initial commit of ebook 16136HEADmain

27 files changed, 12684 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/16136-8.txt b/16136-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdc1560
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3744 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, American Addresses, with a Lecture on the
+Study of Biology, by Tomas Henry Huxley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology
+
+
+Author: Tomas Henry Huxley
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 26, 2005  [eBook #16136]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE
+ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Clare Boothby, Jeremy Weatherford, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 16136-h.htm or 16136-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136/16136-h/16136-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136/16136-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
+
+by
+
+THOMAS H. HUXLEY.
+
+London: MacMillan and Co.
+London: R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, Printers, Bread Street Hill,
+   Queen Victoria Street.
+
+1877
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     "Naturæ leges et regulæ, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis
+     formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."
+
+     B. DE SPINOZA, _Ethices_, Pars tertia, Præfatio.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  I. THREE LECTURES ON EVOLUTION (New York, September 18, 20, 22, 1876).
+
+      LECTURE I.   THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE HISTORY OF NATURE
+
+      LECTURE II.  THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION. THE NEUTRAL AND THE
+        FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE
+
+      LECTURE III. THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
+
+
+ II. AN ADDRESS ON THE OCCASION OF THE OPENING OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS
+       UNIVERSITY (Baltimore, September 12, 1876)
+
+
+III. A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH THE LOAN
+       COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS (South Kensington Museum,
+       December 16, 1876)
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK.
+
+LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE I.
+
+THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE HISTORY OF NATURE.
+
+
+We live in and form part of a system of things of immense diversity and
+perplexity, which we call Nature; and it is a matter of the deepest
+interest to all of us that we should form just conceptions of the
+constitution of that system and of its past history. With relation to
+this universe, man is, in extent, little more than a mathematical point;
+in duration but a fleeting shadow; he is a mere reed shaken in the winds
+of force. But, as Pascal long ago remarked, although a mere reed, he is
+a thinking reed; and in virtue of that wonderful capacity of thought, he
+has the power of framing for himself a symbolic conception of the
+universe, which, although doubtless highly imperfect and inadequate as a
+picture of the great whole, is yet sufficient to serve him as a chart
+for the guidance of his practical affairs. It has taken long ages of
+toilsome and often fruitless labour to enable man to look steadily at
+the shifting scenes of the phantasmagoria of Nature, to notice what is
+fixed among her fluctuations, and what is regular among her apparent
+irregularities; and it is only comparatively lately, within the last few
+centuries, that the conception of a universal order and of a definite
+course of things, which we term the course of Nature, has emerged.
+
+But, once originated, the conception of the constancy of the order of
+Nature has become the dominant idea of modern thought. To any person who
+is familiar with the facts upon which that conception is based, and is
+competent to estimate their significance, it has ceased to be
+conceivable that chance should have any place in the universe, or that
+events should depend upon any but the natural sequence of cause and
+effect. We have come to look upon the present as the child of the past
+and as the parent of the future; and, as we have excluded chance from a
+place in the universe, so we ignore, even as a possibility, the notion
+of any interference with the order of Nature. Whatever may be men's
+speculative doctrines, it is quite certain, that every intelligent
+person guides his life and risks his fortune upon the belief that the
+order of Nature is constant, and that the chain of natural causation is
+never broken.
+
+In fact, no belief which we entertain has so complete a logical basis as
+that to which I have just referred. It tacitly underlies every process
+of reasoning; it is the foundation of every act of the will. It is based
+upon the broadest induction, and it is verified by the most constant,
+regular, and universal of deductive processes. But we must recollect
+that any human belief, however broad its basis, however defensible it
+may seem, is, after all, only a probable belief, and that our widest and
+safest generalizations are simply statements of the highest degree of
+probability. Though we are quite clear about the constancy of the order
+of Nature, at the present time, and in the present state of things, it
+by no means necessarily follows that we are justified in expanding this
+generalisation into the infinite past, and in denying, absolutely, that
+there may have been a time when Nature did not follow a fixed order,
+when the relations of cause and effect were not definite, and when
+extra-natural agencies interfered with the general course of Nature.
+Cautious men will allow that a universe so different from that which we
+know may have existed; just as a very candid thinker may admit that a
+world in which two and two do not make four, and in which two straight
+lines do inclose a space, may exist. But the same caution which forces
+the admission of such possibilities demands a great deal of evidence
+before it recognises them to be anything more substantial. And when it
+is asserted that, so many thousand years ago, events occurred in a
+manner utterly foreign to and inconsistent with the existing laws of
+Nature, men, who without being particularly cautious, are simply honest
+thinkers, unwilling to deceive themselves or delude others, ask for
+trustworthy evidence of the fact.
+
+Did things so happen or did they not? This is a historical question, and
+one the answer to which must be sought in the same way as the solution
+of any other historical problem.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses which ever have been
+entertained, or which well can be entertained, respecting the past
+history of Nature. I will, in the first place, state the hypotheses, and
+then I will consider what evidence bearing upon them is in our
+possession, and by what light of criticism that evidence is to be
+interpreted.
+
+Upon the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that phenomena of Nature
+similar to those exhibited by the present world have always existed; in
+other words, that the universe has existed from all eternity in what may
+be broadly termed its present condition.
+
+The second hypothesis is, that the present state of things has had only
+a limited duration; and that, at some period in the past, a condition of
+the world, essentially similar to that which we now know, came into
+existence, without any precedent condition from which it could have
+naturally proceeded. The assumption that successive states of Nature
+have arisen, each without any relation of natural causation to an
+antecedent state, is a mere modification of this second hypothesis.
+
+The third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of things has
+had but a limited duration; but it supposes that this state has been
+evolved by a natural process from an antecedent state, and that from
+another, and so on; and, on this hypothesis, the attempt to assign any
+limit to the series of past changes is, usually, given up.
+
+It is so needful to form clear and distinct notions of what is really
+meant by each of these hypotheses that I will ask you to imagine what,
+according to each, would have been visible to a spectator of the events
+which constitute the history of the earth. On the first hypothesis,
+however far back in time that spectator might be placed, he would see a
+world essentially, though perhaps not in all its details, similar to
+that which now exists. The animals which existed would be the ancestors
+of those which now live, and similar to them; the plants, in like
+manner, would be such as we know; and the mountains, plains, and waters
+would foreshadow the salient features of our present land and water.
+This view was held more or less distinctly, sometimes combined with the
+notion of recurrent cycles of change, in ancient times; and its
+influence has been felt down to the present day. It is worthy of remark
+that it is a hypothesis which is not inconsistent with the doctrine of
+Uniformitarianism, with which geologists are familiar. That doctrine was
+held by Hutton, and in his earlier days by Lyell. Hutton was struck by
+the demonstration of astronomers that the perturbations of the planetary
+bodies, however great they may be, yet sooner or later right themselves;
+and that the solar system possesses a self-adjusting power by which
+these aberrations are all brought back to a mean condition. Hutton
+imagined that the like might be true of terrestrial changes; although no
+one recognised more clearly than he the fact that the dry land is being
+constantly washed down by rain and rivers and deposited in the sea; and
+that thus, in a longer or shorter time, the inequalities of the earth's
+surface must be levelled, and its high lands brought down to the ocean.
+But, taking into account the internal forces of the earth, which,
+upheaving the sea-bottom give rise to new land, he thought that these
+operations of degradation and elevation might compensate each other; and
+that thus, for any assignable time, the general features of our planet
+might remain what they are. And inasmuch as, under these circumstances,
+there need be no limit to the propagation of animals and plants, it is
+clear that the consistent working-out of the uniformitarian idea might
+lead to the conception of the eternity of the world. Not that I mean to
+say that either Hutton or Lyell held this conception--assuredly not;
+they would have been the first to repudiate it. Nevertheless, the
+logical development of their arguments tends directly towards this
+hypothesis.
+
+The second hypothesis supposes that the present order of things, at some
+no very remote time, had a sudden origin, and that the world, such as it
+now is, had chaos for its phenomenal antecedent. That is the doctrine
+which you will find stated most fully and clearly in the immortal poem
+of John Milton--the English _Divina Commedia--Paradise Lost_. I believe
+it is largely to the influence of that remarkable work, combined with
+the daily teachings to which we have all listened in our childhood, that
+this hypothesis owes its general wide diffusion as one of the current
+beliefs of English-speaking people. If you turn to the seventh book of
+_Paradise Lost_, you will find there stated the hypothesis to which I
+refer, which is briefly this: That this visible universe of ours came
+into existence at no great distance of time from the present; and that
+the parts of which it is composed made their appearance, in a certain
+definite order, in the space of six natural days, in such a manner that,
+on the first of these days, light appeared; that, on the second, the
+firmament, or sky, separated the waters above, from the waters beneath
+the firmament; that, on the third day, the waters drew away from the dry
+land, and upon it a varied vegetable life, similar to that which now
+exists, made its appearance; that the fourth day was signalised by the
+apparition of the sun, the stars, the moon, and the planets; that, on
+the fifth day, aquatic animals originated within the waters; that, on
+the sixth day, the earth gave rise to our four-footed terrestrial
+creatures, and to all varieties of terrestrial animals except birds,
+which had appeared on the preceding day; and, finally, that man appeared
+upon the earth, and the emergence of the universe from chaos was
+finished. Milton tells us, without the least ambiguity, what a spectator
+of these marvellous occurrences would have witnessed. I doubt not that
+his poem is familiar to all of you, but I should like to recall one
+passage to your minds, in order that I may be justified in what I have
+said regarding the perfectly concrete, definite picture of the origin of
+the animal world which Milton draws. He says:--
+
+    "The sixth, and of creation last, arose
+    With evening harps and matin, when God said,
+    'Let the earth bring forth soul living in her kind,
+    Cattle and creeping things, and beast of the earth,
+    Each in their kind!' The earth obeyed, and, straight
+    Opening her fertile womb, teemed at a birth
+    Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms,
+    Limbed and full-grown. Out of the ground uprose,
+    As from his lair, the wild beast, where he wons
+    In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den;
+    Among the trees in pairs they rose, they walked;
+    The cattle in the fields and meadows green;
+    Those rare and solitary; these in flocks
+    Pasturing at once, and in broad herds upsprung.
+    The grassy clods now calved; now half appears
+    The tawny lion, pawing to get free
+    His hinder parts--then springs, as broke from bonds,
+    And rampant shakes his brinded mane; the ounce,
+    The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole
+    Rising, the crumbled earth above them threw
+    In hillocks; the swift stag from underground
+    Bore up his branching head; scarce from his mould
+    Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved
+    His vastness; fleeced the flocks and bleating rose
+    As plants; ambiguous between sea and land,
+    The river-horse and scaly crocodile.
+    At once came forth whatever creeps the ground,
+    Insect or worm."
+
+There is no doubt as to the meaning of this statement, nor as to what a
+man of Milton's genius expected would have been actually visible to an
+eye-witness of this mode of origination of living things.
+
+The third hypothesis, or the hypothesis of evolution, supposes that, at
+any comparatively late period of past time, our imaginary spectator
+would meet with a state of things very similar to that which now
+obtains; but that the likeness of the past to the present would
+gradually become less and less, in proportion to the remoteness of his
+period of observation from the present day; that the existing
+distribution of mountains and plains, of rivers and seas, would show
+itself to be the product of a slow process of natural change operating
+upon more and more widely different antecedent conditions of the mineral
+framework of the earth; until, at length, in place of that framework, he
+would behold only a vast nebulous mass, representing the constituents of
+the sun and of the planetary bodies. Preceding the forms of life which
+now exist, our observer would see animals and plants not identical with
+them, but like them; increasing their differences with their antiquity
+and, at the same time, becoming simpler and simpler; until, finally, the
+world of life would present nothing but that undifferentiated
+protoplasmic matter which, so far as our present knowledge goes, is the
+common foundation of all vital activity.
+
+The hypothesis of evolution supposes that in all this vast progression
+there would be no breach of continuity, no point at which we could say
+"This a natural process," and "This is not a natural process;" but that
+the whole might be compared to that wonderful process of development
+which may be seen going on every day under our eyes, in virtue of which
+there arises, out of the semi-fluid, comparatively homogeneous substance
+which we call an egg, the complicated organization of one of the higher
+animals. That, in a few words, is what is meant by the hypothesis of
+evolution.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have already suggested that in dealing with these three hypotheses, in
+endeavouring to form a judgment as to which of them is the more worthy
+of belief, or whether none is worthy of belief--in which case our
+condition of mind should be that suspension of judgment which is so
+difficult to all but trained intellects--we should be indifferent to all
+_à priori_ considerations. The question is a question of historical
+fact. The universe has come into existence somehow or other, and the
+problem is, whether it came into existence in one fashion, or whether it
+came into existence in another; and, as an essential preliminary to
+further discussion, permit me to say two or three words as to the nature
+and the kinds of historical evidence.
+
+The evidence as to the occurrence of any event in past time may be
+ranged under two heads which, for convenience' sake, I will speak of as
+testimonial evidence and as circumstantial evidence. By testimonial
+evidence I mean human testimony; and by circumstantial evidence I mean
+evidence which is not human testimony. Let me illustrate by a familiar
+example what I understand by these two kinds of evidence, and what is to
+be said respecting their value.
+
+Suppose that a man tells you that he saw a person strike another and
+kill him; that is testimonial evidence of the fact of murder. But it is
+possible to have circumstantial evidence of the fact of murder; that is
+to say, you may find a man dying with a wound upon his head having
+exactly the form and character of the wound which is made by an axe,
+and, with due care in taking surrounding circumstances into account, you
+may conclude with the utmost certainty that the man has been murdered;
+that his death is the consequence of a blow inflicted by another man
+with that implement. We are very much in the habit of considering
+circumstantial evidence as of less value than testimonial evidence, and
+it may be that, where the circumstances are not perfectly clear and
+intelligible, it is a dangerous and unsafe kind of evidence; but it must
+not be forgotten that, in many cases, circumstantial is quite as
+conclusive as testimonial evidence, and that, not unfrequently, it is a
+great deal weightier than testimonial evidence. For example, take the
+case to which I referred just now. The circumstantial evidence may be
+better and more convincing than the testimonial evidence; for it may be
+impossible, under the conditions that I have defined, to suppose that
+the man met his death from any cause but the violent blow of an axe
+wielded by another man. The circumstantial evidence in favour of a
+murder having been committed, in that case, is as complete and as
+convincing as evidence can be. It is evidence which is open to no doubt
+and to no falsification. But the testimony of a witness is open to
+multitudinous doubts. He may have been mistaken. He may have been
+actuated by malice. It has constantly happened that even an accurate man
+has declared that a thing has happened in this, that, or the other way,
+when a careful analysis of the circumstantial evidence has shown that it
+did not happen in that way, but in some other way.
+
+We may now consider the evidence in favour of or against the three
+hypotheses. Let me first direct your attention to what is to be said
+about the hypothesis of the eternity of the state of things in which we
+now live. What will first strike you is, that it is a hypothesis which,
+whether true or false, is not capable of verification by any evidence.
+For, in order to obtain either circumstantial or testimonial evidence
+sufficient to prove the eternity of duration of the present state of
+nature, you must have an eternity of witnesses or an infinity of
+circumstances, and neither of these is attainable. It is utterly
+impossible that such evidence should be carried beyond a certain point
+of time; and all that could be said, at most, would be, that so far as
+the evidence could be traced, there was nothing to contradict the
+hypothesis. But when you look, not to the testimonial evidence--which,
+considering the relative insignificance of the antiquity of human
+records, might not be good for much in this case--but to the
+circumstantial evidence, then you find that this hypothesis is
+absolutely incompatible with such evidence as we have; which is of so
+plain and so simple a character that it is impossible in any way to
+escape from the conclusions which it forces upon us.
+
+You are, doubtless, all aware that the outer substance of the earth,
+which alone is accessible to direct observation, is not of a homogeneous
+character, but that it is made up of a number of layers or strata, the
+titles of the principal groups of which are placed upon the accompanying
+diagram. Each of these groups represents a number of beds of sand, of
+stone, of clay, of slate, and of various other materials.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH.]
+
+On careful examination, it is found that the materials of which each of
+these layers of more or less hard rock are composed are, for the most
+part, of the same nature as those which are at present being formed
+under known conditions on the surface of the earth. For example, the
+chalk, which constitutes a great part of the Cretaceous formation in
+some parts of the world, is practically identical in its physical and
+chemical characters with a substance which is now being formed at the
+bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, and covers an enormous area; other beds of
+rock are comparable with the sands which are being formed upon
+sea-shores, packed together, and so on. Thus, omitting rocks of igneous
+origin, it is demonstrable that all these beds of stone, of which a
+total of not less than seventy thousand feet is known, have been formed
+by natural agencies, either out of the waste and washing of the dry
+land, or else by the accumulation of the exuviæ of plants and animals.
+Many of these strata are full of such exuviæ--the so-called "fossils."
+Remains of thousands of species of animals and plants, as perfectly
+recognisable as those of existing forms of life which you meet with in
+museums, or as the shells which you pick up upon the sea-beech, have
+been imbedded in the ancient sands, or muds, or limestones, just as they
+are being imbedded now, in sandy, or clayey, or calcareous subaqueous
+deposits. They furnish us with a record, the general nature of which
+cannot be misinterpreted, of the kinds of things that have lived upon
+the surface of the earth during the time that is registered by this
+great thickness of stratified rocks. But even a superficial study of
+these fossils shows us that the animals and plants which live at the
+present time have had only a temporary duration; for the remains of such
+modern forms of life are met with, for the most part, only in the
+uppermost or latest tertiaries, and their number rapidly diminishes in
+the lower deposits of that epoch. In the older tertiaries, the places of
+existing animals and plants are taken by other forms, as numerous and
+diversified as those which live now in the same localities, but more or
+less different from them; in the mesozoic rocks, these are replaced by
+others yet more divergent from modern types; and in the palæozoic
+formations the contrast is still more marked. Thus the circumstantial
+evidence absolutely negatives the conception of the eternity of the
+present condition of things. We can say with certainty that the present
+condition of things has existed for a comparatively short period; and
+that, so far as animal and vegetable nature are concerned, it has been
+preceded by a different condition. We can pursue this evidence until we
+reach the lowest of the stratified rocks, in which we lose the
+indications of life altogether. The hypothesis of the eternity of the
+present state of nature may therefore be put out of court.
+
+We now come to what I will term Milton's hypothesis--the hypothesis that
+the present condition of things has endured for a comparatively short
+time; and, at the commencement of that time, came into existence within
+the course of six days. I doubt not that it may have excited some
+surprise in your minds that I should have spoken of this as Milton's
+hypothesis, rather than that I should have chosen the terms which are
+more customary, such as "the doctrine of creation," or "the Biblical
+doctrine," or "the doctrine of Moses," all of which denominations, as
+applied to the hypothesis to which I have just referred, are certainly
+much more familiar to you than the title of the Miltonic hypothesis. But
+I have had what I cannot but think are very weighty reasons for taking
+the course which I have pursued. In the first place, I have discarded
+the title of the "doctrine of creation," because my present business is
+not with the question why the objects which constitute Nature came into
+existence, but when they came into existence, and in what order. This is
+as strictly a historical question as the question when the Angles and
+the Jutes invaded England, and whether they preceded or followed the
+Romans. But the question about creation is a philosophical problem, and
+one which cannot be solved, or even approached, by the historical
+method. What we want to learn is, whether the facts, so far as they are
+known, afford evidence that things arose in the way described by Milton,
+or whether they do not; and, when that question is settled, it will be
+time enough to inquire into the causes of their origination.
+
+In the second place, I have not spoken of this doctrine as the Biblical
+doctrine. It is quite true that persons as diverse in their general
+views as Milton the Protestant and the celebrated Jesuit Father Suarez,
+each put upon the first chapter of Genesis the interpretation embodied
+in Milton's poem. It is quite true that this interpretation is that
+which has been instilled into every one of us in our childhood; but I do
+not for one moment venture to say that it can properly be called the
+Biblical doctrine. It is not my business, and does not lie within my
+competency, to say what the Hebrew text does, and what it does not
+signify; moreover, were I to affirm that this is the Biblical doctrine,
+I should be met by the authority of many eminent scholars, to say
+nothing of men of science, who, at various times, have absolutely denied
+that any such doctrine is to be found in Genesis. If we are to listen to
+many expositors of no mean authority, we must believe that what seems so
+clearly defined in Genesis--as if very great pains had been taken that
+there should be no possibility of mistake--is not the meaning of the
+text at all. The account is divided into periods that we may make just
+as long or as short as convenience requires. We are also to understand
+that it is consistent with the original text to believe that the most
+complex plants and animals may have been evolved by natural processes,
+lasting for millions of years, out of structureless rudiments. A person
+who is not a Hebrew scholar can only stand aside and admire the
+marvellous flexibility of a language which admits of such diverse
+interpretations. But assuredly, in the face of such contradictions of
+authority upon matters respecting which he is incompetent to form any
+judgment, he will abstain, as I do, from giving any opinion.
+
+In the third place, I have carefully abstained from speaking of this as
+the Mosaic doctrine, because we are now assured upon the authority of
+the highest critics, and even of dignitaries of the Church, that there
+is no evidence that Moses wrote the Book of Genesis, or knew anything
+about it. You will understand that I give no judgment--it would be an
+impertinence upon my part to volunteer even a suggestion--upon such a
+subject. But, that being the state of opinion among the scholars and the
+clergy, it is well for the unlearned in Hebrew lore, and for the laity,
+to avoid entangling themselves in such a vexed question. Happily, Milton
+leaves us no excuse for doubting what he means, and I shall therefore be
+safe in speaking of the opinion in question as the Miltonic hypothesis.
+
+Now we have to test that hypothesis. For my part, I have no prejudice
+one way or the other. If there is evidence in favour of this view, I am
+burdened by no theoretical difficulties in the way of accepting it; but
+there must be evidence. Scientific men get an awkward habit--no, I won't
+call it that, for it is a valuable habit--of believing nothing unless
+there is evidence for it; and they have a way of looking upon belief
+which is not based upon evidence, not only as illogical, but as immoral.
+We will, if you please, test this view by the circumstantial evidence
+alone; for, from what I have said, you will understand that I do not
+propose to discuss the question of what testimonial evidence is to be
+adduced in favour of it. If those whose business it is to judge are not
+at one as to the authenticity of the only evidence of that kind which is
+offered, nor as to the facts to which it bears witness, the discussion
+of such evidence is superfluous.
+
+But I may be permitted to regret this necessity of rejecting the
+testimonial evidence the less, because the examination of the
+circumstantial evidence leads to the conclusion, not only that it is
+incompetent to justify the hypothesis, but that, so far as it goes, it
+is contrary to the hypothesis.
+
+The considerations upon which I base this conclusion are of the simplest
+possible character. The Miltonic hypothesis contains assertions of a
+very definite character relating to the succession of living forms. It
+is stated that plants, for example, made their appearance upon the third
+day, and not before. And you will understand that what the poet means by
+plants are such plants as now live, the ancestors, in the ordinary way
+of propagation of like by like, of the trees and shrubs which flourish
+in the present world. It must needs be so; for, if they were different,
+either the existing plants have been the result of a separate
+origination since that described by Milton, of which we have no record,
+nor any ground for supposition that such an occurrence has taken place;
+or else they have arisen by a process of evolution from the original
+stocks.
+
+In the second place, it is clear that there was no animal life before
+the fifth day, and that, on the fifth day, aquatic animals and birds
+appeared. And it is further clear that terrestrial living things, other
+than birds, made their appearance upon the sixth day, and not before.
+Hence, it follows that, if, in the large mass of circumstantial evidence
+as to what really has happened in the past history of the globe we find
+indications of the existence of terrestrial animals, other than birds,
+at a certain period, it is perfectly certain that all that has taken
+place since that time must be referred to the sixth day.
+
+In the great Carboniferous formation, whence America derives so vast a
+proportion of her actual and potential wealth, in the beds of coal which
+have been formed from the vegetation of that period, we find abundant
+evidence of the existence of terrestrial animals. They have been
+described, not only by European but by your own naturalists. There are
+to be found numerous insects allied to our cockroaches. There are to be
+found spiders and scorpions of large size, the latter so similar to
+existing scorpions that it requires the practised eye of the naturalist
+to distinguish them. Inasmuch as these animals can be proved to have
+been alive in the Carboniferous epoch, it is perfectly clear that, if
+the Miltonic account is to be accepted, the huge mass of rocks extending
+from the middle of the Palæozoic formations to the uppermost members of
+the series, must belong to the day which is termed by Milton the sixth.
+But, further, it is expressly stated that aquatic animals took their
+origin upon the fifth day, and not before; hence, all formations in
+which remains of aquatic animals can be proved to exist, and which
+therefore testify that such animals lived at the time when these
+formations were in course of deposition, must have been deposited during
+or since the period which Milton speaks of as the fifth day. But there
+is absolutely no fossiliferous formation in which the remains of aquatic
+animals are absent. The oldest fossils in the Silurian rocks are exuviæ
+of marine animals; and if the view which is entertained by Principal
+Dawson and Dr. Carpenter respecting the nature of the _Eozoön_ be well
+founded, aquatic animals existed at a period as far antecedent to the
+deposition of the coal as the coal is from us; inasmuch as the _Eozoön_
+is met with in those Laurentian strata which lie at the bottom of the
+series of stratified rocks. Hence it follows, plainly enough, that the
+whole series of stratified rocks, if they are to be brought into harmony
+with Milton, must be referred to the fifth and sixth days, and that we
+cannot hope to find the slightest trace of the products of the earlier
+days in the geological record. When we consider these simple facts, we
+see how absolutely futile are the attempts that have been made to draw a
+parallel between the story told by so much of the crust of the earth as
+is known to us and the story which Milton tells. The whole series of
+fossiliferous stratified rocks must be referred to the last two days;
+and neither the Carboniferous, nor any other, formation can afford
+evidence of the work of the third day.
+
+Not only is there this objection to any attempt to establish a harmony
+between the Miltonic account and the facts recorded in the fossiliferous
+rocks, but there is a further difficulty. According to the Miltonic
+account, the order in which animals should have made their appearance in
+the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes, including the great whales,
+and birds; after them, all varieties of terrestrial animals except
+birds. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find them; we know
+of not the slightest evidence of the existence of birds before the
+Jurassic, or perhaps the Triassic, formation; while terrestrial animals,
+as we have just seen, occur in the Carboniferous rocks.
+
+If there were any harmony between the Miltonic account and the
+circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence of the
+existence of birds in the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and the Silurian
+rocks. I need hardly say that this is not the case, and that not a trace
+of birds makes its appearance until the far later period which I have
+mentioned.
+
+And again, if it be true that all varieties of fishes and the great
+whales, and the like, made their appearance on the fifth day, we ought
+to find the remains of these animals in the older rocks--in those which
+were deposited before the Carboniferous epoch. Fishes we do find, in
+considerable number and variety; but the great whales are absent, and
+the fishes are not such as now live. Not one solitary species of fish
+now in existence is to be found in the Devonian or Silurian formations.
+Hence we are introduced afresh to the dilemma which I have already
+placed before you: either the animals which came into existence on the
+fifth day were not such as those which are found at present, are not the
+direct and immediate ancestors of those which now exist; in which case
+either fresh creations of which nothing is said; or a process of
+evolution must have occurred; or else the whole story must be given up,
+as not only devoid of any circumstantial evidence, but contrary to such
+evidence as exists.
+
+I placed before you in a few words, some little time ago, a statement of
+the sum and substance of Milton's hypothesis. Let me now try to state as
+briefly, the effect of the circumstantial evidence bearing upon the past
+history of the earth which is furnished, without the possibility of
+mistake, with no chance of error as to its chief features, by the
+stratified rocks. What we find is, that the great series of formations
+represents a period of time of which our human chronologies hardly
+afford us a unit of measure. I will not pretend to say how we ought to
+estimate this time, in millions or in billions of years. For my purpose,
+the determination of its absolute duration is wholly unessential. But
+that the time was enormous there can be no question.
+
+It results from the simplest methods of interpretation, that leaving out
+of view certain patches of metamorphosed rocks, and certain volcanic
+products, all that is now dry land has once been at the bottom of the
+waters. It is perfectly certain that, at a comparatively recent period
+of the world's history--the Cretaceous epoch--none of the great physical
+features which at present mark the surface of the globe existed. It is
+certain that the Rocky Mountains were not. It is certain that the
+Himalaya Mountains were not. It is certain that the Alps and the
+Pyrenees had no existence. The evidence is of the plainest possible
+character, and is simply this:--We find raised up on the flanks of these
+mountains, elevated by the forces of upheaval which have given rise to
+them, masses of Cretaceous rock which formed the bottom of the sea
+before those mountains existed. It is therefore clear that the elevatory
+forces which gave rise to the mountains operated subsequently to the
+Cretaceous epoch; and that the mountains themselves are largely made up
+of the materials deposited in the sea which once occupied their place.
+As we go back in time, we meet with constant alternations of sea and
+land, of estuary and open ocean; and, in correspondence with these
+alternations, we observe the changes in the fauna and flora to which I
+have referred.
+
+But the inspection of these changes give us no right to believe that
+there has been any discontinuity in natural processes. There is no trace
+of general cataclysms, of universal deluges, or sudden destructions of a
+whole fauna or flora. The appearances which were formerly interpreted in
+that way have all been shown to be delusive, as our knowledge has
+increased and as the blanks which formerly appeared to exist between the
+different formations have been filled up. That there is no absolute
+break between formation and formation, that there has been no sudden
+disappearance of all the forms of life and replacement of them by
+others, but that changes have gone on slowly and gradually, that one
+type has died out and another has taken its place, and that thus, by
+insensible degrees, one fauna has been replaced by another, are
+conclusions strengthened by constantly increasing evidence. So that
+within the whole of the immense period indicated by the fossiliferous
+stratified rocks, there is assuredly not the slightest proof of any
+break in the uniformity of Nature's operations, no indication that
+events have followed other than a clear and orderly sequence.
+
+That, I say, is the natural and obvious teaching of the circumstantial
+evidence contained in the stratified rocks. I leave you to consider how
+far, by any ingenuity of interpretation, by any stretching of the
+meaning of language, it can be brought into harmony with the Miltonic
+hypothesis.
+
+There remains the third hypothesis, that of which I have spoken as the
+hypothesis of evolution; and I purpose that, in lectures to come, we
+should discuss it as carefully as we have considered the other two
+hypotheses. I need not say that it is quite hopeless to look for
+testimonial evidence of evolution. The very nature of the case precludes
+the possibility of such evidence, for the human race can no more be
+expected to testify to its own origin, than a child can be tendered as a
+witness of its own birth. Our sole inquiry is, what foundation
+circumstantial evidence lends to the hypothesis, or whether it lends
+none, or whether it controverts the hypothesis. I shall deal with the
+matter entirely as a question of history. I shall not indulge in the
+discussion of any speculative probabilities. I shall not attempt to show
+that Nature is unintelligible unless we adopt some such hypothesis. For
+anything I know about the matter, it may be the way of Nature to be
+unintelligible; she is often puzzling, and I have no reason to suppose
+that she is bound to fit herself to our notions.
+
+I shall place before you three kinds of evidence entirely based upon
+what is known of the forms of animal life which are contained in the
+series of stratified rocks. I shall endeavour to show you that there is
+one kind of evidence which is neutral, which neither helps evolution nor
+is inconsistent with it. I shall then bring forward a second kind of
+evidence which indicates a strong probability in favour of evolution,
+but does not prove it; and, lastly, I shall adduce a third kind of
+evidence which, being as complete as any evidence which we can hope to
+obtain upon such a subject, and being wholly and strikingly in favour of
+evolution, may fairly be called demonstrative evidence of its
+occurrence.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION. THE NEUTRAL AND THE FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE.
+
+
+In the preceding lecture I pointed out that there are three hypotheses
+which may be entertained, and which have been entertained, respecting
+the past history of life upon the globe. According to the first of these
+hypotheses, living beings, such as now exist, have existed from all
+eternity upon this earth. We tested that hypothesis by the
+circumstantial evidence, as I called it, which is furnished by the
+fossil remains contained in the earth's crust, and we found that it was
+obviously untenable. I then proceeded to consider the second hypothesis,
+which I termed the Miltonic hypothesis, not because it is of any
+particular consequence to me whether John Milton seriously entertained
+it or not, but because it is stated in a clear and unmistakable manner
+in his great poem. I pointed out to you that the evidence at our command
+as completely and fully negatives that hypothesis as it did the
+preceding one. And I confess that I had too much respect for your
+intelligence to think it necessary to add that the negation was equally
+clear and equally valid, whatever the source from which that hypothesis
+might be derived, or whatever the authority by which it might be
+supported. I further stated that, according to the third hypothesis, or
+that of evolution, the existing state of things is the last term of a
+long series of states, which, when traced back, would be found to show
+no interruption and no breach in the continuity of natural causation. I
+propose, in the present, and the following lecture, to test this
+hypothesis rigorously by the evidence at command, and to inquire how far
+that evidence can be said to be indifferent to it, how far it can be
+said to be favourable to it, and, finally, how far it can be said to be
+demonstrative.
+
+From almost the origin of the discussions about the existing condition
+of the animal and vegetable worlds and the causes which have determined
+that condition, an argument has been put forward as an objection to
+evolution, which we shall have to consider very seriously. It is an
+argument which was first clearly stated by Cuvier in his criticism of
+the doctrines propounded by his great contemporary, Lamarck. The French
+expedition to Egypt had called the attention of learned men to the
+wonderful store of antiquities in that country, and there had been
+brought back to France numerous mummified corpses of the animals which
+the ancient Egyptians revered and preserved, and which, at a reasonable
+computation, must have lived not less than three or four thousand years
+before the time at which they were thus brought to light. Cuvier
+endeavoured to test the hypothesis that animals have undergone gradual
+and progressive modifications of structure, by comparing the skeletons
+and such other parts of the mummies as were in a fitting state of
+preservation, with the corresponding parts of the representatives of the
+same species now living in Egypt. He arrived at the conviction that no
+appreciable change had taken place in these animals in the course of
+this considerable lapse of time, and the justice of his conclusion is
+not disputed.
+
+It is obvious that, if it can be proved that animals have endured,
+without undergoing any demonstrable change of structure, for so long a
+period as four thousand years, no form of the hypothesis of evolution
+which assumes that animals undergo a constant and necessary progressive
+change can be tenable; unless, indeed, it be further assumed that four
+thousand years is too short a time for the production of a change
+sufficiently great to be detected.
+
+But it is no less plain that if the process of evolution of animals is
+not independent of surrounding conditions; if it may be indefinitely
+hastened or retarded by variations in these conditions; or if evolution
+is simply a process of accommodation to varying conditions; the argument
+against the hypothesis of evolution based on the unchanged character of
+the Egyptian fauna is worthless. For the monuments which are coeval with
+the mummies testify as strongly to the absence of change in the physical
+geography and the general conditions of the land of Egypt, for the time
+in question, as the mummies do to the unvarying characters of its living
+population.
+
+The progress of research since Cuvier's time has supplied far more
+striking examples of the long duration of specific forms of life than
+those which are furnished by the mummified Ibises and Crocodiles of
+Egypt. A remarkable case is to be found in your own country, in the
+neighbourhood of the falls of Niagara. In the immediate vicinity of the
+whirlpool, and again upon Goat Island, in the superficial deposits which
+cover the surface of the rocky subsoil in those regions, there are found
+remains of animals in perfect preservation, and among them, shells
+belonging to exactly the same species as those which at present inhabit
+the still waters of Lake Erie. It is evident, from the structure of the
+country, that these animal remains were deposited in the beds in which
+they occur at a time when the lake extended over the region in which
+they are found. This involves the conclusion that they lived and died
+before the falls had cut their way back through the gorge of Niagara;
+and, indeed, it has been determined that, when these animals lived, the
+falls of Niagara must have been at least six miles further down the
+river than they are at present. Many computations have been made of the
+rate at which the falls are thus cutting their way back. Those
+computations have varied greatly, but I believe I am speaking within the
+bounds of prudence, if I assume that the falls of Niagara have not
+retreated at a greater pace than about a foot a year. Six miles,
+speaking roughly, are 30,000 feet; 30,000 feet, at a foot a year, gives
+30,000 years; and thus we are fairly justified in concluding that no
+less a period than this has passed since the shell-fish, whose remains
+are left in the beds to which I have referred, were living creatures.
+
+But there is still stronger evidence of the long duration of certain
+types. I have already stated that, as we work our way through the great
+series of the Tertiary formations, we find many species of animals
+identical with those which live at the present day, diminishing in
+numbers, it is true, but still existing, in a certain proportion, in the
+oldest of the Tertiary rocks. Furthermore, when we examine the rocks of
+the Cretaceous epoch, we find the remains of some animals which the
+closest scrutiny cannot show to be, in any important respect, different
+from those which live at the present time. That is the case with one of
+the cretaceous lamp-shells (_Terebratula_), which has continued to exist
+unchanged, or with insignificant variations, down to the present day.
+Such is the case with the _Globigerinæ_, the skeletons of which,
+aggregated together, form a large proportion of our English chalk. Those
+_Globigerinæ_ can be traced down to the _Globigerinæ_ which live at the
+surface of the present great oceans, and the remains of which, falling
+to the bottom of the sea, give rise to a chalky mud. Hence it must be
+admitted that certain existing species of animals show no distinct sign
+of modification, or transformation, in the course of a lapse of time as
+great as that which carries us back to the Cretaceous period; and which,
+whatever its absolute measure, is certainly vastly greater than thirty
+thousand years.
+
+There are groups of species so closely allied together that it needs the
+eye of a naturalist to distinguish them one from another. If we
+disregard the small differences which separate these forms and consider
+all the species of such groups as modifications of one type, we shall
+find that, even among the higher animals, some types have had a
+marvellous duration. In the chalk, for example, there is found a fish
+belonging to the highest and the most differentiated group of osseous
+fishes, which goes by the name of _Beryx_. The remains of that fish are
+among the most beautiful and well preserved of the fossils found in our
+English chalk. It can be studied anatomically, so far as the hard parts
+are concerned, almost as well as if it were a recent fish. But the genus
+_Beryx_ is represented, at the present day, by very closely allied
+species which are living in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. We may go
+still farther back. I have already referred to the fact that the
+Carboniferous formations, in Europe and in America, contain the remains
+of scorpions in an admirable state of preservation, and that those
+scorpions are hardly distinguishable from such as now live. I do not
+mean to say that they are not different, but close scrutiny is needed in
+order to distinguish them from modern scorpions.
+
+More than this. At the very bottom of the Silurian series, in beds which
+are by some authorities referred to the Cambrian formation, where the
+signs of life begin to fail us--even there, among the few and scanty
+animal remains which are discoverable, we find species of molluscous
+animals which are so closely allied to existing forms that, at one time,
+they were grouped under the same generic name. I refer to the well-known
+_Lingula_ of the _Lingula_ flags, lately, in consequence of some slight
+differences, placed in the new genus _Lingulella_. Practically, it
+belongs to the same great generic group as the _Lingula_, which is to be
+found at the present day upon your own shores and those of many other
+parts of the world.
+
+The same truth is exemplified if we turn to certain great periods of the
+earth's history--as, for example, the Mesozoic epoch. There are groups
+of reptiles, such as the _Ichthyosauria_ and the _Plesiosauria_, which
+appear shortly after the commencement of this epoch, and they occur in
+vast numbers. They disappear with the chalk and, throughout the whole of
+the great series of Mesozoic rocks, they present no such modifications
+as can safely be considered evidence of progressive modification.
+
+Facts of this kind are undoubtedly fatal to any form of the doctrine of
+evolution which postulates the supposition that there is an intrinsic
+necessity, on the part of animal forms which have once come into
+existence, to undergo continual modification; and they are as distinctly
+opposed to any view which involves the belief, that such modification as
+may occur, must take place, at the same rate, in all the different types
+of animal or vegetable life. The facts, as I have placed them before
+you, obviously directly contradict any form of the hypothesis of
+evolution which stands in need of these two postulates.
+
+But, one great service that has been rendered by Mr. Darwin to the
+doctrine of evolution in general is this: he has shown that there are
+two chief factors in the process of evolution: one of them is the
+tendency to vary, the existence of which in all living forms may be
+proved by observation; the other is the influence of surrounding
+conditions upon what I may call the parent form and the variations which
+are thus evolved from it. The cause of the production of variations is a
+matter not at all properly understood at present. Whether variation
+depends upon some intricate machinery--if I may use the phrase--of the
+living organism itself, or whether it arises through the influence of
+conditions upon that form, is not certain, and the question may, for the
+present, be left open. But the important point is that, granting the
+existence of the tendency to the production of variations; then, whether
+the variations which are produced shall survive and supplant the parent,
+or whether the parent form shall survive and supplant the variations, is
+a matter which depends entirely on those conditions which give rise to
+the struggle for existence. If the surrounding conditions are such that
+the parent form is more competent to deal with them and flourish in
+them, than the derived forms, then, in the struggle for existence, the
+parent form will maintain itself and the derived forms will be
+exterminated. But if, on the contrary, the conditions are such as to be
+more favourable to a derived than to the parent form, the parent form
+will be extirpated and the derived form will take its place. In the
+first case, there will be no progression, no change of structure,
+through any imaginable series of ages; in the second place, there will
+be modification and change of form.
+
+Thus the existence of these persistent types, as I have termed them, is
+no real obstacle in the way of the theory of evolution. Take the case of
+the scorpions to which I have just referred. No doubt, since the
+Carboniferous epoch, conditions have always obtained, such as existed
+when the scorpions of that epoch flourished; conditions in which
+scorpions find themselves better off, more competent to deal with the
+difficulties in their way, than any variation from the scorpion type
+which they may have produced; and, for that reason, the scorpion type
+has persisted, and has not been supplanted by any other form. And there
+is no reason, in the nature of things, why, as long as this world
+exists, if there be conditions more favourable to scorpions than to any
+variation which may arise from them, these forms of life should not
+persist.
+
+Therefore, the stock objection to the hypothesis of evolution, based on
+the long duration of certain animal and vegetable types, is no objection
+at all. The facts of this character--and they are numerous--belong to
+that class of evidence which I have called indifferent. That is to say,
+they may afford no direct support to the doctrine of evolution, but they
+are capable of being interpreted in perfect consistency with it.
+
+There is another order of facts belonging to the class of negative or
+indifferent evidence. The great group of Lizards, which abound in the
+present world, extends through the whole series of formations as far
+back as the Permian, or latest Palæozoic, epoch. These Permian lizards
+differ astonishingly little from the lizards which exist at the present
+day. Comparing the amount of the differences between them and modern
+lizards, with the prodigious lapse of time between the Permian epoch and
+the present age, it may be said that the amount of change is
+insignificant. But, when we carry our researches farther back in time,
+we find no trace of lizards, nor of any true reptile whatever, in the
+whole mass of formations beneath the Permian.
+
+Now, it is perfectly clear that if our palæontological collections are
+to be taken, even approximately, as an adequate representation of all
+the forms of animals and plants that have ever lived; and if the record
+furnished by the known series of beds of stratified rock, covers the
+whole series of events which constitute the history of life on the
+globe, such a fact as this directly contravenes the hypothesis of
+evolution; because this hypothesis postulates that the existence of
+every form must have been preceded by that of some form little different
+from it. Here, however, we have to take into consideration that
+important truth so well insisted upon by Lyell and by Darwin--the
+imperfection of the geological record. It can be demonstrated that the
+geological record must be incomplete, that it can only preserve remains
+found in certain favourable localities and under particular conditions;
+that it must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and obliterated by
+processes of metamorphosis. Beds of rock of any thickness, crammed full
+of organic remains, may yet, either by the percolation of water through
+them, or by the influence of subterranean heat, lose all trace of these
+remains, and present the appearance of beds of rock formed under
+conditions in which living forms were absent. Such metamorphic rocks
+occur in formations of all ages; and, in various cases, there are very
+good grounds for the belief that they have contained organic remains,
+and that those remains have been absolutely obliterated.
+
+I insist upon the defects of the geological record the more because
+those who have not attended to these matters are apt to say, "It is all
+very well, but when you get into a difficulty with your theory of
+evolution, you appeal to the incompleteness and the imperfection of the
+geological record;" and I want to make it perfectly clear to you that
+this imperfection is a great fact, which must be taken into account in
+all our speculations, or we shall constantly be going wrong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM.]
+
+You see the singular series of footmarks, drawn of its natural size in
+the large diagram hanging up here (Fig. 2), which I owe to the kindness
+of my friend Professor Marsh, with whom I had the opportunity recently
+of visiting the precise locality in Massachusetts in which these tracks
+occur. I am, therefore, able to give you my own testimony, if needed,
+that the diagram accurately represents what we saw. The valley of the
+Connecticut is classical ground for the geologist. It contains great
+beds of sandstone, covering many square miles, which have evidently
+formed a part of an ancient sea-shore, or, it may be, lake-shore. For a
+certain period of time after their deposition, these beds have remained
+sufficiently soft to receive the impressions of the feet of whatever
+animals walked over them, and to preserve them afterwards, in exactly
+the same way as such impressions are at this hour preserved on the
+shores of the Bay of Fundy and elsewhere. The diagram represents the
+track of some gigantic animal, which walked on its hind legs. You see
+the series of marks made alternately by the right and by the left foot;
+so that, from one impression to the other of the three-toed foot on the
+same side, is one stride, and that stride, as we measured it, is six
+feet nine inches. I leave you, therefore, to form an impression of the
+magnitude of the creature which, as it walked along the ancient shore,
+made these impressions.
+
+Of such impressions there are untold thousands upon these sandstones.
+Fifty or sixty different kinds have been discovered, and they cover vast
+areas. But, up to this present time, not a bone, not a fragment, of any
+one of the animals which left these great footmarks has been found; in
+fact, the only animal remains which have been met with in all these
+deposits, from the time of their discovery to the present day--though
+they have been carefully hunted over--is a fragmentary skeleton of one
+of the smaller forms. What has become of the bones of all these animals?
+You see we are not dealing with little creatures, but with animals that
+make a step of six feet nine inches; and their remains must have been
+left somewhere. The probability is, that they been dissolved away, and
+absolutely lost.
+
+I have had occasion to work out the nature of fossil remains, of which
+there was nothing left except casts of the bones, the solid material of
+the skeleton having been dissolved out by percolating water. It was a
+chance, in this case, that the sandstone happened to be of such a
+constitution as to set, and to allow the bones to be afterward dissolved
+out, leaving cavities of the exact shape of the bones. Had that
+constitution been other than what it was, the bones would have been
+dissolved, the layers of sandstone would have fallen together into one
+mass, and not the slightest indication that the animal had existed would
+have been discoverable.
+
+I know of no more striking evidence than these facts afford, of the
+caution which should be used in drawing the conclusion, from the absence
+of organic remains in a deposit, that animals or plants did not exist at
+the time it was formed. I believe that, with a right understanding of
+the doctrine of evolution on the one hand, and a just estimation of the
+importance of the imperfection of the geological record on the other,
+all difficulty is removed from the kind of evidence to which I have
+adverted; and that we are justified in believing that all such cases are
+examples of what I have designated negative or indifferent
+evidence--that is to say, they in no way directly advance the hypothesis
+of evolution, but they are not to be regarded as obstacles in the way of
+our belief in that doctrine.
+
+I now pass on to the consideration of those cases which, for reasons
+which I will point out to you by and by, are not to be regarded as
+demonstrative of the truth of evolution, but which are such as must
+exist if evolution be true, and which therefore are, upon the whole,
+evidence in favour of the doctrine. If the doctrine of evolution be
+true, it follows, that, however diverse the different groups of animals
+and of plants may be, they must all, at one time or other, have been
+connected by gradational forms; so that, from the highest animals,
+whatever they may be, down to the lowest speck of protoplasmic matter in
+which life can be manifested, a series of gradations, leading from one
+end of the series to the other, either exists or has existed.
+Undoubtedly that is a necessary postulate of the doctrine of evolution.
+But when we look upon living Nature as it is, we find a totally
+different state of things. We find that animals and plants fall into
+groups, the different members of which are pretty closely allied
+together, but which are separated by definite, larger or smaller, breaks
+from other groups. In other words, no intermediate forms which bridge
+over these gaps or intervals are, at present, to be met with.
+
+To illustrate what I mean: Let me call your attention to those
+vertebrate animals which are most familiar to you, such as mammals,
+birds, and reptiles. At the present day, these groups of animals are
+perfectly well defined from one another. We know of no animal now living
+which, in any sense, is intermediate between the mammal and the bird, or
+between the bird and the reptile; but, on the contrary, there are many
+very distinct anatomical peculiarities, well-defined marks, by which the
+mammal is separated from the bird, and the bird from the reptile. The
+distinctions are obvious and striking if you compare the definitions of
+these great groups as they now exist.
+
+The same may be said of many of the subordinate groups, or orders, into
+which these great classes are divided. At the present time, for example,
+there are numerous forms of non-ruminant pachyderms, or what we may call
+broadly, the pig tribe, and many varieties of ruminants. These latter
+have their definite characteristics, and the former have their
+distinguishing peculiarities. But there is nothing that fills up the gap
+between the ruminants and the pig tribe. The two are distinct. Such also
+is the case in respect of the minor groups of the class of reptiles. The
+existing fauna shows us crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and tortoises; but
+no connecting link between the crocodile and lizard, nor between the
+lizard and snake, nor between the snake and the crocodile, nor between
+any two of these groups. They are separated by absolute breaks. If,
+then, it could be shown that this state of things had always existed,
+the fact would be fatal to the doctrine of evolution. If the
+intermediate gradations, which the doctrine of evolution requires to
+have existed between these groups, are not to be found anywhere in the
+records of the past history of the globe, their absence is a strong and
+weighty negative argument against evolution; while, on the other hand,
+if such intermediate forms are to be found, that is so much to the good
+of evolution; although, for reasons which I will lay before you by and
+by, we must be cautious in our estimate of the evidential cogency of
+facts of this kind.
+
+It is a very remarkable circumstance that, from the commencement of the
+serious study of fossil remains; in fact, from the time when Cuvier
+began his brilliant researches upon those found in the quarries of
+Montmartre, palæontology has shown what she was going to do in this
+matter, and what kind of evidence it lay in her power to produce.
+
+I said just now that, in the existing Fauna, the group of pig-like
+animals and the group of ruminants are entirely distinct; but one of the
+first of Cuvier's discoveries was an animal which he called the
+_Anoplotherium_, and which proved to be, in a great many important
+respects, intermediate in character between the pigs, on the one hand,
+and the ruminants on the other. Thus research into the history of the
+past did, to a certain extent, tend to fill up the breach between the
+group of ruminants and the group of pigs. Another remarkable animal
+restored by the great French palæontologist, the _Palæotherium_,
+similarly tended to connect together animals to all appearance so
+different as the rhinoceros, the horse, and the tapir. Subsequent
+research has brought to light multitudes of facts of the same order;
+and, at the present day, the investigations of such anatomists as
+Rütimeyer and Gaudry have tended to fill up, more and more, the gaps in
+our existing series of mammals, and to connect groups formerly thought
+to be distinct.
+
+But I think it may have an especial interest if, instead of dealing with
+these examples, which would require a great deal of tedious osteological
+detail, I take the case of birds and reptiles; groups which, at the
+present day, are so clearly distinguished from one another that there
+are perhaps no classes of animals which, in popular apprehension, are
+more completely separated. Existing birds, as you are aware, are covered
+with feathers; their anterior extremities, specially and peculiarly
+modified, are converted into wings, by the aid of which most of them are
+able to fly; they walk upright upon two legs; and these limbs, when they
+are considered anatomically, present a great number of exceedingly
+remarkable peculiarities, to which I may have occasion to advert
+incidentally as I go on, and which are not met with, even approximately,
+in any existing forms of reptiles. On the other hand, existing reptiles
+have no feathers. They may have naked skins, or be covered with horny
+scales, or bony plates, or with both. They possess no wings; they
+neither fly by means of their fore-limbs, nor habitually walk upright
+upon their hind-limbs; and the bones of their legs present no such
+modifications as we find in birds. It is impossible to imagine any two
+groups more definitely and distinctly separated, notwithstanding certain
+characters which they possess in common.
+
+As we trace the history of birds back in time, we find their remains,
+sometimes in great abundance, throughout the whole extent of the
+tertiary rocks; but, so far as our present knowledge goes, the birds of
+the tertiary rocks retain the same essential characters as the birds of
+the present day. In other words, the tertiary birds come within the
+definition of the class constituted by existing birds, and are as much
+separated from reptiles as existing birds are. Not very long ago no
+remains of birds had been found below the tertiary rocks, and I am not
+sure but that some persons were prepared to demonstrate that they could
+not have existed at an earlier period. But in the course of the last few
+years, such remains have been discovered in England; though,
+unfortunately, in so imperfect and fragmentary a condition, that it is
+impossible to say whether they differed from existing birds in any
+essential character or not. In your country the development of the
+cretaceous series of rocks is enormous; the conditions under which the
+later cretaceous strata have been deposited are highly favourable to the
+preservation of organic remains; and the researches, full of labour and
+risk, which have been carried on by Professor Marsh in these cretaceous
+rocks of Western America, have rewarded him with the discovery of forms
+of birds of which we had hitherto no conception. By his kindness, I am
+enabled to place before you a restoration of one of these extraordinary
+birds, every part of which can be thoroughly justified by the more or
+less complete skeletons, in a very perfect state of preservation, which
+he has discovered. This _Hesperornis_ (Fig. 3), which measured between
+five and six feet in length, is astonishingly like our existing divers
+or grebes in a great many respects; so like them indeed that, had the
+skeleton of _Hesperornis_ been found in a museum without its skull, it
+probably would have been placed in the same group of birds as the divers
+and grebes of the present day.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh).]
+
+But _Hesperornis_ differs from all existing birds, and so far resembles
+reptiles, in one important particular--it is provided with teeth. The
+long jaws are armed with teeth which have curved crowns and thick roots
+(Fig. 4), and are not set in distinct sockets, but are lodged in a
+groove. In possessing true teeth, the _Hesperornis_ differs from every
+existing bird, and from every bird yet discovered in the tertiary
+formations, the tooth-like serrations of the jaws in the _Odontopteryx_
+of the London clay being mere processes of the bony substance of the
+jaws, and not teeth in the proper sense of the word. In view of the
+characteristics of this bird we are therefore obliged to modify the
+definitions of the classes of birds and reptiles. Before the discovery
+of _Hesperornis_, the definition of the class Aves based upon our
+knowledge of existing birds, might have been extended to all birds; it
+might have been said that the absence of teeth was characteristic of the
+class of birds; but the discovery of an animal which, in every part of
+its skeleton, closely agrees with existing birds, and yet possesses
+teeth, shows that there were ancient birds which, in respect of
+possessing teeth, approached reptiles more nearly than any existing bird
+does, and, to that extent, diminishes the _hiatus_ between the two
+classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh).
+
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; side and end views of a
+vertebra and a separate tooth.)]
+
+The same formation has yielded another bird _Ichthyornis_ (Fig. 5),
+which also possesses teeth; but the teeth are situated in distinct
+sockets, while those of _Hesperornis_ are not so lodged. The latter also
+has such very small, almost rudimentary, wings, that it must have been
+chiefly a swimmer and a diver, like a Penguin; while _Ichthyornis_ has
+strong wings and no doubt possessed corresponding powers of flight.
+_Ichthyornis_ also differed in the fact that its vertebræ have not the
+peculiar characters of the vertebræ of existing and of all known
+tertiary birds, but were concave at each end. This discovery leads us to
+make a further modification in the definition of the group of birds, and
+to part with another of the characters by which almost all existing
+birds are distinguished from reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh).
+
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; and side and end views of a
+vertebra.)]
+
+Apart from the few fragmentary remains from the English greensand, to
+which I have referred, the mesozoic rocks, older than those in which
+_Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_ have been discovered have afforded no
+certain evidence of birds, with the remarkable exception of the
+Solenhofen slates. These so-called slates are composed of a fine grained
+calcareous mud which has hardened into lithographic stone, and in which
+organic remains are almost as well preserved as they would be if they
+had been imbedded in so much plaster of Paris. They have yielded the
+_Archæopteryx_, the existence of which was first made known by the
+finding of a fossil feather, or rather of the impression of one. It is
+wonderful enough that such a perishable thing as a feather, and nothing
+more, should be discovered; yet, for a long time, nothing was known of
+this bird except its feather. But, by and by a solitary skeleton was
+discovered, which is now in the British Museum. The skull of this
+solitary specimen is unfortunately wanting, and it is therefore
+uncertain whether the _Archæopteryx_ possessed teeth or not. But the
+remainder of the skeleton is so well preserved as to leave no doubt
+respecting the main features of the animal, which are very singular. The
+feet are not only altogether bird-like, but have the special characters
+of the feet of perching birds, while the body had a clothing of true
+feathers. Nevertheless, in some other respects, _Archæopteryx_ is unlike
+a bird and like a reptile. There is a long tail composed of many
+vertebræ. The structure of the wing differs in some very remarkable
+respects from that which it presents in a true bird. In the latter, the
+end of the wing answers to the thumb and two fingers of my hand; but the
+metacarpal bones, or those which answer to the bones of the fingers
+which lie in the palm of the hand, are fused together into one mass; and
+the whole apparatus, except the last joints of the thumb, is bound up in
+a sheath of integument, while the edge of the hand carries the principal
+quill-feathers. In the _Archæopteryx_, the upper-arm bone is like that
+of a bird; and the two bones of the fore-arm are more or less like those
+of a bird, but the fingers are not bound together--they are free. What
+their number may have been is uncertain; but several, if not all, of
+them were terminated by strong curved claws, not like such as are
+sometimes found in birds, but such as reptiles possess; so that, in the
+_Archæopteryx_, we have an animal which, to a certain extent, occupies a
+midway place between a bird and a reptile. It is a bird so far as its
+foot and sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned; it is
+essentially and thoroughly a bird by its feathers; but it is much more
+properly a reptile in the fact that the region which represents the hand
+has separate bones, with claws resembling those which terminate the
+fore-limb of a reptile. Moreover, it had a long reptile-like tail with a
+fringe of feathers on each side; while, in all true birds hitherto
+known, the tail is relatively short, and the vertebræ which constitute
+its skeleton are generally peculiarly modified.
+
+Like the _Anoplotherium_ and the _Palæotherium_, therefore,
+_Archæopteryx_ tends to fill up the interval between groups which, in
+the existing world, are widely separated, and to destroy the value of
+the definitions of zoological groups based upon our knowledge of
+existing forms. And such cases as these constitute evidence in favour of
+evolution, in so far as they prove that, in former periods of the
+world's history, there were animals which overstepped the bounds of
+existing groups, and tended to merge them into larger assemblages. They
+show that animal organisation is more flexible than our knowledge of
+recent forms might have led us to believe; and that many structural
+permutations and combinations, of which the present world gives us no
+indication, may nevertheless have existed.
+
+But it by no means follows, because the _Palæotherium_ has much in
+common with the Horse, on the one hand, and with the Rhinoceros on the
+other, that it is the intermediate form through which Rhinoceroses have
+passed to become Horses, or _vice versâ_; on the contrary, any such
+supposition would certainly be erroneous. Nor do I think it likely that
+the transition from the reptile to the bird has been effected by such a
+form as _Archæopteryx_. And it is convenient to distinguish these
+intermediate forms between two groups, which do not represent the actual
+passage from the one group to the other, as _intercalary_ types, from
+those _linear_ types which, more or less approximately, indicate the
+nature of the steps by which the transition from one group to the other
+was effected.
+
+I conceive that such linear forms, constituting a series of natural
+gradations between the reptile and the bird, and enabling us to
+understand the manner in which the reptilian has been metamorphosed into
+the bird type, are really to be found among a group of ancient and
+extinct terrestrial reptiles known as the _Ornithoscelida_. The remains
+of these animals occur throughout the series of mesozoic formations,
+from the Trias to the Chalk, and there are indications of their
+existence even in the later Palæozoic strata.
+
+Most of these reptiles at present known are of great size, some having
+attained a length of forty feet or perhaps more. The majority resembled
+lizards and crocodiles in their general form, and many of them were,
+like crocodiles, protected by an armour of heavy bony plates. But, in
+others, the hind limbs elongate and the fore limbs shorten, until their
+relative proportions approach those which are observed in the
+short-winged, flightless, ostrich tribe among birds.
+
+The skull is relatively light, and in some cases the jaws, though
+bearing teeth, are beak-like at their extremities and appear to have
+been enveloped in a horny sheath. In the part of the vertebral column
+which lies between the haunch bones and is called the sacrum, a number
+of vertebræ may unite together into one whole, and in this respect, as
+in some details of its structure, the sacrum of these reptiles
+approaches that of birds.
+
+But it is in the structure of the pelvis and of the hind limb that some
+of these ancient reptiles present the most remarkable approximation to
+birds, and clearly indicate the way by which the most specialized and
+characteristic features of the bird may have been evolved from the
+corresponding parts in the reptile.
+
+In Fig. 6, the pelvis and hind limbs of a crocodile, a three-toed bird,
+and an ornithoscelidan are represented side by side; and, for facility
+of comparison, in corresponding positions; but it must be recollected
+that, while the position of the bird's limb is natural, that of the
+crocodile is not so. In the bird, the thigh-bone lies close to the body,
+and the metatarsal bones of the foot (ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) are,
+ordinarily, raised into a more or less vertical position; in the
+crocodile, the thigh-bone stands out at an angle from the body, and the
+metatarsal bones (i., ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) lie flat on the ground.
+Hence, in the crocodile, the body usually lies squat between the legs,
+while, in the bird, it is raised upon the hind legs, as upon pillars.
+
+In the crocodile, the pelvis is obviously composed of three bones on
+each side: the ilium (Il.), the pubis (Pb.), and the ischium (Is.). In
+the adult bird there appears to be but one bone on each side. The
+examination of the pelvis of a chick, however, shows that each half is
+made up of three bones, which answer to those which remain distinct
+throughout life, in the crocodile. There is, therefore, a fundamental
+identity of plan in the construction of the pelvis of both bird and
+reptile; though the differences in form, relative size, and direction of
+the corresponding bones in the two cases are very great.
+
+But the most striking contrast between the two lies in the bones of the
+leg and of that part of the foot termed the tarsus, which follows upon
+the leg. In the crocodile, the fibula (F) is relatively large and its
+lower end is complete. The tibia (T) has no marked crest at its upper
+end, and its lower end is narrow and not pulley-shaped. There are two
+rows of separate tarsal bones (As., Ca., &c.) and four distinct
+metatarsal bones, with a rudiment of a fifth.
+
+In the bird, the fibula is small and its lower end diminishes to a
+point. The tibia has a strong crest at its upper end and its lower
+extremity passes into a broad pulley. There seem at first to be no
+tarsal bones; and only one bone, divided at the end into three heads for
+the three toes which are attached to it, appears in the place of the
+metatarsus.
+
+In a young bird, however, the pulley-shaped apparent end of the tibia is
+a distinct bone, which represents the bones marked As., Ca., in the
+crocodile; while the apparently single metatarsal bone consists of three
+bones, which early unite with one another and with an additional bone,
+which represents the lower row of bones in the tarsus of the crocodile.
+
+In other words, it can be shown by the study of development that the
+bird's pelvis and hind limb are simply extreme modifications of the same
+fundamental plan as that upon which these parts are modelled in
+reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE.
+
+(The letters have the same signification in all the figures. Il.,
+Ilium; a, anterior end; b, posterior end; Is., ischium; Pb.,
+pubis; T, tibia; F, fibula; As., astragalus; Ca., calcaneum; 1,
+distal portion of the tarsus; i., ii., iii., iv.; metatarsal bones.)]
+
+On comparing the pelvis and hind limb of the ornithoscelidan with that
+of the crocodile, on the one side, and that of the bird, on the other
+(Fig. 6), it is obvious that it represents a middle term between the
+two. The pelvic bones approach the form of those of the birds, and the
+direction of the pubis and ischium is nearly that which is
+characteristic of birds; the thigh bone, from the direction of its head,
+must have lain close to the body; the tibia has a great crest; and,
+immovably fitted on to its lower end, there is a pulley-shaped bone,
+like that of the bird, but remaining distinct. The lower end of the
+fibula is much more slender, proportionally, than in the crocodile. The
+metatarsal bones have such a form that they fit together immovably,
+though they do not enter into bony union; the third toe is, as in the
+bird, longest and strongest. In fact, the ornithoscelidan limb is
+comparable to that of an unhatched chick.
+
+Taking all these facts together, it is obvious that the view, which was
+entertained by Mantell and the probability of which was demonstrated by
+your own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, while much additional evidence
+in the same direction has been furnished by Professor Cope, that some of
+these animals may have walked upon their hind legs, as birds do,
+acquires great weight. In fact, there can be no reasonable doubt that
+one of the smaller forms of the _Ornithoscelida_, _Compsognathus_, the
+almost entire skeleton of which has been discovered in the Solenhofen
+slates, was a bipedal animal. The parts of this skeleton are somewhat
+twisted out of their natural relations, but the accompanying figure
+gives a just view of the general form of _Compsognathus_ and of the
+proportions of its limbs; which, in some respects, are more completely
+bird-like than those of other _Ornithoscelida_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES.]
+
+We have had to stretch the definition of the class of birds so as to
+include birds with teeth and birds with paw-like fore-limbs and long
+tails. There is no evidence that _Compsognathus_ possessed feathers;
+but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to say whether it should be
+called a reptilian bird or an avian reptile.
+
+As _Compsognathus_ walked upon its hind legs, it must have made tracks
+like those of birds. And as the structure of the limbs of several of the
+gigantic _Ornithoscelida_, such as _Iguandon_, leads to the conclusion
+that they also may have constantly, or occasionally, assumed the same
+attitude, a peculiar interest attaches to the fact that, in the Wealden
+strata of England, there are to be found gigantic footsteps, arranged in
+order like those of the _Brontozoum_, and which there can be no
+reasonable doubt were made by some of the _Ornithoscelida_, the remains
+of which are found in the same rocks. And, knowing that reptiles that
+walked upon their hind legs and shared many of the anatomical characters
+of birds did once exist, it becomes a very important question whether
+the tracks in the Trias of Massachusetts, to which I referred some time
+ago, and which formerly used to be unhesitatingly ascribed to birds, may
+not all have been made by Ornithoscelidan reptiles; and whether, if we
+could obtain the skeletons of the animals which made these tracks, we
+should not find in them the actual steps of the evolutional process by
+which reptiles gave rise to birds.
+
+The evidential value of the facts I have brought forward in this Lecture
+must be neither over nor under estimated. It is not historical proof of
+the occurrence of the evolution of birds from reptiles, for we have no
+safe ground for assuming that true birds had not made their appearance
+at the commencement of the Mesozoic epoch. It is, in fact, quite
+possible that all these more or less avi-form reptiles of the Mesozoic
+epoch are not terms in the series of progression from birds to reptiles
+at all but simply the more or less modified descendants of Palæozoic
+forms through which that transition was actually effected.
+
+We are not in a position to say that the known _Ornithoscelida_ are
+intermediate in the order of their appearance on the earth between
+reptiles and birds. All that can be said is that, if independent
+evidence of the actual occurrence of evolution is producible, then these
+intercalary forms remove every difficulty in the way of understanding
+what the actual steps of the process, in the case of birds, may have
+been.
+
+That intercalary forms should have existed in ancient times is a
+necessary consequence of the truth of the hypothesis of evolution; and,
+hence, the evidence I have laid before you in proof of the existence of
+such forms, is, so far as it goes, in favour of that hypothesis.
+
+There is another series of extinct reptiles, which may be said to be
+intercalary between reptiles and birds, in so far as they combine some
+of the characters of both these groups; and, which, as they possessed
+the power of flight, may seem, at first sight, to be nearer
+representatives of the forms by which the transition from the reptile to
+the bird was effected, than the _Ornithoscelida_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer).]
+
+These are the _Pterosauria_, or Pterodactyles, the remains of which are
+met with throughout the series of Mesozoic rocks, from the lias to the
+chalk, and some of which attained a great size, their wings having a
+span of eighteen or twenty feet. These animals, in the form and
+proportions of the head and neck relatively to the body, and in the fact
+that the ends of the jaws were often, if not always, more or less
+extensively ensheathed in horny beaks, remind us of birds. Moreover,
+their bones contained air cavities, rendering them specifically lighter,
+as is the case in most birds. The breast-bone was large and keeled, as in
+most birds and in bats, and the shoulder girdle is strikingly similar to
+that of ordinary birds. But, it seems to me, that the special
+resemblance of pterodactyles to birds ends here, unless I may add the
+entire absence of teeth which characterizes the great pterodactyles
+(_Pteranodon_), discovered by Professor Marsh. All other known
+pterodactyles have teeth lodged in sockets. In the vertebral column and
+the hind limbs there are no special resemblances to birds, and when we
+turn to the wings they are found to be constructed on a totally
+different principle from those of birds.
+
+There are four fingers. These four fingers are large, and three of them,
+those which answer to the thumb and two following fingers in my
+hand--are terminated by claws, while the fourth is enormously prolonged
+and converted into a great jointed style. You see at once, from what I
+have stated about a bird's wing, that there could be nothing less like a
+bird's wing than this is. It concluded by general reasoning that this
+finger had the office of supporting a web which extended between it and
+the body. An existing specimen proves that such was really the case, and
+that the pterodactyles were devoid of feathers, but that the fingers
+supported a vast web like that of a bat's wing; in fact, there can be no
+doubt that this ancient reptile flew after the fashion of a bat.
+
+Thus though the pterodactyle is a reptile which has become modified in
+such a manner as to enable it to fly, and therefore, as might be
+expected, presents some points of resemblance to other animals which
+fly; it has, so to speak, gone off the line which leads directly from
+reptiles to birds, and has become disqualified for the changes which
+lead to the characteristic organization of the latter class. Therefore,
+viewed in relation to the classes of reptiles and birds, the
+pterodactyles appear to me to be, in a limited sense, intercalary forms;
+but they are not even approximately linear, in the sense of exemplifying
+those modifications of structure through which the passage from the
+reptile to the bird took place.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III.
+
+THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.
+
+
+The occurrence of historical facts is said to be demonstrated, when the
+evidence that they happened is of such a character as to render the
+assumption that they did not happen in the highest degree improbable;
+and the question I now have to deal with is, whether evidence in favour
+of the evolution of animals of this degree of cogency is, or is not,
+obtainable from the record of the succession of living forms which is
+presented to us by fossil remains.
+
+Those who have attended to the progress of palæontology are aware that
+evidence of the character which I have defined has been produced in
+considerable and continually-increasing quantity during the last few
+years. Indeed, the amount and the satisfactory nature of that evidence
+are somewhat surprising, when we consider the conditions under which
+alone we can hope to obtain it.
+
+It is obviously useless to seek for such evidence except in localities
+in which the physical conditions have been such as to permit of the
+deposit of an unbroken, or but rarely interrupted, series of strata
+through a long period of time; in which the group of animals to be
+investigated has existed in such abundance as to furnish the requisite
+supply of remains; and in which, finally, the materials composing the
+strata are such as to ensure the preservation of these remains in a
+tolerably perfect and undisturbed state.
+
+It so happens that the case which, at present, most nearly fulfils all
+these conditions is that of the series of extinct animals which
+culminates in the Horses; by which term I mean to denote not merely the
+domestic animals with which we are all so well acquainted, but their
+allies, the ass, zebra, quagga, and the like. In short, I use "horses"
+as the equivalent of the technical name _Equidæ_, which is applied to
+the whole group of existing equine animals.
+
+The horse is in many ways a remarkable animal; not least so in the fact
+that it presents us with an example of one of the most perfect pieces of
+machinery in the living world. In truth, among the works of human
+ingenuity it cannot be said that there is any locomotive so perfectly
+adapted to its purposes, doing so much work with so small a quantity of
+fuel, as this machine of nature's manufacture--the horse. And, as a
+necessary consequence of any sort of perfection, of mechanical
+perfection as of others, you find that the horse is a beautiful
+creature, one of the most beautiful of all land-animals. Look at the
+perfect balance of its form, and the rhythm and force of its action. The
+locomotive machinery is, as you are aware, resident in its slender fore
+and hind limbs; they are flexible and elastic levers, capable of being
+moved by very powerful muscles; and, in order to supply the engines
+which work these levers with the force which they expend, the horse is
+provided with a very perfect apparatus for grinding its food and
+extracting therefrom the requisite fuel.
+
+Without attempting to take you very far into the region of osteological
+detail, I must nevertheless trouble you with some statements respecting
+the anatomical structure of the horse; and, more especially, will it be
+needful to obtain a general conception of the structure of its fore and
+hind limbs, and of its teeth. But I shall only touch upon those points
+which are absolutely essential to our inquiry.
+
+Let us turn in the first place to the fore-limb. In most quadrupeds, as
+in ourselves, the fore-arm contains distinct bones called the radius and
+the ulna. The corresponding region in the Horse seem at first to possess
+but one bone. Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in
+this bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna.
+This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which represents
+the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft which may be traced for
+some distance downwards upon the back of the radius, and then in most
+cases thins out and vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure
+of what is nevertheless the fact, that a small part of the lower end of
+the bone of the horse's fore-arm, which is only distinct in a very young
+foal, is really the lower extremity of the ulna.
+
+What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The "cannon
+bone" answers to the middle bone of the five metacarpal bones, which
+support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The "pastern," "coronary,"
+and "coffin" bones of veterinarians answer to the joints of our middle
+fingers, while the hoof is simply a greatly enlarged and thickened nail.
+But if what lies below the horse's "knee" thus corresponds to the middle
+finger in ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or
+digits? We find in the places of the second and fourth digits only two
+slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the cannon bone,
+which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no finger joints, or,
+as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes, small bony or gristly nodules
+are to be found at the bases of these two metacarpal splints, and it is
+probable that these represent rudiments of the first and fifth toes.
+Thus, the part of the horse's skeleton, which corresponds with that of
+the human hand, contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two
+imperfect lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the third,
+the second, and the fourth fingers in man.
+
+Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. In ourselves,
+and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains two distinct bones, a large
+bone, the tibia, and a smaller and more slender bone, the fibula. But,
+in the horse, the fibula seems, at first, to be reduced to its upper
+end; a short slender bone united with the tibia, and ending in a point
+below, occupying its place. Examination of the lower end of a young
+foal's shin-bone, however, shows a distinct portion of osseous matter,
+which is the lower end of the fibula; so that the, apparently single,
+lower end of the shin-bone is really made up of the coalesced ends of
+the tibia and fibula, just as the, apparently single, lower end of the
+fore-arm bone is composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+
+The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the hock. The hinder
+cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of the human foot, the
+pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, to the middle toe bones; the hind
+hoof to the nail; as in the fore-foot. And, as in the fore-foot, there
+are merely two splints to represent the second and the fourth toes.
+Sometimes a rudiment of a fifth toe appears to be traceable.
+
+The teeth of a horse are not less peculiar than its limbs. The living
+engine, like all others, must be well stoked if it is to do its work;
+and the horse, if it is to make good its wear and tear, and to exert the
+enormous amount of force required for its propulsion, must be well and
+rapidly fed. To this end, good cutting instruments and powerful and
+lasting crushers are needful. Accordingly, the twelve cutting teeth of a
+horse are close-set and concentrated in the fore part of its mouth, like
+so many adzes or chisels. The grinders or molars are large, and have an
+extremely complicated structure, being composed of a number of different
+substances of unequal hardness. The consequence of this is that they
+wear away at different rates; and, hence, the surface of each grinder is
+always as uneven as that of a good millstone.
+
+I have said that the structure of the grinding teeth is very
+complicated, the harder and the softer parts being, as it were,
+interlaced with one another. The result of this is that, as the tooth
+wears, the crown presents a peculiar pattern, the nature of which is not
+very easily deciphered at first; but which it is important we should
+understand clearly. Each grinding tooth of the upper jaw has an _outer
+wall_ so shaped that, on the worn crown, it exhibits the form of two
+crescents, one in front and one behind, with their concave sides turned
+outwards. From the inner side of the front crescent, a crescentic _front
+ridge_ passes inwards and backwards, and its inner face enlarges into a
+strong longitudinal fold or _pillar_. From the front part of the hinder
+crescent, a _back ridge_ takes a like direction, and also has its
+_pillar_.
+
+The deep interspaces or _valleys_ between these ridges and the outer
+wall are filled by bony substance, which is called _cement_, and coats
+the whole tooth.
+
+The pattern of the worn face of each grinding tooth of the lower jaw is
+quite different. It appears to be formed of two crescent-shaped ridges,
+the convexities of which are turned outwards. The free extremity of each
+crescent has a _pillar_, and there is a large double _pillar_ where the
+two crescents meet. The whole structure is, as it were, imbedded in
+cement, which fills up the valleys, as in the upper grinders.
+
+If the grinding faces of an upper and of a lower molar of the same side
+are applied together, it will be seen that the apposed ridges are
+nowhere parallel, but that they frequently cross; and that thus, in the
+act of mastication, a hard surface in the one is constantly applied to a
+soft surface in the other, and _vice versâ_. They thus constitute a
+grinding apparatus of great efficiency, and one which is repaired as
+fast as it wears, owing to the long-continued growth of the teeth.
+
+Some other peculiarities of the dentition of the horse must be noticed,
+as they bear upon what I shall have to say by and by. Thus the crowns of
+the cutting teeth have a peculiar deep pit, which gives rise to the
+well-known "mark" of the horse. There is a large space between the outer
+incisors and the front grinder. In this space the adult male horse
+presents, near the incisors on each side, above and below, a canine or
+"tush," which is commonly absent in mares. In a young horse, moreover,
+there is not unfrequently to be seen in front of the first grinder, a
+very small tooth, which soon falls out. If this small tooth be counted
+as one, it will be found that there are seven teeth behind the canine on
+each side; namely, the small tooth in question, and the six great
+grinders, among which, by an unusual peculiarity, the foremost tooth is
+rather larger than those which follow it.
+
+I have now enumerated those characteristic structures of the horse which
+are of most importance for the purpose we have in view.
+
+To any one who is acquainted with the morphology of vertebrated animals,
+they show that the horse deviates widely from the general structure of
+mammals; and that the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme
+modification of the general mammalian plan. The least modified mammals,
+in fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct and
+separate. They have five distinct and complete digits on each foot, and
+no one of these digits is very much larger than the rest. Moreover, in
+the least modified mammals, the total number of the teeth is very
+generally forty-four, while in horses, the usual number is forty, and in
+the absence of the canines, it may be reduced to thirty-six; the incisor
+teeth are devoid of the fold seen in those of the horse: the grinders
+regularly diminish in size from the middle of the series to its front
+end; while their crowns are short, early attain their full length, and
+exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place of the complex foldings of
+the horse's grinders.
+
+Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of evolution lead to the
+conclusion that the horse must have been derived from some quadruped
+which possessed five complete digits on each foot; which had the bones
+of the fore-arm and of the leg complete and separate; and which
+possessed forty-four teeth, among which the crowns of the incisors and
+grinders had a simple structure; while the latter gradually increased in
+size from before backwards, at any rate in the anterior part of the
+series, and had short crowns.
+
+And if the horse has been thus evolved, and the remains of the different
+stages of its evolution have been preserved, they ought to present us
+with a series of forms in which the number of the digits becomes
+reduced; the bones of the fore-arm and leg gradually take on the equine
+condition; and the form and arrangement of the teeth successively
+approximate to those which obtain in existing horses.
+
+Let us turn to the facts, and see how far they fulfil these requirements
+of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the Quaternary and
+later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene formation. But these
+horses, which are so common in the cave-deposits and in the gravels of
+Europe, are in all essential respects like existing horses. And that is
+true of all the horses of the latter part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in
+deposits which belong to the earlier Pliocene and later Miocene epochs,
+and which occur in Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in India,
+we find animals which are extremely like horses--which, in fact, are so
+similar to horses, that you may follow descriptions given in works upon
+the anatomy of the horse upon the skeletons of these animals--but which
+differ in some important particulars. For example, the structure of
+their fore and hind limbs is somewhat different. The bones which, in the
+horse, are represented by two splints, imperfect below, are as long as
+the middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the
+extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same general
+character as those of the middle digit, only very much smaller. These
+small digits are so disposed that they could have had but very little
+functional importance, and they must have been rather of the nature of
+the dew-claws, such as are to be found in many ruminant animals. The
+_Hipparion_, as the extinct European three-toed horse is called, in
+fact, presents a foot similar to that of the American _Protohippus_
+(Fig. 9), except that, in the _Hipparion_, the smaller digits are
+situated farther back, and are of smaller proportional size, than in the
+_Protohippus_.
+
+The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse; and the whole
+length of it, as a very slender shaft, intimately united with the
+radius, is completely traceable. The fibula appears to be in the same
+condition as in the horse. The teeth of the _Hipparion_ are essentially
+similar to those of the horse, but the pattern of the grinders is in
+some respects a little more complex, and there is a depression on the
+face of the skull in front of the orbit, which is not seen in existing
+horses.
+
+In the earlier Miocene, and perhaps the later Eocene deposits of some
+parts of Europe, another extinct animal has been discovered, which
+Cuvier, who first described some fragments of it, considered to be a
+_Palæotherium_. But as further discoveries threw new light upon its
+structure, it was recognised as a distinct genus, under the name of
+_Anchitherium_.
+
+In its general characters, the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is very
+similar to that of the horse. In fact, Lartet and De Blainville called
+it _Palæotherium equinum_ or _hippoides_; and De Christol, in 1847, said
+that it differed from _Hipparion_ in little more than the characters of
+its teeth, and gave it the name of _Hipparitherium_. Each foot possesses
+three complete toes; while the lateral toes are much larger in
+proportion to the middle toe than in _Hipparion_, and doubtless rested
+on the ground in ordinary locomotion.
+
+The ulna is complete and quite distinct from the radius, though firmly
+united with the latter. The fibula seems also to have been complete. Its
+lower end, though intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+marked off from the latter bone.
+
+There are forty-four teeth. The incisors have no strong pit. The canines
+seem to have been well developed in both sexes. The first of the seven
+grinders, which, as I have said, is frequently absent, and, when it does
+exist, is small in the horse, is a good-sized and permanent tooth, while
+the grinder which follows it is but little larger than the hinder ones.
+The crowns of the grinders are short, and though the fundamental pattern
+of the horse-tooth is discernible, the front and back ridges are less
+curved, the accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much
+shallower, are not filled up with cement.
+
+Seven years ago, when I happened to be looking critically into the
+bearing of palæontological facts upon the doctrine of evolution, it
+appeared to me that the _Anchitherium_, the _Hipparion_, and the modern
+horses, constitute a series in which the modifications of structure
+coincide with the order of chronological occurrence, in the manner in
+which they must coincide, if the modern horses really are the result of
+the gradual metamorphosis, in the course of the Tertiary epoch, of a
+less specialised ancestral form. And I found by correspondence with the
+late eminent French anatomist and palæontologist, M. Lartet, that he had
+arrived at the same conclusion from the same data.
+
+That the _Anchitherium_ type had become metamorphosed into the
+_Hipparion_ type, and the latter into the _Equine_ type, in the course
+of that period of time which is represented by the latter half of the
+Tertiary deposits, seemed to me to be the only explanation of the facts
+for which there was even a shadow of probability.[2]
+
+And, hence, I have ever since held that these facts afford evidence of
+the occurrence of evolution, which, in the sense already defined, may be
+termed demonstrative.
+
+All who have occupied themselves with the structure of _Anchitherium_,
+from Cuvier onwards, have acknowledged its many points of likeness to a
+well-known genus of extinct Eocene mammals, _Palæotherium_. Indeed, as
+we have seen, Cuvier regarded his remains of _Anchitherium_ as those of
+a species of _Palæotherium_. Hence, in attempting to trace the pedigree
+of the horse beyond the Miocene epoch and the Anchitheroid form, I
+naturally sought among the various species of Palæotheroid animals for
+its nearest ally, and I was led to conclude that the _Palæotherium
+minus (Plagiolophus)_ represented the next step more nearly than any
+form then known.
+
+I think that this opinion was fully justifiable; but the progress of
+investigation has thrown an unexpected light on the question, and has
+brought us much nearer than could have been anticipated to a knowledge
+of the true series of the progenitors of the horse.
+
+You are all aware that, when your country was first discovered by
+Europeans, there were no traces of the existence of the horse in any
+part of the American Continent. The accounts of the conquest of Mexico
+dwell upon the astonishment of the natives of that country when they
+first became acquainted with that astounding phenomenon--a man seated
+upon a horse. Nevertheless, the investigations of American geologists
+have proved that the remains of horses occur in the most superficial
+deposits of both North and South America, just as they do in Europe.
+Therefore, for some reason or other--no feasible suggestion on that
+subject, so far as I know, has been made--the horse must have died out
+on this continent at some period preceding the discovery of America. Of
+late years there has been discovered in your Western Territories that
+marvellous accumulation of deposits, admirably adapted for the
+preservation of organic remains, to which I referred the other evening,
+and which furnishes us with a consecutive series of records of the fauna
+of the older half of the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel
+in Europe. They have yielded fossils in an excellent state of
+conservation and in unexampled number and variety. The researches of
+Leidy and others have shown that forms allied to the _Hipparion_ and the
+_Anchitherium_ are to be found among these remains. But it is only
+recently that the admirably conceived and most thoroughly and patiently
+worked-out investigations of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea
+of the vast fossil wealth, and of the scientific importance, of these
+deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the collections in
+Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so far as my knowledge extends,
+there is no collection from any one region and series of strata
+comparable, for extent, or for the care with which the remains have been
+got together, or for their scientific importance, to the series of
+fossils which he has deposited there. This vast collection has yielded
+evidence bearing upon the question of the pedigree of the horse of the
+most striking character. It tends to show that we must look to America,
+rather than to Europe, for the original seat of the equine series; and
+that the archaic forms and successive modifications of the horse's
+ancestry are far better preserved here than in Europe.
+
+Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before you a diagram,
+every figure in which is an actual representation of some specimen which
+is to be seen at Yale at this present time (Fig. 9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+The succession of forms which he has brought together carries us from
+the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there is the true
+horse. Next we have the American Pliocene form of the horse
+(_Pliohippus_); in the conformation of its limbs it presents some very
+slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and the crowns of the
+grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the _Protohippus_, which
+represents the European _Hipparion_, having one large digit and two
+small ones on each foot, and the general characters of the fore-arm and
+leg to which I have referred. But it is more valuable than the European
+_Hipparion_ for the reason that it is devoid of some of the
+peculiarities of that form--peculiarities which tend to show that the
+European _Hipparion_ is rather a member of a collateral branch, than a
+form in the direct line of succession. Next, in the backward order in
+time, is the _Miohippus_, which corresponds pretty nearly with the
+_Anchitherium_ of Europe. It presents three complete toes--one large
+median and two smaller lateral ones; and there is a rudiment of that
+digit, which answers to the little finger of the human hand.
+
+The European record of the pedigree of the horse stops here; in the
+American Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of ancestral equine
+forms is continued into the Eocene formations. An older Miocene form,
+termed _Mesohippus_, has three toes in front, with a large splint-like
+rudiment representing the little finger; and three toes behind. The
+radius and ulna, the tibia and the fibula, are distinct, and the short
+crowned molar teeth are anchitherioid in pattern.
+
+But the most important discovery of all is the _Orohippus_, which comes
+from the Eocene formation, and is the oldest member of the equine
+series, as yet known. Here we find four complete toes on the front-limb,
+three toes on the hind-limb, a well-developed ulna, a well-developed
+fibula, and short-crowned grinders of simple pattern.
+
+Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has become evident that,
+so far as our present knowledge extends, the history of the horse-type
+is exactly and precisely that which could have been predicted from a
+knowledge of the principles of evolution. And the knowledge we now
+possess justifies us completely in the anticipation, that when the still
+lower Eocene deposits, and those which belong to the Cretaceous epoch,
+have yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+find, first, a form with four complete toes and a rudiment of the
+innermost or first digit in front, with, probably, a rudiment of the
+fifth digit in the hind foot;[3] while, in still older forms, the series
+of the digits will be more and more complete, until we come to the
+five-toed animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is well
+founded, the whole series must have taken its origin.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That is what I mean by demonstrative evidence of evolution. An inductive
+hypothesis is said to be demonstrated when the facts are shown to be in
+entire accordance with it. If that is not scientific proof, there are no
+merely inductive conclusions which can be said to be proved. And the
+doctrine of evolution, at the present time, rests upon exactly as secure
+a foundation as the Copernican theory of the motions of the heavenly
+bodies did at the time of its promulgation. Its logical basis is
+precisely of the same character--the coincidence of the observed facts
+with theoretical requirements.
+
+The only way of escape, if it be a way of escape, from the conclusions
+which I have just indicated, is the supposition that all these different
+equine forms have been created separately at separate epochs of time;
+and, I repeat, that of such an hypothesis as this there neither is, nor
+can be, any scientific evidence; and, assuredly, so far as I know, there
+is none which is supported, or pretends to be supported, by evidence or
+authority of any other kind. I can but think that the time will come
+when such suggestions as these, such obvious attempts to escape the
+force of demonstration, will be put upon the same footing as the
+supposition made by some writers, who are, I believe, not completely
+extinct at present, that fossils are mere simulacra, are no indications
+of the former existence of the animals to which they seem to belong; but
+that they are either sports of Nature, or special creations,
+intended--as I heard suggested the other day--to test our faith.
+
+In fact, the whole evidence is in favour of evolution, and there is none
+against it. And I say this, although perfectly well aware of the seeming
+difficulties which have been built up upon what appears to the
+uninformed to be a solid foundation. I meet constantly with the argument
+that the doctrine of evolution cannot be well founded, because it
+requires the lapse of a very vast period of time; the duration of life
+upon the earth, thus implied, is inconsistent with the conclusions
+arrived at by the astronomer and the physicist. I may venture to say
+that I am familiar with those conclusions, inasmuch as some years ago,
+when President of the Geological Society of London, I took the liberty
+of criticising them, and of showing in what respects, as it appeared to
+me, they lacked complete and thorough demonstration. But, putting that
+point aside, suppose that, as the astronomers, or some of them, and some
+physical philosophers, tell us, it is impossible that life could have
+endured upon the earth for as long a period as is required by the
+doctrine of evolution--supposing that to be proved--I desire to be
+informed, what is the foundation for the statement that evolution does
+require so great a time? The biologist knows nothing whatever of the
+amount of time which may be required for the process of evolution. It is
+a matter of fact that the equine forms which I have described to you
+occur, in the order stated, in the Tertiary formations. But I have not
+the slightest means of guessing whether it took a million of years, or
+ten millions, or a hundred millions, or a thousand millions of years, to
+give rise to that series of changes. A biologist has no means of
+arriving at any conclusion as to the amount of time which may be needed
+for a certain quantity of organic change. He takes his time from the
+geologist. The geologist, considering the rate at which deposits are
+formed and the rate at which denudation goes on upon the surface of the
+earth, arrives at more or less justifiable conclusions as to the time
+which is required for the deposit of a certain thickness of rocks; and
+if he tells me that the Tertiary formations required 500,000,000 years
+for their deposit, I suppose he has good ground for what he says, and I
+take that as a measure of the duration of the evolution of the horse
+from the _Orohippus_ up to its present condition. And, if he is right,
+undoubtedly evolution is a very slow process, and requires a great deal
+of time. But suppose, now, that an astronomer or a physicist--for
+instance, my friend Sir William Thomson--tells me that my geological
+authority is quite wrong; and that he has weighty evidence to show that
+life could not possibly have existed upon the surface of the earth
+500,000,000 years ago, because the earth would have then been too hot to
+allow of life, my reply is: "That is not my affair; settle that with the
+geologist, and when you have come to an agreement among yourselves I
+will adopt your conclusion." We take our time from the geologists and
+physicists; and it is monstrous that, having taken our time from the
+physical philosopher's clock, the physical philosopher should turn round
+upon us, and say we are too fast or too slow. What we desire to know is,
+is it a fact that evolution took place? As to the amount of time which
+evolution may have occupied, we are in the hands of the physicist and
+the astronomer, whose business it is to deal with those questions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have now, ladies and gentlemen, arrived at the conclusion of the task
+which I set before myself when I undertook to deliver these lectures. My
+purpose has been, not to enable those among you who have paid no
+attention to these subjects before, to leave this room in a condition to
+decide upon the validity or the invalidity of the hypothesis of
+evolution; but I have desired to put before you the principles upon
+which all hypotheses respecting the history of Nature must be judged;
+and furthermore, to make apparent the nature of the evidence and the
+amount of cogency which is to be expected and may be obtained from it.
+To this end, I have not hesitated to regard you as genuine students and
+persons desirous of knowing the truth. I have not shrunk from taking you
+through long discussions, that I fear may have sometimes tried your
+patience; and I have inflicted upon you details which were
+indispensable, but which may well have been wearisome. But I shall
+rejoice--I shall consider that I have done you the greatest service,
+which it was in my power to do--if I have thus convinced you that the
+great question which we have been discussing is not one to be dealt with
+by rhetorical flourishes, or by loose and superficial talk; but that it
+requires the keen attention of the trained intellect and the patience of
+the accurate observer.
+
+When I commenced this series of lectures, I did not think it necessary
+to preface them with a prologue, such as might be expected from a
+stranger and a foreigner; for during my brief stay in your country, I
+have found it very hard to believe that a stranger could be possessed of
+so many friends, and almost harder that a foreigner could express
+himself in your language in such a way as to be, to all appearance, so
+readily intelligible. So far as I can judge, that most intelligent, and,
+perhaps, I may add, most singularly active and enterprising body, your
+press reporters, do not seem to have been deterred by my accent from
+giving the fullest account of everything that I happen to have said.
+
+But the vessel in which I take my departure to-morrow morning is even
+now ready to slip her moorings; I awake from my delusion that I am other
+than a stranger and a foreigner. I am ready to go back to my place and
+country; but, before doing so, let me, by way of epilogue, tender to you
+my most hearty thanks for the kind and cordial reception which you have
+accorded to me; and let me thank you still more for that which is the
+greatest compliment which can be afforded to any person in my
+position--the continuous and undisturbed attention which you have
+bestowed upon the long argument which I have had the honour to lay
+before you.
+
+
+    [1] The absence of any keel on the breast-bone and some other
+        osteological peculiarities, observed by Professor Marsh,
+        however, suggest that _Hesperornis_ may be a modification of a
+        less specialised group of birds than that to which these
+        existing aquatic birds belong.
+
+
+    [2] I use the word "type" because it is highly probable that many
+        forms of _Anchitherium_-like and _Hipparion_-like animals
+        existed in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, just as many species
+        of the horse tribe exist now; and it is highly improbable that
+        the particular species of _Anchitherium_ or _Hipparion_, which
+        happen to have been discovered, should be precisely those which
+        have formed part of the direct line of the horse's pedigree.
+
+    [3] Since this lecture was delivered, Professor Marsh has discovered
+        a new genus of equine mammals (_Eohippus_) from the lowest
+        Eocene deposits of the West, which corresponds very nearly to
+        this description.--_American Journal of Science_, November,
+        1876.
+
+
+
+
+BALTIMORE.
+
+ADDRESS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.[1]
+
+
+The actual work of the University founded in this city by the
+well-considered munificence of Johns Hopkins commences to-morrow, and
+among the many marks of confidence and good-will which have been
+bestowed upon me in the United States, there is none which I value more
+highly than that conferred by the authorities of the University when
+they invited me to deliver an address on such an occasion.
+
+For the event which has brought us together is, in many respects,
+unique. A vast property is handed over to an administrative body,
+hampered by no conditions save these;--That the principal shall not be
+employed in building: that the funds shall be appropriated, in equal
+proportions, to the promotion of natural knowledge and to the
+alleviation of the bodily sufferings of mankind; and, finally, that
+neither political nor ecclesiastical sectarianism shall be permitted to
+disturb the impartial distribution of the testator's benefactions.
+
+In my experience of life a truth which sounds very much like a paradox
+has often asserted itself; namely, that a man's worst difficulties begin
+when he is able to do as he likes. So long as a man is struggling with
+obstacles he has an excuse for failure or shortcoming; but when fortune
+removes them all and gives him the power of doing as he thinks best,
+then comes the time of trial. There is but one right, and the
+possibilities of wrong are infinite. I doubt not that the trustees of
+the Johns Hopkins University felt the full force of this truth when they
+entered on the administration of their trust a year and a half ago; and
+I can but admire the activity and resolution which have enabled them,
+aided by the able president whom they have selected, to lay down the
+great outlines of their plan, and carry it thus far into execution. It
+is impossible to study that plan without perceiving that great care,
+forethought, and sagacity, have been bestowed upon it, and that it
+demands the most respectful consideration. I have been endeavouring to
+ascertain how far the principles which underlie it are in accordance
+with those which have been established in my own mind by much and
+long-continued thought upon educational questions. Permit me to place
+before you the result of my reflections.
+
+Under one aspect a university is a particular kind of educational
+institution, and the views which we may take of the proper nature of a
+university are corollaries from those which we hold respecting education
+in general. I think it must be admitted that the school should prepare
+for the university, and that the university should crown the edifice,
+the foundations of which are laid in the school. University education
+should not be something distinct from elementary education, but should
+be the natural outgrowth and development of the latter. Now I have a
+very clear conviction as to what elementary education ought to be; what
+it really may be, when properly organised; and what I think it will be,
+before many years have passed over our heads, in England and in America.
+Such education should enable an average boy of fifteen or sixteen to
+read and write his own language with ease and accuracy, and with a sense
+of literary excellence derived from the study of our classic writers: to
+have a general acquaintance with the history of his own country and with
+the great laws of social existence; to have acquired the rudiments of
+the physical and psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of
+elementary arithmetic and geometry. He should have obtained an
+acquaintance with logic rather by example than by precept; while the
+acquirement of the elements of music and drawing should have been
+pleasure rather than work.
+
+It may sound strange to many ears if I venture to maintain the
+proposition that a young person, educated thus far, has had a liberal,
+though perhaps not a full, education. But it seems to me that such
+training as that to which I have referred may be termed liberal, in both
+the senses in which that word is employed, with perfect accuracy. In the
+first place, it is liberal in breadth. It extends over the whole ground
+of things to be known and of faculties to be trained, and it gives equal
+importance to the two great sides of human activity--art and science. In
+the second place, it is liberal in the sense of being an education
+fitted for free men; for men to whom every career is open, and from whom
+their country may demand that they should be fitted to perform the
+duties of any career. I cannot too strongly impress upon you the fact
+that, with such a primary education as this, and with no more than is to
+be obtained by building strictly upon its lines, a man of ability may
+become a great writer or speaker, a statesman, a lawyer, a man of
+science, painter, sculptor, architect, or musician. That even
+development of all a man's faculties, which is what properly constitutes
+culture, may be effected by such an education, while it opens the way
+for the indefinite strengthening of any special capabilities with which
+he may be gifted.
+
+In a country like this, where most men have to carve out their own
+fortunes and devote themselves early to the practical affairs of life,
+comparatively few can hope to pursue their studies up to, still less
+beyond, the age of manhood. But it is of vital importance to the welfare
+of the community that those who are relieved from the need of making a
+livelihood, and still more, those who are stirred by the divine impulses
+of intellectual thirst or artistic genius, should be enabled to devote
+themselves to the higher service of their kind, as centres of
+intelligence, interpreters of nature, or creators of new forms of
+beauty. And it is the function of a university to furnish such men with
+the means of becoming that which it is their privilege and duty to be.
+To this end the university need cover no ground foreign to that occupied
+by the elementary school. Indeed it cannot; for the elementary
+instruction which I have referred to embraces all the kinds of real
+knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The university can add no
+new departments of knowledge, can offer no new fields of mental
+activity; but what it can do is to intensify and specialise the
+instruction in each department. Thus literature and philology,
+represented in the elementary school by English alone, in the university
+will extend over the ancient and modern languages. History, which, like
+charity, best begins at home, but, like charity, should not end there,
+will ramify into anthropology, archæology, political history, and
+geography, with the history of the growth of the human mind and of its
+products in the shape of philosophy, science, and art. And the
+university will present to the student libraries, museums of
+antiquities, collections of coins, and the like, which will efficiently
+subserve these studies. Instruction in the elements of social economy, a
+most essential, but hitherto sadly-neglected part of elementary
+education, will develop in the university into political economy,
+sociology, and law. Physical science will have its great divisions of
+physical geography, with geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and
+biology; represented not merely by professors and their lectures, but by
+laboratories, in which the students, under guidance of demonstrators,
+will work out facts for themselves and come into that direct contact
+with reality which constitutes the fundamental distinction of scientific
+education. Mathematics will soar into its highest regions; while the
+high peaks of philosophy may be scaled by those whose aptitude for
+abstract thought has been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, schools
+of pictorial and plastic art, of architecture, and of music, will offer
+a thorough discipline in the principles and practice of art to those in
+whom lies nascent the rare faculty of æsthetic representation, or the
+still rarer powers of creative genius.
+
+The primary school and the university are the alpha and omega of
+education. Whether institutions intermediate between these (so-called
+secondary schools) should exist, appears to me to be a question of
+practical convenience. If such schools are established, the important
+thing is that they should be true intermediaries between the primary
+school and the university, keeping on the wide track of general culture,
+and not sacrificing one branch of knowledge for another.
+
+Such appear to me to be the broad outlines of the relations which the
+university, regarded as a place of education, ought to bear to the
+school, but a number of points of detail require some consideration,
+however briefly and imperfectly I can deal with them. In the first
+place, there is the important question of the limitations which should
+be fixed to the entrance into the university; or, what qualifications
+should be required of those who propose to take advantage of the higher
+training offered by the university. On the one hand, it is obviously
+desirable that the time and opportunities of the university should not
+be wasted in conferring such elementary instruction as can be obtained
+elsewhere; while, on the other hand, it is no less desirable that the
+higher instruction of the university should be made accessible to every
+one who can take advantage of it, although he may not have been able to
+go through any very extended course of education. My own feeling is
+distinctly against any absolute and defined preliminary examination, the
+passing of which shall be an essential condition of admission to the
+university. I would admit to the university any one who could be
+reasonably expected to profit by the instruction offered to him; and I
+should be inclined, on the whole, to test the fitness of the student,
+not by examination before he enters the university, but at the end of
+his first term of study. If, on examination in the branches of knowledge
+to which he has devoted himself, he show himself deficient in industry
+or in capacity, it will be best for the university and best for himself,
+to prevent him from pursuing a vocation for which he is obviously unfit.
+And I hardly know of any other method than this by which his fitness or
+unfitness can be safely ascertained, though no doubt a good deal may be
+done, not by formal cut and dried examination, but by judicious
+questioning, at the outset of his career.
+
+Another very important and difficult practical question is, whether a
+definite course of study shall be laid down for those who enter the
+university; whether a curriculum shall be prescribed; or whether the
+student shall be allowed to range at will among the subjects which are
+open to him. And this question is inseparably connected with another,
+namely, the conferring of degrees. It is obviously impossible that any
+student should pass through the whole of the series of courses of
+instruction offered by a university. If a degree is to be conferred as a
+mark of proficiency in knowledge, it must be given on the ground that
+the candidate is proficient in a certain fraction of those studies; and
+then will arise the necessity of insuring an equivalency of degrees, so
+that the course by which a degree is obtained shall mark approximately
+an equal amount of labour and of acquirements, in all cases. But this
+equivalency can hardly be secured in any other way than by prescribing a
+series of definite lines of study. This is a matter which will require
+grave consideration. The important points to bear in mind, I think, are
+that there should not be too many subjects in the curriculum, and that
+the aim should be the attainment of thorough and sound knowledge of
+each.
+
+One half of the Johns Hopkins bequest is devoted to the establishment of
+a hospital, and it was the desire of the testator that the university
+and the hospital should co-operate in the promotion of medical
+education. The trustees will unquestionably take the best advice that is
+to be had as to the construction and administration of the hospital. In
+respect to the former point, they will doubtless remember that a
+hospital may be so arranged as to kill more than it cures; and, in
+regard to the latter, that a hospital may spread the spirit of pauperism
+among the well-to-do, as well as relieve the sufferings of the
+destitute. It is not for me to speak on these topics--rather let me
+confine myself to the one matter on which my experience as a student of
+medicine, and an examiner of long standing, who has taken a great
+interest in the subject of medical education, may entitle me to a
+hearing. I mean the nature of medical education itself, and the
+co-operation of the university in its promotion.
+
+What is the object of medical education? It is to enable the
+practitioner, on the one hand, to prevent disease by his knowledge of
+hygiene; on the other hand, to divine its nature, and to alleviate or
+cure it, by his knowledge of pathology, therapeutics, and practical
+medicine. That is his business in life, and if he has not a thorough and
+practical knowledge of the conditions of health, of the causes which
+tend to the establishment of disease, of the meaning of symptoms, and of
+the uses of medicines and operative appliances, he is incompetent, even
+if he were the best anatomist, or physiologist, or chemist, that ever
+took a gold medal or won a prize certificate. This is one great truth
+respecting medical education. Another is, that all practice in medicine
+is based upon theory of some sort or other; and therefore, that it is
+desirable to have such theory in the closest possible accordance with
+fact. The veriest empiric who gives a drug in one case because he has
+seen it do good in another of apparently the same sort, acts upon the
+theory that similarity of superficial symptoms means similarity of
+lesions; which, by the way, is perhaps as wild an hypothesis as could be
+invented. To understand the nature of disease we must understand health,
+and the understanding of the healthy body means the having a knowledge
+of its structure and of the way in which its manifold actions are
+performed, which is what is technically termed human anatomy and human
+physiology. The physiologist again must needs possess an acquaintance
+with physics and chemistry, inasmuch as physiology is, to a great
+extent, applied physics and chemistry. For ordinary purposes a limited
+amount of such knowledge is all that is needful; but for the pursuit of
+the higher branches of physiology no knowledge of these branches of
+science can be too extensive, or too profound. Again, what we call
+therapeutics, which has to do with the action of drugs and medicines on
+the living organism, is, strictly speaking, a branch of experimental
+physiology, and is daily receiving a greater and greater experimental
+development.
+
+The third great fact which is to be taken into consideration in dealing
+with medical education, is that the practical necessities of life do
+not, as a rule, allow aspirants to medical practice to give more than
+three, or it may be four years to their studies. Let us put it at four
+years, and then reflect that, in the course of this time, a young man
+fresh from school has to acquaint himself with medicine, surgery,
+obstetrics, therapeutics, pathology, hygiene, as well as with the
+anatomy and the physiology of the human body; and that his knowledge
+should be of such a character that it can be relied upon in any
+emergency, and always ready for practical application. Consider, in
+addition, that the medical practitioner may be called upon, at any
+moment, to give evidence in a court of justice in a criminal case; and
+that it is therefore well that he should know something of the laws of
+evidence, and of what we call medical jurisprudence. On a medical
+certificate, a man may be taken from his home and from his business and
+confined in a lunatic asylum; surely, therefore, it is desirable that
+the medical practitioner should have some rational and clear conceptions
+as to the nature and symptoms of mental disease. Bearing in mind all
+these requirements of medical education, you will admit that the burden
+on the young aspirant for the medical profession is somewhat of the
+heaviest, and that it needs some care to prevent his intellectual back
+from being broken.
+
+Those who are acquainted with the existing systems of medical education
+will observe that, long as is the catalogue of studies which I have
+enumerated, I have omitted to mention several that enter into the usual
+medical curriculum of the present day. I have said not a word about
+zoology, comparative anatomy, botany, or materia medica. Assuredly this
+is from no light estimate of the value or importance of such studies in
+themselves. It may be taken for granted that I should be the last person
+in the world to object to the teaching of zoology, or comparative
+anatomy, in themselves; but I have the strongest feeling that,
+considering the number and the gravity of those studies through which a
+medical man must pass, if he is to be competent to discharge the serious
+duties which devolve upon him, subjects which lie so remote as these do
+from his practical pursuits should be rigorously excluded. The young
+man, who has enough to do in order to acquire such familiarity with the
+structure of the human body as will enable him to perform the operations
+of surgery, ought not, in my judgment, to be occupied with
+investigations into the anatomy of crabs and starfishes. Undoubtedly the
+doctor should know the common poisonous plants of his own country when
+he sees them; but that knowledge may be obtained by a few hours devoted
+to the examination of specimens of such plants, and the desirableness of
+such knowledge is no justification, to my mind, for spending three
+months over the study of systematic botany. Again, materia medica, so
+far as it is a knowledge of drugs, is the business of the druggist. In
+all other callings the necessity of the division of labour is fully
+recognised, and it is absurd to require of the medical man that he
+should not avail himself of the special knowledge of those whose
+business it is to deal in the drugs which he uses. It is all very well
+that the physician should know that castor oil comes from a plant, and
+castoreum from an animal, and how they are to be prepared; but for all
+the practical purposes of his profession that knowledge is not of one
+whit more value, has no more relevancy, than the knowledge of how the
+steel of his scalpel is made.
+
+All knowledge is good. It is impossible to say that any fragment of
+knowledge, however insignificant or remote from one's ordinary pursuits,
+may not some day be turned to account. But in medical education, above
+all things, it is to be recollected that, in order to know a little
+well, one must be content to be ignorant of a great deal.
+
+Let it not be supposed that I am proposing to narrow medical education,
+or, as the cry is, to lower the standard of the profession. Depend upon
+it there is only one way of really ennobling any calling, and that is to
+make those who pursue it real masters of their craft, men who can truly
+do that which they profess to be able to do, and which they are credited
+with being able to do by the public. And there is no position so ignoble
+as that of the so-called "liberally-educated practitioner," who, as
+Talleyrand said of his physician, "Knows everything, even a little
+physic;" who may be able to read Galen in the original; who knows all
+the plants, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall; but
+who finds himself, with the issues of life and death in his hands,
+ignorant, blundering, and bewildered, because of his ignorance of the
+essential and fundamental truths upon which practice must be based.
+Moreover, I venture to say, that any man who has seriously studied all
+the essential branches of medical knowledge; who has the needful
+acquaintance with the elements of physical science; who has been brought
+by medical jurisprudence into contact with law; whose study of insanity
+has taken him into the fields of psychology; has _ipso facto_ received a
+liberal education.
+
+Having lightened the medical curriculum by culling out of it everything
+which is unessential, we may next consider whether something may not be
+done to aid the medical student toward the acquirement of real knowledge
+by modifying the system of examination. In England, within my
+recollection, it was the practice to require of the medical student
+attendance on lectures upon the most diverse topics during three years;
+so that it often happened that he would have to listen, in the course of
+a day, to four or five lectures upon totally different subjects, in
+addition to the hours given to dissection and to hospital practice: and
+he was required to keep all the knowledge he could pick up, in this
+distracting fashion, at examination point, until, at the end of three
+years, he was set down to a table and questioned pell-mell upon all the
+different matters with which he had been striving to make acquaintance.
+A worse system and one more calculated to obstruct the acquisition of
+sound knowledge and to give full play to the "crammer" and the "grinder"
+could hardly have been devised by human ingenuity. Of late years great
+reforms have taken place. Examinations have been divided so as to
+diminish the number of subjects among which the attention has to be
+distributed. Practical examination has been largely introduced; but
+there still remains, even under the present system, too much of the old
+evil inseparable from the contemporaneous pursuit of a multiplicity of
+diverse studies.
+
+Proposals have recently been made to get rid of general examinations
+altogether, to permit the student to be examined in each subject at the
+end of his attendance on the class; and then, in case of the result
+being satisfactory, to allow him to have done with it; and I may say
+that this method has been pursued for many years in the Royal School of
+Mines in London, and has been found to work very well. It allows the
+student to concentrate his mind upon what he is about for the time
+being, and then to dismiss it. Those who are occupied in intellectual
+work, will, I think, agree with me that it is important, not so much to
+know a thing, as to have known it, and known it thoroughly. If you have
+once known a thing in this way it is easy to renew your knowledge when
+you have forgotten it; and when you begin to take the subject up again,
+it slides back upon the familiar grooves with great facility.
+
+Lastly comes the question as to how the university may co-operate in
+advancing medical education. A medical school is strictly a technical
+school--a school in which a practical profession is taught--while a
+university ought to be a place in which knowledge is obtained without
+direct reference to professional purposes. It is clear, therefore, that
+a university and its antecedent, the school, may best co-operate with
+the medical school by making due provision for the study of those
+branches of knowledge which lie at the foundation of medicine.
+
+At present, young men come to the medical schools without a conception
+of even the elements of physical science; they learn, for the first
+time, that there are such sciences as physics, chemistry, and
+physiology, and are introduced to anatomy as a new thing. It may be
+safely said that, with a large proportion of medical students, much of
+the first session is wasted in learning how to learn--in familiarising
+themselves with utterly strange conceptions, and in awakening their
+dormant and wholly untrained powers of observation and of manipulation.
+It is difficult to overestimate the magnitude of the obstacles which are
+thrown in the way of scientific training by the existing system of
+school education. Not only are men trained in mere book-work, ignorant
+of what observation means, but the habit of learning from books alone
+begets a disgust of observation. The book-learned student will rather
+trust to what he sees in a book than to the witness of his own eyes.
+
+There is not the least reason why this should be so, and, in fact, when
+elementary education becomes that which I have assumed it ought to be,
+this state of things will no longer exist. There is not the slightest
+difficulty in giving sound elementary instruction in physics, in
+chemistry, and in the elements of human physiology, in ordinary schools.
+In other words, there is no reason why the student should not come to
+the medical school, provided with as much knowledge of these several
+sciences as he ordinarily picks up, in the course of his first year of
+attendance, at the medical school.
+
+I am not saying this without full practical justification for the
+statement. For the last eighteen years we have had in England a system
+of elementary science teaching carried out under the auspices of the
+Science and Art Department, by which elementary scientific instruction
+is made readily accessible to the scholars of all the elementary schools
+in the country. Commencing with small beginnings, carefully developed
+and improved, that system now brings up for examination as many as seven
+thousand scholars in the subject of human physiology alone. I can say
+that, out of that number, a large proportion have acquired a fair amount
+of substantial knowledge; and that no inconsiderable percentage show as
+good an acquaintance with human physiology as used to be exhibited by
+the average candidates for medical degrees in the University of London,
+when I was first an examiner there twenty years ago; and quite as much
+knowledge as is possessed by the ordinary student of medicine at the
+present day. I am justified, therefore, in looking forward to the time
+when the student who proposes to devote himself to medicine will come,
+not absolutely raw and inexperienced as he is at present, but in a
+certain state of preparation for further study; and I look to the
+university to help him still further forward in that stage of
+preparation, through the organisation of its biological department. Here
+the student will find means of acquainting himself with the phenomena of
+life in their broadest acceptation. He will study not botany and
+zoology, which, as I have said, would take him too far away from his
+ultimate goal; but, by duly arranged instruction, combined with work in
+the laboratory upon the leading types of animal and vegetable life, he
+will lay a broad, and at the same time solid, foundation of biological
+knowledge; he will come to his medical studies with a comprehension of
+the great truths of morphology and of physiology, with his hands trained
+to dissect and his eyes taught to see. I have no hesitation in saying
+that such preparation is worth a full year added on to the medical
+curriculum. In other words, it will set free that much time for
+attention to those studies which bear directly upon the student's most
+grave and serious duties as a medical practitioner.
+
+Up to this point I have considered only the teaching aspect of your
+great foundation, that function of the university in virtue of which it
+plays the part of a reservoir of ascertained truth, so far as our
+symbols can ever interpret nature. All can learn; all can drink of this
+lake. It is given to few to add to the store of knowledge, to strike new
+springs of thought, or to shape new forms of beauty. But so sure as it
+is that men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is it that the
+future of the world lies in the hands of those who are able to carry the
+interpretation of nature a step further than their predecessors; so
+certain is it that the highest function of a university is to seek out
+those men, cherish them, and give their ability to serve their kind full
+play.
+
+I rejoice to observe that the encouragement of research occupies so
+prominent a place in your official documents, and in the wise and
+liberal inaugural address of your president. This subject of the
+encouragement, or, as it is sometimes called, the endowment of research,
+has of late years greatly exercised the minds of men in England. It was
+one of the main topics of discussion by the members of the Royal
+Commission of whom I was one, and who not long since issued their
+report, after five years' labour. Many seem to think that this question
+is mainly one of money; that you can go into the market and buy
+research, and that supply will follow demand, as in the ordinary course
+of commerce. This view does not commend itself to my mind. I know of no
+more difficult practical problem than the discovery of a method of
+encouraging and supporting the original investigator without opening the
+door to nepotism and jobbery. My own conviction is admirably summed up
+in the passage of your president's address, "that the best investigators
+are usually those who have also the responsibilities of instruction,
+gaining thus the incitement of colleagues, the encouragement of pupils,
+and the observation of the public."
+
+At the commencement of this address I ventured to assume that I might,
+if I thought fit, criticise the arrangements which have been made by the
+board of trustees, but I confess that I have little to do but to applaud
+them. Most wise and sagacious seems to me the determination not to build
+for the present. It has been my fate to see great educational funds
+fossilise into mere bricks and mortar, in the petrifying springs of
+architecture, with nothing left to work the institution they were
+intended to support. A great warrior is said to have made a desert and
+called it peace. Administrators of educational funds have sometimes made
+a palace and called it a university. If I may venture to give advice in
+a matter which lies out of my proper competency, I would say that
+whenever you do build, get an honest bricklayer, and make him build you
+just such rooms as you really want, leaving ample space for expansion.
+And a century hence, when the Baltimore and Ohio shares are at one
+thousand premium, and you have endowed all the professors you need, and
+built all the laboratories that are wanted, and have the best museum and
+the finest library that can be imagined; then, if you have a few hundred
+thousand dollars you don't know what to do with, send for an architect
+and tell him to put up a façade. If American is similar to English
+experience, any other course will probably lead you into having some
+stately structure, good for your architect's fame, but not in the least
+what you want.
+
+It appears to me that what I have ventured to lay down as the principles
+which should govern the relations of a university to education in
+general, are entirely in accordance with the measures you have adopted.
+You have set no restrictions upon access to the instruction you propose
+to give; you have provided that such instruction, either as given by the
+university or by associated institutions, should cover the field of
+human intellectual activity. You have recognised the importance of
+encouraging research. You propose to provide means by which young men,
+who may be full of zeal for a literary or for a scientific career, but
+who also may have mistaken aspiration for inspiration, may bring their
+capacities to a test, and give their powers a fair trial. If such a one
+fail, his endowment terminates, and there is no harm done. If he
+succeed, you may give power of flight to the genius of a Davy or a
+Faraday, a Carlyle or a Locke, whose influence on the future of his
+fellow-men shall be absolutely incalculable.
+
+You have enunciated the principle that "the glory of the university
+should rest upon the character of the teachers and scholars, and not
+upon their numbers or buildings constructed for their use." And I look
+upon it as an essential and most important feature of your plan that the
+income of the professors and teachers shall be independent of the number
+of students whom they can attract. In this way you provide against the
+danger, patent elsewhere, of finding attempts at improvement obstructed
+by vested interests; and, in the department of medical education
+especially, you are free of the temptation to set loose upon the world
+men utterly incompetent to perform the serious and responsible duties of
+their profession.
+
+It is a delicate matter for a stranger to the practical working of your
+institutions, like myself, to pretend to give an opinion as to the
+organisation of your governing power. I can conceive nothing better than
+that it should remain as it is, if you can secure a succession of wise,
+liberal, honest, and conscientious men to fill the vacancies that occur
+among you. I do not greatly believe in the efficacy of any kind of
+machinery for securing such a result; but I would venture to suggest
+that the exclusive adoption of the method of co-optation for filling the
+vacancies which must occur in your body, appears to me to be somewhat
+like a tempting of Providence. Doubtless there are grave practical
+objections to the appointment of persons outside of your body and not
+directly interested in the welfare of the university; but might it not
+be well if there were an understanding that your academic staff should
+be officially represented on the board, perhaps even the heads of one or
+two independent learned bodies, so that academic opinion and the views
+of the outside world might have a certain influence in that most
+important matter, the appointment of your professors? I throw out these
+suggestions, as I have said, in ignorance of the practical difficulties
+that may lie in the way of carrying them into effect, on the general
+ground that personal and local influences are very subtle, and often
+unconscious, while the future greatness and efficiency of the noble
+institution which now commences its work must largely depend upon its
+freedom from them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I constantly hear Americans speak of the charm which our old mother
+country has for them, of the delight with which they wander through the
+streets of ancient towns, or climb the battlements of mediæval
+strongholds, the names of which are indissolubly associated with the
+great epochs of that noble literature which is our common inheritance;
+or with the blood-stained steps of that secular progress, by which the
+descendants of the savage Britons and of the wild pirates of the North
+Sea have become converted into warriors of order and champions of
+peaceful freedom, exhausting what still remains of the old Berserk
+spirit in subduing nature, and turning the wilderness into a garden. But
+anticipation has no less charm than retrospect, and to an Englishman
+landing upon your shores for the first time, travelling for hundreds of
+miles through strings of great and well-ordered cities, seeing your
+enormous actual, and almost infinite potential, wealth in all
+commodities, and in the energy and ability which turn wealth to account,
+there is something sublime in the vista of the future. Do not suppose
+that I am pandering to what is commonly understood by national pride. I
+cannot say that I am in the slightest degree impressed by your bigness,
+or your material resources, as such. Size is not grandeur, and territory
+does not make a nation. The great issue, about which hangs a true
+sublimity, and the terror of overhanging fate, is what are you going to
+do with all these things? What is to be the end to which these are to be
+the means? You are making a novel experiment in politics on the greatest
+scale which the world has yet seen. Forty millions at your first
+centenary, it is reasonably to be expected that, at the second, these
+states will be occupied by two hundred millions of English-speaking
+people, spread over an area as large as that of Europe, and with
+climates and interests as diverse as those of Spain and Scandinavia,
+England and Russia. You and your descendants have to ascertain whether
+this great mass will hold together under the forms of a republic, and
+the despotic reality of universal suffrage; whether state rights will
+hold out against centralisation, without separation; whether
+centralisation will get the better, without actual or disguised
+monarchy; whether shifting corruption is better than a permanent
+bureaucracy; and as population thickens in your great cities, and the
+pressure of want is felt, the gaunt spectre of pauperism will stalk
+among you, and communism and socialism will claim to be heard. Truly
+America has a great future before her; great in toil, in care, and in
+responsibility; great in true glory if she be guided in wisdom and
+righteousness; great in shame if she fail. I cannot understand why other
+nations should envy you, or be blind to the fact that it is for the
+highest interest of mankind that you should succeed; but the one
+condition of success, your sole safeguard, is the moral worth and
+intellectual clearness of the individual citizen. Education cannot give
+these, but it may cherish them and bring them to the front in whatever
+station of society they are to be found; and the universities ought to
+be, and may be, the fortresses of the higher life of the nation.
+
+May the university which commences its practical activity to-morrow
+abundantly fulfil its high purpose; may its renown as a seat of true
+learning, a centre of free inquiry, a focus of intellectual light,
+increase year by year, until men wander hither from all parts of the
+earth, as of old they sought Bologna, or Paris, or Oxford.
+
+And it is pleasant to me to fancy that, among the English students who
+are drawn to you at that time, there may linger a dim tradition that a
+countryman of theirs was permitted to address you as he has done to-day,
+and to feel as if your hopes were his hopes and your success his joy.
+
+
+    [1] Delivered at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins University
+        at Baltimore, U.S., September 12. The total amount bequeathed by
+        Johns Hopkins is more than 7,000,000 dollars. The sum of
+        3,500,000 dollars is appropriated to a university, a like sum to
+        a hospital, and the rest to local institutions of education and
+        charity.
+
+
+
+
+LONDON.
+
+LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.
+
+
+It is my duty to-night to speak about the study of Biology, and while it
+may be that there are many of my audience who are quite familiar with
+that study, yet as a lecturer of some standing, it would, I know by
+experience, be very bad policy on my part to suppose such to be
+extensively the case. On the contrary, I must imagine that there are
+many of you who would like to know what Biology is; that there are
+others who have that amount of information, but would nevertheless
+gladly hear why it should be worth their while to study Biology; and yet
+others, again, to whom these two points are clear, but who desire to
+learn how they had best study it, and, finally, when they had best study
+it.
+
+I shall, therefore, address myself to the endeavour to give you some
+answer to these four questions--what Biology is; why it should be
+studied; how it should be studied; and when it should be studied.
+
+In the first place, in respect to what Biology is, there are, I believe,
+some persons who imagine that the term "Biology" is simply a new-fangled
+denomination, a neologism in short, for what used to be known under the
+title of "Natural History;" but I shall try to show you, on the
+contrary, that the word is the expression of the growth of science
+during the last 200 years, and came into existence half a century ago.
+
+At the revival of learning, knowledge was divided into two kinds--the
+knowledge of nature and the knowledge of man; for it was the current
+idea then (and a great deal of that ancient conception still remains)
+that there was a sort of essential antithesis, not to say antagonism,
+between nature and man; and that the two had not very much to do with
+one another, except that the one was oftentimes exceedingly troublesome
+to the other. Though it is one of the salient merits of our great
+philosophers of the seventeenth century, that they recognised but one
+scientific method, applicable alike to man and to nature, we find this
+notion of the existence of a broad distinction between nature and man in
+the writings both of Bacon and of Hobbes of Malmesbury; and I have
+brought with me that famous work which is now so little known, greatly
+as it deserves to be studied, "The Leviathan," in order that I may put
+to you in the wonderfully terse and clear language of Thomas Hobbes,
+what was his view of the matter. He says:--
+
+     "The register of knowledge of fact is called history. Whereof there
+     be two sorts, one called natural history; which is the history of
+     such facts or effects of nature as have no dependence on man's
+     will; such as are the histories of metals, plants, animals,
+     regions, and the like. The other is civil history; which is the
+     history of the voluntary actions of men in commonwealths."
+
+So that all history of fact was divided into these two great groups of
+natural and of civil history. The Royal Society was in course of
+foundation about the time that Hobbes was writing this book, which was
+published in 1651; and that Society was termed a "Society for the
+Improvement of Natural Knowledge," which was then nearly the same thing
+as a "Society for the Improvement of Natural History." As time went on,
+and the various branches of human knowledge became more distinctly
+developed and separated from one another, it was found that some were
+much more susceptible of precise mathematical treatment than others. The
+publication of the "Principia" of Newton, which probably gave a greater
+stimulus to physical science than any work ever published before, or
+which is likely to be published hereafter, showed that precise
+mathematical methods were applicable to those branches of science such
+as astronomy, and what we now call physics, which occupy a very large
+portion of the domain of what the older writers understood by natural
+history. And inasmuch as the partly deductive and partly experimental
+methods of treatment to which Newton and others subjected these branches
+of human knowledge, showed that the phenomena of nature which belonged
+to them were susceptible of explanation, and thereby came within the
+reach of what was called "philosophy" in those days; so much of this
+kind of knowledge as was not included under astronomy came to be spoken
+of as "natural philosophy"--a term which Bacon had employed in a much
+wider sense. Time went on, and yet other branches of science developed
+themselves. Chemistry took a definite shape; and since all these
+sciences, such as astronomy, natural philosophy, and chemistry, were
+susceptible either of mathematical treatment or of experimental
+treatment, or of both, a broad distinction was drawn between the
+experimental branches of what had previously been called natural history
+and the observational branches--those in which experiment was (or
+appeared to be) of doubtful use, and where, at that time, mathematical
+methods were inapplicable. Under these circumstances the old name of
+"Natural History" stuck by the residuum, by those phenomena which were
+not, at that time, susceptible of mathematical or experimental
+treatment; that is to say, those phenomena of nature which come now
+under the general heads of physical geography, geology, mineralogy, the
+history of plants, and the history of animals. It was in this sense that
+the term was understood by the great writers of the middle of the last
+century--Buffon and Linnæus--by Buffon in his great work, the "Histoire
+Naturelle Générale," and by Linnæus in his splendid achievement, the
+"Systema Naturæ." The subjects they deal with are spoken of as "Natural
+History," and they called themselves and were called "Naturalists." But
+you will observe that this was not the original meaning of these terms;
+but that they had, by this time, acquired a signification widely
+different from that which they possessed primitively.
+
+The sense in which "Natural History" was used at the time I am now
+speaking of has, to a certain extent, endured to the present day. There
+are now in existence in some of our northern universities, chairs of
+"Civil and Natural History," in which "Natural History" is used to
+indicate exactly what Hobbes and Bacon meant by that term. The unhappy
+incumbent of the chair of Natural History is, or was, supposed to cover
+the whole ground of geology, mineralogy, and zoology, perhaps even
+botany, in his lectures.
+
+But as science made the marvellous progress which it did make at the
+latter end of the last and the beginning of the present century,
+thinking men began to discern that under this title of "Natural History"
+there were included very heterogeneous constituents--that, for example,
+geology and mineralogy were, in many respects, widely different from
+botany and zoology; that a man might obtain an extensive knowledge of
+the structure and functions of plants and animals, without having need
+to enter upon the study of geology or mineralogy, and _vice versâ_; and,
+further as knowledge advanced, it became clear that there was a great
+analogy, a very close alliance, between those two sciences of botany and
+zoology which deal with living beings, while they are much more widely
+separated from all other studies. It is due to Buffon to remark that he
+clearly recognised this great fact. He says: "Ces deux genres d'êtres
+organisés [les animaux et les végétaux] ont beaucoup plus de propriétés
+communes que de différences réelles." Therefore, it is not wonderful
+that, at the beginning of the present century, in two different
+countries, and so far as I know, without any intercommunication, two
+famous men clearly conceived the notion of uniting the sciences which
+deal with living matter into one whole, and of dealing with them as one
+discipline. In fact, I may say there were three men to whom this idea
+occurred contemporaneously, although there were but two who carried it
+into effect, and only one who worked it out completely. The persons to
+whom I refer were the eminent physiologist Bichat, and the great
+naturalist Lamarck, in France; and a distinguished German, Treviranus.
+Bichat[1] assumed the existence of a special group of "physiological"
+sciences. Lamarck, in a work published in 1801,[2] for the first time
+made use of the name "Biologie" from the two Greek words which signify a
+discourse upon life and living things. About the same time it occurred
+to Treviranus, that all those sciences which deal with living matter are
+essentially and fundamentally one, and ought to be treated as a whole;
+and, in the year 1802, he published the first volume of what he also
+called "Biologie." Treviranus's great merit lies in this, that he worked
+out his idea, and wrote the very remarkable book to which I refer. It
+consists of six volumes, and occupied its author for twenty years--from
+1802 to 1822.
+
+That is the origin of the term "Biology;" and that is how it has come
+about that all clear thinkers and lovers of consistent nomenclature have
+substituted for the old confusing name of "Natural History," which has
+conveyed so many meanings, the term "Biology" which denotes the whole of
+the sciences which deal with living things, whether they be animals or
+whether they be plants. Some little time ago--in the course of this
+year, I think--I was favoured by a learned classic, Dr. Field of
+Norwich, with a disquisition, in which he endeavoured to prove that,
+from a philological point of view, neither Treviranus nor Lamarck had
+any right to coin this new word "Biology" for their purpose; that, in
+fact, the Greek word "Bios" had relation only to human life and human
+affairs, and that a different word was employed by the Greeks when they
+wished to speak of the life of animals and plants. So Dr. Field tells us
+we are all wrong in using the term biology, and that we ought to employ
+another; only he is not quite sure about the propriety of that which he
+proposes as a substitute. It is a somewhat hard one--"zootocology." I am
+sorry we are wrong, because we are likely to continue so. In these
+matters we must have some sort of "Statute of Limitations." When a name
+has been employed for half-a-century, persons of authority[3] have been
+using it, and its sense has become well understood, I am afraid that
+people will go on using it, whatever the weight of philological
+objection.
+
+Now that we have arrived at the origin of this word "Biology," the next
+point to consider is: What ground does it cover? I have said that, in
+its strict technical sense, it denotes all the phenomena which are
+exhibited by living things, as distinguished from those which are not
+living; but while that is all very well, so long as we confine ourselves
+to the lower animals and to plants, it lands us in considerable
+difficulties when we reach the higher forms of living things. For
+whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing is
+perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our
+definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and all
+his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we should
+find that psychology, politics, and political economy would be absorbed
+into the province of Biology. In fact, civil history would be merged in
+natural history. In strict logic it may be hard to object to this
+course, because no one can doubt that the rudiments and outlines of our
+own mental phenomena are traceable among the lower animals. They have
+their economy and their polity, and if, as is always admitted, the
+polity of bees and the commonwealth of wolves fall within the purview of
+the biologist proper, it becomes hard to say why we should not include
+therein human affairs, which in so many cases resemble those of the bees
+in zealous getting, and are not without a certain parity in the
+proceedings of the wolves. The real fact is that we biologists are a
+self-sacrificing people; and inasmuch as, on a moderate estimate, there
+are about a quarter of a million different species of animals and plants
+to know about already, we feel that we have more than sufficient
+territory. There has been a sort of practical convention by which we
+give up to a different branch of science what Bacon and Hobbes would
+have called "Civil History." That branch of science has constituted
+itself under the head of Sociology. I may use phraseology which, at
+present, will be well understood and say that we have allowed that
+province of Biology to become autonomous; but I should like you to
+recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised
+if it occasionally happens that you see a biologist apparently
+trespassing in the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling with
+human education; because, after all, that is a part of his kingdom which
+he has only voluntarily forsaken.
+
+Having now defined the meaning of the word Biology, and having indicated
+the general scope of Biological Science, I turn to my second question,
+which is--Why should we study Biology? Possibly the time may come when
+that will seem a very odd question. That we, living creatures, should
+not feel a certain amount of interest in what it is that constitutes our
+life will eventually, under altered ideas of the fittest objects of
+human inquiry, appear to be a singular phenomenon; but, at present,
+judging by the practice of teachers and educators, Biology would seem to
+be a topic that does not concern us at all. I propose to put before you
+a few considerations with which I dare say many will be familiar
+already, but which will suffice to show--not fully, because to
+demonstrate this point fully would take a great many lectures--that
+there are some very good and substantial reasons why it may be advisable
+that we should know something about this branch of human learning.
+
+I myself entirely agree with another sentiment of the philosopher of
+Malmesbury, "that the scope of all speculation is the performance of
+some action or thing to be done," and I have not any very great respect
+for, or interest in, mere knowing as such. I judge of the value of human
+pursuits by their bearing upon human interests; in other words, by their
+utility; but I should like that we should quite clearly understand what
+it is that we mean by this word "utility." In an Englishman's mouth it
+generally means that by which we get pudding or praise, or both. I have
+no doubt that is one meaning of the word utility, but it by no means
+includes all I mean by utility. I think that knowledge of every kind is
+useful in proportion as it tends to give people right ideas, which are
+essential to the foundation of right practice, and to remove wrong
+ideas, which are the no less essential foundations and fertile mothers
+of every description of error in practice. And inasmuch as, whatever
+practical people may say, this world is, after all, absolutely governed
+by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most hypothetical ideas, it
+is a matter of the very greatest importance that our theories of things,
+and even of things that seem a long way apart from our daily lives,
+should be as far as possible true, and as far as possible removed from
+error. It is not only in the coarser practical sense of the word
+"utility," but in this higher and broader sense, that I measure the
+value of the study of biology by its utility; and I shall try to point
+out to you that you will feel the need of some knowledge of biology at a
+great many turns of this present nineteenth century life of ours. For
+example, most of us attach great importance to the conception which we
+entertain of the position of man in this universe and his relation to
+the rest of nature. We have almost all been told, and most of us hold by
+the tradition, that man occupies an isolated and peculiar position in
+nature; that though he is in the world he is not of the world; that his
+relations to things about him are of a remote character; that his origin
+is recent, his duration likely to be short, and that he is the great
+central figure round which other things in this world revolve. But this
+is not what the biologist tells us.
+
+At the present moment you will be kind enough to separate me from them,
+because it is in no way essential to my present argument that I should
+advocate their views. Don't suppose that I am saying this for the
+purpose of escaping the responsibility of their beliefs; indeed, at
+other times and in other places, I do not think that point has been left
+doubtful; but I want clearly to point out to you that for my present
+argument they may all be wrong; and, nevertheless, my argument will hold
+good. The biologists tell us that all this is an entire mistake. They
+turn to the physical organisation of man. They examine his whole
+structure, his bony frame and all that clothes it. They resolve him into
+the finest particles into which the microscope will enable them to break
+him up. They consider the performance of his various functions and
+activities, and they look at the manner in which he occurs on the
+surface of the world. Then they turn to other animals, and taking the
+first handy domestic animal--say a dog--they profess to be able to
+demonstrate that the analysis of the dog leads them, in gross, to
+precisely the same results as the analysis of the man; that they find
+almost identically the same bones, having the same relations; that they
+can name the muscles of the dog by the names of the muscles of the man,
+and the nerves of the dog by those of the nerves of the man, and that,
+such structures and organs of sense as we find in the man such also we
+find in the dog; they analyse the brain and spinal cord, and they find
+that the nomenclature which fits the one answers for the other. They
+carry their microscopic inquiries in the case of the dog as far as they
+can, and they find that his body is resolvable into the same elements as
+those of the man. Moreover, they trace back the dog's and the man's
+development, and they find that, at a certain stage of their existence,
+the two creatures are not distinguishable the one from the other; they
+find that the dog and his kind have a certain distribution over the
+surface of the world, comparable in its way to the distribution of the
+human species. What is true of the dog they tell us is true of all the
+higher animals; and they assert that they can lay down a common plan for
+the whole of these creatures, and regard the man and the dog, the horse
+and the ox as minor modifications of one great fundamental unity.
+Moreover, the investigations of the last three-quarters of a century
+have proved, they tell us, that similar inquiries, carried out through
+all the different kinds of animals which are met with in nature, will
+lead us, not in one straight series, but by many roads, step by step,
+gradation by gradation, from man, at the summit, to specks of animated
+jelly at the bottom of the series. So that the idea of Leibnitz, and of
+Bonnet, that animals form a great scale of being, in which there are a
+series of gradations from the most complicated form to the lowest and
+simplest; that idea, though not exactly in the form in which it was
+propounded by those philosophers, turns out to be substantially correct.
+More than this, when biologists pursue their investigations into the
+vegetable world, they find that they can, in the same way, follow out
+the structure of the plant, from the most gigantic and complicated trees
+down through a similar series of gradations, until they arrive at specks
+of animated jelly, which they are puzzled to distinguish from those
+specks which they reached by the animal road.
+
+Thus, biologists have arrived at the conclusion that a fundamental
+uniformity of structure pervades the animal and vegetable worlds, and
+that plants and animals differ from one another simply as diverse
+modifications of the same great general plan.
+
+Again, they tell us the same story in regard to the study of function.
+They admit the large and important interval which, at the present time,
+separates the manifestations of the mental faculties observable in the
+higher forms of mankind, and even in the lower forms, such as we know
+them, from those exhibited by other animals; but, at the same time, they
+tell us that the foundations, or rudiments, of almost all the faculties
+of man are to be met with in the lower animals; that there is a unity of
+mental faculty as well as of bodily structure, and that, here also, the
+difference is a difference of degree and not of kind. I said "almost
+all," for a reason. Among the many distinctions which have been drawn
+between the lower creatures and ourselves, there is one which is hardly
+ever insisted on,[4] but which may be very fitly spoken of in a place so
+largely devoted to Art as that in which we are assembled. It is this,
+that while, among various kinds of animals, it is possible to discover
+traces of all the other faculties of man, especially the faculty of
+mimicry, yet that particular form of mimicry which shows itself in the
+imitation of form, either by modelling or by drawing, is not to be met
+with. As far as I know, there is no sculpture or modelling, and
+decidedly no painting or drawing, of animal origin, I mention the fact,
+in order that such comfort may be derived therefrom as artists may feel
+inclined to take.
+
+If what the biologists tell us is true, it will be needful to get rid of
+our erroneous conceptions of man, and of his place in nature, and to
+substitute right ones for them. But it is impossible to form any
+judgment as to whether the biologists are right or wrong, unless we are
+able to appreciate the nature of the arguments which they have to offer.
+
+One would almost think this to be a self-evident proposition. I wonder
+what a scholar would say to the man who should undertake to criticise a
+difficult passage in a Greek play, but who obviously had not acquainted
+himself with the rudiments of Greek grammar. And yet, before giving
+positive opinions about these high questions of Biology, people not only
+do not seem to think it necessary to be acquainted with the grammar of
+the subject, but they have not even mastered the alphabet. You find
+criticism and denunciation showered about by persons, who, not only have
+not attempted to go through the discipline necessary to enable them to
+be judges, but who have not even reached that stage of emergence from
+ignorance in which the knowledge that such a discipline is necessary
+dawns upon the mind. I have had to watch with some attention--in fact I
+have been favoured with a good deal of it myself--the sort of criticism
+with which biologists and biological teachings are visited. I am told
+every now and then that there is a "brilliant article"[5] in so-and-so,
+in which we are all demolished. I used to read these things once, but I
+am getting old now, and I have ceased to attend very much to this cry of
+"wolf." When one does read any of these productions, what one finds
+generally, on the face of it, is that the brilliant critic is devoid of
+even the elements of biological knowledge, and that his brilliancy is
+like the light given out by the crackling of thorns under a pot of which
+Solomon speaks. So far as I recollect, Solomon makes use of the image
+for purposes of comparison; but I will not proceed further into that
+matter.
+
+Two things must be obvious: in the first place, that every man who has
+the interests of truth at heart must earnestly desire that every
+well-founded and just criticism that can be made should be made; but
+that, in the second place, it is essential to anybody's being able to
+benefit by criticism, that the critic should know what he is talking
+about, and be in a position to form a mental image of the facts
+symbolised by the words he uses. If not, it is as obvious in the case of
+a biological argument, as it is in that of a historical or philological
+discussion, that such criticism is a mere waste of time on the part of
+its author, and wholly undeserving of attention on the part of those who
+are criticised. Take it then as an illustration of the importance of
+biological study, that thereby alone are men able to form something like
+a rational conception of what constitutes valuable criticism of the
+teachings of biologists.[6]
+
+Next, I may mention another bearing of biological knowledge--a more
+practical one in the ordinary sense of the word. Consider the theory of
+infectious disease. Surely that is of interest to all of us. Now the
+theory of infectious disease is rapidly being elucidated by biological
+study. It is possible to produce, from among the lower animals, examples
+of devastating diseases which spread in the same manner as our
+infectious disorders, and which are certainly and unmistakably caused by
+living organisms. This fact renders it possible, at any rate, that that
+doctrine of the causation of infectious disease which is known under the
+name of "the germ theory" may be well-founded; and, if so, it must needs
+lead to the most important practical measures in dealing with those
+terrible visitations. It may be well that the general, as well as the
+professional, public should have a sufficient knowledge of biological
+truths to be able to take a rational interest in the discussion of such
+problems, and to see, what I think they may hope to see, that, to those
+who possess a sufficient elementary knowledge of Biology, they are not
+all quite open questions.
+
+Let me mention another important practical illustration of the value of
+biological study. Within the last forty years the theory of agriculture
+has been revolutionised. The researches of Liebig, and those of our own
+Lawes and Gilbert, have had a bearing upon that branch of industry the
+importance of which cannot be overestimated; but the whole of these new
+views have grown out of the better explanation of certain processes
+which go on in plants; and which, of course, form a part of the
+subject-matter of Biology.
+
+I might go on multiplying these examples, but I see that the clock won't
+wait for me, and I must therefore pass to the third question to which I
+referred: Granted that Biology is something worth studying, what is the
+best way of studying it? Here I must point out that, since Biology is a
+physical science, the method of studying it must needs be analogous to
+that which is followed in the other physical sciences. It has now long
+been recognised that, if a man wishes to be a chemist, it is not only
+necessary that he should read chemical books and attend chemical
+lectures, but that he should actually perform the fundamental
+experiments in the laboratory for himself, and thus learn exactly what
+the words which he finds in his books and hears from his teachers, mean.
+If he does not do so, he may read till the crack of doom, but he will
+never know much about chemistry. That is what every chemist will tell
+you, and the physicist will do the same for his branch of science. The
+great changes and improvements in physical and chemical scientific
+education, which have taken place of late, have all resulted from the
+combination of practical teaching with the reading of books and with the
+hearing of lectures. The same thing is true in Biology. Nobody will ever
+know anything about Biology except in a dilettante "paper-philosopher"
+way, who contents himself with reading books on botany, zoology, and the
+like; and the reason of this is simple and easy to understand. It is
+that all language is merely symbolical of the things of which it treats;
+the more complicated the things, the more bare is the symbol, and the
+more its verbal definition requires to be supplemented by the
+information derived directly from the handling, and the seeing, and the
+touching of the thing symbolised:--that is really what is at the bottom
+of the whole matter. It is plain common sense, as all truth, in the long
+run, is only common sense clarified. If you want a man to be a tea
+merchant, you don't tell him to read books about China or about tea, but
+you put him into a tea-merchant's office where he has the handling, the
+smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of knowledge which
+can be gained only in this practical way, his exploits as a tea merchant
+will soon come to a bankrupt termination. The "paper-philosophers" are
+under the delusion that physical science can be mastered as literary
+accomplishments are acquired, but unfortunately it is not so. You may
+read any quantity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as you
+were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your minds, the
+change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through
+the operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature.
+
+It may be said:--"That is all very well, but you told us just now that
+there are probably something like a quarter of a million different kinds
+of living and extinct animals and plants, and a human life could not
+suffice for the examination of one-fiftieth part of all these." That is
+true, but then comes the great convenience of the way things are
+arranged; which is, that although there are these immense numbers of
+different kinds of living things in existence, yet they are built up,
+after all, upon marvellously few plans.
+
+There are certainly more than 100,000 species of insects, and yet
+anybody who knows one insect--if a properly chosen one--will be able to
+have a very fair conception of the structure of the whole. I do not mean
+to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or as well as it is
+desirable he should know it; but he will have enough real knowledge to
+enable him to understand what he reads, to have genuine images in his
+mind of those structures which become so variously modified in all the
+forms of insects he has not seen. In fact, there are such things as
+types of form among animals and vegetables, and for the purpose of
+getting a definite knowledge of what constitutes the leading
+modifications of animal and plant life, it is not needful to examine
+more than a comparatively small number of animals and plants.
+
+Let me tell you what we do in the biological laboratory which is lodged
+in a building adjacent to this. There I lecture to a class of students
+daily for about four-and-a-half months, and my class have, of course,
+their text-books; but the essential part of the whole teaching, and that
+which I regard as really the most important part of it, is a laboratory
+for practical work, which is simply a room with all the appliances
+needed for ordinary dissection. We have tables properly arranged in
+regard to light, microscopes, and dissecting instruments, and we work
+through the structure of a certain number of animals and plants. As, for
+example, among the plants, we take a yeast plant, a _Protococcus_, a
+common mould, a _Chara_, a fern, and some flowering plant; among animals
+we examine such things as an _Amoeba_, a _Vorticella_, and a
+fresh-water polype. We dissect a star-fish, an earth-worm, a snail, a
+squid, and a fresh-water mussel. We examine a lobster and a cray-fish,
+and a black beetle. We go on to a common skate, a cod-fish, a frog, a
+tortoise, a pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about all the time
+we have to give. The purpose of this course is not to make skilled
+dissectors, but to give every student a clear and definite conception,
+by means of sense-images, of the characteristic structure of each of the
+leading modifications of the animal kingdom; and that is perfectly
+possible, by going no further than the length of that list of forms
+which I have enumerated. If a man knows the structure of the animals I
+have mentioned, he has a clear and exact, however limited, apprehension
+of the essential features of the organisation of all those great
+divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms to which the forms I have
+mentioned severally belong. And it then becomes possible for him to read
+with profit; because every time he meets with the name of a structure,
+he has a definite image in his mind of what the name means in the
+particular creature he is reading about, and therefore the reading is
+not mere reading. It is not mere repetition of words; but every term
+employed in the description, we will say, of a horse, or of an elephant,
+will call up the image of the things he had seen in the rabbit, and he
+is able to form a distinct conception of that which he has not seen, as
+a modification of that which he has seen.
+
+I find this system to yield excellent results; and I have no hesitation
+whatever in saying, that any one who has gone through such a course,
+attentively, is in a better position to form a conception of the great
+truths of Biology, especially of morphology (which is what we chiefly
+deal with), than if he had merely read all the books on that topic put
+together.
+
+The connection of this discourse with the Loan Collection of Scientific
+Apparatus arises out of the exhibition in that collection of certain
+aids to our laboratory work. Such of you as have visited that very
+interesting collection may have noticed a series of diagrams and of
+preparations illustrating the structure of a frog. Those diagrams and
+preparations have been made for the use of the students in the
+biological laboratory. Similar diagrams and preparations illustrating
+the structure of all the other forms of life we examine, are either made
+or in course of preparation. Thus the student has before him, first, a
+picture of the structure he ought to see; secondly, the structure itself
+worked out; and if with these aids, and such needful explanations and
+practical hints as a demonstrator can supply, he cannot make out the
+facts for himself in the materials supplied to him, he had better take
+to some other pursuit than that of biological science.
+
+I should have been glad to have said a few words about the use of
+museums in the study of Biology, but I see that my time is becoming
+short, and I have yet another question to answer. Nevertheless I must,
+at the risk of wearying you, say a word or two upon the important
+subject of museums. Without doubt there are no helps to the study of
+Biology, or rather to some branches of it, which are, or may be, more
+important than natural history museums; but, in order to take this place
+in regard to Biology, they must be museums of the future. The museums of
+the present do not, by any means, do so much for us as they might do. I
+do not wish to particularise, but I dare say many of you, seeking
+knowledge, or in the laudable desire to employ a holiday usefully, have
+visited some great natural history museum. You have walked through a
+quarter of a mile of animals, more or less well stuffed, with their long
+names written out underneath them; and, unless your experience is very
+different from that of most people, the upshot of it all is that you
+leave that splendid pile with sore feet, a bad headache, and a general
+idea that the animal kingdom is a "mighty maze without a plan." I do not
+think that a museum which brings about this result does all that may be
+reasonably expected from such an institution. What is needed in a
+collection of natural history is that it should be made as accessible
+and as useful as possible, on the one hand to the general public, and on
+the other to scientific workers. That need is not met by constructing a
+sort of happy hunting-ground of miles of glass cases; and, under the
+pretence of exhibiting everything, putting the maximum amount of
+obstacle in the way of those who wish properly to see anything.
+
+What the public want is easy and unhindered access to such a collection
+as they can understand and appreciate; and what the men of science want
+is similar access to the materials of science. To this end the vast mass
+of objects of natural history should be divided into two parts--one open
+to the public, the other to men of science, every day. The former
+division should exemplify all the more important and interesting forms
+of life. Explanatory tablets should be attached to them, and catalogues
+containing clearly-written popular expositions of the general
+significance of the objects exhibited should be provided. The latter
+should contain, packed into a comparatively small space, in rooms
+adapted for working purposes, the objects of purely scientific interest.
+For example, we will say I am an ornithologist. I go to examine a
+collection of birds. It is a positive nuisance to have them stuffed. It
+is not only sheer waste, but I have to reckon with the ideas of the
+bird-stuffer, while, if I have the skin and nobody has interfered with
+it, I can form my own judgment as to what the bird was like. For
+ornithological purposes, what is needed is not glass cases full of
+stuffed birds on perches, but convenient drawers into each of which a
+great quantity of skins will go. They occupy no great space and do not
+require any expenditure beyond their original cost. But for the
+edification of the public, who want to learn indeed, but do not seek for
+minute and technical knowledge, the case is different. What one of the
+general public walking into a collection of birds desires to see is not
+all the birds that can be got together. He does not want to compare a
+hundred species of the sparrow tribe side by side; but he wishes to know
+what a bird is, and what are the great modifications of bird structure,
+and to be able to get at that knowledge easily. What will best serve his
+purpose is a comparatively small number of birds carefully selected, and
+artistically, as well as accurately, set up; with their different ages,
+their nests, their young, their eggs, and their skeletons side by side;
+and in accordance with the admirable plan which is pursued in this
+museum, a tablet, telling the spectator in legible characters what they
+are and what they mean. For the instruction and recreation of the public
+such a typical collection would be of far greater value than any
+many-acred imitation of Noah's ark.
+
+Lastly comes the question as to when biological study may best be
+pursued. I do not see any valid reason why it should not be made, to a
+certain extent, a part of ordinary school training. I have long
+advocated this view, and I am perfectly certain that it can be carried
+out with ease, and not only with ease, but with very considerable profit
+to those who are taught; but then such instruction must be adapted to
+the minds and needs of the scholars. They used to have a very odd way of
+teaching the classical languages when I was a boy. The first task set
+you was to learn the rules of the Latin grammar in the Latin
+language--that being the language you were going to learn! I thought
+then that this was an odd way of learning a language, but did not
+venture to rebel against the judgment of my superiors. Now, perhaps, I
+am not so modest as I was then, and I allow myself to think that it was
+a very absurd fashion. But it would be no less absurd, if we were to set
+about teaching Biology by putting into the hands of boys a series of
+definitions of the classes and orders of the animal kingdom, and making
+them repeat them by heart. That is so very favourite a method of
+teaching, that I sometimes fancy the spirit of the old classical system
+has entered into the new scientific system, in which case I would much
+rather that any pretence at scientific teaching were abolished
+altogether. What really has to be done is to get into the young mind
+some notion of what animal and vegetable life is. In this matter, you
+have to consider practical convenience as well as other things. There
+are difficulties in the way of a lot of boys making messes with slugs
+and snails; it might not work in practice. But there is a very
+convenient and handy animal which everybody has at hand, and that is
+himself; and it is a very easy and simple matter to obtain common
+plants. Hence the general truths of anatomy and physiology can be taught
+to young people in a very real fashion by dealing with the broad facts
+of human structure. Such viscera as they cannot very well examine in
+themselves, such as hearts, lungs, and livers, may be obtained from the
+nearest butcher's shop. In respect to teaching something about the
+biology of plants, there is no practical difficulty, because almost any
+of the common plants will do, and plants do not make a mess--at least
+they do not make an unpleasant mess; so that, in my judgment, the best
+form of Biology for teaching to very young people is elementary human
+physiology on the one hand, and the elements of botany on the other;
+beyond that I do not think it will be feasible to advance for some time
+to come. But then I see no reason why, in secondary schools, and in the
+Science Classes which are under the control of the Science and Art
+Department--and which I may say, in passing, have, in my judgment, done
+so very much for the diffusion of a knowledge of science over the
+country--we should not hope to see instruction in the elements of
+Biology carried out, not perhaps to the same extent, but still upon
+somewhat the same principle as here. There is no difficulty, when you
+have to deal with students of the ages of 15 or 16, in practising a
+little dissection and in getting a notion of, at any rate, the four or
+five great modifications of the animal form; and the like is true in
+regard to the higher anatomy of plants.
+
+While, lastly, to all those who are studying biological science with a
+view to their own edification merely, or with the intention of becoming
+zoologists or botanists; to all those who intend to pursue
+physiology--and especially to those who propose to employ the working
+years of their lives in the practice of medicine--I say that there is no
+training so fitted, or which may be of such important service to them,
+as the discipline in practical biological work which I have sketched out
+as being pursued in the laboratory hard by.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I may add that, beyond all these different classes of persons who may
+profit by the study of Biology, there is yet one other. I remember, a
+number of years ago, that a gentleman who was a vehement opponent of Mr.
+Darwin's views and had written some terrible articles against them,
+applied to me to know what was the best way in which he could acquaint
+himself with the strongest arguments in favour of evolution. I wrote
+back, in all good faith and simplicity, recommending him to go through a
+course of comparative anatomy and physiology, and then to study
+development. I am sorry to say he was very much displeased, as people
+often are with good advice. Notwithstanding this discouraging result, I
+venture, as a parting word, to repeat the suggestion, and to say to all
+the more or less acute lay and clerical "paper-philosophers"[7] who
+venture into the regions of biological controversy--Get a little sound,
+thorough, practical, elementary instruction in biology.
+
+
+    [1] See the distinction between the "sciences physiques" and the
+        "sciences physiologiques" in the "Anatomic Générale," 1801.
+
+
+    [2] "Hydrogeologie," an. x. (1801).
+
+
+    [3] "The term _Biology_, which means exactly what we wish to
+        express, _the Science of Life_, has often been used, and has of
+        late become not uncommon, among good writers."--Whewell,
+        "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," vol. i. p. 544 (edition
+        of 1847).
+
+
+    [4] I think that my friend Professor Allman was the first to draw
+        attention to it.
+
+
+    [5] Galileo was troubled by a sort of people whom he called "paper
+        philosophers," because they fancied that the true reading of
+        nature was to be detected by the collation of texts. The race is
+        not extinct, but, as of old, brings forth its "winds of
+        doctrine" by which the weathercock heads among us are much
+        exercised.
+
+
+    [6] Some critics do not even take the trouble to read. I have
+        recently been adjured with much solemnity, to state publicly why
+        I have "changed my opinion" as to the value of the
+        palæontological evidence of the occurrence of evolution.
+
+        To this my reply is, Why should I, when that statement was made
+        seven years ago? An address delivered from the Presidential
+        Chair of the Geological Society, in 1870, may be said to be a
+        public document, inasmuch as it not only appeared in the
+        _Journal_ of that learned body, but was re-published, in 1873,
+        in a volume of "Critiques and Addresses," to which my name is
+        attached. Therein will be found a pretty full statement of my
+        reasons for enunciating two propositions: (1) that "when we turn
+        to the higher _Vertebrata_, the results of recent
+        investigations, however we may sift and criticise them, seem to
+        me to leave a clear balance in favour of the evolution of living
+        forms one from another;" and (2) that the case of the horse is
+        one which "will stand rigorous criticism."
+
+        Thus I do not see clearly in what way I can be said to have
+        changed my opinion, except in the way of intensifying it, when
+        in consequence of the accumulation of similar evidence since
+        1870, I recently spoke of the denial of evolution as not worth
+        serious consideration.
+
+
+    [7] Writers of this stamp are fond of talking about the Baconian
+        method. I beg them therefore to lay to heart these two weighty
+        sayings of the herald of Modern Science:--
+
+            "Syllogismus ex propositionibus constat, propositiones ex
+            verbis, verba notionum tesseræ sunt. Itaque si notiones ipsæ
+            (_id quod basis rei est_) confusæ sint et temere a rebus
+            abstractæ, nihil in iis quæ superstruuntur est
+            firmitudinis."--"Novum Organon," ii. 14.
+
+            "Huic autem vanitati nonnulli ex modernis summa levitate ita
+            indulserunt, ut in primo capitulo Geneseos et in libro Job
+            et aliis scripturis sacris, philosophiam naturalem fundare
+            conati sint; _inter vivos quærentes mortua_."--_Ibid._, 65.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE
+ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 16136-8.txt or 16136-8.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/16136-8.zip b/16136-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..359611d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-8.zip
diff --git a/16136-h.zip b/16136-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f14c520
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h.zip
diff --git a/16136-h/16136-h.htm b/16136-h/16136-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7081a4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/16136-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,5180 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology, by Thomas Henry Huxley</title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 65%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+    hr.short {width: 45%;}
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+    img {border: 0;}
+    .toc      {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */
+    .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em;
+               padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em;
+               float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em;
+               font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;}
+
+    .bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+    .bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+    .br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center; }
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span        {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em;}
+    hr.full { width: 100%; }
+    pre      {font-size: 8pt;}
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, American Addresses, with a Lecture on the
+Study of Biology, by Thomas Henry Huxley</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology</p>
+<p>Author: Thomas Henry Huxley</p>
+<p>Release Date: June 26, 2005  [eBook #16136]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Clare Boothby, Jeremy Weatherford,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<!-- [Page: 002] -->
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h1>AMERICAN ADDRESSES,</h1>
+
+<h2>WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.</h2>
+
+<h3>BY THOMAS H. HUXLEY.</h3>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-indent: 1em;">
+<p>"Natur&aelig; leges et regul&aelig;, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis
+formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."<br />
+<span style="display:block; margin-left: 4em">B. De Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>, Pars tertia, Pr&aelig;fatio.</span></p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">London:<br />
+MACMILLAN AND CO.<br />
+<br />
+1877</p>
+
+<!-- [Page: 003] -->
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>LONDON:<br />
+R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,<br />
+BREAD STREET HILL,<br />
+QUEEN VICTORIA STREET.</small></p>
+
+<!-- [Page: 004] -->
+<hr />
+<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
+
+<div class="toc">
+<p>I. <a href="#NEWYORK"><b>THREE LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.</b></a> (New York, September 18, 20, 22, 1876).</p>
+ <div class="toc">
+   <p><a href="#LECTURE_I"><b>LECTURE I.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Three Hypotheses respecting The History of Nature</span></p>
+
+   <p><a href="#LECTURE_II"><b>LECTURE II.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Hypothesis of Evolution.  The Neutral and the Favourable Evidence</span></p>
+
+   <p><a href="#LECTURE_III"><b>LECTURE III.</b></a> <span class="smcap">The Demonstrative Evidence of Evolution</span></p>
+ </div>
+
+ <p>II. <a href="#BALTIMORE"><b>AN ADDRESS ON THE OCCASION OF THE OPENING OF THE JOHN HOPKINS UNIVERSITY</b></a> (Baltimore, September 12, 1876)</p>
+
+ <p>III. <a href="#LONDON"><b>A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH THE LOAN COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS.</b></a> (South Kensington Museum, December 16, 1876)</p>
+</div>
+
+<!-- [Page: 005] -->
+
+<hr />
+<h2>NEW YORK.</h2>
+<h1><a name="NEWYORK" id="NEWYORK"></a>LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="LECTURE_I" id="LECTURE_I"></a>LECTURE I.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE
+HISTORY OF NATURE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>We live in and form part of a system of things
+of immense diversity and perplexity, which we call
+Nature; and it is a matter of the deepest interest
+to all of us that we should form just conceptions
+of the constitution of that system and of its past
+history. With relation to this universe, man is,
+in extent, little more than a mathematical point; in
+duration but a fleeting shadow; he is a mere reed
+shaken in the winds of force. But, as Pascal long
+ago remarked, although a mere reed, he is a thinking
+reed; and in virtue of that wonderful capacity of
+thought, he has the power of framing for himself a
+symbolic conception of the universe, which, although
+doubtless highly imperfect and inadequate as a picture
+of the great whole, is yet sufficient to serve
+<!-- [Page: 008] -->
+him as a chart for the guidance of his practical
+affairs. It has taken long ages of toilsome and
+often fruitless labour to enable man to look steadily
+at the shifting scenes of the phantasmagoria of
+Nature, to notice what is fixed among her fluctuations,
+and what is regular among her apparent
+irregularities; and it is only comparatively lately,
+within the last few centuries, that the conception
+of a universal order and of a definite course of
+things, which we term the course of Nature, has
+emerged.</p>
+
+<p>But, once originated, the conception of the constancy
+of the order of Nature has become the
+dominant idea of modern thought. To any person
+who is familiar with the facts upon which that conception
+is based, and is competent to estimate their
+significance, it has ceased to be conceivable that
+chance should have any place in the universe, or
+that events should depend upon any but the natural
+sequence of cause and effect. We have come to
+look upon the present as the child of the past and
+as the parent of the future; and, as we have
+excluded chance from a place in the universe, so
+we ignore, even as a possibility, the notion of any
+interference with the order of Nature. Whatever
+may be men's speculative doctrines, it is quite
+certain, that every intelligent person guides his life
+and risks his fortune upon the belief that the order
+<!-- [Page: 009] -->
+of Nature is constant, and that the chain of natural
+causation is never broken.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, no belief which we entertain has so complete
+a logical basis as that to which I have just
+referred. It tacitly underlies every process of
+reasoning; it is the foundation of every act of the
+will. It is based upon the broadest induction, and
+it is verified by the most constant, regular, and
+universal of deductive processes. But we must
+recollect that any human belief, however broad its
+basis, however defensible it may seem, is, after all,
+only a probable belief, and that our widest and
+safest generalizations are simply statements of the
+highest degree of probability. Though we are
+quite clear about the constancy of the order of
+Nature, at the present time, and in the present
+state of things, it by no means necessarily follows
+that we are justified in expanding this generalisation
+into the infinite past, and in denying, absolutely,
+that there may have been a time when
+Nature did not follow a fixed order, when the
+relations of cause and effect were not definite, and
+when extra-natural agencies interfered with the
+general course of Nature. Cautious men will
+allow that a universe so different from that which
+we know may have existed; just as a very candid
+thinker may admit that a world in which two and
+two do not make four, and in which two straight
+<!-- [Page: 010] -->
+lines do inclose a space, may exist. But the
+same caution which forces the admission of such
+possibilities demands a great deal of evidence
+before it recognises them to be anything more substantial.
+And when it is asserted that, so many
+thousand years ago, events occurred in a manner
+utterly foreign to and inconsistent with the existing
+laws of Nature, men, who without being
+particularly cautious, are simply honest thinkers,
+unwilling to deceive themselves or delude others,
+ask for trustworthy evidence of the fact.</p>
+
+<p>Did things so happen or did they not? This
+is a historical question, and one the answer to
+which must be sought in the same way as the
+solution of any other historical problem.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses
+which ever have been entertained, or which well
+can be entertained, respecting the past history of
+Nature. I will, in the first place, state the hypotheses,
+and then I will consider what evidence
+bearing upon them is in our possession, and by
+what light of criticism that evidence is to be
+interpreted.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that
+phenomena of Nature similar to those exhibited by
+the present world have always existed; in other
+words, that the universe has existed from all
+<!-- [Page: 011] -->
+eternity in what may be broadly termed its present
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>The second hypothesis is, that the present state
+of things has had only a limited duration; and that,
+at some period in the past, a condition of the world,
+essentially similar to that which we now know,
+came into existence, without any precedent condition
+from which it could have naturally proceeded.
+The assumption that successive states of Nature
+have arisen, each without any relation of natural
+causation to an antecedent state, is a mere modification
+of this second hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>The third hypothesis also assumes that the present
+state of things has had but a limited duration;
+but it supposes that this state has been evolved by
+a natural process from an antecedent state, and that
+from another, and so on; and, on this hypothesis,
+the attempt to assign any limit to the series of
+past changes is, usually, given up.</p>
+
+<p>It is so needful to form clear and distinct notions
+of what is really meant by each of these hypotheses
+that I will ask you to imagine what, according to
+each, would have been visible to a spectator of the
+events which constitute the history of the earth.
+On the first hypothesis, however far back in time
+that spectator might be placed, he would see a
+world essentially, though perhaps not in all its
+details, similar to that which now exists. The
+<!-- [Page: 012] -->
+animals which existed would be the ancestors of
+those which now live, and similar to them; the
+plants, in like manner, would be such as we know;
+and the mountains, plains, and waters would foreshadow
+the salient features of our present land and
+water. This view was held more or less distinctly,
+sometimes combined with the notion of recurrent
+cycles of change, in ancient times; and its influence
+has been felt down to the present day. It is worthy
+of remark that it is a hypothesis which is not inconsistent
+with the doctrine of Uniformitarianism, with
+which geologists are familiar. That doctrine was
+held by Hutton, and in his earlier days by Lyell.
+Hutton was struck by the demonstration of astronomers
+that the perturbations of the planetary bodies,
+however great they may be, yet sooner or later
+right themselves; and that the solar system possesses
+a self-adjusting power by which these aberrations
+are all brought back to a mean condition.
+Hutton imagined that the like might be true of
+terrestrial changes; although no one recognised
+more clearly than he the fact that the dry land is
+being constantly washed down by rain and rivers
+and deposited in the sea; and that thus, in a longer
+or shorter time, the inequalities of the earth's surface
+must be levelled, and its high lands brought
+down to the ocean. But, taking into account the
+internal forces of the earth, which, upheaving the
+<!-- [Page: 013] -->
+sea-bottom give rise to new land, he thought that
+these operations of degradation and elevation might
+compensate each other; and that thus, for any
+assignable time, the general features of our planet
+might remain what they are. And inasmuch as,
+under these circumstances, there need be no limit
+to the propagation of animals and plants, it is
+clear that the consistent working-out of the uniformitarian
+idea might lead to the conception of the
+eternity of the world. Not that I mean to say
+that either Hutton or Lyell held this conception&mdash;assuredly
+not; they would have been the first to
+repudiate it. Nevertheless, the logical development
+of their arguments tends directly towards this
+hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>The second hypothesis supposes that the present
+order of things, at some no very remote time, had
+a sudden origin, and that the world, such as it
+now is, had chaos for its phenomenal antecedent.
+That is the doctrine which you will find
+stated most fully and clearly in the immortal poem
+of John Milton&mdash;the English <i>Divina Commedia&mdash;Paradise
+Lost</i>. I believe it is largely to the influence
+of that remarkable work, combined with the
+daily teachings to which we have all listened in
+our childhood, that this hypothesis owes its general
+wide diffusion as one of the current beliefs of
+English-speaking people. If you turn to the
+<!-- [Page: 014] -->
+seventh book of <i>Paradise Lost</i>, you will find there
+stated the hypothesis to which I refer, which is
+briefly this: That this visible universe of ours came
+into existence at no great distance of time from the
+present; and that the parts of which it is composed
+made their appearance, in a certain definite order,
+in the space of six natural days, in such a manner
+that, on the first of these days, light appeared; that,
+on the second, the firmament, or sky, separated the
+waters above, from the waters beneath the firmament;
+that, on the third day, the waters drew away
+from the dry land, and upon it a varied vegetable
+life, similar to that which now exists, made its appearance;
+that the fourth day was signalised by the
+apparition of the sun, the stars, the moon, and the
+planets; that, on the fifth day, aquatic animals
+originated within the waters; that, on the sixth
+day, the earth gave rise to our four-footed terrestrial
+creatures, and to all varieties of terrestrial
+animals except birds, which had appeared on the
+preceding day; and, finally, that man appeared upon
+the earth, and the emergence of the universe from
+chaos was finished. Milton tells us, without the
+least ambiguity, what a spectator of these marvellous
+occurrences would have witnessed. I doubt
+not that his poem is familiar to all of you, but I
+should like to recall one passage to your minds, in
+order that I may be justified in what I have said
+<!-- [Page: 015] -->
+regarding the perfectly concrete, definite picture of
+the origin of the animal world which Milton draws.
+He says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span>"The sixth, and of creation last, arose<br /></span>
+<span>With evening harps and matin, when God said,<br /></span>
+<span>'Let the earth bring forth soul living in her kind,<br /></span>
+<span>Cattle and creeping things, and beast of the earth,<br /></span>
+<span>Each in their kind!' The earth obeyed, and, straight<br /></span>
+<span>Opening her fertile womb, teemed at a birth<br /></span>
+<span>Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms,<br /></span>
+<span>Limbed and full-grown. Out of the ground uprose,<br /></span>
+<span>As from his lair, the wild beast, where he wons<br /></span>
+<span>In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den;<br /></span>
+<span>Among the trees in pairs they rose, they walked;<br /></span>
+<span>The cattle in the fields and meadows green;<br /></span>
+<span>Those rare and solitary; these in flocks<br /></span>
+<span>Pasturing at once, and in broad herds upsprung.<br /></span>
+<span>The grassy clods now calved; now half appears<br /></span>
+<span>The tawny lion, pawing to get free<br /></span>
+<span>His hinder parts&mdash;then springs, as broke from bonds,<br /></span>
+<span>And rampant shakes his brinded mane; the ounce,<br /></span>
+<span>The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole<br /></span>
+<span>Rising, the crumbled earth above them threw<br /></span>
+<span>In hillocks; the swift stag from underground<br /></span>
+<span>Bore up his branching head; scarce from his mould<br /></span>
+<span>Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved<br /></span>
+<span>His vastness; fleeced the flocks and bleating rose<br /></span>
+<span>As plants; ambiguous between sea and land,<br /></span>
+<span>The river-horse and scaly crocodile.<br /></span>
+<span>At once came forth whatever creeps the ground,<br /></span>
+<span>Insect or worm."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There is no doubt as to the meaning of this
+statement, nor as to what a man of Milton's genius
+expected would have been actually visible to an
+eye-witness of this mode of origination of living
+things.
+<!-- [Page: 016] --></p>
+
+<p>The third hypothesis, or the hypothesis of evolution,
+supposes that, at any comparatively late period
+of past time, our imaginary spectator would meet
+with a state of things very similar to that which now
+obtains; but that the likeness of the past to the present
+would gradually become less and less, in proportion
+to the remoteness of his period of observation
+from the present day; that the existing distribution
+of mountains and plains, of rivers and seas, would
+show itself to be the product of a slow process
+of natural change operating upon more and more
+widely different antecedent conditions of the mineral
+framework of the earth; until, at length, in place
+of that framework, he would behold only a vast
+nebulous mass, representing the constituents of the
+sun and of the planetary bodies. Preceding the
+forms of life which now exist, our observer would
+see animals and plants not identical with them, but
+like them; increasing their differences with their
+antiquity and, at the same time, becoming simpler
+and simpler; until, finally, the world of life would
+present nothing but that undifferentiated protoplasmic
+matter which, so far as our present knowledge goes,
+is the common foundation of all vital activity.</p>
+
+<p>The hypothesis of evolution supposes that in all
+this vast progression there would be no breach of
+continuity, no point at which we could say "This
+a natural process," and "This is not a natural
+<!-- [Page: 017] -->
+process;" but that the whole might be compared to
+that wonderful process of development which may
+be seen going on every day under our eyes, in
+virtue of which there arises, out of the semi-fluid,
+comparatively homogeneous substance which we call
+an egg, the complicated organization of one of the
+higher animals. That, in a few words, is what is
+meant by the hypothesis of evolution.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>I have already suggested that in dealing with
+these three hypotheses, in endeavouring to form a
+judgment as to which of them is the more worthy
+of belief, or whether none is worthy of belief&mdash;in
+which case our condition of mind should be that
+suspension of judgment which is so difficult to all
+but trained intellects&mdash;we should be indifferent to
+all <i>&agrave; priori</i> considerations. The question is a
+question of historical fact. The universe has come
+into existence somehow or other, and the problem
+is, whether it came into existence in one fashion,
+or whether it came into existence in another; and,
+as an essential preliminary to further discussion,
+permit me to say two or three words as to the
+nature and the kinds of historical evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence as to the occurrence of any event
+in past time may be ranged under two heads which,
+for convenience' sake, I will speak of as testimonial
+evidence and as circumstantial evidence. By testimonial
+<!-- [Page: 018] -->
+evidence I mean human testimony; and by
+circumstantial evidence I mean evidence which is
+not human testimony. Let me illustrate by a
+familiar example what I understand by these two
+kinds of evidence, and what is to be said respecting
+their value.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose that a man tells you that he saw a
+person strike another and kill him; that is testimonial
+evidence of the fact of murder. But it is
+possible to have circumstantial evidence of the fact
+of murder; that is to say, you may find a man
+dying with a wound upon his head having exactly
+the form and character of the wound which is made
+by an axe, and, with due care in taking surrounding
+circumstances into account, you may conclude with
+the utmost certainty that the man has been murdered;
+that his death is the consequence of a blow
+inflicted by another man with that implement. We
+are very much in the habit of considering circumstantial
+evidence as of less value than testimonial
+evidence, and it may be that, where the circumstances
+are not perfectly clear and intelligible, it is
+a dangerous and unsafe kind of evidence; but it
+must not be forgotten that, in many cases, circumstantial
+is quite as conclusive as testimonial
+evidence, and that, not unfrequently, it is a great
+deal weightier than testimonial evidence. For example,
+take the case to which I referred just now.
+<!-- [Page: 019] -->
+The circumstantial evidence may be better and
+more convincing than the testimonial evidence; for it
+may be impossible, under the conditions that I have
+defined, to suppose that the man met his death
+from any cause but the violent blow of an axe
+wielded by another man. The circumstantial evidence
+in favour of a murder having been committed,
+in that case, is as complete and as convincing
+as evidence can be. It is evidence which
+is open to no doubt and to no falsification. But
+the testimony of a witness is open to multitudinous
+doubts. He may have been mistaken. He
+may have been actuated by malice. It has constantly
+happened that even an accurate man has
+declared that a thing has happened in this, that, or
+the other way, when a careful analysis of the circumstantial
+evidence has shown that it did not
+happen in that way, but in some other way.</p>
+
+<p>We may now consider the evidence in favour
+of or against the three hypotheses. Let me first
+direct your attention to what is to be said about
+the hypothesis of the eternity of the state of things
+in which we now live. What will first strike you
+is, that it is a hypothesis which, whether true or
+false, is not capable of verification by any evidence.
+For, in order to obtain either circumstantial or testimonial
+evidence sufficient to prove the eternity of
+duration of the present state of nature, you must
+<!-- [Page: 020] -->
+have an eternity of witnesses or an infinity of
+circumstances, and neither of these is attainable.
+It is utterly impossible that such evidence should
+be carried beyond a certain point of time; and all
+that could be said, at most, would be, that so far
+as the evidence could be traced, there was nothing
+to contradict the hypothesis. But when you look,
+not to the testimonial evidence&mdash;which, considering
+the relative insignificance of the antiquity of human
+records, might not be good for much in this case&mdash;but
+to the circumstantial evidence, then you find
+that this hypothesis is absolutely incompatible with
+such evidence as we have; which is of so plain
+and so simple a character that it is impossible in
+any way to escape from the conclusions which it
+forces upon us.</p>
+
+<p>You are, doubtless, all aware that the outer substance
+of the earth, which alone is accessible to
+direct observation, is not of a homogeneous character,
+but that it is made up of a number of
+layers or strata, the titles of the principal groups of
+which are placed upon the accompanying diagram.
+Each of these groups represents a number of beds
+of sand, of stone, of clay, of slate, and of various
+other materials.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig1" href="images/g01.jpg"><img src="images/tg01.jpg" alt="FIG. 1.&mdash;IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH." title="FIG. 1.&mdash;IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH." width="235" height="400"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.&mdash;Ideal Section of the Crust of the Earth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On careful examination, it is found that the
+materials of which each of these layers of more
+or less hard rock are composed are, for the most
+<!-- [Page: 021] -->
+part, of the same nature as those which are at present
+being formed under known conditions on the
+<!-- [Page: 022] -->
+surface of the earth. For example, the chalk, which
+constitutes a great part of the Cretaceous formation
+in some parts of the world, is practically identical
+in its physical and chemical characters with a substance
+which is now being formed at the bottom
+of the Atlantic Ocean, and covers an enormous
+area; other beds of rock are comparable with the
+sands which are being formed upon sea-shores,
+packed together, and so on. Thus, omitting rocks
+of igneous origin, it is demonstrable that all these
+beds of stone, of which a total of not less than
+seventy thousand feet is known, have been formed
+by natural agencies, either out of the waste and
+washing of the dry land, or else by the accumulation
+of the exuvi&aelig; of plants and animals. Many
+of these strata are full of such exuvi&aelig;&mdash;the so-called
+"fossils." Remains of thousands of species
+of animals and plants, as perfectly recognisable as
+those of existing forms of life which you meet
+with in museums, or as the shells which you pick
+up upon the sea-beech, have been imbedded in
+the ancient sands, or muds, or limestones, just as
+they are being imbedded now, in sandy, or clayey,
+or calcareous subaqueous deposits. They furnish
+us with a record, the general nature of which cannot
+be misinterpreted, of the kinds of things that
+have lived upon the surface of the earth during
+the time that is registered by this great thickness
+<!-- [Page: 023] -->
+of stratified rocks. But even a superficial study of
+these fossils shows us that the animals and plants
+which live at the present time have had only a temporary
+duration; for the remains of such modern
+forms of life are met with, for the most part, only in
+the uppermost or latest tertiaries, and their number
+rapidly diminishes in the lower deposits of that
+epoch. In the older tertiaries, the places of existing
+animals and plants are taken by other forms, as
+numerous and diversified as those which live now
+in the same localities, but more or less different from
+them; in the mesozoic rocks, these are replaced by
+others yet more divergent from modern types; and
+in the pal&aelig;ozoic formations the contrast is still more
+marked. Thus the circumstantial evidence absolutely
+negatives the conception of the eternity of
+the present condition of things. We can say with
+certainty that the present condition of things has
+existed for a comparatively short period; and that,
+so far as animal and vegetable nature are concerned,
+it has been preceded by a different condition. We
+can pursue this evidence until we reach the lowest
+of the stratified rocks, in which we lose the indications
+of life altogether. The hypothesis of the eternity
+of the present state of nature may therefore be
+put out of court.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to what I will term Milton's
+hypothesis&mdash;the hypothesis that the present
+<!-- [Page: 024] -->
+condition of things has endured for a comparatively
+short time; and, at the commencement of that time,
+came into existence within the course of six days.
+I doubt not that it may have excited some surprise
+in your minds that I should have spoken of this as
+Milton's hypothesis, rather than that I should have
+chosen the terms which are more customary, such as
+"the doctrine of creation," or "the Biblical doctrine,"
+or "the doctrine of Moses," all of which denominations,
+as applied to the hypothesis to which I have
+just referred, are certainly much more familiar to
+you than the title of the Miltonic hypothesis. But
+I have had what I cannot but think are very
+weighty reasons for taking the course which I have
+pursued. In the first place, I have discarded the
+title of the "doctrine of creation," because my
+present business is not with the question why
+the objects which constitute Nature came into existence,
+but when they came into existence, and in
+what order. This is as strictly a historical question
+as the question when the Angles and the Jutes invaded
+England, and whether they preceded or followed
+the Romans. But the question about creation
+is a philosophical problem, and one which cannot
+be solved, or even approached, by the historical
+method. What we want to learn is, whether the
+facts, so far as they are known, afford evidence that
+things arose in the way described by Milton, or
+<!-- [Page: 025] -->
+whether they do not; and, when that question is
+settled, it will be time enough to inquire into the
+causes of their origination.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, I have not spoken of this
+doctrine as the Biblical doctrine. It is quite true
+that persons as diverse in their general views as
+Milton the Protestant and the celebrated Jesuit
+Father Suarez, each put upon the first chapter of
+Genesis the interpretation embodied in Milton's
+poem. It is quite true that this interpretation is
+that which has been instilled into every one of us
+in our childhood; but I do not for one moment
+venture to say that it can properly be called the
+Biblical doctrine. It is not my business, and does
+not lie within my competency, to say what the
+Hebrew text does, and what it does not signify;
+moreover, were I to affirm that this is the Biblical
+doctrine, I should be met by the authority of many
+eminent scholars, to say nothing of men of science,
+who, at various times, have absolutely denied that
+any such doctrine is to be found in Genesis. If we
+are to listen to many expositors of no mean authority,
+we must believe that what seems so clearly defined
+in Genesis&mdash;as if very great pains had been taken
+that there should be no possibility of mistake&mdash;is
+not the meaning of the text at all. The account
+is divided into periods that we may make just as
+long or as short as convenience requires. We are
+<!-- [Page: 026] -->
+also to understand that it is consistent with the
+original text to believe that the most complex plants
+and animals may have been evolved by natural
+processes, lasting for millions of years, out of structureless
+rudiments. A person who is not a Hebrew
+scholar can only stand aside and admire the marvellous
+flexibility of a language which admits of
+such diverse interpretations. But assuredly, in the
+face of such contradictions of authority upon matters
+respecting which he is incompetent to form any
+judgment, he will abstain, as I do, from giving any
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, I have carefully abstained
+from speaking of this as the Mosaic doctrine, because
+we are now assured upon the authority of the
+highest critics, and even of dignitaries of the Church,
+that there is no evidence that Moses wrote the
+Book of Genesis, or knew anything about it. You
+will understand that I give no judgment&mdash;it would
+be an impertinence upon my part to volunteer even
+a suggestion&mdash;upon such a subject. But, that being
+the state of opinion among the scholars and the
+clergy, it is well for the unlearned in Hebrew lore,
+and for the laity, to avoid entangling themselves in
+such a vexed question. Happily, Milton leaves us
+no excuse for doubting what he means, and I shall
+therefore be safe in speaking of the opinion in
+question as the Miltonic hypothesis.
+<!-- [Page: 027] --></p>
+
+<p>Now we have to test that hypothesis. For my
+part, I have no prejudice one way or the other. If
+there is evidence in favour of this view, I am burdened
+by no theoretical difficulties in the way of
+accepting it; but there must be evidence. Scientific
+men get an awkward habit&mdash;no, I won't call it that,
+for it is a valuable habit&mdash;of believing nothing
+unless there is evidence for it; and they have a
+way of looking upon belief which is not based
+upon evidence, not only as illogical, but as immoral.
+We will, if you please, test this view by
+the circumstantial evidence alone; for, from what
+I have said, you will understand that I do not
+propose to discuss the question of what testimonial
+evidence is to be adduced in favour of it.
+If those whose business it is to judge are not at
+one as to the authenticity of the only evidence of
+that kind which is offered, nor as to the facts to
+which it bears witness, the discussion of such
+evidence is superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>But I may be permitted to regret this necessity
+of rejecting the testimonal evidence the less, because
+the examination of the circumstantial evidence leads
+to the conclusion, not only that it is incompetent to
+justify the hypothesis, but that, so far as it goes,
+it is contrary to the hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>The considerations upon which I base this conclusion
+are of the simplest possible character. The
+<!-- [Page: 028] -->
+Miltonic hypothesis contains assertions of a very
+definite character relating to the succession of living
+forms. It is stated that plants, for example, made
+their appearance upon the third day, and not before.
+And you will understand that what the poet means
+by plants are such plants as now live, the ancestors,
+in the ordinary way of propagation of like
+by like, of the trees and shrubs which flourish in
+the present world. It must needs be so; for, if
+they were different, either the existing plants have
+been the result of a separate origination since that
+described by Milton, of which we have no record, nor
+any ground for supposition that such an occurrence
+has taken place; or else they have arisen by a
+process of evolution from the original stocks.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, it is clear that there was
+no animal life before the fifth day, and that, on
+the fifth day, aquatic animals and birds appeared.
+And it is further clear that terrestrial living things,
+other than birds, made their appearance upon the
+sixth day, and not before. Hence, it follows that,
+if, in the large mass of circumstantial evidence as
+to what really has happened in the past history of
+the globe we find indications of the existence of
+terrestrial animals, other than birds, at a certain
+period, it is perfectly certain that all that has taken
+place since that time must be referred to the
+sixth day.
+<!-- [Page: 029] --></p>
+
+<p>In the great Carboniferous formation, whence
+America derives so vast a proportion of her actual
+and potential wealth, in the beds of coal which
+have been formed from the vegetation of that
+period, we find abundant evidence of the existence
+of terrestrial animals. They have been described,
+not only by European but by your own naturalists.
+There are to be found numerous insects allied to
+our cockroaches. There are to be found spiders
+and scorpions of large size, the latter so similar
+to existing scorpions that it requires the practised
+eye of the naturalist to distinguish them. Inasmuch
+as these animals can be proved to have been alive
+in the Carboniferous epoch, it is perfectly clear
+that, if the Miltonic account is to be accepted,
+the huge mass of rocks extending from the middle
+of the Pal&aelig;ozoic formations to the uppermost
+members of the series, must belong to the day
+which is termed by Milton the sixth. But, further,
+it is expressly stated that aquatic animals took their
+origin upon the fifth day, and not before; hence,
+all formations in which remains of aquatic animals
+can be proved to exist, and which therefore testify
+that such animals lived at the time when these formations
+were in course of deposition, must have
+been deposited during or since the period which
+Milton speaks of as the fifth day. But there is
+absolutely no fossiliferous formation in which the
+<!-- [Page: 030] -->
+remains of aquatic animals are absent. The oldest
+fossils in the Silurian rocks are exuvi&aelig; of marine
+animals; and if the view which is entertained by
+Principal Dawson and Dr. Carpenter respecting the
+nature of the <i>Eozo&ouml;n</i> be well founded, aquatic animals
+existed at a period as far antecedent to the
+deposition of the coal as the coal is from us;
+inasmuch as the <i>Eozo&ouml;n</i> is met with in those
+Laurentian strata which lie at the bottom of the
+series of stratified rocks. Hence it follows, plainly
+enough, that the whole series of stratified rocks, if
+they are to be brought into harmony with Milton,
+must be referred to the fifth and sixth days, and
+that we cannot hope to find the slightest trace of
+the products of the earlier days in the geological
+record. When we consider these simple facts, we
+see how absolutely futile are the attempts that have
+been made to draw a parallel between the story
+told by so much of the crust of the earth as is
+known to us and the story which Milton tells.
+The whole series of fossiliferous stratified rocks
+must be referred to the last two days; and neither
+the Carboniferous, nor any other, formation can
+afford evidence of the work of the third day.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is there this objection to any attempt
+to establish a harmony between the Miltonic account
+and the facts recorded in the fossiliferous
+rocks, but there is a further difficulty. According
+<!-- [Page: 031] -->
+to the Miltonic account, the order in which animals
+should have made their appearance in the stratified
+rocks would be this: Fishes, including the great
+whales, and birds; after them, all varieties of terrestrial
+animals except birds. Nothing could be
+further from the facts as we find them; we know
+of not the slightest evidence of the existence of
+birds before the Jurassic, or perhaps the Triassic,
+formation; while terrestrial animals, as we have
+just seen, occur in the Carboniferous rocks.</p>
+
+<p>If there were any harmony between the Miltonic
+account and the circumstantial evidence, we ought
+to have abundant evidence of the existence of birds
+in the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and the Silurian
+rocks. I need hardly say that this is not the
+case, and that not a trace of birds makes its
+appearance until the far later period which I have
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>And again, if it be true that all varieties of fishes
+and the great whales, and the like, made their
+appearance on the fifth day, we ought to find the
+remains of these animals in the older rocks&mdash;in
+those which were deposited before the Carboniferous
+epoch. Fishes we do find, in considerable
+number and variety; but the great whales are
+absent, and the fishes are not such as now live.
+Not one solitary species of fish now in existence
+is to be found in the Devonian or Silurian
+<!-- [Page: 032] -->
+formations. Hence we are introduced afresh to the
+dilemma which I have already placed before you:
+either the animals which came into existence on
+the fifth day were not such as those which are
+found at present, are not the direct and immediate
+ancestors of those which now exist; in which case
+either fresh creations of which nothing is said; or
+a process of evolution must have occurred; or else
+the whole story must be given up, as not only
+devoid of any circumstantial evidence, but contrary
+to such evidence as exists.</p>
+
+<p>I placed before you in a few words, some little
+time ago, a statement of the sum and substance
+of Milton's hypothesis. Let me now try to state
+as briefly, the effect of the circumstantial evidence
+bearing upon the past history of the earth which
+is furnished, without the possibility of mistake, with
+no chance of error as to its chief features, by the
+stratified rocks. What we find is, that the great
+series of formations represents a period of time
+of which our human chronologies hardly afford us
+a unit of measure. I will not pretend to say how
+we ought to estimate this time, in millions or in
+billions of years. For my purpose, the determination
+of its absolute duration is wholly unessential.
+But that the time was enormous there can be no
+question.</p>
+
+<p>It results from the simplest methods of interpretation,
+<!-- [Page: 033] -->
+that leaving out of view certain patches
+of metamorphosed rocks, and certain volcanic products,
+all that is now dry land has once been at the
+bottom of the waters. It is perfectly certain that,
+at a comparatively recent period of the world's
+history&mdash;the Cretaceous epoch&mdash;none of the great
+physical features which at present mark the surface
+of the globe existed. It is certain that the Rocky
+Mountains were not. It is certain that the Himalaya
+Mountains were not. It is certain that the
+Alps and the Pyrenees had no existence. The
+evidence is of the plainest possible character, and
+is simply this:&mdash;We find raised up on the flanks
+of these mountains, elevated by the forces of upheaval
+which have given rise to them, masses of
+Cretaceous rock which formed the bottom of the
+sea before those mountains existed. It is therefore
+clear that the elevatory forces which gave rise to
+the mountains operated subsequently to the Cretaceous
+epoch; and that the mountains themselves
+are largely made up of the materials deposited in
+the sea which once occupied their place. As we
+go back in time, we meet with constant alternations
+of sea and land, of estuary and open ocean; and,
+in correspondence with these alternations, we
+observe the changes in the fauna and flora to
+which I have referred.</p>
+
+<p>But the inspection of these changes give us no
+<!-- [Page: 034] -->
+right to believe that there has been any discontinuity
+in natural processes. There is no trace of
+general cataclysms, of universal deluges, or sudden
+destructions of a whole fauna or flora. The
+appearances which were formerly interpreted in
+that way have all been shown to be delusive, as
+our knowledge has increased and as the blanks
+which formerly appeared to exist between the
+different formations have been filled up. That
+there is no absolute break between formation
+and formation, that there has been no sudden
+disappearance of all the forms of life and replacement
+of them by others, but that changes have
+gone on slowly and gradually, that one type has
+died out and another has taken its place, and that
+thus, by insensible degrees, one fauna has been
+replaced by another, are conclusions strengthened
+by constantly increasing evidence. So that within
+the whole of the immense period indicated by the
+fossiliferous stratified rocks, there is assuredly not
+the slightest proof of any break in the uniformity
+of Nature's operations, no indication that events
+have followed other than a clear and orderly
+sequence.</p>
+
+<p>That, I say, is the natural and obvious teaching
+of the circumstantial evidence contained in the
+stratified rocks. I leave you to consider how far,
+by any ingenuity of interpretation, by any stretching
+<!-- [Page: 035] -->
+of the meaning of language, it can be brought into
+harmony with the Miltonic hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>There remains the third hypothesis, that of
+which I have spoken as the hypothesis of evolution;
+and I purpose that, in lectures to come, we
+should discuss it as carefully as we have considered
+the other two hypotheses. I need not say
+that it is quite hopeless to look for testimonial
+evidence of evolution. The very nature of the
+case precludes the possibility of such evidence, for
+the human race can no more be expected to testify
+to its own origin, than a child can be tendered as
+a witness of its own birth. Our sole inquiry is,
+what foundation circumstantial evidence lends to
+the hypothesis, or whether it lends none, or whether
+it controverts the hypothesis. I shall deal with the
+matter entirely as a question of history. I shall
+not indulge in the discussion of any speculative probabilities.
+I shall not attempt to show that Nature
+is unintelligible unless we adopt some such hypothesis.
+For anything I know about the matter, it
+may be the way of Nature to be unintelligible; she
+is often puzzling, and I have no reason to suppose
+that she is bound to fit herself to our notions.</p>
+
+<p>I shall place before you three kinds of evidence
+entirely based upon what is known of the forms
+of animal life which are contained in the series
+of stratified rocks. I shall endeavour to show you
+<!-- [Page: 036] -->
+that there is one kind of evidence which is neutral,
+which neither helps evolution nor is inconsistent
+with it. I shall then bring forward a second kind
+of evidence which indicates a strong probability in
+favour of evolution, but does not prove it; and,
+lastly, I shall adduce a third kind of evidence
+which, being as complete as any evidence which
+we can hope to obtain upon such a subject, and
+being wholly and strikingly in favour of evolution,
+may fairly be called demonstrative evidence of its
+occurrence.
+<!-- [Page: 037] --></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="LECTURE_II" id="LECTURE_II"></a>LECTURE II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION.
+THE NEUTRAL AND THE FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the preceding lecture I pointed out that there
+are three hypotheses which may be entertained,
+and which have been entertained, respecting the
+past history of life upon the globe. According to
+the first of these hypotheses, living beings, such as
+now exist, have existed from all eternity upon this
+earth. We tested that hypothesis by the circumstantial
+evidence, as I called it, which is furnished
+by the fossil remains contained in the earth's crust,
+and we found that it was obviously untenable. I
+then proceeded to consider the second hypothesis,
+which I termed the Miltonic hypothesis, not because
+it is of any particular consequence to me whether
+John Milton seriously entertained it or not, but
+because it is stated in a clear and unmistakable
+manner in his great poem. I pointed out to you
+that the evidence at our command as completely
+<!-- [Page: 038] -->
+and fully negatives that hypothesis as it did the
+preceding one. And I confess that I had too much
+respect for your intelligence to think it necessary
+to add that the negation was equally clear and
+equally valid, whatever the source from which that
+hypothesis might be derived, or whatever the
+authority by which it might be supported. I
+further stated that, according to the third hypothesis,
+or that of evolution, the existing state of
+things is the last term of a long series of states,
+which, when traced back, would be found to show
+no interruption and no breach in the continuity of
+natural causation. I propose, in the present, and the
+following lecture, to test this hypothesis rigorously
+by the evidence at command, and to inquire how
+far that evidence can be said to be indifferent to
+it, how far it can be said to be favourable to
+it, and, finally, how far it can be said to be
+demonstrative.</p>
+
+<p>From almost the origin of the discussions about
+the existing condition of the animal and vegetable
+worlds and the causes which have determined that
+condition, an argument has been put forward as an
+objection to evolution, which we shall have to consider
+very seriously. It is an argument which was
+first clearly stated by Cuvier in his criticism of the
+doctrines propounded by his great contemporary,
+Lamarck. The French expedition to Egypt had
+<!-- [Page: 039] -->
+called the attention of learned men to the wonderful
+store of antiquities in that country, and there had
+been brought back to France numerous mummified
+corpses of the animals which the ancient Egyptians
+revered and preserved, and which, at a reasonable
+computation, must have lived not less than three
+or four thousand years before the time at which
+they were thus brought to light. Cuvier endeavoured
+to test the hypothesis that animals have
+undergone gradual and progressive modifications of
+structure, by comparing the skeletons and such other
+parts of the mummies as were in a fitting state
+of preservation, with the corresponding parts of the
+representatives of the same species now living in
+Egypt. He arrived at the conviction that no
+appreciable change had taken place in these animals
+in the course of this considerable lapse of time,
+and the justice of his conclusion is not disputed.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that, if it can be proved that animals
+have endured, without undergoing any demonstrable
+change of structure, for so long a period as four
+thousand years, no form of the hypothesis of evolution
+which assumes that animals undergo a constant
+and necessary progressive change can be tenable;
+unless, indeed, it be further assumed that four
+thousand years is too short a time for the production
+of a change sufficiently great to be detected.</p>
+
+<p>But it is no less plain that if the process of
+<!-- [Page: 040] -->
+evolution of animals is not independent of surrounding
+conditions; if it may be indefinitely
+hastened or retarded by variations in these conditions;
+or if evolution is simply a process of accommodation
+to varying conditions; the argument against
+the hypothesis of evolution based on the unchanged
+character of the Egyptian fauna is worthless. For
+the monuments which are coeval with the mummies
+testify as strongly to the absence of change in the
+physical geography and the general conditions of
+the land of Egypt, for the time in question, as
+the mummies do to the unvarying characters of its
+living population.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of research since Cuvier's time has
+supplied far more striking examples of the long
+duration of specific forms of life than those which
+are furnished by the mummified Ibises and Crocodiles
+of Egypt. A remarkable case is to be found
+in your own country, in the neighbourhood of the
+falls of Niagara. In the immediate vicinity of the
+whirlpool, and again upon Goat Island, in the
+superficial deposits which cover the surface of
+the rocky subsoil in those regions, there are found remains
+of animals in perfect preservation, and among
+them, shells belonging to exactly the same species
+as those which at present inhabit the still waters
+of Lake Erie. It is evident, from the structure
+of the country, that these animal remains were
+<!-- [Page: 041] -->
+deposited in the beds in which they occur at a
+time when the lake extended over the region in
+which they are found. This involves the conclusion
+that they lived and died before the falls had cut
+their way back through the gorge of Niagara; and,
+indeed, it has been determined that, when these
+animals lived, the falls of Niagara must have been
+at least six miles further down the river than they
+are at present. Many computations have been
+made of the rate at which the falls are thus cutting
+their way back. Those computations have varied
+greatly, but I believe I am speaking within the
+bounds of prudence, if I assume that the falls of
+Niagara have not retreated at a greater pace than
+about a foot a year. Six miles, speaking roughly,
+are 30,000 feet; 30,000 feet, at a foot a year, gives
+30,000 years; and thus we are fairly justified in
+concluding that no less a period than this has
+passed since the shell-fish, whose remains are left
+in the beds to which I have referred, were living
+creatures.</p>
+
+<p>But there is still stronger evidence of the
+long duration of certain types. I have already
+stated that, as we work our way through the
+great series of the Tertiary formations, we find
+many species of animals identical with those which
+live at the present day, diminishing in numbers, it
+is true, but still existing, in a certain proportion,
+<!-- [Page: 042] -->
+in the oldest of the Tertiary rocks. Furthermore,
+when we examine the rocks of the Cretaceous
+epoch, we find the remains of some animals which
+the closest scrutiny cannot show to be, in any
+important respect, different from those which live
+at the present time. That is the case with one
+of the cretaceous lamp-shells (<i>Terebratula</i>), which
+has continued to exist unchanged, or with insignificant
+variations, down to the present day. Such
+is the case with the <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i>, the skeletons of
+which, aggregated together, form a large proportion
+of our English chalk. Those <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i> can be
+traced down to the <i>Globigerin&aelig;</i> which live at the
+surface of the present great oceans, and the remains
+of which, falling to the bottom of the sea, give
+rise to a chalky mud. Hence it must be admitted
+that certain existing species of animals show no distinct
+sign of modification, or transformation, in the
+course of a lapse of time as great as that which
+carries us back to the Cretaceous period; and
+which, whatever its absolute measure, is certainly
+vastly greater than thirty thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>There are groups of species so closely allied
+together that it needs the eye of a naturalist to
+distinguish them one from another. If we disregard
+the small differences which separate these forms
+and consider all the species of such groups as
+modifications of one type, we shall find that, even
+<!-- [Page: 043] -->
+among the higher animals, some types have had a
+marvellous duration. In the chalk, for example,
+there is found a fish belonging to the highest and
+the most differentiated group of osseous fishes, which
+goes by the name of <i>Beryx</i>. The remains of that
+fish are among the most beautiful and well preserved
+of the fossils found in our English chalk.
+It can be studied anatomically, so far as the hard
+parts are concerned, almost as well as if it were a
+recent fish. But the genus <i>Beryx</i> is represented, at
+the present day, by very closely allied species which
+are living in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. We
+may go still farther back. I have already referred to
+the fact that the Carboniferous formations, in Europe
+and in America, contain the remains of scorpions in
+an admirable state of preservation, and that those
+scorpions are hardly distinguishable from such as
+now live. I do not mean to say that they are not
+different, but close scrutiny is needed in order to
+distinguish them from modern scorpions.</p>
+
+<p>More than this. At the very bottom of the
+Silurian series, in beds which are by some authorities
+referred to the Cambrian formation, where the
+signs of life begin to fail us&mdash;even there, among
+the few and scanty animal remains which are discoverable,
+we find species of molluscous animals
+which are so closely allied to existing forms that,
+at one time, they were grouped under the same
+<!-- [Page: 044] -->
+generic name. I refer to the well-known <i>Lingula</i>
+of the <i>Lingula</i> flags, lately, in consequence of some
+slight differences, placed in the new genus <i>Lingulella</i>.
+Practically, it belongs to the same great
+generic group as the <i>Lingula</i>, which is to be found
+at the present day upon your own shores and those
+of many other parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The same truth is exemplified if we turn to
+certain great periods of the earth's history&mdash;as, for
+example, the Mesozoic epoch. There are groups of
+reptiles, such as the <i>Ichthyosauria</i> and the <i>Plesiosauria</i>,
+which appear shortly after the commencement
+of this epoch, and they occur in vast numbers.
+They disappear with the chalk and, throughout
+the whole of the great series of Mesozoic rocks,
+they present no such modifications as can safely
+be considered evidence of progressive modification.</p>
+
+<p>Facts of this kind are undoubtedly fatal to any
+form of the doctrine of evolution which postulates
+the supposition that there is an intrinsic necessity,
+on the part of animal forms which have once come
+into existence, to undergo continual modification;
+and they are as distinctly opposed to any view
+which involves the belief, that such modification as
+may occur, must take place, at the same rate, in all
+the different types of animal or vegetable life. The
+facts, as I have placed them before you, obviously
+directly contradict any form of the hypothesis of
+<!-- [Page: 045] -->
+evolution which stands in need of these two postulates.</p>
+
+<p>But, one great service that has been rendered
+by Mr. Darwin to the doctrine of evolution in
+general is this: he has shown that there are two
+chief factors in the process of evolution: one of
+them is the tendency to vary, the existence of
+which in all living forms may be proved by observation;
+the other is the influence of surrounding
+conditions upon what I may call the parent form and
+the variations which are thus evolved from it. The
+cause of the production of variations is a matter
+not at all properly understood at present. Whether
+variation depends upon some intricate machinery&mdash;if
+I may use the phrase&mdash;of the living organism
+itself, or whether it arises through the influence of
+conditions upon that form, is not certain, and the
+question may, for the present, be left open. But
+the important point is that, granting the existence
+of the tendency to the production of variations;
+then, whether the variations which are produced
+shall survive and supplant the parent, or whether
+the parent form shall survive and supplant the
+variations, is a matter which depends entirely on
+those conditions which give rise to the struggle for
+existence. If the surrounding conditions are such
+that the parent form is more competent to deal
+with them and flourish in them, than the derived
+<!-- [Page: 046] -->
+forms, then, in the struggle for existence, the parent
+form will maintain itself and the derived forms will
+be exterminated. But if, on the contrary, the conditions
+are such as to be more favourable to a
+derived than to the parent form, the parent form
+will be extirpated and the derived form will take
+its place. In the first case, there will be no progression,
+no change of structure, through any imaginable
+series of ages; in the second place, there
+will be modification and change of form.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the existence of these persistent types, as
+I have termed them, is no real obstacle in the way
+of the theory of evolution. Take the case of the
+scorpions to which I have just referred. No doubt,
+since the Carboniferous epoch, conditions have
+always obtained, such as existed when the scorpions
+of that epoch flourished; conditions in which
+scorpions find themselves better off, more competent
+to deal with the difficulties in their way, than any
+variation from the scorpion type which they may
+have produced; and, for that reason, the scorpion
+type has persisted, and has not been supplanted
+by any other form. And there is no reason, in the
+nature of things, why, as long as this world exists,
+if there be conditions more favourable to scorpions
+than to any variation which may arise from them,
+these forms of life should not persist.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the stock objection to the hypothesis
+<!-- [Page: 047] -->
+of evolution, based on the long duration of certain
+animal and vegetable types, is no objection at all.
+The facts of this character&mdash;and they are numerous&mdash;belong
+to that class of evidence which I have
+called indifferent. That is to say, they may afford
+no direct support to the doctrine of evolution, but
+they are capable of being interpreted in perfect
+consistency with it.</p>
+
+<p>There is another order of facts belonging to the
+class of negative or indifferent evidence. The great
+group of Lizards, which abound in the present
+world, extends through the whole series of formations
+as far back as the Permian, or latest Pal&aelig;ozoic,
+epoch. These Permian lizards differ astonishingly
+little from the lizards which exist at the present
+day. Comparing the amount of the differences
+between them and modern lizards, with the prodigious
+lapse of time between the Permian epoch
+and the present age, it may be said that the amount
+of change is insignificant. But, when we carry our
+researches farther back in time, we find no trace
+of lizards, nor of any true reptile whatever, in the
+whole mass of formations beneath the Permian.</p>
+
+<p>Now, it is perfectly clear that if our pal&aelig;ontological
+collections are to be taken, even approximately,
+as an adequate representation of all the
+forms of animals and plants that have ever lived;
+and if the record furnished by the known series
+<!-- [Page: 048] -->
+of beds of stratified rock, covers the whole series
+of events which constitute the history of life on the
+globe, such a fact as this directly contravenes the
+hypothesis of evolution; because this hypothesis
+postulates that the existence of every form must
+have been preceded by that of some form little
+different from it. Here, however, we have to take
+into consideration that important truth so well
+insisted upon by Lyell and by Darwin&mdash;the imperfection
+of the geological record. It can be
+demonstrated that the geological record must be
+incomplete, that it can only preserve remains found
+in certain favourable localities and under particular
+conditions; that it must be destroyed by processes
+of denudation, and obliterated by processes of
+metamorphosis. Beds of rock of any thickness,
+crammed full of organic remains, may yet, either
+by the percolation of water through them, or by
+the influence of subterranean heat, lose all trace
+of these remains, and present the appearance of
+beds of rock formed under conditions in which
+living forms were absent. Such metamorphic rocks
+occur in formations of all ages; and, in various cases,
+there are very good grounds for the belief that
+they have contained organic remains, and that those
+remains have been absolutely obliterated.</p>
+
+<p>I insist upon the defects of the geological record
+the more because those who have not attended to
+<!-- [Page: 049] -->
+these matters are apt to say, "It is all very well,
+but when you get into a difficulty with your theory
+of evolution, you appeal to the incompleteness and
+the imperfection of the geological record;" and I
+want to make it perfectly clear to you that this
+imperfection is a great fact, which must be taken
+into account in all our speculations, or we shall
+constantly be going wrong.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig2" href="images/g02.jpg"><img src="images/tg02.jpg" alt="FIG. 2.&mdash;TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM." title="FIG. 2.&mdash;TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM." width="400" height="134"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.&mdash;Tracks of Brontozoum.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You see the singular series of footmarks,
+drawn of its natural size in the large diagram
+hanging up here (Fig. 2), which I owe to the kindness
+of my friend Professor Marsh, with whom I had
+the opportunity recently of visiting the precise locality
+in Massachusetts in which these tracks occur. I am,
+therefore, able to give you my own testimony, if
+needed, that the diagram accurately represents what
+we saw. The valley of the Connecticut is classical
+ground for the geologist. It contains great beds of
+sandstone, covering many square miles, which have
+evidently formed a part of an ancient sea-shore, or,
+it may be, lake-shore. For a certain period of time
+after their deposition, these beds have remained
+<!-- [Page: 050] -->
+sufficiently soft to receive the impressions of the
+feet of whatever animals walked over them, and to
+preserve them afterwards, in exactly the same way
+as such impressions are at this hour preserved on
+the shores of the Bay of Fundy and elsewhere.
+The diagram represents the track of some gigantic
+animal, which walked on its hind legs. You see
+the series of marks made alternately by the right
+and by the left foot; so that, from one impression
+to the other of the three-toed foot on the same side,
+is one stride, and that stride, as we measured it,
+is six feet nine inches. I leave you, therefore, to
+form an impression of the magnitude of the creature
+which, as it walked along the ancient shore, made
+these impressions.</p>
+
+<p>Of such impressions there are untold thousands
+upon these sandstones. Fifty or sixty different
+kinds have been discovered, and they cover vast
+areas. But, up to this present time, not a bone,
+not a fragment, of any one of the animals which
+left these great footmarks has been found; in fact,
+the only animal remains which have been met with
+in all these deposits, from the time of their discovery
+to the present day&mdash;though they have been
+carefully hunted over&mdash;is a fragmentary skeleton
+of one of the smaller forms. What has become of
+the bones of all these animals? You see we are
+not dealing with little creatures, but with animals
+<!-- [Page: 051] -->
+that make a step of six feet nine inches; and their
+remains must have been left somewhere. The probability
+is, that they been dissolved away, and
+absolutely lost.</p>
+
+<p>I have had occasion to work out the nature of
+fossil remains, of which there was nothing left
+except casts of the bones, the solid material of the
+skeleton having been dissolved out by percolating
+water. It was a chance, in this case, that the sandstone
+happened to be of such a constitution as to
+set, and to allow the bones to be afterward dissolved
+out, leaving cavities of the exact shape of
+the bones. Had that constitution been other than
+what it was, the bones would have been dissolved,
+the layers of sandstone would have fallen together
+into one mass, and not the slightest indication that
+the animal had existed would have been discoverable.</p>
+
+<p>I know of no more striking evidence than these
+facts afford, of the caution which should be used
+in drawing the conclusion, from the absence of
+organic remains in a deposit, that animals or plants
+did not exist at the time it was formed. I believe
+that, with a right understanding of the doctrine of
+evolution on the one hand, and a just estimation
+of the importance of the imperfection of the geological
+record on the other, all difficulty is removed
+from the kind of evidence to which I have
+<!-- [Page: 052] -->
+adverted; and that we are justified in believing that
+all such cases are examples of what I have designated
+negative or indifferent evidence&mdash;that is to
+say, they in no way directly advance the hypothesis
+of evolution, but they are not to be regarded as
+obstacles in the way of our belief in that doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>I now pass on to the consideration of those
+cases which, for reasons which I will point out to
+you by and by, are not to be regarded as demonstrative
+of the truth of evolution, but which are
+such as must exist if evolution be true, and which
+therefore are, upon the whole, evidence in favour
+of the doctrine. If the doctrine of evolution be
+true, it follows, that, however diverse the different
+groups of animals and of plants may be, they must
+all, at one time or other, have been connected by gradational
+forms; so that, from the highest animals,
+whatever they may be, down to the lowest speck
+of protoplasmic matter in which life can be manifested,
+a series of gradations, leading from one end
+of the series to the other, either exists or has
+existed. Undoubtedly that is a necessary postulate
+of the doctrine of evolution. But when we look
+upon living Nature as it is, we find a totally different
+state of things. We find that animals and
+plants fall into groups, the different members of
+which are pretty closely allied together, but which
+are separated by definite, larger or smaller, breaks
+<!-- [Page: 053] -->
+from other groups. In other words, no intermediate
+forms which bridge over these gaps or intervals
+are, at present, to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate what I mean: Let me call your
+attention to those vertebrate animals which are
+most familiar to you, such as mammals, birds, and
+reptiles. At the present day, these groups of
+animals are perfectly well defined from one another.
+We know of no animal now living which, in any
+sense, is intermediate between the mammal and the
+bird, or between the bird and the reptile; but, on
+the contrary, there are many very distinct anatomical
+peculiarities, well-defined marks, by which the mammal
+is separated from the bird, and the bird from
+the reptile. The distinctions are obvious and
+striking if you compare the definitions of these
+great groups as they now exist.</p>
+
+<p>The same may be said of many of the subordinate
+groups, or orders, into which these great classes
+are divided. At the present time, for example, there
+are numerous forms of non-ruminant pachyderms,
+or what we may call broadly, the pig tribe, and
+many varieties of ruminants. These latter have
+their definite characteristics, and the former have
+their distinguishing peculiarities. But there is
+nothing that fills up the gap between the ruminants
+and the pig tribe. The two are distinct. Such
+also is the case in respect of the minor groups of
+<!-- [Page: 054] -->
+the class of reptiles. The existing fauna shows us
+crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and tortoises; but no
+connecting link between the crocodile and lizard,
+nor between the lizard and snake, nor between
+the snake and the crocodile, nor between any two
+of these groups. They are separated by absolute
+breaks. If, then, it could be shown that this state
+of things had always existed, the fact would be
+fatal to the doctrine of evolution. If the intermediate
+gradations, which the doctrine of evolution
+requires to have existed between these groups, are
+not to be found anywhere in the records of the past
+history of the globe, their absence is a strong and
+weighty negative argument against evolution; while,
+on the other hand, if such intermediate forms are
+to be found, that is so much to the good of evolution;
+although, for reasons which I will lay before
+you by and by, we must be cautious in our estimate
+of the evidential cogency of facts of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very remarkable circumstance that, from
+the commencement of the serious study of fossil
+remains; in fact, from the time when Cuvier began
+his brilliant researches upon those found in the
+quarries of Montmartre, pal&aelig;ontology has shown
+what she was going to do in this matter, and what
+kind of evidence it lay in her power to produce.</p>
+
+<p>I said just now that, in the existing Fauna, the
+group of pig-like animals and the group of ruminants
+<!-- [Page: 055] -->
+are entirely distinct; but one of the first of
+Cuvier's discoveries was an animal which he called
+the <i>Anoplotherium</i>, and which proved to be, in
+a great many important respects, intermediate in
+character between the pigs, on the one hand, and
+the ruminants on the other. Thus research into
+the history of the past did, to a certain extent, tend
+to fill up the breach between the group of ruminants
+and the group of pigs. Another remarkable
+animal restored by the great French pal&aelig;ontologist,
+the <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>, similarly tended to connect
+together animals to all appearance so different as
+the rhinoceros, the horse, and the tapir. Subsequent
+research has brought to light multitudes of
+facts of the same order; and, at the present day,
+the investigations of such anatomists as R&uuml;timeyer
+and Gaudry have tended to fill up, more and more,
+the gaps in our existing series of mammals, and to
+connect groups formerly thought to be distinct.</p>
+
+<p>But I think it may have an especial interest if,
+instead of dealing with these examples, which would
+require a great deal of tedious osteological detail,
+I take the case of birds and reptiles; groups which,
+at the present day, are so clearly distinguished from
+one another that there are perhaps no classes of
+animals which, in popular apprehension, are more
+completely separated. Existing birds, as you are
+aware, are covered with feathers; their anterior
+<!-- [Page: 056] -->
+extremities, specially and peculiarly modified, are
+converted into wings, by the aid of which most of
+them are able to fly; they walk upright upon two
+legs; and these limbs, when they are considered
+anatomically, present a great number of exceedingly
+remarkable peculiarities, to which I may have
+occasion to advert incidentally as I go on, and
+which are not met with, even approximately, in
+any existing forms of reptiles. On the other hand,
+existing reptiles have no feathers. They may have
+naked skins, or be covered with horny scales, or
+bony plates, or with both. They possess no wings;
+they neither fly by means of their fore-limbs, nor
+habitually walk upright upon their hind-limbs; and
+the bones of their legs present no such modifications
+as we find in birds. It is impossible to imagine
+any two groups more definitely and distinctly separated,
+notwithstanding certain characters which they
+possess in common.</p>
+
+<p>As we trace the history of birds back in time, we
+find their remains, sometimes in great abundance,
+throughout the whole extent of the tertiary rocks;
+but, so far as our present knowledge goes, the birds
+of the tertiary rocks retain the same essential characters
+as the birds of the present day. In other
+words, the tertiary birds come within the definition
+of the class constituted by existing birds, and are as
+much separated from reptiles as existing birds are.
+<!-- [Page: 057] -->
+Not very long ago no remains of birds had been
+found below the tertiary rocks, and I am not sure
+but that some persons were prepared to demonstrate
+that they could not have existed at an earlier period.
+But in the course of the last few years, such remains
+have been discovered in England; though, unfortunately,
+in so imperfect and fragmentary a condition,
+that it is impossible to say whether they differed
+from existing birds in any essential character or not.
+In your country the development of the cretaceous
+series of rocks is enormous; the conditions under
+which the later cretaceous strata have been deposited
+are highly favourable to the preservation of
+organic remains; and the researches, full of labour
+and risk, which have been carried on by Professor
+Marsh in these cretaceous rocks of Western America,
+have rewarded him with the discovery of forms of
+birds of which we had hitherto no conception. By
+his kindness, I am enabled to place before you a
+restoration of one of these extraordinary birds, every
+part of which can be thoroughly justified by the more
+or less complete skeletons, in a very perfect state of
+preservation, which he has discovered. This <i>Hesperornis</i>
+(Fig. 3), which measured between five and
+six feet in length, is astonishingly like our existing
+divers or grebes in a great many respects; so like
+them indeed that, had the skeleton of <i>Hesperornis</i>
+been found in a museum without its skull, it
+<!-- [Page: 058] -->
+probably would have been placed in the same group
+of birds as the divers and grebes of the present day.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig3" href="images/g03.jpg"><img src="images/tg03.jpg" alt="FIG. 3.&mdash;HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." title="FIG. 3.&mdash;HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." width="338" height="400"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.&mdash;Hesperornis Regalis</span> (Marsh).
+</div>
+
+<p>But <i>Hesperornis</i> differs from all existing birds, and
+so far resembles reptiles, in one important particular&mdash;it
+<!-- [Page: 059] -->
+is provided with teeth. The long jaws are
+armed with teeth which have curved crowns and
+<!-- [Page: 060] -->
+thick roots (Fig. 4), and are not set in distinct
+sockets, but are lodged in a groove. In possessing
+true teeth, the <i>Hesperornis</i> differs from every existing
+bird, and from every bird yet discovered in
+the tertiary formations, the tooth-like serrations of
+the jaws in the <i>Odontopteryx</i> of the London clay
+being mere processes of the bony substance of the
+jaws, and not teeth in the proper sense of the word.
+In view of the characteristics of this bird we are
+therefore obliged to modify the definitions of the
+classes of birds and reptiles. Before the discovery
+of <i>Hesperornis</i>, the definition of the class Aves
+based upon our knowledge of existing birds, might
+have been extended to all birds; it might have been
+said that the absence of teeth was characteristic of
+the class of birds; but the discovery of an animal
+which, in every part of its skeleton, closely agrees
+with existing birds, and yet possesses teeth, shows
+that there were ancient birds which, in respect of
+possessing teeth, approached reptiles more nearly
+than any existing bird does, and, to that extent,
+diminishes the <i>hiatus</i> between the two classes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig4" href="images/g04.jpg"><img src="images/tg04.jpg" alt="FIG. 4.&mdash;HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." title="FIG. 4.&mdash;HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh)." width="259" height="400"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 4.&mdash;Hesperornis Regalis</span> (Marsh).<br />
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; side and end views of a vertebra
+and a separate tooth.)
+</div>
+
+<p>The same formation has yielded another bird
+<i>Ichthyornis</i> (Fig. 5), which also possesses teeth;
+but the teeth are situated in distinct sockets, while
+those of <i>Hesperornis</i> are not so lodged. The latter
+also has such very small, almost rudimentary,
+wings, that it must have been chiefly a swimmer
+<!-- [Page: 061] -->
+and a diver, like a Penguin; while <i>Ichthyornis</i> has
+strong wings and no doubt possessed corresponding
+<!-- [Page: 062] -->
+powers of flight. <i>Ichthyornis</i> also differed in the
+fact that its vertebr&aelig; have not the peculiar
+characters of the vertebr&aelig; of existing and of all
+known tertiary birds, but were concave at each
+end. This discovery leads us to make a further
+modification in the definition of the group of
+birds, and to part with another of the characters
+by which almost all existing birds are distinguished
+from reptiles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig5" href="images/g05.jpg"><img src="images/tg05.jpg" alt="FIG. 5.&mdash;ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh)." title="FIG. 5.&mdash;ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh)." width="267" height="400"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 5.&mdash;Ichthyornis Dispar</span> (Marsh).<br />
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; and side and end views of a
+vertebra.)
+</div>
+
+<p>Apart from the few fragmentary remains from
+the English greensand, to which I have referred,
+the mesozoic rocks, older than those in which <i>Hesperornis</i>
+and <i>Ichthyornis</i> have been discovered
+have afforded no certain evidence of birds, with
+the remarkable exception of the Solenhofen slates.
+These so-called slates are composed of a fine
+grained calcareous mud which has hardened into
+lithographic stone, and in which organic remains are
+almost as well preserved as they would be if they
+had been imbedded in so much plaster of Paris.
+They have yielded the <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>, the existence
+of which was first made known by the finding of
+a fossil feather, or rather of the impression of one.
+It is wonderful enough that such a perishable thing
+as a feather, and nothing more, should be discovered;
+yet, for a long time, nothing was known of
+this bird except its feather. But, by and by a solitary
+skeleton was discovered, which is now in the
+<!-- [Page: 063] -->
+British Museum. The skull of this solitary specimen
+is unfortunately wanting, and it is therefore uncertain
+whether the <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i> possessed teeth or
+not. But the remainder of the skeleton is so well
+preserved as to leave no doubt respecting the main
+features of the animal, which are very singular.
+The feet are not only altogether bird-like, but have
+the special characters of the feet of perching birds,
+while the body had a clothing of true feathers.
+Nevertheless, in some other respects, <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>
+is unlike a bird and like a reptile. There is a long
+tail composed of many vertebr&aelig;. The structure of
+the wing differs in some very remarkable respects
+from that which it presents in a true bird. In the
+latter, the end of the wing answers to the thumb
+and two fingers of my hand; but the metacarpal
+bones, or those which answer to the bones of the
+fingers which lie in the palm of the hand, are fused
+together into one mass; and the whole apparatus,
+except the last joints of the thumb, is bound up
+in a sheath of integument, while the edge of the
+hand carries the principal quill-feathers. In the
+<i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>, the upper-arm bone is like that of
+a bird; and the two bones of the fore-arm are
+more or less like those of a bird, but the fingers
+are not bound together&mdash;they are free. What their
+number may have been is uncertain; but several,
+if not all, of them were terminated by strong curved
+<!-- [Page: 064] -->
+claws, not like such as are sometimes found in
+birds, but such as reptiles possess; so that, in the
+<i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>, we have an animal which, to a certain
+extent, occupies a midway place between a bird
+and a reptile. It is a bird so far as its foot and
+sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned;
+it is essentially and thoroughly a bird by its
+feathers; but it is much more properly a reptile
+in the fact that the region which represents the
+hand has separate bones, with claws resembling
+those which terminate the fore-limb of a reptile.
+Moreover, it had a long reptile-like tail with a
+fringe of feathers on each side; while, in all true
+birds hitherto known, the tail is relatively short,
+and the vertebr&aelig; which constitute its skeleton are
+generally peculiarly modified.</p>
+
+<p>Like the <i>Anoplotherium</i> and the <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>,
+therefore, <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i> tends to fill up the interval
+between groups which, in the existing world, are
+widely separated, and to destroy the value of the
+definitions of zoological groups based upon our
+knowledge of existing forms. And such cases as
+these constitute evidence in favour of evolution,
+in so far as they prove that, in former periods of
+the world's history, there were animals which overstepped
+the bounds of existing groups, and tended
+to merge them into larger assemblages. They
+show that animal organisation is more flexible than
+<!-- [Page: 065] -->
+our knowledge of recent forms might have led
+us to believe; and that many structural permutations
+and combinations, of which the present
+world gives us no indication, may nevertheless have
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>But it by no means follows, because the <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>
+has much in common with the Horse, on
+the one hand, and with the Rhinoceros on the
+other, that it is the intermediate form through
+which Rhinoceroses have passed to become Horses,
+or <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>; on the contrary, any such supposition
+would certainly be erroneous. Nor do I think it
+likely that the transition from the reptile to the
+bird has been effected by such a form as <i>Arch&aelig;opteryx</i>.
+And it is convenient to distinguish
+these intermediate forms between two groups,
+which do not represent the actual passage from
+the one group to the other, as <i>intercalary</i> types,
+from those <i>linear</i> types which, more or less approximately,
+indicate the nature of the steps by which
+the transition from one group to the other was
+effected.</p>
+
+<p>I conceive that such linear forms, constituting a
+series of natural gradations between the reptile and
+the bird, and enabling us to understand the manner
+in which the reptilian has been metamorphosed into
+the bird type, are really to be found among a group
+of ancient and extinct terrestrial reptiles known as
+<!-- [Page: 066] -->
+the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>. The remains of these animals
+occur throughout the series of mesozoic formations,
+from the Trias to the Chalk, and there are indications
+of their existence even in the later Pal&aelig;ozoic
+strata.</p>
+
+<p>Most of these reptiles at present known are of
+great size, some having attained a length of forty
+feet or perhaps more. The majority resembled
+lizards and crocodiles in their general form, and
+many of them were, like crocodiles, protected by
+an armour of heavy bony plates. But, in others,
+the hind limbs elongate and the fore limbs shorten,
+until their relative proportions approach those which
+are observed in the short-winged, flightless, ostrich
+tribe among birds.</p>
+
+<p>The skull is relatively light, and in some cases
+the jaws, though bearing teeth, are beak-like at
+their extremities and appear to have been enveloped
+in a horny sheath. In the part of the vertebral
+column which lies between the haunch bones and
+is called the sacrum, a number of vertebr&aelig; may
+unite together into one whole, and in this respect,
+as in some details of its structure, the sacrum of
+these reptiles approaches that of birds.</p>
+
+<p>But it is in the structure of the pelvis and of
+the hind limb that some of these ancient reptiles present
+the most remarkable approximation to birds,
+and clearly indicate the way by which the most
+<!-- [Page: 067] -->
+specialized and characteristic features of the bird
+may have been evolved from the corresponding
+parts in the reptile.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 6, the pelvis and hind limbs of a crocodile,
+a three-toed bird, and an ornithoscelidan are
+represented side by side; and, for facility of comparison,
+in corresponding positions; but it must be
+recollected that, while the position of the bird's limb
+is natural, that of the crocodile is not so. In the
+bird, the thigh-bone lies close to the body, and the
+metatarsal bones of the foot (ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6)
+are, ordinarily, raised into a more or less vertical
+position; in the crocodile, the thigh-bone stands out
+at an angle from the body, and the metatarsal
+bones (i., ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) lie flat on the ground.
+Hence, in the crocodile, the body usually lies squat
+between the legs, while, in the bird, it is raised upon
+the hind legs, as upon pillars.</p>
+
+<p>In the crocodile, the pelvis is obviously composed
+of three bones on each side: the ilium (<i>Il.</i>), the
+pubis (<i>Pb.</i>), and the ischium (<i>Is.</i>). In the adult
+bird there appears to be but one bone on each
+side. The examination of the pelvis of a chick,
+however, shows that each half is made up of three
+bones, which answer to those which remain distinct
+throughout life, in the crocodile. There is, therefore,
+a fundamental identity of plan in the construction
+of the pelvis of both bird and reptile;
+<!-- [Page: 068] -->
+though the differences in form, relative size, and
+direction of the corresponding bones in the two
+cases are very great.</p>
+
+<p>But the most striking contrast between the two
+lies in the bones of the leg and of that part of
+the foot termed the tarsus, which follows upon the
+leg. In the crocodile, the fibula (<i>F</i>) is relatively
+large and its lower end is complete. The tibia (<i>T</i>)
+has no marked crest at its upper end, and its lower
+end is narrow and not pulley-shaped. There are
+two rows of separate tarsal bones (<i>As.</i>, <i>Ca.</i>, <i>&amp;c</i>.)
+and four distinct metatarsal bones, with a rudiment
+of a fifth.</p>
+
+<p>In the bird, the fibula is small and its lower end
+diminishes to a point. The tibia has a strong crest
+at its upper end and its lower extremity passes into
+a broad pulley. There seem at first to be no tarsal
+bones; and only one bone, divided at the end into
+three heads for the three toes which are attached
+to it, appears in the place of the metatarsus.</p>
+
+<p>In a young bird, however, the pulley-shaped
+apparent end of the tibia is a distinct bone, which
+represents the bones marked <i>As.</i>, <i>Ca.</i>, in the crocodile;
+while the apparently single metatarsal bone
+consists of three bones, which early unite with
+one another and with an additional bone, which
+represents the lower row of bones in the tarsus of
+the crocodile.
+<!-- [Page: 069] --></p>
+
+<p>In other words, it can be shown by the study of
+development that the bird's pelvis and hind limb
+are simply extreme modifications of the same fundamental
+plan as that upon which these parts are
+modelled in reptiles.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig6" href="images/g06.jpg"><img src="images/tg06.jpg" alt="FIG. 6.&mdash;BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE." title="FIG. 6.&mdash;BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE." width="400" height="350"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 6.&mdash;Bird. Ornithoscelidan. Crocodile.</span><br />
+(The letters have the same signification in all the figures. <i>Il.</i>, Ilium;
+<i>a</i>, anterior end; <i>b</i>, posterior end; <i>Is.</i>, ischium; <i>Pb.</i>, pubis; <i>T</i>, tibia;
+<i>F</i>, fibula; <i>As.</i>, astragalus; <i>Ca.</i>, calcaneum; 1, distal portion of the
+tarsus; i., ii., iii., iv.; metatarsal bones.)
+</div>
+
+<p>On comparing the pelvis and hind limb of the
+ornithoscelidan with that of the crocodile, on the one
+side, and that of the bird, on the other (Fig. 6), it
+is obvious that it represents a middle term between
+the two. The pelvic bones approach the form of
+<!-- [Page: 070] -->
+those of the birds, and the direction of the pubis
+and ischium is nearly that which is characteristic of
+birds; the thigh bone, from the direction of its
+head, must have lain close to the body; the tibia
+has a great crest; and, immovably fitted on to its
+lower end, there is a pulley-shaped bone, like that
+of the bird, but remaining distinct. The lower end
+of the fibula is much more slender, proportionally,
+than in the crocodile. The metatarsal bones have
+such a form that they fit together immovably,
+though they do not enter into bony union; the third
+toe is, as in the bird, longest and strongest. In
+fact, the ornithoscelidan limb is comparable to that
+of an unhatched chick.</p>
+
+<p>Taking all these facts together, it is obvious that
+the view, which was entertained by Mantell and the
+probability of which was demonstrated by your
+own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, while much
+additional evidence in the same direction has been
+furnished by Professor Cope, that some of these
+animals may have walked upon their hind legs, as
+birds do, acquires great weight. In fact, there can
+be no reasonable doubt that one of the smaller
+forms of the <i>Ornithoscelida, Compsognathus</i>, the
+almost entire skeleton of which has been discovered
+in the Solenhofen slates, was a bipedal animal.
+The parts of this skeleton are somewhat twisted
+out of their natural relations, but the accompanying
+<!-- [Page: 071] -->
+figure gives a just view of the general form of
+<i>Compsognathus</i> and of the proportions of its limbs;
+which, in some respects, are more completely bird-like
+than those of other <i>Ornithoscelida</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig7" href="images/g07.jpg"><img src="images/tg07.jpg" alt="FIG. 7.&mdash;RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES." title="FIG. 7.&mdash;RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES." width="400" height="346"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 7.&mdash;Restoration of Compsognathus Longipes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have had to stretch the definition of the
+class of birds so as to include birds with teeth
+and birds with paw-like fore-limbs and long tails.
+There is no evidence that <i>Compsognathus</i> possessed
+feathers; but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to
+say whether it should be called a reptilian bird or
+an avian reptile.</p>
+
+<p>As <i>Compsognathus</i> walked upon its hind legs, it
+must have made tracks like those of birds. And
+as the structure of the limbs of several of the
+<!-- [Page: 072] -->
+gigantic <i>Ornithoscelida</i>, such as <i>Iguandon</i>, leads
+to the conclusion that they also may have constantly,
+or occasionally, assumed the same attitude, a peculiar
+interest attaches to the fact that, in the Wealden
+strata of England, there are to be found gigantic
+footsteps, arranged in order like those of the <i>Brontozoum</i>,
+and which there can be no reasonable doubt
+were made by some of the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>, the remains
+of which are found in the same rocks. And,
+knowing that reptiles that walked upon their hind
+legs and shared many of the anatomical characters of
+birds did once exist, it becomes a very important
+question whether the tracks in the Trias of Massachusetts,
+to which I referred some time ago, and
+which formerly used to be unhesitatingly ascribed
+to birds, may not all have been made by Ornithoscelidan
+reptiles; and whether, if we could obtain
+the skeletons of the animals which made these
+tracks, we should not find in them the actual steps
+of the evolutional process by which reptiles gave
+rise to birds.</p>
+
+<p>The evidential value of the facts I have brought
+forward in this Lecture must be neither over nor
+under estimated. It is not historical proof of the
+occurrence of the evolution of birds from reptiles,
+for we have no safe ground for assuming that true
+birds had not made their appearance at the commencement
+of the Mesozoic epoch. It is, in fact,
+<!-- [Page: 073] -->
+quite possible that all these more or less avi-form
+reptiles of the Mesozoic epoch are not terms in
+the series of progression from birds to reptiles at
+all but simply the more or less modified descendants
+of Pal&aelig;ozoic forms through which that transition
+was actually effected.</p>
+
+<p>We are not in a position to say that the known
+<i>Ornithoscelida</i> are intermediate in the order of their
+appearance on the earth between reptiles and birds.
+All that can be said is that, if independent evidence
+of the actual occurrence of evolution is producible,
+then these intercalary forms remove every difficulty
+in the way of understanding what the actual steps of
+the process, in the case of birds, may have been.</p>
+
+<p>That intercalary forms should have existed in
+ancient times is a necessary consequence of the
+truth of the hypothesis of evolution; and, hence,
+the evidence I have laid before you in proof of
+the existence of such forms, is, so far as it goes,
+in favour of that hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>There is another series of extinct reptiles, which
+may be said to be intercalary between reptiles and
+birds, in so far as they combine some of the characters
+of both these groups; and, which, as they
+possessed the power of flight, may seem, at first
+sight, to be nearer representatives of the forms by
+which the transition from the reptile to the bird
+was effected, than the <i>Ornithoscelida</i>.
+<!-- [Page: 074] --></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig8" href="images/g08.jpg"><img src="images/tg08.jpg" alt="FIG. 8.&mdash;PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer)." title="FIG. 8.&mdash;PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer)." width="291" height="400"/></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 8.&mdash;Pterodactylus Spectabilis</span> (Von Meyer).
+</div>
+
+<p>These are the <i>Pterosauria</i>, or Pterodactyles, the
+remains of which are met with throughout the series
+of Mesozoic rocks, from the lias to the chalk, and
+some of which attained a great size, their wings
+having a span of eighteen or twenty feet. These
+animals, in the form and proportions of the head
+<!-- [Page: 075] -->
+and neck relatively to the body, and in the fact that
+the ends of the jaws were often, if not always, more
+or less extensively ensheathed in horny beaks,
+remind us of birds. Moreover, their bones contained
+air cavities, rendering them specifically
+lighter, as is the case in most birds. The breast-bone
+was large and keeled, as in most birds and in
+bats, and the shoulder girdle is strikingly similar
+to that of ordinary birds. But, it seems to me,
+that the special resemblance of pterodactyles to
+birds ends here, unless I may add the entire absence
+of teeth which characterizes the great pterodactyles
+(<i>Pteranodon</i>), discovered by Professor Marsh. All
+other known pterodactyles have teeth lodged in
+sockets. In the vertebral column and the hind
+limbs there are no special resemblances to birds,
+and when we turn to the wings they are found
+to be constructed on a totally different principle
+from those of birds.</p>
+
+<p>There are four fingers. These four fingers are
+large, and three of them, those which answer to
+the thumb and two following fingers in my hand&mdash;are
+terminated by claws, while the fourth is
+enormously prolonged and converted into a great
+jointed style. You see at once, from what I have
+stated about a bird's wing, that there could be
+nothing less like a bird's wing than this is. It
+concluded by general reasoning that this finger
+<!-- [Page: 076] -->
+had the office of supporting a web which extended
+between it and the body. An existing specimen
+proves that such was really the case, and that
+the pterodactyles were devoid of feathers, but that
+the fingers supported a vast web like that of a
+bat's wing; in fact, there can be no doubt that this
+ancient reptile flew after the fashion of a bat.</p>
+
+<p>Thus though the pterodactyle is a reptile which
+has become modified in such a manner as to enable
+it to fly, and therefore, as might be expected, presents
+some points of resemblance to other animals
+which fly; it has, so to speak, gone off the line
+which leads directly from reptiles to birds, and has
+become disqualified for the changes which lead to
+the characteristic organization of the latter class.
+Therefore, viewed in relation to the classes of
+reptiles and birds, the pterodactyles appear to me
+to be, in a limited sense, intercalary forms; but they
+are not even approximately linear, in the sense of
+exemplifying those modifications of structure through
+which the passage from the reptile to the bird took
+place.
+<!-- [Page: 077] --></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="LECTURE_III" id="LECTURE_III"></a>LECTURE III.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The occurrence of historical facts is said to be
+demonstrated, when the evidence that they happened
+is of such a character as to render the
+assumption that they did not happen in the highest
+degree improbable; and the question I now have
+to deal with is, whether evidence in favour of the
+evolution of animals of this degree of cogency is,
+or is not, obtainable from the record of the succession
+of living forms which is presented to us
+by fossil remains.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have attended to the progress of
+pal&aelig;ontology are aware that evidence of the character
+which I have defined has been produced in
+considerable and continually-increasing quantity
+during the last few years. Indeed, the amount and
+the satisfactory nature of that evidence are somewhat
+surprising, when we consider the conditions
+under which alone we can hope to obtain it.
+<!-- [Page: 078] --></p>
+
+<p>It is obviously useless to seek for such evidence
+except in localities in which the physical conditions
+have been such as to permit of the deposit of an
+unbroken, or but rarely interrupted, series of strata
+through a long period of time; in which the group
+of animals to be investigated has existed in such
+abundance as to furnish the requisite supply of
+remains; and in which, finally, the materials composing
+the strata are such as to ensure the preservation
+of these remains in a tolerably perfect
+and undisturbed state.</p>
+
+<p>It so happens that the case which, at present,
+most nearly fulfils all these conditions is that of
+the series of extinct animals which culminates in
+the Horses; by which term I mean to denote not
+merely the domestic animals with which we are all
+so well acquainted, but their allies, the ass, zebra,
+quagga, and the like. In short, I use "horses"
+as the equivalent of the technical name <i>Equid&aelig;</i>,
+which is applied to the whole group of existing
+equine animals.</p>
+
+<p>The horse is in many ways a remarkable
+animal; not least so in the fact that it presents
+us with an example of one of the most perfect
+pieces of machinery in the living world. In truth,
+among the works of human ingenuity it cannot be
+said that there is any locomotive so perfectly
+adapted to its purposes, doing so much work with
+<!-- [Page: 079] -->
+so small a quantity of fuel, as this machine of
+nature's manufacture&mdash;the horse. And, as a necessary
+consequence of any sort of perfection, of
+mechanical perfection as of others, you find that
+the horse is a beautiful creature, one of the most
+beautiful of all land-animals. Look at the perfect
+balance of its form, and the rhythm and force of
+its action. The locomotive machinery is, as you
+are aware, resident in its slender fore and hind
+limbs; they are flexible and elastic levers, capable
+of being moved by very powerful muscles; and,
+in order to supply the engines which work these
+levers with the force which they expend, the horse
+is provided with a very perfect apparatus for
+grinding its food and extracting therefrom the
+requisite fuel.</p>
+
+<p>Without attempting to take you very far into
+the region of osteological detail, I must nevertheless
+trouble you with some statements respecting
+the anatomical structure of the horse; and, more
+especially, will it be needful to obtain a general
+conception of the structure of its fore and hind
+limbs, and of its teeth. But I shall only touch
+upon those points which are absolutely essential
+to our inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn in the first place to the fore-limb.
+In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the fore-arm
+contains distinct bones called the radius and the
+<!-- [Page: 080] -->
+ulna. The corresponding region in the Horse
+seem at first to possess but one bone. Careful
+observation, however, enables us to distinguish in
+this bone a part which clearly answers to the upper
+end of the ulna. This is closely united with the
+chief mass of the bone which represents the radius,
+and runs out into a slender shaft which may be
+traced for some distance downwards upon the back
+of the radius, and then in most cases thins out and
+vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure
+of what is nevertheless the fact, that a small part
+of the lower end of the bone of the horse's fore-arm,
+which is only distinct in a very young foal,
+is really the lower extremity of the ulna.</p>
+
+<p>What is commonly called the knee of a horse
+is its wrist. The "cannon bone" answers to the
+middle bone of the five metacarpal bones, which
+support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The
+"pastern," "coronary," and "coffin" bones of veterinarians
+answer to the joints of our middle
+fingers, while the hoof is simply a greatly enlarged
+and thickened nail. But if what lies below the
+horse's "knee" thus corresponds to the middle
+finger in ourselves, what has become of the four
+other fingers or digits? We find in the places of
+the second and fourth digits only two slender
+splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the
+cannon bone, which gradually taper to their lower
+<!-- [Page: 081] -->
+ends and bear no finger joints, or, as they are
+termed, phalanges. Sometimes, small bony or gristly
+nodules are to be found at the bases of these two
+metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these
+represent rudiments of the first and fifth toes.
+Thus, the part of the horse's skeleton, which corresponds
+with that of the human hand, contains one
+overgrown middle digit, and at least two imperfect
+lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the
+third, the second, and the fourth fingers in man.</p>
+
+<p>Corresponding modifications are found in the
+hind limb. In ourselves, and in most quadrupeds,
+the leg contains two distinct bones, a large bone, the
+tibia, and a smaller and more slender bone, the fibula.
+But, in the horse, the fibula seems, at first, to be
+reduced to its upper end; a short slender bone
+united with the tibia, and ending in a point below,
+occupying its place. Examination of the lower end
+of a young foal's shin-bone, however, shows a distinct
+portion of osseous matter, which is the lower
+end of the fibula; so that the, apparently single,
+lower end of the shin-bone is really made up of
+the coalesced ends of the tibia and fibula, just as
+the, apparently single, lower end of the fore-arm
+bone is composed of the coalesced radius and
+ulna.</p>
+
+<p>The heel of the horse is the part commonly
+known as the hock. The hinder cannon bone
+<!-- [Page: 082] -->
+answers to the middle metatarsal bone of the
+human foot, the pastern, coronary, and coffin bones,
+to the middle toe bones; the hind hoof to the nail;
+as in the fore-foot. And, as in the fore-foot,
+there are merely two splints to represent the second
+and the fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a
+fifth toe appears to be traceable.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth of a horse are not less peculiar than
+its limbs. The living engine, like all others, must
+be well stoked if it is to do its work; and the
+horse, if it is to make good its wear and tear, and
+to exert the enormous amount of force required for
+its propulsion, must be well and rapidly fed. To
+this end, good cutting instruments and powerful
+and lasting crushers are needful. Accordingly, the
+twelve cutting teeth of a horse are close-set and
+concentrated in the fore part of its mouth, like so
+many adzes or chisels. The grinders or molars are
+large, and have an extremely complicated structure,
+being composed of a number of different substances
+of unequal hardness. The consequence of this is
+that they wear away at different rates; and, hence,
+the surface of each grinder is always as uneven
+as that of a good millstone.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the structure of the grinding
+teeth is very complicated, the harder and the
+softer parts being, as it were, interlaced with one
+another. The result of this is that, as the tooth
+<!-- [Page: 083] -->
+wears, the crown presents a peculiar pattern, the
+nature of which is not very easily deciphered at
+first; but which it is important we should understand
+clearly. Each grinding tooth of the upper
+jaw has an <i>outer wall</i> so shaped that, on the worn
+crown, it exhibits the form of two crescents, one in
+front and one behind, with their concave sides
+turned outwards. From the inner side of the front
+crescent, a crescentic <i>front ridge</i> passes inwards
+and backwards, and its inner face enlarges into a
+strong longitudinal fold or <i>pillar</i>. From the front
+part of the hinder crescent, a <i>back ridge</i> takes a like
+direction, and also has its <i>pillar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The deep interspaces or <i>valleys</i> between these
+ridges and the outer wall are filled by bony substance,
+which is called <i>cement</i>, and coats the whole
+tooth.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern of the worn face of each grinding
+tooth of the lower jaw is quite different. It appears
+to be formed of two crescent-shaped ridges, the
+convexities of which are turned outwards. The
+free extremity of each crescent has a <i>pillar</i>, and
+there is a large double <i>pillar</i> where the two
+crescents meet. The whole structure is, as it were,
+imbedded in cement, which fills up the valleys, as
+in the upper grinders.</p>
+
+<p>If the grinding faces of an upper and of a
+lower molar of the same side are applied together,
+<!-- [Page: 084] -->
+it will be seen that the apposed ridges are nowhere
+parallel, but that they frequently cross; and that
+thus, in the act of mastication, a hard surface in
+the one is constantly applied to a soft surface in
+the other, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>. They thus constitute a
+grinding apparatus of great efficiency, and one which
+is repaired as fast as it wears, owing to the long-continued
+growth of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Some other peculiarities of the dentition of the
+horse must be noticed, as they bear upon what
+I shall have to say by and by. Thus the crowns
+of the cutting teeth have a peculiar deep pit, which
+gives rise to the well-known "mark" of the horse.
+There is a large space between the outer incisors
+and the front grinder. In this space the adult
+male horse presents, near the incisors on each side,
+above and below, a canine or "tush," which is
+commonly absent in mares. In a young horse,
+moreover, there is not unfrequently to be seen
+in front of the first grinder, a very small tooth,
+which soon falls out. If this small tooth be
+counted as one, it will be found that there are seven
+teeth behind the canine on each side; namely, the
+small tooth in question, and the six great grinders,
+among which, by an unusual peculiarity, the foremost
+tooth is rather larger than those which follow
+it.</p>
+
+<p>I have now enumerated those characteristic
+<!-- [Page: 085] -->
+structures of the horse which are of most importance
+for the purpose we have in view.</p>
+
+<p>To any one who is acquainted with the morphology
+of vertebrated animals, they show that the
+horse deviates widely from the general structure of
+mammals; and that the horse type is, in many respects,
+an extreme modification of the general mammalian
+plan. The least modified mammals, in fact, have
+the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct
+and separate. They have five distinct and complete
+digits on each foot, and no one of these
+digits is very much larger than the rest. Moreover,
+in the least modified mammals, the total
+number of the teeth is very generally forty-four,
+while in horses, the usual number is forty, and in
+the absence of the canines, it may be reduced to
+thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the fold
+seen in those of the horse: the grinders regularly
+diminish in size from the middle of the series to
+its front end; while their crowns are short, early
+attain their full length, and exhibit simple ridges or
+tubercles, in place of the complex foldings of the
+horse's grinders.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the general principles of the hypothesis
+of evolution lead to the conclusion that the horse
+must have been derived from some quadruped which
+possessed five complete digits on each foot; which
+had the bones of the fore-arm and of the leg complete
+<!-- [Page: 086] -->
+and separate; and which possessed forty-four teeth,
+among which the crowns of the incisors and grinders
+had a simple structure; while the latter gradually
+increased in size from before backwards, at any rate
+in the anterior part of the series, and had short
+crowns.</p>
+
+<p>And if the horse has been thus evolved, and the
+remains of the different stages of its evolution
+have been preserved, they ought to present us
+with a series of forms in which the number of
+the digits becomes reduced; the bones of the fore-arm
+and leg gradually take on the equine condition;
+and the form and arrangement of the teeth successively
+approximate to those which obtain in existing
+horses.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn to the facts, and see how far they
+fulfil these requirements of the doctrine of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>In Europe abundant remains of horses are found
+in the Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far
+as the Pliocene formation. But these horses, which
+are so common in the cave-deposits and in the
+gravels of Europe, are in all essential respects like
+existing horses. And that is true of all the horses
+of the latter part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in
+deposits which belong to the earlier Pliocene and
+later Miocene epochs, and which occur in Britain,
+in France, in Germany, in Greece, in India, we
+<!-- [Page: 087] -->
+find animals which are extremely like horses&mdash;which,
+in fact, are so similar to horses, that you
+may follow descriptions given in works upon the
+anatomy of the horse upon the skeletons of these
+animals&mdash;but which differ in some important particulars.
+For example, the structure of their fore and
+hind limbs is somewhat different. The bones which,
+in the horse, are represented by two splints, imperfect
+below, are as long as the middle metacarpal
+and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the extremity
+of each, is a digit with three joints of the same
+general character as those of the middle digit, only
+very much smaller. These small digits are so disposed
+that they could have had but very little
+functional importance, and they must have been
+rather of the nature of the dew-claws, such as are
+to be found in many ruminant animals. The
+<i>Hipparion</i>, as the extinct European three-toed
+horse is called, in fact, presents a foot similar to
+that of the American <i>Protohippus</i> (Fig. 9), except
+that, in the <i>Hipparion</i>, the smaller digits are
+situated farther back, and are of smaller proportional
+size, than in the <i>Protohippus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the
+horse; and the whole length of it, as a very slender
+shaft, intimately united with the radius, is completely
+traceable. The fibula appears to be in the same
+condition as in the horse. The teeth of the
+<!-- [Page: 088] -->
+<i>Hipparion</i> are essentially similar to those of the
+horse, but the pattern of the grinders is in some
+respects a little more complex, and there is a
+depression on the face of the skull in front of the
+orbit, which is not seen in existing horses.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier Miocene, and perhaps the later
+Eocene deposits of some parts of Europe, another
+extinct animal has been discovered, which Cuvier,
+who first described some fragments of it, considered
+to be a <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>. But as further discoveries
+threw new light upon its structure, it was recognised
+as a distinct genus, under the name of <i>Anchitherium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In its general characters, the skeleton of <i>Anchitherium</i>
+is very similar to that of the horse. In fact,
+Lartet and De Blainville called it <i>Pal&aelig;otherium
+equinum</i> or <i>hippoides</i>; and De Christol, in 1847,
+said that it differed from <i>Hipparion</i> in little more
+than the characters of its teeth, and gave it the
+name of <i>Hipparitherium</i>. Each foot possesses
+three complete toes; while the lateral toes are much
+larger in proportion to the middle toe than in
+<i>Hipparion</i>, and doubtless rested on the ground in
+ordinary locomotion.</p>
+
+<p>The ulna is complete and quite distinct from
+the radius, though firmly united with the latter.
+The fibula seems also to have been complete.
+Its lower end, though intimately united with that
+<!-- [Page: 089] -->
+of the tibia, is clearly marked off from the latter
+bone.</p>
+
+<p>There are forty-four teeth. The incisors have
+no strong pit. The canines seem to have been
+well developed in both sexes. The first of the
+seven grinders, which, as I have said, is frequently
+absent, and, when it does exist, is small in the
+horse, is a good-sized and permanent tooth, while
+the grinder which follows it is but little larger than
+the hinder ones. The crowns of the grinders are
+short, and though the fundamental pattern of the
+horse-tooth is discernible, the front and back ridges
+are less curved, the accessory pillars are wanting,
+and the valleys, much shallower, are not filled up
+with cement.</p>
+
+<p>Seven years ago, when I happened to be looking
+critically into the bearing of pal&aelig;ontological facts
+upon the doctrine of evolution, it appeared to me
+that the <i>Anchitherium</i>, the <i>Hipparion</i>, and the
+modern horses, constitute a series in which the
+modifications of structure coincide with the order
+of chronological occurrence, in the manner in
+which they must coincide, if the modern horses
+really are the result of the gradual metamorphosis,
+in the course of the Tertiary epoch, of
+a less specialised ancestral form. And I found
+by correspondence with the late eminent French
+anatomist and pal&aelig;ontologist, M. Lartet, that he
+<!-- [Page: 090] -->
+had arrived at the same conclusion from the
+same data.</p>
+
+<p>That the <i>Anchitherium</i> type had become metamorphosed
+into the <i>Hipparion</i> type, and the latter
+into the <i>Equine</i> type, in the course of that period
+of time which is represented by the latter half of
+the Tertiary deposits, seemed to me to be the only
+explanation of the facts for which there was even
+a shadow of probability.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>And, hence, I have ever since held that these
+facts afford evidence of the occurrence of evolution,
+which, in the sense already defined, may be termed
+demonstrative.</p>
+
+<p>All who have occupied themselves with the
+structure of <i>Anchitherium</i>, from Cuvier onwards,
+have acknowledged its many points of likeness to
+a well-known genus of extinct Eocene mammals,
+<i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>. Indeed, as we have seen, Cuvier
+regarded his remains of <i>Anchitherium</i> as those
+of a species of <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>. Hence, in attempting
+to trace the pedigree of the horse beyond
+the Miocene epoch and the Anchitheroid form, I
+naturally sought among the various species of
+<!-- [Page: 091] -->
+Pal&aelig;otheroid animals for its nearest ally, and I
+was led to conclude that the <i>Pal&aelig;otherium minus
+(Plagiolophus)</i> represented the next step more nearly
+than any form then known.</p>
+
+<p>I think that this opinion was fully justifiable;
+but the progress of investigation has thrown an
+unexpected light on the question, and has brought
+us much nearer than could have been anticipated
+to a knowledge of the true series of the progenitors
+of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>You are all aware that, when your country was
+first discovered by Europeans, there were no traces
+of the existence of the horse in any part of the
+American Continent. The accounts of the conquest
+of Mexico dwell upon the astonishment of the
+natives of that country when they first became
+acquainted with that astounding phenomenon&mdash;a
+man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless, the investigations
+of American geologists have proved
+that the remains of horses occur in the most
+superficial deposits of both North and South
+America, just as they do in Europe. Therefore,
+for some reason or other&mdash;no feasible suggestion
+on that subject, so far as I know, has been made&mdash;the
+horse must have died out on this continent
+at some period preceding the discovery of America.
+Of late years there has been discovered in your
+Western Territories that marvellous accumulation
+<!-- [Page: 092] -->
+of deposits, admirably adapted for the preservation
+of organic remains, to which I referred the other
+evening, and which furnishes us with a consecutive
+series of records of the fauna of the older half of
+the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel in
+Europe. They have yielded fossils in an excellent
+state of conservation and in unexampled number
+and variety. The researches of Leidy and others
+have shown that forms allied to the <i>Hipparion</i>
+and the <i>Anchitherium</i> are to be found among
+these remains. But it is only recently that the
+admirably conceived and most thoroughly and
+patiently worked-out investigations of Professor
+Marsh have given us a just idea of the vast fossil
+wealth, and of the scientific importance, of these
+deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing
+over the collections in Yale Museum; and I can
+truly say that, so far as my knowledge extends,
+there is no collection from any one region and series
+of strata comparable, for extent, or for the care with
+which the remains have been got together, or for
+their scientific importance, to the series of fossils
+which he has deposited there. This vast collection
+has yielded evidence bearing upon the question
+of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking
+character. It tends to show that we must look to
+America, rather than to Europe, for the original seat
+of the equine series; and that the archaic forms and
+<!-- [Page: 093] -->
+successive modifications of the horse's ancestry are
+far better preserved here than in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to
+put before you a diagram, every figure in which is
+an actual representation of some specimen which
+is to be seen at Yale at this present time
+(Fig. 9).</p>
+
+<p>The succession of forms which he has brought together carries us from the top
+  to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there is the true horse. Next we have
+  the American Pliocene form of the horse (<i>Pliohippus</i>); in the conformation
+  of its limbs it presents some very slight deviations from the ordinary horse,
+  and the crowns of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the <i>Protohippus</i>,
+  which represents the European <i>Hipparion</i>, having one large digit and two
+  small ones on each foot, and the general characters of the fore-arm and leg
+  to which I have referred. But it is more valuable than the European <i>Hipparion</i>
+  for the reason that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of that form&mdash;peculiarities
+  which tend to show that the European <i>Hipparion</i> is rather a member of
+  a collateral branch, than a form in the direct line of succession. Next, in
+  the backward order in time, is the <i>Miohippus</i>, which corresponds pretty
+  nearly with the <i>Anchitherium</i> of Europe. It presents three complete toes&mdash;one
+  large median and two smaller
+  <!-- [Page: 094] -->
+  <!-- [Page: 095] -->
+  lateral ones; and there is a rudiment of that digit, which answers to the little
+  finger of the human hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <a id="fig9" href="images/g09.jpg"><img src="images/tg09.jpg" alt="FIG. 9" title="FIG. 9" width="228" height="400" /></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The European record of the pedigree of the horse
+stops here; in the American Tertiaries, on the
+contrary, the series of ancestral equine forms is
+continued into the Eocene formations. An older
+Miocene form, termed <i>Mesohippus</i>, has three toes
+in front, with a large splint-like rudiment representing
+the little finger; and three toes behind.
+The radius and ulna, the tibia and the fibula, are
+distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth are
+anchitherioid in pattern.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important discovery of all is the
+<i>Orohippus</i>, which comes from the Eocene formation,
+and is the oldest member of the equine series, as
+yet known. Here we find four complete toes on
+the front-limb, three toes on the hind-limb, a well-developed
+ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned
+grinders of simple pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, thanks to these important researches, it
+has become evident that, so far as our present
+knowledge extends, the history of the horse-type
+is exactly and precisely that which could have been
+predicted from a knowledge of the principles of
+evolution. And the knowledge we now possess
+justifies us completely in the anticipation, that when
+the still lower Eocene deposits, and those which
+<!-- [Page: 096] -->
+belong to the Cretaceous epoch, have yielded up
+their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+find, first, a form with four complete toes and a
+rudiment of the innermost or first digit in front,
+with, probably, a rudiment of the fifth digit in the
+hind foot;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> while, in still older forms, the series of
+the digits will be more and more complete, until
+we come to the five-toed animals, in which, if the
+doctrine of evolution is well founded, the whole
+series must have taken its origin.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>That is what I mean by demonstrative evidence
+of evolution. An inductive hypothesis is
+said to be demonstrated when the facts are
+shown to be in entire accordance with it. If
+that is not scientific proof, there are no merely
+inductive conclusions which can be said to be
+proved. And the doctrine of evolution, at the
+present time, rests upon exactly as secure a foundation
+as the Copernican theory of the motions
+of the heavenly bodies did at the time of its promulgation.
+Its logical basis is precisely of the
+same character&mdash;the coincidence of the observed
+facts with theoretical requirements.</p>
+
+<p>The only way of escape, if it be a way of escape,
+<!-- [Page: 097] -->
+from the conclusions which I have just indicated, is
+the supposition that all these different equine forms
+have been created separately at separate epochs of
+time; and, I repeat, that of such an hypothesis as
+this there neither is, nor can be, any scientific evidence;
+and, assuredly, so far as I know, there is none
+which is supported, or pretends to be supported, by
+evidence or authority of any other kind. I can but
+think that the time will come when such suggestions
+as these, such obvious attempts to escape the
+force of demonstration, will be put upon the same
+footing as the supposition made by some writers,
+who are, I believe, not completely extinct at
+present, that fossils are mere simulacra, are no
+indications of the former existence of the animals
+to which they seem to belong; but that they are
+either sports of Nature, or special creations, intended&mdash;as
+I heard suggested the other day&mdash;to
+test our faith.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, the whole evidence is in favour of evolution,
+and there is none against it. And I say
+this, although perfectly well aware of the seeming
+difficulties which have been built up upon what
+appears to the uninformed to be a solid foundation.
+I meet constantly with the argument that the doctrine
+of evolution cannot be well founded, because
+it requires the lapse of a very vast period of time;
+the duration of life upon the earth, thus
+<!-- [Page: 098] -->
+implied, is inconsistent with the conclusions arrived
+at by the astronomer and the physicist. I may
+venture to say that I am familiar with those
+conclusions, inasmuch as some years ago, when
+President of the Geological Society of London,
+I took the liberty of criticising them, and of
+showing in what respects, as it appeared to me,
+they lacked complete and thorough demonstration.
+But, putting that point aside, suppose that, as the
+astronomers, or some of them, and some physical
+philosophers, tell us, it is impossible that life could
+have endured upon the earth for as long a period
+as is required by the doctrine of evolution&mdash;supposing
+that to be proved&mdash;I desire to be informed,
+what is the foundation for the statement that
+evolution does require so great a time? The
+biologist knows nothing whatever of the amount
+of time which may be required for the process of
+evolution. It is a matter of fact that the equine forms
+which I have described to you occur, in the order
+stated, in the Tertiary formations. But I have not
+the slightest means of guessing whether it took
+a million of years, or ten millions, or a hundred
+millions, or a thousand millions of years, to give
+rise to that series of changes. A biologist has
+no means of arriving at any conclusion as to the
+amount of time which may be needed for a certain
+quantity of organic change. He takes his time
+<!-- [Page: 099] -->
+from the geologist. The geologist, considering
+the rate at which deposits are formed and the
+rate at which denudation goes on upon the surface
+of the earth, arrives at more or less justifiable
+conclusions as to the time which is required for
+the deposit of a certain thickness of rocks; and if
+he tells me that the Tertiary formations required
+500,000,000 years for their deposit, I suppose he
+has good ground for what he says, and I take that
+as a measure of the duration of the evolution of
+the horse from the <i>Orohippus</i> up to its present
+condition. And, if he is right, undoubtedly evolution
+is a very slow process, and requires a great
+deal of time. But suppose, now, that an astronomer
+or a physicist&mdash;for instance, my friend Sir
+William Thomson&mdash;tells me that my geological
+authority is quite wrong; and that he has weighty
+evidence to show that life could not possibly have
+existed upon the surface of the earth 500,000,000
+years ago, because the earth would have then been
+too hot to allow of life, my reply is: "That
+is not my affair; settle that with the geologist,
+and when you have come to an agreement among
+yourselves I will adopt your conclusion." We
+take our time from the geologists and physicists;
+and it is monstrous that, having taken our time
+from the physical philosopher's clock, the physical
+philosopher should turn round upon us, and say
+<!-- [Page: 100] -->
+we are too fast or too slow. What we desire
+to know is, is it a fact that evolution took place?
+As to the amount of time which evolution may
+have occupied, we are in the hands of the physicist
+and the astronomer, whose business it is to
+deal with those questions.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>I have now, ladies and gentlemen, arrived at
+the conclusion of the task which I set before
+myself when I undertook to deliver these lectures.
+My purpose has been, not to enable those among
+you who have paid no attention to these subjects
+before, to leave this room in a condition to decide
+upon the validity or the invalidity of the hypothesis
+of evolution; but I have desired to put before you
+the principles upon which all hypotheses respecting
+the history of Nature must be judged; and furthermore,
+to make apparent the nature of the evidence
+and the amount of cogency which is to be expected
+and may be obtained from it. To this end,
+I have not hesitated to regard you as genuine
+students and persons desirous of knowing the
+truth. I have not shrunk from taking you through
+long discussions, that I fear may have sometimes
+tried your patience; and I have inflicted upon you
+details which were indispensable, but which may
+well have been wearisome. But I shall rejoice&mdash;I
+shall consider that I have done you the greatest
+<!-- [Page: 101] -->
+service, which it was in my power to do&mdash;if I have
+thus convinced you that the great question which
+we have been discussing is not one to be dealt
+with by rhetorical flourishes, or by loose and
+superficial talk; but that it requires the keen
+attention of the trained intellect and the patience
+of the accurate observer.</p>
+
+<p>When I commenced this series of lectures, I did
+not think it necessary to preface them with a prologue,
+such as might be expected from a stranger
+and a foreigner; for during my brief stay in your
+country, I have found it very hard to believe that
+a stranger could be possessed of so many friends,
+and almost harder that a foreigner could express
+himself in your language in such a way as to be,
+to all appearance, so readily intelligible. So
+far as I can judge, that most intelligent, and,
+perhaps, I may add, most singularly active and
+enterprising body, your press reporters, do not seem
+to have been deterred by my accent from giving
+the fullest account of everything that I happen
+to have said.</p>
+
+<p>But the vessel in which I take my departure
+to-morrow morning is even now ready to slip
+her moorings; I awake from my delusion that
+I am other than a stranger and a foreigner. I
+am ready to go back to my place and country;
+but, before doing so, let me, by way of epilogue,
+<!-- [Page: 102] -->
+tender to you my most hearty thanks for the kind
+and cordial reception which you have accorded
+to me; and let me thank you still more for that
+which is the greatest compliment which can be
+afforded to any person in my position&mdash;the continuous
+and undisturbed attention which you have
+bestowed upon the long argument which I have
+had the honour to lay before you.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+  The absence of any keel on the breast-bone and some other osteological peculiarities,
+  observed by Professor Marsh, however, suggest that <i>Hesperornis</i> may be
+  a modification of a less specialised group of birds than that to which these
+  existing aquatic birds belong.</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+    I use the word "type" because it is highly probable that many forms of <i>Anchitherium</i>-like
+    and <i>Hipparion</i>-like animals existed in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs,
+    just as many species of the horse tribe exist now; and it is highly improbable
+    that the particular species of <i>Anchitherium</i> or <i>Hipparion</i>, which
+    happen to have been discovered, should be precisely those which have formed
+    part of the direct line of the horse's pedigree.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+    Since this lecture was delivered, Professor Marsh has discovered a new genus
+    of equine mammals (<i>Eohippus</i>) from the lowest Eocene deposits of the
+    West, which corresponds very nearly to this description.&mdash;<i>American
+    Journal of Science</i>, November, 1876.</p>
+</div>
+
+<!-- [Page: 103] -->
+
+<hr />
+<h2>BALTIMORE.</h2>
+
+<h1><a name="BALTIMORE" id="BALTIMORE"></a>ADDRESS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h1>
+
+
+<p>The actual work of the University founded in this
+city by the well-considered munificence of Johns
+Hopkins commences to-morrow, and among the
+many marks of confidence and good-will which
+have been bestowed upon me in the United
+States, there is none which I value more highly
+than that conferred by the authorities of the
+University when they invited me to deliver an
+address on such an occasion.</p>
+
+<p>For the event which has brought us together
+is, in many respects, unique. A vast property
+is handed over to an administrative body, hampered
+<!-- [Page: 106] -->
+by no conditions save these;&mdash;That the
+principal shall not be employed in building: that
+the funds shall be appropriated, in equal proportions,
+to the promotion of natural knowledge and
+to the alleviation of the bodily sufferings of mankind;
+and, finally, that neither political nor
+ecclesiastical sectarianism shall be permitted to
+disturb the impartial distribution of the testator's
+benefactions.</p>
+
+<p>In my experience of life a truth which sounds
+very much like a paradox has often asserted itself;
+namely, that a man's worst difficulties begin when
+he is able to do as he likes. So long as a man
+is struggling with obstacles he has an excuse for
+failure or shortcoming; but when fortune removes
+them all and gives him the power of doing as
+he thinks best, then comes the time of trial.
+There is but one right, and the possibilities of
+wrong are infinite. I doubt not that the trustees
+of the Johns Hopkins University felt the full
+force of this truth when they entered on the
+administration of their trust a year and a half
+ago; and I can but admire the activity and
+resolution which have enabled them, aided by the
+able president whom they have selected, to lay
+down the great outlines of their plan, and carry
+it thus far into execution. It is impossible to
+study that plan without perceiving that great care,
+<!-- [Page: 107] -->
+forethought, and sagacity, have been bestowed
+upon it, and that it demands the most respectful
+consideration. I have been endeavouring to ascertain
+how far the principles which underlie it
+are in accordance with those which have been
+established in my own mind by much and long-continued
+thought upon educational questions.
+Permit me to place before you the result of my
+reflections.</p>
+
+<p>Under one aspect a university is a particular
+kind of educational institution, and the views
+which we may take of the proper nature of a
+university are corollaries from those which we
+hold respecting education in general. I think it
+must be admitted that the school should prepare
+for the university, and that the university should
+crown the edifice, the foundations of which are
+laid in the school. University education should
+not be something distinct from elementary education,
+but should be the natural outgrowth and
+development of the latter. Now I have a very
+clear conviction as to what elementary education
+ought to be; what it really may be, when properly
+organised; and what I think it will be, before
+many years have passed over our heads, in England
+and in America. Such education should enable
+an average boy of fifteen or sixteen to read
+and write his own language with ease and
+<!-- [Page: 108] -->
+accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence
+derived from the study of our classic writers:
+to have a general acquaintance with the history
+of his own country and with the great laws of
+social existence; to have acquired the rudiments
+of the physical and psychological sciences, and
+a fair knowledge of elementary arithmetic and
+geometry. He should have obtained an acquaintance
+with logic rather by example than by precept;
+while the acquirement of the elements of music
+and drawing should have been pleasure rather
+than work.</p>
+
+<p>It may sound strange to many ears if I venture
+to maintain the proposition that a young person,
+educated thus far, has had a liberal, though perhaps
+not a full, education. But it seems to me
+that such training as that to which I have referred
+may be termed liberal, in both the senses in
+which that word is employed, with perfect accuracy.
+In the first place, it is liberal in breadth. It
+extends over the whole ground of things to be
+known and of faculties to be trained, and it gives
+equal importance to the two great sides of human
+activity&mdash;art and science. In the second place,
+it is liberal in the sense of being an education
+fitted for free men; for men to whom every career
+is open, and from whom their country may demand
+that they should be fitted to perform the duties
+<!-- [Page: 109] -->
+of any career. I cannot too strongly impress
+upon you the fact that, with such a primary education
+as this, and with no more than is to be
+obtained by building strictly upon its lines, a man
+of ability may become a great writer or speaker,
+a statesman, a lawyer, a man of science, painter,
+sculptor, architect, or musician. That even development
+of all a man's faculties, which is what properly
+constitutes culture, may be effected by such an education,
+while it opens the way for the indefinite
+strengthening of any special capabilities with
+which he may be gifted.</p>
+
+<p>In a country like this, where most men have
+to carve out their own fortunes and devote themselves
+early to the practical affairs of life, comparatively
+few can hope to pursue their studies
+up to, still less beyond, the age of manhood. But
+it is of vital importance to the welfare of the
+community that those who are relieved from the
+need of making a livelihood, and still more, those
+who are stirred by the divine impulses of intellectual
+thirst or artistic genius, should be enabled to
+devote themselves to the higher service of their
+kind, as centres of intelligence, interpreters of
+nature, or creators of new forms of beauty. And
+it is the function of a university to furnish such
+men with the means of becoming that which it is
+their privilege and duty to be. To this end
+<!-- [Page: 110] -->
+the university need cover no ground foreign to
+that occupied by the elementary school. Indeed
+it cannot; for the elementary instruction which
+I have referred to embraces all the kinds of real
+knowledge and mental activity possible to man.
+The university can add no new departments of
+knowledge, can offer no new fields of mental
+activity; but what it can do is to intensify and
+specialise the instruction in each department.
+Thus literature and philology, represented in the
+elementary school by English alone, in the university
+will extend over the ancient and modern
+languages. History, which, like charity, best
+begins at home, but, like charity, should not end
+there, will ramify into anthropology, arch&aelig;ology,
+political history, and geography, with the history
+of the growth of the human mind and of its products
+in the shape of philosophy, science, and art.
+And the university will present to the student
+libraries, museums of antiquities, collections of
+coins, and the like, which will efficiently subserve
+these studies. Instruction in the elements of
+social economy, a most essential, but hitherto
+sadly-neglected part of elementary education, will
+develop in the university into political economy,
+sociology, and law. Physical science will have
+its great divisions of physical geography, with
+geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and
+<!-- [Page: 111] -->
+biology; represented not merely by professors and
+their lectures, but by laboratories, in which the
+students, under guidance of demonstrators, will
+work out facts for themselves and come into that
+direct contact with reality which constitutes the
+fundamental distinction of scientific education.
+Mathematics will soar into its highest regions;
+while the high peaks of philosophy may be scaled
+by those whose aptitude for abstract thought has
+been awakened by elementary logic. Finally,
+schools of pictorial and plastic art, of architecture,
+and of music, will offer a thorough discipline
+in the principles and practice of art to those in
+whom lies nascent the rare faculty of &aelig;sthetic
+representation, or the still rarer powers of creative
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>The primary school and the university are the
+alpha and omega of education. Whether institutions
+intermediate between these (so-called secondary
+schools) should exist, appears to me to be a
+question of practical convenience. If such schools
+are established, the important thing is that they
+should be true intermediaries between the primary
+school and the university, keeping on the wide
+track of general culture, and not sacrificing one
+branch of knowledge for another.</p>
+
+<p>Such appear to me to be the broad outlines of the
+relations which the university, regarded as a place
+<!-- [Page: 112] -->
+of education, ought to bear to the school, but a
+number of points of detail require some consideration,
+however briefly and imperfectly I can deal
+with them. In the first place, there is the important
+question of the limitations which should be
+fixed to the entrance into the university; or, what
+qualifications should be required of those who
+propose to take advantage of the higher training
+offered by the university. On the one hand, it
+is obviously desirable that the time and opportunities
+of the university should not be wasted
+in conferring such elementary instruction as can
+be obtained elsewhere; while, on the other hand,
+it is no less desirable that the higher instruction
+of the university should be made accessible to
+every one who can take advantage of it, although
+he may not have been able to go through any
+very extended course of education. My own
+feeling is distinctly against any absolute and defined
+preliminary examination, the passing of which shall
+be an essential condition of admission to the
+university. I would admit to the university any one
+who could be reasonably expected to profit by the
+instruction offered to him; and I should be inclined,
+on the whole, to test the fitness of the student,
+not by examination before he enters the university,
+but at the end of his first term of study. If, on
+examination in the branches of knowledge to which
+<!-- [Page: 113] -->
+he has devoted himself, he show himself deficient
+in industry or in capacity, it will be best for the
+university and best for himself, to prevent him
+from pursuing a vocation for which he is obviously
+unfit. And I hardly know of any other method
+than this by which his fitness or unfitness can be
+safely ascertained, though no doubt a good deal may
+be done, not by formal cut and dried examination,
+but by judicious questioning, at the outset of his
+career.</p>
+
+<p>Another very important and difficult practical
+question is, whether a definite course of study shall
+be laid down for those who enter the university;
+whether a curriculum shall be prescribed; or
+whether the student shall be allowed to range at
+will among the subjects which are open to him.
+And this question is inseparably connected with
+another, namely, the conferring of degrees. It is
+obviously impossible that any student should pass
+through the whole of the series of courses of
+instruction offered by a university. If a degree
+is to be conferred as a mark of proficiency in
+knowledge, it must be given on the ground that
+the candidate is proficient in a certain fraction of
+those studies; and then will arise the necessity
+of insuring an equivalency of degrees, so that the
+course by which a degree is obtained shall mark
+approximately an equal amount of labour and of
+<!-- [Page: 114] -->
+acquirements, in all cases. But this equivalency
+can hardly be secured in any other way than by
+prescribing a series of definite lines of study.
+This is a matter which will require grave consideration.
+The important points to bear in mind,
+I think, are that there should not be too many
+subjects in the curriculum, and that the aim should
+be the attainment of thorough and sound knowledge
+of each.</p>
+
+<p>One half of the Johns Hopkins bequest is
+devoted to the establishment of a hospital, and
+it was the desire of the testator that the university
+and the hospital should co-operate in the promotion
+of medical education. The trustees will unquestionably
+take the best advice that is to be
+had as to the construction and administration of
+the hospital. In respect to the former point,
+they will doubtless remember that a hospital
+may be so arranged as to kill more than it cures;
+and, in regard to the latter, that a hospital may
+spread the spirit of pauperism among the well-to-do,
+as well as relieve the sufferings of the
+destitute. It is not for me to speak on these
+topics&mdash;rather let me confine myself to the one
+matter on which my experience as a student of
+medicine, and an examiner of long standing, who
+has taken a great interest in the subject of medical
+education, may entitle me to a hearing. I mean
+<!-- [Page: 115] -->
+the nature of medical education itself, and the
+co-operation of the university in its promotion.</p>
+
+<p>What is the object of medical education? It
+is to enable the practitioner, on the one hand, to
+prevent disease by his knowledge of hygiene;
+on the other hand, to divine its nature, and to
+alleviate or cure it, by his knowledge of pathology,
+therapeutics, and practical medicine. That is his
+business in life, and if he has not a thorough
+and practical knowledge of the conditions of health,
+of the causes which tend to the establishment
+of disease, of the meaning of symptoms, and of
+the uses of medicines and operative appliances,
+he is incompetent, even if he were the best
+anatomist, or physiologist, or chemist, that ever
+took a gold medal or won a prize certificate.
+This is one great truth respecting medical education.
+Another is, that all practice in medicine is based
+upon theory of some sort or other; and therefore,
+that it is desirable to have such theory in the
+closest possible accordance with fact. The veriest
+empiric who gives a drug in one case because he
+has seen it do good in another of apparently the
+same sort, acts upon the theory that similarity
+of superficial symptoms means similarity of lesions;
+which, by the way, is perhaps as wild an hypothesis
+as could be invented. To understand the nature
+of disease we must understand health, and the
+<!-- [Page: 116] -->
+understanding of the healthy body means the
+having a knowledge of its structure and of the
+way in which its manifold actions are performed,
+which is what is technically termed human anatomy
+and human physiology. The physiologist again
+must needs possess an acquaintance with physics
+and chemistry, inasmuch as physiology is, to a great
+extent, applied physics and chemistry. For ordinary
+purposes a limited amount of such knowledge is all
+that is needful; but for the pursuit of the higher
+branches of physiology no knowledge of these
+branches of science can be too extensive, or too
+profound. Again, what we call therapeutics, which
+has to do with the action of drugs and medicines
+on the living organism, is, strictly speaking, a
+branch of experimental physiology, and is daily
+receiving a greater and greater experimental development.</p>
+
+<p>The third great fact which is to be taken into
+consideration in dealing with medical education,
+is that the practical necessities of life do not, as
+a rule, allow aspirants to medical practice to give
+more than three, or it may be four years to their
+studies. Let us put it at four years, and then
+reflect that, in the course of this time, a young
+man fresh from school has to acquaint himself with
+medicine, surgery, obstetrics, therapeutics, pathology,
+hygiene, as well as with the anatomy and the
+<!-- [Page: 117] -->
+physiology of the human body; and that his
+knowledge should be of such a character that it
+can be relied upon in any emergency, and always
+ready for practical application. Consider, in addition,
+that the medical practitioner may be called
+upon, at any moment, to give evidence in a court
+of justice in a criminal case; and that it is therefore
+well that he should know something of the laws
+of evidence, and of what we call medical jurisprudence.
+On a medical certificate, a man may
+be taken from his home and from his business
+and confined in a lunatic asylum; surely, therefore,
+it is desirable that the medical practitioner should
+have some rational and clear conceptions as to
+the nature and symptoms of mental disease. Bearing
+in mind all these requirements of medical education,
+you will admit that the burden on the young
+aspirant for the medical profession is somewhat
+of the heaviest, and that it needs some care to
+prevent his intellectual back from being broken.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are acquainted with the existing
+systems of medical education will observe that,
+long as is the catalogue of studies which I have
+enumerated, I have omitted to mention several
+that enter into the usual medical curriculum of the
+present day. I have said not a word about zoology,
+comparative anatomy, botany, or materia medica.
+Assuredly this is from no light estimate of the
+<!-- [Page: 118] -->
+value or importance of such studies in themselves.
+It may be taken for granted that I should be the
+last person in the world to object to the teaching
+of zoology, or comparative anatomy, in themselves;
+but I have the strongest feeling that, considering
+the number and the gravity of those studies through
+which a medical man must pass, if he is to be
+competent to discharge the serious duties which
+devolve upon him, subjects which lie so remote as
+these do from his practical pursuits should be
+rigorously excluded. The young man, who has
+enough to do in order to acquire such familiarity
+with the structure of the human body as will enable
+him to perform the operations of surgery, ought
+not, in my judgment, to be occupied with investigations
+into the anatomy of crabs and starfishes.
+Undoubtedly the doctor should know the common
+poisonous plants of his own country when he sees
+them; but that knowledge may be obtained by a
+few hours devoted to the examination of specimens
+of such plants, and the desirableness of such
+knowledge is no justification, to my mind, for
+spending three months over the study of systematic
+botany. Again, materia medica, so far as it is a
+knowledge of drugs, is the business of the druggist.
+In all other callings the necessity of the division of
+labour is fully recognised, and it is absurd to require
+of the medical man that he should not avail himself
+<!-- [Page: 119] -->
+of the special knowledge of those whose business
+it is to deal in the drugs which he uses. It is all
+very well that the physician should know that
+castor oil comes from a plant, and castoreum from
+an animal, and how they are to be prepared; but
+for all the practical purposes of his profession that
+knowledge is not of one whit more value, has no
+more relevancy, than the knowledge of how the
+steel of his scalpel is made.</p>
+
+<p>All knowledge is good. It is impossible to say
+that any fragment of knowledge, however insignificant
+or remote from one's ordinary pursuits, may
+not some day be turned to account. But in medical
+education, above all things, it is to be recollected
+that, in order to know a little well, one must be
+content to be ignorant of a great deal.</p>
+
+<p>Let it not be supposed that I am proposing to
+narrow medical education, or, as the cry is, to lower
+the standard of the profession. Depend upon it
+there is only one way of really ennobling any calling,
+and that is to make those who pursue it real
+masters of their craft, men who can truly do that
+which they profess to be able to do, and which they
+are credited with being able to do by the public.
+And there is no position so ignoble as that of the
+so-called "liberally-educated practitioner," who, as
+Talleyrand said of his physician, "Knows everything,
+even a little physic;" who may be able to
+<!-- [Page: 120] -->
+read Galen in the original; who knows all the plants,
+from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the
+wall; but who finds himself, with the issues of life
+and death in his hands, ignorant, blundering, and
+bewildered, because of his ignorance of the essential
+and fundamental truths upon which practice must
+be based. Moreover, I venture to say, that any
+man who has seriously studied all the essential
+branches of medical knowledge; who has the
+needful acquaintance with the elements of physical
+science; who has been brought by medical jurisprudence
+into contact with law; whose study of insanity
+has taken him into the fields of psychology;
+has <i>ipso facto</i> received a liberal education.</p>
+
+<p>Having lightened the medical curriculum by
+culling out of it everything which is unessential,
+we may next consider whether something may not
+be done to aid the medical student toward the
+acquirement of real knowledge by modifying the
+system of examination. In England, within my
+recollection, it was the practice to require of the
+medical student attendance on lectures upon the most
+diverse topics during three years; so that it often
+happened that he would have to listen, in the course
+of a day, to four or five lectures upon totally different
+subjects, in addition to the hours given to dissection
+and to hospital practice: and he was required to
+keep all the knowledge he could pick up, in this
+<!-- [Page: 121] -->
+distracting fashion, at examination point, until, at the
+end of three years, he was set down to a table and
+questioned pell-mell upon all the different matters
+with which he had been striving to make acquaintance.
+A worse system and one more calculated to
+obstruct the acquisition of sound knowledge and to
+give full play to the "crammer" and the "grinder"
+could hardly have been devised by human ingenuity.
+Of late years great reforms have taken place.
+Examinations have been divided so as to diminish
+the number of subjects among which the attention
+has to be distributed. Practical examination has
+been largely introduced; but there still remains,
+even under the present system, too much of the old
+evil inseparable from the contemporaneous pursuit
+of a multiplicity of diverse studies.</p>
+
+<p>Proposals have recently been made to get rid
+of general examinations altogether, to permit the
+student to be examined in each subject at the end
+of his attendance on the class; and then, in case of
+the result being satisfactory, to allow him to have
+done with it; and I may say that this method has
+been pursued for many years in the Royal School of
+Mines in London, and has been found to work very
+well. It allows the student to concentrate his mind
+upon what he is about for the time being, and then
+to dismiss it. Those who are occupied in intellectual
+work, will, I think, agree with me that it is
+<!-- [Page: 122] -->
+important, not so much to know a thing, as to have
+known it, and known it thoroughly. If you have
+once known a thing in this way it is easy to renew
+your knowledge when you have forgotten it; and
+when you begin to take the subject up again, it
+slides back upon the familiar grooves with great
+facility.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly comes the question as to how the university
+may co-operate in advancing medical education.
+A medical school is strictly a technical
+school&mdash;a school in which a practical profession is
+taught&mdash;while a university ought to be a place in
+which knowledge is obtained without direct reference
+to professional purposes. It is clear, therefore, that
+a university and its antecedent, the school, may best
+co-operate with the medical school by making due
+provision for the study of those branches of knowledge
+which lie at the foundation of medicine.</p>
+
+<p>At present, young men come to the medical
+schools without a conception of even the elements
+of physical science; they learn, for the first time,
+that there are such sciences as physics, chemistry,
+and physiology, and are introduced to anatomy
+as a new thing. It may be safely said that, with
+a large proportion of medical students, much of
+the first session is wasted in learning how to learn&mdash;in
+familiarising themselves with utterly strange
+conceptions, and in awakening their dormant and
+<!-- [Page: 123] -->
+wholly untrained powers of observation and of
+manipulation. It is difficult to overestimate the
+magnitude of the obstacles which are thrown in
+the way of scientific training by the existing system
+of school education. Not only are men trained
+in mere book-work, ignorant of what observation
+means, but the habit of learning from books alone
+begets a disgust of observation. The book-learned
+student will rather trust to what he sees in a book
+than to the witness of his own eyes.</p>
+
+<p>There is not the least reason why this
+should be so, and, in fact, when elementary
+education becomes that which I have assumed it
+ought to be, this state of things will no longer
+exist. There is not the slightest difficulty in
+giving sound elementary instruction in physics,
+in chemistry, and in the elements of human
+physiology, in ordinary schools. In other words,
+there is no reason why the student should not
+come to the medical school, provided with as
+much knowledge of these several sciences as he
+ordinarily picks up, in the course of his first year
+of attendance, at the medical school.</p>
+
+<p>I am not saying this without full practical
+justification for the statement. For the last
+eighteen years we have had in England a system
+of elementary science teaching carried out under
+the auspices of the Science and Art Department,
+<!-- [Page: 124] -->
+by which elementary scientific instruction is made
+readily accessible to the scholars of all the elementary
+schools in the country. Commencing
+with small beginnings, carefully developed and
+improved, that system now brings up for examination
+as many as seven thousand scholars in
+the subject of human physiology alone. I can
+say that, out of that number, a large proportion
+have acquired a fair amount of substantial knowledge;
+and that no inconsiderable percentage show
+as good an acquaintance with human physiology
+as used to be exhibited by the average candidates
+for medical degrees in the University of London,
+when I was first an examiner there twenty years
+ago; and quite as much knowledge as is possessed
+by the ordinary student of medicine at the present
+day. I am justified, therefore, in looking forward
+to the time when the student who proposes to
+devote himself to medicine will come, not absolutely
+raw and inexperienced as he is at present,
+but in a certain state of preparation for further
+study; and I look to the university to help him
+still further forward in that stage of preparation,
+through the organisation of its biological department.
+Here the student will find means of
+acquainting himself with the phenomena of life
+in their broadest acceptation. He will study not
+botany and zoology, which, as I have said, would
+<!-- [Page: 125] -->
+take him too far away from his ultimate goal;
+but, by duly arranged instruction, combined with
+work in the laboratory upon the leading types of
+animal and vegetable life, he will lay a broad, and
+at the same time solid, foundation of biological
+knowledge; he will come to his medical studies
+with a comprehension of the great truths of
+morphology and of physiology, with his hands
+trained to dissect and his eyes taught to see. I
+have no hesitation in saying that such preparation
+is worth a full year added on to the medical
+curriculum. In other words, it will set free that
+much time for attention to those studies which
+bear directly upon the student's most grave and
+serious duties as a medical practitioner.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point I have considered only the
+teaching aspect of your great foundation, that
+function of the university in virtue of which it
+plays the part of a reservoir of ascertained truth,
+so far as our symbols can ever interpret nature.
+All can learn; all can drink of this lake. It is
+given to few to add to the store of knowledge,
+to strike new springs of thought, or to shape
+new forms of beauty. But so sure as it is that
+men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is
+it that the future of the world lies in the hands
+of those who are able to carry the interpretation
+of nature a step further than their predecessors;
+<!-- [Page: 126] -->
+so certain is it that the highest function of a
+university is to seek out those men, cherish them,
+and give their ability to serve their kind full
+play.</p>
+
+<p>I rejoice to observe that the encouragement of
+research occupies so prominent a place in your
+official documents, and in the wise and liberal
+inaugural address of your president. This subject
+of the encouragement, or, as it is sometimes called,
+the endowment of research, has of late years
+greatly exercised the minds of men in England.
+It was one of the main topics of discussion by
+the members of the Royal Commission of whom
+I was one, and who not long since issued their
+report, after five years' labour. Many seem to
+think that this question is mainly one of money;
+that you can go into the market and buy research,
+and that supply will follow demand, as in the
+ordinary course of commerce. This view does
+not commend itself to my mind. I know of no
+more difficult practical problem than the discovery
+of a method of encouraging and supporting the
+original investigator without opening the door to
+nepotism and jobbery. My own conviction is
+admirably summed up in the passage of your
+president's address, "that the best investigators
+are usually those who have also the responsibilities
+of instruction, gaining thus the incitement of
+<!-- [Page: 127] -->
+colleagues, the encouragement of pupils, and the
+observation of the public."</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of this address I ventured
+to assume that I might, if I thought fit, criticise
+the arrangements which have been made by the
+board of trustees, but I confess that I have little to
+do but to applaud them. Most wise and sagacious
+seems to me the determination not to build for
+the present. It has been my fate to see great
+educational funds fossilise into mere bricks and
+mortar, in the petrifying springs of architecture,
+with nothing left to work the institution they were
+intended to support. A great warrior is said to
+have made a desert and called it peace. Administrators
+of educational funds have sometimes
+made a palace and called it a university. If I
+may venture to give advice in a matter which
+lies out of my proper competency, I would say
+that whenever you do build, get an honest bricklayer,
+and make him build you just such rooms as
+you really want, leaving ample space for expansion.
+And a century hence, when the Baltimore and
+Ohio shares are at one thousand premium, and
+you have endowed all the professors you need,
+and built all the laboratories that are wanted, and
+have the best museum and the finest library that
+can be imagined; then, if you have a few hundred
+thousand dollars you don't know what to do with,
+<!-- [Page: 128] -->
+send for an architect and tell him to put up a
+fa&ccedil;ade. If American is similar to English experience,
+any other course will probably lead you
+into having some stately structure, good for your
+architect's fame, but not in the least what you
+want.</p>
+
+<p>It appears to me that what I have ventured to
+lay down as the principles which should govern
+the relations of a university to education in general,
+are entirely in accordance with the measures you
+have adopted. You have set no restrictions upon
+access to the instruction you propose to give;
+you have provided that such instruction, either
+as given by the university or by associated institutions,
+should cover the field of human intellectual
+activity. You have recognised the importance of
+encouraging research. You propose to provide
+means by which young men, who may be full of
+zeal for a literary or for a scientific career, but who
+also may have mistaken aspiration for inspiration,
+may bring their capacities to a test, and give their
+powers a fair trial. If such a one fail, his endowment
+terminates, and there is no harm done.
+If he succeed, you may give power of flight to the
+genius of a Davy or a Faraday, a Carlyle or a
+Locke, whose influence on the future of his fellow-men
+shall be absolutely incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>You have enunciated the principle that "the
+<!-- [Page: 129] -->
+glory of the university should rest upon the
+character of the teachers and scholars, and not
+upon their numbers or buildings constructed for
+their use." And I look upon it as an essential
+and most important feature of your plan that the
+income of the professors and teachers shall be
+independent of the number of students whom they
+can attract. In this way you provide against the
+danger, patent elsewhere, of finding attempts at
+improvement obstructed by vested interests; and,
+in the department of medical education especially,
+you are free of the temptation to set loose upon
+the world men utterly incompetent to perform the
+serious and responsible duties of their profession.</p>
+
+<p>It is a delicate matter for a stranger to the
+practical working of your institutions, like myself,
+to pretend to give an opinion as to the organisation
+of your governing power. I can conceive nothing
+better than that it should remain as it is, if you can
+secure a succession of wise, liberal, honest, and conscientious
+men to fill the vacancies that occur among
+you. I do not greatly believe in the efficacy of
+any kind of machinery for securing such a result;
+but I would venture to suggest that the exclusive
+adoption of the method of co-optation for filling the
+vacancies which must occur in your body, appears
+to me to be somewhat like a tempting of Providence.
+Doubtless there are grave practical objections to
+<!-- [Page: 130] -->
+the appointment of persons outside of your body
+and not directly interested in the welfare of the
+university; but might it not be well if there were
+an understanding that your academic staff should
+be officially represented on the board, perhaps even
+the heads of one or two independent learned bodies,
+so that academic opinion and the views of the
+outside world might have a certain influence in that
+most important matter, the appointment of your
+professors? I throw out these suggestions, as I
+have said, in ignorance of the practical difficulties
+that may lie in the way of carrying them into effect,
+on the general ground that personal and local influences
+are very subtle, and often unconscious,
+while the future greatness and efficiency of the
+noble institution which now commences its work
+must largely depend upon its freedom from them.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>I constantly hear Americans speak of the charm
+which our old mother country has for them, of the
+delight with which they wander through the streets
+of ancient towns, or climb the battlements of
+medi&aelig;val strongholds, the names of which are indissolubly
+associated with the great epochs of that
+noble literature which is our common inheritance;
+or with the blood-stained steps of that secular
+progress, by which the descendants of the savage
+Britons and of the wild pirates of the North Sea
+<!-- [Page: 131] -->
+have become converted into warriors of order and
+champions of peaceful freedom, exhausting what
+still remains of the old Berserk spirit in subduing
+nature, and turning the wilderness into a garden.
+But anticipation has no less charm than retrospect,
+and to an Englishman landing upon your shores for
+the first time, travelling for hundreds of miles
+through strings of great and well-ordered cities,
+seeing your enormous actual, and almost infinite
+potential, wealth in all commodities, and in the
+energy and ability which turn wealth to account,
+there is something sublime in the vista of the future.
+Do not suppose that I am pandering to what is
+commonly understood by national pride. I cannot
+say that I am in the slightest degree impressed by
+your bigness, or your material resources, as such.
+Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make
+a nation. The great issue, about which hangs a
+true sublimity, and the terror of overhanging fate,
+is what are you going to do with all these things?
+What is to be the end to which these are to be
+the means? You are making a novel experiment
+in politics on the greatest scale which the world
+has yet seen. Forty millions at your first centenary,
+it is reasonably to be expected that, at the second,
+these states will be occupied by two hundred
+millions of English-speaking people, spread over
+an area as large as that of Europe, and with climates
+<!-- [Page: 132] -->
+and interests as diverse as those of Spain and
+Scandinavia, England and Russia. You and your
+descendants have to ascertain whether this great
+mass will hold together under the forms of a republic,
+and the despotic reality of universal suffrage;
+whether state rights will hold out against centralisation,
+without separation; whether centralisation
+will get the better, without actual or disguised
+monarchy; whether shifting corruption is better
+than a permanent bureaucracy; and as population
+thickens in your great cities, and the pressure of
+want is felt, the gaunt spectre of pauperism will
+stalk among you, and communism and socialism will
+claim to be heard. Truly America has a great
+future before her; great in toil, in care, and in responsibility;
+great in true glory if she be guided in
+wisdom and righteousness; great in shame if she fail.
+I cannot understand why other nations should envy
+you, or be blind to the fact that it is for the highest
+interest of mankind that you should succeed; but
+the one condition of success, your sole safeguard,
+is the moral worth and intellectual clearness of the
+individual citizen. Education cannot give these,
+but it may cherish them and bring them to the front
+in whatever station of society they are to be found;
+and the universities ought to be, and may be, the
+fortresses of the higher life of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>May the university which commences its practical
+<!-- [Page: 133] -->
+activity to-morrow abundantly fulfil its high purpose;
+may its renown as a seat of true learning, a centre
+of free inquiry, a focus of intellectual light, increase
+year by year, until men wander hither from all parts
+of the earth, as of old they sought Bologna, or
+Paris, or Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>And it is pleasant to me to fancy that, among
+the English students who are drawn to you at that
+time, there may linger a dim tradition that a countryman
+of theirs was permitted to address you as he
+has done to-day, and to feel as if your hopes were
+his hopes and your success his joy.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+    Delivered at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore,
+    U.S., September 12. The total amount bequeathed by Johns Hopkins is more than
+    7,000,000 dollars. The sum of 3,500,000 dollars is appropriated to a university,
+    a like sum to a hospital, and the rest to local institutions of education
+    and charity.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>LONDON.</h2>
+
+<h1><a name="LONDON" id="LONDON"></a>LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.</h1>
+
+
+<p>It is my duty to-night to speak about the study
+of Biology, and while it may be that there are
+many of my audience who are quite familiar with
+that study, yet as a lecturer of some standing,
+it would, I know by experience, be very bad
+policy on my part to suppose such to be extensively
+the case. On the contrary, I must imagine
+that there are many of you who would like to
+know what Biology is; that there are others who
+have that amount of information, but would nevertheless
+gladly hear why it should be worth their
+while to study Biology; and yet others, again, to
+whom these two points are clear, but who desire to
+learn how they had best study it, and, finally,
+when they had best study it.</p>
+
+<p>I shall, therefore, address myself to the endeavour
+to give you some answer to these four questions&mdash;what
+Biology is; why it should be studied;
+<!-- [Page: 138] -->
+how it should be studied; and when it should be
+studied.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, in respect to what Biology
+is, there are, I believe, some persons who imagine
+that the term "Biology" is simply a new-fangled
+denomination, a neologism in short, for what used
+to be known under the title of "Natural History;"
+but I shall try to show you, on the contrary, that
+the word is the expression of the growth of
+science during the last 200 years, and came into
+existence half a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>At the revival of learning, knowledge was
+divided into two kinds&mdash;the knowledge of nature
+and the knowledge of man; for it was the current
+idea then (and a great deal of that ancient conception
+still remains) that there was a sort of
+essential antithesis, not to say antagonism, between
+nature and man; and that the two had not very
+much to do with one another, except that the
+one was oftentimes exceedingly troublesome to
+the other. Though it is one of the salient merits
+of our great philosophers of the seventeenth
+century, that they recognised but one scientific
+method, applicable alike to man and to nature,
+we find this notion of the existence of a broad
+distinction between nature and man in the writings
+both of Bacon and of Hobbes of Malmesbury; and
+I have brought with me that famous work which
+<!-- [Page: 139] -->
+is now so little known, greatly as it deserves to
+be studied, "The Leviathan," in order that I
+may put to you in the wonderfully terse and
+clear language of Thomas Hobbes, what was
+his view of the matter. He says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The register of knowledge of fact is called
+history. Whereof there be two sorts, one called
+natural history; which is the history of such facts
+or effects of nature as have no dependence on
+man's will; such as are the histories of metals,
+plants, animals, regions, and the like. The other
+is civil history; which is the history of the
+voluntary actions of men in commonwealths."</p></div>
+
+<p>So that all history of fact was divided into
+these two great groups of natural and of civil history.
+The Royal Society was in course of foundation
+about the time that Hobbes was writing this
+book, which was published in 1651; and that
+Society was termed a "Society for the Improvement
+of Natural Knowledge," which was then nearly
+the same thing as a "Society for the Improvement
+of Natural History." As time went on,
+and the various branches of human knowledge
+became more distinctly developed and separated
+from one another, it was found that some were
+much more susceptible of precise mathematical
+treatment than others. The publication of the
+"Principia" of Newton, which probably gave a
+<!-- [Page: 140] -->
+greater stimulus to physical science than any work
+ever published before, or which is likely to be
+published hereafter, showed that precise mathematical
+methods were applicable to those branches
+of science such as astronomy, and what we now
+call physics, which occupy a very large portion of
+the domain of what the older writers understood
+by natural history. And inasmuch as the partly
+deductive and partly experimental methods of
+treatment to which Newton and others subjected
+these branches of human knowledge, showed
+that the phenomena of nature which belonged
+to them were susceptible of explanation, and
+thereby came within the reach of what was called
+"philosophy" in those days; so much of this
+kind of knowledge as was not included under
+astronomy came to be spoken of as "natural philosophy"&mdash;a
+term which Bacon had employed in
+a much wider sense. Time went on, and yet
+other branches of science developed themselves.
+Chemistry took a definite shape; and since all these
+sciences, such as astronomy, natural philosophy,
+and chemistry, were susceptible either of mathematical
+treatment or of experimental treatment,
+or of both, a broad distinction was drawn between
+the experimental branches of what had previously
+been called natural history and the observational
+branches&mdash;those in which experiment was (or
+<!-- [Page: 141] -->
+appeared to be) of doubtful use, and where, at
+that time, mathematical methods were inapplicable.
+Under these circumstances the old name
+of "Natural History" stuck by the residuum, by
+those phenomena which were not, at that time,
+susceptible of mathematical or experimental treatment;
+that is to say, those phenomena of nature
+which come now under the general heads of physical
+geography, geology, mineralogy, the history of
+plants, and the history of animals. It was in
+this sense that the term was understood by the
+great writers of the middle of the last century&mdash;Buffon
+and Linn&aelig;us&mdash;by Buffon in his great
+work, the "Histoire Naturelle G&eacute;n&eacute;rale," and by
+Linn&aelig;us in his splendid achievement, the "Systema
+Natur&aelig;." The subjects they deal with are spoken
+of as "Natural History," and they called themselves
+and were called "Naturalists." But you
+will observe that this was not the original meaning of
+these terms; but that they had, by this time, acquired
+a signification widely different from that which they
+possessed primitively.</p>
+
+<p>The sense in which "Natural History" was
+used at the time I am now speaking of has, to
+a certain extent, endured to the present day.
+There are now in existence in some of our
+northern universities, chairs of "Civil and Natural
+History," in which "Natural History" is used
+<!-- [Page: 142] -->
+to indicate exactly what Hobbes and Bacon
+meant by that term. The unhappy incumbent
+of the chair of Natural History is, or was,
+supposed to cover the whole ground of geology,
+mineralogy, and zoology, perhaps even botany, in
+his lectures.</p>
+
+<p>But as science made the marvellous progress which it did make at the latter
+  end of the last and the beginning of the present century, thinking men began
+  to discern that under this title of "Natural History" there were included very
+  heterogeneous constituents&mdash;that, for example, geology and mineralogy were,
+  in many respects, widely different from botany and zoology; that a man might
+  obtain an extensive knowledge of the structure and functions of plants and animals,
+  without having need to enter upon the study of geology or mineralogy, and <i>vice
+  vers&acirc;</i>; and, further as knowledge advanced, it became clear that there
+  was a great analogy, a very close alliance, between those two sciences of botany
+  and zoology which deal with living beings, while they are much more widely separated
+  from all other studies. It is due to Buffon to remark that he clearly recognised
+  this great fact. He says: "Ces deux genres d'&ecirc;tres organis&eacute;s [les
+  animaux et les v&eacute;g&eacute;taux] ont beaucoup plus de propri&eacute;t&eacute;s
+  communes que de diff&eacute;rences r&eacute;elles." Therefore, it is not wonderful
+  that, at the
+  <!-- [Page: 143] -->
+  beginning of the present century, in two different countries, and so far as
+  I know, without any intercommunication, two famous men clearly conceived the
+  notion of uniting the sciences which deal with living matter into one whole,
+  and of dealing with them as one discipline. In fact, I may say there were three
+  men to whom this idea occurred contemporaneously, although there were but two
+  who carried it into effect, and only one who worked it out completely. The persons
+  to whom I refer were the eminent physiologist Bichat, and the great naturalist
+  Lamarck, in France; and a distinguished German, Treviranus. Bichat<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+  assumed the existence of a special group of "physiological" sciences. Lamarck,
+  in a work published in 1801,<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+  for the first time made use of the name "Biologie" from the two Greek words
+  which signify a discourse upon life and living things. About the same time it
+  occurred to Treviranus, that all those sciences which deal with living matter
+  are essentially and fundamentally one, and ought to be treated as a whole; and,
+  in the year 1802, he published the first volume of what he also called "Biologie."
+  Treviranus's great merit lies in this, that he worked out his idea, and
+  <!-- [Page: 144] -->
+  wrote the very remarkable book to which I refer. It consists of six volumes,
+  and occupied its author for twenty years&mdash;from 1802 to 1822.</p>
+
+<p>That is the origin of the term "Biology;" and
+that is how it has come about that all clear thinkers
+and lovers of consistent nomenclature have substituted
+for the old confusing name of "Natural
+History," which has conveyed so many meanings,
+the term "Biology" which denotes the whole of
+the sciences which deal with living things, whether
+they be animals or whether they be plants. Some
+little time ago&mdash;in the course of this year, I think&mdash;I
+was favoured by a learned classic, Dr. Field
+of Norwich, with a disquisition, in which he
+endeavoured to prove that, from a philological
+point of view, neither Treviranus nor Lamarck
+had any right to coin this new word "Biology"
+for their purpose; that, in fact, the Greek word
+"Bios" had relation only to human life and human
+affairs, and that a different word was employed by
+the Greeks when they wished to speak of the life
+of animals and plants. So Dr. Field tells us we are
+all wrong in using the term biology, and that we
+ought to employ another; only he is not quite
+sure about the propriety of that which he proposes
+as a substitute. It is a somewhat hard one&mdash;"zootocology."
+I am sorry we are wrong, because
+we are likely to continue so. In these matters
+<!-- [Page: 145] -->
+we must have some sort of "Statute of Limitations."
+When a name has been employed for half-a-century,
+persons of authority<a name="FNanchor_3_7" id="FNanchor_3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_7" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> have been using it, and its
+sense has become well understood, I am afraid
+that people will go on using it, whatever the weight
+of philological objection.</p>
+
+<p>Now that we have arrived at the origin of this
+word "Biology," the next point to consider is:
+What ground does it cover? I have said that, in its
+strict technical sense, it denotes all the phenomena
+which are exhibited by living things, as distinguished
+from those which are not living; but while that
+is all very well, so long as we confine ourselves to
+the lower animals and to plants, it lands us in
+considerable difficulties when we reach the higher
+forms of living things. For whatever view we
+may entertain about the nature of man, one thing
+is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature.
+Hence, if our definition is to be interpreted strictly,
+we must include man and all his ways and works
+under the head of Biology; in which case, we
+should find that psychology, politics, and political
+economy would be absorbed into the province of
+Biology. In fact, civil history would be merged
+in natural history. In strict logic it may be hard
+<!-- [Page: 146] -->
+to object to this course, because no one can doubt
+that the rudiments and outlines of our own mental
+phenomena are traceable among the lower animals.
+They have their economy and their polity, and
+if, as is always admitted, the polity of bees and the
+commonwealth of wolves fall within the purview
+of the biologist proper, it becomes hard to say
+why we should not include therein human affairs,
+which in so many cases resemble those of the bees
+in zealous getting, and are not without a certain
+parity in the proceedings of the wolves. The real
+fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing people;
+and inasmuch as, on a moderate estimate, there are
+about a quarter of a million different species of
+animals and plants to know about already, we
+feel that we have more than sufficient territory.
+There has been a sort of practical convention by
+which we give up to a different branch of science
+what Bacon and Hobbes would have called "Civil
+History." That branch of science has constituted
+itself under the head of Sociology. I may use
+phraseology which, at present, will be well understood
+and say that we have allowed that province
+of Biology to become autonomous; but I should like
+you to recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you
+should not be surprised if it occasionally happens
+that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in
+the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling
+<!-- [Page: 147] -->
+with human education; because, after all, that is
+a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily
+forsaken.</p>
+
+<p>Having now defined the meaning of the word
+Biology, and having indicated the general scope of
+Biological Science, I turn to my second question,
+which is&mdash;Why should we study Biology? Possibly
+the time may come when that will seem a very odd
+question. That we, living creatures, should not
+feel a certain amount of interest in what it is that
+constitutes our life will eventually, under altered
+ideas of the fittest objects of human inquiry, appear
+to be a singular phenomenon; but, at present,
+judging by the practice of teachers and educators,
+Biology would seem to be a topic that does
+not concern us at all. I propose to put before
+you a few considerations with which I dare say
+many will be familiar already, but which will
+suffice to show&mdash;not fully, because to demonstrate
+this point fully would take a great many lectures&mdash;that
+there are some very good and substantial
+reasons why it may be advisable that we should
+know something about this branch of human
+learning.</p>
+
+<p>I myself entirely agree with another sentiment of
+the philosopher of Malmesbury, "that the scope of
+all speculation is the performance of some action or
+thing to be done," and I have not any very great
+<!-- [Page: 148] -->
+respect for, or interest in, mere knowing as such.
+I judge of the value of human pursuits by their
+bearing upon human interests; in other words, by
+their utility; but I should like that we should quite
+clearly understand what it is that we mean by this
+word "utility." In an Englishman's mouth it
+generally means that by which we get pudding or
+praise, or both. I have no doubt that is one
+meaning of the word utility, but it by no means
+includes all I mean by utility. I think that
+knowledge of every kind is useful in proportion
+as it tends to give people right ideas, which are
+essential to the foundation of right practice, and to
+remove wrong ideas, which are the no less essential
+foundations and fertile mothers of every description
+of error in practice. And inasmuch as, whatever
+practical people may say, this world is, after all,
+absolutely governed by ideas, and very often by the
+wildest and most hypothetical ideas, it is a matter of
+the very greatest importance that our theories of
+things, and even of things that seem a long way
+apart from our daily lives, should be as far as
+possible true, and as far as possible removed from
+error. It is not only in the coarser practical sense of
+the word "utility," but in this higher and broader
+sense, that I measure the value of the study of
+biology by its utility; and I shall try to point out to
+you that you will feel the need of some knowledge
+<!-- [Page: 149] -->
+of biology at a great many turns of this present
+nineteenth century life of ours. For example,
+most of us attach great importance to the conception
+which we entertain of the position of
+man in this universe and his relation to the rest
+of nature. We have almost all been told, and
+most of us hold by the tradition, that man occupies
+an isolated and peculiar position in nature; that
+though he is in the world he is not of the world;
+that his relations to things about him are of a remote
+character; that his origin is recent, his duration
+likely to be short, and that he is the great central
+figure round which other things in this world
+revolve. But this is not what the biologist tells
+us.</p>
+
+<p>At the present moment you will be kind enough
+to separate me from them, because it is in no way
+essential to my present argument that I should
+advocate their views. Don't suppose that I am
+saying this for the purpose of escaping the responsibility
+of their beliefs; indeed, at other times
+and in other places, I do not think that point has
+been left doubtful; but I want clearly to point out
+to you that for my present argument they may all
+be wrong; and, nevertheless, my argument will hold
+good. The biologists tell us that all this is an
+entire mistake. They turn to the physical organisation
+of man. They examine his whole structure,
+<!-- [Page: 150] -->
+his bony frame and all that clothes it. They resolve
+him into the finest particles into which the microscope
+will enable them to break him up. They
+consider the performance of his various functions
+and activities, and they look at the manner in which
+he occurs on the surface of the world. Then they
+turn to other animals, and taking the first handy
+domestic animal&mdash;say a dog&mdash;they profess to be
+able to demonstrate that the analysis of the dog
+leads them, in gross, to precisely the same results
+as the analysis of the man; that they find almost
+identically the same bones, having the same relations;
+that they can name the muscles of the
+dog by the names of the muscles of the man, and
+the nerves of the dog by those of the nerves of
+the man, and that, such structures and organs of
+sense as we find in the man such also we find in
+the dog; they analyse the brain and spinal cord,
+and they find that the nomenclature which fits the
+one answers for the other. They carry their microscopic
+inquiries in the case of the dog as far as
+they can, and they find that his body is resolvable
+into the same elements as those of the man. Moreover,
+they trace back the dog's and the man's
+development, and they find that, at a certain stage
+of their existence, the two creatures are not distinguishable
+the one from the other; they find
+that the dog and his kind have a certain distribution
+<!-- [Page: 151] -->
+over the surface of the world, comparable in its
+way to the distribution of the human species.
+What is true of the dog they tell us is true of
+all the higher animals; and they assert that they
+can lay down a common plan for the whole of
+these creatures, and regard the man and the dog,
+the horse and the ox as minor modifications of
+one great fundamental unity. Moreover, the investigations
+of the last three-quarters of a century
+have proved, they tell us, that similar inquiries,
+carried out through all the different kinds of animals
+which are met with in nature, will lead us,
+not in one straight series, but by many roads,
+step by step, gradation by gradation, from man,
+at the summit, to specks of animated jelly at the
+bottom of the series. So that the idea of Leibnitz,
+and of Bonnet, that animals form a great scale
+of being, in which there are a series of gradations
+from the most complicated form to the lowest and
+simplest; that idea, though not exactly in the
+form in which it was propounded by those philosophers,
+turns out to be substantially correct. More
+than this, when biologists pursue their investigations
+into the vegetable world, they find that they can,
+in the same way, follow out the structure of the
+plant, from the most gigantic and complicated trees
+down through a similar series of gradations, until
+they arrive at specks of animated jelly, which they
+<!-- [Page: 152] -->
+are puzzled to distinguish from those specks which
+they reached by the animal road.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, biologists have arrived at the conclusion
+that a fundamental uniformity of structure pervades
+the animal and vegetable worlds, and that plants
+and animals differ from one another simply as
+diverse modifications of the same great general
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>Again, they tell us the same story in regard to
+the study of function. They admit the large and
+important interval which, at the present time, separates
+the manifestations of the mental faculties
+observable in the higher forms of mankind, and
+even in the lower forms, such as we know them,
+from those exhibited by other animals; but, at
+the same time, they tell us that the foundations,
+or rudiments, of almost all the faculties of man
+are to be met with in the lower animals; that
+there is a unity of mental faculty as well as of
+bodily structure, and that, here also, the difference
+is a difference of degree and not of kind.
+I said "almost all," for a reason. Among the
+many distinctions which have been drawn between
+the lower creatures and ourselves, there is one
+which is hardly ever insisted on,<a name="FNanchor_4_8" id="FNanchor_4_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_8" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> but which may
+be very fitly spoken of in a place so largely devoted
+<!-- [Page: 153] -->
+to Art as that in which we are assembled. It is
+this, that while, among various kinds of animals,
+it is possible to discover traces of all the other
+faculties of man, especially the faculty of mimicry,
+yet that particular form of mimicry which shows
+itself in the imitation of form, either by modelling
+or by drawing, is not to be met with. As far as
+I know, there is no sculpture or modelling, and
+decidedly no painting or drawing, of animal origin,
+I mention the fact, in order that such comfort
+may be derived therefrom as artists may feel
+inclined to take.</p>
+
+<p>If what the biologists tell us is true, it will be
+needful to get rid of our erroneous conceptions
+of man, and of his place in nature, and to substitute
+right ones for them. But it is impossible
+to form any judgment as to whether the biologists
+are right or wrong, unless we are able to appreciate
+the nature of the arguments which they have
+to offer.</p>
+
+<p>One would almost think this to be a self-evident
+proposition. I wonder what a scholar
+would say to the man who should undertake to
+criticise a difficult passage in a Greek play, but
+who obviously had not acquainted himself with
+the rudiments of Greek grammar. And yet, before
+giving positive opinions about these high questions
+of Biology, people not only do not seem to think
+<!-- [Page: 154] -->
+it necessary to be acquainted with the grammar
+of the subject, but they have not even mastered
+the alphabet. You find criticism and denunciation
+showered about by persons, who, not only have
+not attempted to go through the discipline necessary
+to enable them to be judges, but who have not even
+reached that stage of emergence from ignorance
+in which the knowledge that such a discipline is
+necessary dawns upon the mind. I have had to
+watch with some attention&mdash;in fact I have been
+favoured with a good deal of it myself&mdash;the sort
+of criticism with which biologists and biological
+teachings are visited. I am told every now and
+then that there is a "brilliant article"<a name="FNanchor_5_9" id="FNanchor_5_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_9" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> in so-and-so,
+in which we are all demolished. I used to read
+these things once, but I am getting old now, and
+I have ceased to attend very much to this cry of
+"wolf." When one does read any of these productions,
+what one finds generally, on the face of
+it, is that the brilliant critic is devoid of even the
+elements of biological knowledge, and that his
+brilliancy is like the light given out by the crackling
+of thorns under a pot of which Solomon speaks.
+So far as I recollect, Solomon makes use of the
+<!-- [Page: 155] -->
+image for purposes of comparison; but I will not
+proceed further into that matter.</p>
+
+<p>Two things must be obvious: in the first place,
+that every man who has the interests of truth at
+heart must earnestly desire that every well-founded
+and just criticism that can be made should be
+made; but that, in the second place, it is essential
+to anybody's being able to benefit by criticism,
+that the critic should know what he is talking
+about, and be in a position to form a mental image
+of the facts symbolised by the words he uses.
+If not, it is as obvious in the case of a biological
+argument, as it is in that of a historical or philological
+discussion, that such criticism is a mere waste of
+time on the part of its author, and wholly undeserving
+of attention on the part of those who are
+criticised. Take it then as an illustration of the
+importance of biological study, that thereby alone
+are men able to form something like a rational
+conception of what constitutes valuable criticism of
+the teachings of biologists.<a name="FNanchor_6_10" id="FNanchor_6_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_10" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+<!-- [Page: 156] --></p>
+
+<p>Next, I may mention another bearing of biological
+knowledge&mdash;a more practical one in the
+ordinary sense of the word. Consider the theory
+of infectious disease. Surely that is of interest
+to all of us. Now the theory of infectious disease
+is rapidly being elucidated by biological study. It
+is possible to produce, from among the lower
+animals, examples of devastating diseases which
+spread in the same manner as our infectious disorders,
+and which are certainly and unmistakably caused by
+living organisms. This fact renders it possible,
+at any rate, that that doctrine of the causation of
+infectious disease which is known under the name
+of "the germ theory" may be well-founded; and,
+if so, it must needs lead to the most important
+practical measures in dealing with those terrible
+visitations. It may be well that the general, as
+well as the professional, public should have a
+sufficient knowledge of biological truths to be able
+to take a rational interest in the discussion of
+such problems, and to see, what I think they may
+<!-- [Page: 157] -->
+hope to see, that, to those who possess a sufficient
+elementary knowledge of Biology, they are not
+all quite open questions.</p>
+
+<p>Let me mention another important practical
+illustration of the value of biological study. Within
+the last forty years the theory of agriculture has
+been revolutionised. The researches of Liebig,
+and those of our own Lawes and Gilbert, have
+had a bearing upon that branch of industry the
+importance of which cannot be overestimated; but
+the whole of these new views have grown out of
+the better explanation of certain processes which
+go on in plants; and which, of course, form a part
+of the subject-matter of Biology.</p>
+
+<p>I might go on multiplying these examples, but
+I see that the clock won't wait for me, and I
+must therefore pass to the third question to which
+I referred: Granted that Biology is something
+worth studying, what is the best way of studying
+it? Here I must point out that, since Biology is
+a physical science, the method of studying it must
+needs be analogous to that which is followed in
+the other physical sciences. It has now long been
+recognised that, if a man wishes to be a chemist,
+it is not only necessary that he should read chemical
+books and attend chemical lectures, but that
+he should actually perform the fundamental experiments
+in the laboratory for himself, and thus learn
+<!-- [Page: 158] -->
+exactly what the words which he finds in his books
+and hears from his teachers, mean. If he does
+not do so, he may read till the crack of doom,
+but he will never know much about chemistry.
+That is what every chemist will tell you, and the
+physicist will do the same for his branch of science.
+The great changes and improvements in physical
+and chemical scientific education, which have taken
+place of late, have all resulted from the combination
+of practical teaching with the reading of books
+and with the hearing of lectures. The same thing
+is true in Biology. Nobody will ever know anything
+about Biology except in a dilettante "paper-philosopher"
+way, who contents himself with reading
+books on botany, zoology, and the like; and
+the reason of this is simple and easy to understand.
+It is that all language is merely symbolical
+of the things of which it treats; the more complicated
+the things, the more bare is the symbol,
+and the more its verbal definition requires to be
+supplemented by the information derived directly
+from the handling, and the seeing, and the touching
+of the thing symbolised:&mdash;that is really what
+is at the bottom of the whole matter. It is plain
+common sense, as all truth, in the long run, is only
+common sense clarified. If you want a man to
+be a tea merchant, you don't tell him to read books
+about China or about tea, but you put him into
+<!-- [Page: 159] -->
+a tea-merchant's office where he has the handling,
+the smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the
+sort of knowledge which can be gained only in
+this practical way, his exploits as a tea merchant
+will soon come to a bankrupt termination. The
+"paper-philosophers" are under the delusion that
+physical science can be mastered as literary accomplishments
+are acquired, but unfortunately it is
+not so. You may read any quantity of books,
+and you may be almost as ignorant as you were
+at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your
+minds, the change for words in definite images
+which can only be acquired through the operation
+of your observing faculties on the phenomena of
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said:&mdash;"That is all very well, but
+you told us just now that there are probably something
+like a quarter of a million different kinds
+of living and extinct animals and plants, and a
+human life could not suffice for the examination
+of one-fiftieth part of all these." That is true,
+but then comes the great convenience of the way
+things are arranged; which is, that although there
+are these immense numbers of different kinds of
+living things in existence, yet they are built up,
+after all, upon marvellously few plans.</p>
+
+<p>There are certainly more than 100,000 species of
+insects, and yet anybody who knows one insect&mdash;if
+<!-- [Page: 160] -->
+a properly chosen one&mdash;will be able to have
+a very fair conception of the structure of the
+whole. I do not mean to say he will know
+that structure thoroughly, or as well as it is desirable
+he should know it; but he will have enough
+real knowledge to enable him to understand what
+he reads, to have genuine images in his mind of
+those structures which become so variously modified
+in all the forms of insects he has not seen.
+In fact, there are such things as types of form
+among animals and vegetables, and for the purpose
+of getting a definite knowledge of what constitutes
+the leading modifications of animal and
+plant life, it is not needful to examine more than
+a comparatively small number of animals and
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>Let me tell you what we do in the biological
+laboratory which is lodged in a building adjacent to
+this. There I lecture to a class of students daily
+for about four-and-a-half months, and my class have,
+of course, their text-books; but the essential part
+of the whole teaching, and that which I regard
+as really the most important part of it, is a
+laboratory for practical work, which is simply a
+room with all the appliances needed for ordinary
+dissection. We have tables properly arranged in
+regard to light, microscopes, and dissecting instruments,
+and we work through the structure of a
+<!-- [Page: 161] -->
+certain number of animals and plants. As, for
+example, among the plants, we take a yeast plant,
+a <i>Protococcus</i>, a common mould, a <i>Chara</i>, a fern,
+and some flowering plant; among animals we examine
+such things as an <i>Am&oelig;ba</i>, a <i>Vorticella</i>, and
+a fresh-water polype. We dissect a star-fish, an
+earth-worm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water
+mussel. We examine a lobster and a cray-fish,
+and a black beetle. We go on to a common skate,
+a cod-fish, a frog, a tortoise, a pigeon, and a rabbit,
+and that takes us about all the time we have to
+give. The purpose of this course is not to make
+skilled dissectors, but to give every student a clear
+and definite conception, by means of sense-images,
+of the characteristic structure of each of the leading
+modifications of the animal kingdom; and
+that is perfectly possible, by going no further than
+the length of that list of forms which I have
+enumerated. If a man knows the structure of
+the animals I have mentioned, he has a clear and
+exact, however limited, apprehension of the essential
+features of the organisation of all those great
+divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms
+to which the forms I have mentioned severally
+belong. And it then becomes possible for him
+to read with profit; because every time he meets
+with the name of a structure, he has a definite
+image in his mind of what the name means in
+<!-- [Page: 162] -->
+the particular creature he is reading about, and
+therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is
+not mere repetition of words; but every term
+employed in the description, we will say, of a horse,
+or of an elephant, will call up the image of the
+things he had seen in the rabbit, and he is able to
+form a distinct conception of that which he has
+not seen, as a modification of that which he has
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>I find this system to yield excellent results; and
+I have no hesitation whatever in saying, that any
+one who has gone through such a course, attentively,
+is in a better position to form a conception
+of the great truths of Biology, especially of morphology
+(which is what we chiefly deal with), than
+if he had merely read all the books on that topic
+put together.</p>
+
+<p>The connection of this discourse with the Loan
+Collection of Scientific Apparatus arises out of the
+exhibition in that collection of certain aids to our
+laboratory work. Such of you as have visited that
+very interesting collection may have noticed a series
+of diagrams and of preparations illustrating the
+structure of a frog. Those diagrams and preparations
+have been made for the use of the students
+in the biological laboratory. Similar diagrams and
+preparations illustrating the structure of all the
+other forms of life we examine, are either made or
+<!-- [Page: 163] -->
+in course of preparation. Thus the student has
+before him, first, a picture of the structure he ought
+to see; secondly, the structure itself worked out;
+and if with these aids, and such needful explanations
+and practical hints as a demonstrator can
+supply, he cannot make out the facts for himself
+in the materials supplied to him, he had better
+take to some other pursuit than that of biological
+science.</p>
+
+<p>I should have been glad to have said a few words
+about the use of museums in the study of Biology,
+but I see that my time is becoming short, and I
+have yet another question to answer. Nevertheless
+I must, at the risk of wearying you, say a word
+or two upon the important subject of museums.
+Without doubt there are no helps to the study of
+Biology, or rather to some branches of it, which
+are, or may be, more important than natural history
+museums; but, in order to take this place in regard
+to Biology, they must be museums of the future.
+The museums of the present do not, by any
+means, do so much for us as they might do. I do not
+wish to particularise, but I dare say many of you,
+seeking knowledge, or in the laudable desire to
+employ a holiday usefully, have visited some great
+natural history museum. You have walked through
+a quarter of a mile of animals, more or less well
+stuffed, with their long names written out underneath
+<!-- [Page: 164] -->
+them; and, unless your experience is very different
+from that of most people, the upshot of it all is
+that you leave that splendid pile with sore feet, a
+bad headache, and a general idea that the animal
+kingdom is a "mighty maze without a plan." I
+do not think that a museum which brings about
+this result does all that may be reasonably expected
+from such an institution. What is needed in a collection
+of natural history is that it should be made
+as accessible and as useful as possible, on the one
+hand to the general public, and on the other to
+scientific workers. That need is not met by constructing
+a sort of happy hunting-ground of miles
+of glass cases; and, under the pretence of exhibiting
+everything, putting the maximum amount of obstacle
+in the way of those who wish properly to see
+anything.</p>
+
+<p>What the public want is easy and unhindered
+access to such a collection as they can understand
+and appreciate; and what the men of science want
+is similar access to the materials of science. To
+this end the vast mass of objects of natural history
+should be divided into two parts&mdash;one open to the
+public, the other to men of science, every day.
+The former division should exemplify all the more
+important and interesting forms of life. Explanatory
+tablets should be attached to them, and catalogues
+containing clearly-written popular expositions
+<!-- [Page: 165] -->
+of the general significance of the objects exhibited
+should be provided. The latter should contain,
+packed into a comparatively small space, in rooms
+adapted for working purposes, the objects of purely
+scientific interest. For example, we will say I am
+an ornithologist. I go to examine a collection of
+birds. It is a positive nuisance to have them
+stuffed. It is not only sheer waste, but I have to
+reckon with the ideas of the bird-stuffer, while, if
+I have the skin and nobody has interfered with it,
+I can form my own judgment as to what the bird
+was like. For ornithological purposes, what is
+needed is not glass cases full of stuffed birds on
+perches, but convenient drawers into each of which
+a great quantity of skins will go. They occupy
+no great space and do not require any expenditure
+beyond their original cost. But for the edification of
+the public, who want to learn indeed, but do not
+seek for minute and technical knowledge, the case
+is different. What one of the general public walking
+into a collection of birds desires to see is not
+all the birds that can be got together. He does
+not want to compare a hundred species of the
+sparrow tribe side by side; but he wishes to know
+what a bird is, and what are the great modifications
+of bird structure, and to be able to get at that
+knowledge easily. What will best serve his purpose
+<!-- [Page: 166] -->
+is a comparatively small number of birds carefully
+selected, and artistically, as well as accurately, set
+up; with their different ages, their nests, their
+young, their eggs, and their skeletons side by side;
+and in accordance with the admirable plan which
+is pursued in this museum, a tablet, telling the
+spectator in legible characters what they are and
+what they mean. For the instruction and recreation
+of the public such a typical collection would be of
+far greater value than any many-acred imitation
+of Noah's ark.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly comes the question as to when biological
+study may best be pursued. I do not see any
+valid reason why it should not be made, to a
+certain extent, a part of ordinary school training.
+I have long advocated this view, and I
+am perfectly certain that it can be carried out
+with ease, and not only with ease, but with
+very considerable profit to those who are taught;
+but then such instruction must be adapted to
+the minds and needs of the scholars. They used
+to have a very odd way of teaching the classical
+languages when I was a boy. The first task set
+you was to learn the rules of the Latin grammar
+in the Latin language&mdash;that being the language you
+were going to learn! I thought then that this
+was an odd way of learning a language, but did
+<!-- [Page: 167] -->
+not venture to rebel against the judgment of my
+superiors. Now, perhaps, I am not so modest as
+I was then, and I allow myself to think that it was
+a very absurd fashion. But it would be no less
+absurd, if we were to set about teaching Biology
+by putting into the hands of boys a series of
+definitions of the classes and orders of the animal
+kingdom, and making them repeat them by heart.
+That is so very favourite a method of teaching,
+that I sometimes fancy the spirit of the old classical
+system has entered into the new scientific
+system, in which case I would much rather that any
+pretence at scientific teaching were abolished altogether.
+What really has to be done is to get into
+the young mind some notion of what animal and
+vegetable life is. In this matter, you have to consider
+practical convenience as well as other things.
+There are difficulties in the way of a lot of boys
+making messes with slugs and snails; it might not
+work in practice. But there is a very convenient
+and handy animal which everybody has at hand,
+and that is himself; and it is a very easy and
+simple matter to obtain common plants. Hence
+the general truths of anatomy and physiology can
+be taught to young people in a very real fashion
+by dealing with the broad facts of human structure.
+Such viscera as they cannot very well examine in
+<!-- [Page: 168] -->
+themselves, such as hearts, lungs, and livers, may
+be obtained from the nearest butcher's shop. In
+respect to teaching something about the biology of
+plants, there is no practical difficulty, because almost
+any of the common plants will do, and plants do
+not make a mess&mdash;at least they do not make an
+unpleasant mess; so that, in my judgment, the best
+form of Biology for teaching to very young people
+is elementary human physiology on the one hand,
+and the elements of botany on the other; beyond
+that I do not think it will be feasible to advance
+for some time to come. But then I see no reason
+why, in secondary schools, and in the Science
+Classes which are under the control of the Science
+and Art Department&mdash;and which I may say, in
+passing, have, in my judgment, done so very much
+for the diffusion of a knowledge of science over
+the country&mdash;we should not hope to see instruction
+in the elements of Biology carried out, not perhaps
+to the same extent, but still upon somewhat the
+same principle as here. There is no difficulty,
+when you have to deal with students of the ages
+of 15 or 16, in practising a little dissection and in
+getting a notion of, at any rate, the four or five
+great modifications of the animal form; and the
+like is true in regard to the higher anatomy of
+plants.
+<!-- [Page: 169] --></p>
+
+<p>While, lastly, to all those who are studying biological
+science with a view to their own edification
+merely, or with the intention of becoming zoologists
+or botanists; to all those who intend to pursue
+physiology&mdash;and especially to those who propose
+to employ the working years of their lives in the
+practice of medicine&mdash;I say that there is no training
+so fitted, or which may be of such important
+service to them, as the discipline in practical
+biological work which I have sketched out as being
+pursued in the laboratory hard by.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>I may add that, beyond all these different classes
+of persons who may profit by the study of Biology,
+there is yet one other. I remember, a number of
+years ago, that a gentleman who was a vehement
+opponent of Mr. Darwin's views and had written
+some terrible articles against them, applied to me
+to know what was the best way in which he could
+acquaint himself with the strongest arguments in
+favour of evolution. I wrote back, in all good faith
+and simplicity, recommending him to go through a
+course of comparative anatomy and physiology, and
+then to study development. I am sorry to say he
+was very much displeased, as people often are with
+good advice. Notwithstanding this discouraging
+result, I venture, as a parting word, to repeat the
+<!-- [Page: 170] -->
+suggestion, and to say to all the more or less acute
+lay and clerical "paper-philosophers"<a name="FNanchor_7_11" id="FNanchor_7_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_11" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> who venture
+into the regions of biological controversy&mdash;Get a
+little sound, thorough, practical, elementary instruction
+in biology.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+    See the distinction between the "sciences physiques" and the "sciences physiologiques"
+    in the "Anatomic G&eacute;n&eacute;rale," 1801.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_6"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+    "Hydrogeologie," an. x. (1801).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_3_7" id="Footnote_3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_7"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+    "The term <i>Biology</i>, which means exactly what we wish to express, <i>the
+    Science of Life</i>, has often been used, and has of late become not uncommon,
+    among good writers."&mdash;Whewell, "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,"
+    vol. i. p. 544 (edition of 1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_4_8" id="Footnote_4_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_8"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+    I think that my friend Professor Allman was the first to draw attention to
+    it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_5_9" id="Footnote_5_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_9"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+    Galileo was troubled by a sort of people whom he called "paper philosophers,"
+    because they fancied that the true reading of nature was to be detected by
+    the collation of texts. The race is not extinct, but, as of old, brings forth
+    its "winds of doctrine" by which the weathercock heads among us are much exercised.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_6_10" id="Footnote_6_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_10"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+    Some critics do not even take the trouble to read. I have recently been adjured
+    with much solemnity, to state publicly why I have "changed my opinion" as
+    to the value of the pal&aelig;ontological evidence of the occurrence of evolution.
+  </p>
+  <p>
+To this my reply is, Why should I, when that statement was made
+seven years ago? An address delivered from the Presidential Chair
+of the Geological Society, in 1870, may be said to be a public document,
+inasmuch as it not only appeared in the <i>Journal</i> of that learned body,
+but was re-published, in 1873, in a volume of "Critiques and Addresses,"
+to which my name is attached. Therein will be found a pretty full
+statement of my reasons for enunciating two propositions: (1) that
+"when we turn to the higher <i>Vertebrata</i>, the results of recent investigations,
+however we may sift and criticise them, seem to me to
+leave a clear balance in favour of the evolution of living forms one
+from another;" and (2) that the case of the horse is one which "will
+stand rigorous criticism."
+</p><p>
+Thus I do not see clearly in what way I can be said to have changed
+my opinion, except in the way of intensifying it, when in consequence
+of the accumulation of similar evidence since 1870, I recently spoke of
+the denial of evolution as not worth serious consideration.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+  <p><a name="Footnote_7_11" id="Footnote_7_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_11"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+    Writers of this stamp are fond of talking about the Baconian method. I beg
+    them therefore to lay to heart these two weighty sayings of the herald of
+    Modern Science:&mdash; </p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Syllogismus ex propositionibus constat, propositiones ex verbis,
+verba notionum tesser&aelig; sunt. Itaque si notiones ips&aelig; (<i>id quod basis
+rei est</i>) confus&aelig; sint et temere a rebus abstract&aelig;, nihil in iis qu&aelig;
+superstruuntur est firmitudinis."&mdash;"Novum Organon," ii. 14.
+</p><p>
+"Huic autem vanitati nonnulli ex modernis summa levitate ita
+indulserunt, ut in primo capitulo Geneseos et in libro Job et aliis
+scripturis sacris, philosophiam naturalem fundare conati sint; <i>inter
+vivos qu&aelig;rentes mortua</i>."&mdash;<i>Ibid.</i>, 65.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 16136-h.txt or 16136-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/1/3/16136</a></p>
+<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.</p>
+
+<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.</p>
+
+
+
+<pre>
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+<a href="https://gutenberg.org/license">https://gutenberg.org/license)</a>.
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's
+eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII,
+compressed (zipped), HTML and others.
+
+Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over
+the old filename and etext number.  The replaced older file is renamed.
+VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving
+new filenames and etext numbers.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">https://www.gutenberg.org</a>
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000,
+are filed in directories based on their release date.  If you want to
+download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular
+search system you may utilize the following addresses and just
+download by the etext year.
+
+<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a>
+
+    (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99,
+     98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90)
+
+EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are
+filed in a different way.  The year of a release date is no longer part
+of the directory path.  The path is based on the etext number (which is
+identical to the filename).  The path to the file is made up of single
+digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename.  For
+example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at:
+
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234
+
+or filename 24689 would be found at:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689
+
+An alternative method of locating eBooks:
+<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a>
+
+*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g01.jpg b/16136-h/images/g01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..50e9d3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g01.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g02.jpg b/16136-h/images/g02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..647cabb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g02.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g03.jpg b/16136-h/images/g03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a110325
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g03.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g04.jpg b/16136-h/images/g04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..550d353
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g04.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g05.jpg b/16136-h/images/g05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae0b09d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g05.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g06.jpg b/16136-h/images/g06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3d5c30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g06.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g07.jpg b/16136-h/images/g07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b3480b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g07.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g08.jpg b/16136-h/images/g08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fc7d1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g08.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/g09.jpg b/16136-h/images/g09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1d9dbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/g09.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg01.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7106169
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg01.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg02.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b0a15a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg02.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg03.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d024dd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg03.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg04.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa9b1f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg04.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg05.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fc38c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg05.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg06.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..823f985
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg06.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg07.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fa1d8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg07.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg08.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..524b15d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg08.jpg
diff --git a/16136-h/images/tg09.jpg b/16136-h/images/tg09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..814d5e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136-h/images/tg09.jpg
diff --git a/16136.txt b/16136.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb1b9dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3744 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, American Addresses, with a Lecture on the
+Study of Biology, by Tomas Henry Huxley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology
+
+
+Author: Tomas Henry Huxley
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 26, 2005  [eBook #16136]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE
+ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Clare Boothby, Jeremy Weatherford, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 16136-h.htm or 16136-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136/16136-h/16136-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136/16136-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
+
+by
+
+THOMAS H. HUXLEY.
+
+London: MacMillan and Co.
+London: R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, Printers, Bread Street Hill,
+   Queen Victoria Street.
+
+1877
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+     "Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis
+     formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."
+
+     B. DE SPINOZA, _Ethices_, Pars tertia, Praefatio.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+  I. THREE LECTURES ON EVOLUTION (New York, September 18, 20, 22, 1876).
+
+      LECTURE I.   THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE HISTORY OF NATURE
+
+      LECTURE II.  THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION. THE NEUTRAL AND THE
+        FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE
+
+      LECTURE III. THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
+
+
+ II. AN ADDRESS ON THE OCCASION OF THE OPENING OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS
+       UNIVERSITY (Baltimore, September 12, 1876)
+
+
+III. A LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY, IN CONNECTION WITH THE LOAN
+       COLLECTION OF SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS (South Kensington Museum,
+       December 16, 1876)
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK.
+
+LECTURES ON EVOLUTION.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE I.
+
+THE THREE HYPOTHESES RESPECTING THE HISTORY OF NATURE.
+
+
+We live in and form part of a system of things of immense diversity and
+perplexity, which we call Nature; and it is a matter of the deepest
+interest to all of us that we should form just conceptions of the
+constitution of that system and of its past history. With relation to
+this universe, man is, in extent, little more than a mathematical point;
+in duration but a fleeting shadow; he is a mere reed shaken in the winds
+of force. But, as Pascal long ago remarked, although a mere reed, he is
+a thinking reed; and in virtue of that wonderful capacity of thought, he
+has the power of framing for himself a symbolic conception of the
+universe, which, although doubtless highly imperfect and inadequate as a
+picture of the great whole, is yet sufficient to serve him as a chart
+for the guidance of his practical affairs. It has taken long ages of
+toilsome and often fruitless labour to enable man to look steadily at
+the shifting scenes of the phantasmagoria of Nature, to notice what is
+fixed among her fluctuations, and what is regular among her apparent
+irregularities; and it is only comparatively lately, within the last few
+centuries, that the conception of a universal order and of a definite
+course of things, which we term the course of Nature, has emerged.
+
+But, once originated, the conception of the constancy of the order of
+Nature has become the dominant idea of modern thought. To any person who
+is familiar with the facts upon which that conception is based, and is
+competent to estimate their significance, it has ceased to be
+conceivable that chance should have any place in the universe, or that
+events should depend upon any but the natural sequence of cause and
+effect. We have come to look upon the present as the child of the past
+and as the parent of the future; and, as we have excluded chance from a
+place in the universe, so we ignore, even as a possibility, the notion
+of any interference with the order of Nature. Whatever may be men's
+speculative doctrines, it is quite certain, that every intelligent
+person guides his life and risks his fortune upon the belief that the
+order of Nature is constant, and that the chain of natural causation is
+never broken.
+
+In fact, no belief which we entertain has so complete a logical basis as
+that to which I have just referred. It tacitly underlies every process
+of reasoning; it is the foundation of every act of the will. It is based
+upon the broadest induction, and it is verified by the most constant,
+regular, and universal of deductive processes. But we must recollect
+that any human belief, however broad its basis, however defensible it
+may seem, is, after all, only a probable belief, and that our widest and
+safest generalizations are simply statements of the highest degree of
+probability. Though we are quite clear about the constancy of the order
+of Nature, at the present time, and in the present state of things, it
+by no means necessarily follows that we are justified in expanding this
+generalisation into the infinite past, and in denying, absolutely, that
+there may have been a time when Nature did not follow a fixed order,
+when the relations of cause and effect were not definite, and when
+extra-natural agencies interfered with the general course of Nature.
+Cautious men will allow that a universe so different from that which we
+know may have existed; just as a very candid thinker may admit that a
+world in which two and two do not make four, and in which two straight
+lines do inclose a space, may exist. But the same caution which forces
+the admission of such possibilities demands a great deal of evidence
+before it recognises them to be anything more substantial. And when it
+is asserted that, so many thousand years ago, events occurred in a
+manner utterly foreign to and inconsistent with the existing laws of
+Nature, men, who without being particularly cautious, are simply honest
+thinkers, unwilling to deceive themselves or delude others, ask for
+trustworthy evidence of the fact.
+
+Did things so happen or did they not? This is a historical question, and
+one the answer to which must be sought in the same way as the solution
+of any other historical problem.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So far as I know, there are only three hypotheses which ever have been
+entertained, or which well can be entertained, respecting the past
+history of Nature. I will, in the first place, state the hypotheses, and
+then I will consider what evidence bearing upon them is in our
+possession, and by what light of criticism that evidence is to be
+interpreted.
+
+Upon the first hypothesis, the assumption is, that phenomena of Nature
+similar to those exhibited by the present world have always existed; in
+other words, that the universe has existed from all eternity in what may
+be broadly termed its present condition.
+
+The second hypothesis is, that the present state of things has had only
+a limited duration; and that, at some period in the past, a condition of
+the world, essentially similar to that which we now know, came into
+existence, without any precedent condition from which it could have
+naturally proceeded. The assumption that successive states of Nature
+have arisen, each without any relation of natural causation to an
+antecedent state, is a mere modification of this second hypothesis.
+
+The third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of things has
+had but a limited duration; but it supposes that this state has been
+evolved by a natural process from an antecedent state, and that from
+another, and so on; and, on this hypothesis, the attempt to assign any
+limit to the series of past changes is, usually, given up.
+
+It is so needful to form clear and distinct notions of what is really
+meant by each of these hypotheses that I will ask you to imagine what,
+according to each, would have been visible to a spectator of the events
+which constitute the history of the earth. On the first hypothesis,
+however far back in time that spectator might be placed, he would see a
+world essentially, though perhaps not in all its details, similar to
+that which now exists. The animals which existed would be the ancestors
+of those which now live, and similar to them; the plants, in like
+manner, would be such as we know; and the mountains, plains, and waters
+would foreshadow the salient features of our present land and water.
+This view was held more or less distinctly, sometimes combined with the
+notion of recurrent cycles of change, in ancient times; and its
+influence has been felt down to the present day. It is worthy of remark
+that it is a hypothesis which is not inconsistent with the doctrine of
+Uniformitarianism, with which geologists are familiar. That doctrine was
+held by Hutton, and in his earlier days by Lyell. Hutton was struck by
+the demonstration of astronomers that the perturbations of the planetary
+bodies, however great they may be, yet sooner or later right themselves;
+and that the solar system possesses a self-adjusting power by which
+these aberrations are all brought back to a mean condition. Hutton
+imagined that the like might be true of terrestrial changes; although no
+one recognised more clearly than he the fact that the dry land is being
+constantly washed down by rain and rivers and deposited in the sea; and
+that thus, in a longer or shorter time, the inequalities of the earth's
+surface must be levelled, and its high lands brought down to the ocean.
+But, taking into account the internal forces of the earth, which,
+upheaving the sea-bottom give rise to new land, he thought that these
+operations of degradation and elevation might compensate each other; and
+that thus, for any assignable time, the general features of our planet
+might remain what they are. And inasmuch as, under these circumstances,
+there need be no limit to the propagation of animals and plants, it is
+clear that the consistent working-out of the uniformitarian idea might
+lead to the conception of the eternity of the world. Not that I mean to
+say that either Hutton or Lyell held this conception--assuredly not;
+they would have been the first to repudiate it. Nevertheless, the
+logical development of their arguments tends directly towards this
+hypothesis.
+
+The second hypothesis supposes that the present order of things, at some
+no very remote time, had a sudden origin, and that the world, such as it
+now is, had chaos for its phenomenal antecedent. That is the doctrine
+which you will find stated most fully and clearly in the immortal poem
+of John Milton--the English _Divina Commedia--Paradise Lost_. I believe
+it is largely to the influence of that remarkable work, combined with
+the daily teachings to which we have all listened in our childhood, that
+this hypothesis owes its general wide diffusion as one of the current
+beliefs of English-speaking people. If you turn to the seventh book of
+_Paradise Lost_, you will find there stated the hypothesis to which I
+refer, which is briefly this: That this visible universe of ours came
+into existence at no great distance of time from the present; and that
+the parts of which it is composed made their appearance, in a certain
+definite order, in the space of six natural days, in such a manner that,
+on the first of these days, light appeared; that, on the second, the
+firmament, or sky, separated the waters above, from the waters beneath
+the firmament; that, on the third day, the waters drew away from the dry
+land, and upon it a varied vegetable life, similar to that which now
+exists, made its appearance; that the fourth day was signalised by the
+apparition of the sun, the stars, the moon, and the planets; that, on
+the fifth day, aquatic animals originated within the waters; that, on
+the sixth day, the earth gave rise to our four-footed terrestrial
+creatures, and to all varieties of terrestrial animals except birds,
+which had appeared on the preceding day; and, finally, that man appeared
+upon the earth, and the emergence of the universe from chaos was
+finished. Milton tells us, without the least ambiguity, what a spectator
+of these marvellous occurrences would have witnessed. I doubt not that
+his poem is familiar to all of you, but I should like to recall one
+passage to your minds, in order that I may be justified in what I have
+said regarding the perfectly concrete, definite picture of the origin of
+the animal world which Milton draws. He says:--
+
+    "The sixth, and of creation last, arose
+    With evening harps and matin, when God said,
+    'Let the earth bring forth soul living in her kind,
+    Cattle and creeping things, and beast of the earth,
+    Each in their kind!' The earth obeyed, and, straight
+    Opening her fertile womb, teemed at a birth
+    Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms,
+    Limbed and full-grown. Out of the ground uprose,
+    As from his lair, the wild beast, where he wons
+    In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den;
+    Among the trees in pairs they rose, they walked;
+    The cattle in the fields and meadows green;
+    Those rare and solitary; these in flocks
+    Pasturing at once, and in broad herds upsprung.
+    The grassy clods now calved; now half appears
+    The tawny lion, pawing to get free
+    His hinder parts--then springs, as broke from bonds,
+    And rampant shakes his brinded mane; the ounce,
+    The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole
+    Rising, the crumbled earth above them threw
+    In hillocks; the swift stag from underground
+    Bore up his branching head; scarce from his mould
+    Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved
+    His vastness; fleeced the flocks and bleating rose
+    As plants; ambiguous between sea and land,
+    The river-horse and scaly crocodile.
+    At once came forth whatever creeps the ground,
+    Insect or worm."
+
+There is no doubt as to the meaning of this statement, nor as to what a
+man of Milton's genius expected would have been actually visible to an
+eye-witness of this mode of origination of living things.
+
+The third hypothesis, or the hypothesis of evolution, supposes that, at
+any comparatively late period of past time, our imaginary spectator
+would meet with a state of things very similar to that which now
+obtains; but that the likeness of the past to the present would
+gradually become less and less, in proportion to the remoteness of his
+period of observation from the present day; that the existing
+distribution of mountains and plains, of rivers and seas, would show
+itself to be the product of a slow process of natural change operating
+upon more and more widely different antecedent conditions of the mineral
+framework of the earth; until, at length, in place of that framework, he
+would behold only a vast nebulous mass, representing the constituents of
+the sun and of the planetary bodies. Preceding the forms of life which
+now exist, our observer would see animals and plants not identical with
+them, but like them; increasing their differences with their antiquity
+and, at the same time, becoming simpler and simpler; until, finally, the
+world of life would present nothing but that undifferentiated
+protoplasmic matter which, so far as our present knowledge goes, is the
+common foundation of all vital activity.
+
+The hypothesis of evolution supposes that in all this vast progression
+there would be no breach of continuity, no point at which we could say
+"This a natural process," and "This is not a natural process;" but that
+the whole might be compared to that wonderful process of development
+which may be seen going on every day under our eyes, in virtue of which
+there arises, out of the semi-fluid, comparatively homogeneous substance
+which we call an egg, the complicated organization of one of the higher
+animals. That, in a few words, is what is meant by the hypothesis of
+evolution.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have already suggested that in dealing with these three hypotheses, in
+endeavouring to form a judgment as to which of them is the more worthy
+of belief, or whether none is worthy of belief--in which case our
+condition of mind should be that suspension of judgment which is so
+difficult to all but trained intellects--we should be indifferent to all
+_a priori_ considerations. The question is a question of historical
+fact. The universe has come into existence somehow or other, and the
+problem is, whether it came into existence in one fashion, or whether it
+came into existence in another; and, as an essential preliminary to
+further discussion, permit me to say two or three words as to the nature
+and the kinds of historical evidence.
+
+The evidence as to the occurrence of any event in past time may be
+ranged under two heads which, for convenience' sake, I will speak of as
+testimonial evidence and as circumstantial evidence. By testimonial
+evidence I mean human testimony; and by circumstantial evidence I mean
+evidence which is not human testimony. Let me illustrate by a familiar
+example what I understand by these two kinds of evidence, and what is to
+be said respecting their value.
+
+Suppose that a man tells you that he saw a person strike another and
+kill him; that is testimonial evidence of the fact of murder. But it is
+possible to have circumstantial evidence of the fact of murder; that is
+to say, you may find a man dying with a wound upon his head having
+exactly the form and character of the wound which is made by an axe,
+and, with due care in taking surrounding circumstances into account, you
+may conclude with the utmost certainty that the man has been murdered;
+that his death is the consequence of a blow inflicted by another man
+with that implement. We are very much in the habit of considering
+circumstantial evidence as of less value than testimonial evidence, and
+it may be that, where the circumstances are not perfectly clear and
+intelligible, it is a dangerous and unsafe kind of evidence; but it must
+not be forgotten that, in many cases, circumstantial is quite as
+conclusive as testimonial evidence, and that, not unfrequently, it is a
+great deal weightier than testimonial evidence. For example, take the
+case to which I referred just now. The circumstantial evidence may be
+better and more convincing than the testimonial evidence; for it may be
+impossible, under the conditions that I have defined, to suppose that
+the man met his death from any cause but the violent blow of an axe
+wielded by another man. The circumstantial evidence in favour of a
+murder having been committed, in that case, is as complete and as
+convincing as evidence can be. It is evidence which is open to no doubt
+and to no falsification. But the testimony of a witness is open to
+multitudinous doubts. He may have been mistaken. He may have been
+actuated by malice. It has constantly happened that even an accurate man
+has declared that a thing has happened in this, that, or the other way,
+when a careful analysis of the circumstantial evidence has shown that it
+did not happen in that way, but in some other way.
+
+We may now consider the evidence in favour of or against the three
+hypotheses. Let me first direct your attention to what is to be said
+about the hypothesis of the eternity of the state of things in which we
+now live. What will first strike you is, that it is a hypothesis which,
+whether true or false, is not capable of verification by any evidence.
+For, in order to obtain either circumstantial or testimonial evidence
+sufficient to prove the eternity of duration of the present state of
+nature, you must have an eternity of witnesses or an infinity of
+circumstances, and neither of these is attainable. It is utterly
+impossible that such evidence should be carried beyond a certain point
+of time; and all that could be said, at most, would be, that so far as
+the evidence could be traced, there was nothing to contradict the
+hypothesis. But when you look, not to the testimonial evidence--which,
+considering the relative insignificance of the antiquity of human
+records, might not be good for much in this case--but to the
+circumstantial evidence, then you find that this hypothesis is
+absolutely incompatible with such evidence as we have; which is of so
+plain and so simple a character that it is impossible in any way to
+escape from the conclusions which it forces upon us.
+
+You are, doubtless, all aware that the outer substance of the earth,
+which alone is accessible to direct observation, is not of a homogeneous
+character, but that it is made up of a number of layers or strata, the
+titles of the principal groups of which are placed upon the accompanying
+diagram. Each of these groups represents a number of beds of sand, of
+stone, of clay, of slate, and of various other materials.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--IDEAL SECTION OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH.]
+
+On careful examination, it is found that the materials of which each of
+these layers of more or less hard rock are composed are, for the most
+part, of the same nature as those which are at present being formed
+under known conditions on the surface of the earth. For example, the
+chalk, which constitutes a great part of the Cretaceous formation in
+some parts of the world, is practically identical in its physical and
+chemical characters with a substance which is now being formed at the
+bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, and covers an enormous area; other beds of
+rock are comparable with the sands which are being formed upon
+sea-shores, packed together, and so on. Thus, omitting rocks of igneous
+origin, it is demonstrable that all these beds of stone, of which a
+total of not less than seventy thousand feet is known, have been formed
+by natural agencies, either out of the waste and washing of the dry
+land, or else by the accumulation of the exuviae of plants and animals.
+Many of these strata are full of such exuviae--the so-called "fossils."
+Remains of thousands of species of animals and plants, as perfectly
+recognisable as those of existing forms of life which you meet with in
+museums, or as the shells which you pick up upon the sea-beech, have
+been imbedded in the ancient sands, or muds, or limestones, just as they
+are being imbedded now, in sandy, or clayey, or calcareous subaqueous
+deposits. They furnish us with a record, the general nature of which
+cannot be misinterpreted, of the kinds of things that have lived upon
+the surface of the earth during the time that is registered by this
+great thickness of stratified rocks. But even a superficial study of
+these fossils shows us that the animals and plants which live at the
+present time have had only a temporary duration; for the remains of such
+modern forms of life are met with, for the most part, only in the
+uppermost or latest tertiaries, and their number rapidly diminishes in
+the lower deposits of that epoch. In the older tertiaries, the places of
+existing animals and plants are taken by other forms, as numerous and
+diversified as those which live now in the same localities, but more or
+less different from them; in the mesozoic rocks, these are replaced by
+others yet more divergent from modern types; and in the palaeozoic
+formations the contrast is still more marked. Thus the circumstantial
+evidence absolutely negatives the conception of the eternity of the
+present condition of things. We can say with certainty that the present
+condition of things has existed for a comparatively short period; and
+that, so far as animal and vegetable nature are concerned, it has been
+preceded by a different condition. We can pursue this evidence until we
+reach the lowest of the stratified rocks, in which we lose the
+indications of life altogether. The hypothesis of the eternity of the
+present state of nature may therefore be put out of court.
+
+We now come to what I will term Milton's hypothesis--the hypothesis that
+the present condition of things has endured for a comparatively short
+time; and, at the commencement of that time, came into existence within
+the course of six days. I doubt not that it may have excited some
+surprise in your minds that I should have spoken of this as Milton's
+hypothesis, rather than that I should have chosen the terms which are
+more customary, such as "the doctrine of creation," or "the Biblical
+doctrine," or "the doctrine of Moses," all of which denominations, as
+applied to the hypothesis to which I have just referred, are certainly
+much more familiar to you than the title of the Miltonic hypothesis. But
+I have had what I cannot but think are very weighty reasons for taking
+the course which I have pursued. In the first place, I have discarded
+the title of the "doctrine of creation," because my present business is
+not with the question why the objects which constitute Nature came into
+existence, but when they came into existence, and in what order. This is
+as strictly a historical question as the question when the Angles and
+the Jutes invaded England, and whether they preceded or followed the
+Romans. But the question about creation is a philosophical problem, and
+one which cannot be solved, or even approached, by the historical
+method. What we want to learn is, whether the facts, so far as they are
+known, afford evidence that things arose in the way described by Milton,
+or whether they do not; and, when that question is settled, it will be
+time enough to inquire into the causes of their origination.
+
+In the second place, I have not spoken of this doctrine as the Biblical
+doctrine. It is quite true that persons as diverse in their general
+views as Milton the Protestant and the celebrated Jesuit Father Suarez,
+each put upon the first chapter of Genesis the interpretation embodied
+in Milton's poem. It is quite true that this interpretation is that
+which has been instilled into every one of us in our childhood; but I do
+not for one moment venture to say that it can properly be called the
+Biblical doctrine. It is not my business, and does not lie within my
+competency, to say what the Hebrew text does, and what it does not
+signify; moreover, were I to affirm that this is the Biblical doctrine,
+I should be met by the authority of many eminent scholars, to say
+nothing of men of science, who, at various times, have absolutely denied
+that any such doctrine is to be found in Genesis. If we are to listen to
+many expositors of no mean authority, we must believe that what seems so
+clearly defined in Genesis--as if very great pains had been taken that
+there should be no possibility of mistake--is not the meaning of the
+text at all. The account is divided into periods that we may make just
+as long or as short as convenience requires. We are also to understand
+that it is consistent with the original text to believe that the most
+complex plants and animals may have been evolved by natural processes,
+lasting for millions of years, out of structureless rudiments. A person
+who is not a Hebrew scholar can only stand aside and admire the
+marvellous flexibility of a language which admits of such diverse
+interpretations. But assuredly, in the face of such contradictions of
+authority upon matters respecting which he is incompetent to form any
+judgment, he will abstain, as I do, from giving any opinion.
+
+In the third place, I have carefully abstained from speaking of this as
+the Mosaic doctrine, because we are now assured upon the authority of
+the highest critics, and even of dignitaries of the Church, that there
+is no evidence that Moses wrote the Book of Genesis, or knew anything
+about it. You will understand that I give no judgment--it would be an
+impertinence upon my part to volunteer even a suggestion--upon such a
+subject. But, that being the state of opinion among the scholars and the
+clergy, it is well for the unlearned in Hebrew lore, and for the laity,
+to avoid entangling themselves in such a vexed question. Happily, Milton
+leaves us no excuse for doubting what he means, and I shall therefore be
+safe in speaking of the opinion in question as the Miltonic hypothesis.
+
+Now we have to test that hypothesis. For my part, I have no prejudice
+one way or the other. If there is evidence in favour of this view, I am
+burdened by no theoretical difficulties in the way of accepting it; but
+there must be evidence. Scientific men get an awkward habit--no, I won't
+call it that, for it is a valuable habit--of believing nothing unless
+there is evidence for it; and they have a way of looking upon belief
+which is not based upon evidence, not only as illogical, but as immoral.
+We will, if you please, test this view by the circumstantial evidence
+alone; for, from what I have said, you will understand that I do not
+propose to discuss the question of what testimonial evidence is to be
+adduced in favour of it. If those whose business it is to judge are not
+at one as to the authenticity of the only evidence of that kind which is
+offered, nor as to the facts to which it bears witness, the discussion
+of such evidence is superfluous.
+
+But I may be permitted to regret this necessity of rejecting the
+testimonial evidence the less, because the examination of the
+circumstantial evidence leads to the conclusion, not only that it is
+incompetent to justify the hypothesis, but that, so far as it goes, it
+is contrary to the hypothesis.
+
+The considerations upon which I base this conclusion are of the simplest
+possible character. The Miltonic hypothesis contains assertions of a
+very definite character relating to the succession of living forms. It
+is stated that plants, for example, made their appearance upon the third
+day, and not before. And you will understand that what the poet means by
+plants are such plants as now live, the ancestors, in the ordinary way
+of propagation of like by like, of the trees and shrubs which flourish
+in the present world. It must needs be so; for, if they were different,
+either the existing plants have been the result of a separate
+origination since that described by Milton, of which we have no record,
+nor any ground for supposition that such an occurrence has taken place;
+or else they have arisen by a process of evolution from the original
+stocks.
+
+In the second place, it is clear that there was no animal life before
+the fifth day, and that, on the fifth day, aquatic animals and birds
+appeared. And it is further clear that terrestrial living things, other
+than birds, made their appearance upon the sixth day, and not before.
+Hence, it follows that, if, in the large mass of circumstantial evidence
+as to what really has happened in the past history of the globe we find
+indications of the existence of terrestrial animals, other than birds,
+at a certain period, it is perfectly certain that all that has taken
+place since that time must be referred to the sixth day.
+
+In the great Carboniferous formation, whence America derives so vast a
+proportion of her actual and potential wealth, in the beds of coal which
+have been formed from the vegetation of that period, we find abundant
+evidence of the existence of terrestrial animals. They have been
+described, not only by European but by your own naturalists. There are
+to be found numerous insects allied to our cockroaches. There are to be
+found spiders and scorpions of large size, the latter so similar to
+existing scorpions that it requires the practised eye of the naturalist
+to distinguish them. Inasmuch as these animals can be proved to have
+been alive in the Carboniferous epoch, it is perfectly clear that, if
+the Miltonic account is to be accepted, the huge mass of rocks extending
+from the middle of the Palaeozoic formations to the uppermost members of
+the series, must belong to the day which is termed by Milton the sixth.
+But, further, it is expressly stated that aquatic animals took their
+origin upon the fifth day, and not before; hence, all formations in
+which remains of aquatic animals can be proved to exist, and which
+therefore testify that such animals lived at the time when these
+formations were in course of deposition, must have been deposited during
+or since the period which Milton speaks of as the fifth day. But there
+is absolutely no fossiliferous formation in which the remains of aquatic
+animals are absent. The oldest fossils in the Silurian rocks are exuviae
+of marine animals; and if the view which is entertained by Principal
+Dawson and Dr. Carpenter respecting the nature of the _Eozooen_ be well
+founded, aquatic animals existed at a period as far antecedent to the
+deposition of the coal as the coal is from us; inasmuch as the _Eozooen_
+is met with in those Laurentian strata which lie at the bottom of the
+series of stratified rocks. Hence it follows, plainly enough, that the
+whole series of stratified rocks, if they are to be brought into harmony
+with Milton, must be referred to the fifth and sixth days, and that we
+cannot hope to find the slightest trace of the products of the earlier
+days in the geological record. When we consider these simple facts, we
+see how absolutely futile are the attempts that have been made to draw a
+parallel between the story told by so much of the crust of the earth as
+is known to us and the story which Milton tells. The whole series of
+fossiliferous stratified rocks must be referred to the last two days;
+and neither the Carboniferous, nor any other, formation can afford
+evidence of the work of the third day.
+
+Not only is there this objection to any attempt to establish a harmony
+between the Miltonic account and the facts recorded in the fossiliferous
+rocks, but there is a further difficulty. According to the Miltonic
+account, the order in which animals should have made their appearance in
+the stratified rocks would be this: Fishes, including the great whales,
+and birds; after them, all varieties of terrestrial animals except
+birds. Nothing could be further from the facts as we find them; we know
+of not the slightest evidence of the existence of birds before the
+Jurassic, or perhaps the Triassic, formation; while terrestrial animals,
+as we have just seen, occur in the Carboniferous rocks.
+
+If there were any harmony between the Miltonic account and the
+circumstantial evidence, we ought to have abundant evidence of the
+existence of birds in the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and the Silurian
+rocks. I need hardly say that this is not the case, and that not a trace
+of birds makes its appearance until the far later period which I have
+mentioned.
+
+And again, if it be true that all varieties of fishes and the great
+whales, and the like, made their appearance on the fifth day, we ought
+to find the remains of these animals in the older rocks--in those which
+were deposited before the Carboniferous epoch. Fishes we do find, in
+considerable number and variety; but the great whales are absent, and
+the fishes are not such as now live. Not one solitary species of fish
+now in existence is to be found in the Devonian or Silurian formations.
+Hence we are introduced afresh to the dilemma which I have already
+placed before you: either the animals which came into existence on the
+fifth day were not such as those which are found at present, are not the
+direct and immediate ancestors of those which now exist; in which case
+either fresh creations of which nothing is said; or a process of
+evolution must have occurred; or else the whole story must be given up,
+as not only devoid of any circumstantial evidence, but contrary to such
+evidence as exists.
+
+I placed before you in a few words, some little time ago, a statement of
+the sum and substance of Milton's hypothesis. Let me now try to state as
+briefly, the effect of the circumstantial evidence bearing upon the past
+history of the earth which is furnished, without the possibility of
+mistake, with no chance of error as to its chief features, by the
+stratified rocks. What we find is, that the great series of formations
+represents a period of time of which our human chronologies hardly
+afford us a unit of measure. I will not pretend to say how we ought to
+estimate this time, in millions or in billions of years. For my purpose,
+the determination of its absolute duration is wholly unessential. But
+that the time was enormous there can be no question.
+
+It results from the simplest methods of interpretation, that leaving out
+of view certain patches of metamorphosed rocks, and certain volcanic
+products, all that is now dry land has once been at the bottom of the
+waters. It is perfectly certain that, at a comparatively recent period
+of the world's history--the Cretaceous epoch--none of the great physical
+features which at present mark the surface of the globe existed. It is
+certain that the Rocky Mountains were not. It is certain that the
+Himalaya Mountains were not. It is certain that the Alps and the
+Pyrenees had no existence. The evidence is of the plainest possible
+character, and is simply this:--We find raised up on the flanks of these
+mountains, elevated by the forces of upheaval which have given rise to
+them, masses of Cretaceous rock which formed the bottom of the sea
+before those mountains existed. It is therefore clear that the elevatory
+forces which gave rise to the mountains operated subsequently to the
+Cretaceous epoch; and that the mountains themselves are largely made up
+of the materials deposited in the sea which once occupied their place.
+As we go back in time, we meet with constant alternations of sea and
+land, of estuary and open ocean; and, in correspondence with these
+alternations, we observe the changes in the fauna and flora to which I
+have referred.
+
+But the inspection of these changes give us no right to believe that
+there has been any discontinuity in natural processes. There is no trace
+of general cataclysms, of universal deluges, or sudden destructions of a
+whole fauna or flora. The appearances which were formerly interpreted in
+that way have all been shown to be delusive, as our knowledge has
+increased and as the blanks which formerly appeared to exist between the
+different formations have been filled up. That there is no absolute
+break between formation and formation, that there has been no sudden
+disappearance of all the forms of life and replacement of them by
+others, but that changes have gone on slowly and gradually, that one
+type has died out and another has taken its place, and that thus, by
+insensible degrees, one fauna has been replaced by another, are
+conclusions strengthened by constantly increasing evidence. So that
+within the whole of the immense period indicated by the fossiliferous
+stratified rocks, there is assuredly not the slightest proof of any
+break in the uniformity of Nature's operations, no indication that
+events have followed other than a clear and orderly sequence.
+
+That, I say, is the natural and obvious teaching of the circumstantial
+evidence contained in the stratified rocks. I leave you to consider how
+far, by any ingenuity of interpretation, by any stretching of the
+meaning of language, it can be brought into harmony with the Miltonic
+hypothesis.
+
+There remains the third hypothesis, that of which I have spoken as the
+hypothesis of evolution; and I purpose that, in lectures to come, we
+should discuss it as carefully as we have considered the other two
+hypotheses. I need not say that it is quite hopeless to look for
+testimonial evidence of evolution. The very nature of the case precludes
+the possibility of such evidence, for the human race can no more be
+expected to testify to its own origin, than a child can be tendered as a
+witness of its own birth. Our sole inquiry is, what foundation
+circumstantial evidence lends to the hypothesis, or whether it lends
+none, or whether it controverts the hypothesis. I shall deal with the
+matter entirely as a question of history. I shall not indulge in the
+discussion of any speculative probabilities. I shall not attempt to show
+that Nature is unintelligible unless we adopt some such hypothesis. For
+anything I know about the matter, it may be the way of Nature to be
+unintelligible; she is often puzzling, and I have no reason to suppose
+that she is bound to fit herself to our notions.
+
+I shall place before you three kinds of evidence entirely based upon
+what is known of the forms of animal life which are contained in the
+series of stratified rocks. I shall endeavour to show you that there is
+one kind of evidence which is neutral, which neither helps evolution nor
+is inconsistent with it. I shall then bring forward a second kind of
+evidence which indicates a strong probability in favour of evolution,
+but does not prove it; and, lastly, I shall adduce a third kind of
+evidence which, being as complete as any evidence which we can hope to
+obtain upon such a subject, and being wholly and strikingly in favour of
+evolution, may fairly be called demonstrative evidence of its
+occurrence.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE II.
+
+THE HYPOTHESIS OF EVOLUTION. THE NEUTRAL AND THE FAVOURABLE EVIDENCE.
+
+
+In the preceding lecture I pointed out that there are three hypotheses
+which may be entertained, and which have been entertained, respecting
+the past history of life upon the globe. According to the first of these
+hypotheses, living beings, such as now exist, have existed from all
+eternity upon this earth. We tested that hypothesis by the
+circumstantial evidence, as I called it, which is furnished by the
+fossil remains contained in the earth's crust, and we found that it was
+obviously untenable. I then proceeded to consider the second hypothesis,
+which I termed the Miltonic hypothesis, not because it is of any
+particular consequence to me whether John Milton seriously entertained
+it or not, but because it is stated in a clear and unmistakable manner
+in his great poem. I pointed out to you that the evidence at our command
+as completely and fully negatives that hypothesis as it did the
+preceding one. And I confess that I had too much respect for your
+intelligence to think it necessary to add that the negation was equally
+clear and equally valid, whatever the source from which that hypothesis
+might be derived, or whatever the authority by which it might be
+supported. I further stated that, according to the third hypothesis, or
+that of evolution, the existing state of things is the last term of a
+long series of states, which, when traced back, would be found to show
+no interruption and no breach in the continuity of natural causation. I
+propose, in the present, and the following lecture, to test this
+hypothesis rigorously by the evidence at command, and to inquire how far
+that evidence can be said to be indifferent to it, how far it can be
+said to be favourable to it, and, finally, how far it can be said to be
+demonstrative.
+
+From almost the origin of the discussions about the existing condition
+of the animal and vegetable worlds and the causes which have determined
+that condition, an argument has been put forward as an objection to
+evolution, which we shall have to consider very seriously. It is an
+argument which was first clearly stated by Cuvier in his criticism of
+the doctrines propounded by his great contemporary, Lamarck. The French
+expedition to Egypt had called the attention of learned men to the
+wonderful store of antiquities in that country, and there had been
+brought back to France numerous mummified corpses of the animals which
+the ancient Egyptians revered and preserved, and which, at a reasonable
+computation, must have lived not less than three or four thousand years
+before the time at which they were thus brought to light. Cuvier
+endeavoured to test the hypothesis that animals have undergone gradual
+and progressive modifications of structure, by comparing the skeletons
+and such other parts of the mummies as were in a fitting state of
+preservation, with the corresponding parts of the representatives of the
+same species now living in Egypt. He arrived at the conviction that no
+appreciable change had taken place in these animals in the course of
+this considerable lapse of time, and the justice of his conclusion is
+not disputed.
+
+It is obvious that, if it can be proved that animals have endured,
+without undergoing any demonstrable change of structure, for so long a
+period as four thousand years, no form of the hypothesis of evolution
+which assumes that animals undergo a constant and necessary progressive
+change can be tenable; unless, indeed, it be further assumed that four
+thousand years is too short a time for the production of a change
+sufficiently great to be detected.
+
+But it is no less plain that if the process of evolution of animals is
+not independent of surrounding conditions; if it may be indefinitely
+hastened or retarded by variations in these conditions; or if evolution
+is simply a process of accommodation to varying conditions; the argument
+against the hypothesis of evolution based on the unchanged character of
+the Egyptian fauna is worthless. For the monuments which are coeval with
+the mummies testify as strongly to the absence of change in the physical
+geography and the general conditions of the land of Egypt, for the time
+in question, as the mummies do to the unvarying characters of its living
+population.
+
+The progress of research since Cuvier's time has supplied far more
+striking examples of the long duration of specific forms of life than
+those which are furnished by the mummified Ibises and Crocodiles of
+Egypt. A remarkable case is to be found in your own country, in the
+neighbourhood of the falls of Niagara. In the immediate vicinity of the
+whirlpool, and again upon Goat Island, in the superficial deposits which
+cover the surface of the rocky subsoil in those regions, there are found
+remains of animals in perfect preservation, and among them, shells
+belonging to exactly the same species as those which at present inhabit
+the still waters of Lake Erie. It is evident, from the structure of the
+country, that these animal remains were deposited in the beds in which
+they occur at a time when the lake extended over the region in which
+they are found. This involves the conclusion that they lived and died
+before the falls had cut their way back through the gorge of Niagara;
+and, indeed, it has been determined that, when these animals lived, the
+falls of Niagara must have been at least six miles further down the
+river than they are at present. Many computations have been made of the
+rate at which the falls are thus cutting their way back. Those
+computations have varied greatly, but I believe I am speaking within the
+bounds of prudence, if I assume that the falls of Niagara have not
+retreated at a greater pace than about a foot a year. Six miles,
+speaking roughly, are 30,000 feet; 30,000 feet, at a foot a year, gives
+30,000 years; and thus we are fairly justified in concluding that no
+less a period than this has passed since the shell-fish, whose remains
+are left in the beds to which I have referred, were living creatures.
+
+But there is still stronger evidence of the long duration of certain
+types. I have already stated that, as we work our way through the great
+series of the Tertiary formations, we find many species of animals
+identical with those which live at the present day, diminishing in
+numbers, it is true, but still existing, in a certain proportion, in the
+oldest of the Tertiary rocks. Furthermore, when we examine the rocks of
+the Cretaceous epoch, we find the remains of some animals which the
+closest scrutiny cannot show to be, in any important respect, different
+from those which live at the present time. That is the case with one of
+the cretaceous lamp-shells (_Terebratula_), which has continued to exist
+unchanged, or with insignificant variations, down to the present day.
+Such is the case with the _Globigerinae_, the skeletons of which,
+aggregated together, form a large proportion of our English chalk. Those
+_Globigerinae_ can be traced down to the _Globigerinae_ which live at the
+surface of the present great oceans, and the remains of which, falling
+to the bottom of the sea, give rise to a chalky mud. Hence it must be
+admitted that certain existing species of animals show no distinct sign
+of modification, or transformation, in the course of a lapse of time as
+great as that which carries us back to the Cretaceous period; and which,
+whatever its absolute measure, is certainly vastly greater than thirty
+thousand years.
+
+There are groups of species so closely allied together that it needs the
+eye of a naturalist to distinguish them one from another. If we
+disregard the small differences which separate these forms and consider
+all the species of such groups as modifications of one type, we shall
+find that, even among the higher animals, some types have had a
+marvellous duration. In the chalk, for example, there is found a fish
+belonging to the highest and the most differentiated group of osseous
+fishes, which goes by the name of _Beryx_. The remains of that fish are
+among the most beautiful and well preserved of the fossils found in our
+English chalk. It can be studied anatomically, so far as the hard parts
+are concerned, almost as well as if it were a recent fish. But the genus
+_Beryx_ is represented, at the present day, by very closely allied
+species which are living in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. We may go
+still farther back. I have already referred to the fact that the
+Carboniferous formations, in Europe and in America, contain the remains
+of scorpions in an admirable state of preservation, and that those
+scorpions are hardly distinguishable from such as now live. I do not
+mean to say that they are not different, but close scrutiny is needed in
+order to distinguish them from modern scorpions.
+
+More than this. At the very bottom of the Silurian series, in beds which
+are by some authorities referred to the Cambrian formation, where the
+signs of life begin to fail us--even there, among the few and scanty
+animal remains which are discoverable, we find species of molluscous
+animals which are so closely allied to existing forms that, at one time,
+they were grouped under the same generic name. I refer to the well-known
+_Lingula_ of the _Lingula_ flags, lately, in consequence of some slight
+differences, placed in the new genus _Lingulella_. Practically, it
+belongs to the same great generic group as the _Lingula_, which is to be
+found at the present day upon your own shores and those of many other
+parts of the world.
+
+The same truth is exemplified if we turn to certain great periods of the
+earth's history--as, for example, the Mesozoic epoch. There are groups
+of reptiles, such as the _Ichthyosauria_ and the _Plesiosauria_, which
+appear shortly after the commencement of this epoch, and they occur in
+vast numbers. They disappear with the chalk and, throughout the whole of
+the great series of Mesozoic rocks, they present no such modifications
+as can safely be considered evidence of progressive modification.
+
+Facts of this kind are undoubtedly fatal to any form of the doctrine of
+evolution which postulates the supposition that there is an intrinsic
+necessity, on the part of animal forms which have once come into
+existence, to undergo continual modification; and they are as distinctly
+opposed to any view which involves the belief, that such modification as
+may occur, must take place, at the same rate, in all the different types
+of animal or vegetable life. The facts, as I have placed them before
+you, obviously directly contradict any form of the hypothesis of
+evolution which stands in need of these two postulates.
+
+But, one great service that has been rendered by Mr. Darwin to the
+doctrine of evolution in general is this: he has shown that there are
+two chief factors in the process of evolution: one of them is the
+tendency to vary, the existence of which in all living forms may be
+proved by observation; the other is the influence of surrounding
+conditions upon what I may call the parent form and the variations which
+are thus evolved from it. The cause of the production of variations is a
+matter not at all properly understood at present. Whether variation
+depends upon some intricate machinery--if I may use the phrase--of the
+living organism itself, or whether it arises through the influence of
+conditions upon that form, is not certain, and the question may, for the
+present, be left open. But the important point is that, granting the
+existence of the tendency to the production of variations; then, whether
+the variations which are produced shall survive and supplant the parent,
+or whether the parent form shall survive and supplant the variations, is
+a matter which depends entirely on those conditions which give rise to
+the struggle for existence. If the surrounding conditions are such that
+the parent form is more competent to deal with them and flourish in
+them, than the derived forms, then, in the struggle for existence, the
+parent form will maintain itself and the derived forms will be
+exterminated. But if, on the contrary, the conditions are such as to be
+more favourable to a derived than to the parent form, the parent form
+will be extirpated and the derived form will take its place. In the
+first case, there will be no progression, no change of structure,
+through any imaginable series of ages; in the second place, there will
+be modification and change of form.
+
+Thus the existence of these persistent types, as I have termed them, is
+no real obstacle in the way of the theory of evolution. Take the case of
+the scorpions to which I have just referred. No doubt, since the
+Carboniferous epoch, conditions have always obtained, such as existed
+when the scorpions of that epoch flourished; conditions in which
+scorpions find themselves better off, more competent to deal with the
+difficulties in their way, than any variation from the scorpion type
+which they may have produced; and, for that reason, the scorpion type
+has persisted, and has not been supplanted by any other form. And there
+is no reason, in the nature of things, why, as long as this world
+exists, if there be conditions more favourable to scorpions than to any
+variation which may arise from them, these forms of life should not
+persist.
+
+Therefore, the stock objection to the hypothesis of evolution, based on
+the long duration of certain animal and vegetable types, is no objection
+at all. The facts of this character--and they are numerous--belong to
+that class of evidence which I have called indifferent. That is to say,
+they may afford no direct support to the doctrine of evolution, but they
+are capable of being interpreted in perfect consistency with it.
+
+There is another order of facts belonging to the class of negative or
+indifferent evidence. The great group of Lizards, which abound in the
+present world, extends through the whole series of formations as far
+back as the Permian, or latest Palaeozoic, epoch. These Permian lizards
+differ astonishingly little from the lizards which exist at the present
+day. Comparing the amount of the differences between them and modern
+lizards, with the prodigious lapse of time between the Permian epoch and
+the present age, it may be said that the amount of change is
+insignificant. But, when we carry our researches farther back in time,
+we find no trace of lizards, nor of any true reptile whatever, in the
+whole mass of formations beneath the Permian.
+
+Now, it is perfectly clear that if our palaeontological collections are
+to be taken, even approximately, as an adequate representation of all
+the forms of animals and plants that have ever lived; and if the record
+furnished by the known series of beds of stratified rock, covers the
+whole series of events which constitute the history of life on the
+globe, such a fact as this directly contravenes the hypothesis of
+evolution; because this hypothesis postulates that the existence of
+every form must have been preceded by that of some form little different
+from it. Here, however, we have to take into consideration that
+important truth so well insisted upon by Lyell and by Darwin--the
+imperfection of the geological record. It can be demonstrated that the
+geological record must be incomplete, that it can only preserve remains
+found in certain favourable localities and under particular conditions;
+that it must be destroyed by processes of denudation, and obliterated by
+processes of metamorphosis. Beds of rock of any thickness, crammed full
+of organic remains, may yet, either by the percolation of water through
+them, or by the influence of subterranean heat, lose all trace of these
+remains, and present the appearance of beds of rock formed under
+conditions in which living forms were absent. Such metamorphic rocks
+occur in formations of all ages; and, in various cases, there are very
+good grounds for the belief that they have contained organic remains,
+and that those remains have been absolutely obliterated.
+
+I insist upon the defects of the geological record the more because
+those who have not attended to these matters are apt to say, "It is all
+very well, but when you get into a difficulty with your theory of
+evolution, you appeal to the incompleteness and the imperfection of the
+geological record;" and I want to make it perfectly clear to you that
+this imperfection is a great fact, which must be taken into account in
+all our speculations, or we shall constantly be going wrong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--TRACKS OF BRONTOZOUM.]
+
+You see the singular series of footmarks, drawn of its natural size in
+the large diagram hanging up here (Fig. 2), which I owe to the kindness
+of my friend Professor Marsh, with whom I had the opportunity recently
+of visiting the precise locality in Massachusetts in which these tracks
+occur. I am, therefore, able to give you my own testimony, if needed,
+that the diagram accurately represents what we saw. The valley of the
+Connecticut is classical ground for the geologist. It contains great
+beds of sandstone, covering many square miles, which have evidently
+formed a part of an ancient sea-shore, or, it may be, lake-shore. For a
+certain period of time after their deposition, these beds have remained
+sufficiently soft to receive the impressions of the feet of whatever
+animals walked over them, and to preserve them afterwards, in exactly
+the same way as such impressions are at this hour preserved on the
+shores of the Bay of Fundy and elsewhere. The diagram represents the
+track of some gigantic animal, which walked on its hind legs. You see
+the series of marks made alternately by the right and by the left foot;
+so that, from one impression to the other of the three-toed foot on the
+same side, is one stride, and that stride, as we measured it, is six
+feet nine inches. I leave you, therefore, to form an impression of the
+magnitude of the creature which, as it walked along the ancient shore,
+made these impressions.
+
+Of such impressions there are untold thousands upon these sandstones.
+Fifty or sixty different kinds have been discovered, and they cover vast
+areas. But, up to this present time, not a bone, not a fragment, of any
+one of the animals which left these great footmarks has been found; in
+fact, the only animal remains which have been met with in all these
+deposits, from the time of their discovery to the present day--though
+they have been carefully hunted over--is a fragmentary skeleton of one
+of the smaller forms. What has become of the bones of all these animals?
+You see we are not dealing with little creatures, but with animals that
+make a step of six feet nine inches; and their remains must have been
+left somewhere. The probability is, that they been dissolved away, and
+absolutely lost.
+
+I have had occasion to work out the nature of fossil remains, of which
+there was nothing left except casts of the bones, the solid material of
+the skeleton having been dissolved out by percolating water. It was a
+chance, in this case, that the sandstone happened to be of such a
+constitution as to set, and to allow the bones to be afterward dissolved
+out, leaving cavities of the exact shape of the bones. Had that
+constitution been other than what it was, the bones would have been
+dissolved, the layers of sandstone would have fallen together into one
+mass, and not the slightest indication that the animal had existed would
+have been discoverable.
+
+I know of no more striking evidence than these facts afford, of the
+caution which should be used in drawing the conclusion, from the absence
+of organic remains in a deposit, that animals or plants did not exist at
+the time it was formed. I believe that, with a right understanding of
+the doctrine of evolution on the one hand, and a just estimation of the
+importance of the imperfection of the geological record on the other,
+all difficulty is removed from the kind of evidence to which I have
+adverted; and that we are justified in believing that all such cases are
+examples of what I have designated negative or indifferent
+evidence--that is to say, they in no way directly advance the hypothesis
+of evolution, but they are not to be regarded as obstacles in the way of
+our belief in that doctrine.
+
+I now pass on to the consideration of those cases which, for reasons
+which I will point out to you by and by, are not to be regarded as
+demonstrative of the truth of evolution, but which are such as must
+exist if evolution be true, and which therefore are, upon the whole,
+evidence in favour of the doctrine. If the doctrine of evolution be
+true, it follows, that, however diverse the different groups of animals
+and of plants may be, they must all, at one time or other, have been
+connected by gradational forms; so that, from the highest animals,
+whatever they may be, down to the lowest speck of protoplasmic matter in
+which life can be manifested, a series of gradations, leading from one
+end of the series to the other, either exists or has existed.
+Undoubtedly that is a necessary postulate of the doctrine of evolution.
+But when we look upon living Nature as it is, we find a totally
+different state of things. We find that animals and plants fall into
+groups, the different members of which are pretty closely allied
+together, but which are separated by definite, larger or smaller, breaks
+from other groups. In other words, no intermediate forms which bridge
+over these gaps or intervals are, at present, to be met with.
+
+To illustrate what I mean: Let me call your attention to those
+vertebrate animals which are most familiar to you, such as mammals,
+birds, and reptiles. At the present day, these groups of animals are
+perfectly well defined from one another. We know of no animal now living
+which, in any sense, is intermediate between the mammal and the bird, or
+between the bird and the reptile; but, on the contrary, there are many
+very distinct anatomical peculiarities, well-defined marks, by which the
+mammal is separated from the bird, and the bird from the reptile. The
+distinctions are obvious and striking if you compare the definitions of
+these great groups as they now exist.
+
+The same may be said of many of the subordinate groups, or orders, into
+which these great classes are divided. At the present time, for example,
+there are numerous forms of non-ruminant pachyderms, or what we may call
+broadly, the pig tribe, and many varieties of ruminants. These latter
+have their definite characteristics, and the former have their
+distinguishing peculiarities. But there is nothing that fills up the gap
+between the ruminants and the pig tribe. The two are distinct. Such also
+is the case in respect of the minor groups of the class of reptiles. The
+existing fauna shows us crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and tortoises; but
+no connecting link between the crocodile and lizard, nor between the
+lizard and snake, nor between the snake and the crocodile, nor between
+any two of these groups. They are separated by absolute breaks. If,
+then, it could be shown that this state of things had always existed,
+the fact would be fatal to the doctrine of evolution. If the
+intermediate gradations, which the doctrine of evolution requires to
+have existed between these groups, are not to be found anywhere in the
+records of the past history of the globe, their absence is a strong and
+weighty negative argument against evolution; while, on the other hand,
+if such intermediate forms are to be found, that is so much to the good
+of evolution; although, for reasons which I will lay before you by and
+by, we must be cautious in our estimate of the evidential cogency of
+facts of this kind.
+
+It is a very remarkable circumstance that, from the commencement of the
+serious study of fossil remains; in fact, from the time when Cuvier
+began his brilliant researches upon those found in the quarries of
+Montmartre, palaeontology has shown what she was going to do in this
+matter, and what kind of evidence it lay in her power to produce.
+
+I said just now that, in the existing Fauna, the group of pig-like
+animals and the group of ruminants are entirely distinct; but one of the
+first of Cuvier's discoveries was an animal which he called the
+_Anoplotherium_, and which proved to be, in a great many important
+respects, intermediate in character between the pigs, on the one hand,
+and the ruminants on the other. Thus research into the history of the
+past did, to a certain extent, tend to fill up the breach between the
+group of ruminants and the group of pigs. Another remarkable animal
+restored by the great French palaeontologist, the _Palaeotherium_,
+similarly tended to connect together animals to all appearance so
+different as the rhinoceros, the horse, and the tapir. Subsequent
+research has brought to light multitudes of facts of the same order;
+and, at the present day, the investigations of such anatomists as
+Ruetimeyer and Gaudry have tended to fill up, more and more, the gaps in
+our existing series of mammals, and to connect groups formerly thought
+to be distinct.
+
+But I think it may have an especial interest if, instead of dealing with
+these examples, which would require a great deal of tedious osteological
+detail, I take the case of birds and reptiles; groups which, at the
+present day, are so clearly distinguished from one another that there
+are perhaps no classes of animals which, in popular apprehension, are
+more completely separated. Existing birds, as you are aware, are covered
+with feathers; their anterior extremities, specially and peculiarly
+modified, are converted into wings, by the aid of which most of them are
+able to fly; they walk upright upon two legs; and these limbs, when they
+are considered anatomically, present a great number of exceedingly
+remarkable peculiarities, to which I may have occasion to advert
+incidentally as I go on, and which are not met with, even approximately,
+in any existing forms of reptiles. On the other hand, existing reptiles
+have no feathers. They may have naked skins, or be covered with horny
+scales, or bony plates, or with both. They possess no wings; they
+neither fly by means of their fore-limbs, nor habitually walk upright
+upon their hind-limbs; and the bones of their legs present no such
+modifications as we find in birds. It is impossible to imagine any two
+groups more definitely and distinctly separated, notwithstanding certain
+characters which they possess in common.
+
+As we trace the history of birds back in time, we find their remains,
+sometimes in great abundance, throughout the whole extent of the
+tertiary rocks; but, so far as our present knowledge goes, the birds of
+the tertiary rocks retain the same essential characters as the birds of
+the present day. In other words, the tertiary birds come within the
+definition of the class constituted by existing birds, and are as much
+separated from reptiles as existing birds are. Not very long ago no
+remains of birds had been found below the tertiary rocks, and I am not
+sure but that some persons were prepared to demonstrate that they could
+not have existed at an earlier period. But in the course of the last few
+years, such remains have been discovered in England; though,
+unfortunately, in so imperfect and fragmentary a condition, that it is
+impossible to say whether they differed from existing birds in any
+essential character or not. In your country the development of the
+cretaceous series of rocks is enormous; the conditions under which the
+later cretaceous strata have been deposited are highly favourable to the
+preservation of organic remains; and the researches, full of labour and
+risk, which have been carried on by Professor Marsh in these cretaceous
+rocks of Western America, have rewarded him with the discovery of forms
+of birds of which we had hitherto no conception. By his kindness, I am
+enabled to place before you a restoration of one of these extraordinary
+birds, every part of which can be thoroughly justified by the more or
+less complete skeletons, in a very perfect state of preservation, which
+he has discovered. This _Hesperornis_ (Fig. 3), which measured between
+five and six feet in length, is astonishingly like our existing divers
+or grebes in a great many respects; so like them indeed that, had the
+skeleton of _Hesperornis_ been found in a museum without its skull, it
+probably would have been placed in the same group of birds as the divers
+and grebes of the present day.[1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh).]
+
+But _Hesperornis_ differs from all existing birds, and so far resembles
+reptiles, in one important particular--it is provided with teeth. The
+long jaws are armed with teeth which have curved crowns and thick roots
+(Fig. 4), and are not set in distinct sockets, but are lodged in a
+groove. In possessing true teeth, the _Hesperornis_ differs from every
+existing bird, and from every bird yet discovered in the tertiary
+formations, the tooth-like serrations of the jaws in the _Odontopteryx_
+of the London clay being mere processes of the bony substance of the
+jaws, and not teeth in the proper sense of the word. In view of the
+characteristics of this bird we are therefore obliged to modify the
+definitions of the classes of birds and reptiles. Before the discovery
+of _Hesperornis_, the definition of the class Aves based upon our
+knowledge of existing birds, might have been extended to all birds; it
+might have been said that the absence of teeth was characteristic of the
+class of birds; but the discovery of an animal which, in every part of
+its skeleton, closely agrees with existing birds, and yet possesses
+teeth, shows that there were ancient birds which, in respect of
+possessing teeth, approached reptiles more nearly than any existing bird
+does, and, to that extent, diminishes the _hiatus_ between the two
+classes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--HESPERORNIS REGALIS (Marsh).
+
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; side and end views of a
+vertebra and a separate tooth.)]
+
+The same formation has yielded another bird _Ichthyornis_ (Fig. 5),
+which also possesses teeth; but the teeth are situated in distinct
+sockets, while those of _Hesperornis_ are not so lodged. The latter also
+has such very small, almost rudimentary, wings, that it must have been
+chiefly a swimmer and a diver, like a Penguin; while _Ichthyornis_ has
+strong wings and no doubt possessed corresponding powers of flight.
+_Ichthyornis_ also differed in the fact that its vertebrae have not the
+peculiar characters of the vertebrae of existing and of all known
+tertiary birds, but were concave at each end. This discovery leads us to
+make a further modification in the definition of the group of birds, and
+to part with another of the characters by which almost all existing
+birds are distinguished from reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR (Marsh).
+
+(Side and upper views of half the lower jaw; and side and end views of a
+vertebra.)]
+
+Apart from the few fragmentary remains from the English greensand, to
+which I have referred, the mesozoic rocks, older than those in which
+_Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_ have been discovered have afforded no
+certain evidence of birds, with the remarkable exception of the
+Solenhofen slates. These so-called slates are composed of a fine grained
+calcareous mud which has hardened into lithographic stone, and in which
+organic remains are almost as well preserved as they would be if they
+had been imbedded in so much plaster of Paris. They have yielded the
+_Archaeopteryx_, the existence of which was first made known by the
+finding of a fossil feather, or rather of the impression of one. It is
+wonderful enough that such a perishable thing as a feather, and nothing
+more, should be discovered; yet, for a long time, nothing was known of
+this bird except its feather. But, by and by a solitary skeleton was
+discovered, which is now in the British Museum. The skull of this
+solitary specimen is unfortunately wanting, and it is therefore
+uncertain whether the _Archaeopteryx_ possessed teeth or not. But the
+remainder of the skeleton is so well preserved as to leave no doubt
+respecting the main features of the animal, which are very singular. The
+feet are not only altogether bird-like, but have the special characters
+of the feet of perching birds, while the body had a clothing of true
+feathers. Nevertheless, in some other respects, _Archaeopteryx_ is unlike
+a bird and like a reptile. There is a long tail composed of many
+vertebrae. The structure of the wing differs in some very remarkable
+respects from that which it presents in a true bird. In the latter, the
+end of the wing answers to the thumb and two fingers of my hand; but the
+metacarpal bones, or those which answer to the bones of the fingers
+which lie in the palm of the hand, are fused together into one mass; and
+the whole apparatus, except the last joints of the thumb, is bound up in
+a sheath of integument, while the edge of the hand carries the principal
+quill-feathers. In the _Archaeopteryx_, the upper-arm bone is like that
+of a bird; and the two bones of the fore-arm are more or less like those
+of a bird, but the fingers are not bound together--they are free. What
+their number may have been is uncertain; but several, if not all, of
+them were terminated by strong curved claws, not like such as are
+sometimes found in birds, but such as reptiles possess; so that, in the
+_Archaeopteryx_, we have an animal which, to a certain extent, occupies a
+midway place between a bird and a reptile. It is a bird so far as its
+foot and sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned; it is
+essentially and thoroughly a bird by its feathers; but it is much more
+properly a reptile in the fact that the region which represents the hand
+has separate bones, with claws resembling those which terminate the
+fore-limb of a reptile. Moreover, it had a long reptile-like tail with a
+fringe of feathers on each side; while, in all true birds hitherto
+known, the tail is relatively short, and the vertebrae which constitute
+its skeleton are generally peculiarly modified.
+
+Like the _Anoplotherium_ and the _Palaeotherium_, therefore,
+_Archaeopteryx_ tends to fill up the interval between groups which, in
+the existing world, are widely separated, and to destroy the value of
+the definitions of zoological groups based upon our knowledge of
+existing forms. And such cases as these constitute evidence in favour of
+evolution, in so far as they prove that, in former periods of the
+world's history, there were animals which overstepped the bounds of
+existing groups, and tended to merge them into larger assemblages. They
+show that animal organisation is more flexible than our knowledge of
+recent forms might have led us to believe; and that many structural
+permutations and combinations, of which the present world gives us no
+indication, may nevertheless have existed.
+
+But it by no means follows, because the _Palaeotherium_ has much in
+common with the Horse, on the one hand, and with the Rhinoceros on the
+other, that it is the intermediate form through which Rhinoceroses have
+passed to become Horses, or _vice versa_; on the contrary, any such
+supposition would certainly be erroneous. Nor do I think it likely that
+the transition from the reptile to the bird has been effected by such a
+form as _Archaeopteryx_. And it is convenient to distinguish these
+intermediate forms between two groups, which do not represent the actual
+passage from the one group to the other, as _intercalary_ types, from
+those _linear_ types which, more or less approximately, indicate the
+nature of the steps by which the transition from one group to the other
+was effected.
+
+I conceive that such linear forms, constituting a series of natural
+gradations between the reptile and the bird, and enabling us to
+understand the manner in which the reptilian has been metamorphosed into
+the bird type, are really to be found among a group of ancient and
+extinct terrestrial reptiles known as the _Ornithoscelida_. The remains
+of these animals occur throughout the series of mesozoic formations,
+from the Trias to the Chalk, and there are indications of their
+existence even in the later Palaeozoic strata.
+
+Most of these reptiles at present known are of great size, some having
+attained a length of forty feet or perhaps more. The majority resembled
+lizards and crocodiles in their general form, and many of them were,
+like crocodiles, protected by an armour of heavy bony plates. But, in
+others, the hind limbs elongate and the fore limbs shorten, until their
+relative proportions approach those which are observed in the
+short-winged, flightless, ostrich tribe among birds.
+
+The skull is relatively light, and in some cases the jaws, though
+bearing teeth, are beak-like at their extremities and appear to have
+been enveloped in a horny sheath. In the part of the vertebral column
+which lies between the haunch bones and is called the sacrum, a number
+of vertebrae may unite together into one whole, and in this respect, as
+in some details of its structure, the sacrum of these reptiles
+approaches that of birds.
+
+But it is in the structure of the pelvis and of the hind limb that some
+of these ancient reptiles present the most remarkable approximation to
+birds, and clearly indicate the way by which the most specialized and
+characteristic features of the bird may have been evolved from the
+corresponding parts in the reptile.
+
+In Fig. 6, the pelvis and hind limbs of a crocodile, a three-toed bird,
+and an ornithoscelidan are represented side by side; and, for facility
+of comparison, in corresponding positions; but it must be recollected
+that, while the position of the bird's limb is natural, that of the
+crocodile is not so. In the bird, the thigh-bone lies close to the body,
+and the metatarsal bones of the foot (ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) are,
+ordinarily, raised into a more or less vertical position; in the
+crocodile, the thigh-bone stands out at an angle from the body, and the
+metatarsal bones (i., ii., iii., iv., Fig. 6) lie flat on the ground.
+Hence, in the crocodile, the body usually lies squat between the legs,
+while, in the bird, it is raised upon the hind legs, as upon pillars.
+
+In the crocodile, the pelvis is obviously composed of three bones on
+each side: the ilium (Il.), the pubis (Pb.), and the ischium (Is.). In
+the adult bird there appears to be but one bone on each side. The
+examination of the pelvis of a chick, however, shows that each half is
+made up of three bones, which answer to those which remain distinct
+throughout life, in the crocodile. There is, therefore, a fundamental
+identity of plan in the construction of the pelvis of both bird and
+reptile; though the differences in form, relative size, and direction of
+the corresponding bones in the two cases are very great.
+
+But the most striking contrast between the two lies in the bones of the
+leg and of that part of the foot termed the tarsus, which follows upon
+the leg. In the crocodile, the fibula (F) is relatively large and its
+lower end is complete. The tibia (T) has no marked crest at its upper
+end, and its lower end is narrow and not pulley-shaped. There are two
+rows of separate tarsal bones (As., Ca., &c.) and four distinct
+metatarsal bones, with a rudiment of a fifth.
+
+In the bird, the fibula is small and its lower end diminishes to a
+point. The tibia has a strong crest at its upper end and its lower
+extremity passes into a broad pulley. There seem at first to be no
+tarsal bones; and only one bone, divided at the end into three heads for
+the three toes which are attached to it, appears in the place of the
+metatarsus.
+
+In a young bird, however, the pulley-shaped apparent end of the tibia is
+a distinct bone, which represents the bones marked As., Ca., in the
+crocodile; while the apparently single metatarsal bone consists of three
+bones, which early unite with one another and with an additional bone,
+which represents the lower row of bones in the tarsus of the crocodile.
+
+In other words, it can be shown by the study of development that the
+bird's pelvis and hind limb are simply extreme modifications of the same
+fundamental plan as that upon which these parts are modelled in
+reptiles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--BIRD. ORNITHOSCELIDAN. CROCODILE.
+
+(The letters have the same signification in all the figures. Il.,
+Ilium; a, anterior end; b, posterior end; Is., ischium; Pb.,
+pubis; T, tibia; F, fibula; As., astragalus; Ca., calcaneum; 1,
+distal portion of the tarsus; i., ii., iii., iv.; metatarsal bones.)]
+
+On comparing the pelvis and hind limb of the ornithoscelidan with that
+of the crocodile, on the one side, and that of the bird, on the other
+(Fig. 6), it is obvious that it represents a middle term between the
+two. The pelvic bones approach the form of those of the birds, and the
+direction of the pubis and ischium is nearly that which is
+characteristic of birds; the thigh bone, from the direction of its head,
+must have lain close to the body; the tibia has a great crest; and,
+immovably fitted on to its lower end, there is a pulley-shaped bone,
+like that of the bird, but remaining distinct. The lower end of the
+fibula is much more slender, proportionally, than in the crocodile. The
+metatarsal bones have such a form that they fit together immovably,
+though they do not enter into bony union; the third toe is, as in the
+bird, longest and strongest. In fact, the ornithoscelidan limb is
+comparable to that of an unhatched chick.
+
+Taking all these facts together, it is obvious that the view, which was
+entertained by Mantell and the probability of which was demonstrated by
+your own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, while much additional evidence
+in the same direction has been furnished by Professor Cope, that some of
+these animals may have walked upon their hind legs, as birds do,
+acquires great weight. In fact, there can be no reasonable doubt that
+one of the smaller forms of the _Ornithoscelida_, _Compsognathus_, the
+almost entire skeleton of which has been discovered in the Solenhofen
+slates, was a bipedal animal. The parts of this skeleton are somewhat
+twisted out of their natural relations, but the accompanying figure
+gives a just view of the general form of _Compsognathus_ and of the
+proportions of its limbs; which, in some respects, are more completely
+bird-like than those of other _Ornithoscelida_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--RESTORATION OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES.]
+
+We have had to stretch the definition of the class of birds so as to
+include birds with teeth and birds with paw-like fore-limbs and long
+tails. There is no evidence that _Compsognathus_ possessed feathers;
+but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to say whether it should be
+called a reptilian bird or an avian reptile.
+
+As _Compsognathus_ walked upon its hind legs, it must have made tracks
+like those of birds. And as the structure of the limbs of several of the
+gigantic _Ornithoscelida_, such as _Iguandon_, leads to the conclusion
+that they also may have constantly, or occasionally, assumed the same
+attitude, a peculiar interest attaches to the fact that, in the Wealden
+strata of England, there are to be found gigantic footsteps, arranged in
+order like those of the _Brontozoum_, and which there can be no
+reasonable doubt were made by some of the _Ornithoscelida_, the remains
+of which are found in the same rocks. And, knowing that reptiles that
+walked upon their hind legs and shared many of the anatomical characters
+of birds did once exist, it becomes a very important question whether
+the tracks in the Trias of Massachusetts, to which I referred some time
+ago, and which formerly used to be unhesitatingly ascribed to birds, may
+not all have been made by Ornithoscelidan reptiles; and whether, if we
+could obtain the skeletons of the animals which made these tracks, we
+should not find in them the actual steps of the evolutional process by
+which reptiles gave rise to birds.
+
+The evidential value of the facts I have brought forward in this Lecture
+must be neither over nor under estimated. It is not historical proof of
+the occurrence of the evolution of birds from reptiles, for we have no
+safe ground for assuming that true birds had not made their appearance
+at the commencement of the Mesozoic epoch. It is, in fact, quite
+possible that all these more or less avi-form reptiles of the Mesozoic
+epoch are not terms in the series of progression from birds to reptiles
+at all but simply the more or less modified descendants of Palaeozoic
+forms through which that transition was actually effected.
+
+We are not in a position to say that the known _Ornithoscelida_ are
+intermediate in the order of their appearance on the earth between
+reptiles and birds. All that can be said is that, if independent
+evidence of the actual occurrence of evolution is producible, then these
+intercalary forms remove every difficulty in the way of understanding
+what the actual steps of the process, in the case of birds, may have
+been.
+
+That intercalary forms should have existed in ancient times is a
+necessary consequence of the truth of the hypothesis of evolution; and,
+hence, the evidence I have laid before you in proof of the existence of
+such forms, is, so far as it goes, in favour of that hypothesis.
+
+There is another series of extinct reptiles, which may be said to be
+intercalary between reptiles and birds, in so far as they combine some
+of the characters of both these groups; and, which, as they possessed
+the power of flight, may seem, at first sight, to be nearer
+representatives of the forms by which the transition from the reptile to
+the bird was effected, than the _Ornithoscelida_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--PTERODACTYLUS SPECTABILIS (Von Meyer).]
+
+These are the _Pterosauria_, or Pterodactyles, the remains of which are
+met with throughout the series of Mesozoic rocks, from the lias to the
+chalk, and some of which attained a great size, their wings having a
+span of eighteen or twenty feet. These animals, in the form and
+proportions of the head and neck relatively to the body, and in the fact
+that the ends of the jaws were often, if not always, more or less
+extensively ensheathed in horny beaks, remind us of birds. Moreover,
+their bones contained air cavities, rendering them specifically lighter,
+as is the case in most birds. The breast-bone was large and keeled, as in
+most birds and in bats, and the shoulder girdle is strikingly similar to
+that of ordinary birds. But, it seems to me, that the special
+resemblance of pterodactyles to birds ends here, unless I may add the
+entire absence of teeth which characterizes the great pterodactyles
+(_Pteranodon_), discovered by Professor Marsh. All other known
+pterodactyles have teeth lodged in sockets. In the vertebral column and
+the hind limbs there are no special resemblances to birds, and when we
+turn to the wings they are found to be constructed on a totally
+different principle from those of birds.
+
+There are four fingers. These four fingers are large, and three of them,
+those which answer to the thumb and two following fingers in my
+hand--are terminated by claws, while the fourth is enormously prolonged
+and converted into a great jointed style. You see at once, from what I
+have stated about a bird's wing, that there could be nothing less like a
+bird's wing than this is. It concluded by general reasoning that this
+finger had the office of supporting a web which extended between it and
+the body. An existing specimen proves that such was really the case, and
+that the pterodactyles were devoid of feathers, but that the fingers
+supported a vast web like that of a bat's wing; in fact, there can be no
+doubt that this ancient reptile flew after the fashion of a bat.
+
+Thus though the pterodactyle is a reptile which has become modified in
+such a manner as to enable it to fly, and therefore, as might be
+expected, presents some points of resemblance to other animals which
+fly; it has, so to speak, gone off the line which leads directly from
+reptiles to birds, and has become disqualified for the changes which
+lead to the characteristic organization of the latter class. Therefore,
+viewed in relation to the classes of reptiles and birds, the
+pterodactyles appear to me to be, in a limited sense, intercalary forms;
+but they are not even approximately linear, in the sense of exemplifying
+those modifications of structure through which the passage from the
+reptile to the bird took place.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III.
+
+THE DEMONSTRATIVE EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.
+
+
+The occurrence of historical facts is said to be demonstrated, when the
+evidence that they happened is of such a character as to render the
+assumption that they did not happen in the highest degree improbable;
+and the question I now have to deal with is, whether evidence in favour
+of the evolution of animals of this degree of cogency is, or is not,
+obtainable from the record of the succession of living forms which is
+presented to us by fossil remains.
+
+Those who have attended to the progress of palaeontology are aware that
+evidence of the character which I have defined has been produced in
+considerable and continually-increasing quantity during the last few
+years. Indeed, the amount and the satisfactory nature of that evidence
+are somewhat surprising, when we consider the conditions under which
+alone we can hope to obtain it.
+
+It is obviously useless to seek for such evidence except in localities
+in which the physical conditions have been such as to permit of the
+deposit of an unbroken, or but rarely interrupted, series of strata
+through a long period of time; in which the group of animals to be
+investigated has existed in such abundance as to furnish the requisite
+supply of remains; and in which, finally, the materials composing the
+strata are such as to ensure the preservation of these remains in a
+tolerably perfect and undisturbed state.
+
+It so happens that the case which, at present, most nearly fulfils all
+these conditions is that of the series of extinct animals which
+culminates in the Horses; by which term I mean to denote not merely the
+domestic animals with which we are all so well acquainted, but their
+allies, the ass, zebra, quagga, and the like. In short, I use "horses"
+as the equivalent of the technical name _Equidae_, which is applied to
+the whole group of existing equine animals.
+
+The horse is in many ways a remarkable animal; not least so in the fact
+that it presents us with an example of one of the most perfect pieces of
+machinery in the living world. In truth, among the works of human
+ingenuity it cannot be said that there is any locomotive so perfectly
+adapted to its purposes, doing so much work with so small a quantity of
+fuel, as this machine of nature's manufacture--the horse. And, as a
+necessary consequence of any sort of perfection, of mechanical
+perfection as of others, you find that the horse is a beautiful
+creature, one of the most beautiful of all land-animals. Look at the
+perfect balance of its form, and the rhythm and force of its action. The
+locomotive machinery is, as you are aware, resident in its slender fore
+and hind limbs; they are flexible and elastic levers, capable of being
+moved by very powerful muscles; and, in order to supply the engines
+which work these levers with the force which they expend, the horse is
+provided with a very perfect apparatus for grinding its food and
+extracting therefrom the requisite fuel.
+
+Without attempting to take you very far into the region of osteological
+detail, I must nevertheless trouble you with some statements respecting
+the anatomical structure of the horse; and, more especially, will it be
+needful to obtain a general conception of the structure of its fore and
+hind limbs, and of its teeth. But I shall only touch upon those points
+which are absolutely essential to our inquiry.
+
+Let us turn in the first place to the fore-limb. In most quadrupeds, as
+in ourselves, the fore-arm contains distinct bones called the radius and
+the ulna. The corresponding region in the Horse seem at first to possess
+but one bone. Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in
+this bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna.
+This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which represents
+the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft which may be traced for
+some distance downwards upon the back of the radius, and then in most
+cases thins out and vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure
+of what is nevertheless the fact, that a small part of the lower end of
+the bone of the horse's fore-arm, which is only distinct in a very young
+foal, is really the lower extremity of the ulna.
+
+What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The "cannon
+bone" answers to the middle bone of the five metacarpal bones, which
+support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The "pastern," "coronary,"
+and "coffin" bones of veterinarians answer to the joints of our middle
+fingers, while the hoof is simply a greatly enlarged and thickened nail.
+But if what lies below the horse's "knee" thus corresponds to the middle
+finger in ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or
+digits? We find in the places of the second and fourth digits only two
+slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the cannon bone,
+which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no finger joints, or,
+as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes, small bony or gristly nodules
+are to be found at the bases of these two metacarpal splints, and it is
+probable that these represent rudiments of the first and fifth toes.
+Thus, the part of the horse's skeleton, which corresponds with that of
+the human hand, contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two
+imperfect lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the third,
+the second, and the fourth fingers in man.
+
+Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. In ourselves,
+and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains two distinct bones, a large
+bone, the tibia, and a smaller and more slender bone, the fibula. But,
+in the horse, the fibula seems, at first, to be reduced to its upper
+end; a short slender bone united with the tibia, and ending in a point
+below, occupying its place. Examination of the lower end of a young
+foal's shin-bone, however, shows a distinct portion of osseous matter,
+which is the lower end of the fibula; so that the, apparently single,
+lower end of the shin-bone is really made up of the coalesced ends of
+the tibia and fibula, just as the, apparently single, lower end of the
+fore-arm bone is composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+
+The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the hock. The hinder
+cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of the human foot, the
+pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, to the middle toe bones; the hind
+hoof to the nail; as in the fore-foot. And, as in the fore-foot, there
+are merely two splints to represent the second and the fourth toes.
+Sometimes a rudiment of a fifth toe appears to be traceable.
+
+The teeth of a horse are not less peculiar than its limbs. The living
+engine, like all others, must be well stoked if it is to do its work;
+and the horse, if it is to make good its wear and tear, and to exert the
+enormous amount of force required for its propulsion, must be well and
+rapidly fed. To this end, good cutting instruments and powerful and
+lasting crushers are needful. Accordingly, the twelve cutting teeth of a
+horse are close-set and concentrated in the fore part of its mouth, like
+so many adzes or chisels. The grinders or molars are large, and have an
+extremely complicated structure, being composed of a number of different
+substances of unequal hardness. The consequence of this is that they
+wear away at different rates; and, hence, the surface of each grinder is
+always as uneven as that of a good millstone.
+
+I have said that the structure of the grinding teeth is very
+complicated, the harder and the softer parts being, as it were,
+interlaced with one another. The result of this is that, as the tooth
+wears, the crown presents a peculiar pattern, the nature of which is not
+very easily deciphered at first; but which it is important we should
+understand clearly. Each grinding tooth of the upper jaw has an _outer
+wall_ so shaped that, on the worn crown, it exhibits the form of two
+crescents, one in front and one behind, with their concave sides turned
+outwards. From the inner side of the front crescent, a crescentic _front
+ridge_ passes inwards and backwards, and its inner face enlarges into a
+strong longitudinal fold or _pillar_. From the front part of the hinder
+crescent, a _back ridge_ takes a like direction, and also has its
+_pillar_.
+
+The deep interspaces or _valleys_ between these ridges and the outer
+wall are filled by bony substance, which is called _cement_, and coats
+the whole tooth.
+
+The pattern of the worn face of each grinding tooth of the lower jaw is
+quite different. It appears to be formed of two crescent-shaped ridges,
+the convexities of which are turned outwards. The free extremity of each
+crescent has a _pillar_, and there is a large double _pillar_ where the
+two crescents meet. The whole structure is, as it were, imbedded in
+cement, which fills up the valleys, as in the upper grinders.
+
+If the grinding faces of an upper and of a lower molar of the same side
+are applied together, it will be seen that the apposed ridges are
+nowhere parallel, but that they frequently cross; and that thus, in the
+act of mastication, a hard surface in the one is constantly applied to a
+soft surface in the other, and _vice versa_. They thus constitute a
+grinding apparatus of great efficiency, and one which is repaired as
+fast as it wears, owing to the long-continued growth of the teeth.
+
+Some other peculiarities of the dentition of the horse must be noticed,
+as they bear upon what I shall have to say by and by. Thus the crowns of
+the cutting teeth have a peculiar deep pit, which gives rise to the
+well-known "mark" of the horse. There is a large space between the outer
+incisors and the front grinder. In this space the adult male horse
+presents, near the incisors on each side, above and below, a canine or
+"tush," which is commonly absent in mares. In a young horse, moreover,
+there is not unfrequently to be seen in front of the first grinder, a
+very small tooth, which soon falls out. If this small tooth be counted
+as one, it will be found that there are seven teeth behind the canine on
+each side; namely, the small tooth in question, and the six great
+grinders, among which, by an unusual peculiarity, the foremost tooth is
+rather larger than those which follow it.
+
+I have now enumerated those characteristic structures of the horse which
+are of most importance for the purpose we have in view.
+
+To any one who is acquainted with the morphology of vertebrated animals,
+they show that the horse deviates widely from the general structure of
+mammals; and that the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme
+modification of the general mammalian plan. The least modified mammals,
+in fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct and
+separate. They have five distinct and complete digits on each foot, and
+no one of these digits is very much larger than the rest. Moreover, in
+the least modified mammals, the total number of the teeth is very
+generally forty-four, while in horses, the usual number is forty, and in
+the absence of the canines, it may be reduced to thirty-six; the incisor
+teeth are devoid of the fold seen in those of the horse: the grinders
+regularly diminish in size from the middle of the series to its front
+end; while their crowns are short, early attain their full length, and
+exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place of the complex foldings of
+the horse's grinders.
+
+Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of evolution lead to the
+conclusion that the horse must have been derived from some quadruped
+which possessed five complete digits on each foot; which had the bones
+of the fore-arm and of the leg complete and separate; and which
+possessed forty-four teeth, among which the crowns of the incisors and
+grinders had a simple structure; while the latter gradually increased in
+size from before backwards, at any rate in the anterior part of the
+series, and had short crowns.
+
+And if the horse has been thus evolved, and the remains of the different
+stages of its evolution have been preserved, they ought to present us
+with a series of forms in which the number of the digits becomes
+reduced; the bones of the fore-arm and leg gradually take on the equine
+condition; and the form and arrangement of the teeth successively
+approximate to those which obtain in existing horses.
+
+Let us turn to the facts, and see how far they fulfil these requirements
+of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the Quaternary and
+later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene formation. But these
+horses, which are so common in the cave-deposits and in the gravels of
+Europe, are in all essential respects like existing horses. And that is
+true of all the horses of the latter part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in
+deposits which belong to the earlier Pliocene and later Miocene epochs,
+and which occur in Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in India,
+we find animals which are extremely like horses--which, in fact, are so
+similar to horses, that you may follow descriptions given in works upon
+the anatomy of the horse upon the skeletons of these animals--but which
+differ in some important particulars. For example, the structure of
+their fore and hind limbs is somewhat different. The bones which, in the
+horse, are represented by two splints, imperfect below, are as long as
+the middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the
+extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same general
+character as those of the middle digit, only very much smaller. These
+small digits are so disposed that they could have had but very little
+functional importance, and they must have been rather of the nature of
+the dew-claws, such as are to be found in many ruminant animals. The
+_Hipparion_, as the extinct European three-toed horse is called, in
+fact, presents a foot similar to that of the American _Protohippus_
+(Fig. 9), except that, in the _Hipparion_, the smaller digits are
+situated farther back, and are of smaller proportional size, than in the
+_Protohippus_.
+
+The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse; and the whole
+length of it, as a very slender shaft, intimately united with the
+radius, is completely traceable. The fibula appears to be in the same
+condition as in the horse. The teeth of the _Hipparion_ are essentially
+similar to those of the horse, but the pattern of the grinders is in
+some respects a little more complex, and there is a depression on the
+face of the skull in front of the orbit, which is not seen in existing
+horses.
+
+In the earlier Miocene, and perhaps the later Eocene deposits of some
+parts of Europe, another extinct animal has been discovered, which
+Cuvier, who first described some fragments of it, considered to be a
+_Palaeotherium_. But as further discoveries threw new light upon its
+structure, it was recognised as a distinct genus, under the name of
+_Anchitherium_.
+
+In its general characters, the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is very
+similar to that of the horse. In fact, Lartet and De Blainville called
+it _Palaeotherium equinum_ or _hippoides_; and De Christol, in 1847, said
+that it differed from _Hipparion_ in little more than the characters of
+its teeth, and gave it the name of _Hipparitherium_. Each foot possesses
+three complete toes; while the lateral toes are much larger in
+proportion to the middle toe than in _Hipparion_, and doubtless rested
+on the ground in ordinary locomotion.
+
+The ulna is complete and quite distinct from the radius, though firmly
+united with the latter. The fibula seems also to have been complete. Its
+lower end, though intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+marked off from the latter bone.
+
+There are forty-four teeth. The incisors have no strong pit. The canines
+seem to have been well developed in both sexes. The first of the seven
+grinders, which, as I have said, is frequently absent, and, when it does
+exist, is small in the horse, is a good-sized and permanent tooth, while
+the grinder which follows it is but little larger than the hinder ones.
+The crowns of the grinders are short, and though the fundamental pattern
+of the horse-tooth is discernible, the front and back ridges are less
+curved, the accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much
+shallower, are not filled up with cement.
+
+Seven years ago, when I happened to be looking critically into the
+bearing of palaeontological facts upon the doctrine of evolution, it
+appeared to me that the _Anchitherium_, the _Hipparion_, and the modern
+horses, constitute a series in which the modifications of structure
+coincide with the order of chronological occurrence, in the manner in
+which they must coincide, if the modern horses really are the result of
+the gradual metamorphosis, in the course of the Tertiary epoch, of a
+less specialised ancestral form. And I found by correspondence with the
+late eminent French anatomist and palaeontologist, M. Lartet, that he had
+arrived at the same conclusion from the same data.
+
+That the _Anchitherium_ type had become metamorphosed into the
+_Hipparion_ type, and the latter into the _Equine_ type, in the course
+of that period of time which is represented by the latter half of the
+Tertiary deposits, seemed to me to be the only explanation of the facts
+for which there was even a shadow of probability.[2]
+
+And, hence, I have ever since held that these facts afford evidence of
+the occurrence of evolution, which, in the sense already defined, may be
+termed demonstrative.
+
+All who have occupied themselves with the structure of _Anchitherium_,
+from Cuvier onwards, have acknowledged its many points of likeness to a
+well-known genus of extinct Eocene mammals, _Palaeotherium_. Indeed, as
+we have seen, Cuvier regarded his remains of _Anchitherium_ as those of
+a species of _Palaeotherium_. Hence, in attempting to trace the pedigree
+of the horse beyond the Miocene epoch and the Anchitheroid form, I
+naturally sought among the various species of Palaeotheroid animals for
+its nearest ally, and I was led to conclude that the _Palaeotherium
+minus (Plagiolophus)_ represented the next step more nearly than any
+form then known.
+
+I think that this opinion was fully justifiable; but the progress of
+investigation has thrown an unexpected light on the question, and has
+brought us much nearer than could have been anticipated to a knowledge
+of the true series of the progenitors of the horse.
+
+You are all aware that, when your country was first discovered by
+Europeans, there were no traces of the existence of the horse in any
+part of the American Continent. The accounts of the conquest of Mexico
+dwell upon the astonishment of the natives of that country when they
+first became acquainted with that astounding phenomenon--a man seated
+upon a horse. Nevertheless, the investigations of American geologists
+have proved that the remains of horses occur in the most superficial
+deposits of both North and South America, just as they do in Europe.
+Therefore, for some reason or other--no feasible suggestion on that
+subject, so far as I know, has been made--the horse must have died out
+on this continent at some period preceding the discovery of America. Of
+late years there has been discovered in your Western Territories that
+marvellous accumulation of deposits, admirably adapted for the
+preservation of organic remains, to which I referred the other evening,
+and which furnishes us with a consecutive series of records of the fauna
+of the older half of the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel
+in Europe. They have yielded fossils in an excellent state of
+conservation and in unexampled number and variety. The researches of
+Leidy and others have shown that forms allied to the _Hipparion_ and the
+_Anchitherium_ are to be found among these remains. But it is only
+recently that the admirably conceived and most thoroughly and patiently
+worked-out investigations of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea
+of the vast fossil wealth, and of the scientific importance, of these
+deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the collections in
+Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so far as my knowledge extends,
+there is no collection from any one region and series of strata
+comparable, for extent, or for the care with which the remains have been
+got together, or for their scientific importance, to the series of
+fossils which he has deposited there. This vast collection has yielded
+evidence bearing upon the question of the pedigree of the horse of the
+most striking character. It tends to show that we must look to America,
+rather than to Europe, for the original seat of the equine series; and
+that the archaic forms and successive modifications of the horse's
+ancestry are far better preserved here than in Europe.
+
+Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before you a diagram,
+every figure in which is an actual representation of some specimen which
+is to be seen at Yale at this present time (Fig. 9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+The succession of forms which he has brought together carries us from
+the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there is the true
+horse. Next we have the American Pliocene form of the horse
+(_Pliohippus_); in the conformation of its limbs it presents some very
+slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and the crowns of the
+grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the _Protohippus_, which
+represents the European _Hipparion_, having one large digit and two
+small ones on each foot, and the general characters of the fore-arm and
+leg to which I have referred. But it is more valuable than the European
+_Hipparion_ for the reason that it is devoid of some of the
+peculiarities of that form--peculiarities which tend to show that the
+European _Hipparion_ is rather a member of a collateral branch, than a
+form in the direct line of succession. Next, in the backward order in
+time, is the _Miohippus_, which corresponds pretty nearly with the
+_Anchitherium_ of Europe. It presents three complete toes--one large
+median and two smaller lateral ones; and there is a rudiment of that
+digit, which answers to the little finger of the human hand.
+
+The European record of the pedigree of the horse stops here; in the
+American Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of ancestral equine
+forms is continued into the Eocene formations. An older Miocene form,
+termed _Mesohippus_, has three toes in front, with a large splint-like
+rudiment representing the little finger; and three toes behind. The
+radius and ulna, the tibia and the fibula, are distinct, and the short
+crowned molar teeth are anchitherioid in pattern.
+
+But the most important discovery of all is the _Orohippus_, which comes
+from the Eocene formation, and is the oldest member of the equine
+series, as yet known. Here we find four complete toes on the front-limb,
+three toes on the hind-limb, a well-developed ulna, a well-developed
+fibula, and short-crowned grinders of simple pattern.
+
+Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has become evident that,
+so far as our present knowledge extends, the history of the horse-type
+is exactly and precisely that which could have been predicted from a
+knowledge of the principles of evolution. And the knowledge we now
+possess justifies us completely in the anticipation, that when the still
+lower Eocene deposits, and those which belong to the Cretaceous epoch,
+have yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+find, first, a form with four complete toes and a rudiment of the
+innermost or first digit in front, with, probably, a rudiment of the
+fifth digit in the hind foot;[3] while, in still older forms, the series
+of the digits will be more and more complete, until we come to the
+five-toed animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is well
+founded, the whole series must have taken its origin.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That is what I mean by demonstrative evidence of evolution. An inductive
+hypothesis is said to be demonstrated when the facts are shown to be in
+entire accordance with it. If that is not scientific proof, there are no
+merely inductive conclusions which can be said to be proved. And the
+doctrine of evolution, at the present time, rests upon exactly as secure
+a foundation as the Copernican theory of the motions of the heavenly
+bodies did at the time of its promulgation. Its logical basis is
+precisely of the same character--the coincidence of the observed facts
+with theoretical requirements.
+
+The only way of escape, if it be a way of escape, from the conclusions
+which I have just indicated, is the supposition that all these different
+equine forms have been created separately at separate epochs of time;
+and, I repeat, that of such an hypothesis as this there neither is, nor
+can be, any scientific evidence; and, assuredly, so far as I know, there
+is none which is supported, or pretends to be supported, by evidence or
+authority of any other kind. I can but think that the time will come
+when such suggestions as these, such obvious attempts to escape the
+force of demonstration, will be put upon the same footing as the
+supposition made by some writers, who are, I believe, not completely
+extinct at present, that fossils are mere simulacra, are no indications
+of the former existence of the animals to which they seem to belong; but
+that they are either sports of Nature, or special creations,
+intended--as I heard suggested the other day--to test our faith.
+
+In fact, the whole evidence is in favour of evolution, and there is none
+against it. And I say this, although perfectly well aware of the seeming
+difficulties which have been built up upon what appears to the
+uninformed to be a solid foundation. I meet constantly with the argument
+that the doctrine of evolution cannot be well founded, because it
+requires the lapse of a very vast period of time; the duration of life
+upon the earth, thus implied, is inconsistent with the conclusions
+arrived at by the astronomer and the physicist. I may venture to say
+that I am familiar with those conclusions, inasmuch as some years ago,
+when President of the Geological Society of London, I took the liberty
+of criticising them, and of showing in what respects, as it appeared to
+me, they lacked complete and thorough demonstration. But, putting that
+point aside, suppose that, as the astronomers, or some of them, and some
+physical philosophers, tell us, it is impossible that life could have
+endured upon the earth for as long a period as is required by the
+doctrine of evolution--supposing that to be proved--I desire to be
+informed, what is the foundation for the statement that evolution does
+require so great a time? The biologist knows nothing whatever of the
+amount of time which may be required for the process of evolution. It is
+a matter of fact that the equine forms which I have described to you
+occur, in the order stated, in the Tertiary formations. But I have not
+the slightest means of guessing whether it took a million of years, or
+ten millions, or a hundred millions, or a thousand millions of years, to
+give rise to that series of changes. A biologist has no means of
+arriving at any conclusion as to the amount of time which may be needed
+for a certain quantity of organic change. He takes his time from the
+geologist. The geologist, considering the rate at which deposits are
+formed and the rate at which denudation goes on upon the surface of the
+earth, arrives at more or less justifiable conclusions as to the time
+which is required for the deposit of a certain thickness of rocks; and
+if he tells me that the Tertiary formations required 500,000,000 years
+for their deposit, I suppose he has good ground for what he says, and I
+take that as a measure of the duration of the evolution of the horse
+from the _Orohippus_ up to its present condition. And, if he is right,
+undoubtedly evolution is a very slow process, and requires a great deal
+of time. But suppose, now, that an astronomer or a physicist--for
+instance, my friend Sir William Thomson--tells me that my geological
+authority is quite wrong; and that he has weighty evidence to show that
+life could not possibly have existed upon the surface of the earth
+500,000,000 years ago, because the earth would have then been too hot to
+allow of life, my reply is: "That is not my affair; settle that with the
+geologist, and when you have come to an agreement among yourselves I
+will adopt your conclusion." We take our time from the geologists and
+physicists; and it is monstrous that, having taken our time from the
+physical philosopher's clock, the physical philosopher should turn round
+upon us, and say we are too fast or too slow. What we desire to know is,
+is it a fact that evolution took place? As to the amount of time which
+evolution may have occupied, we are in the hands of the physicist and
+the astronomer, whose business it is to deal with those questions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I have now, ladies and gentlemen, arrived at the conclusion of the task
+which I set before myself when I undertook to deliver these lectures. My
+purpose has been, not to enable those among you who have paid no
+attention to these subjects before, to leave this room in a condition to
+decide upon the validity or the invalidity of the hypothesis of
+evolution; but I have desired to put before you the principles upon
+which all hypotheses respecting the history of Nature must be judged;
+and furthermore, to make apparent the nature of the evidence and the
+amount of cogency which is to be expected and may be obtained from it.
+To this end, I have not hesitated to regard you as genuine students and
+persons desirous of knowing the truth. I have not shrunk from taking you
+through long discussions, that I fear may have sometimes tried your
+patience; and I have inflicted upon you details which were
+indispensable, but which may well have been wearisome. But I shall
+rejoice--I shall consider that I have done you the greatest service,
+which it was in my power to do--if I have thus convinced you that the
+great question which we have been discussing is not one to be dealt with
+by rhetorical flourishes, or by loose and superficial talk; but that it
+requires the keen attention of the trained intellect and the patience of
+the accurate observer.
+
+When I commenced this series of lectures, I did not think it necessary
+to preface them with a prologue, such as might be expected from a
+stranger and a foreigner; for during my brief stay in your country, I
+have found it very hard to believe that a stranger could be possessed of
+so many friends, and almost harder that a foreigner could express
+himself in your language in such a way as to be, to all appearance, so
+readily intelligible. So far as I can judge, that most intelligent, and,
+perhaps, I may add, most singularly active and enterprising body, your
+press reporters, do not seem to have been deterred by my accent from
+giving the fullest account of everything that I happen to have said.
+
+But the vessel in which I take my departure to-morrow morning is even
+now ready to slip her moorings; I awake from my delusion that I am other
+than a stranger and a foreigner. I am ready to go back to my place and
+country; but, before doing so, let me, by way of epilogue, tender to you
+my most hearty thanks for the kind and cordial reception which you have
+accorded to me; and let me thank you still more for that which is the
+greatest compliment which can be afforded to any person in my
+position--the continuous and undisturbed attention which you have
+bestowed upon the long argument which I have had the honour to lay
+before you.
+
+
+    [1] The absence of any keel on the breast-bone and some other
+        osteological peculiarities, observed by Professor Marsh,
+        however, suggest that _Hesperornis_ may be a modification of a
+        less specialised group of birds than that to which these
+        existing aquatic birds belong.
+
+
+    [2] I use the word "type" because it is highly probable that many
+        forms of _Anchitherium_-like and _Hipparion_-like animals
+        existed in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, just as many species
+        of the horse tribe exist now; and it is highly improbable that
+        the particular species of _Anchitherium_ or _Hipparion_, which
+        happen to have been discovered, should be precisely those which
+        have formed part of the direct line of the horse's pedigree.
+
+    [3] Since this lecture was delivered, Professor Marsh has discovered
+        a new genus of equine mammals (_Eohippus_) from the lowest
+        Eocene deposits of the West, which corresponds very nearly to
+        this description.--_American Journal of Science_, November,
+        1876.
+
+
+
+
+BALTIMORE.
+
+ADDRESS ON UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.[1]
+
+
+The actual work of the University founded in this city by the
+well-considered munificence of Johns Hopkins commences to-morrow, and
+among the many marks of confidence and good-will which have been
+bestowed upon me in the United States, there is none which I value more
+highly than that conferred by the authorities of the University when
+they invited me to deliver an address on such an occasion.
+
+For the event which has brought us together is, in many respects,
+unique. A vast property is handed over to an administrative body,
+hampered by no conditions save these;--That the principal shall not be
+employed in building: that the funds shall be appropriated, in equal
+proportions, to the promotion of natural knowledge and to the
+alleviation of the bodily sufferings of mankind; and, finally, that
+neither political nor ecclesiastical sectarianism shall be permitted to
+disturb the impartial distribution of the testator's benefactions.
+
+In my experience of life a truth which sounds very much like a paradox
+has often asserted itself; namely, that a man's worst difficulties begin
+when he is able to do as he likes. So long as a man is struggling with
+obstacles he has an excuse for failure or shortcoming; but when fortune
+removes them all and gives him the power of doing as he thinks best,
+then comes the time of trial. There is but one right, and the
+possibilities of wrong are infinite. I doubt not that the trustees of
+the Johns Hopkins University felt the full force of this truth when they
+entered on the administration of their trust a year and a half ago; and
+I can but admire the activity and resolution which have enabled them,
+aided by the able president whom they have selected, to lay down the
+great outlines of their plan, and carry it thus far into execution. It
+is impossible to study that plan without perceiving that great care,
+forethought, and sagacity, have been bestowed upon it, and that it
+demands the most respectful consideration. I have been endeavouring to
+ascertain how far the principles which underlie it are in accordance
+with those which have been established in my own mind by much and
+long-continued thought upon educational questions. Permit me to place
+before you the result of my reflections.
+
+Under one aspect a university is a particular kind of educational
+institution, and the views which we may take of the proper nature of a
+university are corollaries from those which we hold respecting education
+in general. I think it must be admitted that the school should prepare
+for the university, and that the university should crown the edifice,
+the foundations of which are laid in the school. University education
+should not be something distinct from elementary education, but should
+be the natural outgrowth and development of the latter. Now I have a
+very clear conviction as to what elementary education ought to be; what
+it really may be, when properly organised; and what I think it will be,
+before many years have passed over our heads, in England and in America.
+Such education should enable an average boy of fifteen or sixteen to
+read and write his own language with ease and accuracy, and with a sense
+of literary excellence derived from the study of our classic writers: to
+have a general acquaintance with the history of his own country and with
+the great laws of social existence; to have acquired the rudiments of
+the physical and psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of
+elementary arithmetic and geometry. He should have obtained an
+acquaintance with logic rather by example than by precept; while the
+acquirement of the elements of music and drawing should have been
+pleasure rather than work.
+
+It may sound strange to many ears if I venture to maintain the
+proposition that a young person, educated thus far, has had a liberal,
+though perhaps not a full, education. But it seems to me that such
+training as that to which I have referred may be termed liberal, in both
+the senses in which that word is employed, with perfect accuracy. In the
+first place, it is liberal in breadth. It extends over the whole ground
+of things to be known and of faculties to be trained, and it gives equal
+importance to the two great sides of human activity--art and science. In
+the second place, it is liberal in the sense of being an education
+fitted for free men; for men to whom every career is open, and from whom
+their country may demand that they should be fitted to perform the
+duties of any career. I cannot too strongly impress upon you the fact
+that, with such a primary education as this, and with no more than is to
+be obtained by building strictly upon its lines, a man of ability may
+become a great writer or speaker, a statesman, a lawyer, a man of
+science, painter, sculptor, architect, or musician. That even
+development of all a man's faculties, which is what properly constitutes
+culture, may be effected by such an education, while it opens the way
+for the indefinite strengthening of any special capabilities with which
+he may be gifted.
+
+In a country like this, where most men have to carve out their own
+fortunes and devote themselves early to the practical affairs of life,
+comparatively few can hope to pursue their studies up to, still less
+beyond, the age of manhood. But it is of vital importance to the welfare
+of the community that those who are relieved from the need of making a
+livelihood, and still more, those who are stirred by the divine impulses
+of intellectual thirst or artistic genius, should be enabled to devote
+themselves to the higher service of their kind, as centres of
+intelligence, interpreters of nature, or creators of new forms of
+beauty. And it is the function of a university to furnish such men with
+the means of becoming that which it is their privilege and duty to be.
+To this end the university need cover no ground foreign to that occupied
+by the elementary school. Indeed it cannot; for the elementary
+instruction which I have referred to embraces all the kinds of real
+knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The university can add no
+new departments of knowledge, can offer no new fields of mental
+activity; but what it can do is to intensify and specialise the
+instruction in each department. Thus literature and philology,
+represented in the elementary school by English alone, in the university
+will extend over the ancient and modern languages. History, which, like
+charity, best begins at home, but, like charity, should not end there,
+will ramify into anthropology, archaeology, political history, and
+geography, with the history of the growth of the human mind and of its
+products in the shape of philosophy, science, and art. And the
+university will present to the student libraries, museums of
+antiquities, collections of coins, and the like, which will efficiently
+subserve these studies. Instruction in the elements of social economy, a
+most essential, but hitherto sadly-neglected part of elementary
+education, will develop in the university into political economy,
+sociology, and law. Physical science will have its great divisions of
+physical geography, with geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and
+biology; represented not merely by professors and their lectures, but by
+laboratories, in which the students, under guidance of demonstrators,
+will work out facts for themselves and come into that direct contact
+with reality which constitutes the fundamental distinction of scientific
+education. Mathematics will soar into its highest regions; while the
+high peaks of philosophy may be scaled by those whose aptitude for
+abstract thought has been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, schools
+of pictorial and plastic art, of architecture, and of music, will offer
+a thorough discipline in the principles and practice of art to those in
+whom lies nascent the rare faculty of aesthetic representation, or the
+still rarer powers of creative genius.
+
+The primary school and the university are the alpha and omega of
+education. Whether institutions intermediate between these (so-called
+secondary schools) should exist, appears to me to be a question of
+practical convenience. If such schools are established, the important
+thing is that they should be true intermediaries between the primary
+school and the university, keeping on the wide track of general culture,
+and not sacrificing one branch of knowledge for another.
+
+Such appear to me to be the broad outlines of the relations which the
+university, regarded as a place of education, ought to bear to the
+school, but a number of points of detail require some consideration,
+however briefly and imperfectly I can deal with them. In the first
+place, there is the important question of the limitations which should
+be fixed to the entrance into the university; or, what qualifications
+should be required of those who propose to take advantage of the higher
+training offered by the university. On the one hand, it is obviously
+desirable that the time and opportunities of the university should not
+be wasted in conferring such elementary instruction as can be obtained
+elsewhere; while, on the other hand, it is no less desirable that the
+higher instruction of the university should be made accessible to every
+one who can take advantage of it, although he may not have been able to
+go through any very extended course of education. My own feeling is
+distinctly against any absolute and defined preliminary examination, the
+passing of which shall be an essential condition of admission to the
+university. I would admit to the university any one who could be
+reasonably expected to profit by the instruction offered to him; and I
+should be inclined, on the whole, to test the fitness of the student,
+not by examination before he enters the university, but at the end of
+his first term of study. If, on examination in the branches of knowledge
+to which he has devoted himself, he show himself deficient in industry
+or in capacity, it will be best for the university and best for himself,
+to prevent him from pursuing a vocation for which he is obviously unfit.
+And I hardly know of any other method than this by which his fitness or
+unfitness can be safely ascertained, though no doubt a good deal may be
+done, not by formal cut and dried examination, but by judicious
+questioning, at the outset of his career.
+
+Another very important and difficult practical question is, whether a
+definite course of study shall be laid down for those who enter the
+university; whether a curriculum shall be prescribed; or whether the
+student shall be allowed to range at will among the subjects which are
+open to him. And this question is inseparably connected with another,
+namely, the conferring of degrees. It is obviously impossible that any
+student should pass through the whole of the series of courses of
+instruction offered by a university. If a degree is to be conferred as a
+mark of proficiency in knowledge, it must be given on the ground that
+the candidate is proficient in a certain fraction of those studies; and
+then will arise the necessity of insuring an equivalency of degrees, so
+that the course by which a degree is obtained shall mark approximately
+an equal amount of labour and of acquirements, in all cases. But this
+equivalency can hardly be secured in any other way than by prescribing a
+series of definite lines of study. This is a matter which will require
+grave consideration. The important points to bear in mind, I think, are
+that there should not be too many subjects in the curriculum, and that
+the aim should be the attainment of thorough and sound knowledge of
+each.
+
+One half of the Johns Hopkins bequest is devoted to the establishment of
+a hospital, and it was the desire of the testator that the university
+and the hospital should co-operate in the promotion of medical
+education. The trustees will unquestionably take the best advice that is
+to be had as to the construction and administration of the hospital. In
+respect to the former point, they will doubtless remember that a
+hospital may be so arranged as to kill more than it cures; and, in
+regard to the latter, that a hospital may spread the spirit of pauperism
+among the well-to-do, as well as relieve the sufferings of the
+destitute. It is not for me to speak on these topics--rather let me
+confine myself to the one matter on which my experience as a student of
+medicine, and an examiner of long standing, who has taken a great
+interest in the subject of medical education, may entitle me to a
+hearing. I mean the nature of medical education itself, and the
+co-operation of the university in its promotion.
+
+What is the object of medical education? It is to enable the
+practitioner, on the one hand, to prevent disease by his knowledge of
+hygiene; on the other hand, to divine its nature, and to alleviate or
+cure it, by his knowledge of pathology, therapeutics, and practical
+medicine. That is his business in life, and if he has not a thorough and
+practical knowledge of the conditions of health, of the causes which
+tend to the establishment of disease, of the meaning of symptoms, and of
+the uses of medicines and operative appliances, he is incompetent, even
+if he were the best anatomist, or physiologist, or chemist, that ever
+took a gold medal or won a prize certificate. This is one great truth
+respecting medical education. Another is, that all practice in medicine
+is based upon theory of some sort or other; and therefore, that it is
+desirable to have such theory in the closest possible accordance with
+fact. The veriest empiric who gives a drug in one case because he has
+seen it do good in another of apparently the same sort, acts upon the
+theory that similarity of superficial symptoms means similarity of
+lesions; which, by the way, is perhaps as wild an hypothesis as could be
+invented. To understand the nature of disease we must understand health,
+and the understanding of the healthy body means the having a knowledge
+of its structure and of the way in which its manifold actions are
+performed, which is what is technically termed human anatomy and human
+physiology. The physiologist again must needs possess an acquaintance
+with physics and chemistry, inasmuch as physiology is, to a great
+extent, applied physics and chemistry. For ordinary purposes a limited
+amount of such knowledge is all that is needful; but for the pursuit of
+the higher branches of physiology no knowledge of these branches of
+science can be too extensive, or too profound. Again, what we call
+therapeutics, which has to do with the action of drugs and medicines on
+the living organism, is, strictly speaking, a branch of experimental
+physiology, and is daily receiving a greater and greater experimental
+development.
+
+The third great fact which is to be taken into consideration in dealing
+with medical education, is that the practical necessities of life do
+not, as a rule, allow aspirants to medical practice to give more than
+three, or it may be four years to their studies. Let us put it at four
+years, and then reflect that, in the course of this time, a young man
+fresh from school has to acquaint himself with medicine, surgery,
+obstetrics, therapeutics, pathology, hygiene, as well as with the
+anatomy and the physiology of the human body; and that his knowledge
+should be of such a character that it can be relied upon in any
+emergency, and always ready for practical application. Consider, in
+addition, that the medical practitioner may be called upon, at any
+moment, to give evidence in a court of justice in a criminal case; and
+that it is therefore well that he should know something of the laws of
+evidence, and of what we call medical jurisprudence. On a medical
+certificate, a man may be taken from his home and from his business and
+confined in a lunatic asylum; surely, therefore, it is desirable that
+the medical practitioner should have some rational and clear conceptions
+as to the nature and symptoms of mental disease. Bearing in mind all
+these requirements of medical education, you will admit that the burden
+on the young aspirant for the medical profession is somewhat of the
+heaviest, and that it needs some care to prevent his intellectual back
+from being broken.
+
+Those who are acquainted with the existing systems of medical education
+will observe that, long as is the catalogue of studies which I have
+enumerated, I have omitted to mention several that enter into the usual
+medical curriculum of the present day. I have said not a word about
+zoology, comparative anatomy, botany, or materia medica. Assuredly this
+is from no light estimate of the value or importance of such studies in
+themselves. It may be taken for granted that I should be the last person
+in the world to object to the teaching of zoology, or comparative
+anatomy, in themselves; but I have the strongest feeling that,
+considering the number and the gravity of those studies through which a
+medical man must pass, if he is to be competent to discharge the serious
+duties which devolve upon him, subjects which lie so remote as these do
+from his practical pursuits should be rigorously excluded. The young
+man, who has enough to do in order to acquire such familiarity with the
+structure of the human body as will enable him to perform the operations
+of surgery, ought not, in my judgment, to be occupied with
+investigations into the anatomy of crabs and starfishes. Undoubtedly the
+doctor should know the common poisonous plants of his own country when
+he sees them; but that knowledge may be obtained by a few hours devoted
+to the examination of specimens of such plants, and the desirableness of
+such knowledge is no justification, to my mind, for spending three
+months over the study of systematic botany. Again, materia medica, so
+far as it is a knowledge of drugs, is the business of the druggist. In
+all other callings the necessity of the division of labour is fully
+recognised, and it is absurd to require of the medical man that he
+should not avail himself of the special knowledge of those whose
+business it is to deal in the drugs which he uses. It is all very well
+that the physician should know that castor oil comes from a plant, and
+castoreum from an animal, and how they are to be prepared; but for all
+the practical purposes of his profession that knowledge is not of one
+whit more value, has no more relevancy, than the knowledge of how the
+steel of his scalpel is made.
+
+All knowledge is good. It is impossible to say that any fragment of
+knowledge, however insignificant or remote from one's ordinary pursuits,
+may not some day be turned to account. But in medical education, above
+all things, it is to be recollected that, in order to know a little
+well, one must be content to be ignorant of a great deal.
+
+Let it not be supposed that I am proposing to narrow medical education,
+or, as the cry is, to lower the standard of the profession. Depend upon
+it there is only one way of really ennobling any calling, and that is to
+make those who pursue it real masters of their craft, men who can truly
+do that which they profess to be able to do, and which they are credited
+with being able to do by the public. And there is no position so ignoble
+as that of the so-called "liberally-educated practitioner," who, as
+Talleyrand said of his physician, "Knows everything, even a little
+physic;" who may be able to read Galen in the original; who knows all
+the plants, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the wall; but
+who finds himself, with the issues of life and death in his hands,
+ignorant, blundering, and bewildered, because of his ignorance of the
+essential and fundamental truths upon which practice must be based.
+Moreover, I venture to say, that any man who has seriously studied all
+the essential branches of medical knowledge; who has the needful
+acquaintance with the elements of physical science; who has been brought
+by medical jurisprudence into contact with law; whose study of insanity
+has taken him into the fields of psychology; has _ipso facto_ received a
+liberal education.
+
+Having lightened the medical curriculum by culling out of it everything
+which is unessential, we may next consider whether something may not be
+done to aid the medical student toward the acquirement of real knowledge
+by modifying the system of examination. In England, within my
+recollection, it was the practice to require of the medical student
+attendance on lectures upon the most diverse topics during three years;
+so that it often happened that he would have to listen, in the course of
+a day, to four or five lectures upon totally different subjects, in
+addition to the hours given to dissection and to hospital practice: and
+he was required to keep all the knowledge he could pick up, in this
+distracting fashion, at examination point, until, at the end of three
+years, he was set down to a table and questioned pell-mell upon all the
+different matters with which he had been striving to make acquaintance.
+A worse system and one more calculated to obstruct the acquisition of
+sound knowledge and to give full play to the "crammer" and the "grinder"
+could hardly have been devised by human ingenuity. Of late years great
+reforms have taken place. Examinations have been divided so as to
+diminish the number of subjects among which the attention has to be
+distributed. Practical examination has been largely introduced; but
+there still remains, even under the present system, too much of the old
+evil inseparable from the contemporaneous pursuit of a multiplicity of
+diverse studies.
+
+Proposals have recently been made to get rid of general examinations
+altogether, to permit the student to be examined in each subject at the
+end of his attendance on the class; and then, in case of the result
+being satisfactory, to allow him to have done with it; and I may say
+that this method has been pursued for many years in the Royal School of
+Mines in London, and has been found to work very well. It allows the
+student to concentrate his mind upon what he is about for the time
+being, and then to dismiss it. Those who are occupied in intellectual
+work, will, I think, agree with me that it is important, not so much to
+know a thing, as to have known it, and known it thoroughly. If you have
+once known a thing in this way it is easy to renew your knowledge when
+you have forgotten it; and when you begin to take the subject up again,
+it slides back upon the familiar grooves with great facility.
+
+Lastly comes the question as to how the university may co-operate in
+advancing medical education. A medical school is strictly a technical
+school--a school in which a practical profession is taught--while a
+university ought to be a place in which knowledge is obtained without
+direct reference to professional purposes. It is clear, therefore, that
+a university and its antecedent, the school, may best co-operate with
+the medical school by making due provision for the study of those
+branches of knowledge which lie at the foundation of medicine.
+
+At present, young men come to the medical schools without a conception
+of even the elements of physical science; they learn, for the first
+time, that there are such sciences as physics, chemistry, and
+physiology, and are introduced to anatomy as a new thing. It may be
+safely said that, with a large proportion of medical students, much of
+the first session is wasted in learning how to learn--in familiarising
+themselves with utterly strange conceptions, and in awakening their
+dormant and wholly untrained powers of observation and of manipulation.
+It is difficult to overestimate the magnitude of the obstacles which are
+thrown in the way of scientific training by the existing system of
+school education. Not only are men trained in mere book-work, ignorant
+of what observation means, but the habit of learning from books alone
+begets a disgust of observation. The book-learned student will rather
+trust to what he sees in a book than to the witness of his own eyes.
+
+There is not the least reason why this should be so, and, in fact, when
+elementary education becomes that which I have assumed it ought to be,
+this state of things will no longer exist. There is not the slightest
+difficulty in giving sound elementary instruction in physics, in
+chemistry, and in the elements of human physiology, in ordinary schools.
+In other words, there is no reason why the student should not come to
+the medical school, provided with as much knowledge of these several
+sciences as he ordinarily picks up, in the course of his first year of
+attendance, at the medical school.
+
+I am not saying this without full practical justification for the
+statement. For the last eighteen years we have had in England a system
+of elementary science teaching carried out under the auspices of the
+Science and Art Department, by which elementary scientific instruction
+is made readily accessible to the scholars of all the elementary schools
+in the country. Commencing with small beginnings, carefully developed
+and improved, that system now brings up for examination as many as seven
+thousand scholars in the subject of human physiology alone. I can say
+that, out of that number, a large proportion have acquired a fair amount
+of substantial knowledge; and that no inconsiderable percentage show as
+good an acquaintance with human physiology as used to be exhibited by
+the average candidates for medical degrees in the University of London,
+when I was first an examiner there twenty years ago; and quite as much
+knowledge as is possessed by the ordinary student of medicine at the
+present day. I am justified, therefore, in looking forward to the time
+when the student who proposes to devote himself to medicine will come,
+not absolutely raw and inexperienced as he is at present, but in a
+certain state of preparation for further study; and I look to the
+university to help him still further forward in that stage of
+preparation, through the organisation of its biological department. Here
+the student will find means of acquainting himself with the phenomena of
+life in their broadest acceptation. He will study not botany and
+zoology, which, as I have said, would take him too far away from his
+ultimate goal; but, by duly arranged instruction, combined with work in
+the laboratory upon the leading types of animal and vegetable life, he
+will lay a broad, and at the same time solid, foundation of biological
+knowledge; he will come to his medical studies with a comprehension of
+the great truths of morphology and of physiology, with his hands trained
+to dissect and his eyes taught to see. I have no hesitation in saying
+that such preparation is worth a full year added on to the medical
+curriculum. In other words, it will set free that much time for
+attention to those studies which bear directly upon the student's most
+grave and serious duties as a medical practitioner.
+
+Up to this point I have considered only the teaching aspect of your
+great foundation, that function of the university in virtue of which it
+plays the part of a reservoir of ascertained truth, so far as our
+symbols can ever interpret nature. All can learn; all can drink of this
+lake. It is given to few to add to the store of knowledge, to strike new
+springs of thought, or to shape new forms of beauty. But so sure as it
+is that men live not by bread, but by ideas, so sure is it that the
+future of the world lies in the hands of those who are able to carry the
+interpretation of nature a step further than their predecessors; so
+certain is it that the highest function of a university is to seek out
+those men, cherish them, and give their ability to serve their kind full
+play.
+
+I rejoice to observe that the encouragement of research occupies so
+prominent a place in your official documents, and in the wise and
+liberal inaugural address of your president. This subject of the
+encouragement, or, as it is sometimes called, the endowment of research,
+has of late years greatly exercised the minds of men in England. It was
+one of the main topics of discussion by the members of the Royal
+Commission of whom I was one, and who not long since issued their
+report, after five years' labour. Many seem to think that this question
+is mainly one of money; that you can go into the market and buy
+research, and that supply will follow demand, as in the ordinary course
+of commerce. This view does not commend itself to my mind. I know of no
+more difficult practical problem than the discovery of a method of
+encouraging and supporting the original investigator without opening the
+door to nepotism and jobbery. My own conviction is admirably summed up
+in the passage of your president's address, "that the best investigators
+are usually those who have also the responsibilities of instruction,
+gaining thus the incitement of colleagues, the encouragement of pupils,
+and the observation of the public."
+
+At the commencement of this address I ventured to assume that I might,
+if I thought fit, criticise the arrangements which have been made by the
+board of trustees, but I confess that I have little to do but to applaud
+them. Most wise and sagacious seems to me the determination not to build
+for the present. It has been my fate to see great educational funds
+fossilise into mere bricks and mortar, in the petrifying springs of
+architecture, with nothing left to work the institution they were
+intended to support. A great warrior is said to have made a desert and
+called it peace. Administrators of educational funds have sometimes made
+a palace and called it a university. If I may venture to give advice in
+a matter which lies out of my proper competency, I would say that
+whenever you do build, get an honest bricklayer, and make him build you
+just such rooms as you really want, leaving ample space for expansion.
+And a century hence, when the Baltimore and Ohio shares are at one
+thousand premium, and you have endowed all the professors you need, and
+built all the laboratories that are wanted, and have the best museum and
+the finest library that can be imagined; then, if you have a few hundred
+thousand dollars you don't know what to do with, send for an architect
+and tell him to put up a facade. If American is similar to English
+experience, any other course will probably lead you into having some
+stately structure, good for your architect's fame, but not in the least
+what you want.
+
+It appears to me that what I have ventured to lay down as the principles
+which should govern the relations of a university to education in
+general, are entirely in accordance with the measures you have adopted.
+You have set no restrictions upon access to the instruction you propose
+to give; you have provided that such instruction, either as given by the
+university or by associated institutions, should cover the field of
+human intellectual activity. You have recognised the importance of
+encouraging research. You propose to provide means by which young men,
+who may be full of zeal for a literary or for a scientific career, but
+who also may have mistaken aspiration for inspiration, may bring their
+capacities to a test, and give their powers a fair trial. If such a one
+fail, his endowment terminates, and there is no harm done. If he
+succeed, you may give power of flight to the genius of a Davy or a
+Faraday, a Carlyle or a Locke, whose influence on the future of his
+fellow-men shall be absolutely incalculable.
+
+You have enunciated the principle that "the glory of the university
+should rest upon the character of the teachers and scholars, and not
+upon their numbers or buildings constructed for their use." And I look
+upon it as an essential and most important feature of your plan that the
+income of the professors and teachers shall be independent of the number
+of students whom they can attract. In this way you provide against the
+danger, patent elsewhere, of finding attempts at improvement obstructed
+by vested interests; and, in the department of medical education
+especially, you are free of the temptation to set loose upon the world
+men utterly incompetent to perform the serious and responsible duties of
+their profession.
+
+It is a delicate matter for a stranger to the practical working of your
+institutions, like myself, to pretend to give an opinion as to the
+organisation of your governing power. I can conceive nothing better than
+that it should remain as it is, if you can secure a succession of wise,
+liberal, honest, and conscientious men to fill the vacancies that occur
+among you. I do not greatly believe in the efficacy of any kind of
+machinery for securing such a result; but I would venture to suggest
+that the exclusive adoption of the method of co-optation for filling the
+vacancies which must occur in your body, appears to me to be somewhat
+like a tempting of Providence. Doubtless there are grave practical
+objections to the appointment of persons outside of your body and not
+directly interested in the welfare of the university; but might it not
+be well if there were an understanding that your academic staff should
+be officially represented on the board, perhaps even the heads of one or
+two independent learned bodies, so that academic opinion and the views
+of the outside world might have a certain influence in that most
+important matter, the appointment of your professors? I throw out these
+suggestions, as I have said, in ignorance of the practical difficulties
+that may lie in the way of carrying them into effect, on the general
+ground that personal and local influences are very subtle, and often
+unconscious, while the future greatness and efficiency of the noble
+institution which now commences its work must largely depend upon its
+freedom from them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I constantly hear Americans speak of the charm which our old mother
+country has for them, of the delight with which they wander through the
+streets of ancient towns, or climb the battlements of mediaeval
+strongholds, the names of which are indissolubly associated with the
+great epochs of that noble literature which is our common inheritance;
+or with the blood-stained steps of that secular progress, by which the
+descendants of the savage Britons and of the wild pirates of the North
+Sea have become converted into warriors of order and champions of
+peaceful freedom, exhausting what still remains of the old Berserk
+spirit in subduing nature, and turning the wilderness into a garden. But
+anticipation has no less charm than retrospect, and to an Englishman
+landing upon your shores for the first time, travelling for hundreds of
+miles through strings of great and well-ordered cities, seeing your
+enormous actual, and almost infinite potential, wealth in all
+commodities, and in the energy and ability which turn wealth to account,
+there is something sublime in the vista of the future. Do not suppose
+that I am pandering to what is commonly understood by national pride. I
+cannot say that I am in the slightest degree impressed by your bigness,
+or your material resources, as such. Size is not grandeur, and territory
+does not make a nation. The great issue, about which hangs a true
+sublimity, and the terror of overhanging fate, is what are you going to
+do with all these things? What is to be the end to which these are to be
+the means? You are making a novel experiment in politics on the greatest
+scale which the world has yet seen. Forty millions at your first
+centenary, it is reasonably to be expected that, at the second, these
+states will be occupied by two hundred millions of English-speaking
+people, spread over an area as large as that of Europe, and with
+climates and interests as diverse as those of Spain and Scandinavia,
+England and Russia. You and your descendants have to ascertain whether
+this great mass will hold together under the forms of a republic, and
+the despotic reality of universal suffrage; whether state rights will
+hold out against centralisation, without separation; whether
+centralisation will get the better, without actual or disguised
+monarchy; whether shifting corruption is better than a permanent
+bureaucracy; and as population thickens in your great cities, and the
+pressure of want is felt, the gaunt spectre of pauperism will stalk
+among you, and communism and socialism will claim to be heard. Truly
+America has a great future before her; great in toil, in care, and in
+responsibility; great in true glory if she be guided in wisdom and
+righteousness; great in shame if she fail. I cannot understand why other
+nations should envy you, or be blind to the fact that it is for the
+highest interest of mankind that you should succeed; but the one
+condition of success, your sole safeguard, is the moral worth and
+intellectual clearness of the individual citizen. Education cannot give
+these, but it may cherish them and bring them to the front in whatever
+station of society they are to be found; and the universities ought to
+be, and may be, the fortresses of the higher life of the nation.
+
+May the university which commences its practical activity to-morrow
+abundantly fulfil its high purpose; may its renown as a seat of true
+learning, a centre of free inquiry, a focus of intellectual light,
+increase year by year, until men wander hither from all parts of the
+earth, as of old they sought Bologna, or Paris, or Oxford.
+
+And it is pleasant to me to fancy that, among the English students who
+are drawn to you at that time, there may linger a dim tradition that a
+countryman of theirs was permitted to address you as he has done to-day,
+and to feel as if your hopes were his hopes and your success his joy.
+
+
+    [1] Delivered at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins University
+        at Baltimore, U.S., September 12. The total amount bequeathed by
+        Johns Hopkins is more than 7,000,000 dollars. The sum of
+        3,500,000 dollars is appropriated to a university, a like sum to
+        a hospital, and the rest to local institutions of education and
+        charity.
+
+
+
+
+LONDON.
+
+LECTURE ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY.
+
+
+It is my duty to-night to speak about the study of Biology, and while it
+may be that there are many of my audience who are quite familiar with
+that study, yet as a lecturer of some standing, it would, I know by
+experience, be very bad policy on my part to suppose such to be
+extensively the case. On the contrary, I must imagine that there are
+many of you who would like to know what Biology is; that there are
+others who have that amount of information, but would nevertheless
+gladly hear why it should be worth their while to study Biology; and yet
+others, again, to whom these two points are clear, but who desire to
+learn how they had best study it, and, finally, when they had best study
+it.
+
+I shall, therefore, address myself to the endeavour to give you some
+answer to these four questions--what Biology is; why it should be
+studied; how it should be studied; and when it should be studied.
+
+In the first place, in respect to what Biology is, there are, I believe,
+some persons who imagine that the term "Biology" is simply a new-fangled
+denomination, a neologism in short, for what used to be known under the
+title of "Natural History;" but I shall try to show you, on the
+contrary, that the word is the expression of the growth of science
+during the last 200 years, and came into existence half a century ago.
+
+At the revival of learning, knowledge was divided into two kinds--the
+knowledge of nature and the knowledge of man; for it was the current
+idea then (and a great deal of that ancient conception still remains)
+that there was a sort of essential antithesis, not to say antagonism,
+between nature and man; and that the two had not very much to do with
+one another, except that the one was oftentimes exceedingly troublesome
+to the other. Though it is one of the salient merits of our great
+philosophers of the seventeenth century, that they recognised but one
+scientific method, applicable alike to man and to nature, we find this
+notion of the existence of a broad distinction between nature and man in
+the writings both of Bacon and of Hobbes of Malmesbury; and I have
+brought with me that famous work which is now so little known, greatly
+as it deserves to be studied, "The Leviathan," in order that I may put
+to you in the wonderfully terse and clear language of Thomas Hobbes,
+what was his view of the matter. He says:--
+
+     "The register of knowledge of fact is called history. Whereof there
+     be two sorts, one called natural history; which is the history of
+     such facts or effects of nature as have no dependence on man's
+     will; such as are the histories of metals, plants, animals,
+     regions, and the like. The other is civil history; which is the
+     history of the voluntary actions of men in commonwealths."
+
+So that all history of fact was divided into these two great groups of
+natural and of civil history. The Royal Society was in course of
+foundation about the time that Hobbes was writing this book, which was
+published in 1651; and that Society was termed a "Society for the
+Improvement of Natural Knowledge," which was then nearly the same thing
+as a "Society for the Improvement of Natural History." As time went on,
+and the various branches of human knowledge became more distinctly
+developed and separated from one another, it was found that some were
+much more susceptible of precise mathematical treatment than others. The
+publication of the "Principia" of Newton, which probably gave a greater
+stimulus to physical science than any work ever published before, or
+which is likely to be published hereafter, showed that precise
+mathematical methods were applicable to those branches of science such
+as astronomy, and what we now call physics, which occupy a very large
+portion of the domain of what the older writers understood by natural
+history. And inasmuch as the partly deductive and partly experimental
+methods of treatment to which Newton and others subjected these branches
+of human knowledge, showed that the phenomena of nature which belonged
+to them were susceptible of explanation, and thereby came within the
+reach of what was called "philosophy" in those days; so much of this
+kind of knowledge as was not included under astronomy came to be spoken
+of as "natural philosophy"--a term which Bacon had employed in a much
+wider sense. Time went on, and yet other branches of science developed
+themselves. Chemistry took a definite shape; and since all these
+sciences, such as astronomy, natural philosophy, and chemistry, were
+susceptible either of mathematical treatment or of experimental
+treatment, or of both, a broad distinction was drawn between the
+experimental branches of what had previously been called natural history
+and the observational branches--those in which experiment was (or
+appeared to be) of doubtful use, and where, at that time, mathematical
+methods were inapplicable. Under these circumstances the old name of
+"Natural History" stuck by the residuum, by those phenomena which were
+not, at that time, susceptible of mathematical or experimental
+treatment; that is to say, those phenomena of nature which come now
+under the general heads of physical geography, geology, mineralogy, the
+history of plants, and the history of animals. It was in this sense that
+the term was understood by the great writers of the middle of the last
+century--Buffon and Linnaeus--by Buffon in his great work, the "Histoire
+Naturelle Generale," and by Linnaeus in his splendid achievement, the
+"Systema Naturae." The subjects they deal with are spoken of as "Natural
+History," and they called themselves and were called "Naturalists." But
+you will observe that this was not the original meaning of these terms;
+but that they had, by this time, acquired a signification widely
+different from that which they possessed primitively.
+
+The sense in which "Natural History" was used at the time I am now
+speaking of has, to a certain extent, endured to the present day. There
+are now in existence in some of our northern universities, chairs of
+"Civil and Natural History," in which "Natural History" is used to
+indicate exactly what Hobbes and Bacon meant by that term. The unhappy
+incumbent of the chair of Natural History is, or was, supposed to cover
+the whole ground of geology, mineralogy, and zoology, perhaps even
+botany, in his lectures.
+
+But as science made the marvellous progress which it did make at the
+latter end of the last and the beginning of the present century,
+thinking men began to discern that under this title of "Natural History"
+there were included very heterogeneous constituents--that, for example,
+geology and mineralogy were, in many respects, widely different from
+botany and zoology; that a man might obtain an extensive knowledge of
+the structure and functions of plants and animals, without having need
+to enter upon the study of geology or mineralogy, and _vice versa_; and,
+further as knowledge advanced, it became clear that there was a great
+analogy, a very close alliance, between those two sciences of botany and
+zoology which deal with living beings, while they are much more widely
+separated from all other studies. It is due to Buffon to remark that he
+clearly recognised this great fact. He says: "Ces deux genres d'etres
+organises [les animaux et les vegetaux] ont beaucoup plus de proprietes
+communes que de differences reelles." Therefore, it is not wonderful
+that, at the beginning of the present century, in two different
+countries, and so far as I know, without any intercommunication, two
+famous men clearly conceived the notion of uniting the sciences which
+deal with living matter into one whole, and of dealing with them as one
+discipline. In fact, I may say there were three men to whom this idea
+occurred contemporaneously, although there were but two who carried it
+into effect, and only one who worked it out completely. The persons to
+whom I refer were the eminent physiologist Bichat, and the great
+naturalist Lamarck, in France; and a distinguished German, Treviranus.
+Bichat[1] assumed the existence of a special group of "physiological"
+sciences. Lamarck, in a work published in 1801,[2] for the first time
+made use of the name "Biologie" from the two Greek words which signify a
+discourse upon life and living things. About the same time it occurred
+to Treviranus, that all those sciences which deal with living matter are
+essentially and fundamentally one, and ought to be treated as a whole;
+and, in the year 1802, he published the first volume of what he also
+called "Biologie." Treviranus's great merit lies in this, that he worked
+out his idea, and wrote the very remarkable book to which I refer. It
+consists of six volumes, and occupied its author for twenty years--from
+1802 to 1822.
+
+That is the origin of the term "Biology;" and that is how it has come
+about that all clear thinkers and lovers of consistent nomenclature have
+substituted for the old confusing name of "Natural History," which has
+conveyed so many meanings, the term "Biology" which denotes the whole of
+the sciences which deal with living things, whether they be animals or
+whether they be plants. Some little time ago--in the course of this
+year, I think--I was favoured by a learned classic, Dr. Field of
+Norwich, with a disquisition, in which he endeavoured to prove that,
+from a philological point of view, neither Treviranus nor Lamarck had
+any right to coin this new word "Biology" for their purpose; that, in
+fact, the Greek word "Bios" had relation only to human life and human
+affairs, and that a different word was employed by the Greeks when they
+wished to speak of the life of animals and plants. So Dr. Field tells us
+we are all wrong in using the term biology, and that we ought to employ
+another; only he is not quite sure about the propriety of that which he
+proposes as a substitute. It is a somewhat hard one--"zootocology." I am
+sorry we are wrong, because we are likely to continue so. In these
+matters we must have some sort of "Statute of Limitations." When a name
+has been employed for half-a-century, persons of authority[3] have been
+using it, and its sense has become well understood, I am afraid that
+people will go on using it, whatever the weight of philological
+objection.
+
+Now that we have arrived at the origin of this word "Biology," the next
+point to consider is: What ground does it cover? I have said that, in
+its strict technical sense, it denotes all the phenomena which are
+exhibited by living things, as distinguished from those which are not
+living; but while that is all very well, so long as we confine ourselves
+to the lower animals and to plants, it lands us in considerable
+difficulties when we reach the higher forms of living things. For
+whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing is
+perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our
+definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and all
+his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we should
+find that psychology, politics, and political economy would be absorbed
+into the province of Biology. In fact, civil history would be merged in
+natural history. In strict logic it may be hard to object to this
+course, because no one can doubt that the rudiments and outlines of our
+own mental phenomena are traceable among the lower animals. They have
+their economy and their polity, and if, as is always admitted, the
+polity of bees and the commonwealth of wolves fall within the purview of
+the biologist proper, it becomes hard to say why we should not include
+therein human affairs, which in so many cases resemble those of the bees
+in zealous getting, and are not without a certain parity in the
+proceedings of the wolves. The real fact is that we biologists are a
+self-sacrificing people; and inasmuch as, on a moderate estimate, there
+are about a quarter of a million different species of animals and plants
+to know about already, we feel that we have more than sufficient
+territory. There has been a sort of practical convention by which we
+give up to a different branch of science what Bacon and Hobbes would
+have called "Civil History." That branch of science has constituted
+itself under the head of Sociology. I may use phraseology which, at
+present, will be well understood and say that we have allowed that
+province of Biology to become autonomous; but I should like you to
+recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised
+if it occasionally happens that you see a biologist apparently
+trespassing in the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling with
+human education; because, after all, that is a part of his kingdom which
+he has only voluntarily forsaken.
+
+Having now defined the meaning of the word Biology, and having indicated
+the general scope of Biological Science, I turn to my second question,
+which is--Why should we study Biology? Possibly the time may come when
+that will seem a very odd question. That we, living creatures, should
+not feel a certain amount of interest in what it is that constitutes our
+life will eventually, under altered ideas of the fittest objects of
+human inquiry, appear to be a singular phenomenon; but, at present,
+judging by the practice of teachers and educators, Biology would seem to
+be a topic that does not concern us at all. I propose to put before you
+a few considerations with which I dare say many will be familiar
+already, but which will suffice to show--not fully, because to
+demonstrate this point fully would take a great many lectures--that
+there are some very good and substantial reasons why it may be advisable
+that we should know something about this branch of human learning.
+
+I myself entirely agree with another sentiment of the philosopher of
+Malmesbury, "that the scope of all speculation is the performance of
+some action or thing to be done," and I have not any very great respect
+for, or interest in, mere knowing as such. I judge of the value of human
+pursuits by their bearing upon human interests; in other words, by their
+utility; but I should like that we should quite clearly understand what
+it is that we mean by this word "utility." In an Englishman's mouth it
+generally means that by which we get pudding or praise, or both. I have
+no doubt that is one meaning of the word utility, but it by no means
+includes all I mean by utility. I think that knowledge of every kind is
+useful in proportion as it tends to give people right ideas, which are
+essential to the foundation of right practice, and to remove wrong
+ideas, which are the no less essential foundations and fertile mothers
+of every description of error in practice. And inasmuch as, whatever
+practical people may say, this world is, after all, absolutely governed
+by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most hypothetical ideas, it
+is a matter of the very greatest importance that our theories of things,
+and even of things that seem a long way apart from our daily lives,
+should be as far as possible true, and as far as possible removed from
+error. It is not only in the coarser practical sense of the word
+"utility," but in this higher and broader sense, that I measure the
+value of the study of biology by its utility; and I shall try to point
+out to you that you will feel the need of some knowledge of biology at a
+great many turns of this present nineteenth century life of ours. For
+example, most of us attach great importance to the conception which we
+entertain of the position of man in this universe and his relation to
+the rest of nature. We have almost all been told, and most of us hold by
+the tradition, that man occupies an isolated and peculiar position in
+nature; that though he is in the world he is not of the world; that his
+relations to things about him are of a remote character; that his origin
+is recent, his duration likely to be short, and that he is the great
+central figure round which other things in this world revolve. But this
+is not what the biologist tells us.
+
+At the present moment you will be kind enough to separate me from them,
+because it is in no way essential to my present argument that I should
+advocate their views. Don't suppose that I am saying this for the
+purpose of escaping the responsibility of their beliefs; indeed, at
+other times and in other places, I do not think that point has been left
+doubtful; but I want clearly to point out to you that for my present
+argument they may all be wrong; and, nevertheless, my argument will hold
+good. The biologists tell us that all this is an entire mistake. They
+turn to the physical organisation of man. They examine his whole
+structure, his bony frame and all that clothes it. They resolve him into
+the finest particles into which the microscope will enable them to break
+him up. They consider the performance of his various functions and
+activities, and they look at the manner in which he occurs on the
+surface of the world. Then they turn to other animals, and taking the
+first handy domestic animal--say a dog--they profess to be able to
+demonstrate that the analysis of the dog leads them, in gross, to
+precisely the same results as the analysis of the man; that they find
+almost identically the same bones, having the same relations; that they
+can name the muscles of the dog by the names of the muscles of the man,
+and the nerves of the dog by those of the nerves of the man, and that,
+such structures and organs of sense as we find in the man such also we
+find in the dog; they analyse the brain and spinal cord, and they find
+that the nomenclature which fits the one answers for the other. They
+carry their microscopic inquiries in the case of the dog as far as they
+can, and they find that his body is resolvable into the same elements as
+those of the man. Moreover, they trace back the dog's and the man's
+development, and they find that, at a certain stage of their existence,
+the two creatures are not distinguishable the one from the other; they
+find that the dog and his kind have a certain distribution over the
+surface of the world, comparable in its way to the distribution of the
+human species. What is true of the dog they tell us is true of all the
+higher animals; and they assert that they can lay down a common plan for
+the whole of these creatures, and regard the man and the dog, the horse
+and the ox as minor modifications of one great fundamental unity.
+Moreover, the investigations of the last three-quarters of a century
+have proved, they tell us, that similar inquiries, carried out through
+all the different kinds of animals which are met with in nature, will
+lead us, not in one straight series, but by many roads, step by step,
+gradation by gradation, from man, at the summit, to specks of animated
+jelly at the bottom of the series. So that the idea of Leibnitz, and of
+Bonnet, that animals form a great scale of being, in which there are a
+series of gradations from the most complicated form to the lowest and
+simplest; that idea, though not exactly in the form in which it was
+propounded by those philosophers, turns out to be substantially correct.
+More than this, when biologists pursue their investigations into the
+vegetable world, they find that they can, in the same way, follow out
+the structure of the plant, from the most gigantic and complicated trees
+down through a similar series of gradations, until they arrive at specks
+of animated jelly, which they are puzzled to distinguish from those
+specks which they reached by the animal road.
+
+Thus, biologists have arrived at the conclusion that a fundamental
+uniformity of structure pervades the animal and vegetable worlds, and
+that plants and animals differ from one another simply as diverse
+modifications of the same great general plan.
+
+Again, they tell us the same story in regard to the study of function.
+They admit the large and important interval which, at the present time,
+separates the manifestations of the mental faculties observable in the
+higher forms of mankind, and even in the lower forms, such as we know
+them, from those exhibited by other animals; but, at the same time, they
+tell us that the foundations, or rudiments, of almost all the faculties
+of man are to be met with in the lower animals; that there is a unity of
+mental faculty as well as of bodily structure, and that, here also, the
+difference is a difference of degree and not of kind. I said "almost
+all," for a reason. Among the many distinctions which have been drawn
+between the lower creatures and ourselves, there is one which is hardly
+ever insisted on,[4] but which may be very fitly spoken of in a place so
+largely devoted to Art as that in which we are assembled. It is this,
+that while, among various kinds of animals, it is possible to discover
+traces of all the other faculties of man, especially the faculty of
+mimicry, yet that particular form of mimicry which shows itself in the
+imitation of form, either by modelling or by drawing, is not to be met
+with. As far as I know, there is no sculpture or modelling, and
+decidedly no painting or drawing, of animal origin, I mention the fact,
+in order that such comfort may be derived therefrom as artists may feel
+inclined to take.
+
+If what the biologists tell us is true, it will be needful to get rid of
+our erroneous conceptions of man, and of his place in nature, and to
+substitute right ones for them. But it is impossible to form any
+judgment as to whether the biologists are right or wrong, unless we are
+able to appreciate the nature of the arguments which they have to offer.
+
+One would almost think this to be a self-evident proposition. I wonder
+what a scholar would say to the man who should undertake to criticise a
+difficult passage in a Greek play, but who obviously had not acquainted
+himself with the rudiments of Greek grammar. And yet, before giving
+positive opinions about these high questions of Biology, people not only
+do not seem to think it necessary to be acquainted with the grammar of
+the subject, but they have not even mastered the alphabet. You find
+criticism and denunciation showered about by persons, who, not only have
+not attempted to go through the discipline necessary to enable them to
+be judges, but who have not even reached that stage of emergence from
+ignorance in which the knowledge that such a discipline is necessary
+dawns upon the mind. I have had to watch with some attention--in fact I
+have been favoured with a good deal of it myself--the sort of criticism
+with which biologists and biological teachings are visited. I am told
+every now and then that there is a "brilliant article"[5] in so-and-so,
+in which we are all demolished. I used to read these things once, but I
+am getting old now, and I have ceased to attend very much to this cry of
+"wolf." When one does read any of these productions, what one finds
+generally, on the face of it, is that the brilliant critic is devoid of
+even the elements of biological knowledge, and that his brilliancy is
+like the light given out by the crackling of thorns under a pot of which
+Solomon speaks. So far as I recollect, Solomon makes use of the image
+for purposes of comparison; but I will not proceed further into that
+matter.
+
+Two things must be obvious: in the first place, that every man who has
+the interests of truth at heart must earnestly desire that every
+well-founded and just criticism that can be made should be made; but
+that, in the second place, it is essential to anybody's being able to
+benefit by criticism, that the critic should know what he is talking
+about, and be in a position to form a mental image of the facts
+symbolised by the words he uses. If not, it is as obvious in the case of
+a biological argument, as it is in that of a historical or philological
+discussion, that such criticism is a mere waste of time on the part of
+its author, and wholly undeserving of attention on the part of those who
+are criticised. Take it then as an illustration of the importance of
+biological study, that thereby alone are men able to form something like
+a rational conception of what constitutes valuable criticism of the
+teachings of biologists.[6]
+
+Next, I may mention another bearing of biological knowledge--a more
+practical one in the ordinary sense of the word. Consider the theory of
+infectious disease. Surely that is of interest to all of us. Now the
+theory of infectious disease is rapidly being elucidated by biological
+study. It is possible to produce, from among the lower animals, examples
+of devastating diseases which spread in the same manner as our
+infectious disorders, and which are certainly and unmistakably caused by
+living organisms. This fact renders it possible, at any rate, that that
+doctrine of the causation of infectious disease which is known under the
+name of "the germ theory" may be well-founded; and, if so, it must needs
+lead to the most important practical measures in dealing with those
+terrible visitations. It may be well that the general, as well as the
+professional, public should have a sufficient knowledge of biological
+truths to be able to take a rational interest in the discussion of such
+problems, and to see, what I think they may hope to see, that, to those
+who possess a sufficient elementary knowledge of Biology, they are not
+all quite open questions.
+
+Let me mention another important practical illustration of the value of
+biological study. Within the last forty years the theory of agriculture
+has been revolutionised. The researches of Liebig, and those of our own
+Lawes and Gilbert, have had a bearing upon that branch of industry the
+importance of which cannot be overestimated; but the whole of these new
+views have grown out of the better explanation of certain processes
+which go on in plants; and which, of course, form a part of the
+subject-matter of Biology.
+
+I might go on multiplying these examples, but I see that the clock won't
+wait for me, and I must therefore pass to the third question to which I
+referred: Granted that Biology is something worth studying, what is the
+best way of studying it? Here I must point out that, since Biology is a
+physical science, the method of studying it must needs be analogous to
+that which is followed in the other physical sciences. It has now long
+been recognised that, if a man wishes to be a chemist, it is not only
+necessary that he should read chemical books and attend chemical
+lectures, but that he should actually perform the fundamental
+experiments in the laboratory for himself, and thus learn exactly what
+the words which he finds in his books and hears from his teachers, mean.
+If he does not do so, he may read till the crack of doom, but he will
+never know much about chemistry. That is what every chemist will tell
+you, and the physicist will do the same for his branch of science. The
+great changes and improvements in physical and chemical scientific
+education, which have taken place of late, have all resulted from the
+combination of practical teaching with the reading of books and with the
+hearing of lectures. The same thing is true in Biology. Nobody will ever
+know anything about Biology except in a dilettante "paper-philosopher"
+way, who contents himself with reading books on botany, zoology, and the
+like; and the reason of this is simple and easy to understand. It is
+that all language is merely symbolical of the things of which it treats;
+the more complicated the things, the more bare is the symbol, and the
+more its verbal definition requires to be supplemented by the
+information derived directly from the handling, and the seeing, and the
+touching of the thing symbolised:--that is really what is at the bottom
+of the whole matter. It is plain common sense, as all truth, in the long
+run, is only common sense clarified. If you want a man to be a tea
+merchant, you don't tell him to read books about China or about tea, but
+you put him into a tea-merchant's office where he has the handling, the
+smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of knowledge which
+can be gained only in this practical way, his exploits as a tea merchant
+will soon come to a bankrupt termination. The "paper-philosophers" are
+under the delusion that physical science can be mastered as literary
+accomplishments are acquired, but unfortunately it is not so. You may
+read any quantity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as you
+were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your minds, the
+change for words in definite images which can only be acquired through
+the operation of your observing faculties on the phenomena of nature.
+
+It may be said:--"That is all very well, but you told us just now that
+there are probably something like a quarter of a million different kinds
+of living and extinct animals and plants, and a human life could not
+suffice for the examination of one-fiftieth part of all these." That is
+true, but then comes the great convenience of the way things are
+arranged; which is, that although there are these immense numbers of
+different kinds of living things in existence, yet they are built up,
+after all, upon marvellously few plans.
+
+There are certainly more than 100,000 species of insects, and yet
+anybody who knows one insect--if a properly chosen one--will be able to
+have a very fair conception of the structure of the whole. I do not mean
+to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or as well as it is
+desirable he should know it; but he will have enough real knowledge to
+enable him to understand what he reads, to have genuine images in his
+mind of those structures which become so variously modified in all the
+forms of insects he has not seen. In fact, there are such things as
+types of form among animals and vegetables, and for the purpose of
+getting a definite knowledge of what constitutes the leading
+modifications of animal and plant life, it is not needful to examine
+more than a comparatively small number of animals and plants.
+
+Let me tell you what we do in the biological laboratory which is lodged
+in a building adjacent to this. There I lecture to a class of students
+daily for about four-and-a-half months, and my class have, of course,
+their text-books; but the essential part of the whole teaching, and that
+which I regard as really the most important part of it, is a laboratory
+for practical work, which is simply a room with all the appliances
+needed for ordinary dissection. We have tables properly arranged in
+regard to light, microscopes, and dissecting instruments, and we work
+through the structure of a certain number of animals and plants. As, for
+example, among the plants, we take a yeast plant, a _Protococcus_, a
+common mould, a _Chara_, a fern, and some flowering plant; among animals
+we examine such things as an _Amoeba_, a _Vorticella_, and a
+fresh-water polype. We dissect a star-fish, an earth-worm, a snail, a
+squid, and a fresh-water mussel. We examine a lobster and a cray-fish,
+and a black beetle. We go on to a common skate, a cod-fish, a frog, a
+tortoise, a pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about all the time
+we have to give. The purpose of this course is not to make skilled
+dissectors, but to give every student a clear and definite conception,
+by means of sense-images, of the characteristic structure of each of the
+leading modifications of the animal kingdom; and that is perfectly
+possible, by going no further than the length of that list of forms
+which I have enumerated. If a man knows the structure of the animals I
+have mentioned, he has a clear and exact, however limited, apprehension
+of the essential features of the organisation of all those great
+divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms to which the forms I have
+mentioned severally belong. And it then becomes possible for him to read
+with profit; because every time he meets with the name of a structure,
+he has a definite image in his mind of what the name means in the
+particular creature he is reading about, and therefore the reading is
+not mere reading. It is not mere repetition of words; but every term
+employed in the description, we will say, of a horse, or of an elephant,
+will call up the image of the things he had seen in the rabbit, and he
+is able to form a distinct conception of that which he has not seen, as
+a modification of that which he has seen.
+
+I find this system to yield excellent results; and I have no hesitation
+whatever in saying, that any one who has gone through such a course,
+attentively, is in a better position to form a conception of the great
+truths of Biology, especially of morphology (which is what we chiefly
+deal with), than if he had merely read all the books on that topic put
+together.
+
+The connection of this discourse with the Loan Collection of Scientific
+Apparatus arises out of the exhibition in that collection of certain
+aids to our laboratory work. Such of you as have visited that very
+interesting collection may have noticed a series of diagrams and of
+preparations illustrating the structure of a frog. Those diagrams and
+preparations have been made for the use of the students in the
+biological laboratory. Similar diagrams and preparations illustrating
+the structure of all the other forms of life we examine, are either made
+or in course of preparation. Thus the student has before him, first, a
+picture of the structure he ought to see; secondly, the structure itself
+worked out; and if with these aids, and such needful explanations and
+practical hints as a demonstrator can supply, he cannot make out the
+facts for himself in the materials supplied to him, he had better take
+to some other pursuit than that of biological science.
+
+I should have been glad to have said a few words about the use of
+museums in the study of Biology, but I see that my time is becoming
+short, and I have yet another question to answer. Nevertheless I must,
+at the risk of wearying you, say a word or two upon the important
+subject of museums. Without doubt there are no helps to the study of
+Biology, or rather to some branches of it, which are, or may be, more
+important than natural history museums; but, in order to take this place
+in regard to Biology, they must be museums of the future. The museums of
+the present do not, by any means, do so much for us as they might do. I
+do not wish to particularise, but I dare say many of you, seeking
+knowledge, or in the laudable desire to employ a holiday usefully, have
+visited some great natural history museum. You have walked through a
+quarter of a mile of animals, more or less well stuffed, with their long
+names written out underneath them; and, unless your experience is very
+different from that of most people, the upshot of it all is that you
+leave that splendid pile with sore feet, a bad headache, and a general
+idea that the animal kingdom is a "mighty maze without a plan." I do not
+think that a museum which brings about this result does all that may be
+reasonably expected from such an institution. What is needed in a
+collection of natural history is that it should be made as accessible
+and as useful as possible, on the one hand to the general public, and on
+the other to scientific workers. That need is not met by constructing a
+sort of happy hunting-ground of miles of glass cases; and, under the
+pretence of exhibiting everything, putting the maximum amount of
+obstacle in the way of those who wish properly to see anything.
+
+What the public want is easy and unhindered access to such a collection
+as they can understand and appreciate; and what the men of science want
+is similar access to the materials of science. To this end the vast mass
+of objects of natural history should be divided into two parts--one open
+to the public, the other to men of science, every day. The former
+division should exemplify all the more important and interesting forms
+of life. Explanatory tablets should be attached to them, and catalogues
+containing clearly-written popular expositions of the general
+significance of the objects exhibited should be provided. The latter
+should contain, packed into a comparatively small space, in rooms
+adapted for working purposes, the objects of purely scientific interest.
+For example, we will say I am an ornithologist. I go to examine a
+collection of birds. It is a positive nuisance to have them stuffed. It
+is not only sheer waste, but I have to reckon with the ideas of the
+bird-stuffer, while, if I have the skin and nobody has interfered with
+it, I can form my own judgment as to what the bird was like. For
+ornithological purposes, what is needed is not glass cases full of
+stuffed birds on perches, but convenient drawers into each of which a
+great quantity of skins will go. They occupy no great space and do not
+require any expenditure beyond their original cost. But for the
+edification of the public, who want to learn indeed, but do not seek for
+minute and technical knowledge, the case is different. What one of the
+general public walking into a collection of birds desires to see is not
+all the birds that can be got together. He does not want to compare a
+hundred species of the sparrow tribe side by side; but he wishes to know
+what a bird is, and what are the great modifications of bird structure,
+and to be able to get at that knowledge easily. What will best serve his
+purpose is a comparatively small number of birds carefully selected, and
+artistically, as well as accurately, set up; with their different ages,
+their nests, their young, their eggs, and their skeletons side by side;
+and in accordance with the admirable plan which is pursued in this
+museum, a tablet, telling the spectator in legible characters what they
+are and what they mean. For the instruction and recreation of the public
+such a typical collection would be of far greater value than any
+many-acred imitation of Noah's ark.
+
+Lastly comes the question as to when biological study may best be
+pursued. I do not see any valid reason why it should not be made, to a
+certain extent, a part of ordinary school training. I have long
+advocated this view, and I am perfectly certain that it can be carried
+out with ease, and not only with ease, but with very considerable profit
+to those who are taught; but then such instruction must be adapted to
+the minds and needs of the scholars. They used to have a very odd way of
+teaching the classical languages when I was a boy. The first task set
+you was to learn the rules of the Latin grammar in the Latin
+language--that being the language you were going to learn! I thought
+then that this was an odd way of learning a language, but did not
+venture to rebel against the judgment of my superiors. Now, perhaps, I
+am not so modest as I was then, and I allow myself to think that it was
+a very absurd fashion. But it would be no less absurd, if we were to set
+about teaching Biology by putting into the hands of boys a series of
+definitions of the classes and orders of the animal kingdom, and making
+them repeat them by heart. That is so very favourite a method of
+teaching, that I sometimes fancy the spirit of the old classical system
+has entered into the new scientific system, in which case I would much
+rather that any pretence at scientific teaching were abolished
+altogether. What really has to be done is to get into the young mind
+some notion of what animal and vegetable life is. In this matter, you
+have to consider practical convenience as well as other things. There
+are difficulties in the way of a lot of boys making messes with slugs
+and snails; it might not work in practice. But there is a very
+convenient and handy animal which everybody has at hand, and that is
+himself; and it is a very easy and simple matter to obtain common
+plants. Hence the general truths of anatomy and physiology can be taught
+to young people in a very real fashion by dealing with the broad facts
+of human structure. Such viscera as they cannot very well examine in
+themselves, such as hearts, lungs, and livers, may be obtained from the
+nearest butcher's shop. In respect to teaching something about the
+biology of plants, there is no practical difficulty, because almost any
+of the common plants will do, and plants do not make a mess--at least
+they do not make an unpleasant mess; so that, in my judgment, the best
+form of Biology for teaching to very young people is elementary human
+physiology on the one hand, and the elements of botany on the other;
+beyond that I do not think it will be feasible to advance for some time
+to come. But then I see no reason why, in secondary schools, and in the
+Science Classes which are under the control of the Science and Art
+Department--and which I may say, in passing, have, in my judgment, done
+so very much for the diffusion of a knowledge of science over the
+country--we should not hope to see instruction in the elements of
+Biology carried out, not perhaps to the same extent, but still upon
+somewhat the same principle as here. There is no difficulty, when you
+have to deal with students of the ages of 15 or 16, in practising a
+little dissection and in getting a notion of, at any rate, the four or
+five great modifications of the animal form; and the like is true in
+regard to the higher anatomy of plants.
+
+While, lastly, to all those who are studying biological science with a
+view to their own edification merely, or with the intention of becoming
+zoologists or botanists; to all those who intend to pursue
+physiology--and especially to those who propose to employ the working
+years of their lives in the practice of medicine--I say that there is no
+training so fitted, or which may be of such important service to them,
+as the discipline in practical biological work which I have sketched out
+as being pursued in the laboratory hard by.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I may add that, beyond all these different classes of persons who may
+profit by the study of Biology, there is yet one other. I remember, a
+number of years ago, that a gentleman who was a vehement opponent of Mr.
+Darwin's views and had written some terrible articles against them,
+applied to me to know what was the best way in which he could acquaint
+himself with the strongest arguments in favour of evolution. I wrote
+back, in all good faith and simplicity, recommending him to go through a
+course of comparative anatomy and physiology, and then to study
+development. I am sorry to say he was very much displeased, as people
+often are with good advice. Notwithstanding this discouraging result, I
+venture, as a parting word, to repeat the suggestion, and to say to all
+the more or less acute lay and clerical "paper-philosophers"[7] who
+venture into the regions of biological controversy--Get a little sound,
+thorough, practical, elementary instruction in biology.
+
+
+    [1] See the distinction between the "sciences physiques" and the
+        "sciences physiologiques" in the "Anatomic Generale," 1801.
+
+
+    [2] "Hydrogeologie," an. x. (1801).
+
+
+    [3] "The term _Biology_, which means exactly what we wish to
+        express, _the Science of Life_, has often been used, and has of
+        late become not uncommon, among good writers."--Whewell,
+        "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," vol. i. p. 544 (edition
+        of 1847).
+
+
+    [4] I think that my friend Professor Allman was the first to draw
+        attention to it.
+
+
+    [5] Galileo was troubled by a sort of people whom he called "paper
+        philosophers," because they fancied that the true reading of
+        nature was to be detected by the collation of texts. The race is
+        not extinct, but, as of old, brings forth its "winds of
+        doctrine" by which the weathercock heads among us are much
+        exercised.
+
+
+    [6] Some critics do not even take the trouble to read. I have
+        recently been adjured with much solemnity, to state publicly why
+        I have "changed my opinion" as to the value of the
+        palaeontological evidence of the occurrence of evolution.
+
+        To this my reply is, Why should I, when that statement was made
+        seven years ago? An address delivered from the Presidential
+        Chair of the Geological Society, in 1870, may be said to be a
+        public document, inasmuch as it not only appeared in the
+        _Journal_ of that learned body, but was re-published, in 1873,
+        in a volume of "Critiques and Addresses," to which my name is
+        attached. Therein will be found a pretty full statement of my
+        reasons for enunciating two propositions: (1) that "when we turn
+        to the higher _Vertebrata_, the results of recent
+        investigations, however we may sift and criticise them, seem to
+        me to leave a clear balance in favour of the evolution of living
+        forms one from another;" and (2) that the case of the horse is
+        one which "will stand rigorous criticism."
+
+        Thus I do not see clearly in what way I can be said to have
+        changed my opinion, except in the way of intensifying it, when
+        in consequence of the accumulation of similar evidence since
+        1870, I recently spoke of the denial of evolution as not worth
+        serious consideration.
+
+
+    [7] Writers of this stamp are fond of talking about the Baconian
+        method. I beg them therefore to lay to heart these two weighty
+        sayings of the herald of Modern Science:--
+
+            "Syllogismus ex propositionibus constat, propositiones ex
+            verbis, verba notionum tesserae sunt. Itaque si notiones ipsae
+            (_id quod basis rei est_) confusae sint et temere a rebus
+            abstractae, nihil in iis quae superstruuntur est
+            firmitudinis."--"Novum Organon," ii. 14.
+
+            "Huic autem vanitati nonnulli ex modernis summa levitate ita
+            indulserunt, ut in primo capitulo Geneseos et in libro Job
+            et aliis scripturis sacris, philosophiam naturalem fundare
+            conati sint; _inter vivos quaerentes mortua_."--_Ibid._, 65.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN ADDRESSES, WITH A LECTURE
+ON THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 16136.txt or 16136.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/1/3/16136
+
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit:
+https://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/16136.zip b/16136.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c03d552
--- /dev/null
+++ b/16136.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3abd616
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #16136 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16136)