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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Studies of Trees, by Jacob Joshua Levison
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Studies of Trees
+
+Author: Jacob Joshua Levison
+
+Release Date: June 23, 2005 [EBook #16116]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES OF TREES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thaadd, Ben Beasley and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece.
+
+"Come forth into the light of things,
+Let Nature be your Teacher."
+
+--WORDSWORTH.]
+
+
+
+
+STUDIES OF TREES
+
+BY
+J.J. LEVISON, M.F.
+Lecturer on Ornamental and Shade Trees, Yale University Forest School;
+Forester to the Department of Parks, Brooklyn, N.Y.
+
+FIRST EDITION
+FIRST THOUSAND
+
+1914
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In presenting this volume, the author is aware that there are several
+excellent books, dealing with one phase or another of tree life, already
+before the public. It is believed, however, that there is still need for
+an all-round book, adapted to the beginner, which gives in a brief and
+not too technical way the most important facts concerning the
+identification, structure and uses of our more common trees, and which
+considers their habits, enemies and care both when growing alone and
+when growing in groups or forests.
+
+In the chapters on the identification of trees, the aim has been to
+bring before the student only such characters and facts as shall help
+him to distinguish the tree readily during all seasons of the year.
+Special stress is laid in each case on the most striking peculiarities.
+Possible confusion with other trees of similar appearance is prevented
+as far as possible through comparisons with trees of like form or habit.
+
+Only such information is given concerning the structure and requirements
+of trees as will enable the reader better to understand the subsequent
+chapters. In the second half of the book, practical application is made
+of the student's general knowledge thus acquired, and he is acquainted
+with the fundamental principles of planting, care, forestry, wood
+identification and nature study.
+
+The author recognizes the vastness of the field he is attempting to
+cover and the impossibility of even touching, in a small hand-book of
+this character, on every phase of tree study. He presumes no further;
+yet he hopes that by adhering to what is salient and by eliminating the
+less important, though possibly interesting, facts, he is able to offer
+a general and elementary _resume_ of the whole subject of value to
+students, private owners, farmers and teachers.
+
+In the preparation of Chapter VIII on "Our Common Woods: Their
+Identification, Properties and Uses," considerable aid has been received
+from Prof. Samuel J. Record, author of "Economic Woods of the United
+States." Acknowledgment is also due to the U.S. Forest Service for the
+photographs used in Figs. 18, 122 to 138 inclusive and 142; to Dr.
+George B. Sudworth, Dendrologist of the U.S. Forest Service, for
+checking up the nomenclature in the lists of trees under Chapter V; to
+Dr. E.P. Felt, Entomologist of the State of New York, for suggestions in
+the preparation of the section of the book relating to insects; to Dr.
+W.A. Murrill, Assistant Director of the New York Botanical Gardens, for
+Fig. 108; and to Mr. Hermann W. Merkel, Chief Forester of the New York
+Zoological Park, for Figs. 26, 59 and 60.
+
+J.J. LEVISON.
+
+BROOKLYN, N.Y.
+June, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES
+  The Pines
+  The Spruce and Hemlock
+  The Red Cedar and Arbor-vitae
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES (Continued)
+  The Larch and Cypress
+  The Horsechestnut, Ash, and Maple
+  Trees Told by their Form
+  Trees Told by their Bark or Trunk
+  The Oaks and Chestnut
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES (Continued)
+  The Hickories, Walnut, and Butternut
+  Tulip Tree, Sweet Gum, Linden, Magnolia, Locust, Catalpa, Dogwood,
+      Mulberry, and Osage Orange
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW
+  Trees for the Lawn
+  Trees for the Street
+  Trees for Woodland
+  Trees for Screening
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE CARE OF TREES
+  Insects Injurious to Trees and How to Combat Them
+  Important Insects
+  Tree Diseases
+  Pruning Trees
+  Tree Repair
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORESTRY
+  What Forestry Is and What It Does
+  Care of the Woodland
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+OUR COMMON WOODS: THEIR IDENTIFICATION, PROPERTIES AND USES
+  Woods Without Pores (Soft woods)
+  Woods with Pores (Hard woods)
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+A good many popular books on trees have been published in the United
+States in recent years. The continually increasing demand for books of
+this character indicates the growing public interest not only in the
+trees that we pass in our daily walks, but also in the forest considered
+as a community of trees, because of its aesthetic and protective value
+and its usefulness as a source of important economic products.
+
+As a nation, we are thinking more about trees and woods than we were
+wont to do in the years gone by. We are growing to love the trees and
+forests as we turn more and more to outdoor life for recreation and
+sport. In our ramblings along shady streets, through grassy parks, over
+wooded valleys, and in mountain wildernesses we find that much more than
+formerly we are asking ourselves what are these trees, what are the
+leaf, flower, twig, wood and habit characteristics which distinguish
+them from other trees; how large do they grow; under what conditions of
+soil and climate do they thrive best; what are their enemies and how can
+they be overcome; what is their value for wood and other useful
+products; what is their protective value; are they useful for planting
+along streets and in parks and in regenerating forests; how can the
+trees of our streets and lawns be preserved and repaired as they begin
+to fail from old age or other causes? All these questions and many more
+relating to the important native and exotic trees commonly found in the
+states east of the Great Lakes and north of Maryland Mr. Levison has
+briefly answered in this book. The author's training as a forester and
+his experience as a professional arboriculturist has peculiarly fitted
+him to speak in an authoritative and interesting way about trees and
+woods.
+
+The value of this book is not in new knowledge, but in the simple
+statement of the most important facts relating to some of our common
+trees, individually and collectively considered. A knowledge of trees
+and forests adds vastly to the pleasures of outdoor life. The more we
+study trees and the more intimate our knowledge of the forest as a unit
+of vegetation in which each tree, each flower, each animal and insect
+has its part to play in the complete structure, the greater will be our
+admiration of the wonderful beauty and variety exhibited in the trees
+and woods about us.
+
+J.W. TOUMEY,
+Director, Yale University Forest School.
+
+NEW HAVEN, CONN.,
+June, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+STUDIES OF TREES
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES
+
+
+There are many ways in which the problem of identifying trees may be
+approached. The majority attempt to recognize trees by their leaf
+characters. Leaf characters, however, do not differentiate the trees
+during the other half of the year when they are bare. In this chapter
+the characterizations are based, as far as possible, on peculiarities
+that are evident all year round. In almost every tree there is some one
+trait that marks its individuality and separates it, at a glance, from
+all other trees. It may be the general form of the tree, its mode of
+branching, bark, bud or fruit. It may be some variation in color, or, in
+case of the evergreen trees, it may be the number and position of the
+needles or leaves. The species included in the following pages have thus
+been arranged in groups based on these permanent characters. The
+individual species are further described by a distinguishing paragraph
+in which the main character of the tree is emphasized in heavy type.
+
+The last paragraph under each species is also important because it
+classifies all related species and distinguishes those that are liable
+to be confused with the particular tree under consideration.
+
+
+
+GROUP I. THE PINES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Twig of the Austrian Pine.]
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The pines belong to the _coniferous_
+    class of trees; that is, trees which bear cones. The pines may be
+    told from the other coniferous trees by their leaves, which are in
+    the form of _needles_ two inches or more in length. These needles
+    keep green throughout the entire year. This is characteristic of all
+    coniferous trees, except the larch and cypress, which shed their
+    leaves in winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Twig of the White Pine.]
+
+    The pines are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere,
+    and include about 80 distinct species with over 600 varieties. The
+    species enumerated here are especially common in the eastern part of
+    the United states, growing either native in the forest or under
+    cultivation in the parks. The pines form a very important class of
+    timber trees, and produce beautiful effects when planted in groups
+    in the parks.
+
+How to tell them from each other: The pine needles are arranged in
+    _clusters_; see Fig. 1. Each species has a certain characteristic
+    number of needles to the cluster and this fact generally provides
+    the simplest and most direct way of distinguishing the different
+    pines.
+
+    In the white pine there are _five_ needles to each cluster, in the
+    pitch pine _three_, and in the Scotch pine _two_. The Austrian pine
+    also has two needles to the cluster, but the difference in size and
+    character of the needles will distinguish this species from the
+    Scotch pine.
+
+
+THE WHITE PINE (_Pinus strobus_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tree can be told at close range by the
+    number of needles to each cluster, Fig. 2. There are *five* needles
+    to each cluster of the white pine. They are bluish green, slender,
+    and about four inches in length.
+
+    At a distance the tree may be told by the *right angles* which the
+    branches form with the main trunk, Fig. 3. No other pine shows this
+    character.
+
+Form and size: A tall tree, the stateliest of the evergreens.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers a deep, sandy soil, but will grow in almost
+    any soil.
+
+Enemies: Sucking insects forming white downy patches on the bark and
+    twigs, the _white pine weevil_, a boring insect, and the _white pine
+    blister rust_, a fungus, are among its principal enemies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The White Pine.]
+
+Value for planting: Aside from its value as an ornamental tree, the
+    white pine is an excellent tree to plant on abandoned farms and for
+    woodlands and windbreaks throughout the New England States, New
+    York, Pennsylvania, and the Lake States.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is easily worked, light, durable, and will
+    not warp. It is used for naval construction, lumber, shingles,
+    laths, interior finish, wooden ware, etc.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a cone, four to six inches long.
+
+Comparisons: The tree is apt to be confused with the _Bhotan pine_
+    (_Pinus excelsa_), which is commonly grown as an ornamental tree.
+    The Bhotan pine, however, has needles much longer and more drooping
+    in appearance.
+
+
+THE PITCH PINE (_Pinus rigida_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: Here there are *three* needles to each
+    cluster, Fig. 4. They are dark, yellowish-green needles about four
+    inches long. The rough-looking _branches_ of the tree may be seen
+    _studded with cones_ throughout the year, and _clusters of leaves_
+    may be seen _sprouting directly from the trunk_ of the tree; see
+    Fig. 5. The last two are very characteristic and will distinguish
+    the tree at a glance.
+
+
+Form and size: It is a low tree of uncertain habit and extremely rough
+    looking at every stage of its life. It is constantly full of dead
+    branches and old cones which persist on the tree throughout the
+    year.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Grows in the poorest and sandiest soils where few
+    other trees will grow. In New Jersey and on Long Island where it is
+    native, it proves so hardy and persistent that it often forms pure
+    stands excluding other trees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Twig of the Pitch Pine.]
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: Well adapted for the sea coast and other exposed
+    places. It is of extremely uncertain habit and is subject to the
+    loss of the lower limbs. It frequently presents a certain
+    picturesqueness of outline, but it could not be used as a specimen
+    tree on the lawn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Pitch Pine.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood is coarse grained and is used for rough
+    lumber, fuel, and charcoal.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a cone one to three
+inches long, persistent on the tree for several years.
+
+
+THE SCOTCH PINE (_Pinus sylvestris_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: There are *two* needles to each cluster, and
+    these are _short_ compared with those of the white pine, and
+    _slightly twisted_; see Fig. 6. The _bark_, especially along the
+    upper portion of the trunk, _is reddish_ in color.
+
+Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a short crown.
+
+Range: Europe, Asia, and eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Will do best on a deep, rich, sandy soil, but will
+    also grow on a dry, porous soil.
+
+Enemies: In Europe the Scotch pine has several insect enemies, but in
+    America it appears to be free from injury.
+
+Value for planting: Suitable for windbreaks and woodland planting. Many
+    excellent specimens may also be found in our parks.
+
+Commercial value: In the United States, the wood is chiefly used for
+    fuel, though slightly used for barrels, boxes, and carpentry. In
+    Europe, the Scotch pine is an important timber tree.
+
+Comparisons: The Scotch pine is apt to be confused with the _Austrian
+    pine_ (_Pinus austriaca_), because they both have two needles to
+    each cluster. The needles of the Austrian pine, however, are much
+    longer, coarser, straighter, and darker than those of the Scotch
+    pine; Fig. 1. The form of the Austrian pine, too, is more
+    symmetrical and compact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Twig of the Scotch Pine.]
+
+    The _red pine_ (_Pinus resinosa_) is another tree that has two
+    needles to each cluster, but these are much longer than those of the
+    Scotch pine (five to six inches) and are straighter. The bark, which
+    is reddish in color, also differentiates the red pine from the
+    Austrian pine. The position of the cones on the red pine, which
+    point outward and downward at maturity, will also help to
+    distinguish this tree from the Scotch and the Austrian varieties.
+
+
+
+GROUP II. THE SPRUCE AND HEMLOCK
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The spruce and hemlock belong to the
+    evergreen class and may be told from the other trees by their
+    _leaves_. The characteristic leaves of the spruce are shown in Fig.
+    9; those of the hemlock in Fig. 10. These are much shorter than the
+    needles of the pines but are longer than the leaves of the red cedar
+    or arbor vitae. They are neither arranged in clusters like those of
+    the larch, nor in feathery layers like those of the cypress. They
+    adhere to the tree throughout the year, while the leaves of the
+    larch and cypress shed in the fall.
+
+    The spruces are pyramidal-shaped trees, with tall and tapering
+    trunks, thickly covered with branches, forming a compact crown. They
+    are widely distributed throughout the cold and temperate regions of
+    the northern hemisphere, where they often form thick forests over
+    extended areas.
+
+    There are eighteen recognized species of spruce. The Norway spruce
+    has been chosen as a type for this group because it is so commonly
+    planted in the northeastern part of the United States.
+
+    The hemlock is represented by seven species, confined to temperate
+    North America, Japan, and Central and Western China.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Norway Spruce.]
+
+How to tell them from each other: The needles and branches of the spruce
+    are _coarse_; those of the hemlock are _flat and graceful_. The
+    individual leaves of the spruce, Fig. 9, are four-sided and green or
+    blue on the under side, while those of the hemlock, Fig. 10, are
+    flat and are _marked by two white lines_ on the under side.
+
+
+THE NORWAY SPRUCE (_Picea excelsa_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The characteristic appearance of the
+    full-grown tree is due to the *drooping branchlets* carried on *main
+    branches which bend upward* (Fig. 7).
+
+Leaf: The leaves are dark green in color and are _arranged spirally_,
+    thus making the twigs coarser to the touch than the twigs of the
+    hemlock or fir. In cross-section, the individual leaflet is
+    quadrilateral, while that of the pine is triangular.
+
+Form and size: A large tree with a straight, undivided trunk and a
+    well-shaped, conical crown (Fig. 7).
+
+Range: Northern Europe, Asia, northern North America.
+
+Soil and location: Grows in cool, moist situations.
+
+Enemies: The foliage of the spruce is sometimes affected by _red
+    spider_, but is apt to be more seriously injured by drought, wind,
+    and late frosts.
+
+Value for planting: Commonly planted as an ornamental tree and for
+    hedges. It does well for this purpose in a cool northern climate,
+    but in the vicinity of New York City and further south it does not
+    do as well, losing its lower branches at an early age, and becoming
+    generally scraggly in appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--A Group of Hemlock.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood is light and soft and is used for
+    construction timber, paper pulp, and fuel.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a large slender cone, four to seven
+    inches long.
+
+Comparisons: The _white spruce_ (_Picea canadensis_) may be told from
+    the Norway spruce by the whitish color on the under side of its
+    leaves and the unpleasant, pungent odor emitted from the needles
+    when bruised. The cones of the white spruce, about two inches long,
+    are shorter than these of the Norway spruce, but are longer than
+    those of the black spruce.
+
+    It is essentially a northern tree growing in all sorts of locations
+    along the streams and on rocky mountain slopes as far north as the
+    Arctic Sea and Alaska. It often appears as an ornamental tree as far
+    south as New York and Pennsylvania.
+
+    The _black spruce_ (_Picea mariana_) may be told from the other
+    spruces by its small cone, which is usually only about one inch in
+    length. In New England it seldom grows to as large a size as the
+    other spruce trees.
+
+    It covers large areas in various parts of northern North America and
+    grows to its largest size in Manitoba. The black spruce has little
+    value as an ornamental tree.
+
+    The _Colorado blue spruce_ (_Picea parryana_ or _Picea pungens_)
+    which is commonly used as an ornamental tree on lawns and in parks,
+    can be told from the other spruces by its pale-blue or sage-green
+    color and its sharp-pointed, coarse-feeling twigs. Its small size
+    and sharp-pointed conical form are also characteristic.
+
+    It grows to a large size in Colorado and the Middle West. In the
+    Eastern States and in northern Europe where it is planted as an
+    ornamental tree, it is usually much smaller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Twig of the Norway Spruce.]
+
+
+HEMLOCK (_Tsuga canadensis_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: Its leaves are arranged in *flat layers*,
+    giving a flat, horizontal and graceful appearance to the whole
+    branch (Fig. 8). The individual leaves are dark green above, lighter
+    colored below, and are *marked by two white lines on the under side*
+    (Fig. 10).
+
+    The leaves are arranged on little stalks, a characteristic that does
+    not appear in the other evergreen trees.
+
+Form and size: A large tree with a broad-based pyramidal head, and a
+    trunk conspicuously tapering toward the apex. The branches extend
+    almost to the ground.
+
+Range: The hemlock is a northern tree, growing in Canada and the United
+    States.
+
+Soil and location: Grows on all sorts of soils, in the deepest woods as
+    well as on high mountain slopes.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: The hemlock makes an excellent hedge because it
+    retains its lowest branches and will stand shearing. In this respect
+    it is preferable to the spruce. It makes a fair tree for the lawn
+    and is especially desirable for underplanting in woodlands, where
+    the shade from the surrounding trees is heavy. In this respect it is
+    like the beech.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is soft, brittle, and coarse-grained, and is
+    therefore used mainly for coarse lumber. Its bark is so rich in
+    tannin that it forms one of the chief commercial products of the
+    tree.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a small cone about 3/4 of an inch long,
+    which generally hangs on the tree all winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Twig of the Hemlock.]
+
+
+
+GROUP III. THE RED CEDAR AND ARBOR-VITAE
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The red cedar (juniper) and
+    arbor-vitae may be told from other trees by their _leaves_, which
+    remain on the tree and keep green throughout the entire year. These
+    leaves differ from those of the other evergreens in being much
+    shorter and of a distinctive shape as shown in Figs. 12 and 13. The
+    trees themselves are much smaller than the other evergreens
+    enumerated in this book. Altogether, there are thirty-five species
+    of juniper recognized and four of arbor-vitae. The junipers are
+    widely distributed over the northern hemisphere, from the Arctic
+    region down to Mexico in the New World, and in northern Africa,
+    China, and Japan in the Old World. The arbor-vitae is found in
+    northeastern and northwestern America, China, and Japan. The species
+    mentioned here are those commonly found in America.
+
+How to tell them from each other: The _twigs_ of the arbor-vitae are
+    _flat and fan-like_ as in Fig. 13; the twigs of the red cedar are
+    _needle-shaped or scale-like_ as in Fig. 12. The foliage of the
+    arbor-vitae is of a lighter color than that of the red cedar, which
+    is sombre green. The arbor-vitae will generally be found growing in
+    moist locations, while the red cedar will grow in dry places as
+    well. The arbor-vitae generally retains its lower branches in open
+    places, while the branches of the red cedar start at some distance
+    from the ground.
+
+
+RED CEDAR (_Juniperus virginiana_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Red Cedar.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tree can best be told at a glance by its
+    general form, size and leaves. It is a medium-sized tree with a
+    _symmetrical, cone-like form_, Fig. 11, which, however, broadens
+    out somewhat when the tree grows old. Its color throughout the year
+    is dull green with a tinge of brownish red, and its bark peels in
+    thin strips.
+
+[Illustration:
+FIG. 12(a).--Twig of Young Cedar.
+FIG. 12(b).--Twig of Cedar (Older Tree).]
+
+Leaf: In young trees the leaf is needle-shaped, pointed, and marked by a
+    white line on its under side, Fig. 12(a). In older trees it is
+    scale-like, Fig. 12(b), and the white line on its under side is
+    indistinct.
+
+Range: Widely distributed over nearly all of eastern and central North
+    America.
+
+Soil and location: Grows on poor, gravelly soils as well as in rich
+    bottom lands.
+
+Enemies: The "_cedar apple_," commonly found on this tree, represents a
+    stage of the apple rust, and for that reason it is not desirable to
+    plant such trees near orchards. Its wood is also sometimes attacked
+    by small _boring insects_.
+
+Value for planting: Its characteristic slender form gives the red cedar
+    an important place as an ornamental tree, but its chief value lies
+    in its commercial use.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is durable, light, smooth and fragrant, and
+    is therefore used for making lead-pencils, cabinets, boxes,
+    moth-proof chests, shingles, posts, and telegraph poles.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is small, round and berry-like, about the
+    size of a pea, of dark blue color, and carries from one to four bony
+    seeds.
+
+Other common names: The red cedar is also often called _juniper_ and
+    _red juniper_.
+
+Comparisons: The red cedar is apt to be confused with the _low juniper_
+    (_Juniperus communis_) which grows in open fields all over the
+    world. The latter, however, is generally of a low form with a flat
+    top. Its leaves are pointed and prickly, never scale-like, and they
+    are whitish above and green below. Its bark shreds and its fruit is
+    a small round berry of agreeable aromatic odor.
+
+
+ARBOR-VITAE; NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR (_Thuja occidentalis_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *branchlets* are extremely *flat and
+    fan-like*, Fig. 13, and have an agreeable _aromatic odor_ when
+    bruised. The tree is an evergreen with a _narrow conical form_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Twig of the Arbor-vitae.]
+
+Leaf: Leaves of two kinds, one scale-like and flat, the other keeled,
+    all tightly pressed to the twig (see Fig. 13).
+
+Form and size: A close, conical head with dense foliage near the base.
+    Usually a small tree, but in some parts of the northeastern States
+    it grows to medium size with a diameter of two feet.
+
+Range: Northern part of North America.
+
+Soil and location: Inhabits low, swampy lands; in the State of Maine
+    often forming thick forests.
+
+Enemies: Very seldom affected by insects.
+
+Value for planting: Is hardy in New England, where it is especially used
+    for hedges. It is also frequently used as a specimen tree on the
+    lawn.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is durable for posts, ties, and shingles. The
+    bark contains considerable tannin and the juices from the tree have
+    a medicinal value.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a cone about 1/2 inch long.
+
+Other common names: Arbor-vitae is sometimes called _white cedar_ and
+    _cedar_.
+
+Comparisons: The arbor-vitae is apt to be confused with the true _white
+    cedar_ (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_) but the leaves of the latter are
+    sharp-pointed and not flattened or fan-shaped.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES--(Continued)
+
+
+
+GROUP IV. THE LARCH AND CYPRESS
+
+How to tell them from other trees: In summer the larch and cypress may
+    easily be told from other trees by their _leaves_. These are
+    needle-shaped and arranged in clusters with numerous leaves to each
+    cluster in the case of the larch, and feathery and flat in the case
+    of the cypress. In winter, when their leaves have dropped off, the
+    trees can be told by their cones, which adhere to the branches.
+
+    There are nine recognized species of larch and two of bald cypress.
+    The larch is characteristically a northern tree, growing in the
+    northern and mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere from the
+    Arctic circle to Pennsylvania in the New World, and in Central
+    Europe, Asia, and Japan in the Old World. It forms large forests in
+    the Alps of Switzerland and France.
+
+    The European larch and not the American is the principal species
+    considered here, because it is being planted extensively in this
+    country and in most respects is preferable to the American species.
+
+    The bald cypress is a southern tree of ancient origin, the
+    well-known cypress of Montezuma in the gardens of Chepultepec having
+    been a species of Taxodium. The tree is now confined to the swamps
+    and river banks of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, where it
+    often forms extensive forests to the exclusion of all other trees.
+    In those regions along the river swamps, the trees are often
+    submerged for several months of the year.
+
+How to tell them from each other: In summer the larch may be told from
+    the cypress by its leaves (compare Figs. 14 and 16). In winter the
+    two can be distinguished by their characteristic forms. The larch is
+    a broader tree as compared with the cypress and its form is more
+    conical. The cypress is more slender and it is taller. The two have
+    been grouped together in this study because they are both coniferous
+    trees and, unlike the other Conifers, are both deciduous, their
+    leaves falling in October.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Twig of the Larch in Summer.]
+
+
+THE EUROPEAN LARCH (_Larix europaea_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: Its leaves, which are needle-shaped and about
+    an inch long, are borne in *clusters* close to the twig, Fig. 14.
+    There are many leaves to each cluster. This characteristic together
+    with the *spire-like* form of the crown will distinguish the tree at
+    a glance.
+
+Leaf: The leaves are of a light-green color but become darker in the
+    spring and in October turn yellow and drop off. The cypress, which
+    is described below, is another cone-bearing tree which sheds its
+    leaves in winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Twig of the Larch in Winter.]
+
+Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a conical head and a straight
+    and tapering trunk. (See Fig. 90.)
+
+Range: Central Europe and eastern and central United States.
+
+Soil and location: Requires a deep, fresh, well-drained soil and needs
+    plenty of light. It flourishes in places where our native species
+    would die. Grows very rapidly.
+
+Enemies: The larch is subject to the attacks of a _sawfly_, which has
+    killed many trees of the American species. A _fungus_ (_Trametes
+    pini_) which causes the tree to break down with ease is another of
+    its enemies.
+
+Value for planting: A well-formed tree for the lawn. It is also useful
+    for group planting in the forest.
+
+Commercial value: Because its wood is strong and durable the larch is
+    valuable for poles, posts, railroad ties, and in shipbuilding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Twig of the Cypress.]
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a small cone about one inch long,
+    adhering to the tree throughout the winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--The Bald Cypress.]
+
+Comparisons: The tree is apt to be confused with the _American larch_,
+    also known as _tamarack_ and _hackmatack_, but differs from it in
+    having longer leaves, cones twice as large and more abundant and
+    branches which are more pendulous.
+
+    The larch differs from the bald cypress in the broader form of its
+    crown and the cluster-like arrangement of its leaves. The twigs of
+    the bald cypress are flat and feathery. The larch and bald cypress
+    have the common characteristics of both shedding their leaves in
+    winter and preferring to grow in moist or swampy soils. The larch,
+    especially the native species, forms the well-known tamarack swamps
+    of the north. The bald cypress grows in a similar way in groups in
+    the southern swamps.
+
+
+BALD CYPRESS (_Taxodium distichum_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *feathery character* of the *twigs*, Fig.
+    16, and the *spire-like form* of the tree, Fig. 17, which is taller
+    and more slender than the larch, will distinguish this species from
+    others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Cypress "Knees."]
+
+Leaf: The leaves drop off in October, though the tree is of the
+    cone-bearing kind. In this respect it is like the larch.
+
+Form and size: Tall and pyramidal.
+
+Range: The cypress is a southern tree, but is found under cultivation in
+    parks and on lawns in northern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Grows naturally in swamps, but will also do well in
+    ordinary well-drained, good soil. In its natural habitat it sends
+    out special roots above water. These are known as "_cypress knees_"
+    (Fig. 18) and serve to provide air to the submerged roots of the
+    tree.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: An excellent tree for park and lawn planting.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is light, soft, and easily worked. It is used
+    for general construction, interior finish, railroad ties, posts and
+    cooperage.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ is thin and scaly. The _fruit_ is a cone
+    about an inch in diameter. The general _color_ of the tree is a
+    dull, deep green which, however, turns orange brown in the fall.
+
+Comparisons: The cypress and the larch are apt to be confused,
+    especially in the winter, when the leaves of both have dropped. The
+    cypress is more slender and is taller in form. The leaves of each
+    are very different, as will be seen from the accompanying
+    illustrations.
+
+
+
+GROUP V. THE HORSECHESTNUT, ASH AND MAPLE
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The horsechestnut, ash, and maple
+    have their branches and buds arranged on their stems *opposite* each
+    other as shown in Figs. 20, 22 and 24. In other trees, this
+    arrangement is *alternate*, as shown in Fig. 19.
+
+How to tell these three from each other. If the bud is large--an inch to
+    an inch and a half long--dark brown, and _sticky_, it is a
+    _horsechestnut_.
+
+    If the bud is _not sticky_, much smaller, and _rusty brown to black_
+    in color, and the ultimate twigs, of an olive green color, are
+    _flattened_ at points below the buds, it is an _ash_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Alternate Branching (Beech.)]
+
+    If it is not a horsechestnut nor an ash and its small buds have
+    many scales covering them, the specimen with branches and buds
+    opposite must then be a _maple_. Each of the maples has one
+    character which distinguishes it from all the other maples. For the
+    sugar maple, this distinguishing character is the _sharp point of
+    the bud_. For the silver maple it is the _bend in the terminal
+    twig_. For the red maple it is the _smooth gray-colored bark_. For
+    the Norway maple it is the _reddish brown color of the full, round
+    bud_, and for the box elder it is the _greenish color of its
+    terminal twig_.
+
+    The form of the tree and the leaves are also characteristic in each
+    of the maples, but for the beginner who does not wish to be burdened
+    with too many of these facts at one time, those just enumerated
+    will be found most certain and most easily followed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Opposite Branching (Horsechestnut.)]
+
+
+THE HORSECHESTNUT
+(_Aesculus hippocastanum_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *sticky* nature of the *terminal bud* and
+    its *large size* (about an inch long). The bud is dark brown in
+    color. See Fig. 20.
+
+Leaf: Five to seven leaflets, usually seven. Fig. 21.
+
+Form and size: Medium-sized tree, pyramidal head and coarse twigs.
+
+Range: Europe and eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers a deep, rich soil.
+
+Enemies: The leaves are the favorite food of caterpillars and are
+    subject to a blight which turns them brown prematurely. The trunk is
+    often attacked by a disease which causes the flow of a slimy
+    substance.
+
+Value for planting: On account of its showy flowers, the horsechestnut
+    is a favorite for the park and lawn.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is not durable and is not used commercially.
+
+Other characters: The _flowers_ appear in large white clusters in May
+    and June. The _fruit_ is large, round, and prickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Leaf of the Horsechestnut.]
+
+Comparisons: The _red horsechestnut_ differs from this tree in having
+    red flowers. The _buckeye_ is similar to the horsechestnut, but its
+    bud is not sticky and is of a lighter gray color, while the leaf
+    generally has only five leaflets.
+
+
+THE WHITE ASH (_Fraxinus americana_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The terminal *twigs* of glossy olive green
+    color are *flattened* below the bud. Fig. 22. The bud is
+    rusty-brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Twig of White Ash.]
+
+Leaf: Five to nine leaflets. Fig. 23.
+
+Form and size: A large tree with a straight trunk.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: Rich, moist soil.
+
+Enemies: In cities it is very often attacked by sucking insects.
+
+Value for planting: The white ash grows rapidly. On account of its
+    insect enemies in cities, it should be used more for forest planting
+    and only occasionally for ornament.
+
+Commercial value: It has a heavy, tough, and strong wood, which is
+    valuable in the manufacture of cooperage stock, agricultural
+    implements, and carriages. It is superior in value to the black ash.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ is gray. The _flowers_ appear in May.
+
+Comparisons: The white ash is apt to be confused with the _black ash_
+    (_Fraxinus nigra_), but differs from the latter in having a
+    lighter-colored bud. The bud of the black ash is black. The bark of
+    the white ash is darker in color and the terminal twigs are more
+    flattened than those of the black ash.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Leaf of White Ash.]
+
+
+SUGAR MAPLE (_Acer saccharum_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bud is sharp-pointed*, scaly, and
+    reddish brown. Fig. 24.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Twig of the Sugar Maple.]
+
+Leaf: Has sharp points and round sinus. Fig. 25.
+
+Form and size: The crown is oval when the tree is young and round in old
+    age. Fig. 26.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Moist and deep soil, and cool, shady positions.
+
+Enemies: Subject to drouth, especially in cities. Is attacked by the
+    _sugar maple borer_ and the _maple phenacoccus_, a sucking insect.
+
+Value for planting: Its rich and yellow color in the fall, and the fine
+    spread of its crown make it a desirable tree for the lawn,
+    especially in the country.
+
+Commercial value: Its wood is hard and takes a good polish; used for
+    interior finish and furniture. The tree is also the source of maple
+    sugar. Fig. 27.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ is smooth in young trees and in old trees
+    it shags in large plates. The _flowers_ appear in the early part of
+    April.
+
+Other common names: The sugar maple is sometimes called _rock maple_ or
+    _hard maple_.
+
+
+SILVER MAPLE (_Acer saccharinum_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tips of the *twigs curve upwards* (Fig.
+    28), the bark is scaly, and the leaves are very deeply cleft and are
+    silvery on the under side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Leaf of Sugar Maple.]
+
+Leaf: Deeply cleft and silvery under side. Fig. 29.
+
+Form and size: A large tree with the main branches separating from the
+    trunk a few feet from the ground. The terminal twigs are long,
+    slender, and drooping.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Moist places.
+
+Enemies: The _leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the
+    _cottony-maple scale_, a sucking insect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Sugar Maple.]
+
+Value for planting: Grows too rapidly and is too short-lived to be
+    durable.
+
+Commercial value: Its wood is soft, weak, and little used.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ is light gray, smooth at first and scaly
+    later on. The scales are free at each end and attached in the
+    center. The _flowers_ appear before the leaves in the latter part of
+    March or early April.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Tapping the Sugar Maple.]
+
+Other common names: The silver maple is sometimes known as _soft maple_
+    or _white maple_.
+
+
+RED MAPLE (_Acer rubrum_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Terminal Twig of Silver Maple.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bark is smooth and light gray*, like
+    that of the beech, on the upper branches in older trees, and in
+    young trees over the whole trunk. Fig. 30. The buds are in clusters,
+    and the terminal twigs, Fig. 31, are quite red.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Leaf of the Silver Maple.]
+
+Leaf: Whitish underneath with three-pointed lobes. Fig. 32.
+
+Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a narrow, round head.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers moist places.
+
+Enemies: Leaf blotches (_Rhytisma acerinum_) which, however, are not
+    very injurious.
+
+Value for planting: Suitable as a shade tree for suburban streets. Its
+    rich red leaves in the fall make it attractive for the lawn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Bark of the Red Maple.]
+
+Commercial value: Its wood is heavy, close-grained, and takes a good
+    polish. Used for furniture and fuel.
+
+Other characters: The _bud_ is small, round, and red. The _flowers_
+    appear before the leaves are out in the early part of April.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Twig of the Red Maple.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Leaf of the Red Maple.]
+
+Other common names: The red maple is sometimes known as _swamp maple_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Twig of Norway Maple.]
+
+Comparisons: The red maple is apt to be confused with the silver maple,
+    but the latter can be distinguished by its turned-up twigs and scaly
+    bark over the whole trunk of the tree, which presents a sharp
+    contrast to the straight twig and smooth bark of the red maple. The
+    latter has a bark similar to the beech, but its branches are
+    _opposite_, while those of the beech are _alternate_.
+
+
+NORWAY MAPLE (_Acer platanoides_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The bud, Fig. 33, is *oval and reddish-brown*
+    in color; when taken off, a *milky juice exudes*. The bark is close.
+    Fig. 34
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Bark of Norway Maple.]
+
+Leaf: Like the leaf of the sugar maple but thicker in texture and darker
+    in color. Fig. 35.
+
+Form and size: A tall tree with a broad, round head.
+
+Range: Europe and the United States.
+
+Soil and location: Will grow in poor soil.
+
+Enemies: Very few.
+
+Value for planting: One of the best shade trees.
+
+Commercial value: None.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ is close like that of the mockernut
+    hickory.
+
+Comparisons: The Norway maple is apt to be confused with the _sycamore
+    maple_ (_Acer pseudoplatanus_), but differs from the latter in
+    having a reddish bud instead of a green bud, and a close bark
+    instead of a scaly bark.
+
+
+BOX ELDER (_Acer negundo_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The terminal *twigs are green*, and the buds
+    are round and small. Fig. 36.
+
+Leaf: Has three to seven leaflets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Leaf of Norway Maple.]
+
+Form and size: A medium-sized tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading
+    top.
+
+Range: Eastern United States to the Rocky Mountains.
+
+Soil and location: Grows rapidly in deep, moist soil and river valleys,
+    but accommodates itself to the dry and poor soil conditions of the
+    city.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36.--Twig of the Box Elder.]
+
+Enemies: Few.
+
+Value for planting: Used as a shade tree in the Middle West, but the
+    tree is so ill formed and so short-lived that it is not to be
+    recommended.
+
+Commercial value: None. The wood is soft.
+
+Other characters: The _bark_ of the trunk is smooth and yellowish-green
+    in young trees and grayish brown in older specimens. The _flowers_
+    appear in the early part of April. The _fruit_ takes the form of
+    yellowish-green keys which hang on the tree till late fall.
+
+Other common names: The box elder is also commonly known as the
+    _ash-leaf maple_.
+
+
+
+GROUP VI. TREES TOLD BY THEIR FORM: ELM, POPLAR, GINGKO AND WILLOW
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The trees described in this group are
+    so distinctive in their general _form_ that they may, for the
+    purpose of study, be grouped together, and distinguished from all
+    other trees by this characteristic.
+
+How to tell them from each other: The American elm is _vase-like_ in
+    shape; the Lombardy poplar is narrow and _spire-like_; the gingko,
+    or maidenhair tree, is _odd_ in its mode of _branching_; and the
+    weeping willow is extremely _pendulous_.
+
+
+AMERICAN ELM (_Ulmus americana_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tree can be told at a glance by its
+    general branching habit. The limbs arch out into a wide-spreading
+    *fan or vase-like crown* which loses itself in numerous fine
+    drooping branchlets. See Fig. 37.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--American Elm.]
+
+Leaf: The leaves are simple, alternate, and from 2 to 5 inches long.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--English Elm in Winter.]
+
+Form and size: It is a tall tree with a trunk that divides a short
+    distance above ground. Its general contour, together with the
+    numerous branches that interlace its massive crown, give the elm an
+    interesting and stately appearance which is unequaled by any other
+    tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Lombardy Poplar.]
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: The elm prefers a deep, rich and moist soil, but will
+    adapt itself even to the poor soil of the city street.
+
+Enemies: _The leopard moth_, a wood-boring insect, and the _elm leaf
+    beetle_, a leaf-eating insect, are the two most important enemies of
+    the tree. Their ravages are very extensive.
+
+Value for planting: The tree has a character of its own which cannot be
+    duplicated for avenue or lawn planting.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is strong and tough and therefore has a
+    special value for cooperage, agricultural implements, carriages, and
+    shipbuilding.
+
+Other characters: The _buds_ are small, brown, and smooth, while those
+    of the European elms are covered with down. The _small side twigs_
+    come out at almost right angles to the larger terminal twigs, which
+    is not the case in other species of elm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Leaf of Carolina Poplar.]
+
+Other common names: _White elm_.
+
+Comparisons: The _English elm_ (_Ulmus campestris_) is also a tall,
+    dignified tree commonly seen under cultivation in America, but may
+    be told from the American species by the difference in their general
+    contour. The branches of the English species spread out but do not
+    arch like those of the American elm, and the bark of the English elm
+    is darker and coarser, Fig. 38. Little tufts of dead twigs along the
+    main branches and trunk of the tree are characteristic of the
+    English elm and will frequently help to distinguish it from the
+    American elm.
+
+    The _Camperdown elm_ may be recognized readily by its dwarf size and
+    its low drooping umbrella-shaped crown.
+
+
+LOMBARDY OR ITALIAN POPLAR (_Populus nigra, var. italica_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: Its *tall, slender, spire-like form* and
+    rigidly *erect branches*, which commence low on the trunk, make this
+    tree very distinct at all seasons of the year. See Fig. 39.
+
+Leaf: Triangular in shape, similar to that of the Carolina poplar but
+    smaller, see Fig. 40.
+
+Range: Asia, Europe, and North America.
+
+Soil and location: The poplar is easily grown in poor soil, in any
+    location, and is very hardy.
+
+Value for planting: The tree has a distinctive form which makes it
+    valuable for special landscape effects. It is also used for shelter
+    belts and screening. Like all poplars it is short lived and will
+    stand pruning well.
+
+Commercial value: None.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Carolina Poplar.]
+
+Comparisons: The _Carolina poplar_, or Cottonwood (_Populus deltoides_)
+    can be told from the Lombardy poplar by its wider crown and its more
+    open branching, Fig. 41. It may be recognized by its big terminal
+    twigs, which are light yellow in color and coarser than those of the
+    Lombardy poplar, Fig. 42. Its bark is smooth, light and
+    yellowish-green in young trees, and dark gray and fissured in older
+    specimens. Its large, conical, glossy, chestnut-brown bud is also
+    characteristic, Fig. 42. Its flowers, in the form of large catkins,
+    a peculiarity of all poplars, appear in the early spring. The
+    Carolina poplar is commonly planted in cities because it grows
+    rapidly and is able to withstand the smoke and drouth conditions of
+    the city. Where other trees, however, can be substituted with
+    success, the poplar should be avoided. Its very fast growth is
+    really a point against the tree, because it grows so fast that it
+    becomes too tall for surrounding property, and its wood being
+    extremely soft and brittle, the tree frequently breaks in
+    windstorms. In many cases it is entirely uprooted, because it is not
+    a deep-rooted tree. Its larger roots, which spread near the
+    surface, upset the sidewalk or prevent the growth of other
+    vegetation on the lawn, while its finer rootlets, in their eager
+    search for moisture, penetrate and clog the joints of neighboring
+    water and sewer pipes. The tree is commonly attacked by the
+    _oyster-shell scale_, an insect which sucks the sap from its bark
+    and which readily spreads to other more valuable trees like the elm.
+    The female form of this tree is even more objectionable than the
+    male, because in the early spring the former produces an abundance
+    of cotton from its seeds which litters the ground and often makes
+    walking dangerous. The only justification for planting the Carolina
+    poplar is in places where the conditions for tree growth are so poor
+    that nothing else will grow, and in those cases the tree should be
+    cut back periodically in order to keep it from becoming too tall and
+    scraggly. It is also desirable for screening in factory districts
+    and similar situations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Bud of the Carolina Poplar.]
+
+    The _silver_ or _white poplar_ (_Populus alba_) may be told from the
+    other poplars by its characteristic smooth, _whitish-green bark_,
+    often spotted with dark blotches, Fig. 43. The _leaves are
+    silvery-white_ and downy on the under side. The twigs are dark green
+    in color and densely covered with a white down. It grows to very
+    large size and forms an irregular, wide-spreading, broad head, which
+    is characteristically different from that of any of the other
+    poplars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Bark of the Silver Poplar.]
+
+    The _quaking aspen_ (_Populus tremuloides_), the _large-toothed
+    aspen_ (_Populus grandidentata_) and the _balsam poplar_ or _balm of
+    Gilead_ (_Populus balsamifera_) are other common members of the
+    poplar group. The quaking aspen may be told by its reddish-brown
+    twigs, narrow sharp-pointed buds, and by its small finely toothed
+    leaves. The large-toothed aspen has thicker and rather downy buds
+    and broader and more widely toothed leaves. The balsam poplar has a
+    large bud thickly covered with a sticky, pungent, gelatinous
+    substance.
+
+
+GINGKO OR MAIDENHAIR TREE (_Gingko biloba_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Gingko Trees.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *peculiar branches* of this tree *emerge
+    upward* from a straight tapering trunk *at an angle of about 45 deg.*
+    and give to the whole tree a striking, Oriental appearance, which is
+    quite different from that of any other tree, Fig. 44.
+
+Leaf: Like that of a leaflet of maidenhair fern, Fig. 45.
+
+Range: A native of northern China and introduced into eastern North
+    America.
+
+Soil and location: The gingko will grow in poor soils.
+
+Enemies: Practically free from insects and disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Leaves of the Gingko Tree.]
+
+Value for planting: It makes a valuable tree for the street where heavy
+    shade is not the object and forms an excellent wide-spreading
+    specimen tree on the lawn.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ consists of a stone covered by sweet,
+    ill-smelling flesh. The tree is dioecious, there being separate male
+    and female trees. The male tree is preferable for planting in order
+    to avoid the disagreeable odor of the fruit which appears on the
+    female trees when about thirty years old. The male tree has a
+    narrower crown than the female tree. The buds (Fig. 46) are very odd
+    and are conspicuous on the tree throughout the winter. The leaves of
+    the gingko shed in the winter. In this respect the tree is like the
+    larch and the bald cypress.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Bud of the Gingko Tree.]
+
+    The gingko belongs to the yew family, which is akin to the pine
+    family. It is therefore a very old tree, the remains of the forests
+    of the ancient world. The gingko in its early life is tall and
+    slender with its few branches close to the stem. But after a time
+    the branches loosen up and form a wide-spreading crown. In the
+    Orient it attains enormous proportions and in this country it also
+    grows to a fairly large size when planted on the open lawn or in
+    groups far apart from other trees so that it can have plenty of room
+    to spread. It then produces a picturesque effect of unusual
+    interest.
+
+
+WEEPING WILLOW (_Salix babylonica_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: All the willows have a single cap-like scale
+    to the bud, and this species has an unusually *drooping mass of
+    slender branchlets* which characterizes the tree from all others,
+    Fig. 47.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Weeping Willow.]
+
+Form and size: It grows to large size.
+
+Range: Asia and Europe and naturalized in eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers moist places near streams and ponds.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: The weeping willow has a special ornamental effect
+    in cemeteries and along lakes and river banks in parks.
+
+Commercial value: It is used in the United States for charcoal and for
+    fuel.
+
+Comparisons: The _pussy willow_ (_Salix discolor_) may easily be told
+    from the other willows by its small size; it is often no higher than
+    a tall shrub. Its branches are _reddish green_ and the buds are dark
+    red, smooth and glossy. The predominating color of the twigs and
+    buds in the pussy willow is therefore a shade of _red_, while in the
+    weeping willow it is _yellowish green_.
+
+
+
+GROUP VII. TREES TOLD BY THEIR BARK OR TRUNK: SYCAMORE, BIRCH, BEECH,
+BLUE BEECH, IRONWOOD, AND HACKBERRY
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The _color of the bark or the form of
+    the trunk_ of each of the trees in this group is distinct from that
+    of any other tree.
+
+How to tell them from each other: In the sycamore, the bark is
+    _mottled_; in the white birch, it is _dull white_; in the beech, it
+    is _smooth and gray_; in the hackberry, it is covered with numerous
+    _corky warts_; in the blue beech, the trunk of the tree is _fluted_,
+    as in Fig. 54, and in the ironwood, the bark _peels_ in thin
+    perpendicular strips.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Bark of the Sycamore Tree.]
+
+
+THE SYCAMORE OR PLANE TREE (_Platanus occidentalis_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The peculiar *mottled appearance* of the
+    *bark* (Fig. 48) in the trunk and large branches is the striking
+    character here. The bark produces this effect by shedding in large,
+    thin, brittle plates. The newly exposed bark is of a yellowish green
+    color which often turns nearly white later on. *Round seed balls*,
+    about an inch in diameter, may be seen hanging on the tree all
+    winter. In this species, the seed balls are usually solitary, while
+    in the Oriental sycamore, a European tree similar to the native one,
+    they appear in clusters of two, or occasionally of three or four.
+    See Fig. 49.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Seed-balls of the Oriental Sycamore. Note one
+Seed-ball cut in half.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Gray or White Birch Trees.]
+
+Leaf: The stem of the leaf completely covers the bud. This is a
+    characteristic peculiar to sycamores.
+
+Form and size: A large tree with massive trunk and branches and a broad
+    head.
+
+Range: Eastern and southern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers a deep rich soil, but will adapt itself even
+    to the poor soil of the city street.
+
+Enemies: The sycamore is frequently attacked by a fungus (_Gloeosporium
+    nervisequum_), which curls up the young leaves and kills the tips of
+    the branches. Late frosts also often injure its young twigs. The
+    Oriental sycamore, which is the European species, is more hardy in
+    these respects than the native one and is therefore often chosen as
+    a substitute.
+
+Value for planting: The Occidental sycamore is now planted very little,
+    but the Oriental sycamore is used quite extensively in its place,
+    especially as a shade tree. The Oriental sycamore is superior to the
+    native species in many ways. It is more shapely, faster growing, and
+    hardier than the native one. Both sycamores will bear transplanting
+    and pruning well.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Bark of the Black or Sweet Birch.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood of the sycamore is coarse-grained and hard to
+    work; used occasionally for inside finishing in buildings.
+
+Other names: _Buttonball_, _buttonwood_.
+
+Comparisons: The _Oriental sycamore_ (_Platanus orientalis_) an
+    introduced species, is apt to be confused with the Occidental
+    sycamore, but may be told from the latter by the number of seed
+    balls suspended from the tree. In the case of the Oriental species,
+    the seed balls hang in _pairs_ or (rarely) three or four together.
+    In the Occidental, the seed balls are generally _solitary_ and very
+    rarely in pairs.
+
+
+GRAY OR WHITE BIRCH (_Betula populifolia_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *dull-white color of the bark* on the
+    trunk and the _dark triangular patches below the insertion of the
+    branches_ distinguish this tree; see Fig. 50. The bark of the young
+    trunks and branches is reddish-brown in color and glossy. The bark
+    adheres closely to the trunk of the tree and does not peel in loose,
+    shaggy strips, as in the case of the yellow or golden birch. It is
+    marked by small raised horizontal lines which are the lenticels or
+    breathing pores. These lenticels are characteristic of all birch and
+    cherry trees. In addition to the distinction in the color of the
+    bark, an important character which distinguishes the gray birch from
+    all other species of birch, is found in the *terminal twigs*, which
+    are *rough* to the touch.
+
+Form and size: A small tree. Frequently grows in clumps.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: The gray birch does best in a deep, rich soil, but
+    will also grow in poor soils.
+
+Enemies: The _bronze-birch borer_, a wood-destroying insect, and
+    _Polyporus betulinus_, a fungus, are its chief enemies.
+
+Value for planting: Its graceful habit and attractive bark gives the
+    tree an important place in ornamental planting. It may be used to
+    advantage with evergreens, and produces a charming effect when
+    planted by itself in clumps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Bark of the Beech.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Buds of the Beech Tree.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood is soft and not durable. It is used in the
+    manufacture of small articles and for wood pulp.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit is a catkin_.
+
+Comparisons: The _paper birch_ (_Betula papyrifera_) is apt to be
+    confused with the gray birch, because both have a white bark. The
+    bark of the paper birch, however, is a clear white and peels off in
+    thin papery layers instead of being close. It very seldom shows any
+    dark triangular markings on the trunk. Its terminal twigs are not
+    rough and its trunk is usually straighter and freer from branches.
+
+    The _black_ or _sweet birch_ (_Betula lenta_) has a bark similar to
+    the gray birch, except that its color is dark gray. See Fig. 51. The
+    twigs have an aromatic taste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Trunk of Blue Beech.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Bark of the Ironwood.]
+
+    The _yellow birch_ (_Betula lutea_) has a yellowish or golden bark
+    which constantly peels in thin, ragged, horizontal films.
+
+    The _European white birch_ (_Betula alba_) has a dull-white bark
+    like the native white birch, but has smooth terminal twigs instead
+    of rough ones. It is commonly seen in the United States on lawns and
+    in parks.
+
+
+AMERICAN BEECH (_Fagus americana_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *close-fitting, smooth, gray bark* will
+    tell this tree from all others except the red maple and yellow-wood.
+    See Fig. 52. The red maple may then be easily eliminated by noting
+    whether the branches are alternate or opposite. They are alternate
+    in the beech and opposite in the maple. The yellow-wood may be
+    eliminated by noting the size of the bud. The *bud* in the
+    yellow-wood is hardly noticeable and of a golden yellow color, while
+    that of the beech is very *long, slender, and sharp-pointed*, and
+    chestnut brown in color. See Fig. 53.
+
+Form and size: It grows tall in the woods, but on the open lawn spreads
+    out into a massive, round-headed tree.
+
+Range: Eastern Canada and United States.
+
+Soil and location: Prefers a rich, well-drained soil, but will grow in
+    any good soil.
+
+Enemies: _Aphides_ or plant lice that suck the sap from the leaves in
+    spring and early summer are the chief enemies of the tree.
+
+Value for planting: The pleasing color of its bark, its fine spread of
+    branches, which gracefully droop down to the ground, and its
+    autumnal coloring, make the beech a favorite for lawn and park
+    planting. The several European species of beech are equally
+    charming.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Bark of the Hackberry.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood is strong, close-grained, and tough. It is
+    used mainly for cooperage, tool handles, shoe lasts, chairs, etc.,
+    and for fuel.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a prickly burr encasing a sharply
+    triangular nut which is sweet and edible.
+
+Comparisons: The _European beech_ (_Fagus sylvatica_), and its weeping,
+    purple-leaved, and fern-leaved varieties, are frequently met with in
+    parks and may be told from the native species by its darker bark.
+    The weeping form may, of course, be told readily by its drooping
+    branches. The leaves of the European beeches are broader and less
+    serrated than those of the American beech.
+
+
+BLUE BEECH OR HORNBEAM (_Carpinus caroliniana_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *fluted* or muscular effect of its
+    *trunk* will distinguish the tree at a glance, Fig. 54.
+
+Leaf: Doubly serrated; otherwise the same as that of ironwood.
+
+Form and size: A low-spreading tree with branches arching out at various
+    angles, forming a flattened head with a fine, slender spray.
+
+Range: Very common in the eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Grows in low wet woods.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: Its artistic branching and curious trunk give the
+    tree an important place in park planting.
+
+Commercial value: None.
+
+Other characters: The bark is smooth and bluish gray in color.
+
+Comparisons: The blue beech or hornbeam is often confused with the
+    _ironwood_ or _hop hornbeam_ (_Ostrya virginiana_). The ironwood,
+    however, has a characteristic bark that peels in perpendicular,
+    short, thin segments, often loose at the ends. See Fig. 55. This is
+    entirely different from the close, smooth, and fluted bark of the
+    blue beech. The color of the bark in the ironwood is brownish, while
+    that of the blue beech is bluish-gray. The buds of the ironwood are
+    greenish with brown tips, while the bud of the blue beech shows no
+    green whatever.
+
+
+HACKBERRY (_Celtis occidentalis_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tree may be told readily from other trees
+    by the *corky tubercles* on the bark of the lower portion of the
+    trunk. See Fig. 56.
+
+Leaf: Has three predominating veins and is a bit more developed on one
+    side than on the other.
+
+Form and size: A small or medium-sized tree with a single stem and broad
+    conical crown.
+
+Range: United States and Canada.
+
+Soil and location: Grows naturally in fertile soils, but will adapt
+    itself to almost sterile soils as well.
+
+Enemies: The hackberry is usually free from disease, though often its
+    leaves are covered with insect galls.
+
+Value for planting: It is extensively planted as a shade tree in the
+    Middle West, and is frequently seen as an ornamental tree in the
+    East.
+
+Commercial value: It has little economic value except for fuel.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is berry-like, with a hard pit. The fleshy
+    outer part is sweet.
+
+Other common names: _Nettle tree_; _sugarberry_.
+
+
+
+GROUP VIII. THE OAKS AND CHESTNUT
+
+How to tell them from other trees: The oaks are rather difficult to
+    identify and, in studying them it will often be necessary to look
+    for more than one distinguishing character. The oaks differ from
+    other trees in bearing _acorns_. Their _leaves_ have many lobes and
+    their upper lateral _buds_ cluster at the top of the twigs. The
+    general contour of each oak presents a characteristic branching and
+    sturdiness uncommon in other trees.
+
+    The chestnut differs from other trees in bearing _burs_ and its
+    _bark_ is also distinctly characteristic.
+
+How to tell them from each other: There are two groups of oaks, the
+    _white oak_ and the _black oak_. The white oaks mature their acorns
+    in one year and, therefore, only acorns of the same year can be
+    found on trees of this group. The black oaks take two years in which
+    to mature their acorns and, therefore, young acorns of the present
+    year and mature acorns of the previous year may be found on the same
+    tree at one time. The _leaves_ of the white oaks have rounded
+    margins and rounded lobes as in Fig. 57, while those of the black
+    oaks have pointed margins and sharp pointed lobes as shown in Figs.
+    60, 62 and 64. The _bark_ of the white oaks is light colored and
+    breaks up in loose flakes as in Fig. 58, while that of the black
+    oaks is darker and deeply ridged or tight as in Figs. 59 and 61. The
+    white oak is the type of the white oak group and the black, red and
+    pin oaks are types of the other. For the characterization of the
+    individual species, the reader is referred to the following pages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Leaf and Fruit of White Oak. (Quercus alba.)]
+
+
+WHITE OAK (_Quercus alba_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The massive ramification of its branches is
+    characteristic of this species and often an easy clue to its
+    identification. The *bark* has a *light gray color*--lighter than
+    that of the other oaks--and breaks into soft, loose flakes as in
+    Fig. 58. The *leaves are deeply lobed* as in Fig. 57. The *buds are
+    small, round and congested* at the end of the year's growth. The
+    acorns usually have no stalks and are set in shallow, rough cups.
+    The kernels of the acorns are white and palatable.
+
+Form and size: The white oak grows into a large tree with a
+    wide-spreading, massive crown, dissolving into long, heavy, twisted
+    branches. When grown in the open it possesses a short sturdy trunk;
+    in the forest its trunk is tall and stout.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Bark of White Oak. (Quercus alba.)]
+
+Soil and location: The white oak thrives in almost any well-drained,
+    good, deep soil except in a very cold and wet soil. It requires
+    plenty of light and attains great age.
+
+Enemies: The tree is comparatively free from insects and disease except
+    in districts where the Gipsy moth is common, in which case the
+    leaves of the white oak are a favorite food of its caterpillars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Bark of Black Oak. (Quercus velutina).]
+
+Value for planting: The white oak is one of the most stately trees. Its
+    massive form and its longevity make the tree suitable for both lawn
+    and woodland planting but it is not used much because it is
+    difficult to transplant and grows rather slowly.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is of great economic importance. It is heavy,
+    hard, strong and durable and is used in cooperage, construction
+    work, interior finish of buildings and for railroad ties, furniture,
+    agricultural implements and fuel.
+
+Comparisons: The _swamp white oak_ (_Quercus platanoides_) is similar to
+    the white oak in general appearance of the bark and form and is
+    therefore liable to be confused with it. It differs from the white
+    oak, however, in possessing a more straggly habit and in the fact
+    that the bark on the under side of its branches shags in loose,
+    large scales. Its buds are smaller, lighter colored and more downy
+    and its acorns are more pointed and with cups more shallow than
+    those of the white oak. The tree also grows in moister ground,
+    generally bordering swamps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Leaf and Fruit of Black Oak. (Quercus
+velutina).]
+
+
+BLACK OAK (_Quercus velutina_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bark* is black, rough and cut up into
+    firm *ridges* especially at the base of the tree, see Fig. 59. The
+    _inner bark_ has a _bright yellow color_: the *leaves* have _sharp
+    points_ and are wider at the base than at the tip as shown in Fig.
+    60. The buds are _large, downy_ and _sharp pointed_. The acorns are
+    small and have deep, scaly cups the inner margins of which are
+    downy. The kernels are yellow and bitter.
+
+Form and size: The tree grows in an irregular form to large size, with
+    its branches rather slender as compared with the white oak and with
+    a more open and narrow crown.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: It will grow in poor soils but does best where the
+    soil is rich and well drained.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: The black oak is the poorest of the oaks for
+    planting and is rarely offered by nurserymen.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is heavy, hard and strong, but checks readily
+    and is coarse grained. It is of little value except for fuel. The
+    bark is used for tannin.
+
+Other common names: _Yellow oak_.
+
+Comparisons: The black oak might sometimes be confused with the _red_
+    and _scarlet oaks_. The yellow, bitter inner bark will distinguish
+    the black oak from the other two. The light-colored, smooth bark of
+    the red oak and the dark, ridged bark of the black oak will
+    distinguish the two, while the bark of the scarlet oak has an
+    appearance intermediate between the two. The buds of the three
+    species also show marked differences. The buds of the black oak are
+    covered with hairs, those of the scarlet oak have fewer hairs and
+    those of the red are practically free from hairs. The leaves of each
+    of the three species are distinct and the growth habits are
+    different.
+
+
+RED OAK (_Quercus rubra_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bark* is perpendicularly fissured into
+    long, _smooth, light gray strips_ giving the trunk a characteristic
+    *pillar effect* as in Figs. 61 and 94. It has the straightest trunk
+    of all the oaks. The leaves possess _more lobes_ than the leaves of
+    any of the other species of the black oak group, see Fig. 62. The
+    acorns, the largest among the oaks, are semispherical with the cups
+    extremely shallow. The buds are large and sharp pointed, but not as
+    large as those of the black oak. They also have a few fine hairs on
+    their scales, but are not nearly as downy as those of the Black oak.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61--Bark of Red Oak.]
+
+Form and size: The red oak is the largest of the oaks and among the
+    largest of the trees in the northern forests. It has a straight
+    trunk, free from branches to a higher point than in the white oak,
+    see Fig. 94. The branches are less twisted and emerge at sharper
+    angles than do those of the white oak.
+
+Range: It grows all over Eastern North America and reaches north farther
+    than any of the other oaks.
+
+Soil and location: It is less fastidious in its soil and moisture
+    requirements than the other oaks and therefore grows in a great
+    variety of soils. It requires plenty of light.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Leaf and Fruit of Red Oak.]
+
+Enemies: Like most of the other oaks, this species is comparatively free
+    from insects and disease.
+
+Value for planting: The red oak grows faster and adapts itself better to
+    poor soil conditions than any of the other oaks and is therefore
+    easy to plant and easy to find in the nurseries. It makes an
+    excellent street tree, is equally desirable for the lawn and is
+    hardly surpassed for woodland planting.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is hard and strong but coarse grained, and is
+    used for construction timber, interior finish and furniture. It is
+    inferior to white oak where strength and durability are required.
+
+
+PIN OAK (_Quercus palustris_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: Its method of *branching* will characterize
+    the tree at a glance. It develops a well-defined _main_ ascending
+    _stem_ with numerous _drooping_ side _branches_ as in Fig. 63. The
+    buds are very small and sharp pointed and the leaves are small as in
+    Fig. 64. The bark is dark, firm, smooth and in close ridges. The
+    acorn is small and carries a light brown, striped nut, wider than
+    long and bitter. The cup is shallow, enclosing only the base of the
+    nut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Pin Oaks in Winter.]
+
+Form and size: The pin oak is a medium-sized tree in comparison with
+    other oaks. It develops a tall, straight trunk that tapers
+    continuously through a pyramidal crown of low, drooping tender,
+    branches.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: It requires a deep, rich, moist soil and grows
+    naturally near swamps. Its roots are deep and spreading. The tree
+    grows rapidly and is easily transplanted.
+
+Enemies: None of importance.
+
+Value for planting: The pin oak is an extremely graceful tree and is
+    therefore extensively used for planting on lawns and on certain
+    streets where the tree can find plenty of water and where conditions
+    will permit its branches to droop low.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is heavy and hard but coarse grained and
+    liable to check and warp. Its principal use is in the construction
+    of houses and for shingles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Leaf and Fruit of Pin Oak.]
+
+
+CHESTNUT (_Castanea dentata_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bark* in young trees is smooth and of a
+    marked reddish-bronze color, but when the tree grows older, the bark
+    breaks up into *diamond-shaped ridges*, sufficiently characteristic
+    to distinguish the tree at a glance, see Fig. 65. A close
+    examination of the _terminal twig_ will show _three ridges_ and _two
+    grooves_ running down along the stem from the base of each leaf or
+    leaf-scar. The twig has no true terminal bud. The fruit, a large,
+    round *bur*, prickly without and hairy within and enclosing the
+    familiar dark brown, sweet edible nuts is also a distinguishing mark
+    of the tree.
+
+Leaf: The leaves are distinctly long and narrow. They are from 6 to 8
+    inches long.
+
+Form and size: The chestnut is a large tree with a massive trunk and
+    broad spreading crown. The chestnut tree when cut, sprouts readily
+    from the stump and therefore in places where the trees have once
+    been cut, a group of two to six trees may be seen emerging from the
+    old stump.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Trunk of Chestnut Tree.]
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: It will grow on rocky as well as on fertile soils and
+    requires plenty of light.
+
+Enemies: During the past nine years nearly all the chestnut trees in the
+    United States have been attacked by a fungus disease (_Diaporthe
+    parasitica_, Mur.) which still threatens the entire extinction of
+    the chestnut trees in this country. No remedy has been discovered
+    and all affected trees should be cut down and the wood utilized
+    before it decays and becomes worthless. No species of chestnut tree
+    is entirely immune from this disease, though some species are highly
+    resistant.
+
+Value for planting: The chestnut is one of the most rapidly growing
+    hardwood trees but, on account of its disease, which is now
+    prevalent everywhere, it is not wise to plant chestnut trees for the
+    present.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is light, not very strong and liable to warp.
+    It is durable when brought in contact with the soil and is therefore
+    used for railroad ties, fence-posts, poles, and mine timbers. It is
+    also valuable for interior finish in houses and for fuel. Its bark
+    is used in the manufacture of tanning extracts and the nuts are sold
+    in cities in large quantities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO IDENTIFY TREES--(Continued)
+
+
+
+GROUP IX. THE HICKORIES, WALNUT AND BUTTERNUT
+
+How to tell them from other trees and from each other: The hickory
+    trees, though symmetrical, have a rugged _appearance_ and the
+    _branches_ are so sturdy and black as to give a special distinction
+    to this group. The _buds_ are different from the buds of all other
+    trees and sufficiently characteristic to distinguish the various
+    species of the group. The _bark_ is also a distinguishing character.
+
+    The walnut and butternut have _chambered piths_ which distinguish
+    them from all other trees and from each other.
+
+
+SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria ovata_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The yellowish brown *buds* nearly as large as
+    those of the mockernut hickory, _are each provided with two long,
+    dark, outer scales_ which stand out very conspicuously as shown in
+    Fig. 67. The *bark* in older specimens *shags* off in rough strips,
+    sometimes more than a foot long, as shown in Fig. 68. These two
+    characters will readily distinguish the tree at all seasons of the
+    year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--A Shagbark Hickory Tree.]
+
+Leaf: The leaf is compound, consisting of 5 or 7 leaflets, the terminal
+    one generally larger.
+
+Form and size: A tall, stately tree--the tallest of the hickories--of
+    rugged form and fine symmetry, see Fig. 66.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: The shagbark hickory grows in a great variety of
+    soils, but prefers a deep and rather moist soil.
+
+Enemies: The _hickory bark borer_ (_Scolytus quadrispinosus_) is its
+    principal enemy. The insect is now killing thousands of hickory
+    trees in the vicinity of New York City and on several occasions has
+    made its appearance in large numbers in other parts of the country.
+
+Value for planting: It is difficult to transplant, grows slowly and is
+    seldom found in nurseries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Bud of the Shagbark Hickory.]
+
+Commercial value: The wood is extremely tough and hard and is used for
+    agricultural implements and for the manufacture of wagons. It is
+    excellent for fuel and the nuts are of great value as a food.
+
+Other characters: The fruit is a nut covered by a thick husk that
+    separates into 4 or 5 segments. The kernel is sweet.
+
+Other common names: _Shellbark hickory_.
+
+
+MOCKERNUT HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Bark of the Shagbark Hickory.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bud* is the largest among the
+    hickories--nearly half an inch long--is hard and oval and covered
+    with _yellowish brown_ downy _scales_ which _do not project_ like
+    those of the shagbark hickory, see Fig. 69. The twigs are extremely
+    coarse. The *bark* is very tight on the trunk and branches and has a
+    _close_, hard, _wavy_ appearance as in Fig. 70.
+
+Leaf: The leaf consists of 5, 7 or 9 leaflets all of which are large and
+    pubescent and possess a distinct resinous odor.
+
+Form and size: A tall tree with a broad spreading head.
+
+Range: Eastern North America.
+
+Soil and location: The mockernut hickory grows on a great variety of
+    soils, but prefers one which is rich and well-drained.
+
+Enemies: The same as for the shagbark hickory.
+
+Value for planting: It is not commonly planted.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is similar to that of the shagbark hickory
+    and is put to the same uses.
+
+Other characters: The fruit is a nut, larger and covered with a shell
+    thicker than that of the shagbark. The husk is also thicker and
+    separates into four segments nearly to the base. The kernel is small
+    and sweet.
+
+Other common names: _Bigbud hickory_; _whiteheart hickory_.
+
+Comparisons: The _pignut hickory_ (_Hicoria glabra_), sometimes called
+    broom hickory or brown hickory, often has a shaggy bark, but differs
+    from both the shagbark and the mockernut hickory in possessing buds
+    very much smaller, twigs more slender and leaflets fewer. The nut
+    has a thinner husk which does not separate into four or five
+    segments. The tree prefers drier ground than the other hickories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Bud of the Mockernut Hickory.]
+
+    The _bitternut_ (_Hicoria minima_) can be told from the mockernut
+    and other species of hickory by its bud, which has no scales at all.
+    The color of its bud is a characteristic orange yellow. The bark is
+    of a lighter shade than the bark of the mockernut hickory and the
+    leaflets are more numerous than in any of the hickories, varying
+    from 7 to 11. Its nuts are bitter.
+
+
+BLACK WALNUT (_Juglans nigra_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: By cutting a twig lengthwise, it will be seen
+    that its *pith* is divided into little _chambers_ as shown in Fig.
+    71. The bud is dark gray and satiny. The bark is dark brown and
+    deeply ridged and the fruit is the familiar round walnut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Bark of the Mockernut Hickory.]
+
+Form and size: A tall tree with a spreading crown composed of stout
+    branches. In the open it grows very symmetrically.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: The black walnut prefers a deep, rich, fertile soil
+    and requires a great deal of light.
+
+Enemies: The tree is a favorite of many caterpillars.
+
+Value for planting: It forms a beautiful spreading tree on open ground,
+    but is not planted to any extent because it is hard to transplant.
+    It grows slowly unless the soil is very deep and rich, develops its
+    leaves late in the spring and sheds them early in the fall and
+    produces its fruit in great profusion.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is heavy, strong, of chocolate brown color
+    and capable of taking a fine polish. It is used for cabinet making
+    and interior finish of houses. The older the tree, usually, the
+    better the wood, and the consumption of the species in the past has
+    been so heavy that it is becoming rare. The European varieties which
+    are frequently planted in America as substitutes for the native
+    species yield better nuts, but the American species produces better
+    wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Twig of the Black Walnut. Note the large
+chambers in the pith.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Twig of the Butternut. Note the small chambers
+in the pith.]
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is a large round nut about two inches in
+    diameter, covered with a smooth husk which at first is dull green
+    in color and later turns brown. The husk does not separate into
+    sections. The kernel is edible and produces an oil of commercial
+    value.
+
+    The _leaves_ are compound and alternate with 15 to 23 leaflets to
+    each.
+
+Comparisons: The _butternut_ (_Juglans cinerea_) is another tree that
+    has the pith divided into little chambers, but the little chambers
+    here are shorter than in the black walnut, as may be seen from a
+    comparison of Figs. 71 and 72. The bark of the butternut is light
+    gray while that of the black walnut is dark. The buds in the
+    butternut are longer than those of the black walnut and are light
+    brown instead of gray in color. The form of the tree is low and
+    spreading as compared with the black walnut. The fruit in the
+    butternut is elongated while that of the black walnut is round. The
+    leaves of the butternut have fewer leaflets and these are lighter in
+    color.
+
+
+
+GROUP X. TULIP TREE, SWEET GUM, LINDEN, MAGNOLIA, LOCUST, CATALPA,
+DOGWOOD, MULBERRY AND OSAGE ORANGE
+
+
+TULIP TREE (_Liriodendron tulipifera_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: There are four characters that stand out
+    conspicuously in the tulip tree--the *bud*, the *trunk*, the
+    persistent *fruit cups* and the wedged *leaf*.
+
+    The bud, Fig. 74, about three-quarters of an inch long, is covered
+    by two purplish scales which lend special significance to its whole
+    appearance. The trunk is extremely individual because it rises stout
+    and shaft-like, away above the ground without a branch as shown in
+    Fig. 73. The tree flowers in the latter part of May but the cup that
+    holds the fruit persists throughout the winter. The leaf, Fig. 75,
+    has four lobes, is nearly as broad as it is long and so notched at
+    the upper end that it looks different from any other leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--The Tulip Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Bud of the Tulip Tree.]
+
+Form and size: The tulip tree is one of the largest, stateliest and
+    tallest of our trees.
+
+Range: Eastern United States.
+
+Soil and location: Requires a deep, moist soil.
+
+Enemies: Comparatively free from insects and disease.
+
+Value for planting: The tree has great value as a specimen on the lawn
+    but is undesirable as a street tree because it requires considerable
+    moisture and transplants with difficulty. It should be planted while
+    young and where it can obtain plenty of light. It grows rapidly.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is commercially known as _whitewood_ and
+    _yellow poplar_. It is light, soft, not strong and easily worked. It
+    is used in construction, for interior finish of houses, woodenware
+    and shingles. It has a medicinal value.
+
+Other characters: The _flower_, shown in Fig. 75, is greenish yellow in
+    color, appears in May and resembles a tulip; hence the name tulip
+    tree. The _fruit_ is a cone.
+
+Other common names: _Whitewood_; _yellow poplar_; _poplar_ and _tulip
+    poplar_.
+
+
+SWEET GUM (_Liquidambar styraciflua_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Leaf and Flower of the Tulip Tree.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The _persistent, spiny_, long-stemmed round
+    *fruit*; _the corky growths on the_ *twigs*, the characteristic
+    _star-shaped_ *leaves* (Fig. 76) and the very shiny greenish brown
+    buds and the perfect symmetry of the tree are the chief characters
+    by which to identify the species.
+
+Form and size: The sweet gum has a beautiful symmetrical shape, forming
+    a true monopodium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Leaf and Fruit of the Sweet Gum. Note the corky
+ridges along the twig.]
+
+Range: From Connecticut to Florida and west to Missouri.
+
+Soil and location: Grows in any good soil but prefers low wet ground. It
+    grows rapidly and needs plenty of light.
+
+Enemies: Is very often a favorite of leaf-eating caterpillars.
+
+Value for planting: The tree is sought for the brilliant color of its
+    foliage in the fall, and is suitable for planting both on the lawn
+    and street. In growing the tree for ornamental purposes it is
+    important that it should be frequently transplanted in the nursery
+    and that it be transported with burlap wrapping around its roots.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is reddish brown in color, tends to splinter
+    and is inclined to warp in drying. It is used in cooperage, veneer
+    work and for interior finish.
+
+Other characters: On the smaller branches there are irregular
+    developments of cork as shown in Fig. 76, projecting in some cases
+    to half an inch in thickness.
+
+Other common names: _Red gum_.
+
+Comparisons: The _cork elm_ is another tree that possesses corky ridges
+    along its twigs, but this differs from the sweet gum in wanting the
+    spiny fruit and its other distinctive traits.
+
+
+AMERICAN LINDEN (_Tilia Americana_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Bud of the Linden Tree.]
+
+Distinguishing characters: The great distinguishing feature of any
+    linden is the *one-sided* character of its *bud* and *leaf*. The
+    bud, dark red and conical, carries a sort of protuberance which
+    makes it extremely one sided as shown in Fig. 77. The leaf, Fig. 78,
+    is heart-shaped with the side nearest the branch largest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Leaves and Flowers of the European Linden.]
+
+Form and size: The American Linden is a medium-sized tree with a broad
+    round head.
+
+Range: Eastern North America and more common in the north than in the
+    south.
+
+Soil and location: Requires a rich, moist soil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--European Linden Tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Bud of the Umbrella Tree.]
+
+Enemies: Its leaves are a favorite food of caterpillars and its wood is
+    frequently attacked by a boring insect known as the _linden borer_
+    (_Saperda vestita_).
+
+Value for planting: The linden is easily transplanted and grows rapidly.
+It is used for lawn and street planting but is less desirable for these
+purposes than the European species.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is light and soft and used for paper pulp,
+    woodenware, cooperage and furniture. The tree is a favorite with bee
+    keepers on account of the large quantities of nectar contained in
+    its flowers.
+
+Other characters: The _fruit_ is like a pea, gray and woody. The
+    _flowers_ appear in early July, are greenish-yellow and very
+    fragrant.
+
+Other common names: _Bass-wood_; _lime-tree_; _whitewood_.
+
+Comparisons: The _European lindens_, Fig. 79, of which there are several
+    species under cultivation, differ from the native species in having
+    buds and leaves smaller in size, more numerous and darker in color.
+
+
+THE MAGNOLIAS
+
+The various species of magnolia trees are readily distinguished by their
+buds. They all prefer moist, rich soil and have their principal value as
+decorative trees on the lawn. They are distinctly southern trees; some
+species under cultivation in the United States come from Asia, but the
+two most commonly grown in the Eastern States are the cucumber tree and
+the umbrella tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Bark of the Black Locust.]
+
+
+CUCUMBER TREE (_Magnolia acuminata_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *buds* are _small_ and _slender_ compared
+    with those of the other magnolia trees and are _covered_ with small
+    silvery silky _hairs_. The *habit* of the tree is to form a straight
+    axis of great height with a symmetrical mass of branches, producing
+    a perfect monopodial crown. The tree is sometimes known as _mountain
+    magnolia_.
+
+
+UMBRELLA TREE (_Magnolia tripetala_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The _buds_, Fig. 80, are extremely _long_,
+    often one and a half inches, have a _purple color_ and _are smooth_.
+    The tree does not grow to large size and produces an open spreading
+    head. Its leaves, twelve to eighteen inches long, are larger than
+    those of the other magnolia trees. The tree is sometimes called
+    _elkwood_.
+
+
+BLACK LOCUST (_Robinia pseudacacia_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The *bark* of the trunk is _rough_ and
+    _deeply ridged_, as shown in Fig. 81. The *buds* are _hardly
+    noticeable_; the twigs sometimes bear small spines on one side. The
+    leaves are large, compound, and fern-like. The individual leaflets
+    are small and delicate.
+
+Form and size: The locust is a medium-sized tree developing a slender
+    straight trunk when grown alongside of others; see Fig. 82.
+
+Range: Canada and United States.
+
+Soil and location: The locust will grow on almost any soil except a wet,
+    heavy one. It requires plenty of light.
+
+Enemies: The _locust borer_ has done serious damage to this tree. The
+    grubs of this insect burrow in the sapwood and kill the tree or make
+    it unfit for commercial use. The _locust miner_ is a beetle which is
+    now annually defoliating trees of this species in large numbers.
+
+Value for planting: It has little value for ornamental planting.
+
+Commercial value: Though short-lived, the locust grows very rapidly. It
+    is extremely durable in contact with the soil and possesses great
+    strength. It is therefore extensively grown for fence-posts and
+    railroad ties. Locust posts will last from fifteen to twenty years.
+    The wood is valuable for fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Black Locust Trees.]
+
+Other characters: The _flowers_ are showy pea-shaped panicles appearing
+    in May and June. The _fruit_ is a small pod.
+
+Other common names: _Yellow locust_; _common locust_; _locust_.
+
+Comparisons: The _honey locust_ (_Gleditsia triacanthos_) can be told
+    from the black locust by the differences in their bark. In the honey
+    locust the bark is not ridged, has a sort of dark iron-gray color
+    and is often covered with clusters of stout, sharp-pointed thorns as
+    in Fig. 83. The fruit is a large pod often remaining on the tree
+    through the winter. This tree has an ornamental, but no commercial
+    value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Bark of the Honey Locust.]
+
+
+HARDY CATALPA (_Catalpa speciosa_)
+
+Distinguishing characters: The tree may be told by its *fruit*, which
+    hang in long slender pods all winter. The leaf-scars appear on the
+    stem in whorls of three and rarely opposite each other.
+
+Form and size: The catalpa has a short, thick and twisted trunk with an
+    irregular head.
+
+Range: Central and eastern United States.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Hardy Catalpa Trees.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Bark of the Flowering Dogwood.]
+
+Soil and location: It grows naturally on low bottom-lands but will also
+    do well in poor, dry soils.
+
+Enemies: Practically free from disease and insects.
+
+Value for planting: The catalpa grows very rapidly and is cultivated in
+    parks for ornament and in groves for commercial purposes. The _hardy
+    catalpa_ is preferable to the _common catalpa_ for planting.
+
+Commercial value: The wood is extremely durable in contact with the soil
+    and is consequently used for posts and railroad ties.
+
+Other characters: The _flowers_, which appear in late June and early
+    July, are large, white and very showy.
+
+Other common names: _Indian bean_; _western catalpa_.
+
+Comparisons: The _white flowering dogwood_ (_Cornus florida_) is a small
+    tree which also has its leaves in whorls of three or sometimes
+    opposite. It can be readily told from other trees, however, by the
+    small square plates into which the outer bark on the trunk divides
+    itself, see Fig. 85, and by the characteristic drooping character of
+    its branches. It is one of the most common plants in our eastern
+    deciduous forests. It is extremely beautiful both in the spring and
+    in the fall and is frequently planted for ornament. There are many
+    varieties of dogwood in common use.
+
+
+WHITE MULBERRY (_Morus alba_)
+
+A small tree recognized by its _small round reddish brown buds_ and
+_light brown, finely furrowed_ (wavy looking) _bark_.
+
+The tree, probably a native of China, is grown under cultivation in
+eastern Canada and United States. It grows rapidly in moist soil and is
+not fastidious in its light requirements. Its chief value is for
+screening and for underplanting in woodlands.
+
+The _red mulberry_ (_Morus rubra_) is apt to be confused with the white
+mulberry, but differs in the following characters: The leaves of the red
+mulberry are rough on the upper side and downy on the under side,
+whereas the leaves of the white mulberry are smooth and shiny. The buds
+in the red are larger and more shiny than those of the white.
+
+The _Osage orange_ (_Toxylon pomiferum_) is similar to the mulberry in
+the light, golden color of its bark, but differs from it in possessing
+conspicuous spines along the twigs and branches and a more ridged bark.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+THE STRUCTURE AND REQUIREMENTS OF TREES
+
+To be able fully to appreciate trees, their mode of life,
+their enemies and their care, one must know something of
+their structure and life requirements.
+
+Structure of trees: Among the lower forms of plants there is very little
+    distinction between the various parts--no differentiation into root,
+    stem, or crown. Often the lower forms of animal and vegetable life
+    are so similar that one cannot discriminate between them. But as we
+    ascend in the scale, the various plant forms become more and more
+    complex until we reach the tree, which is the largest and highest
+    form of all plants. The tree is a living organism composed of cells
+    like any other living organism. It has many parts, every one of
+    which has a definite purpose. The three principal parts are: the
+    stem, the crown, and the root.
+
+  The stem: If we examine the cross-section of a tree, Fig. 86, we will
+    notice that it is made up of numerous rings arranged in sections of
+    different color and structure. The central part is known as the
+    _pith_. Around the pith comes a dark, close-grained series of rings
+    known as the _heartwood_, and outside the heartwood comes a lighter
+    layer, the _sapwood_. The _cambium layer_ surrounds the sapwood and
+    the _bark_ covers all. The cambium layer is the most important
+    tissue of the tree and, together with part of the sapwood,
+    transports the water and food of the tree. It is for this reason
+    that a tree may be hollow, without heart and sapwood, and still
+    produce foliage and fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--The Cross-Section of a Tree.]
+
+  The crown: The crown varies in form in different species and is
+    developed by the growth of new shoots from buds. The bud grows out
+    to a certain length and forms the branch. Afterwards it thickens
+    only and does not increase in length. New branches will then form
+    from other buds on the same branch. This explains in part the
+    characteristic branching of trees, Fig. 87.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Characteristic Form and Branching of Trees.
+The trees in the photograph are pin oaks.]
+
+    The leaves are the stomach and lungs of the tree. Their broad
+    blades are a device to catch the sunlight which is needed in the
+    process of digesting the food of the tree. The leaves are arranged
+    on the twigs in such a way as to catch the most sunlight. The leaves
+    take up the carbonic acid gas from the air, decompose it under the
+    influence of light and combine it with the minerals and water
+    brought up by the roots from the soil. The resulting chemical
+    combinations are the sugars and starches used by the cambium layer
+    in building up the body of the tree. A green pigment, _chlorophyll_,
+    in the leaf is the medium by which, with the aid of sunlight, the
+    sugars are manufactured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Roots of a Hemlock Tree in their Search for
+Water.]
+
+    The chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color, and this explains
+    why a tree pales when it is in a dying condition or when its life
+    processes are interfered with. The other colors of the leaf--the
+    reds, browns and yellows of the fall or spring--are due to other
+    pigments. These are angular crystals of different hues, which at
+    certain times of the year become more conspicuous than at others, a
+    phenomenon which explains the variation in the colors of the leaves
+    during the different seasons.
+
+    It is evident that a tree is greatly dependent upon its leaves for
+    the manufacture of food and one can, therefore, readily see why it
+    is important to prevent destruction of the leaves by insects or
+    through over-trimming.
+
+  The root: The root develops in much the same manner as the crown. Its
+    depth and spread will vary with the species but will also depend
+    somewhat upon the condition of the soil around it. A deep or a dry
+    soil will tend to develop a deep root, while a shallow or moist soil
+    will produce a shallow root, Fig. 88.
+
+    The numerous fine hairs which cover the roots serve the purpose of
+    taking up food and water from the soil, while the heavy roots help
+    to support the tree. The root-hairs are extremely tender, are easily
+    dried out when exposed to the sun and wind, and are apt to become
+    overheated when permitted to remain tightly packed for any length of
+    time. These considerations are of practical importance in the
+    planting of trees and in the application of fertilizers. It is these
+    fine rootlets far away from the trunk of the tree that have to be
+    fed, and all fertilizers must, therefore, be applied at points some
+    distance from the trunk and not close to it, where merely the large,
+    supporting roots are located. In the cultivation of trees the same
+    principle holds true.
+
+Requirements of trees: Trees are dependent upon certain soil and
+    atmospheric conditions which influence their growth and development.
+
+  (1) Influence of moisture: The form of the tree and its growth and
+    structure depend greatly upon the supply of moisture. Botanists
+    have taken the moisture factor as the basis of classification and
+    have subdivided trees into those that grow in moist places
+    (_hydrophytes_), those that grow in medium soils (_mesophytes_), and
+    those that grow in dry places (_xerophytes_). Water is taken up by
+    the roots of the tree from the soil. The liquid absorbed by the
+    roots carries in solution the mineral salts--the food of the
+    tree--and no food can be taken up unless it is in solution. Much of
+    the water is used by the tree and an enormous amount is given off in
+    the process of evaporation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Dead Branches at the Top Caused by Insufficient
+Water.]
+
+    These facts will explain some of the fundamental principles in the
+    care of trees. To a tree growing on a city street or on a lawn where
+    nature fails to supply the requisite amount of water, the latter
+    must be supplied artificially, especially during the hot summer
+    months, or else dead branches may result as seen in Fig. 89. Too
+    much thinning out of the crown causes excessive evaporation, and too
+    much cutting out in woodlands causes the soil to dry and the trees
+    to suffer for the want of moisture. This also explains why it is
+    essential, in wooded areas, to retain on the ground the fallen
+    leaves. In decomposing and mixing with the soil, the fallen leaves
+    not only supply the trees with food material, but also tend to
+    conserve moisture in the ground and to prevent the drying out of the
+    soil. Raking off the leaves from wooded areas, a practice common in
+    parks and on private estates--hurts the trees seriously. Some soils
+    may have plenty of moisture, but may also be so heavily saturated
+    with acids or salts that the tree cannot utilize the moisture, and
+    it suffers from drought just the same as if there had been no
+    moisture at all in the soil. Such soils are said to be
+    "physiologically dry" and need treatment.
+
+    In the development of disease, moisture is a contributing factor
+    and, therefore, in cavities or underneath bandages where there is
+    likely to be an accumulation of moisture, decay will do more damage
+    than in places that are dry and exposed to the sun.
+
+  (2) Influence of soil: Soil is made up of fine particles of sand and
+    rock and of vegetable matter called _humus_. A tree will require a
+    certain soil, and unsuitable soils can be very often modified to
+    suit the needs of the tree. A deep, moderately loose, sandy loam,
+    however, which is sufficiently aerated and well supplied with
+    water, will support almost any tree. Too much of any one constituent
+    will make a soil unfit for the production of trees. If too much clay
+    is present the soil becomes "stiff." If too much vegetable matter is
+    present, the soil becomes "sour." The physical character of the soil
+    is also important. By physical character is meant the porosity which
+    results from breaking up the soil. This is accomplished by ploughing
+    or cultivation. In nature, worms help to do this for the soil, but
+    on streets an occasional digging up of the soil about the base of
+    the tree is essential.
+
+    Humus or the organic matter in the soil is composed of litter,
+    leaves and animal ingredients that have decayed under the influence
+    of bacteria. The more vegetable matter in the humus, the darker the
+    soil; and therefore a good soil such as one finds on the upper
+    surface of a well-tilled farm has quite a dark color. When, however,
+    a soil contains an unusual quantity of humus, it is known as "muck,"
+    and when there is still more humus present we find _peat_. Neither
+    of these two soils is suitable for proper tree growth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--A Tree in the Open. Note the full development
+of the wide crown with branches starting near the ground. The tree is
+the European larch.]
+
+  (3) Influence of light: Light is required by the leaves in the process
+    of assimilation. Cutting off some of the light from a tree affects
+    its form. This is why trees grown in the open have wide-spreading
+    crowns with branches starting near the ground as in Fig. 90, while
+    the same species growing in the forest produces tall, lanky trees,
+    free from branches to but a few feet from the top as in Fig. 91.
+    Some trees can endure more shade than others, but all will grow in
+    full light. This explains why trees like the beech, hemlock, sugar
+    maple, spruce, holly and dogwood can grow in the shade, while the
+    poplar, birch and willow require light. It also explains why, in
+    the forest, the lower branches die and fall off--a process known in
+    Forestry as "natural pruning," The influence of light on the form of
+    trees should be well understood by all those who plant trees and by
+    those designing landscape effects.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--A Tree in The Forest. Note the tall stem free
+from branches and the small, narrow crown.]
+
+  (4) Influence of heat: Trees require a certain amount of heat. They
+    receive it partly from the sun and partly from the soil. Evaporation
+    prevents the overheating of the crown. The main stem of the tree is
+    heated by water from the soil; therefore trees in the open begin
+    growth in the spring earlier than trees in the forest because the
+    soil in the open is warmer. Shrubs begin their growth earlier than
+    trees because of the nearness of their crowns to their root systems.
+    This also explains why a warm rain will start vegetation quickly.
+    Too much heat will naturally cause excessive drying of the roots or
+    excessive evaporation from the leaves and therefore more water is
+    needed by the tree in summer than in winter.
+
+  (5) Influence of season and frost: The life processes of a tree are
+    checked when the temperature sinks below a certain point. The tree
+    is thus, during the winter, in a period of rest and only a few
+    chemical changes take place which lead up to the starting of
+    vegetation. In eastern United States, growth starts in April and
+    ceases during the latter part of August or in early September. The
+    different parts of a tree may freeze solid during the winter without
+    injury, provided the tree is a native one. Exotic trees may suffer
+    greatly from extreme cold. This is one of the main reasons why it is
+    always advisable to plant native trees rather than those that are
+    imported and have not yet been acclimatized. Frosts during
+    mid-winter are not quite as injurious as early and late frosts and,
+    therefore, if one is going to protect plants from the winter's cold,
+    it is well to apply the covering early enough and to keep it on
+    late enough to overcome this difficulty.
+
+    The mechanical injuries from frost are also important. Snow and
+    sleet will weigh down branches but rarely break them, while frost
+    will cause them to become brittle and to break easily. Those who
+    climb and prune trees should be especially cautious on frosty days.
+
+  (6) Influence of air: On the under side of leaves and on other
+    surfaces of a tree little pores known as _stomata_ may be found. In
+    the bark of birch and cherry trees these openings are very
+    conspicuous and are there known as _lenticels_. These pores are
+    necessary for the breathing of the tree (respiration), whereby
+    carbonic acid gas is taken in from the air and oxygen given out. The
+    process of assimilation depends upon this breathing process and it
+    is therefore evident that when the stomata are clogged as may occur
+    where a tree is subjected to smoke or dust, the life processes of
+    the tree will be interfered with. The same injurious effect results
+    when the stomata of the roots are interfered with. Such interference
+    may occur in cases where a heavy layer of soil is piled around the
+    base of a tree, where the soil about the base of a tree is allowed
+    to become compact, where a tree is planted too deep, or where the
+    roots are submerged under water for any length of time. In any case
+    the air cannot get to the roots and the tree suffers. Nature takes
+    special cognizance of this important requirement in the case of
+    cypress trees, which habitually grow under water. Here the trees are
+    provided with special woody protuberances known as "cypress knees,"
+    which emerge above water and take the necessary air. See Fig. 18.
+
+Conclusions: From the foregoing it will be seen that trees have certain
+    needs that nature or man must supply. These requirements differ
+    with the different species, and in all work of planting and care as
+    well as in the natural distribution of trees it is both interesting
+    and necessary to observe these individual wants, to select species
+    in accordance with local conditions and to care for trees in
+    conformity with their natural needs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WHAT TREES TO PLANT AND HOW
+
+
+The following classification will show the value of the more important
+trees for different kinds of planting. The species are arranged in the
+order of their merit for the particular object under consideration and
+the comments accompanying each tree are intended to bring out its
+special qualifications for that purpose.
+
+Conditions for tree growth in one part of the country differ from those
+of another and these lists, especially applicable to the Eastern States,
+may not at all fit some other locality.
+
+
+
+TREES BEST FOR THE LAWN
+
+
+DECIDUOUS
+
+1.  American elm (_Ulmus americana_)
+
+    One of the noblest of trees. Possesses a majestic, wide-spreading,
+    umbrella-shaped crown; is easily transplanted, and is suited to a
+    variety of soils.
+
+2.  Pin oak (_Quercus palustris_)
+
+    Has a symmetrical crown with low-drooping branches; requires a moist
+    situation.
+
+3.  European linden (_Tilia microphylla_)
+
+    Possesses a beautiful shade-bearing crown; grows well in ordinary
+    soil.
+
+4.  Red maple (_Acer rubrum_)
+
+    Shows pleasing colors at all seasons; grows best in a fairly rich,
+    moist soil.
+
+5.  Copper beech (_Fagus sylvatica_, _alropurpurea_)
+
+    Exceedingly beautiful in form, bark, and foliage and possesses great
+    longevity and sturdiness. It is difficult to transplant and
+    therefore only small trees from 6 to 10 feet in height should be
+    used.
+
+6.  Coffee tree (_Gymnocladus dioicus_)
+
+    A unique and interesting effect is produced by its coarse branches
+    and leaves. It is free from insects and disease; requires plenty of
+    light; will grow in poor soils.
+
+7.  European white birch (_Belula alba_)
+
+    A graceful tree and very effective as a single specimen on the lawn,
+    or in a group among evergreens; should be planted in early spring,
+    and special care taken to protect its tender rootlets.
+
+8.  Gingko or Maiden-hair tree (_Gingko biloba_)
+
+    Where there is plenty of room for the spread of its odd branches,
+    the gingko makes a picturesque specimen tree. It is hardy and free
+    from insect pests and disease.
+
+9.  Horsechestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_)
+
+    Carries beautiful, showy flowers, and has a compact, symmetrical
+    low-branched crown; is frequently subject to insects and disease.
+    The red flowering horsechestnut (_A. rubicunda_) is equally
+    attractive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--A Lawn Tree. European Weeping Beech.]
+
+10. Sugar maple (_Acer saccharum_)
+
+    Has a symmetrical crown and colors beautifully in the fall; requires
+    a rich soil and considerable moisture.
+
+11. Soulange's magnolia (_Magnolia soulangeana_)
+
+    Extremely hard and flowers in early spring before the leaves appear.
+
+12. Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_)
+
+    Popular for its beautiful white flowers in the early spring and the
+    rich coloring of its leaves in the fall; does not grow to large
+    size. The red-flowering variety of this tree, though sometimes not
+    quite as hardy, is extremely beautiful.
+
+13. Japanese maple (_Acer polymorphum_)
+
+    It has several varieties of different hues and it colors beautifully
+    in the fall; it does not grow to large size.
+
+
+CONIFEROUS
+
+14. Oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_)
+
+    Forms a dignified, large tree with a compact crown and low branches;
+    is hardy.
+
+15. Austrian pine (_Pinus austriaca_)
+
+    Is very hardy; possesses a compact crown; will grow in soils of
+    medium quality.
+
+16. Bhotan pine (_Pinus excelsa_)
+
+    Grows luxuriantly; is dignified and beautiful; requires a good soil,
+    and in youth needs some protection from extreme cold.
+
+17. White pine (_Pinus strobus_)
+
+    Branches gracefully and forms a large, dignified tree; will thrive
+    on a variety of soils.
+
+18. European larch (_Larix europaea_)
+
+    Has a beautiful appearance; thrives best in moist situations.
+
+19. Blue spruce (_Picea pungens_)
+
+    Extremely hardy; forms a perfect specimen plant for the lawn.
+
+20. Japanese umbrella pine (_Sciadopitys verlicillata_)
+
+    Very hardy; retains a compact crown. An excellent specimen plant
+    when grouped with other evergreens on the lawn. Does not grow to
+    large size.
+
+21. Mugho pine (_Pinus mughus_)
+
+    A low-growing evergreen; hardy; important in group planting.
+
+22. Obtuse leaf Japanese cypress (_Retinospora obtusa_)
+
+    Beautiful evergreen of small size; hardy; desirable for group
+    planting.
+
+23. English yew (_Taxus baccata_)
+
+    An excellent evergreen usually of low form; suitable for the lawn,
+    massed with others or as a specimen plant; will grow in the shade of
+    other trees. There are various forms of this species of distinctive
+    value.
+
+
+
+TREES BEST FOR THE STREET
+
+1.  Oriental sycamore (_Platanus orientalis_)
+
+    Very hardy; will adapt itself to city conditions; grows fairly fast
+    and is highly resistant to insects and disease.
+
+2.  Norway maple (_Acer platanoides_)
+
+    Very hardy; possesses a straight trunk and symmetrical crown; is
+    comparatively free from insects and disease and will withstand the
+    average city conditions.
+
+3.  Red oak (_Quercus rubra_)
+
+    Fastest growing of the oaks; very durable and highly resistant to
+    insects and disease; will grow in the average soil of the city
+    street.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Street Trees. Norway Maples.]
+
+4.  Gingko (_Gingko biloba_)
+
+    Hardy and absolutely free from insects and disease; suited for
+    narrow streets, and will permit of close planting.
+
+5.  European linden (_Tilia microphylla_)
+
+    Beautiful shade-bearing crown; is very responsive to good soil and
+    plenty of moisture.
+
+6.  American elm (_Ulmus americana_)
+
+    When planted in rows along an avenue, it forms a tall majestic
+    archway of great beauty. It is best suited for wide streets and
+    should be planted further apart than the other trees listed above.
+    Requires a fairly good soil and plenty of moisture, and is therefore
+    not suited for planting in the heart of a large city.
+
+7.  Pin oak (_Quercus palustris_)
+
+    This tree exhibits its greatest beauty when its branches are allowed
+    to droop fairly low. It, moreover, needs plenty of moisture to
+    thrive and the tree is therefore best suited for streets in suburban
+    sections, where these conditions can be more readily met.
+
+8.  Red maple (_Acer rubrum_)
+
+    Beautiful in all seasons of the year; requires a rich soil and
+    considerable moisture.
+
+
+
+TREES BEST FOR WOODLAND
+
+
+FOR OPEN PLACES
+
+1.  Red oak (_Quercus rubra_)
+
+    Grows rapidly to large size and produces valuable wood; will grow in
+    poor soil.
+
+2.  White pine (_Pinus strobus_)
+
+    Rapid grower; endures but little shade; wood valuable; will do well
+    on large range of soils.
+
+3.  Red pine (_Pinus resinosa_)
+
+    Very hardy; fairly rapid growing tree.
+
+4.  Tulip tree (_Liriodendron tulipifera_)
+
+    Grows rapidly into a stately forest tree with a clear tall trunk;
+    wood valuable; requires a fairly moist soil. Use a small tree, plant
+    in the spring, and pay special attention to the protection of the
+    roots in planting.
+
+5.  Black locust (_Robinia pseudacacia_)
+
+    Grows rapidly; adapts itself to poor, sandy soils. The wood is
+    suitable for posts and ties.
+
+6.  White ash (_Fraxinus americana_)
+
+    Grows rapidly; prefers moist situations. Wood valuable.
+
+7. American elm (_Ulmus americana_)
+
+    Grows rapidly to great height; will not endure too much shade; does
+    best in a deep fertile soil. Wood valuable.
+
+8. European larch (_Larix europaea_)
+
+    Grows rapidly; prefers moist situations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Woodland Trees. Red Oaks.]
+
+
+FOR PLANTING UNDER THE SHADE OF OTHER TREES
+
+9. Beech (_Fagus_)
+
+    Will stand heavy shade; holds the soil well along banks and steep
+    slopes. Both the American and the English species are desirable.
+
+10. Hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_)
+
+    Will stand heavy shade and look effective in winter as well as in
+    summer.
+
+11. Dogwood (_Cornus florida_)
+
+    Will grow under other trees; flowers beautifully in the spring and
+    colors richly in the fall.
+
+12. Blue beech (_Carpinus caroliniana_)
+
+    Native to the woodlands of the Eastern States; looks well in spring
+    and fall.
+
+
+
+TREES BEST FOR SCREENING
+
+1. Hemlock (_Tsuga canadensis_)
+
+    Will stand shearing and will screen in winter as well as in summer.
+    Plant from 2 to 4 feet apart to form a hedge.
+
+2. Osage orange (_Toxylon pomiferum_)
+
+    Very hardy. Plant close.
+
+3. English hawthorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_)
+
+    Flowers beautifully and grows in compact masses. Plant close.
+
+4. Lombardy poplar (_Populus nigra var. italica_)
+
+    Forms a tall screen and grows under the most unfavorable conditions.
+    Plant 8 to 12 feet apart.
+
+
+
+Quality of trees: Trees grown in a nursery are preferable for
+    transplanting to trees grown in the forest. Nursery-grown trees
+    possess a well-developed root system with numerous fibrous rootlets,
+    a straight stem, a symmetrical crown, and a well-defined leader.
+    Trees grown in neighboring nurseries are preferable to those grown
+    at great distances, because they will be better adapted to local
+    climatic and soil conditions. The short distances over which they
+    must be transported also will entail less danger to the roots
+    through drying. For lawn planting, the branches should reach low to
+    the ground, while for street purposes the branches should start at
+    about seven feet from the ground. For street planting, it is also
+    important that the stem should be perfectly straight and about two
+    inches in diameter. For woodland planting, the form of the tree is
+    of minor consideration, though it is well to have the leader well
+    defined here as well as in the other cases. See Fig. 95.
+
+When and how to procure the trees: The trees should be selected in the
+    nursery personally. Some persons prefer to seal the more valuable
+    specimens with leaden seals. Fall is the best time to make the
+    selection, because at that time one can have a wider choice of
+    material. Selecting thus early will also prevent delay in delivery
+    at the time when it is desired to plant.
+
+When to plant: The best time to plant trees is early spring, just before
+    growth begins, and after the frost is out of the ground. From the
+    latter part of March to the early part of May is generally the
+    planting period in the Eastern States.
+
+    Where one has to plant both coniferous and deciduous trees, it is
+    best to get the deciduous in first, and then the conifers.
+
+How to plant: The location of the trees with relation to each other
+    should be carefully considered. On the lawn, they should be
+    separated far enough to allow for the full spread of the tree. On
+    streets, trees should be planted thirty to thirty-five feet apart
+    and in case of the elm, forty to fifty feet. In woodlands, it is
+    well to plant as close as six feet apart where small seedlings are
+    used and about twelve feet apart in the case of trees an inch or
+    more in diameter. An abundance of good soil (one to two cubic yards)
+    is essential with each tree where the specimens used are an inch or
+    two in diameter. A rich mellow loam, such as one finds on the
+    surface of a well-tilled farm, is the ideal soil. Manure should
+    never be placed in direct contact with the roots or stem of the
+    tree.
+
+    Protection of the roots from drying is the chief precaution to be
+    observed during the planting process, and for this reason a cloudy
+    day is preferable to a sunny day for planting. In case of
+    evergreens, the least exposure of the roots is liable to result
+    disastrously, even more so than in case of deciduous trees. This is
+    why evergreens are lifted from the nursery with a ball of soil
+    around the roots. All bruised roots should be cut off before the
+    tree is planted, and the crown of the tree of the deciduous species
+    should be slightly trimmed in order to equalize the loss of roots by
+    a corresponding decrease in leaf surface.
+
+    The tree should be set into the tree hole at the same depth that it
+    stood in the nursery. Its roots, where there is no ball of soil
+    around them, should be carefully spread out and good soil should be
+    worked in carefully with the fingers among the fine rootlets. Every
+    root fibre is thus brought into close contact with the soil. More
+    good soil should be added (in layers) and firmly packed about the
+    roots. The last layer should remain loose so that it may act as a
+    mulch or as an absorbent of moisture. The tree should then be
+    thoroughly watered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Specifications for a Street Tree.]
+
+After care: During the first season the tree should be watered and the
+    soil around its base slightly loosened at least once a week,
+    especially on hot summer days. Where trees are planted on streets,
+    near the curb, they should also be fastened to stakes and protected
+    with a wire guard six feet high. See Fig. 95. Wire netting of
+    1/2-inch mesh and 17 gauge is the most desirable material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--A Home Nursery. (Austrian pines in front.)]
+
+Suggestions for a home or school nursery: Schools, farms, and private
+    estates may conveniently start a tree nursery on the premises and
+    raise their own trees. Two-year seedling trees or four-year
+    transplants are best suited for this purpose. These may be obtained
+    from several reliable nurseries in various parts of the country that
+    make a specialty of raising small trees for such purposes. The cost
+    of such trees should be from three to fifteen dollars per thousand.
+
+    The little trees, which range from one to two feet in height, will
+    be shipped in bundles. Immediately upon arrival, the bundles should
+    be untied and the trees immersed in a pail containing water mixed
+    with soil. The bundles should then be placed in the ground
+    temporarily, until they can be set out in their proper places. In
+    this process, the individual bundles should be slanted with their
+    tops toward the south, and the spot chosen should be cool and shady.
+    At no time should the roots of these plants be exposed, even for a
+    moment, to sun and wind, and they should always be kept moist. The
+    little trees may remain in this trench for two weeks without injury.
+    They should then be planted out in rows, each row one foot apart for
+    conifers and two feet for broadleaf trees. The individual trees
+    should be set ten inches apart in the row. Careful weeding and
+    watering is the necessary attention later on.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE CARE OF TREES
+
+
+
+STUDY I. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TREES AND HOW TO COMBAT THEM
+
+In a general way, trees are attacked by three classes of insects, and
+the remedy to be employed in each case depends upon the class to which
+the insect belongs. The three classes of insects are:
+
+1. Those that *chew* and swallow some portion of the leaf; as, for
+example, the elm leaf beetle, and the tussock, gipsy, and brown-tail
+moths.
+
+2. Those that *suck* the plant juices from the leaf or bark; such as the
+San Jose scale, oyster-shell, and scurfy scales, the cottony maple
+scale, the maple phenacoccus on the sugar maples, and the various
+aphides on beech, Norway maple, etc.
+
+3. Those that *bore* inside of the wood or inner bark. The principal
+members of this class are the leopard moth, the hickory-bark borer, the
+sugar-maple borer, the elm borer, and the bronze-birch borer.
+
+The chewing insects are destroyed by spraying the leaves with arsenate
+of lead or Paris green. The insects feed upon the poisoned foliage and
+thus are themselves poisoned.
+
+The sucking insects are killed by a contact poison: that is, by spraying
+or washing the affected parts of the tree with a solution which acts
+externally on the bodies of the insects, smothering or stifling them.
+The standard solutions for this purpose are kerosene emulsion, soap and
+water, tobacco extract, or lime-sulfur wash.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--A Gas-power Spraying Apparatus.]
+
+The boring insects are eliminated by cutting out the insect with a
+knife, by injecting carbon bisulphide into the burrow and clogging the
+orifice immediately after injection with putty or soap, or in some cases
+where the tree is hopelessly infested, by cutting down and burning the
+entire tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--A Barrel Hand-pump Spraying Outfit.]
+
+For information regarding the one of these three classes to which any
+particular insect belongs, and for specific instructions on the
+application of a remedy, the reader is advised to write to his State
+Entomologist or to the U.S. Bureau of Entomology at Washington, D.C. The
+letter should state the name of the tree affected, together with the
+character of the injury, and should be accompanied by a specimen of the
+insect, or by a piece of the affected leaf or bark, preferably by both.
+The advice received will be authentic and will be given without charge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Egg-masses of the Tussock Moth.]
+
+When to spray: _In the case of chewing insects_, the latter part of May
+    is the time to spray. The caterpillars hatch from their eggs, and
+    the elm leaf beetle leaves its winter quarters at that time. _In the
+    case of sucking insects_, the instructions will have to be more
+    specific, depending upon the particular insect in question. Some
+    sucking insects can best be handled in May or early June when their
+    young emerge, others can be effectively treated in the fall or
+    winter when the trees are dormant.
+
+How to spray: Thoroughness is the essential principle in all spraying.
+    In the case of leaf-eating insects, this means covering every leaf
+    with the poison and applying it to the under side of the leaves,
+    where the insects generally feed. In the case of sucking insects,
+    thoroughness means an effort to touch every insect with the spray.
+    It should be borne in mind that the insect can be killed only when
+    hit with the chemical. The solution should be well stirred, and
+    should be applied by means of a nozzle that will coat every leaf
+    with a fine, mist-like spray. Mere drenching or too prolonged an
+    application will cause the solution to run off. Special precautions
+    should be taken with contact poisons to see that the formula is
+    correct. Too strong a solution will burn the foliage and tender
+    bark.
+
+Spraying apparatus: There are various forms of spraying apparatus in the
+    market, including small knapsack pumps, barrel hand-pumps, and
+    gasolene and gas-power sprayers, Figs. 97 and 98. Hose and nozzles
+    are essential accessories. One-half inch, three-ply hose of the best
+    quality is necessary to stand the heavy pressure and wear. Two
+    50-foot lengths is the usual quantity required for use with a barrel
+    hand-pump. Each line of hose should be supplied with a bamboo pole
+    10 feet long, having a brass tube passed through it to carry the
+    nozzle. The Vermorel nozzle is the best type to use. The cost of a
+    barrel outfit, including two lines of hose, nozzles and truck,
+    should be from $30 to $40. Power sprayers cost from $150 to $300 or
+    more.
+
+Spraying material:
+  _Arsenate of lead_ should be used in the proportion Of 4 pounds of the
+    chemical to 50 gallons of water. A brand of arsenate of lead
+    containing at least 14 per cent of arsenic oxide with not more than
+    50 per cent of water should be insisted upon. This spray may be used
+    successfully against caterpillars and other leaf-eating insects in
+    the spring or summer.
+
+  _Whale-oil soap_ should be used at the rate of 11/2 pounds of the soap
+    to 1 gallon of hot water, if applied to the tree in winter. As a
+    spray in summer, use 1 pound of the soap to 5 gallons of water. This
+    treatment is useful for most sucking insects.
+
+  _Lime-sulfur wash_ is an excellent material to use against sucking
+    insects, such as the San Jose scale and other armored scales. The
+    application of a lime-sulfur wash when put on during the dormant
+    season is not likely to harm a tree and has such an excellent
+    cleansing effect that the benefits to be derived in this direction
+    alone are often sufficient to meet the cost of the treatment.
+    Lime-sulfur wash consists of a mixture, boiled one hour, of 40
+    pounds of lime and 80 pounds of sulfur, in 50 gallons of water. It
+    may be had in prepared form and should then be used at the rate of 1
+    gallon to about 9 gallons of water in winter or early spring before
+    the buds open. At other times of the year and for the softer-bodied
+    insects a more diluted mixture, possibly 1 part to 30 or 40 parts of
+    water, should be used, varying with each case separately.
+
+  _Kerosene emulsion_ consists of one-half pound of hard soap, 1 gallon
+    of boiling water, and 2 gallons of kerosene. It may be obtained in
+    prepared form and is then to be used at the rate of one part of the
+    solution to nine parts of water when applied in winter or to the
+    bark only in summer. Use 2 gallons of the solution to a 40-gallon
+    barrel of water when applying it to the leaves in the summer.
+    Kerosene emulsion is useful as a treatment for scale insects.
+
+  _Tobacco water_ should be prepared by steeping one-half pound of
+    tobacco stems or leaves in a gallon of boiling water and later
+    diluting the product with 5 to 10 gallons of water. It is
+    particularly useful for plant lice in the summer.
+
+The life history of an insect: In a general way, all insects have four
+    stages of transformation before a new generation is produced. It is
+    important to consider the nature of these four stages in order that
+    the habits of any particular insect and the remedies applicable in
+    combating it may be understood.
+
+    All insects develop from _eggs_, Fig. 99. The eggs then hatch into
+    caterpillars or grubs, which is the _larva_ stage, in which most
+    insects do the greatest damage to trees. The caterpillars or grubs
+    grow and develop rapidly, and hence their feeding is most ravenous.
+    Following the larva stage comes the third or _pupa_ stage, which is
+    the dormant stage of the insect. In this stage the insect curls
+    itself up under the protection of a silken cocoon like the tussock
+    moth, or of a curled leaf like the brown-tail moth, or it may be
+    entirely unsheltered like the pupa of the elm leaf beetle. After the
+    pupa stage comes the _adult insect_, which may be a moth or a
+    beetle.
+
+    A study of the four stages of any particular insect is known as a
+    study of its _life history_. The important facts to know about the
+    life history of an insect are the stage in which it does most of its
+    feeding, and the period of the year in which this occurs. It is also
+    important to know how the insect spends the winter in order to
+    decide upon a winter treatment.
+
+
+IMPORTANT INSECTS
+
+
+THE ELM LEAF BEETLE
+
+Life history: The elm leaf beetle, Fig. 100, is annually causing the
+    defoliation of thousands of elm trees throughout the United States.
+    Several successive defoliations are liable to kill a tree. The
+    insects pass the winter in the beetle form, hiding themselves in
+    attics and wherever else they can secure shelter. In the middle of
+    May when the buds of the elm trees unfold, the beetles emerge from
+    their winter quarters, mate, and commence eating the leaves, thus
+    producing little holes through them. While this feeding is going on,
+    the females deposit little, bright yellow eggs on the under side of
+    the leaves, which soon hatch into small larvae or grubs. The grubs
+    then eat away the soft portion of the leaf, causing it to look like
+    lacework. The grubs become full grown in twenty days, crawl down to
+    the base of the tree, and there transform into naked, orange-colored
+    pupae. This occurs in the early part of August. After remaining in
+    the pupa stage about a week, they change into beetles again, which
+    either begin feeding or go to winter quarters.
+
+Remedies: There are three ways of combating this insect: First, by
+    _spraying the foliage_ with arsenate of lead in the latter part of
+    May while the beetles are feeding, and repeating the spraying in
+    June when the larvae emerge. The spraying method is the one most to
+    be relied on in fighting this insect. A second, though less
+    important remedy, consists in _destroying the pupae_ when they
+    gather in large quantities at the base of the tree. This may be
+    accomplished by gathering them bodily and destroying them, or by
+    pouring hot water or a solution of kerosene over them. In large
+    trees it may be necessary to climb to the crotches of the main limbs
+    to get some of them. The third remedy lies in gathering and
+    _destroying the adult beetles_ when found in their winter quarters.
+    The application of bands of burlap or "tanglefoot," or of other
+    substances often seen on the trunks of elm trees is useless, since
+    these bands only prevent the larvae from crawling down from the
+    leaves to the base and serve to prevent nothing from crawling up.
+    Scraping the trunks of elm trees is also a waste of effort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--The Elm Leaf Beetle. (After Dr. E.P. Felt.)
+
+1. Egg cluster, enlarged. 1a. Single egg, greatly enlarged. 2. Young
+larva, enlarged. 3. Full grown larva, much enlarged. 4. Pupa, enlarged.
+5. Overwintered beetle, enlarged. 6. Fresh, brightly colored beetle,
+enlarged. 7. Under surface of leaf showing larvae feeding. 8. Leaf eaten
+by larvae. 9. Leaf showing holes eaten by beetles.]
+
+
+THE TUSSOCK MOTH
+
+Life history: This insect appears in the form of a red-headed,
+    yellow-colored caterpillar during the latter part of May, and in
+    June and July. The caterpillars surround themselves with silken
+    cocoons and change into pupae. The mature moths emerge from the
+    cocoons after a period of about two weeks, and the females, which
+    are wingless, soon deposit their eggs on the bark of trees, on
+    twigs, fences, and other neighboring objects. These eggs form white
+    clusters of nearly 350 individual eggs each, and are very
+    conspicuous all winter, see Fig. 101.
+
+Remedies: There are two ways of combating this insect: (1) By spraying
+    with arsenate of lead for the caterpillars during the latter part of
+    May and early June. (2) By removing and destroying the egg masses in
+    the fall or winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--The Tussock Moth. (After Dr. E.P. Felt.)
+
+1. Caterpillar. 2. Male moth. 3. Female moth laying eggs. 4 Cocoons. 5.
+Cast skins of caterpillar. 6. Work of young caterpillar. 7. Male pupa. 8
+and 9. Girdled branches.]
+
+
+THE GIPSY MOTH
+
+Life history: This insect, imported from Europe to this country in 1868,
+    has ever since proved a serious enemy of most shade, forest, and
+    fruit trees in the New England States. It even feeds on
+    evergreens, killing the trees by a single defoliation.
+
+    The insect appears in the caterpillar stage from April to July. It
+    feeds at night and rests by day. The mature caterpillar, which is
+    dark in color, may be recognized by rows of blue and red spots along
+    its back. After July, egg masses are deposited by the female moths
+    on the bark of trees, and on leaves, fences, and other neighboring
+    objects. Here they remain over the winter until they hatch in the
+    spring. The flat egg masses are round or oval in shape, and are
+    yellowish-brown in color. See Fig. 102.
+
+Remedies: Spray for the caterpillars in June with arsenate of lead and
+    apply creosote to the egg masses whenever found.
+
+
+THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH
+
+Life history: This insect was introduced here from Europe in 1890 and
+    has since done serious damage to shade, forest, and fruit trees, and
+    to shrubs in the New England States.
+
+    It appears in the caterpillar stage in the early spring and
+    continues to feed on the leaves and buds until the last of June.
+    Then the caterpillars pupate, the moths come out, and in July and
+    August the egg clusters appear. These hatch into caterpillars which
+    form nests for themselves by drawing the leaves together. Here they
+    remain protected until the spring. See Fig. 103.
+
+Remedies: Collect the winter nests from October to April and burn them.
+    Also spray the trees for caterpillars in early May and especially in
+    August with arsenate of lead.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--The Gipsy Moth. (After F.W. Rane Mass. State
+Forester.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--The Brown-tail Moth. (After F.W. Rane, Mass.
+State Forester.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Larva of the Leopard Moth.]
+
+
+THE FALL WEBWORM
+
+The caterpillars of this insect congregate in colonies and surround
+themselves with a web which often reaches the size of a foot or more in
+diameter. These webs are common on trees in July and August. Cutting off
+the webs or burning them on the twigs is the most practical remedy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Branch Showing Work of the Leopard Moth Larva.]
+
+
+THE LEOPARD MOTH
+
+Life history: This insect does its serious damage in the grub form. The
+    grubs which are whitish in color with brown heads, and which vary in
+    size from 3/8 of an inch to 3 inches in length (Fig. 104), may be
+    found boring in the wood of the branches and trunk of the tree all
+    winter. Fig. 105. The leopard moth requires two years to complete
+    its round of life. The mature moths are marked with dark spots
+    resembling a leopard's skin, hence the name. Fig. 106. It is one of
+    the commonest and most destructive insects in the East and is
+    responsible for the recent death of thousands of the famous elm
+    trees in New Haven and Boston. Fig. 107.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--The Leopard Moth.]
+
+Remedies: Trees likely to be infested with this insect should be
+    examined three or four times a year for wilted twigs, dead branches,
+    and strings of expelled frass; all of which may indicate the
+    presence of this borer. Badly infested branches should be cut off
+    and burned. Trees so badly infested that treatment becomes too
+    complicated should be cut down and destroyed. Where the insects are
+    few and can be readily reached, an injection of carbon bisulphide
+    into the burrow, the orifice of which is then immediately closed
+    with soap or putty, will often destroy the insects within.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Elm Tree Attacked by the Leopard Moth.]
+
+
+THE HICKORY BARK BORER
+
+Life history: This insect is a small brown or black beetle in its mature
+    form and a small legless white grub in its winter stage. The beetles
+    appear from June to August. In July they deposit their eggs in the
+    outer sapwood, immediately under the bark of the trunk and larger
+    branches. The eggs soon hatch and the grubs feed on the living
+    tissue of the tree, forming numerous galleries. The grubs pass the
+    winter in a nearly full-grown condition, transform to pupae in May,
+    and emerge as beetles in June.
+
+Remedies: The presence of the insect can be detected by the small holes
+    in the bark of the trees and the fine sawdust which is ejected from
+    these holes, when the insects are active. It is important to
+    emphasize the advisability of detecting the fine sawdust because
+    that is the best indication of the actual operations of the hickory
+    bark borer. These holes, however, will not be noticeable until the
+    insect has completed its transformation. In summer, the infested
+    trees show wilted leaves and many dead twigs. Holes in the base of
+    the petioles of these leaves are also signs of the working of the
+    insect. Since the insect works underneath the bark, it is
+    inaccessible for treatment and all infested trees should be cut down
+    and burned, or the bark removed and the insects destroyed. This
+    should be done before the beetles emerge from the tree in June.
+
+
+PLANT LICE OR APHIDES
+
+These often appear on the under side of the leaves of the beech, Norway
+maple, tulip tree, etc. They excrete a sweet, sticky liquid called
+"honey-dew," and cause the leaves to curl or drop. Spraying with
+whale-oil soap solution formed by adding one pound of the soap to five
+gallons of water is the remedy.
+
+
+
+STUDY II. TREE DISEASES
+
+Because trees have wants analogous to those of human beings, they also
+have diseases similar to those which afflict human beings. In many cases
+these diseases act like cancerous growths upon the human body; in some
+instances the ailment may be a general failing due to improper feeding,
+and in other cases it may be due to interference with the life processes
+of the tree.
+
+How to tell an ailing tree: Whatever the cause, an ailing tree will
+    manifest its ailment by one or more symptoms.
+
+    A change of color in the leaves at a time when they should be
+    perfectly green indicates that the tree is not growing under normal
+    conditions, possibly because of an insufficiency of moisture or
+    light or an overdose of foreign gases or salts. Withering of the
+    leaves is another sign of irregularity in water supply. Dead tops
+    point to some difficulty in the soil conditions or to some disease
+    of the roots or branches. Spotted leaves and mushroom-like growths
+    or brackets protruding from the bark as in Fig. 108, are sure signs
+    of disease.
+
+    In attempting to find out whether a tree is healthy or not, one
+    would therefore do well to consider whether the conditions under
+    which it is growing are normal or not; whether the tree is suitable
+    for the location; whether the soil is too dry or too wet; whether
+    the roots are deprived of their necessary water and air by an
+    impenetrable cover of concrete or soil; whether the soil is well
+    drained and free from foreign gases and salts; whether the tree is
+    receiving plenty of light or is too much exposed; and whether it is
+    free from insects and fungi.
+
+    If, after a thorough examination, it is found that the ailment has
+    gone too far, it may not be wise to try to save the tree. A timely
+    removal of a tree badly infested with insects or fungi may often be
+    the best procedure and may save many neighboring trees from
+    contagious infection. For this, however, no rules can be laid down
+    and much will depend on the local conditions and the judgment and
+    knowledge of the person concerned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--A Bracket Fungus (_Elfvingia megaloma_) on a
+Tulip Tree.]
+
+Fungi as factors of disease: The trees, the shrubs and the flowers with
+    which we are familiar are rooted in the ground and derive their food
+    both from the soil and from the air. There is, however, another
+    group of plants,--_the fungi_,--the roots of which grow in trees and
+    other plants and which obtain their food entirely from the trees or
+    plants upon which they grow. The fungi cannot manufacture their own
+    food as other plants do and consequently absorb the food of their
+    host, eventually reducing it to dust. The fungi are thus
+    disease-producing factors and the source of most of the diseases of
+    trees.
+
+    When we can see fungi growing on a tree we may safely assume that
+    they are already in an advanced state of development. We generally
+    discover their presence when their fruiting bodies appear on the
+    surface of the tree as shown in Fig 109. These fruiting bodies are
+    the familiar mushrooms, puffballs, toadstools or shelf-like brackets
+    that one often sees on trees. In some cases they spread over the
+    surface of the wood in thin patches. They vary in size from large
+    bodies to mere pustules barely visible to the naked eye. Their
+    variation in color is also significant, ranging from colorless to
+    black and red but never green. They often emulate the color of the
+    bark, Fig. 110.
+
+    Radiating from these fruiting bodies into the tissues of the tree
+    are a large number of minute fibers, comprising the _mycelium_ of
+    the fungus. These fibers penetrate the body of the tree in all
+    directions and absorb its food. The mycelium is the most important
+    part of the fungous growth. If the fruiting body is removed, another
+    soon takes its place, but if the entire mycelium is cut out, the
+    fungus will never come back. The fruiting body of the fungus bears
+    the seed or _spores_. These spores are carried by the wind or
+    insects to other trees where they take root in some wound or crevice
+    of the bark and start a new infestation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--The Fruiting Body of a Fungus.]
+
+    The infestation will be favored in its growth if the spore can find
+    plenty of food, water, warmth and darkness. As these conditions
+    generally exist in wounds and cavities of trees, it is wise to keep
+    all wounds well covered with coal tar and to so drain the cavities
+    that moisture cannot lodge in them. This subject will be gone into
+    more fully in the following two studies on "Pruning Trees" and "Tree
+    Repair."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--The Birch-fungus rot. (_Polyponis betulinus_
+Fr.) Note the similarity in the color of the fruiting body and bark of
+the tree.]
+
+    While the majority of the fungi grow on the trunks and limbs of
+    trees, some attack the leaves, some the twigs and others the roots.
+    Some fungi grow on living wood some on dead wood and some on both.
+    Those that attack the living trees are the most dangerous from the
+    standpoint of disease.
+
+The chestnut disease: The disease which is threatening the destruction
+    of all the chestnut trees in America is a fungus which has, within
+    recent years, assumed such vast proportions that it deserves special
+    comment. The fungus is known as _Diaporthe parasitica_ (Murrill),
+    and was first observed in the vicinity of New York in 1905. At that
+    time only a few trees were known to have been killed by this
+    disease, but now the disease has advanced over the whole chestnut
+    area in the United States, reaching as far south as Virginia and as
+    far west as Buffalo. Fig. 111 shows the result of the chestnut
+    disease.
+
+    The fungus attacks the cambium tissue underneath the bark. It enters
+    through a wound in the bark and sends its fungous threads from the
+    point of infection all around the trunk until the latter is girdled
+    and killed. This may all happen within one season. It is not until
+    the tree has practically been destroyed that the disease makes its
+    appearance on the surface of the bark in the form of brown patches
+    studded with little pustules that carry the spores. When once
+    girdled, the tree is killed above the point of infection and
+    everything above dies, while some of the twigs below may live until
+    they are attacked individually by the disease or until the trunk
+    below their origin is infected.
+
+    All species of chestnut trees are subject to the disease. The
+    Japanese and Spanish varieties appear to be highly resistant, but
+    are not immune. Other species of trees besides chestnuts are not
+    subject to the disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--Chestnut Trees Killed by the Chestnut
+Disease.]
+
+    There is no remedy or preventive for this disease. From the nature
+    of its attack, which is on the inner layer of the tree, it is
+    evident that all applications of fungicides, which must necessarily
+    be applied to the outside of the tree, will not reach the disease.
+    Injections are impossible and other suggested remedies, such as
+    boring holes in the wood for the purpose of inserting chemicals, are
+    futile.
+
+    The wood of the chestnut tree, within three or four years after its
+    death, is still sound and may be used for telephone and telegraph
+    poles, posts, railroad ties, lumber and firewood.
+
+Spraying for fungous diseases: Where a fungous disease is attacking the
+    leaves, fruit, or twigs, spraying with Bordeaux mixture may prove
+    effective. The application of Bordeaux mixture is deterrent rather
+    than remedial, and should therefore be made immediately before the
+    disease appears. The nature of the disease and the time of treatment
+    can be determined without cost, by submitting specimens of affected
+    portions of the plant for analysis and advice to the State
+    Agricultural Experiment Station or to the United States Department
+    of Agriculture.
+
+    Bordeaux mixture, the standard fungicide material, consists of a
+    solution of 6 pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) with 4 pounds
+    of slaked lime in 50 gallons of water. It may be purchased in
+    prepared form in the open market, and when properly made, has a
+    brilliant sky-blue color. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture should be
+    done in the fall, early spring, or early summer, but never during
+    the period when the trees are in bloom.
+
+
+
+STUDY III. PRUNING TREES
+
+
+FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
+
+Trees are very much like human beings in their requirements, mode of
+life and diseases, and the general principles applicable to the care of
+one are equally important to the intelligent treatment of the other. The
+removal of limbs from trees, as well as from human beings, must be done
+sparingly and judiciously. Wounds, in both trees and human beings, must
+be disinfected and dressed to keep out all fungus or disease germs.
+Fungous growths of trees are similar to human cancers, both in the
+manner of their development and the surgical treatment which they
+require. Improper pruning will invite fungi and insects to the tree,
+hence the importance of a knowledge of fundamental principles in this
+branch of tree care.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--A Tree Pruned Improperly and too Severely.]
+
+Time: Too much pruning at one time should never be practiced (Fig. 112),
+    and no branch should be removed from a tree without good reason for
+    so doing. Dead and broken branches should be removed as soon as
+    observed, regardless of any special pruning season, because they are
+    dangerous, unsightly and carry insects and disease into the heart of
+    the tree. But all other pruning, whether it be for the purpose of
+    perfecting the form in shade trees, or for increasing the production
+    of fruit in orchard trees, should be confined to certain seasons.
+    Shade and ornamental trees can best be pruned in the fall, while the
+    leaves are still on the tree and while the tree itself is in
+    practically a dormant state.
+
+Proper cutting: All pruning should be commenced at the top of the tree
+    and finished at the bottom. A shortened branch (excepting in poplars
+    and willows, which should be cut in closely) should terminate in
+    small twigs which may draw the sap to the freshly cut wound; where a
+    branch is removed entirely, the cut should be made-close and even
+    with the trunk, as in Fig. 113. Wherever there is a stub left after
+    cutting off a branch, the growing tissue of the tree cannot cover it
+    and the stub eventually decays, falls out and leaves a hole (see
+    Fig. 114), which serves to carry disease and insects to the heart of
+    the tree. This idea of close cutting cannot be over-emphasized.
+
+    Where large branches have to be removed, the splitting and ripping
+    of the bark along the trunk is prevented by making one cut beneath
+    the branch, about a foot or two away from the trunk, and then
+    another above, close to the trunk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Branches Properly Cut Close to the Trunk.]
+
+Too severe pruning: In pruning trees, many people have a tendency to cut
+    them back so severely as to remove everything but the bare trunk and
+    a few of the main branches. This process is known as "heading
+    back." It is a method, however, which should not be resorted to
+    except in trees that are very old and failing, and even there only
+    with certain species, like the silver maple, sycamore, linden and
+    elm. Trees like the sugar maple will not stand this treatment at
+    all. The willow is a tree that will stand the process very readily
+    and the Carolina poplar must be cut back every few years, in order
+    to keep its crown from becoming too tall, scraggy and unsafe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--A Limb Improperly Cut. Note how the stub is
+decaying and the resulting cavity is becoming diseased.]
+
+Covering wounds: The importance of immediately covering all wounds with
+    coal tar cannot be overstated. If the wound is not tarred, the
+    exposed wood cracks, as in Fig. 115, providing suitable quarters for
+    disease germs that will eventually destroy the body of the tree.
+    Coal tar is by far preferable to paint and other substances for
+    covering the wound. The tar penetrates the exposed wood, producing
+    an antiseptic as well as a protective effect. Paint only forms a
+    covering, which may peel off in course of time and which will later
+    protrude from the cut, thus forming, between the paint and the wood,
+    a suitable breeding place for the development of destructive fungi
+    or disease. The application of tin covers, burlap, or other bandages
+    to the wound is equally futile and in most cases even injurious.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Result of a Wound not Covered with Coal Tar.
+The exposed wood cracked and decay set in.]
+
+
+SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
+
+Pruning shade trees: Here, the object is to produce a symmetrical crown
+    and to have the lowest branches raised from the ground sufficiently
+    high to enable pedestrians to pass under with raised umbrellas. Such
+    pruning should, therefore, necessarily be light and confined to the
+    low limbs and dead branches.
+
+Pruning lawn trees: Here the charm of the tree lies in the low reach of
+    the branches and the compactness of the crown. The pruning should,
+    therefore, be limited to the removal of dead and diseased branches
+    only.
+
+Pruning forest trees: Forest trees have a greater commercial value when
+    their straight trunks are free from branches. In the forest, nature
+    generally accomplishes this result and artificial pruning seldom has
+    to be resorted to. Trees in the forest grow so closely together that
+    they shut out the sunlight from their lower limbs, thus causing the
+    latter to die and fall off. This is known as natural pruning. In
+    some European forests, nature is assisted in its pruning by workmen,
+    who saw off the side branches before they fall of their own accord;
+    but in this country such practice would be considered too expensive,
+    hence it is seldom adopted.
+
+
+TOOLS USED IN PRUNING
+
+Good tools are essential for quick and effective work in pruning. Two or
+three good saws, a pair of pole-shears, a pole-saw, a 16-foot single
+ladder, a 40-foot extension ladder of light spruce or pine with hickory
+rungs, a good pruning knife, plenty of coal tar, a fire-can to heat the
+tar, a pole-brush, a small hand brush and plenty of good rope comprise
+the principal equipment of the pruner.
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SAFETY OF TREE CLIMBERS
+
+1. Before climbing a tree, judge its general condition. The trunk of a
+tree that shows age, disease, or wood-destroying insects generally has
+its branches in an equally unhealthy condition.
+
+2. The different kinds of wood naturally differ in their strength and
+elasticity. The soft and brash woods need greater precautions than the
+strong and pliable ones. The wood of all the poplars, the ailanthus, the
+silver maple and the chestnut, catalpa and willow is either too soft or
+too brittle to be depended upon without special care. The elm, hickory
+and oak have strong, flexible woods and are, therefore, safer than
+others. The red oak is weaker than the other oaks. The sycamore and
+beech have a tough, cross-grained wood which is fairly strong. The
+linden has a soft wood, while the ash and gum, though strong and
+flexible, are apt to split.
+
+3. Look out for a limb that shows fungous growths. Every fungus sends
+fibers into the main body of the limb which draw out its sap. The
+interior of the branch then loses its strength and becomes like a
+powder. Outside appearances sometimes do not show the interior
+condition, but one should regard a fungus as a danger sign.
+
+4. When a limb is full of holes or knots, it generally indicates that
+borers have been working all kinds of galleries through it, making it
+unsafe. The silver maple and sycamore maple are especially subject to
+borers which, in many cases, work on the under side of the branch so
+that the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous
+condition.
+
+5. A dead limb with the bark falling off indicates that it died at least
+three months before and is, therefore, less safe than one with its bark
+tightly adhering to it.
+
+6. Branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when they are covered
+with an icy coating than on a warm summer day.
+
+7. Always use the pole-saw and pole-shears on the tips of long branches,
+and use the pole-hook in removing dead branches of the ailanthus and
+other brittle trees where it would be too dangerous to reach them
+otherwise.
+
+8. Be sure of the strength of a branch before tying an extension ladder
+to it.
+
+
+
+STUDY IV. TREE REPAIR
+
+Where trees have been properly cared for from their early start, wounds
+and cavities and their subsequent elaborate treatment have no place. But
+where trees have been neglected or improperly cared for, wounds and
+cavities are bound to occur and early treatment becomes a necessity.
+
+There are two kinds of wounds on trees: (1) surface wounds, which do not
+extend beyond the inner bark, and (2) deep wounds or cavities, which may
+range from a small hole in a crotch to the hollow of an entire trunk.
+
+Surface wounds: Surface wounds (Fig. 116) are due to bruised bark, and a
+    tree thus injured can no longer produce the proper amount of foliage
+    or remain healthy very long. The reason for this becomes very
+    apparent when one looks into the nature of the living or active
+    tissue of a tree and notes how this tissue becomes affected by such
+    injuries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--A Surface Wound Properly Freed from Decayed
+Wood and Covered with Coal Tar.]
+
+    This living or active tissue is known as the "cambium layer," and is
+    a thin tissue situated immediately under the bark. It must
+    completely envelop the stem, root and branches of the trees. The
+    outer bark is a protective covering to this living layer, while the
+    entire interior wood tissue chiefly serves as a skeleton or support
+    for the tree. The cambium layer is the real, active part of the
+    tree. It is the part which transmits the sap from the base of the
+    tree to its crown; it is the part which causes the tree to grow by
+    the formation of new cells, piled up in the form of rings around the
+    heart of the tree; and it is also the part which prevents the
+    entrance of insects and disease to the inner wood. From this it is
+    quite evident that any injury to the bark, and consequently to this
+    cambium layer alongside of it, will not only cut off a portion of
+    the sap supply and hinder the growth of the tree to an extent
+    proportional to the size of the wound, but will also expose the
+    inner wood to the action of decay. The wound may, at first, appear
+    insignificant, but, if neglected, it will soon commence to decay
+    and thus to carry disease and insects into the tree. The tree then
+    becomes hollow and dangerous and its life is doomed.
+
+    Injury to the cambium layer, resulting in surface wounds, may be due
+    to the improper cutting of a branch, to the bite of a horse, to the
+    cut of a knife or the careless wielding of an axe, to the boring of
+    an insect, or to the decay of a fungous disease. (See Fig. 117.)
+    Whatever the cause, _the remedy lies in cleaning out all decayed
+    wood, removing the loose bark and covering the exposed wood with
+    coal tar_.
+
+    In cutting off the loose bark, the edges should be made smooth
+    before the coal tar is applied. Loose bark, put back against a tree,
+    will never grow and will only tend to harbor insects and disease.
+    Bandages, too, are hurtful because, underneath the bandage, disease
+    will develop more rapidly than where the wound is exposed to the sun
+    and wind. The application of tin or manure to wounds is often
+    indulged in and is equally injurious to the tree. The secret of all
+    wound treatment is to keep the wound _smooth, clean_ to the live
+    tissue, _and well covered_ with coal tar.
+
+    The chisel or gouge is the best tool to employ in this work. A sharp
+    hawk-billed knife will be useful in cutting off the loose bark. Coal
+    tar is the best material for covering wounds because it has both an
+    antiseptic and a protective effect on the wood tissue. Paint, which
+    is very often used as a substitute for coal tar, is not as
+    effective, because the paint is apt to peel in time, thus allowing
+    moisture and disease to enter the crevice between the paint and the
+    wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--A Neglected Surface Wound. Note the rough
+surface of the wound, the want of a coal tar covering and the fungous
+growth that followed.]
+
+Cavities: Deep wounds and cavities are generally the result of stubs
+    that have been permitted to rot and fall out. Surface wounds allowed
+    to decay will deepen in course of time and produce cavities.
+    Cavities in trees are especially susceptible to the attack of
+    disease because, in a cavity, there is bound to exist an
+    accumulation of moisture. With this, there is also considerable
+    darkness and protection from wind and cold, and these are all ideal
+    conditions for the development of disease.
+
+    The successful application of a remedy, in all cavity treatment,
+    hinges on this principal condition--_that all traces of disease
+    shall be entirely eliminated before treatment is commenced_.
+
+    Fungous diseases attacking a cavity produce a mass of fibers, known
+    as the "mycelium," that penetrate the body of the tree or limb on
+    which the cavity is located. In eliminating disease from a cavity,
+    it is, therefore, essential to go _beyond_ the mere decaying surface
+    and to cut out all fungous fibers that radiate into the interior of
+    the tree. Where these fibers have penetrated so deeply that it
+    becomes impossible to remove every one of them, the tree or limb
+    thus affected had better be cut down. (Fig. 118.) The presence of
+    the mycelium in wood tissue can readily be told by the discolored
+    and disintegrated appearance of the wood.
+
+    The filling in a cavity, moreover, should serve to prevent the
+    accumulation of water and, where a cavity is perpendicular and so
+    located that the water can be drained off without the filling, the
+    latter should be avoided and the cavity should merely be cleaned out
+    and tarred. (Fig. 116.) Where the disease can be entirely
+    eliminated, where the cavity is not too large, and where a filling
+    will serve the practical purpose of preventing the accumulation of
+    moisture, the work of filling should be resorted to.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--A Cavity Filled in a Tree that Should Have
+Been Cut Down. Note how the entire interior is decayed and how the tree
+fell apart soon after treatment.]
+
+    Filling should be done in the following manner: First, the interior
+    should be thoroughly freed from diseased wood and insects. The
+    chisel, gouge, mall and knife are the tools, and it is better to
+    cut deep and remove every trace of decayed wood than it is to leave
+    a smaller hole in an unhealthy state. The inner surface of the
+    cavity should then be covered with a coat of white lead paint, which
+    acts as a disinfectant and helps to hold the filling. Corrosive
+    sublimate or Bordeaux mixture may be used as a substitute for the
+    white lead paint. A coat of coal tar over the paint is the next
+    step. The cavity is then solidly packed with bricks, stones and
+    mortar as in Fig. 119, and finished with a layer of cement at the
+    mouth of the orifice. This surface layer of cement should not be
+    brought out to the same plane with the outer bark of the tree, but
+    should rather recede a little beyond the growing tissue (cambium
+    layer) which is situated immediately below the bark, Fig. 120. In
+    this way the growing tissue will be enabled to roll over the cement
+    and to cover the whole cavity if it be a small one, or else to grow
+    out sufficiently to overlap the filling and hold it as a frame holds
+    a picture. The cement is used in mixture with sand in the proportion
+    of one-third of cement to two-thirds of sand. When dry, the outer
+    layer of cement should be covered with coal tar to prevent cracking.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.--A Cavity in the Process of being Filled.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120--The Same Cavity Properly Filled.]
+
+Trees that tend to split: Certain species of trees, like the linden and
+    elm, often tend to split, generally in the crotch of several limbs
+    and sometimes in a fissure along the trunk of the tree. Midwinter is
+    the period when this usually occurs and timely action will save the
+    tree. The remedy lies in fastening together the various parts of the
+    tree by means of bolts or chains.
+
+    A very injurious method of accomplishing this end is frequently
+    resorted to, where each of the branches is bound by an iron band and
+    the bands are then joined by a bar. The branches eventually outgrow
+    the diameter of the bands, causing the latter to cut through the
+    bark of the limbs and to destroy them.
+
+    Another method of bracing limbs together consists in running a
+    single bolt through them and fastening each end of the bolt with a
+    washer and nut. This method is preferable to the first because it
+    allows for the growth of the limbs in thickness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Diagram Showing the Triple-bar Method of
+Fastening Limbs.]
+
+    A still better method, however, consists in using a bar composed of
+    three parts as shown in Fig. 121. Each of the two branches has a
+    short bolt passed through it horizontally, and the two short bolts
+    are then connected by a third bar. This arrangement will shift all
+    the pressure caused by the swaying of the limbs to the middle
+    connecting-bar. In case of a windstorm, the middle bar will be the
+    one to bend, while the bolts which pass through the limbs will
+    remain intact. The outer ends of the short bolts should have their
+    washers and nuts slightly embedded in the wood of the tree, so that
+    the living tissue of the tree may eventually grow over them in such
+    a way as to hold the bars firmly in place and to exclude moisture
+    and disease. The washers and nuts on the inner side of the limbs
+    should also be embedded.
+
+    A chain is sometimes advantageously substituted for the middle
+    section of the bar and, in some cases, where more than two branches
+    have to be joined together, a ring might take the place of the
+    middle bar or chain.
+
+    Bolts on a tree detract considerably from its natural beauty and
+    should, therefore, be used only where they are absolutely necessary
+    for the safety of the tree. They should be placed as high up in the
+    tree as possible without weakening the limbs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FORESTRY
+
+
+
+STUDY I. WHAT FORESTRY IS AND WHAT IT DOES
+
+Although Forestry is not a new idea but, as a science and an art, has
+been applied for nearly two thousand years, there are many persons who
+still need an explanation of its aims and principles.
+
+Forestry deals with the establishment, protection and utilization of
+forests.
+
+By establishment, is meant the planting of new forests and the cutting
+of mature forests, in such a way as to encourage a natural growth of new
+trees without artificial planting or seeding. The planting may consist
+of sowing seed, or of setting out young trees. The establishment of a
+forest by cutting may consist of the removal of all mature trees and
+dependence upon the remaining stumps to reproduce the forest from
+sprouts, or it may consist of the removal of only a portion of the
+mature trees, thus giving the young seedlings on the ground room in
+which to grow.
+
+By protection, is meant the safeguarding of the forest from fire, wind,
+insects, disease and injury for which man is directly responsible. Here,
+the forester also prevents injury to the trees from the grazing and
+browsing of sheep and goats, and keeps his forest so well stocked that
+no wind can uproot the trees nor can the sun dry up the moist forest
+soil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--A Forest of Bull Pine Cut on Forestry
+Principles. (Photograph taken on the Black Hills National Forest, South
+Dakota.)]
+
+By utilization, is meant the conservative and intelligent harvesting of
+the forest, with the aim of obtaining the greatest amount of product
+from a given area, with the least waste, in the quickest time, and
+without the slightest deterioration of the forest as a whole. The
+forester cuts his mature trees, only, and generally leaves a sufficient
+number on the ground to preserve the forest soil and to cast seed for
+the production of a new crop. In this way, he secures an annual output
+without hurting the forest itself. He studies the properties and values
+of the different woods and places them where they will be most useful.
+He lays down principles for so harvesting the timber and the
+by-products of the forest that there will be the least waste and injury
+to the trees which remain standing. He utilizes the forest, but does not
+cut enough to interfere with the neighboring water-sheds, which the
+forests protect.
+
+[Illustration: 123.--A White Pine Plantation, in Rhode Island, Where the
+Crowns of the Trees Have Met. The trees are fifteen years old and in
+many cases every other tree had to be removed.]
+
+Forestry, therefore, deals with a vast and varied mass of information,
+comprising all the known facts relating to the life of a forest. It does
+not deal with the individual tree and its planting and care,--that would
+be arboriculture. Nor does it consider the grouping of trees for
+aesthetic effect,--that would be landscape gardening. It concerns itself
+with the forest as a community of trees and with the utilization of the
+forest on an economic basis.
+
+Each one of these activities in Forestry is a study in itself and
+involves considerable detail, of which the reader may obtain a general
+knowledge in the following pages. For a more complete discussion, the
+reader is referred to any of the standard books on Forestry.
+
+The life and nature of a forest: When we think of a forest we are apt to
+    think of a large number of individual trees having no special
+    relationship to each other. Closer observation, however, will reveal
+    that the forest consists of a distinct group of trees, sufficiently
+    dense to form an unbroken canopy of tops, and that, where trees grow
+    so closely together, they become very interdependent. It is this
+    interdependence that makes the forest different from a mere group of
+    trees in a park or on a lawn. In this composite character, the
+    forest enriches its own soil from year to year, changes the climate
+    within its own bounds, controls the streams along its borders and
+    supports a multitude of animals and plants peculiar to itself. This
+    communal relationship in the life history of the forest furnishes a
+    most interesting story of struggle and mutual aid. Different trees
+    have different requirements with regard to water, food and light.
+    Some need more water and food than others, some will not endure much
+    shade, and others will grow in the deepest shade. In the open, a
+    tree, if once established, can meet its needs quite readily and,
+    though it has to ward off a number of enemies, insects, disease and
+    windstorm--its struggle for existence is comparatively easy. In the
+    forest, the conditions are different. Here, the tree-enemies have to
+    be battled with, just as in the open, and in addition, instead of
+    there being only a few trees on a plot of ground, there are
+    thousands growing on the same area, all demanding the same things
+    out of a limited supply. The struggle for existence, therefore,
+    becomes keen, many falling behind and but few surviving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Measuring the Diameter of a Tree and Counting
+its Annual Rings.]
+
+    This struggle begins with the seed. At first there are thousands of
+    seeds cast upon a given area by the neighboring trees or by the
+    birds and the winds. Of these, only a few germinate; animals feed on
+    some of them, frost nips some and excessive moisture and unfavorable
+    soil conditions prevent others from starting. The few successful
+    ones soon sprout into a number of young trees that grow thriftily
+    until their crowns begin to meet. When the trees have thus met, the
+    struggle is at its height. The side branches encroach upon each
+    other (Fig. 123), shut out the light without which the branches
+    cannot live, and finally kill each other off. The upper branches vie
+    with one another for light, grow unusually fast, and the trees
+    increase in height with special rapidity. This is nature's method of
+    producing clear, straight trunks which are so desirable for poles
+    and large timber. In this struggle for dominance, some survive and
+    tower above the others, but many become stunted and fail to grow,
+    while the majority become entirely overtopped and succumb in the
+    struggle; see Fig. 139.
+
+    But in this strife there is also mutual aid. Each tree helps to
+    protect its neighbors against the danger of being uprooted by the
+    wind, and against the sun, which is liable to dry up the rich soil
+    around the roots. This soil is different from the soil on the open
+    lawn. It consists of an accumulation of decayed leaves mixed with
+    inorganic matter, forming, together, a rich composition known as
+    _humus_. The trees also aid each other in forming a close canopy
+    that prevents the rapid evaporation of water from the ground.
+
+    The intensity of these conditions will vary a great deal with the
+    composition of the forest and the nature and habits of the
+    individual trees. By composition, or type of forest, is meant the
+    proportion in which the various species of trees are grouped; i.e.,
+    whether a certain section of woodland is composed of one species or
+    of a mixture of species. By habit is meant the requirements of the
+    trees for light, water and food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Mountain Slopes in North Carolina Well Covered
+with Forests.]
+
+    Some trees will grow in deep shade while others will demand the
+    open. In the matter of water and food, the individual requirements
+    of different trees are equally marked.
+
+    The natural rapidity of growth of different species is also
+    important, and one caring for a forest must know this rate of
+    growth, not only as to the individual species, but also with respect
+    to the forest as a whole. If he knows how fast the trees in a
+    forest grow, both in height and diameter, he will know how much
+    wood, in cubic feet, the forest produces in a year, and he can then
+    determine how much he may cut without decreasing the capital stock.
+    The rate of growth is determined in this way: A tree is cut and the
+    rings on the cross-section surface are counted and measured; see
+    Fig. 124. Each ring represents one year's growth. The total number
+    of rings will show the age of the tree. By a study of the rings of
+    the various species of trees on a given plot, the rate of growth of
+    each species in that location can be ascertained and, by knowing the
+    approximate number of trees of each species on the forest area, the
+    rate of growth of the whole forest for any given year can be
+    determined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Bottom Lands Buried in Waste from Deforested
+Mountains. Wu-t'ai-shan, Shan-si Province, China.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Eroded Slope in Western North Carolina.]
+
+Forests prevent soil erosion and floods: Forests help to regulate the
+    flow of streams and prevent floods. Most streams are bordered by
+    vast tracts of forest growths. The rain that falls on these forest
+    areas is absorbed and held by the forest soil, which is permeated
+    with decayed leaves, decayed wood and root fibers. The forest floor
+    is, moreover, covered with a heavy undergrowth and thus behaves like
+    a sponge, absorbing the water that falls upon it and then permitting
+    it to ooze out gradually to the valleys and rivers below. A forest
+    soil will retain one-half of its own quantity of water; i.e., for
+    every foot in depth of soil there can be six inches of water and,
+    when thus saturated, the soil will act as a vast, underground
+    reservoir from which the springs and streams are supplied (Fig.
+    125). Cut the forest down and the land becomes such a desert as is
+    shown in Fig. 126. The soil, leaves, branches and fallen trees dry
+    to dust, are carried off by the wind and, with the fall of rain, the
+    soil begins to wash away and gullies, such as are shown in Fig. 127,
+    are formed. Streams generally have their origins in mountain slopes
+    and there, too, the forests, impeding the sudden run off of the
+    water which is not immediately absorbed, prevent soil erosion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Flood in Pittsburgh, Pa.]
+
+    Where the soil is allowed to wash off, frequent floods are
+    inevitable. Rain which falls on bare slopes is not caught by the
+    crowns of trees nor held by the forest floor. It does not sink into
+    the ground as readily as in the forest. The result is that a great
+    deal of water reaches the streams in a short time and thus hastens
+    floods. At other periods the streams are low because the water which
+    would have fed them for months has run off in a few days. The farms
+    are the first to suffer from the drouths that follow and, during the
+    period of floods, whole cities are often inundated. Fig. 128 shows
+    such a scene. The history of Forestry is full of horrible incidents
+    of the loss of life and property from floods which are directly
+    traceable to the destruction of the local forests and, on the other
+    hand, there are many cases on record where flood conditions have
+    been entirely obviated by the planting of forests. France and
+    Germany have suffered from inundations resulting from forest
+    devastation and, more than a hundred years ago, both of these
+    countries took steps to reforest their mountain slopes, and thereby
+    to prevent many horrible disasters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Planting a Forest with Seedling Trees on the
+Nebraska National Forest. The man on the right is placing the tree in a
+slit just made with the spade. The man on the left is shoveling the dry
+sand from the surface before making the slit for the tree.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Diagrammatic Illustration of a Selection
+Forest.]
+
+How forests are established: New forests may be started from seed or
+    from shoots, or suckers. If from seed, the process may be carried on
+    in one of three ways:
+
+    First, by sowing the seed directly on the land.
+
+    Second, by first raising young trees in nurseries and later setting
+    them out in their permanent locations in the forest. This method is
+    applicable where quick results are desired, where the area is not
+    too large, or in treeless regions and large open gaps where there
+    is little chance for new trees to spring up from seed furnished by
+    the neighboring trees. It is a method extensively practiced abroad
+    where some of the finest forests are the result. The U.S.
+    government, as well as many of the States, maintain forest-tree
+    nurseries where millions of little trees are grown from seed and
+    planted out on the National and State forests. Fig. 129 shows men
+    engaged in this work. The fundamental principles of starting and
+    maintaining a nursery have already been referred to in the chapter
+    on "What Trees to Plant and How."
+
+    The third method of establishing a forest from seed is by cutting
+    the trees in the existing forest so that the seed falling from the
+    remaining trees will, with the addition of light and space, readily
+    take root and fill in the gaps with a vigorous growth of trees,
+    without artificial seeding or planting. This gives rise to several
+    methods of cutting or harvesting forests for the purpose of
+    encouraging natural reproduction. The cutting may extend to single
+    trees over the whole area or over only a part of the whole area.
+    Where the cutting is confined to single trees, the system is known
+    as the "Selection System," because the trees are selected
+    individually, with a view to retaining the best and most vigorous
+    stock and removing the overcrowding specimens and those that are
+    fully mature or infested with disease or insects.
+
+    Fig. 130 is a diagrammatic illustration of the operation of this
+    system. In another system the cutting is done in groups, or in
+    strips, and the number of areas of the groups or strips is extended
+    from time to time until the whole forest is cleared. This system is
+    illustrated in Fig. 131. Still another method consists in
+    encouraging trees which will thrive in the shade, such as the beech,
+    spruce and hemlock, to grow under light-demanding trees like the
+    pine. This system presents a "two-storied" forest and is known by
+    that name. The under story often has to be established by planting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Diagrammatic Illustration of the Group or
+Strip System.]
+
+    In the system of reproducing forests from shoots or suckers, all
+    trees of a certain species on a given area are cut off and the old
+    stumps and roots are depended upon to produce a new set of sprouts,
+    the strongest of which will later develop into trees. The coniferous
+    trees do not lend themselves at all to this system of treatment,
+    and, among the broadleaf trees, the species vary in their ability to
+    sprout. Some, like the chestnut and poplar, sprout profusely; others
+    sprout very little.
+
+How forests are protected: Forestry also tries to protect the forests
+    from many destructive agencies. Wasteful lumbering and fire are the
+    worst enemies of the forest. Fungi, insects, grazing, wind, snow and
+    floods are the other enemies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--The Result of a Forest Fire. The trees,
+lodgepole pine and Englemann spruce, are all dead and down. Photograph
+taken in the Colorado National Forest, Colorado.]
+
+    By wasteful lumbering is meant that the forest is cut with no regard
+    for the future and with considerable waste in the utilization of the
+    product. Conservative lumbering, which is the term used by foresters
+    to designate the opposite of wasteful lumbering, will be described
+    more fully later in this study.
+
+    Protection from fire is no less important than protection from
+    wasteful lumbering. Forest fires are very common in this country and
+    cause incalculable destruction to life and property; see Fig. 132.
+    From ten to twelve million acres of forest-land are burnt over
+    annually and the timber destroyed is estimated at fifty millions of
+    dollars. The history of Forestry abounds in tales of destructive
+    fires, where thousands of persons have been killed or left
+    destitute, whole towns wiped out, and millions of dollars in
+    property destroyed. In most cases, these uncontrollable fires
+    started from small conflagrations that could readily, with proper
+    fire-patrol, have been put out.
+
+    There are various ways of fighting fires, depending on the character
+    of the fire,--whether it is a surface fire, burning along the
+    surface layer of dry leaves and small ground vegetation, a ground
+    fire, burning below the surface, through the layer of soil and
+    vegetable matter that generally lines the forest floor, or a top
+    fire, burning high up in the trees.
+
+    When the fire runs along the surface only, the injury extends to the
+    butts of the trees and to the young seedlings. Such fires can be put
+    out by throwing dirt or sand over the fire, by beating it, and,
+    sometimes, by merely raking the leaves away.
+
+    Ground fires destroy the vegetable mold which the trees need for
+    their sustenance. They progress slowly and kill or weaken the roots
+    of the trees.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--A Top Fire near Bear Canyon, Arizona.]
+
+    Top fires, Fig. 133, are the most dangerous, destroying everything
+    in their way. They generally develop from surface fires, though
+    sometimes they are started by lightning. They are more common in
+    coniferous forests, because the leaves of hardwoods do not burn so
+    readily. Checking the progress of a top fire is a difficult matter.
+    Some fires will travel as rapidly as five miles an hour, and the
+    heat is terrific. The only salvation for the forest lies, in many
+    cases, in a sudden downpour of rain, a change of wind, or some
+    barrier which the fire cannot pass. A barrier of this kind is often
+    made by starting another fire some distance ahead of the principal
+    one, so that when the two fires meet, they will die out for want of
+    fuel. In well-kept forests, strips or lanes, free from inflammable
+    material, are often purposely made through the forest area to
+    furnish protection against top fires. Carefully managed forests are
+    also patrolled during the dry season so that fires may be detected
+    and attacked in their first stages. Look-out stations, watch-towers,
+    telephone-connections and signal stations are other means frequently
+    resorted to for fire protection and control. Notices warning campers
+    and trespassers against starting fires are commonly posted in such
+    forests. (Fig. 143.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Sheep Grazing on Holy Cross National Forest,
+Colorado. The drove consists of 1600 sheep, of which only part are shown
+in the photograph.]
+
+    The grazing of sheep, goats and cattle in the forest is another
+    important source of injury to which foresters must give attention.
+    In the West this is quite a problem, for, when many thousands of
+    these animals pass through a forest (Fig. 134), there is often very
+    little young growth left and the future reproduction of the forest
+    is severely retarded. Grazing on our National Forests is regulated
+    by the Government.
+
+    As a means of protection against insects and fungi, all trees
+    infested are removed as soon as observed and in advance of all
+    others, whenever a lumbering operation is undertaken.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--A Typical Montana Sawmill.]
+
+How forests are harvested: Forestry and forest preservation require that
+    a forest should be cut and not merely held untouched. But it also
+    demands that the cutting shall be done on scientific principles, and
+    that only as much timber shall be removed in a given time as the
+    forest can produce in a corresponding period. After the cutting, the
+    forest must be left in a condition to produce another crop of
+    timber within a reasonable time: see Fig. 122. These fundamental
+    requirements represent the difference between conservative lumbering
+    and ordinary lumbering. Besides insuring a future supply of timber,
+    conservative lumbering, or lumbering on forestry principles, also
+    tends to preserve the forest floor and the young trees growing on
+    it, and to prevent injury to the remaining trees through fire,
+    insects and disease. It provides for a working plan by which the
+    kind, number and location of the trees to be cut are specified, the
+    height of the stumps is stipulated and the utilization of the wood
+    and by-products is regulated.
+
+    Conservative lumbering provides that the trees shall be cut as near
+    to the ground as possible and that they shall be felled with the
+    least damage to the young trees growing near by. The branches of the
+    trees, after they have been felled, must be cut and piled in heaps,
+    as shown in Fig. 122, to prevent fire. When the trunks, sawed into
+    logs, are dragged through the woods, care is taken not to break down
+    the young trees or to injure the bark of standing trees. Waste in
+    the process of manufacture is provided against, uses are found for
+    the material ordinarily rejected, and the best methods of handling
+    and drying lumber are employed. Fig. 135 shows a typical sawmill
+    capable of providing lumber in large quantities.
+
+    In the utilization of the by-products of the forest, such as
+    turpentine and resin, Forestry has devised numerous methods for
+    harvesting the crops with greater economy and with least waste and
+    injury to the trees from which the by-products are obtained. Fig.
+    136 illustrates an improved method by which crude turpentine is
+    obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Gathering Crude Turpentine by the Cup and
+Gutter Method. This system, devised by foresters, saves the trees and
+increases the output.]
+
+Forestry here and abroad: Forestry is practiced in every civilized
+    country except China and Turkey. In Germany, Forestry has attained,
+    through a long series of years, a remarkable state of scientific
+    thoroughness and has greatly increased the annual output of the
+    forests of that country.
+
+    In France, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Russia
+    and Denmark, Forestry is also practiced on scientific principles and
+    the government in each of these countries holds large tracts of
+    forests in reserve. In British India one finds a highly efficient
+    Forest Service and in Japan Forestry is receiving considerable
+    attention.
+
+    In the United States, the forest areas are controlled by private
+    interests, by the Government and by the States. On privately owned
+    forests, Forestry is practiced only in isolated cases. The States
+    are taking hold of the problem very actively and in many of them we
+    now find special Forestry Commissions authorized to care for vast
+    areas of forest land reserved for State control. These Commissions
+    employ technically trained foresters who not only protect the State
+    forests, but also plant new areas, encourage forest planting on
+    private lands and disseminate forestry information among the
+    citizens. New York State has such a Commission that cares for more
+    than a million acres of forest land located in the northern part of
+    the State. Many other States are equally progressive.
+
+    The United States Government is the most active factor in the
+    preservation of our forests. The Government to-day owns over two
+    hundred million acres of forest land, set aside as National Forests.
+    There are one hundred and fifty individual reserves, distributed as
+    shown in Fig. 137 and cared for by the Forest Service, a bureau in
+    the Department of Agriculture. Each of the forests is in charge of a
+    supervisor. He has with him a professional forester and a body of
+    men who patrol the tract against fire and the illegal cutting of
+    timber. Some of the men are engaged in planting trees on the open
+    areas and others in studying the important forest problems of the
+    region. Fig. 138.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Map Showing Our National Forests.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Government Foresters in Missouri Studying the
+Growth and Habits of Trees. They are standing in water three feet deep.]
+
+    Where cutting is to be done on a National Forest, the conditions are
+    investigated by a technically trained forester and the cutting is
+    regulated according to his findings. Special attention is given to
+    discovering new uses for species of trees which have hitherto been
+    considered valueless, and the demand upon certain rare species is
+    lessened by introducing more common woods which are suitable for use
+    in their place.
+
+    Aside from the perpetuation of the national forests, the U.S.
+    Forest Service also undertakes such tree studies as lie beyond the
+    power or means of private individuals. It thus stands ready to
+    cooperate with all who need assistance.
+
+
+
+STUDY II. CARE OF THE WOODLAND
+
+Almost every farm, large private estate or park has a wooded area for
+the purpose of supplying fuel or for enhancing the landscape effect of
+the place. In most instances these wooded areas are entirely neglected
+or are so improperly cared for as to cause injury rather than good. In
+but very few cases is provision made for a future growth of trees after
+the present stock has gone. Proper attention will increase and
+perpetuate a crop of good trees just as it will any other crop on the
+farm, while the attractiveness of the place may be greatly enhanced
+through the intelligent planting and care of trees.
+
+How to judge the conditions: A close examination of the wooded area may
+    reveal some or all of the following unfavorable conditions:
+
+    The trees may be so crowded that none can grow well. A few may have
+    grown to large size but the rest usually are decrepit, and
+    overtopped by the larger trees. They are, therefore, unable, for the
+    want of light and space, to develop into good trees. Fig. 139 shows
+    woodland in such condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Woodland which Needs Attention. The trees are
+overcrowded.]
+
+    There may also be dead and dying trees, trees infested with
+    injurious insects and fungi and having any number of decayed
+    branches. The trees may be growing so far apart that their trunks
+    will be covered with suckers as far down as the ground, or there may
+    be large, open gaps with no trees at all. Here the sun, striking
+    with full force, may be drying up the soil and preventing the
+    decomposition of the leaves. Grass soon starts to grow in these open
+    spaces and the whole character of the woodland changes as shown in
+    Figs. 140 and 141.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.--First Stage of Deterioration. The woodland is
+too open and grass has taken the place of the humus cover.]
+
+    Where any of these conditions exist, the woodland requires
+    immediate attention. Otherwise, as time goes on, it deteriorates
+    more and more, the struggle for space among the crowded and
+    suppressed trees becomes more keen, the insects in the dying trees
+    multiply and disease spreads from tree to tree. Under such
+    conditions, the soil deteriorates and the older trees begin to
+    suffer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Second Stage of Deterioration. The Surface
+Soil of the Wooded Area Has Washed Away and the Trees Have Died.]
+
+    The attention required for the proper care of woodland may be summed
+    up under the four general heads of _soil preservation_, _planting_,
+    _cutting_, and _protection_.
+
+Improvement by soil preservation: The soil in a wooded area can best be
+    preserved and kept rich by doing two things; by retaining the
+    fallen leaves on the ground and by keeping the ground well covered
+    with a heavy growth of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. The
+    fallen leaves decompose, mix with the soil and form a dark-colored
+    material known as _humus_. The humus supplies the tree with a
+    considerable portion of its food and helps to absorb and retain the
+    moisture in the soil upon which the tree is greatly dependent. A
+    heavy growth of trees and shrubs has a similar effect by serving to
+    retain the moisture in the soil.
+
+Improvement by planting: The planting of new trees is a necessity on
+    almost any wooded area. For even where the existing trees are in
+    good condition, they cannot last forever, and provision must be made
+    for others to take their place after they are gone. The majority of
+    the wooded areas in our parks and on private estates are not
+    provided with a sufficient undergrowth of desirable trees to take
+    the place of the older ones. Thus, also, the open gaps must be
+    planted to prevent the soil from deteriorating.
+
+    Waste lands on farms which are unsuited for farm crops often offer
+    areas on which trees may profitably be planted. These lands are
+    sufficiently good in most cases to grow trees, thus affording a
+    means of turning into value ground which would otherwise be
+    worthless. It has been demonstrated that the returns from such
+    plantations at the end of fifty years will yield a six per cent
+    investment and an extra profit of $151.97 per acre, the expense
+    totaling at the end of fifty years, $307.03. The value of the land
+    is estimated at $4 per acre and the cost of the trees and planting
+    at $7 per acre. The species figured on here is white pine, one of
+    the best trees to plant from a commercial standpoint. With other
+    trees, the returns will vary accordingly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.--A Farm Woodlot.]
+
+    The usual idea that it costs a great deal to plant several thousand
+    young trees is erroneous. An ordinary woodlot may be stocked with a
+    well-selected number of young trees at a cost less than the price
+    generally paid for a dozen good specimen trees for the front lawn.
+    It is not necessary to underplant the woodlot with big trees. The
+    existing big trees are there to give character to the forest and the
+    new planting should be done principally as a future investment and
+    as a means of perpetuating the life of the woodlot. Young trees are
+    even more desirable for such planting than the older and more
+    expensive ones. The young trees will adapt themselves to the local
+    soil and climatic conditions more easily than the older ones. Their
+    demand for food and moisture is more easily satisfied, and because
+    of their small cost, one can even afford to lose a large percentage
+    of them after planting.
+
+    The young plants should be two-year-old seedlings or three-year-old
+    "transplants."
+
+    Two-year-old seedlings are trees that have been grown from the seed
+    in seed beds until they reach that age. They run from two to fifteen
+    inches in height, depending upon the species.
+
+    Three-year-old "transplants" have been grown from the seed in seed
+    beds and at the end of the first or second year have been taken up
+    and transplanted into rows, where they grow a year or two longer.
+    They are usually a little taller than the two-year-old seedlings,
+    are much stockier and have a better root system. For this reason,
+    three-year-old transplants are a little more desirable as stock for
+    planting. They will withstand drought better than seedlings.
+
+    The best results from woodland planting are obtained with
+    native-grown material. Such stock is stronger, hardier and better
+    acclimated. Foreign-grown stock is usually a little cheaper, owing
+    to the fact that it has been grown abroad, under cheap labor
+    conditions.
+
+    The trees may be purchased from reputable dealers, of whom there are
+    many in this country. These dealers specialize in growing young
+    trees and selling them at the low cost of three to ten dollars per
+    thousand. In States in which a Forestry Commission has been
+    inaugurated, there have also been established State nurseries where
+    millions of little trees are grown for reforestation purposes. In
+    order to encourage private tree planting, the Forestry Commissions
+    are usually willing to sell some of these trees at cost price, under
+    certain conditions, to private land owners. Inquiries should be
+    made to the State Forestry Commission.
+
+    Great care must be taken to select the species most suitable for the
+    particular soil, climatic and light conditions of the woodlot. The
+    trees which are native to the locality and are found growing
+    thriftily on the woodlot, are the ones that have proven their
+    adaptability to the local conditions and should therefore be the
+    principal species used for underplanting. A list from which to
+    select the main stock would, therefore, vary with the locality. In
+    the Eastern States it would comprise the usual hardy trees like the
+    red, pin and scarlet oaks, the beech, the red and sugar maples, the
+    white ash, the tulip tree, sycamore, sweet gum and locust among the
+    deciduous trees; the white, Austrian, red, pitch and Scotch pines,
+    the hemlock and the yew among the conifers.
+
+    With the main stock well selected, one may add a number of trees and
+    shrubs that will give to the woodland scene a pleasing appearance at
+    all seasons. The brilliant autumnal tints of the sassafras,
+    pepperidge, blue beech, viburnum, juneberry and sumach are
+    strikingly attractive. The flowering dogwood along the drives and
+    paths will add a charm in June as well as in autumn and an
+    occasional group of white birch will have the same effect if planted
+    among groups of evergreens. Additional undergrowth of native
+    woodland shrubs, such as New Jersey tea, red-berried elder and
+    blueberry for the Eastern States, will augment the naturalness of
+    the scene and help to conserve the moisture in the soil.
+
+    Two or three years' growth will raise these plants above all grass
+    and low vegetation, and a sprinkling of laurel, rhododendron, hardy
+    ferns and a few intermingling colonies of native wild flowers such
+    as bloodroot, false Solomon's seal and columbines for the East, as
+    a ground cover will put the finishing touches to the forest scene.
+
+    As to methods of planting the little trees, the following
+    suggestions may prove of value. As soon as the plants are received,
+    they should be taken from the box and dipped in a thick puddle of
+    water and loam. The roots must be thoroughly covered with the mud.
+    Then the bundles into which the little trees are tied should be
+    loosened and the trees placed in a trench dug on a slant. The dirt
+    should be placed over the roots and the exposed parts of the plants
+    covered with brush or burlap to keep away the rays of the sun.
+
+    When ready for planting, a few plants are dug up, set in a pail with
+    thin mud at the bottom and carried to the place of planting. The
+    most economical method of planting is for one man to make the holes
+    with a mattock. These holes are made about a foot in diameter, by
+    scraping off the sod with the mattock and then digging a little hole
+    in the dirt underneath. A second man follows with a pail of plants
+    and sets a single plant in this hole with his hands, see Fig. 129,
+    making sure that the roots are straight and spread out on the bottom
+    of the hole. The dirt should then be packed firmly around the plant
+    and pressed down with the foot.
+
+Improvement by cutting: The removal of certain trees in a grove is often
+    necessary to improve the quality of the better trees, increase their
+    growth, make the place accessible, and enhance its beauty. Cutting
+    in a wooded area should be confined to suppressed trees, dead and
+    dying trees and trees badly infested with insects and disease. In
+    case of farm woodlands, mature trees of market value may be cut, but
+    in parks and on private estates these have a greater value when left
+    standing. The cutting should leave a clean stand of well-selected
+    specimens which will thrive under the favorable influence of more
+    light and growing space. Considerable care is required to prevent
+    injury to the young trees when the older specimens are cut and
+    hauled out of the woods. The marking of the trees to be removed can
+    best be done in summer when the dead and live trees can be
+    distinguished with ease and when the requisite growing space for
+    each tree can be judged better from the density of the crowns. The
+    cutting, however, can be done most advantageously in winter.
+
+    Immediately after cutting all diseased and infested wood should be
+    destroyed. The sound wood may be utilized for various purposes. The
+    bigger logs may be sold to the local lumber dealers and the smaller
+    material may be used for firewood. The remaining brush should be
+    withdrawn from the woodlot to prevent fire during the dry summer
+    months.
+
+    In marking trees for removal, a number of considerations are to be
+    borne in mind besides the elimination of dead, diseased and
+    suppressed trees. When the marker is working among crowding trees of
+    equal height, he should save those that are most likely to grow into
+    fine specimen trees and cut out all those that interfere with them.
+    The selection must also favor trees which are best adapted to the
+    local soil and climatic conditions and those which will add to the
+    beauty of the place. In this respect the method of marking will be
+    different from that used in commercial forestry, where the aim is to
+    net the greatest profit from the timber. In pure forestry practice,
+    one sees no value in such species as dogwood, ironwood, juneberry,
+    sumac and sassafras, and will therefore never allow those to grow up
+    in abundance and crowd out other trees of a higher market value. But
+    on private estates and in park woodlands where beauty is an
+    important consideration, such species add wonderful color and
+    attractiveness to the forest scene, especially along the roads and
+    paths, and should be favored as much as the other hardier trees. One
+    must not mark too severely in one spot or the soil will be dried out
+    from exposure to sun and wind. When the gaps between the trees are
+    too large, the trees will grow more slowly and the trunks will
+    become covered with numerous shoots or suckers which deprive the
+    crowns of their necessary food and cause them to "die back." Where
+    the trees are tall and slim or on short and steep hillsides, it is
+    also important to be conservative in marking in order that the stand
+    may not be exposed to the dangers of windfall. No hard-and-fast rule
+    can be laid down as to what would constitute a conservative
+    percentage of trees to cut down. This depends entirely on the local
+    conditions and on the exposure of the woodlot. But in general it is
+    not well to remove more than twenty per cent of the stand nor to
+    repeat the cutting on the same spot oftener than once in five or six
+    years. The first cutting will, of course, be the heaviest and all
+    subsequent cuttings will become lighter and lighter until the
+    woodlot is put in good growing condition. On private estates and
+    parks, where beauty is the chief aim, the woodland should be kept as
+    natural, informal and as thick as possible. Where the woodland is
+    cut up by many paths and drives, density of vegetation will add to
+    the impression of depth and distance.
+
+Protection: This subject has already been discussed considerably in the
+    previous study on Forestry, and here it becomes necessary merely to
+    add a few suggestions with special reference to private and park
+    woodlands.
+
+    Guarding woodlands from _fire_ is the most important form of
+    protection. Surface fires are very common on small woodland holdings
+    and the damage done to the standing vegetation is generally
+    underestimated. An ordinary ground or surface fire on a woodland
+    area will burn up the leaf-litter and vegetable mold, upon which the
+    trees depend so much for food and moisture, and will destroy the
+    young seedlings on the ground. Where the fire is a little more
+    severe, the older trees are badly wounded and weakened and the
+    younger trees are frequently killed outright. Insects and disease
+    find these trees an easy prey, and all related forest conditions
+    commence to deteriorate.
+
+    Constant watchfulness and readiness to meet any emergency are the
+    keynote of effective fire protection. Notices similar to the one
+    shown in Fig. 143 often help to prevent fires. It is also helpful to
+    institute strict rules against dropping lighted matches or tobacco,
+    or burning brush when the ground is very dry, or leaving smouldering
+    wood without waiting to see that the fire is completely out. There
+    should be many roads and foot-paths winding through the woodland in
+    order that they may serve as checks or "fire lanes" in time of fire.
+    These roads and paths should be kept free from brush and leaves and
+    should be frequently patrolled. When made not too wide,
+    unpretentious and in conformity with the natural surroundings, such
+    drives and paths can become a very interesting feature of the place,
+    winding through the woodland, exposing its charms and affording
+    opportunity for pleasant driving and walking. The borders of the
+    paths can be given special attention by placing the more beautiful
+    native shrubs in prominent positions where they can lend increased
+    attractiveness.
+
+    In case of fire, it should be possible to call for aid by telephone
+    directly from the woodland and to find within easy reach the tools
+    necessary to combat fire. It is also important to obtain the
+    co-operation of one's neighbors in protecting the adjoining
+    woodlands, because the dangers from insects, disease and fire
+    threatening one bit of woodland area are more or less dependent upon
+    the conditions in the adjoining woodland.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Poster Suitable for Private Woodlands and
+Forest Parks. The translations in Italian and Polish have been used by
+the writer in this particular instance to meet the local needs.]
+
+    As to other forms of protection, passing mention may be made of the
+    importance of keeping out cattle, sheep and hogs from the woods, of
+    eliminating all insects and disease, of keeping the ground free from
+    brush and other inflammable material, of retaining on the ground all
+    fallen leaves and keeping the forest well stocked with little trees
+    and shrubs.
+
+Forest lands may be exempted from taxation: In New York and other States
+    there exists a State law providing for exemption or reduction in
+    taxes upon lands which are planted with forest trees or maintained
+    as wooded areas. The object of the law is to encourage home forestry
+    and to establish fairness in the agricultural land-tax law by
+    placing forest lands in the same category with other crop-producing
+    lands. For detailed information and a copy of the law, one should
+    address the local State Forestry Commission.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+OUR COMMON WOODS: THEIR IDENTIFICATION, PROPERTIES AND USES
+
+
+Woods have different values for various practical purposes because of
+their peculiarities in structure. A knowledge of the structural parts of
+wood is therefore necessary as a means of recognizing the wood and of
+determining why one piece is stronger, heavier, tougher, or better
+adapted for a given service than another.
+
+Structure of wood: If one examines a cross-section of the bole of a
+    tree, he will note that it is composed of several distinct parts, as
+    shown in Fig. 145. At the very center is a small core of soft tissue
+    known as the _pith_. It is of much the same structure as the pith of
+    cornstalk or elder, with which all are familiar. At the outside is
+    the _bark_, which forms a protective covering over the entire woody
+    system. In any but the younger stems, the bark is composed of an
+    inner, live layer, and an outer or dead portion.
+
+    Between the pith at the center and the bark at the outside is the
+    wood. It will be noted that the portion next to the bark is white or
+    yellowish in color. This is the _sapwood_. It is principally through
+    the sapwood that the water taken in by the roots is carried up to
+    the leaves. In some cases the sapwood is very thin and in others it
+    is very thick, depending partly on the kind of tree, and partly on
+    its age and vigor. The more leaves on a tree the more sapwood it
+    must have to supply them with moisture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Pine Wood. (Magnified 30 times.)]
+
+    Very young trees are all sapwood, but, as they get older, part of
+    the wood is no longer needed to carry sap and it becomes
+    _heartwood_. Heartwood is darker than the sapwood, sometimes only
+    slightly, but in other instances it may vary from a light-brown
+    color to jet black. It tends to fill with gums, resins, pigments and
+    other substances, but otherwise its structure is the same as that of
+    the sapwood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Cross-section of Oak.]
+
+    The wood of all our common trees is produced by a thin layer of
+    cells just beneath the bark, the _cambium_. The cambium adds new
+    wood on the outside of that previously formed and new bark on the
+    inside of the old bark. A tree grows most rapidly in the spring, and
+    the wood formed at that time is much lighter, softer and more
+    porous than that formed later in the season, which is usually quite
+    hard and dense. These two portions, known as _early wood_ or spring
+    wood, and _late wood_ or summer wood, together make up one year's
+    growth and are for that reason called _annual rings_. Trees such as
+    palms and yucca do not grow in this way, but their wood is not
+    important enough in this country to warrant a description.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.--White Oak Wood. (Magnified 20 times.)]
+
+    If the end of a piece of oak wood is examined, a number of lines
+    will be seen radiating out toward the bark like the spokes in a
+    wheel. These are the _medullary rays_. They are present in all
+    woods, but only in a few species are they very prominent to the
+    unaided eye. These rays produce the "flakes" or "mirrors" that make
+    quartersawed (radially cut) wood so beautiful. They are thin plates
+    or sheets of cells lying in between the other wood cells. They
+    extend out into the inner bark.
+
+    While much may be seen with the unaided eye, better results can be
+    secured by the use of a good magnifying glass. The end of the wood
+    should be smoothed off with a very sharp knife; a dull one will
+    tear and break the cells so that the structure becomes obscured.
+    With any good hand lens a great many details will then appear which
+    before were not visible. In the case of some woods like oak, ash,
+    and chestnut, it will be found that the early wood contains many
+    comparatively large openings, called _pores_, as shown in Figs. 146
+    and 147. Pores are cross-sections of vessels which are little
+    tube-like elements running throughout the tree. The vessels are
+    water carriers. A wood with its large pores collected into one row
+    or in a single band is said to be _ring-porous_. Fig. 146 shows such
+    an arrangement. A wood with its pores scattered throughout the
+    year's growth instead of collected in a ring is _diffuse-porous_.
+    Maple, as shown in Fig. 152, is of this character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Example of the Black Oak Group. (Quercus
+coccinea.) (Magnified 20 times.)]
+
+    All of our broadleaf woods are either ring-porous or diffuse-porous,
+    though some of them, like the walnut, are nearly half way between
+    the two groups.
+
+    If the wood of hickory, for example, be examined with the magnifying
+    lens, it will be seen that there are numerous small pores in the
+    late wood, while running parallel with the annual rings are little
+    white lines such as are shown in Fig. 149. These are lines of _wood
+    parenchyma_. Wood parenchyma is found in all woods, arranged
+    sometimes in tangential lines, sometimes surrounding the pores and
+    sometimes distributed over the cross-section. The dark, horn-like
+    portions of hickory and oak are the _woodfibers_. They give the
+    strength to wood.
+
+    In many of the diffuse-porous woods, the pores are too small to be
+    seen with the unaided eye, and in some cases they are not very
+    distinct even when viewed with a magnifier. It is necessary to study
+    such examples closely in order not to confuse them with the woods of
+    conifers.
+
+    The woods of conifers are quite different in structure from
+    broadleaf woods, though the difference may not always stand out
+    prominently. Coniferous woods have no pores, their rays are always
+    narrow and inconspicuous, and wood parenchyma is never prominent.
+    The woods of the pines, spruces, larches, and Douglas fir differ
+    from those of the other conifers in having _resin ducts_, Fig. 144.
+    In pines these are readily visible to the naked eye, appearing as
+    resinous dots on cross-sections and as pin scratches or dark lines
+    on longitudinal surfaces. The presence or absence of resin ducts is
+    a very important feature in identifying woods, hence it is very
+    important to make a careful search for them when they are not
+    readily visible.
+
+How to identify a specimen of wood: The first thing to do in identifying
+    a piece of wood is to cut a smooth section at the end and note
+    (without the magnifier) the color, the prominence of the rays and
+    pores, and any other striking features. If the pores are readily
+    visible, the wood is from a broadleaf tree; if the large pores are
+    collected in a ring it belongs to the ring-porous division of the
+    broadleaf woods. If the rays are quite conspicuous and the wood is
+    hard and heavy, it is oak, as the key given later will show. Close
+    attention to the details of the key will enable one to decide to
+    what group of oaks it belongs.
+
+    In most cases the structure will not stand out so prominently as in
+    oak, so that it is necessary to make a careful study with the hand
+    lens. If pores appear, their arrangement, both in the early wood and
+    in the late wood, should be carefully noted; also whether the pores
+    are open or filled with a froth-like substance known as _tyloses_.
+    Wood parenchyma lines should be looked for, and if present, the
+    arrangement of the lines should be noted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.--(Magnified about 8 times.)]
+
+    If no pores appear under the magnifying lens, look closely for resin
+    ducts. If these are found, note whether they are large or small,
+    numerous or scattered, open or closed, lighter or darker than the
+    wood. Note also whether the late wood is very heavy and hard,
+    showing a decided contrast to the early wood, or fairly soft and
+    grading into the early wood without abrupt change. Weigh the piece
+    in your hand, smell a fresh-cut surface to detect the odor, if any,
+    and taste a chip to see if anything characteristic is discoverable.
+    Then turn to the following key:
+
+
+
+KEY
+
+
+
+I. WOODS WITHOUT PORES--CONIFERS OR SO-CALLED "SOFTWOODS"
+
+
+A. Woods with resin ducts.
+
+1. Pines. Fig. 144. Resin ducts numerous, prominent, fairly evenly
+    distributed. Wood often pitchy. Resinous odor distinct. Clear
+    demarcation between heart and sapwood. There are two groups of
+    pines--soft and hard.
+
+  (a) Soft Pines. Wood light, soft, not strong, even-textured, very
+    easy to work. Change from early wood to late wood is gradual and the
+    difference in density is not great.
+
+  (b) Hard Pines. Wood variable but typically rather heavy, hard and
+    strong, uneven textured, fairly easy to work. Change from early wood
+    to late wood is abrupt and the difference in density and color is
+    very marked, consequently alternate layers of light and dark wood
+    show. The wood of nearly all pines is very extensively employed in
+    construction work and in general carpentry.
+
+2. Douglas fir. Resin ducts less numerous and conspicuous than in the
+    pines, irregularly distributed, often in small groups. Odorless or
+    nearly so. Heartwood and sapwood distinct. The wood is of two kinds.
+    In one the growth rings are narrow and the wood is rather light and
+    soft, easy to work, reddish yellow in color; in the other the growth
+    rings are wide, the wood is rather hard to work, as there is great
+    contrast between the weak early wood and the very dense late wood of
+    the annual rings.
+
+    Douglas fir is a tree of great economic importance on the Pacific
+    Coast. The wood is much like hard pine both in its appearance and
+    its uses.
+
+3. Spruces. Resin ducts few, small, unevenly distributed; appearing
+    mostly as white dots. Wood not resinous; odorless. The wood is white
+    or very light colored with a silky luster and with little contrast
+    between heart and sapwood. It is a great deal like soft pine, though
+    lighter in color and with much fewer and smaller resin ducts. The
+    wood is used for construction, carpentry, oars, sounding boards for
+    musical instruments, and paper pulp.
+
+4. Tamarack. Resin ducts the same as in the spruces. The color of the
+    heartwood is yellowish or russet brown; that of the distinct sapwood
+    much lighter. The wood is considerably like hard pine, but lacks the
+    resinous odor and the resin ducts are much fewer and smaller.
+
+    The wood is used largely for cross-ties, fence posts, telegraph and
+    telephone poles, and to a limited extent for lumber in general
+    construction.
+
+
+B. Woods without resin ducts.
+
+1. Hemlock. The wood has a disagreeable, rancid odor, is splintery, not
+    resinous, with decided contrast between early and late wood. Color
+    light brown with a slight tinge of red, the heart little if any
+    darker than the sapwood. Hemlock makes a rather poor lumber which is
+    used for general construction, also for cross-ties, and pulp.
+
+2. Balsam fir. Usually odorless, not splintery, not resinous, with
+    little contrast between early and late wood. Color white or very
+    light brown with a pinkish hue to the late wood. Heartwood little if
+    any darker than the sapwood. Closely resembles spruce, from which it
+    can be distinguished by its absence of resin ducts.
+
+    The wood is used for paper pulp in mixture with spruce. Also for
+    general construction to some extent.
+
+3. Cypress. Odorless except in dark-colored specimens which are somewhat
+    rancid. Smooth surface of sound wood looks and feels greasy or waxy.
+    Moderate contrast between early and late wood. Color varies from
+    straw color to dark brown, often with reddish and greenish tinge.
+    Heartwood more deeply colored than the sapwood but without distinct
+    boundary line.
+
+    Wood used in general construction, especially in places where
+    durability is required; also for shingles, cooperage, posts, and
+    poles.
+
+4. Red Cedar. Has a distinct aromatic odor. Wood uniform-textured; late
+    wood usually very thin, inconspicuous. Color deep reddish brown or
+    purple, becoming dull upon exposure; numerous minute red dots often
+    visible under lens. Sapwood white. Red cedar can be distinguished
+    from all the other conifers mentioned by the deep color of the wood
+    and the very distinct aromatic odor.
+
+    Wood largely used for pencils; also for chests and cabinets, posts,
+    and poles. It is very durable in contact with the ground.
+
+    _Western red cedar_ is lighter, softer, less deeply colored and less
+    fragrant than the common Eastern cedar. It grows along the Pacific
+    Coast and is extensively used for shingles throughout the country.
+
+5. Redwood. Wood odorless and tasteless, uniform-textured, light and
+    weak, rather coarse and harsh. Color light cherry. Close inspection
+    under lens of a small split surface will reveal many little resin
+    masses that appear as rows of black or amber beads which are
+    characteristic of this wood.
+
+    Redwood is confined to portions of the Pacific Coast. It is used for
+    house construction, interior finish, tanks and flumes, shingles,
+    posts, and boxes. It is very durable.
+
+
+
+II. WOODS WITH PORES--BROADLEAF, OR SO-CALLED "HARDWOODS"
+
+
+A. Ring-porous.
+
+
+1. Woods with a portion of the rays very large and conspicuous.
+
+Oak. The wood of all of the oaks is heavy, hard, and strong. They may be
+    separated into two groups. The white oaks and the red or black oaks.
+
+  (a) White oaks. Pores in early wood plugged with tyloses, collected in
+    a few rows. Fig. 146. The transition from the large pores to the
+    small ones in the late wood is abrupt. The latter are very small,
+    numerous, and appear as irregular grayish bands widening toward the
+    outer edge of the annual ring. Impossible usually to see into the
+    small pores with magnifier.
+
+  (b) Red or black oaks. Pores are usually open though tyloses may
+    occur, Fig. 147; the early wood pores are in several rows and the
+    transition to the small ones in late wood is gradual. The latter are
+    fewer, larger and more distinct than in white oak and it is
+    possible to see into them with a hand lens.
+
+    The wood of the oaks is used for all kinds of furniture, interior
+    finish, cooperage, vehicles, cross-ties, posts, fuel, and
+    construction timber.
+
+2. Woods with none of the rays large and conspicuous.
+
+(a) Pores in late wood small and in radial lines, wood parenchyma in
+inconspicuous tangential lines.
+
+Chestnut. Pores in early wood in a broad band, oval in shape, mostly
+    free from tyloses. Pores in late wood in flame-like radial white
+    patches that are plainly visible without lens. Color medium brown.
+    Nearly odorless and tasteless. Chestnut is readily separated from
+    oak by its weight and absence of large rays; from black ash by the
+    arrangement of the pores in the late wood; from sassafras by the
+    arrangement of the pores in the late wood, the less conspicuous
+    rays, and the lack of distinct color.
+
+    The wood is used for cross-ties, telegraph and telephone poles,
+    posts, furniture, cooperage, and tannin extract. Durable in contact
+    with the ground.
+
+(b) Pores in late wood small, not radially arranged, being distributed
+singly or in groups. Wood parenchyma around pores or extending wing-like
+from pores in late wood, often forming irregular tangential lines.
+
+1. Ash. Pores in early wood in a rather broad band (occasionally
+    narrow), oval in shape, see Fig. 148, tyloses present. Color brown
+    to white, sometimes with reddish tinge to late wood. Odorless and
+    tasteless. There are several species of ash that are classed as
+    white ash and one that is called black or brown ash.
+
+  (a) White ash. Wood heavy, hard, strong, mostly light colored except
+    in old heartwood, which is reddish. Pores in late wood, especially
+    in the outer part of the annual ring, are joined by lines of wood
+    parenchyma.
+
+  (b) Black ash. Wood more porous, lighter, softer, weaker, and darker
+    colored than white ash. Pores in late wood fewer and larger and
+    rarely joined by tangential lines of wood parenchyma.
+
+    The wood of the ashes is used for wagon and carriage stock,
+    agricultural implements, oars, furniture, interior finish, and
+    cooperage. It is the best wood for bent work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Hickory Wood. (Magnified 45 times.)]
+
+2. Locust. Pores in early wood in a rather narrow band, round, variable
+    in size, densely filled with tyloses. Color varying from golden
+    yellow to brown, often with greenish hue. Very thin sapwood, white.
+    Odorless and almost tasteless. Wood extremely heavy and hard,
+    cutting like horn. Locust bears little resemblance to ash, being
+    harder, heavier, of a different color, with more distinct rays, and
+    with the pores in late wood in larger groups.
+
+    The wood is used for posts, cross-ties, wagon hubs, and insulator
+    pins. It is very durable in contact with the ground.
+
+(c) Pores in late wood comparatively large, not in groups or lines.
+Wood parenchyma in numerous fine but distinct tangential lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Elm. (Magnified 25 times.)]
+
+Hickory, Fig. 149. Pores in early wood moderately large, not abundant,
+    nearly round, filled with tyloses. Color brown to reddish brown;
+    thick sapwood, white. Odorless and tasteless. Wood very heavy, hard,
+    and strong. Hickory is readily separated from ash by the fine
+    tangential lines of wood parenchyma and from oak by the absence of
+    large rays.
+
+    The wood is largely used for vehicles, tool handles, agricultural
+    implements, athletic goods, and fuel.
+
+(d) Pores in late wood small and in conspicuous wavy tangential bands.
+Wood parenchyma not in tangential lines.
+
+Elm. Pores in early wood not large and mostly in a single row, Fig. 150
+    (several rows in slippery elm), round, tyloses present. Color brown,
+    often with reddish tinge. Odorless and tasteless. Wood rather heavy
+    and hard, tough, often difficult to split. The peculiar arrangement
+    of the pores in the late wood readily distinguishes elm from all
+    other woods except _hackberry_, from which it may be told by the
+    fact that in elm the medullary rays are indistinct, while they are
+    quite distinct in hackberry; moreover, the color of hackberry is
+    yellow or grayish yellow instead of brown or reddish brown as in
+    elm.
+
+    The wood is used principally for slack cooperage; also for hubs,
+    baskets, agricultural implements, and fuel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.--(Magnified about 8 times.)]
+
+
+B. Diffuse-porous.
+
+1. Pores varying in size from rather large to minute, the largest being
+in the early wood. Intermediate between ring-porous and diffuse-porous.
+
+Black Walnut. Color rich dark or chocolate brown. Odor mild but
+    characteristic. Tasteless or nearly so. Wood parenchyma in numerous,
+    fine tangential lines. Wood heavy and hard, moderately stiff and
+    strong. The wood is used principally for furniture, cabinets,
+    interior finish, moulding, and gun stocks.
+
+2. Pores all minute or indistinct, evenly distributed throughout annual
+ring.
+
+(a) With conspicuously broad rays.
+
+1. Sycamore. Fig. 151. Rays practically all broad. Color light brown,
+    often with dark stripes or "feather grain." Wood of medium weight
+    and strength, usually cross-grained, difficult to split.
+
+    The wood is used for general construction, woodenware, novelties,
+    interior finish, and boxes.
+
+2. Beech. With only a part of the rays broad, the others very fine, Fig.
+    151. Color pale reddish brown to white; uniform. Wood heavy, hard,
+    strong, usually straight-grained.
+
+    The wood is used for cheap furniture, turnery, cooperage,
+    woodenware, novelties, cross-ties, and fuel. Much of it is
+    distilled.
+
+(b) Without conspicuously broad rays.
+
+1. Cherry. Rays rather fine but very distinct. Color of wood reddish
+    brown. Wood rather heavy, hard, and strong.
+
+    The wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, moulding, interior
+    finish, and miscellaneous articles.
+
+2. Maple, Fig. 152. With part of the rays rather broad and conspicuous,
+    the others very fine. Color light brown tinged with red. The wood of
+    the hard maple is very heavy, hard and strong; that of the soft
+    maples is rather light, fairly strong. Maple most closely resembles
+    birch, but can be distinguished from it through the fact that in
+    maple the rays are considerably more conspicuous than in birch.
+
+    The wood is used for slack cooperage, flooring, interior finish,
+    furniture, musical instruments, handles, and destructive
+    distillation.
+
+3. Tulip-tree, yellow poplar or whitewood. Rays all fine but distinct.
+    Color yellow or brownish yellow; sapwood white. Wood light and soft,
+    straight-grained, easy to work.
+
+    The wood is used for boxes, woodenware, tops and bodies of vehicles,
+    interior finish, furniture, and pulp.
+
+4. Red or sweet gum. Rays all fine but somewhat less distinct than in
+    tulip tree. Color reddish brown, often with irregular dark streaks
+    producing a "watered" effect on smooth boards; thick sapwood,
+    grayish white. Wood rather heavy, moderately hard, cross-grained,
+    difficult to work.
+
+    The best grades of figured red gum resemble Circassian walnut, but
+    the latter has much larger pores unevenly distributed and is less
+    cross-grained than red gum.
+
+    The wood is used for finishing, flooring, furniture, veneers, slack
+    cooperage, boxes, and gun stocks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Maple. (Magnified 25 times.)]
+
+5. Black or sweet birch, Fig. 151. Rays variable in size but all rather
+    indistinct. Color brown, tinged with red, often deep and handsome.
+    Wood heavy, hard, and strong, straight-grained, readily worked. Is
+    darker in color and has less prominent rays than maple.
+
+    The wood is used for furniture, cabinet work, finishing, and
+    distillation.
+
+6. Cottonwood. Rays extremely fine and scarcely visible even under lens.
+    Color pale dull brown or grayish brown. Wood light, soft, not
+    strong, straight-grained, fairly easy to work. Cottonwood can be
+    separated from other light and soft woods by the fineness of its
+    rays, which is equaled only by willow, which it rather closely
+    resembles. The wood is largely used for boxes, general construction,
+    lumber, and pulp.
+
+
+
+How to judge the quality of wood: To know the name of a piece of wood
+    means, in a general way, to know certain qualities that are common
+    to all other pieces of wood of that species, but it does not explain
+    the special peculiarities of the piece in question or why that
+    particular piece is more suitable or unsuitable for a particular
+    purpose than another piece of the same species. The mere
+    identification of the wood does not explain why a particular piece
+    is tougher, stronger or of darker color than another piece of the
+    same species or even of the same tree. The reason for these special
+    differences lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material
+    like metal. Within the same tree different parts vary in quality.
+    The heartwood is generally heavier and of deeper color than the
+    sapwood. The butt is superior to the top wood, and the manner in
+    which the wood was sawed and dried will affect its quality. Knots,
+    splits, checks, and discoloration due to incipient decay are defects
+    worth considering. Wood that looks lusterless is usually defective,
+    because the lack of luster is generally due to disease. Woods that
+    are hard wear best. Hardness can be determined readily by striking
+    the wood with a hammer and noting the sound produced. A clear,
+    ringing sound is a sign of hardness. The strength of a piece of wood
+    can be judged by its weight after it is well dried. Heavy woods are
+    usually strong. A large amount of late wood is an indication of
+    strength and the production of a clear sound when struck with a
+    hammer is also an evidence of strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+AN OUTDOOR LESSON ON TREES
+
+
+The importance of nature study in the training of the child is now well
+recognized. The influences of such study from the hygienic, moral and
+aesthetic point of view are far reaching and cannot be expressed in
+dollars and cents. In his association with nature, the child is led to
+observe more closely and to know and to be fond of what is truly
+beautiful in life--beautiful surroundings, beautiful thoughts and
+beautiful deeds. He is inspired with reverence for law, order and truth
+because he sees it constantly reflected in all works of nature. The
+social instinct is highly developed and even the parents are often
+bettered through the agency of their children.
+
+The only way, however, to study nature--especially plants--is to study
+it out of doors. Our present tendency to gather in cities demands the
+upbuilding influences of trips into the open in order to equip the child
+mentally and physically to face the world and its work with the strength
+and tenacity characteristic of the country-bred. Moreover, the study of
+objects rather than books is an axiom in modern education and here, too,
+we can readily see that the best way to study trees is to take the pupil
+to the trees. Such studies are more lasting than book study because they
+emphasize the spirit and the goal rather than the petty facts.
+
+Educators and parents are now recognizing the value of outdoor trips
+for their children and are beginning to indulge in them quite
+frequently. In many instances teachers about to take out their children
+for a day have inquired of the writer how to go about giving a general
+field lesson when they reached the park or woodland. The purpose of this
+chapter is to answer such a question and yet it is evident that it
+cannot be answered completely. What to observe out doors and how to
+present one's impressions is a broad question and varies with the
+knowledge and ability of the teacher as well as with the age and
+experience of the children. The how and the what in nature study is of
+greater import than the hard, dry facts and that must be left entirely
+to the teacher. A few suggestions, however, may not be amiss:
+
+1. General observations with a view to character building: First of all
+    it is important to remember that the great value of all tree and
+    nature study is the inculcation in the minds of the children of an
+    appreciation and love for the beautiful. Inspiring them to _love_
+    trees generally means more than teaching them to _know_ trees. Mere
+    facts about trees taught in an academic way are often no more
+    lasting than the formulae in trigonometry which most of us have long
+    ago forgotten. The important thing is that permanent results be left
+    and nothing else will produce such lasting impressions as the study
+    of trees out of doors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Trees Have Individuality.]
+
+    General observations about trees can be made by pointing out the
+    beauty and character of the individual forms and branching, their
+    harmony in their relations to each other as factors of a beautiful
+    composition and the wealth of shades and colors in their leaves,
+    bark and flowers. Compare, for instance, the intricate ramification
+    of an American elm with the simple branching of a sugar maple, the
+    sturdiness of a white oak with the tenderness of a soft maple, the
+    wide spread of a beech with the slender form of a Lombardy poplar,
+    the upward pointing branches of a gingko with the drooping form of a
+    weeping willow. At close range, each of these trees reveals itself
+    as an individual with a character quite its own. At little distance
+    you may see them grouped together, subordinating their individuality
+    and helping to blend into a beautiful composition with a character
+    all its own. There is nothing more inspiring than the variety of
+    greens in the spring foliage, the diversity of color in the spring
+    blossoms and the wonderful display of autumnal tints offered by the
+    sweet gum, sassafras, dogwood, black gum, red maple, sugar maple,
+    scarlet oak, blue beech, sorrel tree, ash and gingko. The white bark
+    of the gray birch, the dark bark of the black oak, the gray of the
+    beech, the golden yellow of the mulberry and the mottled bark of the
+    sycamore are interesting comparisons. The smooth bark of the
+    mockernut hickory contrasts greatly with the shaggy bark of the
+    shagbark hickory--members of the same family and yet how different.
+    A wonderful opportunity is thus offered for a comparative study of
+    human nature--individuality and community life, all reflected in
+    trees.
+
+    With this preliminary study and with the addition of some remarks on
+    the value of trees as health givers and moral uplifters, the child
+    is interested and attracted. The lesson so far has attained its aim.
+
+2. Specific observations with a view to training the observative powers:
+    The child's training in closeness of observation and scientific
+    precision may be the next consideration. His enthusiasm will now
+    prompt him to lend his interest for greater detail. We can teach him
+    to recognize a few of the common trees by their general
+    characters--an American elm by its fan-shaped form, a gray birch by
+    its white bark, a white pine by the five needles to each cluster, a
+    horsechestnut by its opposite branching and big sticky bud and a
+    willow by its drooping habit. After that we may introduce, if the
+    age of the pupils justifies, more details extending to greater
+    differences which distinguish one species from another.
+
+    The lesson might continue by pointing out the requirements of trees
+    for water and light. Find a tree on some slope where the roots are
+    exposed and another which is being encroached upon by its neighbor,
+    and show how in one case the roots travel in search of water and
+    food and in the other the branches bend toward the light, growing
+    more vigorously on that side. Compare the trees on the open lawn
+    with those in the grove and show how those in the open have grown
+    with branches near the ground while those in the woodland are
+    slender, tall and free from branches to some distance above the
+    ground. Point out the lenticels on the bark of birch and sweet
+    cherry trees and explain how trees breathe. Compare this process
+    with that of the human body. You may now come across an old stump
+    and here you can point out the structure of the wood--the sapwood,
+    cambium and bark. You can illustrate the annual rings and count the
+    age of the tree. At another point you may find a tree with a wound
+    or bruised bark and here you can readily make a closer study of the
+    cambium layer and its manner of growth.
+
+    The adaptation of plants to the seasonal changes opens another
+    interesting field of study for beginners. If the season is the fall
+    or winter, note how the trees have prepared themselves for the
+    winter's cold by terminating the flow of sap, by dropping their
+    leaves too tender to resist the winter's cold, and by covering their
+    buds with scales lined with down on the inside. Observe how the
+    insects have spun for themselves silken nests or remain preserved in
+    the egg state over the winter. If the season is spring or summer the
+    opposite may be noted. See how everything turns to life; how the
+    buds are opening, the leaves emerging, the sap running, seeds
+    germinating and flowers blooming.
+
+    The soil conditions on the lawn and in the grove furnish another
+    interesting feature of comparison and study. In the grove, you can
+    demonstrate the decomposition of the fallen leaves, the formation of
+    humus and its value to the tree. The importance of the forest soil
+    as a conservator of water and its relation to stream flow and soil
+    erosion can be brought out at this juncture. An eroded bank and a
+    slope covered with trees and shrubs would provide excellent models
+    for this study. A consideration of the economic value of the trees
+    would also be in place.
+
+3. Civic lessons reflected in trees: The community life of trees in the
+    grove, their growth, struggles for light and food and their mutual
+    aid can be brought out and compared with the community life among
+    people. The trees may here be seen struggling with each other for
+    light and food, forcing each other's growth upward, some winning out
+    and developing into stalwart and thrifty specimens and others
+    becoming suppressed or entirely killed. On the other hand they may
+    be seen helping each other in their community growth by protecting
+    each other from windfall and by contributing to the fertility of the
+    forest soil in dropping their leaves and shading the ground so that
+    these fallen leaves may decompose readily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Trees also Grow in Communities.]
+
+4. Enemies of trees: An old stump or tree may be seen crumbling away
+    under the influence of fungi and here the children may be shown the
+    effects of tree diseases both as destroyers of life and as
+    up-builders, because fungi turn to dust the living trees and build
+    up others by furnishing them with the decomposed wood matter.
+
+    Insects too, may be invading the old dead tree, and something of
+    their nature, habits and influences may be gone into. They may be
+    shown as wood borers, leaf eaters, or sap suckers, all injurious to
+    the tree. On the other hand they may be shown as seed disseminators
+    and as parasites on other injurious insects; all benefactors.
+
+    Forest fires as an enemy of trees might be touched upon by noting
+    how easily the leaves may be ignited and a surface fire started when
+    the season is dry. Top and ground fires emanating from surface fires
+    can then be readily explained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Trees Blend Together to Form a Beautiful
+Composition.]
+
+5. Expression: The pupils have by this time been taught to feel the
+    beautiful, to observe carefully and to reason intelligently and they
+    may now be trained to express themselves properly. This may be
+    accomplished by asking them to remember their observations and to
+    write about them in the classroom. The lesson may be supplemented
+    with effective reading about trees and forests. Interesting reading
+    matter of this sort can be found in abundance in children's readers,
+    in special books on the subject and in Arbor Day Manuals published
+    by the various State Education Departments.
+
+6. Preparation: In order to save time looking for objects of interest
+    and for the purpose of correlating the various observations so that
+    all will follow in orderly sequence, it is well for the teacher or
+    leader to go over the ground beforehand and note the special
+    features of interest. The various topics can then be given some
+    thought and a brief synopsis can be drawn up to serve as a
+    memorandum and guide on the trip.
+
+    It is also well to be provided with a hatchet to cut into some
+    decayed stump, a trowel to dig up the forest soil, a knife for
+    cutting off twigs and a hand reading glass for examining the
+    structural parts of the various objects under observation. A camera
+    is always a valuable asset because the photographs hung in the
+    classroom become records of great interest to all participants.
+
+7. Suggestions for forming tree clubs: A good way to interest children
+    in trees and nature study is to form, among them, a Tree Club. The
+    idea has been fully developed in Brooklyn, N.Y., Newark, N.J., and
+    other cities and consists of forming clubs of children in the public
+    schools and private institutions for the purpose of interesting them
+    in the trees around their school and their homes. The members of
+    these clubs are each given the tree warden's badge of authority and
+    assigned to some special duty in the preservation of the local
+    trees. A plan of study and of outdoor trips is laid out for them by
+    their director and at stated periods they are given illustrated
+    lectures on trees and taken to the neighboring parks or woodlands.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Acer negundo,
+-- platanoides,
+-- polymorphum,
+-- pseudoplatanus,
+-- rubrum,
+-- saccharinum,
+-- saccharum,
+Aesculus hippocastanum,
+-- rubicunda,
+Ailing tree, how to tell an,
+Air, influence of,
+Alternate branched trees,
+American beech,
+-- elm,
+-- larch,
+-- linden,
+Annual rings,
+Aphides or plant lice,
+Apple rust,
+Arbor-vita and red cedar, description of,
+-- (northern white cedar),
+Arsenate of lead,
+Ash, wood,
+-- black,
+-- white,
+Ash-leaf maple,
+Aspen, large-toothed,
+--, quaking,
+Austrian pine,
+
+Bald cypress,
+Balm of Gilead,
+Balsam, fir,
+--, poplar,
+Bark,
+Bark, how to prevent splitting when removing branches,
+-- or trunk, trees told by their,
+Bass-wood,
+Bean, Indian,
+Beech, American,
+--, blue, or hornbeam,
+--, copper,
+--, European,
+-- tree,
+Beetle, elm leaf,
+Betula alba,
+-- lutea,
+-- lenta,
+-- papyrifera,
+-- populifolia,
+Bhotan pine,
+Bigbud hickory,
+Birch, black,
+--, European white,
+-- fungus rot,
+--, gray,
+--, paper,
+--, sweet,
+-- tree,
+--, white,
+--, yellow,
+Bitternut hickory,
+Black ash,
+-- birch,
+-- locust,
+-- oak,
+-- or sweet birch,
+-- spruce,
+-- walnut,
+Blotches, leaf,
+Blue beech, or hornbeam,
+-- spruce,
+Bolting limbs,
+Bordeaux mixture,
+Borer, bronze-birch,
+--, hickory bark,
+--, linden,
+--, locust,
+--, sugar maple,
+Boring insects,
+Box-elder,
+Bracing limbs, various methods of,
+Bracket fungus,
+Branches, dead and broken, removal of,
+--, how to prevent bark splitting when removing,
+Broadleaf or "hardwoods,"
+Bronze-birch borer,
+Brooklyn, N.Y.,
+Broom hickory,
+Brown hickory,
+Brown-tail moth,
+Buckeye,
+Butternut,
+Buttonball,
+Buttonwood,
+By-products of forests, utilization of,
+
+Cambium layer,
+Camperdown elm,
+Care in selecting trees suitable for the soil,
+Carolina poplar,
+Carpinus caroliniana,
+Castanea dentata,
+Catalpa speciosa,
+Caterpillars,
+Caterpillars, leaf-eating,
+--, spraying for,
+Catkin,
+Cattle grazing in forests a source of injury,
+Cavities, fungous diseases attacking,
+-- how caused,
+--, manner of filling,
+Cedar apple,
+--, white,
+Celtis occidentalis,
+Chamaecyparis thyoides,
+Character building and trees,
+Chestnut,
+-- and oaks,
+-- disease,
+Chewing insects,
+Cherry,
+Child training in observation and precision,
+Chlorophyll,
+Civic lessons reflected in trees,
+Climbing trees, precautions,
+Clubs, tree,
+Coffee tree,
+Colorado blue spruce,
+Color of leaves,
+Common catalpa,
+-- locust,
+Community life of trees,
+Conifers or "softwoods,"
+Coniferous trees,
+Copper beech,
+Cork elm,
+Cornus florida,
+Corrosive sublimate,
+Cottonwood,
+Cottony-maple scale,
+Crataegus oxyacantha,
+Crown,
+Cucumber tree,
+Cypress,
+-- and larch, description of,
+--, bald,
+-- knees,
+-- obtuse leaf, Japanese,
+
+Dead and broken branches, removal of,
+Deciduous trees,
+Destroying injurious insects, methods of,
+-- pupae,
+Developing disease, moisture a factor in,
+Diaporthe parasitica,
+Diffuse-porous woods,
+Disease, fungi as factors of,
+-- moisture a factor in developing,
+Dogwood, flowering,
+Douglas fir,
+
+Effect of heat on trees,
+Elkwood,
+Elm,
+--, American,
+--, Camperdown,
+--, cork,
+--, English,
+-- leaf beetle,
+--, poplar, gingko and willow trees, told by their form,
+--, white,
+Enemies of trees,
+Enemy of trees, forest fires as an
+English elm,
+-- hawthorn,
+-- yew,
+European beech,
+-- larch,
+-- linden,
+-- weeping birch,
+-- white birch,
+
+
+Fall webworm,
+Fagus,
+-- americana,
+-- sylvatica,
+Fern, maidenhair,
+Fighting forest fires, various ways of,
+Filling cavities, manner of,
+Fire, guarding woodlands from,
+Flowering dogwood,
+Foliage, spraying,
+Forest fires as an enemy of trees,
+-- --, various ways of fighting,
+-- lands, exemption from taxation,
+--, life and nature of,
+-- trees, pruning,
+Forestry in various countries,
+--, what it is and what it does,
+Forests, grazing cattle in, a source of injury,
+Forest Service, U.S.,
+--, harvesting,
+--, harvesting of, to increase production,
+--, how established,
+--, how harvested,
+--, how protected,
+--, how they help to regulate streams and prevent floods,
+--, method of establishing,
+--, planting, with seedling trees,
+-- prevent soil erosion,
+--, protecting from destructive agencies,
+--, safeguarding,
+--, utilization of by-products,
+Fraxinus americana,
+-- nigra,
+Frost, effect of, on trees,
+Fungi and insects, protection against,
+-- as factors of disease,
+Fungous diseases attacking cavities,
+-- diseases, spraying for,
+Fungus, fruiting body of,
+
+Gingko biloba,
+-- or maidenhair tree,
+Gipsy moth,
+Gleditsia triacanthos,
+Gloeosporium nervisequum,
+Gray or white birch,
+Grazing effect on forests,
+Grove and lawn, study of soil conditions on,
+Gum, red or sweet,
+Gymnocladus dioicus,
+
+Hackberry tree,
+Hackmatack,
+Hard maple,
+-- pines,
+"Hardwoods," or broadleaf trees,
+Hardy catalpa,
+Harvesting forests,
+Harvesting of forests to increase production,
+Hawthorn, English,
+Healthy tree, conditions which indicate,
+Heartwood,
+Heat, effect of, on trees,
+Hemlock,
+-- and spruce, description of,
+Hickory,
+-- bark borer,
+--, bigbud,
+--, bitternut,
+--, broom,
+--, brown,
+--, mockernut,
+--, pignut,
+--, shagbark,
+--, shellbark,
+--, whiteheart,
+Hicoria alba,
+-- glabra,
+-- minima,
+-- ovata,
+Honey locust,
+Hop hornbeam,
+Hornbeam, (blue beech),
+Horsechestnut,
+--, red,
+Humus,
+Hydrophytes,
+
+Important insects,
+Improperly pruned trees,
+Indian bean,
+Individuality of trees,
+Insects and fungi, protection against,
+--, boring,
+--, chewing,
+-- galls,
+--, important kinds of,
+-- injurious to trees,
+--, leaf-eating,
+--, methods of destroying injurious,
+--, nature, habits and influences of,
+--, sucking,
+--, the four stages, or life history of,
+Ironwood tree,
+Italian or Lombardy poplar,
+
+Japanese maple,
+-- umbrella pine,
+Juglans cinerea,
+-- nigra,
+Juniper,
+Juniperus communis,
+Juniperus virginiana,
+
+Kerosene emulsion,
+Knees, cypress,
+
+
+Larch, American,
+-- and cypress, description of,
+-- European,
+Large-toothed aspen,
+Larix europaea,
+Lawn and grove, study of soil conditions on,
+Lawn trees,
+-- --, pruning,
+Leaf blotches,
+Leaf-eating caterpillars,
+----, insect,
+Leaves,
+--, needle-shaped,
+--, scale-like,
+--, star-shaped,
+Lenticels,
+Leopard moth,
+Lesson on trees, outdoor,
+Light, influence of, on trees,
+Limbs, various methods of bracing,
+Lime-sulphur wash,
+Lime-tree,
+Linden, American,
+-- borer,
+--, European,
+Liquidambar styraciflua,
+Liriodendron, tulipifers,
+Location of trees, care to be exercised in,
+Locust,
+--, black,
+-- borer,
+--, common,
+--, honey,
+-- miner,
+--, yellow,
+Lombardy or Italian poplar,
+Low juniper,
+
+Magnolia acuminata,
+--, mountain,
+-- soulangeana,
+--, Soulange's,
+-- tripetala,
+Magnolias, the,
+Maiden-hair fern,
+-- or gingko tree,
+Maple wood,
+--, ash-leaf,
+--, hard,
+--, Japanese,
+--, Norway,
+-- phenacoccus,
+--, red,
+--, rock,
+--, silver,
+--, soft,
+-- sugar,
+-- swamp,
+--, sycamore,
+--, white,
+Mesophytes,
+Method of covering wounds,
+Methods of destroying injurious insects,
+Mockernut hickory,
+Moisture a factor in developing disease,
+--, influence of, on trees,
+Moral influence of trees,
+Morus alba,
+-- rubra,
+Moth, gipsy,
+--, leopard,
+Mountain magnolia,
+Mugho pine,
+Mulberry, red,
+--, white,
+
+National forests,
+Needle-shaped leaves,
+Nettle tree,
+Newark, N.J.,
+Northern white cedar (arbor-vitae),
+Norway maple,
+-- spruce,
+Nursery, tree,
+
+Oak,
+--, black,
+--, pin,
+--, red,
+--, scarlet,
+--, swamp white,
+--, white,
+--, yellow,
+Oaks and chestnut,
+Observations about trees, general,
+-- and precision, child training in,
+Obtuse Japanese cypress,
+Opposite branched trees,
+Orange, Osage,
+Oriental spruce,
+-- sycamore,
+Osage orange,
+Ostrya virginiana,
+Outdoor lesson on trees,
+Oyster-shell scale,
+
+Paper birch,
+Picea canadensis,
+-- excelsa,
+-- mariana,
+-- orientalis,
+-- parryana,
+-- pungens,
+Pignut hickory,
+Pin oak,
+Pine, Austrian,
+--, Bhotan,
+--, Mugho,
+--, red,
+--, Scotch,
+-- trees,
+-- weevil, white,
+--, white,
+Pines,
+Pinus Austriaca,
+-- excelsa,
+-- mughus,
+-- resinosa,
+-- rigida,
+-- strobus,
+-- sylvestris,
+Pitch pine,
+Pith,
+Plane or sycamore tree,
+Plant lice, or aphides,
+-- study, value of, for children,
+-- trees, how to,
+Planting forests,
+-- forests with seedling trees,
+-- little trees, methods of,
+--, improving woodland by,
+-- new trees,
+-- trees,
+-- -- most economical method,
+-- -- on land unsuitable for crops,
+Plants, adaptation of, to seasonal changes,
+Platanus occidentalis,
+-- orientalis,
+Polyporus betulinus,
+Poplar, balsam,
+--, Carolina,
+--, Lombardy or Italian,
+--, silver,
+--, tulip,
+--, white,
+--, yellow,
+Populus alba,
+-- balsamifera,
+-- deltoides,
+-- grandidentata,
+-- nigra,
+-- tremuloides,
+Pores in wood,
+-- small or indistinct,
+-- varying in size,
+Poster for private woodlands,
+Precautions against fire,
+Protection against fungi and insects,
+Pruning forest trees,
+-- lawn trees,
+-- shade trees,
+--, tools used in,
+--, too severe,
+-- trees, fundamental principles,
+-- --, time for,
+Pussy willow,
+
+Quaking aspen,
+Quality of trees, how to judge,
+Quality of wood, how to judge,
+Quercus alba,
+-- palustris,
+-- platanoides,
+-- rubra,
+-- velutina,
+
+Red cedar,
+-- -- and arbor-vitae, description of,
+-- gum,
+-- horsechestnut,
+-- juniper,
+-- maple,
+-- mulberry,
+-- oak,
+-- pine,
+-- or black oaks,
+-- or sweet gum,
+Red spider,
+Redwood,
+Removal of dead and broken branches,
+-- of trees, how to mark,
+Requirements of trees,
+Retinospora obtusa,
+Rhytisma acerinum,
+Ring-porous woods,
+Robinia pseudacacia,
+Rock maple,
+Roots,
+--, development of,
+--, protection of, from drying,
+Rust, apple,
+
+Safeguarding forests,
+Salix babylonica,
+Salix discolor,
+Saperda vestita,
+Sapwood,
+Sawfly,
+Scale, cottony-maple,
+--, oyster-shell,
+Scale-like leaves,
+Scarlet oak,
+Sciadopitys verticillata,
+Scolytus quadrispinosus,
+Scotch pine,
+Screening trees,
+Season, influence of,
+Seasons for spraying trees,
+Seedling trees, planting forests with,
+Shade trees, pruning,
+Shagbark hickory,
+Shellbark hickory,
+Silver maple,
+-- poplar,
+Soft maple,
+-- pines,
+"Softwoods" or conifers,
+Soil erosion, forests prevent,
+--, influence of, on trees,
+-- of wooded areas, preserving,
+--, physical character of, important for production of trees,
+Soulange's magnolia,
+Specifications for street tree,
+Specimens of wood, how to identify,
+Split trees,
+Spray trees, how to,
+Spraying apparatus,
+-- foliage,
+-- for caterpillars,
+-- for fungous diseases,
+-- material,
+  arsenate of lead,
+  kerosene emulsion,
+  lime-sulfur wash,
+  tobacco water,
+  whale-oil soap,
+-- trees, seasons for,
+-- trees, thoroughness essential,
+Spruce and hemlock, description of,
+--, black,
+--, blue,
+--, Oriental,
+--, Norway,
+--, white,
+Spruces,
+Star-shaped leaves,
+Stem,
+Stomata,
+Streets, trees for,
+Structure of trees,
+-- of woods,
+Sucking insects,
+Sugarberry,
+Sugar maple,
+-- maple borer,
+Suggestions for forming tree clubs,
+-- for outdoor study of trees,
+-- for planting little trees,
+-- for safety of tree climbers,
+-- for tree nursery,
+Surface wounds,
+Swamp maple,
+-- white oak,
+Sweet birch,
+-- gum,
+Sycamore,
+-- maple,
+-- tree,
+
+Tamarack,
+Taxation, forest lands exempt from,
+Taxodium distichum,
+Taxus baccata,
+Thuja occidentalis,
+Tilia americana,
+-- microphylla,
+Tobacco water,
+Tools used in pruning,
+Toxylon pomiferum,
+Training a child to recognize trees,
+-- children in observation and precision,
+Trametes pini,
+Treating surface wounds,
+Tree, ailing, how to tell an,
+-- and nature study, value of,
+--, beech,
+--, birch,
+--, blue beech,
+-- climbers, suggestions for safety of,
+-- clubs, suggestions for forming,
+--, coffee,
+-- diseases,
+-- diseases, effects of, as destroyers and up-builders,
+-- growth, conditions for, in different localities,
+--, hackberry,
+--, iron wood,
+--, nettle,
+-- nursery, suggestions for,
+--, plane,
+-- repair,
+--, sycamore,
+--, tulip,
+--, weeping willow,
+Trees and character building,
+--, care of,
+--, care to be exercised in location of,
+--, civic lessons reflected in,
+--, community life of,
+--, coniferous,
+--, crowding,
+--, deciduous,
+--, effect of frost on,
+--, effect of heat on,
+--, enemies of,
+-- for lawns,
+-- for screening,
+-- for streets,
+-- for woodland,
+--, general observations about,
+--, hickories, walnut, and butternut,
+--, how to identify,
+--, how to mark for removal,
+--, how to plant,
+--, how to spray,
+--, improperly pruned,
+--, individuality of
+--, influence of light on,
+--, influence of moisture on,
+--, influence of soil on,
+--, insects injurious to,
+--, measuring diameter of,
+--, methods of planting little,
+--, methods of removing,
+--, nature and habits of individual,
+--, needs that nature or man must supply,
+--, outdoor lesson on,
+--, physical character of soil important for production of,
+--, planting, on land unsuitable for crops,
+--, pruning, fundamental principles,
+--, --, how to cut properly,
+--, quality,
+--, rapidity of growth of different species,
+--, requirements of,
+--, seasons for spraying,
+--, setting,
+--, structure of,
+--, study of rings of various species,
+--, suggestions for outdoor study of,
+--, suggestions, for planting little,
+-- suitable for the soil, care in selecting,
+--, tendency to split,
+--, thoroughness essential in spraying,
+--, time for pruning,
+-- told by their bark or trunk,
+--, training a child to recognize,
+--, value of, as health givers and moral uplifters,
+--, what to plant and how,
+--, when and how to procure,
+--, when to plant,
+--, when to spray,
+--, wooded areas improved by planting new,
+--, yew,
+Tsuga canadensis,
+Tulip poplar,
+-- tree,
+Tussock moth,
+
+Ulmus americana,
+-- campestris,
+Umbrella pine, Japanese,
+-- tree,
+
+Value of plant study for children,
+-- of tree and nature study,
+-- of trees as health givers and moral uplifters,
+
+Walnut,
+--, black,
+Wasteful lumbering,
+Weeping willow tree,
+Western catalpa,
+Whale-oil soap,
+White ash,
+-- birch, European,
+-- cedar,
+-- elm,
+-- flowering dogwood,
+Whiteheart hickory,
+White maple,
+-- mulberry,
+-- oak,
+-- oak, swamp,
+-- or gray birch,
+-- pine,
+-- pine weevil,
+-- poplar,
+-- spruce,
+Whitewood,
+Willow, weeping,
+--, pussy,
+Wood, diffuse-porous,
+--, diseased, disposal of,
+--, early,
+-- fibers,
+--, how to identify specimens,
+--, how to judge quality of,
+--, late,
+-- medullary rays,
+-- parenchyma,
+-- resin ducts,
+--, ring-porous,
+-- spring,
+--, structure, of,
+-- summer,
+Woodland, care of the,
+-- how to improve by removing trees,
+-- how to judge, unfavorable conditions,
+-- trees,
+Woodlands, other means of protecting,
+Woodlot, small cost of well-selected young trees for the,
+Wood, structure of,
+Wooded areas improved by planting new trees,
+-- areas, preserving soil of,
+Woods, identification, properties and uses of common,
+--, ring-porous,
+-- with large and conspicuous rays,
+-- with pores,
+-- with resin ducts,
+-- with small and inconspicuous rays,
+-- without pores,
+-- without resin ducts,
+Wounds, importance of covering,
+--, methods of covering,
+--, treating surface,
+
+Xerophytes,
+
+Yellow birch,
+-- locust,
+-- oak,
+-- poplar,
+Yew, English,
+Yew trees,
+Young trees for the woodlot, small cost of well-selected,
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Studies of Trees, by Jacob Joshua Levison
+
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