decay,” an expression which would seem to imply that he aimed rather at + maintaining former edifices in repair than at constructing new ones. He + seems, however, to have built some chambers on the mound of Nimrod, + between the north-western and the south-western palaces, and also to have + had a palace at Nineveh on the mound now called Nebbi Ynnus. The Nimrud + chambers were of small size and poorly ornamented; they contained no + sculptures; the walls were plastered and then painted in fresco with a + variety of patterns. They may have been merely guard-rooms, since they + appear to have formed a portion of a high tower. The palace at Nebbi Ynnus + was probably a more important work; but the superstitious regard of the + natives for the supposed tomb of Jonah has hitherto frustrated all + attempts made by Europeans to explore that mass of ruins. + </p> + <p> + Among all the monuments recovered by recent researches, the only works of + art assignable to the reign of Vul-lush are two rude statues of the god + Nebo, almost exactly resembling one another. From the representation of + one of them, given on a former page of this volume, the reader will see + that the figures in question have scarcely any artistic merit. The head is + disproportionately large, the features, so far as they can be traced, are + coarse and heavy, the arms and hands are poorly modelled, and the lower + part is more like a pillar than the figure of a man. We cannot suppose + that Assyrian art was incapable, under the third Vul-lush, of a higher + flight than these statues indicate; we must therefore regard them as + conventional forms, reproduced from old models, which the artist was bound + to follow. It would seem, indeed, that while in the representation of + animals and of men of inferior rank, Assyrian artists were untrammelled by + precedent, and might aim at the highest possible perfection, in religious + subjects, and in the representation of kings and nobles, they were + limited, by law or custom, to certain ancient forms and modes of + expression, which we find repeated from the earliest to the latest times + with monotonous uniformity. + </p> + <p> + If these statues, however, are valueless as works of art, they have yet a + peculiar interest for the historian, as containing the only mention which + the disentombed remains have furnished of one of the most celebrated names + of antiquity—a name which for many ages vindicated to itself a + leading place, not only in the history of Assyria, but in that of the + world. To the Greeks and Romans Semiramis was the foremost of women, the + greatest queen who had ever held a sceptre, the most extraordinary + conqueror that the East had ever produced. Beautiful as Helen or + Cleopatra, brave as Tomyris, lustful as Messalina, she had the virtues and + vices of a man rather than a woman, and performed deeds scarcely inferior + to those of Cyrus or Alexander the Great. It is an ungrateful task to + dispel illusions, more especially such as are at once harmless and + venerable for their antiquity; but truth requires the historian to + obliterate from the pages of the past this well-known image, and to + substitute in its place a very dull and prosaic figure—a Semiramis + no longer decked with the prismatic hues of fancy, but clothed instead in + the sober garments of fact. The Nebo idols are dedicated, by the Assyrian + officer who had them executed, “to his lord Vul-lush and his lady <i>Sammuramit</i>” + from whence it would appear to be certain, in the first place, that that + monarch was married to a princess who bore this world-renowned name, and, + secondly, that she held a position superior to that which is usually + allowed in the East to a queen-consort. An inveterate Oriental prejudice + requires the rigid seclusion of women; and the Assyrian monuments, + thoroughly in accord with the predominant tone of Eastern manners, throw a + veil in general over all that concerns the weaker sex, neither + representing to us the forms of the Assyrian women in the sculptures, nor + so much as mentioning their existence in the inscriptions. Very rarely is + there an exception to this all but universal reticence. In the present + instance, and in about two others, the silence usually kept is broken; and + a native woman comes upon the scene to tantalize us by her momentary + apparition. The glimpse that we here obtain does not reveal much. Beyond + the fact that the principal queen of Vul-lush III., was named Semiramis, + and the further fact, implied in her being mentioned at all, that she had + a recognized position of authority in the country, we can only conclude, + conjecturally, from the exact parallelism of the phrases used, that she + bore sway conjointly with her husband, either over the whole or over a + part of his dominions. Such a view explains, to some extent, the wonderful + tale of the Ninian Semiramis, which was foisted into history by Ctesias; + for it shows that he had a slight basis of fact to go upon. It also + harmonizes, or may be made to harmonize, with the story of Semiramis as + told by Herodotus, who says that she was a Babylonian queen, and reigned + five generations before Nitocris, or about B.C. 755. For it is quite + possible that the Sammuramit married to Vul-lush III., was a Babylonian + princess, the last descendant of a long line of kings, whom the Assyrian + monarch wedded to confirm through her his title to the southern provinces; + in which case a portion of his subjects would regard her as their + legitimate sovereign, and only recognize his authority as secondary and + dependent upon hers. The exaggeration in which Orientals indulge, with a + freedom that astonishes the sober nations of the West, would seize upon + the unusual circumstance of a female having possessed a conjoint + sovereignty, and would gradually group round the name a host of mythic + details, which at last accumulated to such an extent that, to prevent the + fiction from becoming glaring, the queen had to be thrown back into mythic + times, with which such details were in harmony. The Babylonian wife of + Vul-lush III., who gave him his title to the regions of the south, and + reigned conjointly with him both in Babylonia and Assyria, became first a + queen of Babylon, ruling independently and alone, and then an Assyrian + empress, the conqueror of Egypt and Ethiopia, the invader of the distant + India, the builder of Babylon, and the constructor of all the great works + which were anywhere to be found in Western Asia. The grand figure thus + produced imposed upon the uncritical ancients, and was accepted even by + the moderns for many centuries. At length the school of Heeren and + Niebuhr, calling common sense to their aid, pronounced the figure a myth. + It remained for the patient explorers of the field of Assyrian antiquity + in our own day to discover the slight basis of fact on which the myth was + founded, and to substitute for the shadowy marvel of Ctesias a very + prosaic and commonplace princess, who, like Atossa or Elizabeth of York, + strengthened her husband’s title to his crown, but who never really made + herself conspicuous by either great works or by exploits. + </p> + <p> + With Vul-lush III., the glories of the Nimrud line of monarchs come to a + close, and Assyrian history is once more shrouded in a partial darkness + for a space of nearly forty years, from B.C. 781 to B.C. 745. The Assyrian + Canon shows us that three monarchs bore sway during this interval—Shalmaneser + III., who reigned from B.C. 78l to B.C. 771, Asshur-dayan III., who + reigned from B. C. 771 to B.C. 753, and Asshur-lush, who held the throne + from the last-mentioned date to B.C.. 745, when he was succeeded by the + second Tiglatli-Pileser. The brevity of these reigns, which average only + twelve years apiece, is indicative of troublous times, and of a disputed, + or, at any rate, a disturbed succession. The fact that none of the three + monarchs left buildings of any importance, or, so far as appears, + memorials of any kind, marks a period of comparative decline, during which + there was a pause in the magnificent course of Assyrian conquests, which + had scarcely known a check for above a century. The causes of the + temporary inaction and apparent decline of a power which had so long been + steadily advancing, would form an interesting subject of speculation to + the political philosopher; but they are too obscure to be investigated + here, where our space only allows us to touch rapidly on the chief known + facts of the Assyrian history. + </p> + <p> + One important difficulty presents itself at this point of the narrative, + in an apparent contradiction between the native records of the Assyrians + and the casual notices of their history contained in the Second Book of + Kings. The Biblical Pul—“the king of Assyria” who came up against + the land of Israel and received from Menahem a thousand talents of silver, + “that his hand might be with him to confirm the kingdom in his hand,” is + unnoticed in the native inscriptions, and even seems to be excluded from + the royal lists by the absence of any name at all resembling his in the + proper place in the famous Canon. Pul appears in Scripture to be the + immediate predecessor of Tiglath Pileser. At any rate, as his expedition + against Menahem is followed within (at the utmost) thirty-two years by an + expedition of Tiglath Pileser against Pekah, his last year (if he was + indeed a king of Assyria) cannot have fallen earlier than thirty-two years + before Tiglath-Pileser’s first. In other words, if the Hebrew numbers are + historical some portion of Pul’s reign must necessarily fill into the + interval assigned by the Canon to the kings for which it is the sole + authority—Shalmaneser III., Asshur-dayan III., and Asshur-lush. But + these names are so wholly unlike the name of Pul that no one of them can + possibly be regarded as its equivalent, or even as the original from which + it was corrupted. Thus the Assyrian records do not merely omit Pul, but + exclude him: and we have to inquire how this can be accounted for, and who + the Biblical Pul is, if he is not a regular and recognized Assyrian + monarch. + </p> + <p> + Various explanations of the difficulty have been suggested. Some would + regard Pul as a general of Tiglath-Pileser (or of some earlier Assyrian + king), mistaken by the Jews for the actual monarch. Others would identify + him with Tiglath-Pileser himself. But perhaps the most probable + supposition is, that he was a pretender to the Assyrian crown, never + acknowledged at Nineveh, but established in the western (and southern) + provinces so firmly, that he could venture to conduct an expedition into + Lower Syria, and to claim there the fealty of Assyrians vassals. Or + possibly he may have been a Babylonian monarch, who in the troublous times + that had now evidently come upon the northern empire, possessed himself of + the Euphrates valley, and thence descended upon Syria and Palestine. + Berosus, it must be remembered, represented Pul as a Chaldaean king; and + the name itself, which is wholly alien to the ordinary Assyrian type, has + at least one counterpart among known Babylonian namies. + </p> + <p> + The time of Pul’s invasion may be fixed by combining the Assyrian and the + Hebrew chronologies within very narrow limits. Tiglath-Pileser relates + that he took tribute from Menahem in a war which lasted from his fourth to + his eighth year, or from B.C. 742 to B.C. 738. As Menahem only reigned ten + years, the earliest date that can be assigned to Puls expedition will be + B.C. 752, while the latest possible date will be B.C. 746, the year before + the accession of Tiglath-Pileser. In any case the expedition fells within + the eight years assigned by the Assyrian Canon to the reign of + Asshur-lush, Tiglath-Pileser’s immediate predecessor. + </p> + <p> + It is remarkable that into this interval falls also the famous era of + Nabonassar, which must have marked some important change, dynastic or + other, at Babylon. The nature of the change will be considered at length + in the Babylonia a section. At present it is sufficient to observe that, + in the declining condition of Assyria under the kings who followed + Vul-lush III., there was naturally a growth of power and independence + among the border countries. Babylon, repenting of the submission which she + had made either to Vul-lush III., or to his father, Shamas-Vul II., once + more vindicated her right to freedom, and resumed the position of a + separate and hostile monarchy. Samaria, Damascus, Judaea, ceased to pay + tribute. Enterprising kings, like Jeroboam II., and Menahem, taking + advantage of Assyria’s weakness, did not content themselves with merely + throwing off her yoke, but proceeded to enlarge their dominions at the + expense of her feudatories. Judging of the unknown from the known, we may + assume that on the north and east there were similar defections to those + on the west and south—that the tribes of Armenia and of the Zagros + range rose in revolt, and that the Assyrian boundaries were thus + contracted in every quarter. + </p> + <p> + At the same time, within the limits of what was regarded as the settled + Empire, revolts began to occur. In the reign of Asshur-dayan III. (B.C. + 771-753), no fewer than three important insurrections are recorded—one + at a city called Libzu, another at Arapkha, the chief town of + Arrapachitis, and a third at Gozan, the chief city of Gauzanitis or + Mygdonia. Attempts were made to suppress these revolts; but it may be + doubted whether they were successful. The military spirit had declined; + the monarchs had ceased to lead out their armies regularly year by year, + preferring to pass their time in inglorious ease at their rich and + luxurious capitals. Asshur-dayan III., during nine years of his eighteen, + remained at home, under-taking no warlike enterprise. Asshur-lush, his + successor, displayed even less of military vigor. During the eight years + of his reign he took the field twice only, passing six years in complete + inaction. At the end of this time, Calah, the second city in the kingdom, + revolted; and the revolution was brought about which ushered in the + splendid period of the Lower Empire. + </p> + <p> + It was probably during the continuance of the time of depression, when an + unwarlike monarch was living in inglorious ease amid the luxuries and + refinements of Nineveh, and the people, sunk in repose, gave the + themselves up to vicious indulgences more hateful in the eye of God than + even the pride and cruelty which they were want to exhibit in war, that + the great capital was suddenly startled by a voice of warning in the + streets—a voice which sounded everywhere, through corridor, and + lane, and square, bazaar and caravanserai, one shrill monotonous cry—“Yet + forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown.” A strange wild man, clothed + in a rough garment of skin, moving from place to place, announced to the + inhabitants their doom. None knew who he was or whence he had come; none + had ever beheld him before; pale, haggard, travel-stained, he moved before + then like a visitant from another sphere; and his lips still framed the + fearful words—“Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown.” Had + the cry fallen on them in the prosperous time, when each year brought its + tale of victories, and every nation upon their borders trembled at the + approach of their arms, it would probably have been heard with apathy or + ridicule, and would have failed to move the heart of the nation. But + coming, as it did, when their glory had declined; when their enemies, + having been allowed a breathing space, had taken courage and were acting + on the offensive in many quarters; when it was thus perhaps quite within + the range of probability that some one of their numerous foes might + shortly appear in arms before the place, it struck them with fear and + consternation. The alarm communicated itself from the city to the palace; + and his trembling attendants “came and told the king of Nineveh,” who was + seated on his royal throne in the great audience-chamber, surrounded by + all the pomp and magnificence of his court. No sooner did he hear, than + the heart of the king was touched, like that of his people; and he “arose + from his throne, and laid aside his robe from him, and covered himself + with sackcloth and sat in ashes.” Hastily summoning his nobles, he had a + decree framed, and “caused it to be proclaimed and published through + Nineveh, by the decree of the king and his nobles, saying, Let neither man + nor beast, herd nor flock, taste anything; let them not feed, nor drink + water: but let man and beast be covered with sackcloth, and cry mightily + unto God: yea, let them turn every one from his evil way, and from the + violence that is in their hands.” Then the fast was proclaimed, and the + people of Nineveh, fearful of God’s wrath, put on sackcloth “from the + greatest of them even to the least of them.” The joy and merriment, the + revelry and feasting of that great city were changed into mourning and + lamentation; the sins that had provoked the anger of the Most High ceased; + the people humbled themselves; they “turned from their evil way,” and by a + repentance, which, if not deep and enduring, was still real and unfeigned, + they appeased for the present the Divine wrath. Vainly the prophet sat + without the city, on its eastern side, under his booth woven of boughs, + watching, waiting, hoping (apparently) that the doom which he had + announced would come, in spite of the people’s repentance. God was more + merciful than man. He had pity on the “great city,” with its “six score + thousand persons that could not discern between their right hand and their + left,” and, sparing the penitents, left their town to stand unharmed for + more than another century. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances under which Tiglath-Pileser II., ascended the throne in + the year B.C. 745 are unknown to us. No confidence can be placed in the + statement of Bion and Polyhistor which seems to have been intended to + refer to this monarch, whom they called Beletaras—a corruption + perhaps of the latter half of the name—that he was, previously to + his elevation to the royal dignity, a mere vine-dresser, whose occupation + was to keep in order the gardens of the king. Similar tales of the low + origin of self-raised and usurping monarchs are too common in the East, + and are too often contradicted by the facts, when they come known to us, + for much credit to attach to the story told by these late writers, the + earlier of whom, must have written five or six hundred years after + Tiglath-Pileser’s time. We aught, however, conclude, without much chance + of mistake, from such a story being told, that the king-intended acquired + the throne irregularly; that either he was not of the blood royal, or + that, being so, he was at any rate not the legitimate heir. And the + conclusion at which we should thus arrive is confirmed by the monarch’s + inscriptions; for though he speaks repeatedly of “the kings his fathers.” + and even calls the royal buildings at Galati. “the palaces of his + fathers,” yet he never mentions his actual father’s name in any record + that has come down to us. Such a silence is so contrary to the ordinary + practice of Assyrian monarchs, who glory in their descent and parade it on + every possible occasion, that, where it occurs, we are justified in + concluding the monarch to have been an usurper, deriving his title to the + crown, not from his ancestry or from any law of succession, but from a + successful revolution, in which he played the principal part. It matters + little that such a monarch, when he is settled upon the throne, claims, in + a vague and general way, connection with the kings of former times. The + claim may often have a basis of truth; for in monarchies where polygamy + prevails, and the kings have numerous daughters to dispose of, almost all + the nobility can boast that they are of the blood royal. Where the claim + is in no sense true, it will still be made; for it flatters the vanity of + the monarch, and there is no one to gainsay it. + </p> + <p> + Only in such cases we are sure to find a prudent vagueness—an + assertion of the fact of the connection, expressed in general terms, + without any specification of the particulars on which the supposed fact + rests. + </p> + <p> + On obtaining the crown whatever the circumstances under which he obtained + it—Tiglath-Pileser immediately proceeded to attempt the restoration + of the Empire by engaging in a series of wars, now upon one, now upon + another frontier, seeking by his unwearied activity and energy to recover + the losses suffered through the weakness of his predecessors, and to + compensate for their laches by a vigorous discharge of all the duties of + the kingly office. The order of these wars, which formerly it was + impossible to determine, is now fixed by means of the Assyrian Canon, and + we may follow the course of the expeditions conducted by Tiglath-Pileser + II., with as much confidence and certainty as those of Tiglath-Pileser I., + Asshur-izir-pal, or the second Shalmaneser. It is scarcely necessary, + however, to detain the reader by going through the entire series. The + interest of Tiglath-Pileser’s military operations attaches especially to + his campaigns in Babylonia and in Syria, where he is brought into contact + with persons otherwise known to us. His other wars are comparatively + unimportant. Under these circumstances it is proposed to consider in + detail only the Babylonian and Syrian expeditions, and to dismiss the + others with a few general remarks on the results which were accomplished + by them. + </p> + <p> + Tiglath-Pileser’s expeditions against Babylon were in his first and in his + fifteenth years, B.C. 745 and 731. No sooner did he find himself settled + upon the throne, than he levied an army, and marched against Southern + Mesopotamia, which appears to have been in a divided and unsettled + condition. According to the Canon of Ptolemy, Nabonassar then ruled in + Babylon. Tiglath-Pileser’s annals confuse the accounts of his two + campaigns; but the general impression which we gather from them is that, + even in B.C. 745, the country was divided up into a number of small + principalities, the sea-coast being under the dominion of + Merodach-Baladan, who held his court in his father’s city of Bit-Yakin; + while in the upper region there were a number of petty princes, apparently + independent, among whom may be recognized names which seem to occur later + in Ptolemy’s list, among the kings of Babylon to whom he assigns short + reigns in the interval between Nabonassar and Mardocempalus + (Merodach-Baladan). Tiglath-Pileser attacked and defeated several of these + princes, taking the towns of Kur-Galzu (now Akkerkuf), and Sippara or + Sepharvaim, together with many other places of less consequence in the + lower portion of the country, after which he received the submission of + Merodach-Baladan, who acknowledged him for suzerain, and consented to pay + an annual tribute. Tiglath-Pileser upon this assumed the title of “King of + Babylon” (B.C. 729), and offered sacrifice to the Babylonian gods in all + the principal cities. + </p> + <p> + The first Syrian war of Tiglath-Pileser was undertaken in his third year + (B.C. 743), and lasted from that year to his eighth. In the course of it + he reduced to subjection Damascus, which had regained its independence, + and was under the government of Rezin; Samaria, where Menahem, the + adversary of Pul, was still reigning; Tyre, which was under a monarch + bearing the familiar name of Hiram; Hamath, Gebal, and the Arabs bordering + upon Egypt, who were ruled by a queen called Khabiba. He likewise met and + defeated a vast army under Azariah (or Uzziah), king of Judah, but did not + succeed in inducing him to make his submission. It would appear by this + that Tiglath-Pileser at this time penetrated deep into Palestine, probably + to a point which no Assyrian king but Vul-lush III., had reached + previously. But it would seem, at the same time, that his conquests were + very incomplete; they did not include Judaea or Philistia, Idumaea, or the + tribes of the Hauran; and they left untouched the greater number of the + Phoenician cities. It causes us, therefore, no surprise to find that in a + short time, B.C. 734, he renewed his efforts in this quarter, commencing + by an attack on Samaria, where Pekah was now king, and taking Ijon, and + Abel-beth-maachah, and Jamoah, and Kedesh, and Hazor, and Gilead, and + Galilee, and all the land of Naphtali, and carrying them captive to + Assyria, thus “lightly afflicting, the land of Zebulun and the land of + Naphtali,” or the more northern portion of the Holy Land, about Lake + Merom, and from that to the Sea of Gennesareth. + </p> + <p> + This attack was-followed, shortly (B.C. 733) by the most important of + Tiglath-Pileser’s Syrian wars. It appears that the common danger, which + had formerly united the Hittites, Hamathites, and Damascenes in a close + alliance, now caused a league to be formed between Damascus and Samaria, + the sovereigns of which—Pekah and Rezin—made an attempt to add + Judaea to their confederation, by declaring war against Ahaz, attacking + his territory, and threatening to substitute in his place as king of + Jerusalem a creature of their own, “the son of Tabeal.” Hard pressed by + his enemies, Ahaz applied to Assyria, offering to become Tiglath-Pileser’s + “servant”—i.e, his vassal and tributary—if he would send + troops to his assistance, and save him from the impending danger. + Tiglath-Pileser was not slow to obey this call. Entering Syria at the head + of an army, he fell first upon Rezin, who was defeated, and fled to + Damascus, where Tiglath-Pileser besieged him for two years, at the end of + which time he was taken and slain. Next he attacked Pekah, entering his + country on the north-east, where it bordered upon the Damascene territory, + and overrunning the whole of the Trans-Jordanic provinces, together + (apparently) with some portion of the Cis-Jordanic region. The tribes of + Reuben and Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, who had possessed the + country between the Jordan and the desert from the time of Moses, were + seized and carried away captive by the conqueror, who placed them in Upper + Mesopotamia, on the affluents of the Bilikh and the Khabour, from about + Harran to Nisibis. Some cities situated on the right bank of the Jordan, + in the territory of Issachar, but belonging to Manasseh, were at the same + time seized and occupied. Among these, Megiddo in the great plain of + Esdraelon, and Dur or Dor upon the coast, some way below Tyre, were the + most important. Dur was even thought of sufficient consequence to receive + an Assyrian governor at the same time with the other principal cities of + Southern Syria. + </p> + <p> + After thus chastising Samaria, Tiglath-Pileser appears to have passed on + to the south, where he reduced the Philistines and the Arab tribes, who + inhabited the Sinaitic desert as far as the borders of Egypt. Over these + last he set, in lieu of their native queen, an Assyrian governor. He then + returned towards Damascus, where he held a court, and invited the + neighboring states and tribes to send in their submission. The states and + tribes responded to his invitation. Tiglath-Pileser, before quitting + Syria, received submission and tribute not only from Ahaz, king of Judah, + but also from Mit’enna, king of Tyre; Pekah, king of Samaria; Khanun, king + of Gaza; and Mitinti, king of Ascalon: from the Moabites, the Ammonites, + the people of Arvad or Aradus, and the Idumaeans. He thus completely + re-established the power of Assyria in this quarter, once more recovering + to the Empire the entire tract between the coast and the desert from Mount + Amanus on the north to the Red Sea and the confines of Egypt. + </p> + <p> + One further expedition was led or sent by Tiglath-Pileser into Syria, + probably in his last year. Disturbances having occurred from the revolt of + Mit’enna of Tyre and the murder of Pekah of Israel by Hoshea, an Assyrian + army marched westward, in B.C. 725, to put them down. The Tyrian monarch + at once submitted; and Hoshea, having entered into negotiations, agreed to + receive investiture into his kingdom at the hands of the Assyrians, and to + hold it as an Assyrian territory. On these terns peace was re-established, + and the army of Tiglath-Pileser retired and recrossed the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + Besides conducting these various campaigns, Tiglath-Pileser employed + himself in the construction of some important works at Calah, which was + his usual and favorite residence. He repaired and adorned the palace of + Shalmaneser II., in the centre of the Nimrud mound; and he built a new + edifice at the south-eastern corner of the platform, which seems to have + been the most magnificent of his erections. Unfortunately, in neither case + were his works allowed to remain as he left them. The sculptures with + which he adorned Shalmaneser’s palace were violently torn from their + places by Esar-haddon, and, after barbarous ill-usage, were applied to the + embellishment of his own residence by that monarch. The palace which he + built at the south-eastern corner of the Nimrud mound was first ruined by + some invader, and then built upon by the last Assyrian king. Thus the + monuments of Tiglath-Pileser II., come to us in a defaced and + unsatisfactory condition, rendering it difficult for us to do full justice + either to his architectural conceptions or to his taste in ornamentation. + We can see, however, by the ground plan of the building which Mr. Loftus + uncovered beneath the ruins of Mr. Layard’s south-east palaces that the + great edifice of Tiglath-Pileser was on a scale of grandeur little + inferior to that of the ancient palaces, and on a plan very nearly + similar. The same arrangement of courts and halls and chambers, the same + absence of curved lines or angles other than right angles, the same + narrowness of rooms in comparison with their length, which have been noted + in the earlier buildings, prevailed also in those of this king. With + regard to the sculptures with which, after the example of the former + monarchs, he ornamented their walls, we can only say they seem to have + been characterized by simplicity of treatment—the absence of all + ornamentation, except fringes, from the dresses, the total omission of + backgrounds, and (with few exceptions) the limitation of the markings to + the mere outlines of forms. The drawing is rather freer and more spirited + than that of the sculptures of Asshur-izir-pal; animal forms, as camels, + oxen, sheep, and goats, are more largely introduced, and there is somewhat + less formality in the handling. But the change is in no respect very + decided, or such as to indicate an era in the progress of art. + </p> + <p> + Tiglath-Pileser appears, by the Assyrian Canon, to have had a reign of + eighteen years. He ascended the throne in B.C. 747, and was succeeded in + B.C. 727 by Shalmaneser, the fourth monarch who had borne that + appellation. + </p> + <p> + It is uncertain whether Shalmaneser IV, was related to Tiglath-Pileser or + not. As, however, there is no trace of the succession having been + irregular or disputed, it is most probable that he was his son. He + ascended the throne in B.C. 727, and ceased to reign in B.C. 722, thus + holding the royal power for less than six years. It was probably very soon + after his accession, that, suspecting the fidelity of Samaria, he “came + up” against Hoshea, king of Israel, and, threatening him with condign + punishment, so terrified him that he made immediate submission. The + arrears of tribute were rendered, and the homage due from a vassal to his + lord was paid; and Shalmaneser either returned into his own country or + turned his attention to other enterprises. But shortly afterwards he + learnt that Hoshea, in spite of his submission and engagements, was again + contemplating defection; and, conscious of his own weakness, was + endeavoring to obtain a promise of support from an enterprising monarch + who ruled in the neighboring country of Egypt. The Assyrian conquests in + this quarter had long been tending to bring them into collision with the + great power of Eastern Africa, which had once held, and always coveted, + the dominion of Syria. Hitherto such relations as they had had with the + Egyptians appear to have been friendly. The weak and unwarlike Pharaohs + who about this time bore sway in Egypt had sought the favor of the + neighboring Asiatic power by demanding Assyrian princesses in marriage and + affecting Assyrian names for their offspring. But recently an important + change had occurred. A brave Ethiopian prince had descended the valley of + the Nile at the head of a swarthy host, had defeated the Egyptian levies, + had driven the reigning monarch into the marshes of the Delta, or put him + to a cruel death, and had established his own dominion firmly, at any rate + over the upper country. Shebek the First bore sway in Memphis in lieu of + the blind Bocchoris; and Hoshea, seeing in this bold and enterprising king + the natural foe of the Assyrians, and therefore his own natural ally and + friend, “sent messengers” with proposals, which appear to have been + accepted; for on their return Hoshea revolted openly, withheld his + tribute, and declared himself independent. Shalmaneser, upon this, came up + against Samaria for the second time, determined now to punish his vassal’s + perfidy with due severity. Apparently, he was unresisted; at any rate, + Hoshea fell into his power, and was seized, bound, and shut up in prison. + A year or two later Shalmaneser made his third and last expedition into + Syria. What was the provocation given him, we are not told; but this time, + he came up <i>throughout all the land</i> and being met with resistance, + he laid formal siege to the capital. The siege commenced in Shahnaneser’s + fourth year, B.C. 724, and was protracted to his sixth, either by the + efforts of the Egyptians, or by the stubborn resistance of the + inhabitants. At last, in B.C. 722, the town surrendered, or was taken by + storm; but before this consummation had been reached, Shalmaneser’s reign + would seem to have come to an end in consequence of a successful + revolution. + </p> + <p> + While he was conducting these operations against Samaria, either in person + or by means of his generals, Shalmaneser appears to have been also engaged + in hostilities with the Phoenician towns. Like Samaria, they had revolted + at the death of Tiglath-Pileser; and Shalmaneser, consequently, marched + into Phoenecia at the beginning of his reign, probably in his first year, + overran the entire country, and forced all the cities to resume their + position of dependence. The island Tyre, however, shortly afterwards shook + off the yoke. Hereupon Shalmaneser “returned” into these parts, and + collecting a fleet from Sidon, Paleo-Tyrus, and Akko, the three most + important of the Phoenician towns after Tyre, proceeded to the attack of + the revolted place. His vessels were sixty in number, and were manned by + eight hundred Phoenician rowers, co-operating with probably, a smaller + number of unskilled Assyrians. Against this fleet the Tyrians, confiding + in their maritime skill, sent out a force of twelve vessels only, which + proved, however, quite equal to the occasion; for the assailants were + dispersed and driven off, with the loss of 500 prisoners. + </p> + <p> + Shalmaneser, upon this defeat, retired, and gave up all active operations, + contenting himself with leaving a body of troops on the mainland, over + against the city, to cut off the Tyrians from the supplies of water which + they were in the habit of drawing from the river Litany, and from certain + aqueducts which conducted the precious fluid from springs in the + mountains. The Tyrians, it is said, held out against this pressure for + five years, satisfying their thirst with rain water, which they collected + in reservoirs. Whether they then submitted, or whether the attempt to + subdue them was given up, is uncertain, since the quotation from Menander, + which is our sole authority for this passage of history, here breaks off + abruptly. + </p> + <p> + The short reign of Shalmaneser IV, was, it is evident, sufficiently + occupied by the two enterprises of which accounts have now been given—the + complete subjugation of Samaria, and the attempt to reduce the island + Tyre. Indeed, it is probable that neither enterprise had been conducted + when a dynastic revolution, caused by the ambition of a subject, brought + the unhappy monarch’s reign to an untimely end. The conquest of Samaria is + claimed by Sargon as an event of his first year; and the resistance of the + Tyrians, if it really continued during the full space assigned to it by + Menander, must have extended beyond the terns of Shalmaneser’s reign, into + the first or second year of his successor. It was probably the prolonged + absence of the Assyrian monarch from his capital, caused by the obstinacy + of the two cities which he was attacking, that encouraged a rival to come + forward and seize the throne; just as in the Persian history we shall find + the prolonged absence of Canbyses in Egypt produce a revolution and change + of dynasty at Susa. In the East, where the monarch is not merely the chief + but the sole power in the state, the moving spring whose action must be + continually exerted to prevent the machinery of government from standing + still, it is always dangerous for the reigning prince to be long away from + his metropolis. The Orientals do not use the language of mere unmeaning + compliment when they compare their sovereigns with the sun, and speak of + them as imparting light and life to the country and people over which they + rule. In the king’s absence all languishes; the course of justice is + suspended; public works are stopped; the expenditure of the Court, on + which the prosperity of the capital mainly depends, being withdrawn, trade + stagnates, the highest branches suffering most; artists are left without + employment; work-men are discharged; wages fall; every industry is more or + less deranged, and those engaged in it suffer accordingly; nor is there + any hope of a return of prosperity until the king comes home. Under these + circumstances a general discontent prevails; and the people, anxious for + better times, are ready to welcome any pretender who will come forward, + and, on any pretext whatever, declare the throne vacant, and claim to be + its proper occupant. If Shalmaneser continued to direct in person the + siege of Samaria during the three years of its continuance, we cannot be + surprised that the patience of the Ninevites was exhausted, and that in + the third year they accepted the rule of the usurper who boldly proclaimed + himself king. + </p> + <p> + What right the new monarch put forward, what position he had previously + held, what special circumstances, beyond the mere absence of the rightful + king, facilitated his attempts, are matters on which the monuments throw + no light, and on which we must therefore be content to be ignorant. All + that we can see is, that either personal merit or official rank and + position must have enabled him to establish himself; for he certainly did + not derive any assistance from his birth, which must have been mediocre, + if not actually obscure. It is the custom of the Babylonian and Assyrian + kings to glory in their ancestry, and when the father has occupied a + decently high position, the son declares his sire’s name and rank at the + commencement of each inscription, but Sargon never, in any record, names + his father, nor makes the slightest allusion to his birth and descent, + unless it be in vague phrases, wherein he calls the former kings of + Assyria, and even those of Babylonia, his ancestors. Such expressions seem + to be mere words of course, having no historical value: and it would be a + mistake even to conclude from them that the new king intended seriously to + claim the connection of kindred with the monarchs of former times. + </p> + <p> + It has been thought indeed, that Sargon, instead of cloaking his + usurpation under some decent plea of right, took a pride in boldly avowing + it. The name Sargon has been supposed to be one which he adopted as his + royal title at the time of his establishment upon the throne, intending by + the adoption to make it generally known that he had acquired the crown, + not by birth or just claim, but by his own will and the consent of the + people. Sargon, or Sar-gina, as the native name is read, means “the firm” + or “well-established king,” and (it has been argued) “shows the usurper.” + The name is certainly unlike the general run of Assyria royal titles; but + still, as it is one which is found to have been previously borne by at + least one private person in Assyria, it is perhaps best to suppose that it + was the monarch’s real original appellation, and not assumed when he came + to the throne; in which case no argument can be founded upon it. + </p> + <p> + Military success is the best means of confirming a doubtful title to the + leadership of a warlike nation. No sooner, therefore, was Sargon accepted + by the Ninevites as king than he commenced a series of expeditions, which + at once furnished employment to unquiet spirits, and gave the prestige of + military glory to his own name. He warred successively in Susiana, in + Syria, on the borders of Egypt, in the tract beyond Amanus, in Melitene + and southern Armenia, in Kurdistan, in Media, and in Babylonia. During the + first fifteen years of his reign, the space which his annals cover, he + kept his subjects employed in a continual series of important expeditions, + never giving himself, nor allowing them, a single year of repose. + Immediately upon his accession he marched into Susiana, where he defeated + Hum-banigas, the Elamitie king, and Merodach-Baladan, the old adversary of + Tiglath-Pileser, who had revolted and established himself as king over + Babylonia. Neither monarch was, however, reduced to subjection, though an + important victory was gained, and many captives taken, who were + transported into the country of the Hittites, In the same year, B.C. 722, + he received the submission of Samaria, which surrendered, probably, to his + generals, after it had been besieged two full years. He punished the city + by depriving it of the qualified independence which it had enjoyed + hitherto, appointing instead of a native king an Assyrian officer to be + its governor, and further carrying off as slaves 27,280 of the + inhabitants. On the remainder, however, he contented himself with + re-imposing the rate of tribute to which the town had been liable before + its revolt.—The next year, B.C. 721, he was forced to march in + person into Syria in order to meet and quell a dangerous revolt. Yahu-bid + (or Ilu-bid), king of Hamath—a usurper like Sargon himself—had + rebelled, and had persuaded the cities of Arpad Zimira, Damascus, and + Samaria to cast in their lot with his, and to form a confederacy, by which + it was imagined that effectual resistance might be offered to the Assyrian + arms. Not content merely to stand on the defensive in their several towns, + the allies took to the field; and a battle was fought at Kar-kar or + Garrrar (perhaps one of the many Aroers), where the superiority of the + Assyrian troops was once more proved, and Sargon gained a complete victory + over his enemies. Yahu-bid himself was taken and beheaded; and the chiefs + of the revolt in the other towns were also put to death. + </p> + <p> + Having thus crushed the rebellion and re-established tranquillity + throughout Syria, Sargon turned his arms towards the extreme south, and + attacked Gaza, which was a dependency of Egypt. The exact condition of + Egypt at this time is open to some doubt. According to Manetho’s numbers, + the twenty-fifth or Ethiopian dynasty had not yet begun to reign. + Bocchoris the Saite occupied the throne, a humane but weak prince, of a + contemptible presence, and perhaps afflicted with blindness. No doubt such + a prince would tempt the attack of a powerful neighbor; and, so for, + probability might seem to be in favor of the Manethonian dates. But, on + the other hand, it must be remembered that Egypt had lately taken an + aggressive attitude, incompatible with a time of weakness: she had + intermeddled between the Assyrian crown and its vassals, by entering into + a league with Hoshea: and she had extended her dominion over a portion of + Philistia, thereby provoking a collision with the Great Power of the East. + Again, it is worthy of note that the name of the Pharaoh who had dealings + with Hoshea, if it does not seen at first sight very closely to resemble + the Egyptian Shebek, is, at any rate, a possible representative of that + word, while no etymological skill can force it into agreement with any + other name in this portion of the Egyptian lists. Further, it is to be + remarked that at this point of the Assyrian annals, a Shebek appears in + them, holding a position of great authority in Egypt, though not dignified + with the title of king. These facts furnish strong grounds for believing + that the Manethonian chronology, which can be proved to be in many points + incorrect, has placed the accession of the Ethiopians somewhat too late, + and that that event occurred really as early as B.C. 725 or B.C. 730. + </p> + <p> + At the same time, it must be allowed that all difficulty is not removed by + this supposition. The Shebek <i>Sibahe</i> (or <i>Sibaki</i>) of the + Assyrian record bears an inferior title, and not that of king. He is also, + apparently, contemporary with another authority in Egypt, who is + recognized by Sargon as the true “Pharaoh,” or native ruler. Further, it + is not till eight or nine years later that any mention is made of Ethiopia + as having an authority over Egypt or as in any way brought into contact + with Sargon. The proper conclusion from these facts seems to be that the + Ethiopians established themselves gradually; that in B.C. 720, Shebek or + Sabaco, though master of a portion of Egypt, had not assumed the royal + title, which was still borne by a native prince of little power—Bocchoris, + or Scthos—who held his court somewhere in the Delta; and that it was + not till about the year B.C. 712 that this shadowy kingdom passed away, + that the Ethiopian rule was extended over the whole of Egypt, and that + Sabaco assumed the full rank of an independent monarch. + </p> + <p> + If this be the true solution of the difficulty which has here presented + itself, we must conclude that the first actual collision between the + powers of Egypt and Assyria took place at a time very unfavorable to the + former. Egypt was, in fact, divided against itself, the fertile tract of + the Delta being under one king, the long valley of the Nile under another. + If war was not actually going on, jealousy and suspicion, at any rate, + must have held the two sovereigns apart; and the Assyrian monarch, coming + at such a time of intestine feud, must have found it comparatively easy to + gain a triumph in this quarter. + </p> + <p> + The armies of the two great powers met at the city of Rapikh, which seems + to be the Raphia of the Greeks and Romans, and consequently the modern <i>Refah</i> + a position upon the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, about half-way between + Gaza and the Wady-el-Arish, or “River of Egypt.” Here the forces of the + Philistines, under Khanun, king of Gaza, and those of Shebek, the Tar-dan + (or perhaps the Sultan) of Egypt, had effected a junction, and awaited the + approach of the invader. Sargon, having arrived, immediately engaged the + allied army, and succeeded in defeating it completely, capturing Khanun, + and forcing Shebek to seek safety in flight. Khanun was deprived of his + crown and carried off to Assyria by the conqueror. + </p> + <p> + Such was the result of the first combat between the two great powers of + Asia and Africa. It was an omen of the future, though it was scarcely a + fair trial of strength. The battle of Raphia foreshadowed truly enough the + position which Egypt would hold among the nations from the time that she + ceased to be isolated, and was forced to enter into the struggle for + preeminence, and even for existence, with the great kingdoms of the + neighboring continent. With rare and brief exceptions, Egypt has from the + time of Sargon succumbed to the superior might of whatever power has been + dominant in Western Asia, owning it for lord, and submitting, with a good + or bad grace, to a position involving a greater or less degree of + dependence. Tributary to the later Assyrian princes, and again, probably, + to Nebuchadnezzar, she had scarcely recovered her independence when she + fell under the dominion of Persia. Never successful, notwithstanding all + her struggles, in thoroughly shaking off this hated yoke, she did but + exchange her Persian for Greek masters, when the empire of Cyrus perished. + Since then, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, and Turks have, each in their turn, + been masters of the Egyptian race, which has paid the usual penalty of + precocity in the early exhaustion of its powers. + </p> + <p> + After the victories of Aroer and Raphia, the Assyrian monarch appears to + have been engaged for some years in wars of comparatively slight interest + towards the north and the north-east. It was not till B.C. 715, five years + after his first fight with the Egyptians, that he again made an expedition + towards the south-west, and so came once more into contact with nations to + whose fortunes we are not wholly indifferent. His chief efforts on this + occasion were directed against the peninsula of Arabia. The wandering + tribes of the desert, tempted by the weak condition to which the Assyrian + conquest had reduced Samaria, made raids, it appears, into the territory + at their pleasure, and carried off plunder. Sargon determined to chastise + these predatory bands, and made an expedition into the interior, where “he + subdued the uncultivated plains of the remote Arabia, which had never + before given tribute to Assyria,” and brought under subjection the + Thamudites, and several other Arab tribes, carrying off a certain number + and settling them in Samaria itself, which thenceforth contained an Arab + element in its population. Such an effect was produced on the surrounding + nations by the success of this inroad, that their princes hastened to + propitiate Sargon’s favor by sending embassies, and excepting the position + of Assyrian tributaries. The reigning Pharaoh, whoever he may have been, + It-hamar, king of the Sabaeans, and Tsamsi, queen of the Arabs, thus + humbled themselves, sending presents, and probably entering into + engagements which bound them for the future. + </p> + <p> + Four years later (B.C. 711) Sargon led a third expedition into these + parts, regarding it as important to punish the misconduct of the people of + Ashdod. Ashdod had probably submitted after the battle of Raphia, and had + been allowed to retain its native prince, Azuri. This prince, after + awhile, revolted, withheld his tribute, and proceeded to foment rebellion + against Assyria among the neighboring monarchs; whereupon Sargon deposed + him, and made his brother Akhimit king in his place. The people of Ashdod, + however, rejected the authority of Akhimit, and chose a certain Yaman, or + Yavan, to rule over them, who strengthened himself by alliances with the + other Philistine cities, with Judaea, and with Edom. Immediately upon + learning this. Sargon assembled his army, and proceeded to Ashdod to + punish the rebels; but, before his arrival, Yaman had fled away, and + “escaped to the dependencies of Egypt, which” (it is said) “were under the + rule of Ethiopia.” Ashdod itself, trusting in the strength from which it + derived its name, resisted; but Sargon laid siege to it and in a little + time forced it to surrender. Yaman fled to Egypt, but his wife and + children were captured and, together with the bulk of the inhabitants, + were transported into Assyria, while their place was supplied by a number + of persons who had been made prisoners in Sargon’s eastern wars. An + Assyrian governor was set over the town. + </p> + <p> + The submission of Ethiopia followed. Ashdod, like Samaria, had probably + been encouraged to revolt by promises of foreign aid. Sargon’s old + antagonist, Shebek, had recently brought the whole of Egypt under his + authority, and perhaps thought the time had come when he might venture + once more to measure his strength against the Assyrians. But Sargon’s + rapid movements and easy capture of the strong Ashdod terrified him, and + produced a change of his intentions. Instead of marching into Philistia + and fighting a battle, he sent a suppliant embassy, surrendered Yaman, and + deprecated Sargon’s wrath. The Assyrian monarch boasts that the king of + Meroe, who dwelt in the desert, and had never sent ambassadors to any of + the kings his predecessors, was led by the fear of his majesty to direct + his steps towards Assyria and humbly bow down before him. + </p> + <p> + At the opposite extremity of his empire, Sargon soon after-wards gained + victories which were of equal or greater importance. Having completely + reduced Syria, humiliated Egypt, and struck terror into the tribes of the + north and east, he determined on a great expedition against Babylon. + Merodach-Baladan had now been twelve years in quiet possession of the + kingdom. He had established his court at Babylon, and, suspecting that the + ambition of Sargon would lead him to attempt the conquest of the south he + had made preparations for resistance by entering into close alliance with + the Susianians under Sutruk-Nakhunta on the one hand, and with the + Aramaean tribes above Babylonia on the other. Still, when Sargon advanced + against him, instead of giving him battle, or even awaiting him behind the + walls of the capital, he at once took to flight. Leaving garrisons in the + more important of the inland towns, and committing their defence to his + generals, he himself hastened down to his own city of Beth-lakin, which + was on the Euphrates, near its mouth, and, summoning the Aramaeans to his + assistance, prepared for a vigorous resistance in the immediate vicinity + of his native place. Posting himself in the plain in front of the city, + and protecting his front and left flank with a deep ditch, which he filled + with water from the Euphrates, he awaited the advance of Sargon, who soon + appeared at the head of his troops, and lost no time in beginning the + attack. We cannot follow with any precision the exact operations of the + battle, but it appears that Sargon fell upon the Babylonian troops, + defeated them, and drove them into their own dyke, in which many of therm + were drowned, at the same time separating them from their allies, who, on + seeing the disaster, took to flight, and succeeded in making their escape. + Merodach-Baladan, abandoning his camp, threw himself with the poor remains + of his army into Beth-Yakin, which Saigon then besieged and took. The + Babylonian monarch fell into the hands of his rival, who plundered his + palace and burnt his city, but generously spared his life. He was not, + however, allowed to retain his kingdom, the government of which was + assumed by Sargon himself, who is the Arceanus of Ptolemy’s Canon. + </p> + <p> + The submission of Babylonia was followed by the reduction of the + Aramaeans, and the conquest of at least a portion of Susiana. To the + Susianin territory Sargon transported the Comnumkha from the Upper Tigris, + placing the mixed population under a governor, whom he made dependent on + the viceroy of Babylon. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian dominion was thus firmly established on the shores of the + Persian Gulf. The power of Babylon was broken. Henceforth the Assyrian + rule is maintained over the whole of Chaldaea and Babylonia, with few and + brief interruptions, to the close of the Empire. The reluctant victim + struggles in his captor’s grasp, and now and then for a short space shakes + it off; but only to be seized again with a fiercer gripe, until at length + his struggles cease, and he resigns himself to a fate which he has come to + regard as inevitable. During the last fifty years of the Empire, from B.C. + 650 to B.C. 625, the province of Babylon was almost as tranquil as any + other. + </p> + <p> + The pride of Sargon received at this time a gratification which he is not + able to conceal, in the homage which was paid to him by sovereigns who had + only heard of his fame, and who were safe from the attacks of his armies. + While he held his court at Babylon, in the year B.C. 708 or 707, he gave + audience to two embassies from two opposite quarters, both sent by + islanders dwelling (as he expresses it) “in the middle of the seas” that + washed the outer skirts of his dominions. Upir, king of Asmun, who ruled + over an island in the Persian Gulf,—Khareg, perhaps, or Bahrein,—sent + messengers, who bore to the Great King the tribute of the far East. Seven + Cyprian monarchs, chiefs of a country which lay “at the distance of seven + days from the coast, in the sea of the setting sun,” offered him by their + envoys the treasures of the West. The very act of bringing presents + implied submission; and the Cypriots not only thus admitted his + suzerainty, but consented to receive at his hands and to bear back to + their country a more evident token of subjection. This was an effigy of + the Great King carved in the usual form, and accompanied with an + inscription recording his name and titles, which was set up at Idalium, + nearly in the centre of the island, and made known to the Cypriots the + form and appearance of the sovereign whom it was not likely that they + would ever see. + </p> + <p> + The expeditions of Sargon to the north and north-east had results less + splendid than those which he undertook to the south-west and the south; + but it may be doubted whether they did not more severely try his military + skill and the valor of his soldiers. The mountain tribes of Zagros, + Taurus, and Niphates,—Medes, Armaenians, Tibarini, Moschi, etc.,—were + probably far braver men and far better soldiers than the levies of Egypt, + Susiana, and Babylon. Experience, moreover, had by this time taught the + tribes the wisdom of uniting against the common foe, and we find Ambris + the Tibareni in in alliance with Mita the Moschian, and Urza the Armenian, + when he ventures to revolt against Sargon. The submission of the northern + tribes was with difficulty obtained by a long and fierce struggle, which—so + far as one belligerent was concerned —terminated in a compromise. + Ambris was deposed, and his country placed under an Assyrian governor; + Mita consented, after many years of resistance, to pay a tribute; Urza was + defeated, and committed suicide, but the general pacification of the north + was not effected until a treaty was made with the king of Van, and his + good-will purchased by the cession to him of a considerable tract of + country which the Assyrians had previously taken from Urza. + </p> + <p> + On the side of Media the resistance offered to the arms of Sargon seems to + have been slighter, and he was consequently able to obtain a far more + complete success. Having rapidly overrun the country, he seized a number + of the towns and “annexed them to Assyria,” or, in other words, reduced a + great portion of Media into the form of a province. He also built in one + part of the country a number of fortified posts. He then imposed a tribute + on the natives, consisting entirely of horses, which were perhaps required + to be of the famous Nisaean breed. + </p> + <p> + After his fourteenth year, B.C. 708, Sargon ceased to lead out his troops + in person, employing instead the services of his generals. In the year + B.C. 707 a disputed succession gave him an opportunity of interference in + Illib, a small country bordering on Susiana. Nibi, one of the two + pretenders to the throne, had applied for aid to Sutruk-Nakhunta, king of + Elam, who held his court at Susa, and had received the promise of his + favor and protection. Upon this, the other claimant, who was named + Ispabara, made application to Sargon, and was readily received into + alliance, Sargon sent to his assistance “seven captains with seven + armies,” who engaged the troops of Sutruk-Naklnurta, defeated them, and + established Ispabara on the throne? In the following year, however, + Sutruk-Nakhunta recovered his laurels, invading Assyria in his turn, and + capturing cities which he added to the kingdom of Susiana. + </p> + <p> + In all his wars Sargon largely employed the system of whole-sale + deportation. The Israelites were removed from Samaria, and planted partly + in Gozan or Mygdonia, and partly in the cities recently taken from the + Medes. Hamath and Damascus were peopled with captives from Armenia and + other regions of the north. A portion of the Tibareni were carried captive + to Assyria, and Assyrians were established in the Tibarenian country. Vast + numbers of the inhabitants of the Zagros range were also transported to + Assyria; Babylonians, Cuthaeans, Sepharvites, Arabians, and others, were + placed in Samaria; men from the extreme east (perhaps Media) in Ashdod. + The Commukha were removed from the extreme north to Susiana; and + Chaldaeans were brought from the extreme south to supply their place. + Everywhere Sargon changed the abodes of his subjects, his aim being, as it + would seem, to weaken the stronger races by dispersion, and to destroy the + spirit of the weaker ones by severing at a blow all the links which attach + a patriotic people to the country it has long inhabited. The practice had + not been unknown to previous monarchs, but it had never been employed by + any so generally or on so grand a scale as it was by this king. + </p> + <p> + From this sketch of Sargon’s wars, we may now proceed to a brief + consideration of his great works. The magnificent palace which he erected + at Khorsabad was by far the most important of his constructions. Compared + with the later, and even with the earlier buildings of a similar kind + erected by other kings, it was not remarkable for its size. But its + ornamentation was unsurpassed by that of any Assyrian edifice, with the + single exception of the great palace of Asshur-bani-pal at Koyunjik. + Covered with sculptures, both internally and externally, generally in two + lines, one over the other, and, above this, adorned with enamelled bricks, + arranged in elegant and tasteful patterns; approached by noble flights of + steps and through splendid propylaea; having the advantage, moreover, of + standing by itself, and of not being interfered with by any other edifice, + it had peculiar beauties of its own, and may be pronounced in many + respects the most interesting of the Assyrian building’s. United to this + palace was a town enclosed by strong walls, which formed a square two + thousand yards each way. Allowing fifty square yards to each individual, + this space would have been capable of accommodating 80,000 persons. The + town, like the palace, seems to have been entirely built by Sargon, who + imposed on it his own name, an appellation which it retained beyond the + time of the Arab conquest. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to understand the exact object of Sargon in building + himself this new residence. Dur-Sargina was not the Windsor or Versailles + of Assyria—a place to which the sovereign could retire for country + air and amusements from the bustle and heat of the metropolis. It was: as + we have said, a town, and a town of considerable size, being very little + lees than half as large as Nineveh itself. It is true that it possessed + the advantage of a nearer vicinity to the mountains than Nineveh: and had + Sargon been, like several of his predecessors, a mighty hunter, we might + have supposed that the greater facility of obtaining sport in the woods + and valleys of the Zagros chain formed the attraction which led him to + prefer the region where he built his town to the banks of the Tigris. But + all the evidence that we possess seems to show that this monarch was + destitute of any love for the chase; and seemingly we must attribute his + change of abode either to mere caprice, or to a desire to be near the + mountains for the sake of cooler water, purer air, and more varied + scenery. It is no doubt true, as M. Oppert observes, that the royal palace + at Nineveh was at this time in a ruinous state; but it could not have been + more difficult or more expensive to repair it than to construct a new + palace, a new mound, and a new town, on a fresh site. + </p> + <p> + Previously to the construction of the Khorsabad palace, Sargon resided at + Caleb. He there repaired and renovated the great palace of + Asshur-izir-pal, which had been allowed to fall to decay. At Nineveh he + repaired the walls of the town, which were ruined in many places, and + built a temple to Nebo and Merodach; while in Babylonia he improved the + condition of the embankments, by which the distribution of the waters was + directed and controlled. He appears to have been to a certain extent a + patron of science, since a large number of the Assyrian scientific tablets + are proved by the dates upon then: to have been written in his day. + </p> + <p> + The progress of mimetic art under Sargon is not striking but there are + indications of an advance in several branches of industry, and of an + improved taste in design and in ornamentation. Transparent glass seems now + to have been first brought into used and intaglios to have been first cut + upon hard stones. The furniture of the period is greatly superior in + design to any previously represented, and the modelling of sword-hilts, + maces, armlets, and other ornaments is peculiarly good. The enamelling of + bricks was carried under Sargon to its greatest perfection: and the shape + of vases, goblets, and boats shows a marked improvement upon the works of + former times. The advance in animal forms, traceable in the sculptures of + Tiglath-Pileser II., continues: and the drawing of horses’ heads, in + particular, leaves little to desire. + </p> + <p> + After reigning gloriously over Assyria for seventeen years, and for the + last five of them over Babylonia also, Sargon died, leaving his crown to + the most celebrated of all the Assyrian Monarchs, his son Sennacherib, who + began to reign B.C. 705. The long notices which we possess of this monarch + in the books of the Old Testament, his intimate connection with the Jews, + the fact that he was the object of a preternatural exhibition of the + Divine displeasure, and the remarkable circumstance that this miraculous + interposition appears under a thin disguise in the records of the Greeks, + have always attached an interest to his name which the kings of this + remote period and distant region very rarely awaken. It has also happened, + curiously enough, that the recent Mesopotamian researches have tended to + give to Sennacherib a special prominence over other Assyrian monarchs, + more particularly in this country, our great excavator having devoted his + chief efforts to the disinterment of a palace of this king’s construction, + which has supplied to our National Collection almost one-half of its + treasures. The result is, that while the other sovereigns who bore sway in + Assyria are generally either wholly unknown, or float before the mind’s + eye as dim and shadowy forms, Sennacherib stands out to our apprehension + as a living and breathing man, the impersonation of all that pride and + greatness which we assign to the Ninevite kings, the living embodiment of + Assyrian haughtiness, Assyrian violence, and Assyrian power. The task of + setting forth the life and actions of this prince, which the course of the + history now imposes on its compiler, if increased in interest, is + augmented also in difficulty, by the grandeur of the ideal figure which + has possession of men’s minds. + </p> + <p> + The reign of Sennacherib lasted twenty-four years, from B.C. 705 to B.C. + 681. The materials which we possess for his history consist of a record + written in his fifteenth year, describing his military expeditions and his + buildings up to that time; of the Scriptural notices to which reference + has already been made; of some fragments of Polyhistor preserved by + Eusebius; and of the well-known passage of Herodotus which contains a + mention of his name. From these documents we shall be able to make out in + some detail the chief actions of the earlier portion of his reign, but + they fail to supply any account of his later years, unless we may assign + to that portion of his life some facts mentioned by Polyhistor, to which + there is no allusion in the native records. + </p> + <p> + It seems probable that troubles both abroad and at home greeted the new + reign. The Canon of Ptolemy shows a two years’ interregnum at Babylon + (from B.C. 704 to B.C. 702) exactly coinciding with the first two years of + Sennacherib. This would imply a revolt of Babylon from Assyria soon after + his accession, and either a period of anarchy or rapid succession of + pretenders, none of whom held the throne for so long a time as a + twelvemonth. Polyhistor gives us certain details,from which we gather that + there were at least three monarchs in the interval left blank by the Canon—first, + a brother of Sennacherib, whose name is not given; secondly, a certain + Hagisa, who wore the crown only a month; and, thirdly, Merodach-Baladan, + who had escaped from captivity, and, having murdered Hagisa, resumed the + throne of which Sargon had deprived him six or seven years before. + Sennacherib must apparently have been so much engaged with his domestic + affairs that he could not devote his attention to these Babylonian matters + till the second year after his accession. In B.C. 703 he descended on the + lower country and engaged the troops of Merodach-Baladan, which consisted + in part of native Babylonians, in part of Susianians, sent to his + assistance by the king of Elam. Over this army Sennacherib gained a + complete victory near the city of Ibis, after which he took Babylon, and + overran the whole of Chaldaea, plundering (according to his own account) + seventy-six large towns and 420 villages. Merodach-Baladan once more made + his escape, flying probably to Susiana, where we afterwards find his sons + living as refugees. Sennacherib, before quitting Babylon, appointed as + tributary king an Assyrian named Belipni, who seems to be the Belibus of + Ptolemy’s Canon, and the Elibus of Polyhistor. On his return from + Babylonia he invaded and ravaged the territory of the Aramaean tribes on + the middle Euphrates—the Tumuna, Ruhua, Gambulu, Khindaru, and + Pukudu (Pekod), the Nabatu or Nabathaeans, the Hagaranu or Hagarenes, and + others, carrying into captivity more than 200,000 of the inhabitants, + besides great numbers of horses, camels, asses, oxen, and sheep. + </p> + <p> + In the following year, B.C. 702, Sennacherib made war on the tribes in + Zagros, forcing Ispabara, whom Sargon had established in power, to fly + from his country, and conquering many cities and districts, which he + attached to Assyria, and placed under the government of Assyrian officers. + </p> + <p> + The most important of all the expeditions contained in Sennacherib’s + records is that of his fourth year, B.C. 701, in which he attacked Luliya + king of Sidon, and made his first expedition against Hezekiah king of + Judah. Invading Syria with a great host, he made Phoenicia the first + object of his attack. There Luliya—who seems to be the Mullins of + Menander, though certainly not the Elulaeus of Ptolemy’s Canon, had + evidently raised the standard of revolt, probably during the early years + of Sennacherib, when domestic troubles seem to have occupied his + attention. Luliya had, apparently, established his dominion over the + greater part of Phoenicia, being lord not only of Sidon, or, as it is + expressed in the inscription, of Sidon the greater and Sidon the less, but + also of Tyre, Ecdippa, Akko, Sarepta, and other cities. However, he did + not venture to await Sennacherib’s attack, but, as soon as he found the + expedition was directed against himself, he took to flight, quitting the + continent and retiring to an island in the middle of the sea—perhaps + the island Tyre, or more probably Cyprus. Sennacherib did not attempt any + pursuit, but was content to receive the submission of the various cities + over which Luliya had ruled, and to establish in his place, as tributary + monarch, a prince named Tubal. He then received the tributes of the other + petty monarchs of these parts, among whom are mentioned Abdilihat king of + Avrad. Hurus-milki king of Byblus. Mitinti king of Ashdod, Puduel king of + Beth-Ammon, a king of Moab, a king of Edom, and (according to some + writers) a “Menahem king of Samaria.” After this Sennacherib marched + southwards to Ascalon, where the king, Sidka, resisted him, but was + captured, together with his city, his wife, his children, his brothers, + and the other members of his family. Here again a fresh prince was + established in power, while the rebel monarch was kept prisoner and + transported into Assyria. Four towns dependent upon Ascalon, viz., Razor, + Joppa, Beneberak, and Beth Dagon, were soon afterwards taken and + plundered. + </p> + <p> + Sennacherib now pressed on against Egypt. The Philistine city of Ekron had + not only revolted from Assyria, expelling its king, Path, who wwas opposed + to the rebellion, but had entered into negotiations with Ethiopia and + Egypt, and had obtained a promise of support from them. The king of + Ethiopia was probably the second Shebek (or Sabaco) who is called Sevechus + by Manetho, and is said to have reigned either twelve or fourteen yeats. + The condition of Egypt at the time was peculiar. The Ethiopian monarch + seems to have exercised the real sovereign power: but native princes were + established under him who were allowed the title of king, and exercised a + real though delegated authority over their several cities and districts. + On the call of Ekron both princes and sovereign had hastened to its + assistance, bringing with them an army consisting of chariots, horsemen, + and archers, so numerous that Sennacherib calls it “a host that could not + be numbered.” The second great battle between the Assyrians and the + Egyptians took place near a place called Altaku, which is no doubt the + Eltekeh of the Jews, a small town in the vicinity of Ekron. Again the + might of Africa yielded to that of Asia. The Egyptians and Ethiopians were + defeated with great slaughter. Many chariots, with their drivers, both + Egyptian and Ethiopian, fell into the hands of the conqueror, who also + took alive several “sons” of the principal Egyptian monarch. The immediate + fruit of the victory was the fall of Altaku, which was followed by the + capture of Tamna, a neighboring town. Sennacherib then “went on” to Ekron, + which made no resistance, but opened its gates to the victor. The princes + and chiefs who had been concerned in the revolt he took alive and slew, + exposing their bodies on stakes round the whole circuit of the city walls. + Great numbers of inferior persons who were regarded as guilty of + rebellion, were sold as slaves. Padi, the expelled king, the friend to + Assyria, was brought back, reinstated in his sovereignty, and required to + pay a small tribute as a token of dependence. + </p> + <p> + The restoration of Padi involved a war with Hezekiah, king of Judah. When + the Ekronites determined to get rid of a king whose Assyrian proclivities + were distasteful to them, instead of putting him to death, they arrested + him, loaded him with chains, and sent him to Hezekiah for safe keeping. By + accepting this charge the Jewish monarch made himself a partner in their + revolt; and it was in part to punish this complicity, in part to compel + him to give up Padi, that Sennacherib, when he had sufficiently chastised + the Ekronite rebels, proceeded to invade Judaea, Then it was—in the + fourteenth year of Hezekiah, according to the present Hebrew text—that + “Sennacherib, king of Assyria, came up against all the fenced cities of + Judah and took them. And Hezekiah, king of Judah, sent to the king of + Assyria to Lshish, saying, I have offended; return from me; that which + thou puttest on me will I bear. And the king of Assyria appointed unto + Hezekiah, king of Judah, three hundred talents of silver and thirty + talents of gold. And Hezekiah gave him all the silver that was found in + the house of the Lord, and in the treasures of the king’s house. At that + time did Hezekiah cut off [the gold from] the doors of the house of the + Lord, and [from] the pillars which Hezekiah, king of Judah, had overlaid, + and gave it to the king of Assyria.” + </p> + <p> + Such is the brief account of this expedition and its consequences which is + given us by the author of the Second Book of Kings, who writes from a + religious point of view, and is chiefly concerned at the desecration of + holy things to which the imminent peril of his city and people forced the + Jewish monarch to submit. It is interesting to compare with this account + the narrative of Sennacherib himself, who records the features of the + expedition most important in his eyes, the number of the towns taken and + of the prisoners carried into captivity, the measures employed to compel + submission, and the nature and amount of the spoil which he took with him + to Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + “Because Hezekiah, king of Judah,” says the Assyrian monarch, “would not + submit to my yoke, I came up against him, and by force of arms and by the + might of my power I took forty-six of his strong fenced cities; and of the + smaller towns which were scattered about I took and plundered a countless + number. And from these places I captured and carried off as spoil 200,150 + people, old and young, male and female, together with horses and mares, + asses and camels, oxen and sheep, a countless multitude. And Hezekiah + himself I shut up in Jerusalem, his capital city, like a bird in a cage, + building towers round the city to hem him in, and raising banks of earth + against the gates, so as to prevent escape.... Then upon this Hezekiah + there fell the fear of the power of my arms and he sent out to me the + chiefs and the elders of Jerusalem with thirty talents of gold and eight + hundred talents of silver, and divers treasures, a rich and immense + booty.... All these things were brought to me at Nineveh, the seat of my + government, Hezekiah having sent them by way of tribute, and as a token of + his submission to my power.” + </p> + <p> + It appears then that Sennacherib, after punishing the people of Ekron, + broke up from before that city, and entering Judaea proceeded towards + Jerusalem, spreading his army over a wide space, and capturing on his way + a vast number of small towns and villages, whose inhabitants he enslaved + and carried off to the number of 200,000. Having reached Jerusalem, he + commenced the siege in the usual way, erecting towers around the city, + from which stones and arrows were discharged against the defenders of the + fortifications, and “casting banks” against the walls and gates. Jerusalem + seems to have been at this time very imperfectly fortified. The “breaches + of the city of David” had recently been “many;” and the inhabitants had + hastily pulled down the houses in the vicinity of the wall to fortify it. + It was felt that the holy place was in the greatest danger. We may learn + from the conduct of the people, as described by one of themselves, what + were the feelings generally of the cities threatened with destruction by + the Assyrian armies. Jerusalem was at first “full of stirs and tumult;” + the people rushed to the housetops to see if they were indeed invested, + and beheld “the choicest valleys full of chariots, and the horsemen set in + array at the gates.” Then came “a day of trouble, and of treading down, + and of perplexity”—a day of “breaking down the walls and of crying + to the mountains.” Amidst this general alarm and mourning there were, + however, found some whom a wild despair made reckless, and drove to a + ghastly and ill-timed merriment. When God by His judgments gave an evident + “call to weeping, and to mourning, and to baldness, and to girding with + sackcloth—behold joy and gladness, slaying oxen and killing sheep, + eating flesh and drinking wine”—“Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow + we shall die.” Hezekiah after a time came to the conclusion that + resistance would be vain, and offered to surrender upon terms, an offer + which Sennacherib, seeing the great strength of the place, and perhaps + distressed for water, readily granted. It was agreed that Hezekiah should + undertake the payment of an annual tribute, to consist of thirty talents + of gold and three hundred talents of silver, and that he should further + yield up the chief treasures of the place as a “present” to the Great + King. Hezekiah, in order to obtain at once a sufficient supply of gold, + was forced to strip the walls and pillars of the Temple, which were + overlaid in parts with this precious metal. He yielded up all the silver + from the royal treasury and from the treasury of the Temple; and this + amounted to five hundred talents more than the fixed rate of tribute. In + addition to these sacrifices, the Jewish monarch was required to surrender + Padi, his Ekronite prisoner, and was mulcted in certain portions of his + dominions, which were attached by the conqueror to the territories of + neighboring kings. + </p> + <p> + Sennacherib, after this triumph, returned to Nineveh, but did not remain + long in repose. The course of events summoned him in the ensuing year B.C. + 700—to Babylonia, where Merodach-Baladan, assisted by a certain + Susub, a Chaldaean prince, was again in arms against his authority. + Sennacherib first defeated Susub, and then, directing his march upon + Beth-Yakin, forced Merodach-Baladan once more to quit the country and + betake himself to one of the islands of the Persian Gulf, abandoning to + Sennacherib’s mercy his brothers and his other partisans. It would appear + that the Babylonian viceroy Belibus, who three years previously had been + set over the country by Sennacherib, was either actively implicated in + this revolt, or was regarded as having contributed towards it by a neglect + of proper precautions. Sennacherib, on his return from the sea-coast, + superseded him, placing upon the throne his own eldest son, + Asshur-inadi-su, who appears to be the Asordanes of Polyhistor, and the + Aparanadius or Assaranadius of Ptolemy’s Canon. + </p> + <p> + The remaining events of Sennacherib’s reign may be arranged in + chronological order without much difficulty, but few of them can be dated + with exactness. We lose at this point the invaluable aid of Ptolemy’s + Canon, which contains no notice of any event recorded in Sennacherib’s + inscriptions of later date than the appointment of Assaranadius. + </p> + <p> + It is probable in that in the year B.C. 699 Sennacherib conducted his + second expedition into Palestine. Hezekiah, after his enforced submission + two years earlier, had entered into negotiations with the Egyptians, and + looking to receive important succors from this quarter, had again thrown + off his allegiance. Sennacherib, understanding that the real enemy whom he + had to fear on his south-western frontier was not Judaea, but Egypt, + marched his army through Palestine—probably by the coast route—and + without stopping to chastise Jerusalem, pressed southwards to Libnah and + Lachish, which were at the extreme verge of the Holy Land, and were + probably at this tune subject to Egypt. He first commenced the siege of + Lachish with all his power; and while engaged in this operation, finding + that Hezekiah was not alarmed by his proximity, and did not send in his + submission, he detached a body of troops from Ins main force, and sent it + under a Tartan or general, supported by two high officers of the court—the + Rabshakeh or Chief Cupbearer, and the Rob-saris or Chief Eunuch—to + summon the rebellious city to surrender. Hezekiah was willing to treat, + and sent out to the Assyrian camp, which was pitched just outside the + walls, three high officials of his own to open negotiations. But the + Assyrian envoys had not cone to debate or even to offer terms, but to + require the unconditional submission of both king and people. The + Rabshakeh or cupbearer, who was familiar with the Hebrew language, took + the word and delivered his message in insulting phrase, laughing at the + simplicity which could trust in Egypt, and the superstitious folly which + could expect a divine deliverance, and defying Hezekiah to produce so many + as two thousand trained soldiers capable of serving as cavalry. When + requested to use a foreign rather than the native dialect, lest the people + who were upon the walls should hear, the bold envoy, with an entire + disregard of diplomatic forms, raised his voice and made a direct appeal + to the popular fears and hopes thinking to produce a tumultuary surrender + of the place, or at least an outbreak of which his troops might have taken + advantage. His expectations, however, were disappointed; the people made + no response to his appeal, but listened in profound silence; and the + ambassadors, finding that they could obtain nothing from the fears of + either king or people, and regarding the force that they had brought with + them as insufficient for a siege, returned to their master with the + intelligence of their ill-success. The Assyrian monarch had either taken + Lachish or raised its siege, and was gone on to Libnah, where the envoys + found him. On receiving their report, he determined to make still another + effort to overcome Hezckiah’s obstinacy and accordingly he despatched + fresh messengers with a letter to the Jewish king, in which he was + reminded of the fate of various other kingdoms and peoples which had + resisted the Assyrians, and once more urged to submit himself. It was this + letter perhaps a royal autograph—which Hezekiah took into the temple + and there “spread it before the Lord,” praying God to “bow down his ear + and hear; to open his eyes and see, and hear the words of Sennacherib, + which had sent to reproach the living God.” Upon this Isaiah was + commissioned to declare to his afflicted sovereign that the kings of + Assyria were mere instruments in God’s hands to destroy such, nations as + He pleased, and that none of Sennacherib’s threats against Jerusalem + should be accomplished. God, Isaiah told him would “put his hook in + Sennacherib’s nose, and his bridle in his lips, and turn him back by the + way by which he came.” The Lord had said, concerning the king of Assyria, + “He shall not come into this city, nor shoot an arrow there, nor come + before it with shield, nor cast a bank against it. By the way that he + came, by the same shall he return, and shall not come into this city. For + I will defend this city, to save it, for my own sake, and for my servant + David’s sake.” + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile it is probable that Sennacherib, having received the submission + of Libnah, had advanced upon Egypt. It was important to crush an Egyptian + army which had been collected against him by a certain Sethos, one of the + many native princes who at this time ruled in the Lower country before the + great Ethiopian monarch Tehrak or Tirhakah, who was known to be on his + march, should effect a junction with the troops of this minor potentate. + Sethos, with his army, was at Pelusium; and Sennacherib, advancing to + attack him, had arrived within sight of the Egyptian host, and pitched his + camp over against the camp of the enemy, just at the time to when Hezekiah + received his letter and made the prayer to which Isaiah was instructed to + respond. The two hosts lay down at night in their respective stations, the + Egyptians and their king full of anxious alarm, Sennacherib and his + Assyrians proudly confident, intending on the morrow to advance to the + combat and repeat the lesson taught at Raphia and Altaku. But no morrow + was to break on the great mass of those who took their rest in the tents + of the Assyrians. The divine fiat had gone forth. In the night, as they + slept, destruction fell upon them. “The angel of the Lord went out, and + smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand; + and when they arose early in the morning, behold, they were all dead + corpses.” A miracle, like the destruction of the first-born, had been + wrought, but this time on the enemies of the Egyptians, who naturally + ascribed their deliverance to the interposition of their own gods; and + seeing the enemy in confusion and retreat, pressed hastily after him, + distressed his flying columns, and cut off his stragglers. The Assyrian + king returned home to Nineveh, shorn of his glory, with the shattered + remains of his great host, and cast that proud capital into a state of + despair and grief, which the genius of an AEschylus might have rejoiced to + depict, but which no less powerful pen could adequately portray. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to say how soon Assyria recovered from this terrible blow. + The annals of Sennacherib, as might have been expected, omit it + altogether, and represent the Assyrian monarch as engaged in a continuous + series of successful campaigns, which seem to extend uninterruptedly from + his third to his tenth year. It is possible that while the Assyrian + expedition was in progress, under the eye of Sennacherib himself, a + successful war was being conducted by one of his generals in the mountains + of Armenia, and that Sennacherib was thus enabled, without absolutely + falsifying history, to parade as his own certain victories gained by this + leader in the very year of his own reverse. It is even conceivable that + the power of Assyria was not so injured by the loss of a single great + army, as to make it necessary for her to stop even for one year in the + course of her aggressive warfare; and thus the expeditions of Sennacherib + may form an uninterrupted series, the eight campaigns which are assigned + to him occupying eight consecutive years. But on the other hand it is + quite as probable that there are gaps in the history, some years having + been omitted altogether. The Taylor Cylinder records but eight campaigns, + yet it was certainly written as late as Sennacherib’s fifteenth year. It + contains no notice of any events in Sennacherib’s first or second year; + and it may consequently make other omissions covering equal or larger + intervals. Thus the destruction of the Assyrian army at Pelusium may have + been followed by a pause of some years’ duration in the usual aggressive + expeditions; and it may very probably have encouraged the Babylonians in + the attempt to shake off the Assyrian yoke, which they certainly made + towards the middle of Sennacherib’s reign. + </p> + <p> + But while it appears to be probable that consequences of some importance + followed on the Pelusiac calamity, it is tolerably certain that no such + tremendous results flowed from it as some writers have imagined. The + murder of the disgraced Sennacherib “within fifty-five days” of his return + to Nineveh, seems to be an invention of the Alexandrian Jew who wrote the + Book of Tobit. The total destruction of the empire in consequence of the + blow, is an exaggeration of Josephus, rashly credited by some moderns. + Sennacherib did not die till B.C. 681, seventeen years after his + misfortune; and the Empire suffered so little that we find Esar-haddon, a + few years later, in full possession of all the territory that any king + before him had over held, ruling from Babylonia to Egypt, or (as he + himself expresses it) “from the rising up of the sun to the going down of + the same.” Even Sennacherib himself was not prevented by his calamity from + undertaking important wars during the latter part of his reign. We shall + see shortly that he recovered Babylon, chastised Susiana, and invaded + Cilicia, in the course of the seventeen years which intervened between his + flight from Pelusium and his decease. Moreover, there is evidence that he + employed himself during this part of his reign in the consolidation of the + Western provinces, which first appear about his twelfth year as integral + portions of the Empire, furnishing eponyms in their turn, and thus taking + equal rank with the ancient provinces of Assyria Proper, Adiabene, and + Mesopotamia. + </p> + <p> + The fifth campaign of Sennacherib, according to his own annals, was partly + in a mountainous country which he calls Nipur or Nibur—probably the + most northern portion of the Zagros range where it abuts on Ararat. He + there took a number of small towns, after which he proceeded westward and + contended with a certain Maniya king of Dayan, which was a part of Taurus + bordering on Cilicia. He boasts that he penetrated further into this + region than any king before him; and the boast is confirmed by the fact + that the geographical names which appear are almost entirely new to us. + The expedition was a plundering raid, not an attempt at conquest. + Sennacherib ravaged the country, burnt the towns, and carried away with + him all the valuables, the flocks and herds, and the inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + After this it appears that for at least three years he was engaged in a + fierce struggle with the combined Babylonians and Susianians. The troubles + recommenced by an attempt of the Chaldaeans of Beth-Yakin to withdraw + themselves from the Assyrian territory, and to transfer their allegiance + to the Elymaean king. Carrying with them their gods and their treasures, + they embarked in their ships, and crossing “the Great Sea of the Rising + Sun”—i.e., the Persian Gulf—landed on the Elamitic coast, + where they were kindly received and allowed to take up their abode. Such + voluntary removals are not uncommon in the East; and they constantly give + rise to complaints and reclamations, which not unfrequently terminate in + an appeal to the arbitrament of the sword. Sennacherib does not inform us + whether he made any attempt to recover his lost subjects by diplomatic + representations at the court of Susa. If he did, they were unsuccessful; + and in order to obtain redress, he was compelled to resort to force, and + to undertake an expedition into the Elamitie territory. It is remarkable + that he determined to make his invasion by sea. Their frequent wars on the + Syrian coasts had by this time familiarized the Assyrians with the idea, + if not with the practice, of navigation; and as their suzerainty over + Phoenicia placed at their disposal a large body of skilled shipwrights, + and a number of the best sailors in the world, it was natural that they + should resolve to employ naval as well as military force to advance their + dominion. We have seen that, as early as the time of Shalmaneser, the + Assyrians ventured themselves in ships, and, in conjunction with the + Phoenicians of the mainland, engaged the vessels of the Island Tyre. It is + probable that the precedent thus set was followed by later kings, and that + both Sargon and Sennacherib had had the permanent, or occasional services + of a fleet on the Mediterranean. But there was a wide difference between + such an employment of the navies belonging to their subjects on the sea, + to which they were accustomed, and the transfer to the opposite extremity + of the empire of the naval strength hitherto confined to the + Mediterranean. This thought—certainly not an obvious one—seems + to have first occurred to Sennacherib. He conceived the idea of having a + navy on both the seas that washed his dominions; and, possessing on his + western coast only an adequate supply of skilled shipwrights and sailors + he resolved on transporting from his western to his eastern shores such a + body of Phoenicians as would enable him to accomplish his purpose. The + shipwrights of Tyre and Sidon were carried across Mesopotamia to the + Tigris, where they constructed for the Assyrian monarch a fleet of ships + like their own galleys, which descended the river to its mouth, and + astonished the populations bordering on the Persian Gulf with spectacle + never before seen in those waters. Though the Chaldaeans had for centuries + navigated this inland sea, and may have occasionally ventured beyond its + limits, yet neither as sailors nor as ship-builders was their skill to + compare with that of the Phoenicians. The masts and sails, the double + tiers of oars, the sharp beaks of the Phoenician ships, were (it is + probable) novelties to the nations of these parts, who saw now, for the + first time, a fleet debouche from the Tigris, with which their own vessels + were quite incapable of contending. + </p> + <p> + When his fleet was ready Sennacherib put to sea, and crossed in his + Phoenician ships from the mouth of the Tigris to the tract occupied by the + emigrant Chaldaeans, where he landed and destroyed the newly-built city, + captured the inhabitants, ravaged the neighborhood, and burnt a number of + Susianian towns, finally reembarking with his captives. Chaldaean and + Susianian whom he transported across the gulf to the Chaldaean coast, and + then took with him into Assyria. This whole expedition seems to have taken + the Susianians by surprise. They had probably expected an invasion by + land, and had collected their forces towards the north-western frontier, + so that when the troops of Sennacherib landed far in their rear, there + were no forces in the neighborhood to resist them. However, the departure + of the Assyrians on an expedition regarded as extremely perilous, was the + signal for a general revolt of the Babylonians, who once more set up a + native king in the person of Susub, and collected an army with which they + made ready to give the Assyrians battle on their return. Perhaps they + cherished the hope that the fleet which had tempted the dangers of an + unknown sea would be seen no more, or expected that, at the best, it would + bring back the shattered remnants of a defeated army. If so, they were + disappointed. The Assyrian troops landed on their coast flushed with + success, and finding the Babylonians in revolt, proceeded to chastise + them; defeated their forces in a great battle; captured their king, Susub; + and when the Susianians came, somewhat tardily, to their succor, attacked + and routed their army. A vast number of prisoners, and among them Susub + himself, were carried off by the victors and conveyed to Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after this successful campaign, possibly in the very next year, + Sennacherib resolved to break the power of Susiana by a great expedition + directed solely against that country. The Susianians had, as already + related, been strong enough in the reign of Sargon to deprive Assyria of a + portion of her territory; and Kudur-Nakhunta, the Elymaean king, still + held two cities, Beth-Kahiri and Raza, which were regarded by Sennacherib + as a part of his paternal inheritance. The first object of the war was the + recovery of these two towns, which were taken without any difficulty and + reattached to the Assyrian Empire. Sennacherib then pressed on into the + heart of Susiana, taking and destroying thirty-four large cities, whose + names he mentions, together with a still greater number of villages, all + of which he gave to the flames. Wasting and destroying in this way he drew + near to Vadakat or Badaca, the second city of the kingdom, where + Kudur-Nakhunta had for the time fixed his residence. The Elamitic king, + hearing of his rapid approach, took fright, and, hastily quitting Badaca, + fled away to a city called Khidala, at the foot of the mountains, where + alone he could feel himself in safety. Sennacherib then advanced to + Badaca, besieged it, and took it by assault; after which affairs seem to + have required his presence at Nineveh, and, leaving his conquest + incomplete, he returned home with a large booty. + </p> + <p> + A third campaign in these parts, the most important of all, followed. + Susub, the Chaldaean prince whom Sennacherib had carried off to Assyria, + in the year of his naval expedition escaped from his confinement, and, + returning to Babylon, was once more hailed as king by the inhabitants. + Aware of his inability to maintain himself on the throne against the will + of the Assyrians, unless he were assisted by the arms of a powerful ally, + he resolved to obtain, if possible, the immediate aid of the neighboring + Elamitic monarch. Kolar-Nakhunta, the late antagonist of Sennacherib, was + dead, having survived his disgraceful flight from Badaca only three + months; and Ummanminan, his younger brother, held the throne. Susub, bent + on contracting an alliance with this prince, did not scruple at an act of + sacrilege to obtain his end. He broke open the treasury of the great + temple of Bel at Babylon, and seizing the gold and silver belonging to the + god, sent it as a present to Ummanminan, with an urgent entreaty that he + would instantly collect his troops and march to his aid. The Elamitic + monarch, yielding to a request thus powerfully backed, and perhaps + sufficiently wise to see that the interests of Susiana required an + independent Babylon, set his troops in motion without any delay, and + advanced to the banks of the Tigris. At the same time a number of the + Aramaean tribes on the middle Euphrates, which Sennacherib had reduced in + his third year, revolted, and sent their forces to swell the army of + Susub. A great battle was fought at Khaluli, a town on the lower Tigris, + between the troops of Sennacherib and this allied host; the combat was + long and bloody, but at last the Assyrians conquered. Susub and his + Elamitic ally took to flight and made their escape. Nebosumiskun, a son of + Merodach-Baladan, and many other chiefs of high rank, were captured. The + army was completely routed and broken up. Babylon submitted, and was + severely punished; the fortifications were destroyed, the temples + plundered and burnt, and the images of the gods broken to pieces. Perhaps + the rebel city now received for viceroy Regibelus or Mesesimordachus, whom + the Canon of Ptolemy, which is silent about Susub, makes contemporary with + the middle portion of Sennacherib’s reign. + </p> + <p> + The only other expedition which can be assigned, on important evidence, to + the reign of Sennacherib, is one against Cilicia, in which he is said to + have been opposed by Greeks. According to Abydenus, a Greek fleet guarded + the Cilician shore, which the vessels of Sennacherib engaged and defeated. + Polyhistor seems to say that the Greeks also suffered a defeat by land in + Cilicia itself, after which Sennacherib took possession of the country, + and built Tarsus there on the model of Babylon. The prominence here given + to Greeks by Greek writers is undoubtedly remarkable, and it throws a + certain amount of suspicion over the whole story. Still, as the Greek + element in Cyprus was certainly important at this time, and as the + occupation of Cilicis, by the Assyrians may have appeared to the Cyprian + Greeks to endanger their independence, it is conceivable that they lent + some assistance to the natives of the country, who were a hardy race, fond + of freedom, and never very easily brought into subjection. The admission + af a double defeat makes it evident that the tale is not the invention of + Greek national vanity. Abydenus and Polyhistor probably derive it from + Berosus, who must also have made the statement that Tarsus was now founded + by Sennacherib, and constructed, after the pattern of Babylon. The + occupation of newly conquered countries, by the establishnient in them of + large cities in which foreign colonists were placed by the conquerors, was + practice commenced by Sargon, which his son is not unlikely to have + followed. Tarsus was always regarded by the Greeks as an Assyrian town; + and although they gave different accounts of the time of its foundation, + their disagreement in this respect does not invalidate their evidence as + to the main fact itself, which is intrinsically probable. The evidence of + Polyhistor and Abydenus as to the date of the foundation, representing, as + it must, the testimony of Berosus upon the point, is to be preferred; and + we may accept it as a fact, beyond all reasonable doubt, that the native + city of St. Paul derived, if not its origin, yet, at any rate, its later + splendor and magnificence, from the antagonist of Hezekiah. + </p> + <p> + That this Cilician war occurred late in the reign of Sennacherib, appears + to follow from the absence of any account of it from his general annals. + These, it is probable, extend no further than his sixteenth year, B.C. + 689, thus leaving blank his last eight years, from B.C. 689 to 681. The + defeat of the Greeks, the occupation of Cilicia, and the founding of + Tarsus, may well have fallen into this interval. To the same time may have + belonged Sennacherib’s conquest of Edom. + </p> + <p> + There is reason to suspect that these successes of Sennacherib on the + western limits of his empire were more than counterbalanced by a + contemporaneous loss at the extreme south-east. The Canon of Ptolemy marks + the year B.C. 688 as the first of an interregnum at Babylon which + continues from that date till the accession of Esar-haddon in B.C. 680. + Interregna in this document—[—Greek—] as they are termed—indicate + periods of extreme disturbance, when pretender succeeded to pretender, or + when the country was split up into a number of petty kingdoms. The + Assyrian yoke, in either case, must have been rejected; and Babylonia must + have succeeded at this time in maintaining, for the space of eight years, + a separate and independent existence, albeit troubled and precarious. The + fact that she continued free so long, while she again succumbed at the + very commencement of the reign of Esar-haddon, may lead us to suspect that + she owed this spell of liberty to the increasing years of the Assyrian + monarch, who, as the infirmities of age crept upon him, felt a + disinclination towards distant expeditions. + </p> + <p> + The military glory of Sennacherib was thus in some degree tarnished; + first, by the terrible disaster which befell his host on the borders of + Egypt; and, secondly, by his failure to maintain the authority which, in + the earlier part of his reign, he had estaldished over Babylon. Still, + notwithstanding these misfortunes, he must be pronounced one of the most + successful of Assyria’s warrior kings, and altogether one of the greatest + princes that ever sat on the Assyrian throne. His victories of Eltekeh and + Khaluli seem to leave been among the most important battles that Assyria + ever gained. By the one Egypt and Ethiopia, by the other Susiana and + Babylon, were taught that, even united, they were no match for the + Assyrian hosts. Sennacherib thus wholesomely impressed his most formidable + enemies with the dread of his arms, while at the same time he enlarged, in + various directions, the limits of his dominions. He warred in regions to + which no earlier Assyrian monarch had ever penetrated; and he adopted + modes of warfare on which none of them had previously ventured. His defeat + of a Greek fleet in the Eastern Mediterranean, and his employment of + Phoenicians in the Persian Gulf, show an enterprise and versatility which + we observe in few Orientals. His selection of Tarsus for the site of a + great city indicates a keen appreciation of the merits of a locality, if + he was proud, haughty, and self-confident, beyond all former Assyrian + kings, it would seem to have been because he felt that he had resources + within himself—that he possessed a firm will, a bold heart, and a + fertile invention. Most men would have laid aside the sword and given + themselves wholly to peaceful pursuits, after such a disaster as that of + Pelusium. Sennacherib accepted the judgment as a warning to attempt no + further conquests in those parts, but did not allow the calamity to reduce + him to inaction. He wisely turned his sword against other enemies, and was + rewarded by important successes upon all his other frontiers. + </p> + <p> + But if, as a warrior, Sennacherib deserves to be placed in the foremost + rank of the Assyrian kings, as a builder and a patron of art he is still + more eminent. The great palace which he raised at Nineveh surpassed in + size and splendor all earlier edifices, and was never excelled in any + respect except by one later building. The palace of Asshur-bani-pal, built + on the same platform by the grandson of Sennacherib, was, it must be + allowed, more exquisite in its ornamentation; but even this edifice did + not equal the great work of Sennacherib in the number of its apartments, + or the grandeur of its dimensions. Sennacherib’s palace covered an area of + above eight acres. It consisted of a number of grand halls and smaller + chambers, arranged round at least three courts or quadrangles. These + courts were respectively 154 feet by 125, 124 feet by 90, and probably a + square of about 90 feet. Round the smallest of the courts were grouped + apartments of no great size, which, it may be suspected, belonged to the + seraglio of the king. The seraglio seems to have been reached through a + single narrow passage, leading out of a long gallery—218 feet by 25—which + was approached only through two other passages, one leading from each of + the two main courts. The principal halls were immediately within the two + chief entrances one on the north-east, the other on the opposite or + south-west front of the palace. Neither of these two rooms has been + completely explored: but the one appears to have been more than 150 and + the other was probably 180 feet in length, while the width of each was a + little more than 40 feet. Besides these two great halls and the grand + gallery already described, the palace contained about twenty rooms of a + considerable size, and at least forty or fifty smaller chambers, mostly + square, or nearly so, opening out of some hall or large apartment. The + actual number of the rooms explored is about sixty; but as in many parts + the examination of the building is still incomplete, we may fairly + conjecture that the entire number was not less than seventy or eighty. + </p> + <p> + The palace of Sennacherib preserved all the main features of Assyrian + architecture. It was elevated on a platform, eighty or ninety feet above + the plain, artificially constructed, and covered with a pavement of + bricks. It had probably three grand facades—one on the north-east, + where it was ordinarily approached from the town, and the two others on + the south-east and the south-west, where it was carried nearly to the edge + of the platform, and overhung the two streams of the Khosr-su and the + Tigris. Its principal apartment was that which was first entered by the + visitor. All the walls ran in straight lines, and all the angles of the + rooms and passages were right angles. There were more passages in the + building than usual but still the apartments very frequently opened into + one another; and almost one-half of the rooms were passage-rooms. The + doorways were mostly placed without any regard to regularity, seldom + opposite one another, and generally towards the corners of the apartments. + There was the curious feature, common in Assyrian edifices, of a room + being entered from a court, or from another room, by two or three + doorways, which is best explained by supposing that the rank of the person + determined the door by which he might enter. Squared recesses in the sides + of the rooms were common. The thickness of the walls was great. The + apartments, though wider than in other palaces, were still narrow for + their length, never much exceeding forty feet; while the courts were much + better proportioned. + </p> + <p> + It was in the size and the number of his rooms, in his use of passages, + and in certain features of his ornamentation, that Sennacherib chiefly + differed from former builders. He increased the width of the principal + state apartments by one-third, which seems to imply the employment of some + new mode or material for roofing. In their length he made less alteration, + only advancing from 150 to 180 feet, evidently because he aimed, not + merely at increasing the size of his rooms, but at improving their + proportions. In one instance alone—that of a gallery or + passage-room, leading (apparently) from the more public part of the palace + to the hareem or private apartments—did he exceed this length, + uniting the two portions of the palace by a noble corridor, 218 feet long + by 25 feet wide. Into this corridor he brought passages from the two + public courts, which he also united together by a third passage, thus + greatly facilitating communication between the various blocks of buildings + which composed his vast palatial edifice. + </p> + <p> + The most striking characteristic of Sennacherib’s ornamentation is its + strong and marked realism. It was under Sennacherib that the practice + first obtained of completing each scene by a background, such as actually + existed as the time and place of its occurrence. Mountains, rocks, trees, + roads, rivers, lakes, were regularly portrayed, an attempt being made to + represent the locality, whatever it might be, as truthfully as the + artist’s skill and the character of his material rendered possible. Nor + was this endeavor limited to the broad and general features of the scene + only. The wish evidently was to include all the little accessories which + the observant eye of an artist might have noted if he had made his drawing + with the scene before him. The species of trees is distinguished, in + Sennacherib’s bas-reliefs; gardens, fields, ponds, reeds, are carefully + represented; wild animals are introduced, as stags, boars, and antelopes; + birds fly from tree to tree, or stand over their nests feeding the young + who stretch up to them; fish disport themselves in the waters; fishermen + ply their craft; boatmen and agricultural laborers pursue their + avocations; the scene is, as it were, photographed, with all its features—the + least and the most important—equally marked, and without any attempt + at selection, or any effort after artistic unity. + </p> + <p> + In the same spirit of realism Sennacherib chooses for artistic + representation scenes of a commonplace and everyday character. The trains + of attendants who daily enter his palace with game and locusts for his + dinner, and cakes and fruit for his dessert, appear on the walls of his + passages, exactly as they walked through his courts, bearing the + delicacies in which he delighted. Elsewhere he puts before us the entire + process of carving and transporting a colossal bull, from the first + removal of the huge stone in its rough state from the quarry, to its final + elevation on a palace mound as part of the great gateway of a royal + residence. We see the trackers dragging the rough block, supported on a + low flat-bottomed boat, along the course of a river, disposed in gangs, + and working under taskmasters who use their rods upon the slightest + provocation. The whole scene must be represented, and so the trackers are + all there, to the number of three hundred, costumed according to their + nations, and each delineated with as much care as it he were not the exact + image of ninety-nine others. We then observe the block transferred to + land, and carved into the rough semblance of a bull, in which form it is + placed on a rude sledge and conveyed along level ground by gangs of + laborers, arranged nearly as before, to the foot of the mound at whose top + it has to be placed. The construction of the mound is most elaborately + represented. Brickmakers are seen moulding the bricks at its base, while + workmen, with baskets at their backs, full of earth, bricks, stones, or + rubbish, toil up the ascent—for the mound is already half raised—and + empty their burdens out upon the summit. The bull, still lying on its + sledge, is then drawn up an inclined plane to the top by four gangs of + laborers, in the presence of the monarch and his attendants. After this + the carving is completed, and the colossus, having been raised into an + upright position, is conveyed along the surface of the platform to the + exact site which it is to occupy. This portion of the operation has been + represented in one of the illustrations in an earlier part of this volume. + From the representation there given the reader may form a notion of the + minuteness and elaboration of this entire series of bas-reliefs. + </p> + <p> + Besides constructing this new palace at Nineveh, Sennacherib seems also to + have restored the ancient residence of the kings at the sane place, a + building which will probably be found whenever the mound of Nebbi-Yunus is + submitted to careful examination. He confined the Tigris to its channel by + an embankment of bricks. He constructed a number of canals or aqueducts + for the purpose of bringing good water to the capital. He improved the + defences of Nineveh, erecting towers of a vast size at some of the gates. + And, finally, he built a temple to the god Nergal at Tarbisi (now Sherif + khan), about three miles from Nineveh up the Tigris. + </p> + <p> + In the construction of these great works he made use chiefly, of the + forced labor with which his triumphant expeditions into foreign countries + had so abundantly supplied him. Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, Armenians, + Cilicianns and probably also Egyptians, Ethiopians, Elamites, and Jews, + were employed by thousands in the formation of the vast mounds, in the + transport and elevation of the colossal bulls, in the moulding of the + bricks, and the erection of the walls of the various edifices, in the + excavation of the canals, and the construction of the embankments. They + wrought in gangs, each gang having a costume peculiar to it, which + probably marked its nation. Over each was placed a number of taskmasters, + armed with staves, who urged on the work with blows, and severely punished + any neglect or remissness. Assyrian foremen had the general direction of + the works, and were entrusted with all such portions as required skill or + judgment. The forced laborers often worked in fetters, which were + sometimes supported by a bar fastened to the waist, while sometimes they + consisted merely of shackles round the ankles. The king himself often + witnessed the labors, standing in his chariot, which on these occasions + was drawn by some of his attendants. + </p> + <p> + The Assyrian monuments throw but little light on the circumstances which + led to the assassination of Sennacherib; and we are reduced to conjecture + the causes of so strange an event. Our various sources of information make + it clear that he had a large family of sons. The eldest of them, + Asshurinadi-su, had been entrusted by Sennacherib with the government of + Babylon and might reasonably have expected to succeed him on the throne of + Assyria; but it is probable that he died before his father, either by a + natural death, or by violence, during one of the many Babylonian revolts. + It may be suspected that Sennacherib had a second son, of whose name + Nergal was the first element; and it is certain that he had three others, + Adrammelech (or Ardumuzanes), Sharezer, and Esar-haddon. Perhaps, upon the + death of Asshur-inadi-su, disputes arose about the succession. Adrammelech + and Sharezer, anxious to obtain the throne for themselves, plotted against + the life of their father, and having slain him in a temple as he was + worshipping, proceeded further to remove their brother Nergilus, who + claimed the crown and wore it for a brief space after Sennacherib’s death. + Having murdered him, they expected to obtain the throne without further + difficulty; but Esar-haddon, who at the time commanded the army which + watched the Armenian frontier, now came forward, assumed the title of + King, and prepared to march upon Nineveh. It was winter, and the + inclemency of the weather precluded immediate movement. For some months + probably the two assassins were recognized as monarchs at the capital, + while the northern army regarded Esar-haddon as the rightful successor of + his father. Thus died the great Sennacherib, a victim to the ambition of + his sons. + </p> + <p> + It was a sad end to a reign which, on the whole, had been so glorious; and + it was a sign that the empire was now verging on that decline which sooner + or later overtakes all kingdoms, and indeed all things sublunary. Against + plots without, arising from the ambition of subjects who see, or think + they see, at any particular juncture an opportunity of seizing the great + prize of supreme dominion, it is impossible, even in the most vigorous + empire, to provide any complete security. But during the period of vigor, + harmony within the palace, and confidence in each other inspires and + unites all the members of the royal house. When discord has once entered + inside the gates, when the family no longer holds together, when suspicion + and jealousy have replaced the trust and affection of a happier time, the + empire has passed into the declining stage, and has already begun the + descent which conducts, by quick or slow degrees, to destruction. The + murder of Sennacherib, if it was, as perhaps it was, a judgment on the + individual, was, at least equally, a judgment on the nation. When, in an + absolute monarchy, the palace becomes the scene of the worst crimes, the + doom of the kingdom is sealed—it totters to its fall—and + requires but a touch from without to collapse into a heap of ruins. + </p> + <p> + Esar-haddon, the son and successor of Sennacherib, is proved by the + Assyrian Canon, to have ascended the throne of Assyria in B.C. 681—the + year immediately previous to that which the Canon of Ptolemy makes his + first year in Babylon, viz., B.C. 680. He was succeeded by his son + Asshur-bani-pal, or Sardanapalus, in B.C. 668, and thus held the crown no + more than thirteen years. Esar-haddon’s inscriptions show that he was + engaged for some time after his accession in a war with his half-brothers, + who, at the head of a large body of troops, disputed his right to the + crown. Esar-haddon marched from the Armenian frontier, where (as already + observed) he was stationed at the time of his father’s death, against this + army, defeated it in the country of Khanirabbat (north-west of Nineveh), + and proceeding to the capital, was universally acknowledged king. + According to Abydenus, Adrammelech fell in the battle; but better + authorities state that both he and his brother, Sharezer, escaped into + Armenia, where they were kindly treated by the reigning monarch, who gave + them lands, which long continued in the possession of their posterity. + </p> + <p> + The chief record which we possess of Esar-haddon is a cylinder + inscription, existing in duplicate, which describes about nine campaigns, + and may probably have been composed in or about his tenth year. A memorial + which he set up at the mouth of the Nahr-el-Kolb, and a cylinder of his + son’s, add some important information with respect to the latter part of + his reign. One or two notices in the Old Testament connect him with the + history of the Jews. And Abydenus, besides the passage already quoted, has + an allusion to some of his foreign conquests. Such are the chief materials + from which the modern inquirer has to reconstruct the history of this + great king. + </p> + <p> + It appears that the first expedition of Esar-haddon was into Phoenicia. + Abdi-Milkut king of Sidon, and Sandu-arra king of the adjoining part of + Lebanon, had formed an alliance and revolted from the Assyrians, probably + during the troubles which ensued on Sennacherib’s death. Esar-haddon + attacked Sidon first, and soon took the city; but Aladi-Milkut made his + escape to an island—Aradus or Cyprus—where, perhaps, he + thought himself secure. Esar-haddon, however, determined on pursuit. He + traversed the sea “like a fish,” and made Abdi-Milkut prisoner; after + which he turned his arms against Sandu-arra, attacked him in the + fastnesses of his mountains, defeated his troops, and possessed himself of + his person. The rebellion of the two captive kings was punished by their + execution; the walls of Sidon were destroyed; its inhabitants, and those + of the whole tract of coast in the neighborhood, were carried off into + Assyria, and thence scattered among the provinces; a new town was built, + which was named after Esarhaddon, and was intended to take the place of + Sidon as the chief city of these parts; and colonists were brought from + Chaldaea and Susiana to occupy the new capital and the adjoining region. + An Assyrian governor was appointed to administer the conquered province. + </p> + <p> + Esar-haddon’s next campaign seems to have been in Armenia. He took a city + called Arza**, which, he says, was in the neighborhood of Muzr, and + carried off the inhabitants, together with a number of mountain animals, + placing the former in a position “beyond the eastern gate of Nineveh.” At + the same time he received the submission of Tiuspa the Cimmerian. + </p> + <p> + His third campaign was in Cilicia and the adjoining regions. The + Cilicians, whom Sennacherib had so recently subdued, reasserted their + independence at his death, and allied themselves with the Tibareni, or + people of Tubal, who possess at the high mountain tract about the junction + of Amaans and Taurus. Esar-haddon inflicted a defeat on the Cilicians, and + then invaded the mountain region, where he took twenty-one towns and a + larger number of villages, all of which he plundered and burnt. The + inhabitants he carried away captive, as usual but he made no attempt to + hold the ravaged districts by means of new cities or fresh colonists. + </p> + <p> + This expedition was followed by one or two petty wars in the north-west + and the north-east after which Esar-haddon, probably about his sixth year + B.C. 675, made an expedition into Chaldaea. It appears that a son of + Merodach-Baladan, Nebo-zirzi-sidi by name, had re-established himself on + the Chaldaean coast, by the help of the Susianians; while his brother, + Nahid-Marduk, had thought it more prudent to court the favor of the great + Assyrian monarch, and had quitted his refuge in Susiana to present himself + before Esar-haddon’s foot-stool at Nineveh. This judicious step had all + the success that he could have expected or desired. Esar-haddon, having + conquered the ill-judging Nebo-zirzi-sidi, made over to the more + clear-sighted Nahid-Marduk the whole of the maritime region that had been + ruled by his brother. At the same time the Assyrian monarch deposed a + Chaldaean prince who had established his authority over a small town in + the neighborhood of Babylon, and set up another in his place, thus + pursuing the same system of division in Babylonia which we shall hereafter + find that he pursued in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Esar-haddon after this was engaged in a war with Edom. He there took a + city which bore the same name as the country—a city previously, he + tells us, taken by his father—and transported the inhabitants into + Assyria, at the same time carrying off certain images of the Edomite gods. + Hereupon the king, who was named Hazael, sent an embassy to Nineveh, to + make submission and offer presents, while at the same time he supplicated + Isar-haddon to restore his gods and allow them to be conveyed back to + their own proper country. Esarhaddon granted the request, and restored the + images to the envoy; but as a compensation for this boon, he demanded an + increase of the annual tribute, which was augmented in consequence by + sixty-five camels. He also nominated to the Edomite throne, either in + succession or in joint sovereignty, a female named Tabua, who had been + born and brought up in his own palace. + </p> + <p> + The expedition next mentioned on Esar-haddon’s principal cylinder is one + presenting some difficulty. The scene of it is a country called Bazu, + which is said to be “remote, on the extreme confines of the earth, on the + other side of the desert.” It was reached by traversing it hundred and + forty <i>farsakhs</i> (490 miles) of sandy desert, then twenty <i>farsakhs</i> + (70 miles) of fertile land, and beyond that a stony region. None of the + kings of Assyria, down to the time of Esar-haddon, had ever penetrated so + far. Bazu lay beyond Khazu, which was the name of the stony tract, and + Bazu had for its chief town a city called Yedih, which was under the rule + of a king named Laile. It is thought, from the combinaqon of these names, + and from the general description of the region—of its remoteness and + of the way in which it was reached—that it was probably the district + of Arabia beyond Nedjif which lies along the Jebel Shammer, and + corresponds closely with the modern Arab kingdom of Hira. Esar-haddon + boasts that he marched into the middle of the territory, that he slew + eight of its sovereigns, and carried into Assyria their gods, their + treasures, and their subjects; and that, though Laile escaped him, he too + lost his gods, which were seized and conveyed to Nineveh. Then Laile, like + the Idumaean monarch above mentioned, felt it necessary to humble himself. + He went in person to the Assyrian capital, prostrated himself before the + royal footstool, and entreated for the restoration of his gods; which + Esar-haddon consented to give back, but solely on the condition that Laile + became thenceforth one of his tributaries. + </p> + <p> + If this expedition was really carried into the quarter here supposed, + Esar-haddon performed a feat never paralleled in history, excepting by + Augustus and Nushirvan. He led an army across the deserts which everywhere + guard Arabia on the land side, and penetrated to the more fertile tracts + beyond them, a region of settled inhabitants and of cities. He there took + and spoiled several towns; and he returned to his own country without + suffering disaster. Considering the physical perils of the desert itself, + and the warlike character of its inhabitants, whom no conqueror has ever + really subdued, this was a most remarkable success. The dangers of the + simoom may have been exaggerated, and the total aridity of the northern + region may have been overstated by many writers; but the difficulty of + carrying water and provisions for a large army, and the peril of a plunge + into the wilderness with a small one, can scarcely be stated in too strong + terms, and have proved sufficient to deter most Eastern conquerors from + even the thoughts of an Arabian expedition. Alexander would, perhaps, had + he lived, have attempted an invasion from the side of the Persian Gulf; + and Trajan actually succeeded in bringing under the Roman yoke an outlying + portion of the country—the district between Damascus and the Red + Sea; but Arabia has been deeply penetrated thrice only in the history of + the world; and Esar-haddon is the sole monarch who ever ventured to + conduct in person such an attack. + </p> + <p> + From the arid regions of the great peninsula Esar-haddon proceeded, + probably in another year, to the invasion of the marsh-country on the + Euphrates, where the Aramaean tribe of the Gambulu had their habitations, + dwelling (he tells us) “like fish, in the midst of the waters”—doubtless + much after the fashion of the modern Khuzeyl and Affej Arabs, the latter + of whom inhabit nearly the same tract. The sheikh of this tribe had + revolted; but on the approach of the Assyrians he submitted himself, + bringing in person the arrears of his tribute and a present of buffaloes, + whereby he sought to propitiate the wrath of his suzerain. Esar-haddon + states that he forgave him; that he strengthened his capital with fresh + works, placed a garrison in it, and made it a stronghold to protect the + territory against the attacks of the Susianians. + </p> + <p> + The last expedition mentioned on the cylinder, which seems not to have + been conducted by the king in person, was against the country of Bikni, or + Bikan, one of the more remote regions of Media—perhaps Azerbijan. No + Assyrian monarch before Esar-haddon had ever invaded this region. It was + under the government of a number of chiefs—the Arian character of + whose names is unmistakable—each of whom ruled over his own town and + the adjacent district. Esar-haddon seized two of the chiefs and carried + them off to Assyria, whereupon several others made their submission, + consenting to pay a tribute and to divide their authority with Assyrian + officers. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that these various expeditions occupied Esarhaddon from + B.C. 681, the year of his accession, to B.C. 671, when it is likely that + they were recorded on the existing cylinder. The expeditions are ten in + number, directed against countries remote from one another; and each may + well have occupied an entire year. There would thus remain only three more + years of the king’s reign, after the termination of the chief native + record, during which his history has to be learnt from other sources. Into + this space falls, almost certainly, the greatest of Esar-haddon’s exploits + the conquest of Egypt; and, probably, one of the most interesting episodes + of his reign—the punishment and pardon of Manasseh. With the + consideration of these two events the military history of his reign will + terminate. + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Egypt by Esar-haddon, though concealed from Herodotus, and + not known even to Diodorus, was no secret to the more learned Greeks, who + probably found an account of the expedition in the great work of Berosus. + All that we know of its circumstances is derived from an imperfect + transcript of the Nahr-el-Kelb tablet, and a short notice in the annals of + Esar-haddon’s son and successor, Asshur-bani-pal, who finds it necessary + to make an allusion to the former doings of his father in Egypt, in order + to render intelligible the state of affairs when he himself invades the + country. According to these notices, it would appear that Esar-haddon, + having entered Egypt with a large army, probably in B.C. 670, gained a + great battle over the forces of Tirhakah in the lower country, and took + Memphis, the city where the Ethiopian held his court, after which he + proceeded southwards, and conquered the whole of the Nile valley as far as + the southern boundary of the Theban district. Thebes itself was taken and + Tirhakah retreated into Ethiopia. Esar-haddon thus became master of all + Egypt, at least as far as Thebes or Diospolis, the No or No-Amon of + scripture. He then broke up the country into twenty governments, + appointing in each town a ruler who bore the title of king, but placing + all the others to a certain extent under the authority of the prince who + reigned at Memphis. This was Neco, the father of Psammetichus (Psamatik + I.)—a native Egyptian of whom we have some mention both in Herodotus + and in the fragments of Manetho. The remaining rulers were likewise, for + the most part, native Egyptians: though in two or three instances the + governments appear to have been committed to Assyrian officers. + Esar-haddon, having made these arrangements, and having set up his tablet + at the mouth of the Nahr-el-Kelb side by side with that of Rameses II., + returned to his own country, and proceeded to introduce sphinxes into the + ornamentation of his palaces, while, at the same time, he attached to his + former titles an additional clause, in which he declared himself to be + “king of the kings of Egypt, and conqueror of Ethiopia.” + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Manasseh king of Judah may have happened shortly before or + shortly after the conquest of Egypt. It was not regarded as of sufficient + importance to call for the personal intervention of the Assyrian monarch. + The “captains of the host of the king of Assyria” were entrusted with the + task of Manasseh’s subjection; and, proceeding into Judaea, they “took + him, and bound him with chains, and carried him to Babylon,” where + Esar-haddon had built himself a palace, and often held his court. The + Great king at first treated his prisoner severely; and the “affliction” + which he thus suffered is said to have broken his pride and caused him to + humble himself before God, and to repent of all the cruelties and + idolatries which had brought this judgment upon him. Then God “was + entreated of him, and heard his supplication, and brought him back again + to Jerusalem into his kingdom.” The crime of defection was overlooked by + the Assyrian monarch, Manasseh was pardoned, and sent back to Jerusalem: + where he was allowed to resume the reins of government, but on the + condition, if we may judge by the usual practice of the Assyrians in such + cases, of paying an increased tribute. + </p> + <p> + It may have been in connection with this restoration of Manasseh to his + throne—an act of doubtful policy from an Assyrian point of view—that + Esar-haddon determined on a project by which the hold of Assyria upon + Palestine was considerably strengthened. Sargon, as has been already + observed when he removed the Israelites from Sumaria, supplied their place + by colonists from Babylon, Cutha, Sippara, Ava, Hamath, and Arabia; this + planting a foreign garrison in the region which would be likely to + preserve its fidelity. Esar-haddon resolved to strengthen this element. He + gathered men from Babylon, Orchoe, Susa, Elymais, Persia, and other + neighboring regions, and entrusting them to an officer of high rank—“the + great and noble Asnapper”—had them conveyed to Palestine and settled + over the whole country, which until this time must have been somewhat + thinly peopled. The restoration of Manasseh, and the augmentation of this + foreign element in Palestine, are thus portions, but counterbalancing + portions, of one scheme—a scheme, the sole object of which was the + pacification of the empire by whatever means, gentle or severe, seemed + best calculated to effect the purpose. + </p> + <p> + The last years of Esar-haddon were, to some extent, clouded with disaster. + He appears to have fallen ill in B.C. 669: and the knowledge of this fact + at once produced revolution in Egypt. Tirhakah issued from his Ethiopian + fastnesses, descended the valley of the Nile, expelled the kings set up by + Esar-haddon, and re-established his authority over the whole country. + Esar-haddon, unable to take the field, resolved to resign the cares of the + empire to his eldest son, Asshur-bani-pal, and to retire into a secondary + position. Relinquishing the crown of Assyria, and retaining that of + Babylon only, he had Asshur-bani-pal proclaimed king of Assyria, and + retired to the southern capital. There he appears to have died in B.C. + 668, or early in B.C. 667, leaving Asshur-bani-pal sole sovereign of the + entire empire. + </p> + <p> + Of the architecture of Esar-haddon, and of the state of the arts generally + in his time, it is difficult to speak positively. Though he appears to + have been one of the most indefatigable constructors of great works that + Assyria produced, having erected during the short period over which his + reign extended no fewer than four palaces and above thirty temples, yet it + happens unfortunately that we are not as yet in a condition to pronounce a + decisive judgment either on the plan of his buildings or on the merits of + their ornamentation of his three great palaces, which were situated at + Babylon, Calah, and Nineveh, one only—that at Calah or Nimrud has + been to any large extent explored. Even in this case the exploration was + far from complete, and the ground plan of his palace is still very + defective. But this is not the worst. The palace itself had never been + finished; its ornamentation had scarcely been begun; and the little of + this that was original had been so damaged by a furious conflagration, + that it perished almost at the moment of discovery. We are thus reduced to + judge of the sculptures of Esar-haddon by the reports of those who saw + them ere they fell to pieces, and by one or two drawings, while we have to + form our conception of his buildings from a half-explored fragment of a + half-finished palace, which was moreover destroyed by fire before + completion. + </p> + <p> + The palace of Esar-haddon at Calah was built at the south-western corner + of the Nimrud mound, abutting towards the west on the Tigris, and towards + the south on the valley formed by the Shor-Derreh torrent. It faced + northwards, and was entered on this side from the open space of the + platform, through a portal guarded by two winged bulls of the ordinary + character. The visitor on entering found himself in a large court, 280 + feet by 100, bounded on the north side by a mere wall, but on the other + three sides surrounded by buildings. The main building was opposite to + him, and was entered from the court by two portals, one directly facing + the great northern gate of the court, and the other a little to the left + hand, the former guarded by colossal bulls, the latter merely reveted with + slabs. These portals both led into the same room—the room already + described in an earlier page of this work—which was designed on the + most magnificent scale of all the Assyrian apartments, but was so broken + up through the inability of the architect to roof in a wide space without + abundant support, that, practically, it formed rather a suite of four + moderate-sized chambers than a single grand hall. The plan of this + apartment will be seen by referring to <a href="images/plate043.jpg">[PLATE + XLIII., Fig. 2.]</a> Viewed as a single apartment, the room was 165 feet + in length by 62 feet in width, and thus contained an area of 10,230 square + feet, a space nearly half as large again as that covered by the greatest + of the halls of Sennacherib, which was 7200 feet. Viewed as a suite of + chambers, the rooms may be described as two long and narrow halls running + parallel to one another, and communicating by a grand doorway in the + middle, with two smaller chambers placed at the two ends, running at right + angles to the principal ones. The small chambers were 62 feet long, and + respectively 19 feet and 23 feet wide; the larger ones were 110 feet long, + with a width respectively of 20 feet and 28 feet. The inner of the two + long parallel chambers communicated by a grand doorway, guarded by + sphinxes and colossal lions, either with a small court or with a large + chamber extending to the southern edge of the mound; and the two end rooms + communicated with smaller apartments in the same direction. The buildings + to the right and left of the great court seem to have been entirely + separate from those at its southern end: to the left they were wholly + unexamined; on the right some explorations were conducted which gave the + usual result of several long narrow apartments, with perhaps one or two + passages. The extent of the palace westward, southward, and eastward is + uncertain: eastward it was unexplored; southward and westward the mound + had been eaten into by the Tigris and the Shor-Derreh torrent. + </p> + <p> + The walls of Esar-haddon’s palace were composed, in the usual way, of + sun-dried bricks, reveted with slabs of alabaster. Instead, however, of + quarrying fresh alabaster slabs for the purpose, the king preferred to + make use of those which were already on the summit of the mound, covering + the walls of the north-western and central palaces, which, no doubt, had + fallen into decay. His workmen tore down these sculptured monuments from + their original position, and transferring them to the site of the new + palace, arranged them so as to cover the freshly-raised walls, generally + placing the carved side against the crude brick, and leaving the back + exposed to receive fresh sculptures, but sometimes exposing the old + sculpture, which, however, in such cases, it was probably intended to + remove by the chisel. This process was still going on, when either + Esarhaddon died and the works were stopped, or the palace was destroyed by + fire. Scarcely any of the new sculptures had been executed. The only + exceptions were the bulls and lions at the various portals, a few reliefs + in close proximity to them, and some complete figures of crouching + sphinxes, which had been placed as ornaments, and possibly also as the + bases of supports, within the span of the two widest doorways. There was + nothing very remarkable about the bulls; the lions were spirited, and more + true to nature than usual; the sphinxes were curious, being Egyptian in + idea, but thoroughly Assyrianized, having the horned cap common on bulls, + the Assyrian arrangement of hair, Assyrian earrings, and wings nearly like + those of the ordinary winged bull or lion. <a href="#linkEimage-0010">[PLATE + CXLVI., Fig. 2.]</a> The figures near the lions were mythic, and exhibited + somewhat more than usual grotesqueness, as we learn from the + representations of them given by Mr. Layard. + </p> + <p> + While the evidence of the actual monuments as to the character of + Esar-haddon’s buildings and their ornamentation is thus scanty, it + happens, curiously, that the Inscriptions furnish a particularly elaborate + and detailed account of them. It appears, from the principal record of the + time, that the temples which Esar-haddon built in Assyria and Babylonia—thirty-six + in number—were richly adorned with plates of silver and gold, which + made then (in the words of the Inscription) “as splendid as the day.” His + palace at Nineveh, a building situated on the mound called Nebbi Yunus, + was, we are told, erected upon the site of a former palace of the kings of + Assyria. Preparations for its construction were made, as for the great + buildings of Solomon by the collection of materials, iii wood, stone, and + metal, beforehand: these were furnished by the Phoenician, Syrian, and + Cyprian monarchs, who sent to Nineveh for the purpose great beams of + cedar, cypress, and ebony, stone statues, and various works in metals of + different kinds. The palace itself is said to have exceeded in size all + buildings of former kings. It was roofed with carved beams of cedar-wood; + it was in part supported by columns of cypress wood, ornamented and + strengthened with rings of silver and of iron; the portals were guarded by + stone bulls and lions; and the gates were made of ebony and cypress + ornamented with iron, silver, and ivory. There was, of course, the usual + adornment of the walls by means of sculptured slabs and enamelled bricks. + If the prejudices of the Mahometans against the possible disturbance of + their dead, and against the violation by infidel hands of the supposed + tomb of Jonah, should hereafter be dispelled, and excavations be freely + allowed in the Nebbi Yunus mound, we may look to obtain very precious + relics of Assyrian art from the palace of Esar-haddon, now lying buried + beneath the village or the tombs which share between them this most + important site. + </p> + <p> + Of Esar-haddon’s Babylonian palace nothing is at present known, beyond the + mere fact of its existence; but if the mounds at Hillah should ever be + thoroughly explored, we may expect to recover at least its ground-plan, if + not its sculptures and other ornaments. The Sherif Khan palace has been + examined pretty completely. It was very much inferior to the ordinary + palatial edifices of the Assyrians, being in fact only a house which + Esar-haddon built as a dwelling for his eldest son during his own + lifetime. Like the more imposing buildings of this king, it was probably + unfinished at his decease. At any rate its remains add nothing to our + knowledge of the state of art in Esar-haddon’s time, or to our estimate of + that monarch’s genius as a builder. + </p> + <p> + After a reign of thirteen years, Esar-haddon, “king of Assyria, Babylon, + Egypt, Meroe, and Ethiopia,” as he styles himself in his later + inscriptions, died, leaving his crown to his eldest son, Asshur-bani-pal, + whom he had already associated in the government. Asshur-bani-pal ascended + the throne in B.C. 668, or very early in B.C. 667; and his first act seems + to have been to appoint as viceroy of Babylon his younger brother + Saul-Mugina, who appears as Sam-mughes in Polyhistor, and as Saosduchinus + in the Canon of Ptolemy. + </p> + <p> + The first war in which Asshur-bani-pal engaged was most probably with + Egypt. Late in the reign of Esar-haddon, Tirhakah (as already stated 619) + had descended from the upper country, had recovered Thebes, Memphis, and + most of the other Egyptian cities, and expelled from them the princes and + governors appointed by Esar-haddon upon his conquest. Asshur-bani-pal, + shortly after his accession, collected his forces, and marched through + Syria into Egypt, where he defeated the army sent against him by Tirhakah + in a great battle near the city of Kar-banit. Tirhakah, who was at + Memphis, hearing of the disaster that had befallen his army, abandoned + Lower Egypt, and sailed up the Nile to Thebes, whither the forces of + Asshur-bani-pal followed him; but the nimble Ethiopian retreated still + further up the Nile valley, leaving all Egypt from Thebes downwards to his + adversary. Asshur-bani-pal, upon this, reinstated in their former + governments the various princes and rulers whom his lather had originally + appointed, and whom Tirhakah had expelled; and then, having rested and + refreshed his army by a short stay in Thebes, returned victoriously by way + of Syria to Nineveh. + </p> + <p> + Scarcely was he departed when intrigues began for the restoration of the + Ethiopian power. Neco and some of the other Egyptian governors, whom + Asshur-bani-pal had just reinstated in their posts, deserted the Assyrian + side and went over to the Ethiopians. Attempts were made to suppress the + incipient revolt by the governors who continued faithful; Neco and one or + two of his copartners in guilt were seized and sent in chains to Assyria; + and some of the cities chiefly implicated, as Sais, Mendes, and Tanis + (Zoan), were punished. But the efforts at suppression failed. Tirliakah + entered Upper Egypt, and having established himself at Thebes, threatened + to extend his authority once more over the whole of the Nilotic valley. + Thereupon Asshur-bani-pal, having forgiven Neco, sent him, accompanied by + a strong force, into Egypt; and Tirhakah was again compelled to quit the + lower country and retire to Upper Egypt, where he soon after died. His + crown fell to his step-son, Urdamane, who is perhaps the Rud-Amun of the + Hieroglyphics. This prince was at first very successful. He descended the + Nile valley in force, defeated the Assyrians near Memphis, drove them to + take refuge within its walls, besieged and took the city, and recovered + Lower Egypt. Upon this Asshur-bani-pal, who was in the city of Asshur when + he heard the news, went in person against his new adversary, who retreated + as he advanced, flying from Memphis to Thebes, and from Thebes to a city + called Kipkip, far up the course of the Nile. Asshur-bani-pal and his army + now entered Thebes, and sacked it. The plunder which was taken, consisting + of gold, silver, precious stones, dyed garments, captives male and female, + ivory, ebony, tame animals (such as monkeys and elephants) brought up in + the palace, obelisks, etc., was carried off and conveyed to Nineveh. + Governors were once more set up in the several cities, Psammetichus being + probably among them; and, hostages having been taken to secure their + fidelity, the Assyrian monarch returned home with his booty. + </p> + <p> + Between his first and second expedition into Egypt, Asshur-bani-pal was + engaged in warlike operations on the Syrian coast, and in transactions of + a different character with Cilicia. Returning from Egypt, he made an + attack on Tyre, whose king, Baal, had offended him, and having compelled + him to submit, exacted from him a large tribute, which he sent away to + Nineveh. About the same time Asshur-bani-pal entered into communication + with the Cilician monarch, whose name is not given, and took to wife a + daughter of that princely house, which was already connected with the + royal race of the Sargonids. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after his second Egyptian expedition, Asshur-bani-pal seems to + have invaded Asia Minor. Crossing the Taurus range, he penetrated to a + region never before visited by any Assyrian monarch; and, having reduced + various towns in these parts and returned to Nineveh, he received an + embassy of a very unusual character. “Gyges, king of Lydia,” he tells us, + “a country on the sea-coast, a remote place, of which the kings his + ancestors had never even heard the name, had formerly learnt in a dream + the fame of his empire, and had sent officers to his presence to perform + homage on his behalf.” He now sent a second time to Asshur-bani-pal, and + told him that since his submission he had been able to defeat the + Cimmerians, who had formerly ravaged his land with impunity; and he begged + his acceptance of two Cimmerian chiefs, whom he had taken in battle, + together with other presents, which Asshur-bani-pal regarded as a + “tribute.” About the same time the Assyrian monarch repulsed the attack of + the “king of Kharbat,” on a district of Babylonia, and, having taken + Kharbat, transported its inhabitants to Egypt. + </p> + <p> + After thus displaying his power and extending his dominions towards the + south-west, the north-west, and the south-east, Asshur-bani-pal turned his + arms towards the north-east, and invaded Minni, or Persarmenia—the + mountain-country about Lakes Van and Urumiyeh. Akhsheri, the king, having + lost his capital, Izirtu, and several other cities, was murdered by his + subjects; and his son, Vahalli, found himself compelled to make + submission, and sent an embassy to Nineveh to do homage, with tribute, + presents, and hostages. Asshur-bani-pal received the envoys graciously, + pardoned Vahalli, and maintained him upon the throne, but forced him to + pay a heavy tribute. He also in this expedition conquered a tract called + Paddiri, which former kings of Assyria had severed from Minni and made + independent, but which Asshur-bani-pal now attached to his own empire, and + placed under an Assyrian governor. + </p> + <p> + A war of some duration followed with Elam, or Susiana, the flames of which + at one time extended over almost the whole empire. This war was caused by + a transfer of allegiance. Certain tribes, pressed by a famine, had passed + from Susiana into the territories of Asshur-bani-pal, and were allowed to + settle there; but when, the famine being over, they wished to return to + their former country, Asshur-bani-pal would not consent to their + withdrawal. Urtaki, the Susianian king, took umbrage at this refusal, and, + determining to revenge himself, commenced hostilities by an invasion of + Babylonia. Belubager, king of the important Aramaean tribe of the Gambulu, + assisted him and Saul-Mugina, in alarm, sent to his brother for + protection. An Assyrian army was dispatched to his aid, before which + Urtaki fled. He was, however, pursued, caught and defeated. With some + difficulty he escaped and returned to Susa, where within a year he died, + without having made any fresh effort to injure or annoy his antagonist. + </p> + <p> + His death was a signal for a domestic revolution which proved very + advantageous to the Assyrians. Urtaki had driven his older brother, + Umman-aldas, from the throne, and, passing over the rights of his sons, + had assumed the supreme authority. At his death, his younger brother, + Temin-Umman, seized the crown, disregarding not only the rights of the + sons of Umman-aldas, but likewise those of the sons of Urtaki. As the + pretensions of those princes were dangerous, Temin-Umman endeavored to + seize their persons with the intention of putting them to death; but they, + having timely warning of their danger, fled; and, escaping to Nineveh with + their relations and adherents, put themselves under the protection of + Asshur-bani-pal. It thus happened that in the expedition which now + followed, Asshur-bani-pal had a party which favored him in Elam itself. + Temin-Umman, however, aware of this internal weakness, made great efforts + to compensate for it by the number of his foreign allies. Two descendants + of Merodach-Baladan, who had principalities upon the coast of the Persian + Gulf, two mountain chiefs, one of them a blood-connection of the Assyrian + crown, two sons of Belu-bagar, sheikh of the Gambulu, and several other + inferior chieftains, are mentioned as bringing their troops to his + assistance, and fighting in his cause against the Assyrians. All, however, + was in vain. Asshur-bani-pal defeated the allies in several engagements, + and finally took Temin-Umman prisoner, executed him, and exposed his head + over one of the gates of Nineveh. He then divided Elam between two of the + sons of Urrtaki, Umman-ibi and Tammarit, establishing the former in Susa, + and the latter at a town called Khidal in Eastern Susiana. Great + severities were exercised upon the various princes and nobles who had been + captured. A son of Temin-Umman was executed with his father. Several + grand-sons of Merodach-Baladin suffered mutilation, A Chaldaean prince and + one of the chieftains of the Clambulu had their tongues torn out by the + roots. Another of the Gambulu chiefs was decapitated. Two of the + Temin-Umman’s principal officers were chained and flayed. Palaya, a + grandson of Merodach-Baladan, was mutilated. Asshur-bani-pal evidently + hoped to strike terror into his enemies by these cruel, and now unusual, + punishments, which, being inflicted for the most part upon royal + personages, must have made a profound impression on the king-reverencing + Asiatics. + </p> + <p> + The impression made was, however, one of horror rather than of alarm. + Scarcely had the Assyrians returned to Nineveh, when fresh troubles broke + out. Saul-Mugina, discontented with his position, which was one of + complete dependence upon his brother, rebelled, and, declaring himself + king of Babylon in his own right, sought and obtained a number of + important allies among his neighbors. Umman-ibi, though he had received + his crown from Asshur-bani-pal, joined him, seduced by a gift of treasure + from the various Babylonian temples. Vaiteha, a powerful Arabian prince, + and Nebo-belsumi, a surviving grandson of Merodach-Baladan, came into the + confederacy; and Saul-Mugina had fair grounds for expecting that he would + be able to maintain his independence. But civil discord—the curse of + Elam at this period—once more showed itself, and blighted all these + fair prospects. Tammarit, the brother of Ummman-ibi, finding that the + latter had sent the flower of his army into Babylonia, marched against + him, defeated and slew him, and became king of all Elam. Maintaining, + however, the policy of his brother, he entered into alliance with + Saul-Mugina, and proceeded to put himself at the head of the Elamitic + contingent, which was serving in Babylonia. Here a just Nemesis overtook + him. Taking advantage of his absence, a certain Inda-bibi (or Inda-bigas), + a mountain-chief from the fastnesses of Luristan, raised a revolt in Elam, + and succeeded in seating himself upon the throne. The army in Babylonia + declining to maintain the cause of Tammarit, he was forced to fly and + conceal himself, while the Elamitic troops returned home. Saul-Mugina then + lost the most important of his allies at the moment of his greatest danger + for his brother had at length marched against him at the head of an + immense army, and was overrunning his northern provinces. Without the + Elamites it was impossible for Babylon to contend with Assyria in the Open + field. + </p> + <p> + All that Saul-Mugina could do was to defend his towns, which + Asshur-bani-pal besieged and took, one after another. The rebel fell into + his brother’s hands, and suffered a punishment more terrible than any that + the relentless conqueror had as yet inflicted on his captured enemies. + Others had been mutilated, or beheaded; Saul-Mugina was burnt. The tie of + blood, which was held to have aggravated the guilt of his rebellion, was + not allowed to be pleaded in mitigation of his sentence. + </p> + <p> + A pause of some years’ duration now occurred. The relations between + Assyria and Susiana were unfriendly, but not actually hostile. Inda-bibi + had given refuge to Nebo-bel-sumi at the time of Saul Mugina’s + discomfiture, and Asshur-bani-pal repeatedly but vainly demanded the + surrender of the refugee. He did not, however, attempt to enforce his + demand by an appeal to arms; and Inda-bibi might have retained his kingdom + in peace, had not domestic troubles arisen to disturb him. He was + conspired against by the commander of his archers, a second Umman-aldas, + who killed him and occupied his throne. Many pretenders, at the same time, + arose in different parts of the country; and Asshur-bani-pal, learning how + Elam was distracted, determined on a fresh effort to conquer it. He + renewed his demand for the surrender of Nebo-bel-sumi, who would have been + given up had he not committed suicide. Not content with this success, he + (ab. B.C. 645) invaded Elam, besieged and took Bit-Inibi, which had been + strongly fortified, and drove Umunan-aldas out of the plain country into + the mountains. Susa and Badaca, together with twenty-four other cities, + fell into his power; and Western Elam being thus at his disposal, he + placed it under the government of Tammarit, who, after his flight from + Babylonia, had become a refugee at the Assyrian court. Umman-aldas + retained the sovereignty of Eastern Elam. + </p> + <p> + But it was not long before fresh changes occurred. Tammarit, finding + himself little more than puppet-king in the hands of the Assyrians, formed + a plot to massacre all the foreign troops left to garrison this country, + and so to make himself an independent monarch. His intentions, however, + were discovered, and the plot failed. The Assyrians seized him, put him in + bonds, and sent him to Nineveh. Western Elam passed under purely military + rule, and suffered, it is probable, extreme severities. Under these + circumstances, Umman-aldas took heart, and made ready, in the fastnesses + to which he had fled, for another and a final effort. Having levied a vast + army, he, in the spring of the next year, made himself once more master of + Bit-Imbi, and, establishing himself there, prepared to resist the + Assyrians. Their forces shortly appeared; and, unable to hold the place + against their assaults, Umman-aldas evacuated it with his troops, and + fought a retreating fight all the way back to Susa, holding the various + strong towns and rivers in succession. Gallant, however, as was his + resistance it proved ineffectual. The lines of defence which he chose were + forced, one after another; and finally both Susa and Badaca were taken, + and the country once more lay at Asshur-bani-pal’s mercy. All the towns + made their submission. Asshur-bani-pal, burning with anger at their + revolt, plundered the capital of its treasures, and gave the other cities + up to be spoiled by his soldiers for the space of a month and twenty-three + days. He then formally abolished Susianian independence, and attached the + country as a province to the Assyrian empire. Thus ended the Susianian + war, after it had lasted, with brief interruptions, for the space of + (probably) twelve years. + </p> + <p> + The full occupation given to the Assyrian arms by this long struggle + encouraged revolt in other quarters. It was probably about the time when + Asshur-bani-pal was engaged in the thick of the contest with Umman-ibi and + Saul-Mugina that Psammetichus declared himself independent in Egypt, and + commenced a war against the princes who remained faithful to their + Assyrian suzerain. Gyges, too, in the far north-west, took the opportunity + to break with the formidable power with which he had recently thought it + prudent to curry favor, and sent aid to the Egyptian rebel, which rendered + him effective service. Egypt freed herself from the Assyrian yoke, and + entered on the prosperous period which is known as that of the + twenty-sixth (Saite) dynasty. Gyges was less fortunate. Assailed shortly + by a terrible enemy, which swept with resistless force over his whole + land, he lost his life in the struggle. Assyria was well and quickly + avenged; and Ardys, the new monarch, hastened to resume the deferential + attitude toward Asshur-bani-pal which his father had unwisely + relinquished. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-bani-pal’s next important war was against the Arabs. Some of the + desert tribes had, as already mentioned, lent assistance to Saul-Mugina + during his revolt against his suzerain, and it was to punish this audacity + that Asshur-bani-pal undertook his expedition. His principal enemy was a + certain Vaiteha, who had for allies Natun, or Nathan, king of the + Nabathivans, and Ammu-ladin, king of Kedar. The fighting seems to have + extended along the whole country bordering the Euphrates valley from the + Persian Gulf to Syria, and thence southwards by Damascus to Petra. Petra + itself, Muhab (or Moab), Hudumimtukrab (Edom), Zaharri (perhaps Zoar), and + several other cities were taken by the Assyrians. The final battle was + fought at a place called Kutkhuruna, in he mountains near Damascus, where + the Arabians were defeated with great slaughter, and the two chief, who + had led the Arab contingent to the assistance of Saul-Mugina were made + prisoners by the Assyrians. Asshur-bani-pal had them conducted to Nineveh, + and there publicly executed. + </p> + <p> + The annals of Asshur-bani-pal here terminate. They exhibit him to us as a + warrior more enterprising and more powerful than any of his predecessors, + and as one who enlarged in almost every direction the previous limits of + the empire. In Egypt he completed the work which his father Esar-haddon + had begun, and established the Assyrian dominion for some years, not only + at Sais and at Memphis, but at Thebes. In Asia Minor he carried the + Assyrian arms far beyond any former king, conquering large tracts which + had never before been invaded, and extending the reputation of his + greatness to the extreme western limits of the continent. Against his + northern neighbors he contended with unusual success, and towards the + close of his reign he reckoned, not only the Minni, but the Urarda, or + true Armenians, among his tributaries. Towards the south, he added to the + empire the great country of Susiana, never subdued until his reign: and on + the west, he signally chastised if he did not actually conquer, the Arabs. + </p> + <p> + To his military ardor Asshur-bani-pal added a passionate addiction to the + pleasure of the chase. Lion-hunting was his especial delight. Sometimes + along the banks of reedy streams, sometimes borne mid-channel in his + pleasure galley, he sought the king of beasts in his native haunts, roused + him by means of hounds and beaters from his lair, and despatched him with + his unerring arrows. Sometimes he enjoyed the sport in his own park of + paradise. Large and fierce beasts, brought from a distance, were placed in + traps about the grounds, and on his approach were set free from their + confinement, while he drove among them in his chariot, letting fly his + shafts at each with a strong and steady hand, which rarely failed to + attain the mark it aimed at. Aided only by two or three attendants armed + with spears, he would encounter the terrific spring of the bolder beasts, + who rushed frantically at the royal marksman and endeavored to tear him + from the chariot-board. Sometimes he would even voluntarily quit this + vantage-ground, and, engaging with the brutes on the same level, without + the protection of armor, in his everyday dress, with a mere fillet upon + his head, he would dare a close combat, and smite them with sword or spear + through the heart. + </p> + <p> + When the supply of lions fell short, or when he was satiated with this + kind of sport. Asshur-bani-pal would vary his occupation, and content + himself with game of an inferior description. Wild bulls were probably no + longer found in Assyria or the adjacent countries, so that he was + precluded from the sport which, next to the chase of the lion occupied and + delighted the earlier monarchs. He could indulge, however, freely in the + chase of the wild ass still to this day a habitant of the Mesopotamian + region; and he would hunt the stag, the hind, and the ibex or wild goat. + In these tamer kinds of sport he seems, however, to have indulged only + occasionally—as a light relaxation scarcely worthy of a great king. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-bani-pal is the only one of the Assyrian monarchs to whom we can + ascribe a real taste for learning and literature. The other kings were + content to leave behind them some records of the events of their reigns, + inscribed on cylinders, slabs, bulls, or lions, and a few dedicatory + inscriptions, addresses to the gods whom they especially worshipped. + Asshur-bani-pal’s literary tastes were far more varied—indeed they + were all-embracing. It seems to have been under his direction that the + vast collection of clay tablets—a sort of Royal Library—was + made at Nineveh, from which the British Museum has derived perhaps the + most valuable of its treasures. Comparative vocabularies, lists of deities + and their epithets, chronological lists of kings and eponyms, records of + astronomical observations, grammars, histories, scientific works of + various kinds, seems to have been composed in the reign, and probably at + the bidding of this prince, who devoted to their preservation certain + chambers in the palace of his grandfather, where they were found by Mr. + Layard. The clay tablets on which they were inscribed lay here in such + multitudes in some instances entire, but more commonly broken into + fragments—that they filled the chambers <i>to the height of a foot + or more from the floor</i>. Mr. Layard observes with justice that “the + documents thus discovered at Nineveh probably exceed [in amount of + writing] all that has yet been afforded by the monuments of Egypt.” They + have yielded of late years some most interesting results, and will + probably long continue to be a mine of almost inexhaustible wealth to the + cuneiform scholar. + </p> + <p> + As a builder, Asshur-bani-pal aspired to rival, if not even to excel, the + greatest of the monarchs who had preceded him. His palace was built on the + mound of Koyunjik, within a few hundred yards of the magnificent erection + of his grandfather, with which he was evidently not afraid to challenge + comparison. It was built on a plan unlike any adopted by former kings. The + main building consisted of three arms branching from at common centre, and + thus in its general shape resembled a gigantic T. The central point was + reached by a long ascending gallery lined with sculptures, which led from + a gateway, with rooms attached, at a corner of the great court, first a + distance of 190 feet in a direction parallel to the top bar of the T, and + then a distance of 80 feet in a direction at right angles to this, which + brought it down exactly to the central point whence the arms branched. The + entire building was thus a sort of cross, with one long arm projecting + from the top towards the left or west. The principal apartments were in + the lower limb of the cross. Here was a grand hall, running nearly the + whole length of the limb, at least 145 feet long by 28 feet broad, opening + towards the east on a great court, paved chiefly with the exquisite + patterned slabs of which a specimen has already been given, and + communicating towards the west with a number of smaller rooms, and through + them with a second court, which looked towards the south-west and the + south. The next largest apartment was in the right or eastern arm of the + cross. It was a hall 108 feet long by 24 feet wide, divided by a broad + doorway in which were two pillar-bases, into a square antechamber of 24 + feet each way, and an inner apartment about 80 feet in length. Neither of + the two arms of the cross was completely explored; and it is uncertain + whether they extended to the extreme edge of the eastern and western + courts, thus dividing each of there into two; or whether they only reached + into the courts a certain distance. Assuming the latter view as the more + probable, the two courts would have measured respectively 310 and 330 feet + from the north-west to the south-east, while they must have been from 230 + to 250 feet in the opposite direction. From the comparative privacy of the + buildings, and from the character of the sculptures, it appears probable + that the left or western arm of the cross formed the hareem of the + monarch. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable feature in the great palace of Asshur-bani-pal was the + beauty and elaborate character of the ornamentation. The courts were paved + with large slabs elegantly patterned. The doorways had sometimes arched + tops beautifully adorned with rosettes, lotuses, etc. The chambers and + passages were throughout lined with alabaster slabs, bearing reliefs + designed with wonderful spirit, and executed with the most extraordinary + minuteness and delicacy. It was here that were found all those exquisite + hunting scenes which have furnished its most interesting illustrations to + the present history. Here, too, were the representations of the private + life of the monarch, of the trees and flowers of the palace garden, of the + royal galley with its two banks of oars, of the libation over four dead + lions, of the temple with pillars supported on lions, and of various bands + of musicians, some of which have been already given. Combined with these + peaceful scenes and others of a similar character, as particularly a long + train, with game, nets, and dogs, returning from the chase, which formed + the adornment of a portion of the ascending passage, were a number of + views of sieges and battles, representing the wars of the monarch in + Susiana and elsewhere. Reliefs of a character very similar to these last + were found by Mr. Layard in certain chambers of the palace of Sennacherib, + which had received their ornamentation from Asshur-bani-pal. They were + remarkable for the unusual number and small size of the figures, for the + variety and spirit of the attitudes, and for the careful finish of all the + little details of the scenes represented upon them. Deficient in grouping, + and altogether destitute of any artistic unity, they yet give probably the + best representation that has come down to us of the confused <i>melee</i> + of an Assyrian battle, showing us at one view, as they do, all the various + phases of the flight and pursuit, the capture and treatment of the + prisoners, the gathering of the spoil, and the cutting off the heads of + the slain. These reliefs form now a portion of our National Collection. A + good idea may be formed of them from Mr. Layard’s Second Series of + Monuments, where they form the subject of five elaborate engravings. + </p> + <p> + Besides his own great palace at Koyun-jik, and his additions to the palace + of his grandfather at the same place, Asshur-bani-pal certainly + constructed some building, or buildings, at Nebbi Yunus, where slabs + inscribed with his name and an account of his wars have been found. If we + may regard him as the real monarch whom the Greeks generally intended by + their Sardanapalus, we may say that, according to some classical authors, + he was the builder of the city of Tarsus in Cilicia, and likewise of the + neighboring city of Anchialus; though writers of more authority tells us + that Tarsus, at any rate, was built by Sennacherib. It seems further to + have been very generally believed by the Greeks that the tomb of + Sardanapalus was in this neighborhood. They describe it as a monument of + some height, crowned by a statue of the monarch, who appeared to be in the + act of snapping his fingers. On the stone base was an inscription in + Assyrian characters, of which they believed the sense to run as follows:—“Sardanapalus, + son of Anacyndaraxes, built Tarsus and Anchialus in one day. Do thou, O + stranger, eat, and drink, and amuse thyself; for all the rest of human + life is not worth so much as <i>this</i>”—“this” meaning the sound + which the king was supposed to be making with his fingers. It appears + probable that there was some figure of this kind, with an Assyrian + inscription below it, near Anchialus; but, as we can scarcely suppose that + the Greeks could read the cuneiform writing, the presumed translation of + the inscription would seem to be valueless. Indeed, the very different + versions of the legend which are given by different writers sufficiently + indicate that they had no real knowledge of its purport. We may conjecture + that the monument was in reality a stele containing the king in an arched + frame, with the right hand raised above the left, which is the ordinary + attitude, and an inscription below commemorating the occasion of its + erection. Whether it was really set up by this king or by one of his + predecessors, we cannot say. The Greeks, who seem to have known more of + Asshur-bani-pal than of any other Assyrian monarch, in consequence of his + war in Asia Minor and his relations with Gyges and Ardys, are not unlikely + to have given his name to any Assyrian monument which they found in these + parts, whether in the local tradition it was regarded as his work or no. + </p> + <p> + Such, then, are the traditions of the Greeks with respect to this monarch. + The stories told by Ctesias of a king, to whom he gives the same name, and + repeated from him by later writers, are probably not intended to have any + reference to Asshur-bani-pal, the son of Esar-haddon, but rather refer to + his successor, the last king. Even Ctesias could scarcely have ventured to + depict to his countrymen the great Asshur-bani-pal, the vanquisher of + Tirhakah, the subduer of the tribes beyond the Taurus, the powerful and + warlike monarch whose friendship was courted by the rich and prosperous + Gyges, king of Lydia, as a mere voluptuary, who never put his foot outside + the palace gates, but dwelt in the seraglio, doing woman’s work, and often + dressed as a woman. The character of Asshur-bani-pal stands really in the + strongest contrast to the description—be it a portrait, or be it a + mere sketch from fancy—which Ctesias gives of his Sardanapalus. + Asshur-bani-pal, was beyond a doubt one of Assyria’s greatest kings. He + subdued Egypt and Susiana; he held quiet possession of the kingdom of + Babylon; he carried his arms deep into Armenia; he led his troops across + the Taurus, and subdued the barbarous tribes of Asia Minor. When he was + not engaged in important wars, he chiefly occupied himself in the chase of + the lion, and in the construction and ornamentation of temples and + palaces. His glory was well known to the Greeks. He was no doubt one of + the “two kings called Sardanapalus,” celebrated by Hellanicus; he must + have been “the warlike Sardanapalus” of Cailisthenes; Herodotus spoke of + his great wealth; and Aristophanes used his name as a by-word for + magnificence. In his reign the Assyrian dominions reached their greatest + extent, Assyrian art culminated, and the empire seemed likely to extend + itself over the whole of the East. It was then, indeed, that Assyria most + completely answered the description of the Prophet—“The Assyrian was + a cedar in Lebanon, with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and + of high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs. The waters made + him great; the deep set him up on high with her rivers running about his + plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the trees of the field. + Therefore his height was exalted above all the trees of the field, and his + boughs were multiplied, and his branches became long, because of the + multitude of waters, when he shot forth. All the fowls of the heaven made + their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all the beasts of + the field bring forth their young, and under his shadow dwelt <i>all great + nations</i>. Thus was he fair in his greatness, in the length of his + branches for his root was by great waters. The cedars in the garden of God + could not hide him; the fir-trees were not like his boughs; and the + chestnut-trees were not like his branches; <i>nor any tree in the garden + of God was like unto him in his beauty</i>.” + </p> + <p> + In one respect, however, Assyria, it is to be feared, had made but little + advance beyond the spirit of a comparatively barbarous time. The “lion” + still “tore in pieces for his whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and + filled his holes with prey, and his dens with ravin.” Advancing + civilization, more abundant literature, improved art, had not softened the + tempers of the Assyrians, nor rendered them more tender and compassionate + in their treatment of captured enemies. Sennacherib and Esar-haddon show, + indeed, in this respect, some superiority to former kings. They frequently + spared their prisoners, even when rebels, and seem seldom to have had + recourse to extreme punishments. But Asshur-bani-pal reverted to the + antique system of executions, mutilations, and tortures. We see on his + bas-reliefs the unresisting enemy thrust through with the spear, the + tongue torn from the mouth of the captive accused of blasphemy, the rebel + king beheaded on the field of battle, and the prisoner brought to + execution with the head of a friend or brother hung round his neck. We see + the scourgcrs preceding the king as his regular attendants, with their + whips passed through their girdles; we behold the operation of flaying + performed either upon living or dead men; we observe those who are about + to be executed first struck on the face by the executioner’s fist. + Altogether we seem to have evidence, not of mere severity, which may + sometimes be a necessary or even a merciful policy, but of a barbarous + cruelty, such as could not fail to harden and brutalize alike those who + witnessed and those who inflicted it. Nineveh, it is plain, still deserved + the epithet of “a bloody city,” or “a city of bloods.” Asshur-bani-pal was + harsh, vindictive, unsparing, careless of human suffering—nay, + glorying in his shame, he not merely practised cruelties, but handed the + record of them down to posterity by representing them in all their horrors + upon his palace walls. + </p> + <p> + It has been generally supposed that Asshur-bani-pal died about B.C. 648 or + 647, in which case he would have continued to the end of his life a + prosperous and mighty king. But recent discoveries render it probable that + his reign was extended to a much greater length—that, in fact, he is + to be identified with the Cinneladanus of Ptolemy’s Canon, who held the + throne of Babylon from B.C. 647 to 626. If this be so, we must place in + the later years of the reign of Asshur-bani-pal the commencement of + Assyria’s decline—the change whereby she passed from the assailer to + the assailed, from the undisputed primacy of Western Asia to a doubtful + and precarious position. + </p> + <p> + This change was owing, in the first instance, to the rise upon her borders + of an important military power in the centralized monarchy, established, + about B.C. 640, in the neighboring territory of Media. + </p> + <p> + The Medes had, it is probable, been for some time growing in strength, + owing to the recent arrival in their country of fresh immigrants from the + far East. Discarding the old system of separate government and village + autonomy, they had joined together and placed themselves under a single + monarch; and about the year B.C. 634, when Asshur-bani-pal had been king + for thirty-four years, they felt themselves sufficiently strong to + undertake an expedition against Nineveh. Their first attack, however, + failed utterly. Phraortes, or whoever may have been the real leader of the + invading army, was completely defeated by the Assyrians; his forces were + cut to pieces, and he himself was among the slain. Still, the very fact + that the Medes could now take the offensive and attack Assyria was novel + and alarming; it showed a new condition of things in these parts, and + foreboded no good to the power which was evidently on the decline and in + danger of losing its preponderance. An enterprising warrior would + doubtless have followed up the defeat of the invader by attacking him in + his own country before he could recover from the severe blow dealt him; + but the aged Assyrian monarch appears to have been content with repelling + his foe, and made no effort to retaliate. Cgaxares, the successor of the + slain Median king, effected at his leisure such arrangements as he thought + necessary before repeating his predecessor’s attempt. When they were + completed—perhaps in B.C. 632—he led his troops into Assyria, + defeated the Assyrian forces in the field, and, following up his + advantage, appeared before Nineveh and closely invested the town. Nineveh + would perhaps have fallen in this year; but suddenly and unexpectedly a + strange event recalled the Median monarch to his own country, where a + danger threatened him previously unknown in Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + When at the present day we take a general survey of the world’s past + history, we see that, by a species of fatality—by a law, that is, + whose workings we cannot trace—there issue from time to time out of + the frozen bosons of the North vast hordes of uncouth savages—brave, + hungry, countless—who swarm into the fairer southern regions + determinedly, irresistibly; like locusts winging their flight into a green + land. How such multitudes come to be propagated in countries where life is + with difficulty sustained, we do not know; why the impulse suddenly seizes + them to quit their old haunts and move steadily in a given direction, we + cannot say: but we see that the phenomenon is one of constant recurrence, + and we therefore now scarcely regard it as being curious or strange at + all. In Asia. Cimmerians, Scythians, Parthians, Mongols, Turks; in Europe, + Gauls, Goths, Huns, Avars, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Bulgarians, + have successively illustrated the law, and made us familiar with its + operation. But there was a time in history before the law had come into + force; and its very existence must have been then unsuspected. Even since + it began to operate, it has so often undergone prolonged suspension, that + the wisest may be excused if, under such circumstances, they cease to bear + it in mind, and are as much startled when a fresh illustration of it + occurs, as if the like had never happened before. Probably there is seldom + an occasion of its coming into play which does not take men more or less + by surprise, and rivet their attention by its seeming strangeness and real + unexpectedness. + </p> + <p> + If Western Asia had ever, in the remote ages before the Assyrian monarchy + was established, been subject to invasions of this character—which + is not improbable—at any rate so long a period had elapsed since the + latest of them, that in the reigns of Asshur-pani-pal and Cyaxares they + were wholly forgotten and the South reposed in happy unconsciousness of a + danger which might at any time have burst upon it, had the Providence + which governs the world so willed. The Asiatic steppes had long teemed + with a nomadic population, of a war-like temper, and but slightly attached + to its homes, which ignorance of its own strength and of the weakness and + wealth of its neighbors had alone prevented from troubling the great + empires of the South. Geographic difficulties had at once prolonged the + period of Ignorance, and acted as obstructions, if ever the idea arose of + pushing exploring parties into the southern regions; the Caucasus, the + Caspian, the sandy deserts of Khiva and Kharesm, and the great central + Asiatic mountain-chains, forming barriers which naturally restrained the + northern hordes from progressing in this direction. But a time had now + arrived when these causes were no longer to operate; the line of + demarcation which had so long separated North and South was to be crossed; + the flood-gates were to be opened, and the stream of northern emigration + was to pour itself in a resistless torrent over the fair and fertile + regions from which it had hitherto been barred out. Perhaps population had + increased beyond all former precedent; perhaps a spirit of enterprise had + arisen; possibly some slight accident—the exploration of a hunter + hard pressed for food, the chattering tongue of a merchant, the invitation + of a traitor—may have dispelled the ignorance of earlier times, and + brought to the knowledge of the hardy North the fact that beyond the + mountains and the seas, which they had always regarded as the extreme + limit of the world, there lay a rich prey inviting the coming of the + spoiler. + </p> + <p> + The condition of the northern barbarians, less than two hundred years + after this time, has been graphically portrayed by two of the most + observant of the Greeks, who themselves visited the Steppe country to + learn the character and customs of the people. Where civilization is + unknown, changes are so slow and slight, that we may reasonably regard the + descriptions of Herodotus and Hippocrates, though drawn in the fifth + century before our era, as applying, in all their main points, to the same + race two hundred years earlier. These writers describe the Scythians as a + people coarse and gross in their habits, with large fleshy bodies, loose + joints, soft swollen bellies, and scanty hair. They never washed + themselves; their nearest approach to ablution was a vapor-bath, or the + application of a paste to their bodies which left them glossy on its + removal. They lived either in wagons, or in felt tents of a simple and + rude construction; and subsisted on mare’s milk and cheese, to which the + boiled flesh of horses and cattle was added, as a rare delicacy, + occasionally. In war their customs were very barbarous. The Scythian who + slew an enemy in battle immediately proceeded to drink his blood. He then + cut off the head, which he exhibited to his king in order to obtain his + share of the spoil; after which he stripped the scalp from the skull and + hung it on his bridle-rein as a trophy. Sometimes he flayed his dead + enemy’s right arm and hand, and used the skin as a covering for his + quiver. The upper portion of the skull he commonly made into a + drinking-cup. The greater part of each day he spent on horseback, in + attendance on the huge herds of cattle which he pastured. His favorite + weapon was the bow, which he used as he rode, shooting his arrows with + great precision. He generally carried, besides his bow and arrows, a short + spear or javelin, and sometimes bore also a short sword or a battleaxe. <a + href="#linkEimage-0010">[PLATE CXLVI., Fig. 3.]</a> + </p> + <p> + The nation of the Scythians comprised within it a number of distinct + tribes. At the head of all was a royal tribe, corresponding to the “Golden + Horde” of the Mongols, which was braver and more numerous than any other, + and regarded all the remaining tribes in the light of slaves. To this + belonged the families of the kings, who ruled by hereditary right, and + seem to have exercised a very considerable authority. We often hear of + several kings as bearing rule at the same time; but there is generally + some indication of disparity, from which we gather that—in times of + danger at any rate—the supreme power was really always lodged in the + hands of a single man. + </p> + <p> + The religion of the Scythians was remarkable, and partook of the barbarity + which characterized most of their customs. They worshipped the Sun and + Moon, Fire, Air, Earth, Water, and a god whom Herodotus calls Hercules. + But their principal religious observance was the worship of the naked + sword. The country was parcelled out into districts, and in every district + was a huge pile of brushwood, serving as a temple to the neighborhood, at + the top of which was planted an antique sword or scimitar. On a stated day + in each year solemn sacrifices, human and animal, were offered at these + shrines; and the warm blood of the victims was carried up from below and + poured upon the weapon. The human victims—prisoners taken in war—were + hewn to pieces at the foot of the mound, and their limbs wildly tossed on + high by the votaries, who then retired, leaving the bloody fragments where + they chanced to fall. The Scythians seem to have had no priest caste; but + they believed in divination; and the diviners formed a distinct class + which possessed important powers. They were sent for whenever the king was + ill, to declare the cause of his illness, which they usually attributed to + the fact that an individual, whom they named, had sworn falsely by the + Royal Hearth. Those accused in this way, if found guilty by several bodies + of diviners, were beheaded for the offence, and their original accusers + received their property. It must have been important to keep on good terms + with persons who wielded such a power as this. + </p> + <p> + Such were the most striking customs of the Scythian people, or at any rate + of the Scythians of Herodotus, who were the dominant race over a large + portion of the Steppe country. Coarse and repulsive in their appearance, + fierce in their tempers, savage in their habits, not individually very + brave, but powerful by their numbers, and by a mode of warfare which was + difficult to meet, and in which long use had given them great expertness, + they were an enemy who might well strike alarm even into a nation so + strong and warlike as the Medes. Pouring through the passes of the + Caucasus—whence coming or what intending none knew—horde after + horde of Scythians blackened the rich plains of the South. On they came, + as before observed, like a flight of locusts, countless, irresistible—swarming + into Iberia and Upper Media—finding the land before them a garden, + and leaving it behind them a howling wilderness. Neither age nor sex would + be spared. The inhabitants of the open country and of the villages, if + they did not make their escape to high mountain tops or other strongholds, + would be ruthlessly massacred by the invaders, or at best, forced to + become their slaves. The crops would be consumed, the herds swept off or + destroyed, the villages and homesteads burnt, the whole country made a + scene of desolation. Their ravages would resemble those of the Huns when + they poured into Italy, or of the Bulgarians when they overran the fairest + provinces of the Byzantine Empire. In most instances the strongly + fortified towns would resist them, unless they had patience to sit down + before their walls and by a prolonged blockade to starve them into + submission. Sometimes, before things reached this point, they might + consent to receive a tribute and to retire. At other times, convinced that + by perseverance they would reap a rich reward, they may have remained till + the besieged city fell, when there must have ensued an indescribable scene + of havoc, rapine, and bloodshed. According to the broad expression of + Herodotus, the Scythians were masters of the whole of Western Asia from + the Caucasus to the borders of Egypt for the space of twenty-eight years. + This statement is doubtless an exaggeration; but still it would seem to be + certain that the great invasion of which he speaks was not confined to + Media, but extended to the adjacent countries of Armenia and Assyria, + whence it spread to Syria and Palestine. The hordes probably swarmed down + from Media through the Zagros passes into the richest portion of Assyria, + the flat country between the mountains and the Tigris. Many of the old + cities, rich with the accumulated stores of ages, were besieged, and + perhaps taken, and their palaces wantonly burnt, by the barbarous + invaders. The tide then swept on. Wandering from district to district, + plundering everywhere, settling nowhere, the clouds of horse passed over + Mesopotamia, the force of the invasion becoming weaker as it spread + itself, until in Syria it reached its term through the policy of the + Egyptian king, Psammetichus. This monarch, who was engaged in the siege of + Ashdod, no sooner heard of the approach of a great Scythian host, which + threatened to overrun Egypt, and had advanced as far as Ascalon, than he + sent ambassadors to their leader and prevailed on him by rich gifts to + abstain from his enterprise. From this time the power of the invaders + seems to have declined. Their strength could not but suffer by the long + series of battles, sieges, and skirmishes in which they were engaged year + after year against enemies in nowise contemptible; it would likewise + deteriorate through their excesses; and it may even have received some + injury from intestine quarrels. After awhile, the nations whom they had + overrun, whose armies they had defeated, and whose cities they had given + to the flames, began to recover themselves. Cyaxares, it is probable, + commenced an aggressive war against such of the invaders as had remained + within the limits of his dominions, and soon drove them beyond his + borders. Other kings may have followed his example. In a little while + long, probably, before the twenty-eight years of Herodotus had expired—the + Scythian power was completely broken. Many bands may have returned across + the Caucasus into the Steppe country. Others submitted, and took service + under the native rulers of Asia. Great numbers were slain and except in a + province of Armenia which henceforward became known as Sacasene, and + perhaps in one Syrian town, which we find called Scythopolis, the invaders + left no trace of their brief but terrible inroad. + </p> + <p> + If we have been right in supposing that the Scythian attack fell with as + much severity on the Assyrians as on any other Asiatic people, we can + scarcely be in error if we ascribe to this cause the rapid and sudden + decline of the empire at this period. The country had been ravaged and + depopulated, the provinces had been plundered, many of the great towns had + been taken and sacked, the palaces of the old kings had been burnt, and + all the gold and silver that was not hid away had been carried off. + Assyria, when the Scythians quitted her, was but the shadow of her former + self. Weak and exhausted, she seemed to invite a permanent conqueror. If + her limits had not much shrunk, if the provinces still acknowledged her + authority, it was from habit rather than from fear, or because they too + had suffered greatly from the northern barbarians. We find Babylon subject + to Assyria to the very last; and we seem to see that Judaea passed from + the rule of the Assyrians under that of the Babylonians, without any + interval of independence or any need of re-conquest. But if these two + powers at the south-eastern and the south-western extremities of the + empire continued faithful, the less distant nations could scarcely have + thrown off the yoke. + </p> + <p> + Asshur-bani-pal, then, on the withdrawal of the barbarians, had still an + empire to rule, and he may be supposed to have commenced some attempts at + re-organizing and re-invigorating the governmental system to which the + domination of the Scythe must have given a rude shock. But he had not time + to effect much. In B.C. 626 he died, after a reign of forty-two years, and + was succeeded by his son, Asshur-emid-ilin, whom the Greeks called + Saracus. Of this prince we possess but few native records; and, unless it + should be thought that the picture which Ctesias gave of the character and + conduct of his last Assyrian king deserves to be regarded as authentic + history, and to be attached to this monarch, we must confess to an almost + equal dearth of classical notices of his life and actions. Scarcely + anything has come down to us from his time but a few legends on bricks, + from which it appears that he was the builder of the south-east edifice at + Nimrud, a construction presenting some remarkable but no very interesting + features. The classical notices, apart from the tales which Ctesias + originated, are limited to a few sentences in Abydenus, and a word or two + in Polyhistor. Thus nearly the same obscurity which enfolds the earlier + portion of the history gathers about the monarch in whose person the + empire terminated; and instead of the ample details which have crowded + upon us now for many consecutive reigns, we shall be reduced to a meagre + outline, partly resting upon conjecture, in our portraiture of this last + king. + </p> + <p> + Saracus, as the monarch may be termed after Abydenus, ascended the throne + at a most difficult and dangerous crisis in his country’s history. Assyria + was exhausted; and perhaps half depopulated by the Scythic ravages. The + bands which united the provinces to the sovereign state, though not + broken, had been weakened, and rebellion threatened to break out in + various quarters. Ruin had overtaken many of the provincial towns; and it + would require a vast outlay to restore their public buildings. But the + treasury was wellnigh empty, and did not allow the new monarch to adopt in + his buildings the grand and magnificent style of former kings. Still + Saracus attempted something. At Calah he began the construction of a + building which apparently was intended for a palace, but which contrasts + most painfully with the palatial erections of former kings. The waning + glory of the monarchy was made patent both to the nation and to strangers + by an edifice where coarse slabs of common limestone, unsculptured and + uninscribed, replaced the alabaster bas-reliefs of former times; and where + a simple plaster above the slabs was the substitute for the + richly-patterned enamelled bricks of Sargon, Sennacherib, and + Asshur-bani-pal. A set of small chambers, of which no one exceeded + forty-five feet in length and twenty-five feet in its greatest breadth, + sufficed for the last Assyrian king, whose shrunken Court could no longer + have filled the vast halls of his ancestors. The Nimrud palace of Saracus + seems to have covered less than one-half of the space occupied by any + former palace upon the mound; it had no grand facade, no magnificent + gateway; the rooms, curiously misshapen, as if taste had declined with + power and wealth, were mostly small and inconvenient, running in suites + which opened into one another without any approaches from courts or + passages, roughly paved with limestone flags, and composed of sun-dried + bricks faced with limestone and plaster. That Saracus should have been + reduced even to contemplate residing in this poor and mean dwelling is the + strongest possible proof of Assyria’s decline and decay at a period + preceding the great war which led to her destruction. + </p> + <p> + It is possible that this edifice may not have been completed at the time + of Saracus’s death, and in that case we may suppose that its extreme + rudeness would have received certain embellishments had he lived to finish + the structure. While it was being erected, he must have resided elsewhere. + Apparently, he held his court at Nineveh during this period; and was + certainly there that he made his last arrangements for defence, and his + final stand against the enemy, who took advantage of his weak condition to + press forward the conquest of the empire. + </p> + <p> + The Medes, in their strong upland country, abounding in rocky hills, and + running up in places into mountain-chains, had probably suffered much less + from the ravages of the Scyths than the Assyrians in their comparatively + defenceless plains. Of all the nations exposed to the scourge of the + invasion they were evidently the first to recover themselves, partly from + the local causes here noticed, partly perhaps from their inherent vigor + and strength. If Herodotus’s date for the original inroad of the Scythians + is correct, not many years can have elapsed before the tide of war turned, + and the Medes began to make head against their assailants, recovering + possession of most parts of their country, and expelling or overpowering + the hordes at whose insolent domination they had chafed from the first + hour of the invasion. It was probably as early as B.C. 627, five years + after the Scyths crossed the Caucasus, according to Herodotus, that + Cyaxares, having sufficiently re-established his power in Media, began + once more to aspire after foreign conquests. Casting his eyes around upon + the neighboring countries, he became aware of the exhaustion of Assyria, + and perceived that she was not likely to offer an effectual resistance to + a sudden and vigorous attack. He therefore collected a large army and + invaded Assyria from the east, while it would seem that the Susianians, + with whom he had perhaps made an alliance, attacked her from the south. + </p> + <p> + To meet this double danger. Saracus, the Assyrian king, determined on + dividing his forces: and, while he entrusted a portion of them to a + general, Nabopolassar, who had orders to proceed to Babylon and engage the + enemy advancing from the sea, he himself with the remainder made ready to + receive the Medes. In idea this was probably a judicious disposition of + the troops at his disposal; it was politic to prevent a junction of the + two assailing powers, and, as the greater danger was that which threatened + from the Medes, it was well for the king to reserve himself with the bulk + of his forces to meet this enemy. But the most prudent arrangements may be + disconcerted by the treachery of those who are entrusted with their + execution; and so it was in the present instance. The faithless + Nabopolassar saw in his sovereign’s difficulty his own opportunity and, + instead of marching against Assyria’s enemies, as his duty required him, + he secretly negotiated an arrangement with Cyaxares, agreed to become his + ally against the Assyrians, and obtained the Median king’s daughter as a + bride for Nebuchadnezzar, his eldest son. Cyaxares and Nabopolassar then + joined their efforts against Nineveh; and Saracus, unable to resist them, + took counsel of his despair, and, after all means of resistance were + exhausted, burned himself in his palace. It is uncertain whether we + possess any further historical details of the siege. The narrative of + Ctesias may embody a certain number of the facts, as it certainly + represented with truth the strange yet not incredible termination. But on + the other hand, we cannot feel sure, with regard to any statement made + solely by that writer, that it has any other source than his imagination. + Hence the description of the last siege of Nineveh, as given by Diodorus + on the authority of Ctesias, seems undeserving of a place in history, + though the attention of the curious may properly be directed to it. + </p> + <p> + The empire of the Assyrians thus fell, not so much from any inherent + weakness, or from the effect of gradual decay, as by an unfortunate + combination of circumstances—the occurrence of a terrible inroad of + northern barbarians just at the time when a warlike nation, long settled + on the borders of Assyria, and within a short distance of her capital, was + increasing, partly by natural and regular causes, partly by accidental and + abnormal ones, in greatness and strength. It will be proper, in treating + of the history of Media, to trace out, as far as our materials allow, + these various causes, and to examine the mode and extent of their + operation. But such an inquiry is not suited for this place, since, if + fully made, it would lead us too far away from our present subject, which + is the history of Assyria; while, if made partially, it would be + unsatisfactory. It is therefore deferred to another place. The sketch here + attempted of Assyrian history will now be brought to a close by a few + observations on the general nature of the monarchy, or its extent in the + most flourishing period, and on the character of its civilization. + </p> + <p> + The independent kingdom of Assyria covered a space of at least a thousand + years; but the empire can, at the utmost, be considered to have lasted a + period short of seven centuries, from B.C. 1300 to B.C. 625 or 624—the + date of the conquest of Cyaxares. In reality, the period of extensive + domination seems to have commenced with Asshur-ris-ilim, about B.C. 1150, + so that the duration of the true empire did not much exceed five + centuries. The limits of the dominion varied considerably within this + period, the empire expanding or contracting according to the circumstances + of the time and the personal character of the prince by whom the throne + was occupied. The extreme extent appears not to have been reached until + almost immediately before the last rapid decline set in, the widest + dominion belonging to the time of Asshur-bani-pal, the conqueror of Egypt, + of Susiana, and of the Armenians. In the middle part of this prince’s + reign Assyria was paramount over the portion of Western Asia included + between the Mediterranean and the Halys on the one hand, the Caspian Sea + and the great Persian desert on the other. Southwards the boundary was + formed by Arabia and the Persian Gulf; northwards it seems at no time to + have advanced to the Euxine or to the Caucasus, but to have been formed by + a fluctuating line, which did not in the most flourishing period extend so + far as the northern frontier of Armenia. Besides her Asiatic dominions, + Assyria possessed also at this time a portion of Africa, her authority + being acknowledged by Egypt as far as the latitude of Thebes. The + countries included within the limits thus indicated, and subject during + the period in question to Assyrian influence, were chiefly the following: + Susiana, Chaldaea, Babylonia, Media, Matiene or the Zagros range, + Mesopotamia; parts of Armenia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia; Syria, Phoenicia, + Palestine. Idummaea, a portion of Arabia, and almost the whole of Egypt. + The island of Cyprus was also, it is probable, a dependency. On the other + hand, Persia Proper, Bactria, and Sogdiana, even Hyrcania, were beyond the + eastern limit of the Assyrian sway, which towards the north did not on + this side reach further than about the neighborhood of Kasvin, and towards + the south was confined within the barrier of Zagros. Similarly on the + west, Phrygia, Lydia, Lycia, even Pamphylia, were independent, the + Assyrian arms having never, so far as appears, penetrated westward beyond + Cilicia or crossed the river Halys. + </p> + <p> + The nature of the dominion established by the great Mesopotamian monarchy + over the countries included within the limits above indicated, will + perhaps be best understood if we compare it with the empire of Solomon. + Solomon reigned over <i>all the kingdoms</i> from the river (Euphrates) + unto the land of the Philistines and unto the border of Egypt: they <i>brought + presents</i> and served Solomon all the days of his life. The first and + most striking feature of the earliest empires is that they are a mere + congeries of kingdoms: the countries over which the dominant state + acquires an influence, not only retain their distinct individuality, as is + the case in some modern empires, but remain in all respects such as they + were before, with the simple addition of certain obligations contracted + towards the paramount authority. They keep their old laws, their old + religion, their line of kings, their law of succession, their whole + internal organization and machinery; they only acknowledge an external + suzerainty which binds them to the performance of certain duties towards + the Head of the Empire. These duties, as understood in the earliest times, + may be summed up in the two words “homage” and “tribute;” the subject + kings “serve” and “bring presents.” They are bound to acts of submission; + must attend the court of their suzerain when summoned, unless they have a + reasonable excuse; must there salute him as a superior, and otherwise + acknowledge his rank; above all, they must pay him regularly the fixed + tribute which has been imposed upon them at the time of their submission + or subjection, the unauthorized withholding of which is open and avowed + rebellion. Finally, they must allow his troops free passage through their + dominions, and must oppose any attempt at invasion by way of their country + on the part of his enemies. Such are the earliest and most essential + obligations on the part of the subject states in an empire of the + primitive type like that of Assyria; and these obligations, with the + corresponding one on the part of the dominant power of the protection of + its dependants against foreign foes, appear to have constituted the sole + links which joined together in one the heterogeneous materials of which + that empire consisted. + </p> + <p> + It is evident that a government of the character here described contains + within it elements of constant disunion and disorder. Under favorable + circumstances, with an active and energetic prince upon the throne, there + is an appearance of strength, and a realization of much magnificence and + grandeur. The subject monarchs pay annually their due share of “the + regulated tribute of the empire;” and the better to secure the favor of + their common sovereign, add to it presents, consisting of the choicest + productions of their respective kingdoms. The material resources of the + different countries are placed at the disposal of the dominant power; and + skilled workmen are readily lent for the service of the court, who adorn + or build the temples and the royal residences, and transplant the luxuries + and refinements of their several states to the imperial capital. But no + sooner does any untoward event occur, as a disastrous expedition, a + foreign attack, a domestic conspiracy, or even an untimely and unexpected + death of the reigning prince, than the inherent weakness of this sort of + government at once displays itself—the whole fabric of the empire + falls asunder—each kingdom re-asserts its independence—tribute + ceases to be paid—and the mistress of a hundred states suddenly + finds herself thrust back into her primitive condition, stripped of the + dominion which has been her strength, and thrown entirely upon her own + resources. Then the whole task of reconstruction has to be commenced anew—one + by one the rebel countries are overrun, and the rebel monarchs chastised—tribute + is re-imposed, submission enforced, and in fifteen or twenty years the + empire has perhaps recovered itself. Progress is of course slow and + uncertain, where the empire has continually to be built up again from its + foundations, and where at any time a day may undo the work which it has + taken centuries to accomplish. + </p> + <p> + To discourage and check the chronic disease of rebellion, re-course is had + to severe remedies, which diminish the danger to the central power, at the + cost of extreme misery and often almost entire ruin to the subject + kingdoms. Not only are the lands wasted, the flocks and herds carried off, + the towns pillaged and burnt, or in some cases razed to the ground, the + rebel king deposed and his crown transferred to another, the people + punished by the execution of hundreds or thousands as well as by an + augmentation of the tribute money; but sometimes wholesale deportation of + the inhabitants is practised, tens or hundreds of thousands being carried + away captive by the conquerors, and either employed in servile labor at + the capital or settled as colonists in a distant province. With this + practice the history of the Jews, in which it forms so prominent a + feature, has made us familiar. It seems to have been known to the + Assyrians from very early times, and to have become by degrees a sort of + settled principle in their government. In the most flourishing period of + their dominion—the reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon—it + prevailed most widely, and was carried to the greatest extent. Chaldaeans + were transported into Armenia, Jews and Israelites into Assyria and Media, + Arabians, Babylonians, Susianians, and Persians into Palestine—the + most distant portions of the empire changed inhabitants, and no sooner did + a people become troublesome from its patriotism and love of independence, + than it was weakened by dispersion, and its spirit subdued by a severance + of all its local associations. Thus rebellion was in some measure kept + down, and the position of the central or sovereign state was rendered so + far more secure; but this comparative security was gained by a great + sacrifice of strength, and when foreign invasion came, the subject + kingdoms, weakened at once and alienated by the treatment which they had + received, were found to have neither the will nor the power to give any + effectual aid to their enslaver. + </p> + <p> + Such, in its broad and general outlines, was the empire of the Assyrians. + It embodied the earliest, simplest, and most crude conception which the + human mind forms of a widely extended dominion. It was a “kingdom-empire,” + like the empires of Solomon, of Nebuchadnezzar, of Chedor-laomer, and + probably of Cyaxares, and it the best specimen of its class, being the + largest, the longest in duration, and the best known of all such + governments that has existed. It exhibits in a marked way both the + strength and weakness of this class of monarchies—their strength in + the extraordinary magnificence, grandeur, wealth, and refinement of the + capital; their weakness in the impoverishment, the exhaustion, and the + consequent disaffection of the subject states. Ever falling to pieces, it + was perpetually reconstructed by the genius and prowess of a long + succession of warrior princes, seconded by the skill and bravery of the + people. Fortunate in possessing for a longtime no very powerful neighbor, + it found little difficulty in extending itself throughout regions divided + and subdivided among hundreds of petty chiefs incapable of union, and + singly quite unable to contend with the forces of a large and populous + country. Frequently endangered by revolts, yet always triumphing over + them, it maintained itself for five centuries gradually advancing its + influence, and was only overthrown after a fierce struggle by a new + kingdom formed upon its borders, which, taking advantage of a time of + exhaustion, and leagued with the most powerful of the subject states, was + enabled to accomplish the destruction of the long-dominant people. + </p> + <p> + In the curt and dry records of the Assyrian monarchs, while the broad + outlines of the government are well marked, it is difficult to distinguish + those nicer shades of system and treatment which no doubt existed, and in + which the empire of the Assyrians differed probably from others of the + same type. One or two such points, however, may perhaps be made out. In + the first place, though religious uniformity is certainly not the law of + the empire, yet a religious character appears in many of the wars, and + attempts at any rate seem to be made to diffuse everywhere a knowledge and + recognition of the gods of Assyria. Nothing is more universal than the + practice of setting up in the subject countries the laws of Asshur or + “altars to the Great Gods.” In some instances not only altars but temples + are erected, and priests are left to superintend the worship and secure + its being properly conducted. The history of Judaea is, however, enough to + show that the continuance of the national worship was at least tolerated, + though some formal acknowledgment of the presiding deities of Assyria on + the part of the subject nations may not improbably have been required in + most cases. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, there is an indication that in certain countries immediately + bordering on Assyria endeavors were made from time to time to centralize + and consolidate the empire, by substituting, on fit occasions, for the + native chiefs, Assyrian officers as governors. The persons appointed are + of two classes—“collectors” and “treasurers.” Their special business + is, of course, as their names imply, to gather in the tribute due to the + Great King, and secure its safe transmission to the capital; but they seem + to have been, at least in some instances, entrusted with the civil + government of their respective districts. It does not appear that this + system was ever extended very far, Lebanon on the west, and Mount Zagros + on the east, may be regarded as the extreme limits of the centralized + Assyria. Armenia, Media, Babylonia, Susiana, most of Phoenicia, Palestine, + Philistia, retained to the last their native monarchs; and thus Assyria, + despite the feature here noticed, kept upon the whole her character of a + “kingdom-empire.” + </p> + <p> + The civilization of the Assyrians is a large subject, on which former + chapters of this work have, it is hoped, thrown some light, and upon which + only a very few remarks will be here offered by way of recapitulation. + Deriving originally letters and the elements of learning from Babylonia, + the Assyrians appear to have been content with the knowledge thus + obtained, and neither in literature nor in science to have progressed much + beyond their instructors. The heavy incubus of a dead language lay upon + all those who desired to devote themselves to scientific pursuits; and, + owing to this, knowledge tended to become the exclusive possession of a + learned or perhaps a priest class, which did not aim at progress, but was + satisfied to hand on the traditions of former ages. To understand the + genius of the Assyrian people we must look to their art and their + manufactures. These are in the main probably of native growth; and from + them we may best gather an impression of the national character. They show + us a patient, laborious, pains-taking people, with more appreciation of + the useful than the ornamental, and of the actual than the ideal. + Architecture, the only one of the fine arts which is essentially useful, + forms their chief glory; sculpture, and still more painting, are + subsidiary to it. Again, it is the most useful edifice—the palace or + house—whereon attention is concentrated—the temple and the + tomb, the interest attaching to which is ideal and spiritual, are + secondary, and appear (so far as they appear at all) simply as appendages + of the palace. In the sculpture it is the actual the historically true—which + the artist strives to represent. Unless in the case of a few mythic + figures connected with the religion of the country, there is nothing in + the Assyrian bas-reliefs which is not imitated from nature. The imitation + is always laborious, and often most accurate and exact. The laws of + representation, as we understand them, are sometimes departed from, but it + is always to impress the spectator with ideas in accordance with truth. + Thus the colossal bulls and lions have five legs, but in order that they + may be seen from every point of view with four; the ladders are placed + edgewise against the walls of besieged towns, but it is to show that they + are ladders, and not mere poles; walls of cities are made + disproportionately small, but it is done, like Raphael’s boat, to bring + them within the picture, which would otherwise be a less complete + representation of the actual fact. The careful finish, the minute detail, + the elaboration of every hair in a beard, and every stitch in the + embroidery of a dress, reminds us of the Dutch school of painting, and + illustrates strongly the spirit of faithfulness and honesty which pervades + the sculptures, and gives them so great a portion of their value. In + conception, in grace, in freedom and correctness of outline, they fall + undoubtedly far behind the inimitable productions of the Greeks; but they + have a grandeur and a dignity, a boldness, a strength, and an appearance + of life, which render them even intrinsically valuable as works of art, + and, considering the time at which they were produced, must excite our + surprise and admiration. Art, so far as we know, had existed previously + only in the stiff and lifeless conventionalism of the Egyptians. It + belonged to Assyria to confine the conventional to religion, and to apply + art to the vivid representation of the highest scenes of human life. War + in all its forms—the-march, the battle, the pursuit, the siege of + towns, the passage of rivers and marshes, the submission and treatment of + captives, and the “mimic war” of hunting the chase of the lion, the stag, + the antelope, the wild bull, and the wild ass, are the chief subjects + treated by the Assyrian sculptors; and in these the conventional is + discarded; fresh scenes, new groupings, bold and strange attitudes + perpetually appear, and in the animal representations especially there is + a continual advance, the latest being the most spirited, the most varied, + and the most true to nature, though perhaps lacking somewhat of the + majesty and grandeur of the earlier. With no attempt to idealize or go + beyond nature, there is a growing power of depicting things as they are—an + increased grace and delicacy of execution, showing that Assyrian art was + progressive, not stationary, and giving a promise of still higher + excellence, had circumstances permitted its development. + </p> + <p> + The art of Assyria has every appearance of thorough and entire + nationality; but it is impossible to feel sure that her manufactures were + in the same sense absolutely her own. The practice of borrowing skilled + workmen from the conquered states would introduce into Nineveh and the + other royal cities the fabrics of every region which acknowledged the + Assyrian sway; and plunder, tribute, and commerce would unite to enrich + them with the choicest products of all civilized countries. Still, judging + by the analogy of modern times, it seems most reasonable to suppose that + the bulk of the manufactured goods consumed in the country would be of + home growth. Hence we may fairly assume that the vases, jars, bronzes, + glass bottles, carved ornaments in ivory and mother-of-pearl, engraved + gems, bells, dishes, earrings, arms, working implements, etc., which have + been found at Nimrud, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, are mainly the handiwork of + the Assyrians. It has been conjectured that the rich garments represented + as worn by the kings and others were the product of Babylon, always famous + for its tissues; but even this is uncertain; and they are perhaps as + likely to have been of home manufacture. At any rate the bulk of the + ornaments, utensils, etc’., may be regarded as native products. They are + almost invariably of elegant form, and indicate a considerable knowledge + of metallurgy and other arts as well as a refined taste. Among them are + some which anticipate inventions believed till lately to have been modern. + Transparent glass (which, however, was known also in ancient Egypt) is one + of these; but the most remarkable of all is the lens discovered at Nimrud, + of the use of which as a magnifying agent there is abundant proof. If it + be borne in mind, in addition to all this, that the buildings of the + Assyrians show them to have been well acquainted with the principle of the + arch, that they constructed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains, that they knew + the use of the pulley, the lever, and the roller, that they understood the + arts of inlaying, enamelling, and overlaying with metals, and that they + cut gems with the greatest skill and finish, it will be apparent that + their civilization equalled that of almost any ancient country, and that + it did not fall immeasurably behind the boasted achievements of the + moderns. With much that was barbaric still attaching to them, with a rude + and inartificial government, savage passions, a debasing religion, and a + general tendency to materialism, they were, towards the close of their + empire, in all the ordinary arts and appliances of life, very nearly on a + par with ourselves; and thus their history furnishes a warning—which + the records of nations constantly repeat—that the greatest material + prosperity may co-exist with the decline—and herald the downfall—of + a kingdom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkE2H_APPE" id="linkE2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0011" id="linkEimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0508.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 508 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0012" id="linkEimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0509.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 509 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0013" id="linkEimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0510.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 510 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0014" id="linkEimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0511.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 511 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0015" id="linkEimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0512.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 512 " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkEimage-0016" id="linkEimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/page0513.jpg" width="100%" alt="Page 513 " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkEimage-0017" id="linkEimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/map_media.jpg"><img + alt="map_media_th (113K)" src="images/map_media_th.jpg" width="100%" /></a><br /> + [Click on Map to Elarge] <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The +Ancient Eastern World, Vol 2. 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